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give three examples from " On the duty of Civil disobedience" Answers 3Add Yours Thoreau proceeds to attack those in his native state of Massachusetts who profess to be against slavery in the South while participating in the commerce and agricultural trade that supports it. The only effective and sincere way to express opposition is through concrete deeds and acts of resistance. Anti-slavery sentiment by itself does not exempt someone from the charge of moral complicity. Thoreau turns to the issue of effecting change through democratic means. Voting for politicians opposed to slavery does not in itself qualify as a moral commitment to the abolition of an unjust practice; it simply registers the will of the people that one policy should prevail over another. The position of the majority, however legitimate in democratic terms, is not tantamount to a moral position. The country is full of men who defer to majority opinion and the shortcomings of a political process that offers a limited number of candidates and choices. Thoreau uses mechanical metaphors to describe the functioning of government. To conceive of the State as a machine suggests its dehumanizing effects, especially with regard to the treatment of slaves. These metaphors are also part of a larger dichotomy in Thoreau's thinking between nature and artificial social constructs, such as government, corporations or the church. In the following section, Thoreau refers to a "higher law" derived from nature, and uses a metaphor borrowed from the natural world to justify civil disobedience. In addition to the war with Mexico, slavery is a chief concern in Thoreau's essay. He extends the logic of his argument about civil disobedience to include any cause that might violate an individual's sense of moral conscience. At the time of publication, the country was deeply divided along regional (and racial) lines over the question of slavery. The New England Anti-Slavery Society had been founded in 1832, and by the 1840s, Boston and the town of Concord where Thoreau lived for most of his life were considered bastions of abolitionist sentiment. Civil Disobedience was first delivered on January 26, 1848 as a lecture at the Concord Lyceum, a center of education for reform-minded thinkers and citizens. While the need for abolition seems morally self-evident by contemporary standards, the issue of slavery in the 1840s and 1850s did not command a unified opinion among many white Americans, even in northern states. Thoreau's essay made it clear that all citizens are morally implicated in the oppression practiced by a government even if indirectly affected by it. He really didn't like it He add. Thoreau was motivated in part by his disgust with slavery and the Mexican–American War, "I cannot for an instant recognize as my government [that] which is the slave's government also."
In October, Hurricane Patricia became the most powerful hurricane ever recorded, whipping up tornado-like winds of over 200 mph. Patricia lost steam as it made landfall, but more devastating storms will form in the future as climate change warms Earth's oceans, so the likelihood of disaster will only increase. Luckily researchers now believe there's a way to stop hurricanes. Pumping billions of tons of a dense gas into the atmosphere could create a "sunglasses effect," which they say would absorb some sunlight and cool down warm ocean water, the engines of hurricanes — but with a huge sacrifice. Right now the world is focused on Plan A: Cutting greenhouse gas emissions to get climate change under control. Some argue it's already too late to reverse runaway climate change by cutting emissions. Yet if we haven't passed the point of no return, the world has yet to agree on a comprehensive plan that curbs emissions enough to make a difference. That's why geoengineers are hard at work developing a Plan B. According to new research published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, if we pumped sulfate gases into our planet's upper atmosphere, we could cool down our oceans enough to cut the number of Katrina-force hurricanes in half over the next 50 years. It'd require about 10 billion tons of sulfates to get the job done, which is tens or hundreds of times the sulfates a typical volcanic eruption can form. Sulfates are known to block out some wavelengths of light. So regularly pumping the chemicals into the atmosphere would essentially create a giant pair of sunglasses for the Earth, and bring the overall temperature of the oceans down. We already have natural evidence that this works. "The explosive volcanic eruptions of Katmai (Alaska, June 1912) and El Chichon (Mexico, April 1982) preferentially loaded the Northern Hemisphere with aerosol, and they were followed by the least active hurricane season on record in 1914 and the least active hurricane season in the satellite observation period in 1983," the researchers write in the paper. It might be tricky to get the right balance, they note, since a cooler Atlantic means more intense Pacific hurricanes, and a cooler Pacific means more intense Atlantic hurricanes. Meteorologists aren't sure why that happens. However, if both the Atlantic and the Pacific are cooled, it would temper the frequency and intensity of hurricanes in both oceans, just maybe not as much as much as we'd expect. Regardless, it would work and we'd actually be able to afford it, according to the researchers. Pumping 10 billion tons (the weight of about 100,000 aircraft carriers) of sulfate into the atmosphere every year would cost about $10 billion per year, which is relatively cheap when compared to the expenses of cutting back greenhouse gases, John Moore, lead author on the paper, told Popular Mechanics. This all sounds like a pretty straightforward solution: We pump sulfates into the atmosphere, the oceans cool down, and fewer hurricanes devastate our cities. But there's one huge problem: Pumping that much sulfate into the atmosphere would poke holes in the protective ozone layer surrounding the Earth. The ozone is critical because it protects us from deadly radiation from the sun. So sulfates aren't a viable option, but the model itself could still work. Engineers are already working on a mix of gases that mimic the shading property of sulfates. If they're successful, we could pump those artificial particles into the atmosphere without shredding the ozone.
There is considerable opportunity for generating wind power in the open ocean, particularly the North Atlantic, according to new research from Carnegie’s Anna Possner and Ken Caldeira. Their work is published by Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Wind farm in sea. (Stock image) Credit: © StockphotoVideo / Fotolia Washington D.C., Oct 10, 2017.- Because wind speeds are higher on average over ocean than over land, wind turbines in the open ocean could in theory intercept more than five times as much energy as wind turbines over land. This presents an enticing opportunity for generating renewable energy through wind turbines. But it was unknown whether the faster ocean winds could actually be converted to increased amounts of electricity. “Are the winds so fast just because there is nothing out there to slow them down? Will sticking giant wind farms out there just slow down the winds so much that it is no better than over land?” Caldeira asked. Most of the energy captured by large wind farms originates higher up in the atmosphere and is transported down to the surface where the turbines may extract this energy. Other studies have estimated that there is a maximum rate of electricity generation for land-based wind farms, and have concluded that this maximum rate of energy extraction is limited by the rate at which energy is moved down from faster, higher up winds. “The real question is,” Caldeira said, “can the atmosphere over the ocean move more energy downward than the atmosphere over land is able to?” Possner and Caldeira’s sophisticated modeling tools compared the productivity of large Kansas wind farms to massive, theoretical open-ocean wind farms and found that in some areas ocean-based wind farms could generate at least three times more power than the ones on land. In the North Atlantic, in particular, the drag introduced by wind turbines would not slow down winds as much as they would on land, Possner and Caldeira found. This is largely due to the fact that large amounts of heat pour out of the North Atlantic Ocean and into the overlying atmosphere, especially during the winter. This contrast in surface warming along the U.S. coast drives the frequent generation of cyclones, or low-pressure systems, that cross the Atlantic and are very efficient in drawing the upper atmosphere’s energy down to the height of the turbines. “We found that giant ocean-based wind farms are able to tap into the energy of the winds throughout much of the atmosphere, whereas wind farms onshore remain constrained by the near-surface wind resources,” Possner explained. However, this tremendous wind power is very seasonal. While in the winter, North Atlantic wind farms could provide sufficient energy to meet all of civilization’s current needs, in the summer such wind farms could merely generate enough power to cover the electricity demand of Europe, or possibly the United States alone. Wind power production in the deep waters of the open ocean is in its infancy of commercialization. The huge wind power resources identified by the Possner and Caldeira study provide strong incentives to develop lower-cost technologies that can operate in the open-ocean environment and transmit this electricity to land where it can be used.
Alfred Adler, M.D. (1870-1937), a Viennese physician and founder of Adlerian Psychology, believed that the well-being of families, classrooms, workplaces, etc., rests on a cornerstone of mutual respect.Adler was the first in the fields of psychiatry and psychology to note the importance of our perceptionsand socialrelationshipsto our own emotional and physical health and to the health of our families and communities.He stressed the crucial importance of nurturing our innate ability to cooperate as equal human beings and to encourage ourselves and one another.Adlerian Psychology holds that human beings are goal-oriented and choice-making by nature, not mechanistically victims of instinct, drives, and environment.As social beings, our basic goal is to belong.Although heredity and environment have strong influences, to a large extent we make our own choices of how to belong. Adlerian Psychology has a strong focus on prevention of mental disturbance and social distress through education and parenting.Much of Adler’s work was with teachers and parents who wanted to replace traditional authoritarian styles of relating to children with more democratic—but not permissive—ways.One of Adlerian Psychology’s claims to fame is the attribution to Adlerian Psychology of the concept that “separate is not equal” by an author of the social science brief for the US Supreme Court case on school desegregation.Today, many schools incorporate Adlerian-based approaches in teacher training and classroom work, and many parenting courses throughout the country are Adlerian based. Adler’s concept of Gemeinschaftsgefühl, or a deep sense of fellowship in the human community and interconnectedness with all life, holds that human beings, as social beings, have a natural desire to contribute usefully for the good of humanity.According to Adler, a desire for social significance must focus on contribution, not on status-seeking, or one’s social relationships and one’s mental health will suffer. Adlerian Psychology is perhaps best known for the concept of the inferiority complex.Adler viewed some behavior as overcompensation for perceived shortcomings.We sometimes make choices about how to belong on the basis of an often mistaken feeling of inferiority.Children, for example, sometimes seem to believe, mistakenly and not consciously, that they belong only when they are the center of attention.Some adults act as if they believe,mistakenly, that they belong only when they can control others, or take revenge on others, or withdraw from others (and often such misperceptions develop in early childhood). Both the inferiority complex and overcompensation indicated to Adler an exaggerated concern with self.This self-concern could be eased by nurturing one’s innate abilities to cooperate and contribute through what Adler called the life tasks:work, intimacy, and friendship. Adlerian therapy helps to “liberate” clients by helping them move toward a clearer understanding of their unconscious, inferiority-based belief systems, or “life-styles,” and toward a clearer understanding of ways to incorporate cooperation and contribution and mutual respect in their relationships.Adlerians hope to let go of “private logic” and embrace dignity and respect in all relationships, thereby becoming emotionally and physically healthier and creating a more democratic culture.
The entire dynamic of my elementary classroom changed when I began goal setting with students. The students began taking ownership of their work. In fact, they even began looking to others for tips and tricks on how to succeed. They became more motivated and – dare I say – happier! Goal setting with elementary students can be intimidating. Where do you start? Can elementary students actually even set goals? How often should we set goals? What do I do when a goal is met? Read on to find the answer to these questions… and more! Why Set Goals with Elementary Students? Students may have many goal setting misconceptions, but if you teach them, they absolutely can be successful. Furthermore, students do better when they set goals and feel in control of their learning. Robert Marzano’s (2009) review of research, for example, finds goal setting can produce student learning gains of between 18 and 41 percentile points. Wow! For the purposes of this blog post, all goal setting tips and tricks are geared toward students in grades three and above. Step 1 – Teach Students How to Set SMART Goals Using Simplified Tools - First, teach students how to set goals by teaching them “SMART” goals. I do this in my classroom by using a teaching poster (for reference,) and with a video. Here is a great video to use for upper elementary students: - After we have discussed SMART goals, I let the students create a fun flipbook as a reference tool they can decorate & keep in an interactive notebook or tape to their desk. When goal setting, students can easily refer back to the flipbook they created if they need help. - Next, you will use some sort of organizer to help the students organize their thoughts and set goals that are actually “SMART.” We use the student friendly goal sheet pictured below. I love it because it walks the students through the entire process in an easy to understand way. It also has a reflection piece at the bottom that give them a space to reflect on their goals and even gets parents involved! Finally, there is a reflection journal on the back, so they can keep track of their progress, challenges, things they learn from others, etc… (I send these home weekly to get signed, and then I take them up on Monday to keep for documentation.) Step 2: Determine Time & Format Goal setting can look many different ways. Not all goals are created equal, so not all goals need the same timeline. I do, however, suggest starting with the same timeline. I like to set goals on Monday and try to complete them by Friday. We use this timeline for the first couple of months. I also begin setting goals with my kiddos using the same format. For example, I will have each individual set a goal of “I can earn 15 dojo points by Friday.” Now this example may not work in your room if you don’t use Class Dojo, obviously. So think of something all students do and can be successful at. I suggest starting there. You can also easily modify this for each student if you feel it is needed. 3. Motivate & Celebrate! Celebrate!! If you are teaching in person, you can have all the students give “10 finger WOO’s” to the student. If you are virtual, you can post the student’s photo on your Google Classroom. This part is up to you. The more excited you are about setting goals, the more excited they will be! Once they meet a goal, give them another sheet and they get to set a new one! This bulletin board is a great way to help celebrate “goal getters.” Once the kiddo successfully completes a goal, they get to fill out the little form and hang it on our “goal getters” wall. Goal Setting in a Virtual Setting Are you teaching virtually? You can use these same tools during your virtual instruction! I have included resources that can be implemented using Google Slides to help students fill out their complete their goals digitally! I hope these tips and tricks help motivate and inspire you to begin setting goals in your classroom. The success I have seen in my classroom is so rewarding, and I believe you can have this too. To download the contents I have referred to in this post, please click the photo below.
While the process of copying DNA to make new strands includes a proofreading function to ensure accuracy, the so-called reverse transcriptase enzymes that make RNA into DNA copies perform no such check. That has made the process of researching RNA especially challenging because many errors can be introduced when the RNA is converted into DNA used for analysis. For a nice explanation of reverse transcription, check out the video below from Shomu's Biology. Reporting in Science , engineers have now created an improved reverse transcriptase enzyme that has a proofreading function it is capable of using on RNA and DNA, and the researchers show that it has better fidelity compared to a normal enzyme. They have called this new molecule a reverse transcriptase xenopolymerase. The reverse transcriptase enzyme has evolutionary origins in a virus, one that never had an editing function. While errors that were introduced may have helped viruses create complexity and diversity, the lack of such a proofreading ability has hampered research on regions of the genome that are transcribed into RNA and expressed - the transcriptome. Scientists typically use RNA isolated from a specimen to create DNA which is then sequenced or manipulated in other ways for further study. This RTX enzyme will now enable scientists to copy RNA with almost perfect accuracy. The researchers corrected a genetic error, the lack of a 3′- 5′ exonuclease domain, which prevented typical transcriptases from editing. They created the new transcriptase from a specially chosen DNA polymerase, described in the schematic below from Science. "We created a new group of enzymes that can read the genetic information inside living cells with unprecedented accuracy," says Jared Ellefson, first author of the study that introduced the enzyme and a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Texas at Austin's Center for Systems and Synthetic Biology. "Overlooked by evolution, our enzyme can correct errors while copying RNA." “Without the ability to faithfully read RNA, we cannot accurately determine the inner workings of cells. These errors can lead to misleading data in the research lab and potential misdiagnosis in the clinical lab,” Ellefson explains. The scientists say that accuracy is definitely improved at least threefold, and it could be as much as 10 times more accurate. This new enzyme could also enhance the methods used to sequence RNA in cells. "As we move towards an age of personalized medicine where everyone's transcripts will be read out almost as easily as taking a pulse, the accuracy of the sequence information will become increasingly important," said Andy Ellington, a Professor of molecular biosciences and leader of the research team that did the work. "The significance of this is that we can now also copy large amounts of RNA information found in modern genomes, in the form of the RNA transcripts that encode almost every aspect of our physiology. This means that diagnoses made based on genomic information are far more likely to be accurate. " Sources: Science Daily via University of Texas at Austin
This shoe drawing lesson is perfect for middle school and high school art teachers This colored pencil drawing lesson can be used for both middle school art students as well as high school art students. I generally do it with 8th grade classes, and it takes about three weeks to complete (working one class period a day) and does not require much in the way of supplies. It is a fun and challenging project that will test their ability to use a grid and develop proportion. In addition, it introduces students to color and color theory and emphasizes the element of pattern. I have found this to be one of the best art projects out there, due to its ability to develop multiple skills and allow students to express their creativity in a way that will achieve strong results. Teachers will love this art lesson! I have the my students use 18" X 24" drawing paper for this drawing. That gives them room for about a 3 inch border. They look really polished that way. Additional art supplies: A quick word about colored pencils: The lesser grade brands of colored pencils have more wax than pigment. They tend to make lighter colors and are not as easy to blend. I require my students to buy a set of colored pencils at the beginning of the year and recommend to them the the Faber-Castell and Prismacolor brands. For my class set, I order Blick Essentials Class Pack 240 colored pencil set. 1. Find shoes online and paste them into a Word document. Make sure to blow them up as large as possible. Print out the shoes in black and white. Have students select a shoe from the selection. 2. Once students have chosen a shoe they like, have them draw a three X three grid over the top of the shoe handout. The boxes will not likely be exactly square, the importance is that there are six equally sized boxes going over the shoe area of the handout. 3. Then, have students draw an equally proportionate grid on their larger page with room left over for a border. They may need help with this math, depending upon the age. You can figure it out and then write it on the board for them to follow. 4. Have the students draw a contour line drawing of their shoe onto the larger paper. They should use the grid as a guide for proportions. 5. Have them draw different patterns in each of the grid boxes. They may choose to continue the pattern over the shoe drawing or just have patterns around it. Now is a good time to review the principles of design with them. 6. Assign a different color scheme for each box. It could be warm analogous colors, cool analogous colors, triadic colors, complimentary colors, monochrome color, and one of their choice. If they mix up the color scheme order, it is okay. 7. Give them some advice on how to shade with color pencils and have them practice. 8 Finally, let them color in their designs. TEACHERS: Take your time with the grid process. Many students will need help with the math related to their grid proportions. I usually, have them practice on a small grid with an easier drawing first. Then, once they understand the concept, we move on to this project. It also helps to take a moment and explain the markings on the ruler. Many students have little experience with measuring. Here are some examples of student artwork. It is always amazing to me how the students seem to find their own approach to this project, adding their personality while staying within the project's parameters. PRO COLORED PENCIL TIP: Shade in layers with small circular scribbles. Keep your pressure light and try to blend colors by leaving some of the tooth of the paper. You can use a blender pencil at the end to pull it all together and get rid of white spaces. Art teachers, what do you think? If you try this lesson, I would love to hear how it worked out. This is a lesson that home school teachers can do as well. It doesn't require many art supplies other than some colored pencils and paper. You can also pair this project with a discussion of Matisse's artwork or have your students study the Les Nabis art movement. I am so exited to bring this art lesson to you and hope you enjoy it! Author: Bruce Black Welcome to Life Reimagined! I am a professional artist and long time art teacher, Over twenty-two years teaching and still going! I have painted all my life and love to inspire others to reach their creative potential. I hope this blog brings you inspiration!
In 2015, Stanford biologist Paul Ehrlich coauthored a study declaring the world’s sixth mass extinction was underway. Five years later, Ehrlich and colleagues at other institutions have a grim update: the extinction rate is likely much higher than previously thought and is eroding nature’s ability to provide vital services to people. Their new paper, published this week in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, indicates the wildlife trade and other human impacts have wiped out hundreds of species and pushed many more to the brink of extinction at an unprecedented rate. For perspective, scientists estimate that in the entire twentieth century, at least 543 land vertebrate species went extinct. Ehrlich and his coauthors estimate that nearly the same number of species are likely to go extinct in the next two decades alone. The trend’s cascading effects include an intensification of human health threats, such as COVID-19, according to the researchers. “When humanity exterminates populations and species of other creatures, it is sawing off the limb on which it is sitting, destroying working parts of our own life-support system,” said Ehrlich, the Bing Professor of Population Studies, emeritus, at the Stanford School of Humanities and Sciences and a senior fellow, emeritus, at the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment. “The conservation of endangered species should be elevated to a national and global emergency for governments and institutions, equal to climate disruption to which it is linked.” The study comes in the wake of an April 7 letter from a bipartisan group of senators urging the Trump administration to close markets that sell live animals for food and unregulated wildlife markets, among other measures to stop the trade in illegal wildlife and wildlife products. Human pressures, such as population growth, habitat destruction, the wildlife trade, pollution and climate change, critically threaten thousands of species around the world. Ecosystems ranging from coral reefs and mangrove forests to jungles and deserts depend on these species’ long-evolved relationships to maintain their functioning and make them resilient to change. Without this robustness, ecosystems are less and less able to preserve a stable climate, provide freshwater, pollinate crops and protect humanity from natural disasters and disease. To better understand the extinction crisis, the researchers looked at the abundance and distribution of critically endangered species. They found that 515 species of terrestrial vertebrates — 1.7 percent of all the species they analyzed — are on the brink of extinction, meaning they have fewer than 1,000 individuals remaining. About half of the species studied have fewer than 250 individuals left. Most of the highly endangered species are concentrated in tropical and subtropical regions that are affected by human encroachment, according to the study. In addition to rising extinction rates, the cumulative loss of populations — individual, localized groups of a particular species- and geographic range has led to the extinction of more than 237,000 populations of those 515 species since 1900, according the researchers’ estimates. With fewer populations, species are unable to serve their function in an ecosystem, which can have rippling effects. For example, when overhunting of sea otters — the main predator of kelp-eating sea urchins — led to kelp die-offs in the 1700s, the kelp-eating sea cow went extinct. “What we do to deal with the current extinction crisis in the next two decades will define the fate of millions of species,” said study lead author Gerardo Ceballos, a senior researcher at the National Autonomous University of Mexico’s Institute of Ecology. “We are facing our final opportunity to ensure that the many services nature provides us do not get irretrievably sabotaged.” The loss of endangered creatures could have a domino effect on other species, according to the researchers. The vast majority — 84 percent — of species with populations under 5,000 live in the same areas as species with populations under 1,000. This creates the conditions for a chain reaction in which the extinction of one species destabilizes the ecosystem, putting other species at higher risk of extinction. “Extinction breeds extinction,” the study authors write. Because of this threat, they call for all species with populations under 5,000 to be listed as critically endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List, an international database used to inform conservation action on a global scale. These findings could aid conservation efforts by highlighting the species and geographic regions that require the most immediate attention. Understanding what species are at risk can also help identify what factors might be most responsible for rising extinction rates. Among other actions, the researchers propose a global agreement to ban the trade of wild species. They argue the illegal capture or hunting of wild animals for food, pets and medicine is a fundamental ongoing threat not only to species on the brink, but also to human health. COVID-19, which is thought to have originated in bats and been transmitted to humans through another creature in a live animal market, is an example of how the wildlife trade can hurt humans, according to the researchers. They point out that wild animals have transmitted many other infectious diseases to humans and domestic animals in recent decades due to habitat encroachment and wildlife harvesting for food. “It’s up to us to decide what kind of a world we want to leave to coming generations — a sustainable one, or a desolate one in which the civilization we have built disintegrates rather than builds on past successes,” said study coauthor Peter Raven, president emeritus of the Missouri Botanical Garden.
After comparing the DNA of thousands of people with and without the disease, a new study has identified five genetic markers for pancreatic cancer that raise the risk for developing the deadly disease. The international consortium of scientists reports the findings in the journal Nature Genetics. The discovery is the result of a third project in a series of genome-wide association studies that began in 2006 under the auspices of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) Cohort Consortium. Pancreatic cancer is a cancer that occurs in the cells lining the ducts or the islet cells of the pancreas, a digestive organ that sits in the upper abdomen surrounded by the stomach, small intestine, liver, spleen and gall bladder. The average age of diagnosis for pancreatic cancer is 70, and in the majority of cases the cancer is not diagnosed until is has spread, which unfortunately means the chances of survival are slim. The 5-year survival from the most common form – ductal adenocarcinoma – is 4%. We currently know that smoking and having a close relative with pancreatic cancer can increase a person’s risk of developing the disease. There is no effective screening test for pancreatic cancer, one of the leading causes of cancer deaths in the US. The Cancer that is found earlier has a much better chance of successful treatment, as lead author Dr. Brian Wolpin of the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston, MA, explains: “Currently, there is no population screening program for pancreatic cancer, which in 80% of cases is discovered when it’s too late to allow curative surgery – the cancer has already spread.” A screening tool to identify people at increased risk for pancreatic cancer could help identify those who might be candidates to undergo MRI or ultrasound scanning to look for early, treatable pancreatic tumors, he notes. The average lifetime risk of a person in the general population developing pancreatic cancer is 1.5%. Currently, the only healthy people who are screened for pancreatic cancer are those thought to be at higher risk because they have several close relatives with the disease: “But the field has been struggling to find factors that can identify people at highest risk in the general population, when a strong family history is not present,” explains Dr. Wolpin. This new study, PanScan III, brings to nine the total number of significant genetic markers that the scientists have discovered for pancreatic cancer. The markers are single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs or ‘snips’), where a single letter variation occurs in a sequence of DNA in the genome. For instance, in one person the sequence could be AAGCCTA, while in another person, in the same location on the genome, the sequence might be one letter different: AAGCTTA. Such changes in DNA can alter the expression of a gene or change the content of its message – for instance to alter a key function of a cell, or make the wrong version of a protein. Dr. Wolpin says as well as helping to develop a screening test for pancreatic cancer, another reason the discovery of the markers is important is that it will help researchers looking for molecular explanations of why some people are more susceptible to pancreatic cancer. For the study, the scientists analyzed DNA from 7,683 patients with pancreatic cancer and 14,397 control patients without this cancer, all of European descent, from the US, Europe, Canada, and Australia. They used sequencing technology to examine over 700,000 locations on the genome to find SNPs associated with pancreatic cancer susceptibility. As well as finding five new markers, the new genome-wide association study (GWAS) also confirmed the presence of four risk-associated markers that had been discovered in a previous PanScan GWAS. The scientists found the risks linked to each marker were mostly independent and additive, making them useful to include in a screening test of the general population. The long-term aim is to develop a tool that can stratify risk of developing pancreatic cancer so doctors in primary care can identify patients who should have further screening with MRI and ultrasound scans. PanScan III receives funding from several sources, including the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health, and the Lustgarten Foundation. In March 2013, Medical News Today learned how scientists in Japan are working on a new diagnostic test for earlier detection of pancreatic cancer via metabolomic analysis, a method that uses gas chromatography mass spectrometry to measure levels of metabolites in the blood.
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: In Python we have a few ways of iterating over lists and strings. One of the most common types of loops is a for in loop; while loops are also common. Let's see what those look like. The most common way of iterating over a list is a for in loop. The syntax is for ELEMENT in LIST:. As with if statements, don't forget about the colon! values = [1,2,3,4] for val in values: print(val) # 1 # 2 # 3 # 4 for char in "awesome": print(char) # a # w # e # s # o # m # e Sometimes you may want to have access to the element's index in the list as well as the element itself. In this case, you can pass the list into the enumerate function. You'll need to name two variables in the for loop: the first will refer to the current index, the second will refer to the current element: for idx, char in enumerate("awesome"): print(idx, char) # 0 a # 1 w # 2 e # 3 s # 4 o # 5 m # 6 e You can also do a while loop with Python, but this is a bit less common when iterating: i = 0 while i < 5: print(i) i +=1 # 0 # 1 # 2 # 3 # 4 If you ever want to move to the next step of the iteration, you can prematurely break out of the current iteration with the the continue keyword. Similarly, you can exit from a loop entirely using the for num in [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]: if num % 2 == 0: continue elif num > 5: break print(num) # 1 # 3 # 5 # the loop continues before the print statement if num is even, # and it ends entirely when num is 6, so the last odd number doesn't get printed. In Python we can also create ranges, which represent a range of numbers, with the following syntax: range(start,stop,step). Note that the range is not inclusive. In other words, range(1,4) will include 1, 2, and 3, but not 4! # We can do some pretty cool things with range (a,b,c,d) = range(4) a # 0 b # 1 c # 2 d # 3 for num in range(4,10): print(num) # 4 # 5 # 6 # 7 # 8 # 9 # Note that the chr functions takes in a number # and returns the ascii character for the number capital_letters = for num in range(65,91): capital_letters.append(chr(num)) capital_letters # Output:['A','B','C','D','E','F','G','H','I','J', # 'K','L','M','N','O','P','Q','R', # 'S','T','U','V','W','X','Y','Z'] Ranges take up less memory than lists, so if you find yourself needing a bunch of numbers that increment by the same amount each time, try to use a range instead of a list. List comprehensions are one of the most powerful tools in Python. They allow you to build lists in a more concise way, often in a single line. List comprehensions are a wonderful alternative to loops! One way to use a list comprehension is to transform a set of values from a range or another list into some new set of values. This is sometimes referred to as a mapping opration. Here are a few examples: # return a list of squares [num**2 for num in range(10)] # [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81] [chr(num) for num in range(65,91)] # Output:['A','B','C','D','E','F','G','H','I','J', # 'K','L','M','N','O','P','Q','R', # 'S','T','U','V','W','X','Y', 'Z'] We can also put if statements inside of our list comprehensions to filter out certain transformed values! # option 1 without list comprehension vowels = for letter in 'awesome': if letter in ['a','e','i','o','u']: vowels.append(letter) print(vowels) # ['a', 'e', 'o', 'e'] # option 2 with list comprehension # In this example, the first letter is the value that we want in the new list # and the if portion is the filter step vowels = [letter for letter in 'awesome' if letter in ['a','e','i','o','u']] print(vowels) # ['a', 'e', 'o', 'e'] # Count of 3 letter words in a string len([word for word in "the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog".split(" ") if len(word) == 3]) # figure out the length # for each word in the string "the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog" split(" ") into an array # if the length of each word is 3 For longer list comprehensions, we can also split it into multiple lines for readability: len([ word for word in "the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog".split(" ") if len(word) == 3 ]) The syntax for list comprehension takes some getting used to, but keep practicing and you will start to find it very useful. When you're ready, move on to List Exercises
- Created by: Majid - Created on: 14-03-13 21:06 Advanced Theory of Mind Tests - Stange Stories Task: Happe developed a more advanced theory of mind test called the strange stories task which was designed for a normal 8-9 year old. The task involved a story comprehension, where the key question in the task either concerned a character's mental states (experimental condition) or physical events (control condition). It was found that both adults with Autism and Asperger syndrome had more difficulty with the mental state task than "normal" control participants. Baron-Cohen developed a new test designed for adults. The Eyes Task. This task involves inferring the mental state of a person just from the info in a photograph of the person's eyes. This test aims to assess "mind reading" and Baron-Cohen argues that this is essentially the same as theory of mind. Aim: To test if high functioning adults with autism or Asperger syndrome would be impaired on the Theory of Mind test called "The Eyes Task". Also they wanted to see if females performed better than males on the Eyes task. M&P: Quasi experiment; IV = Characteristics of the participants/the group they were in (Whether they had autism or Asperger syndrome); DV = Performance on the advanced theory of mind test (Eyes task); Tourette's syndrome is a neurological condition and are involuntary and uncontrollable sounds and movements; researcher's included participants with Tourette's because they have similarities with autism and Asperger's as they're both developmental disorders experienced since childhood.
Technology is a prominent part of today’s society. Children are using technology at a younger age, using it for school work, playing games etc. Here is advice to help keep your children safe when online. - It is wrong to text, write or post anything that deliberately upsets another person. - Think about how a message would make you feel if it was about you. - If you do see or receive a message that worries or upsets you then tell a grown up straight away. - If you know another person is receiving messages which concern or upset them then tell a grown up straight away. - Always get a grown ups permission before using the internet or playing online games. - Be careful not to put too much information about yourself on the internet, when you are playing online games for example. Do not give your name, age, address, email, phone number or school name when on the internet. - Remember that people using the internet can lie about who they are and they can pretend to be someone they’re not. - If you feel unsure or concerned about anything on the internet tell a grown up. You will find information about staying safe online and links to trusted sources here
Kursk region [Курщина; Kurshchyna]. A mixed Russian-Ukrainian region within the Russian Federation, northeast of Slobidska Ukraine. During the Princely era of Kyivan Rus’ this region was part of the Chernihiv principality. Devastated by the Mongols in the 13th century, this region became part of Muscovy in the 16th century. In the 17th–18th century the southern part of the Kursk region was colonized by Ukrainian Cossacks and peasants. In the 19th and early 20th centuries it constituted Kursk gubernia, which bordered on Chernihiv gubernia, Poltava gubernia, and Kharkiv gubernia. In 1934, with somewhat changed borders, it made up Kursk oblast in the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, with an area of 50,800 sq km. The region’s southern part (11,100 sq km) lies on Ukrainian ethnic territory and was inhabited by 554,700 Ukrainians (19.1 percent of the oblast’s population) in 1926. In 1954 almost all of this southern part, of which about half of the population was Ukrainian, was incorporated into newly created Belgorod oblast. Since that time Kursk oblast has had an area of 29,800 sq km, of which only 1,200 sq km lies on Ukrainian ethnic territory. In 1979 Kursk oblast had a population of 1,395,400; only 19,500 identified themselves as Ukrainians, of which only 9,300 stated that Ukrainian was their native language. According to the 2010 Russian census, 13,600 (1.2 percent of the oblast’s population) identified themselves as Ukrainians. As in other parts of the Russian Federation, the Ukrainian population in the Kursk oblast is deprived of even minimal cultural rights, and Russification has advanced rapidly. [This article was updated in 2019.]
Bulletin #2527, Maine Invasive Plants: Hydrilla, Hydrilla verticillata (Frogs-Bit Family) Developed by the Maine Natural Areas Program and University of Maine Cooperative Extension Threats to Native Habitats Hydrilla is a highly aggressive invasive aquatic plant that can seriously degrade the ecology, recreational usage and water quality of freshwater systems. It has growth habits and reproductive strategies that allow for extremely rapid growth and expansion. Stems can grow up to an inch per day, creating dense mats that block sunlight from entering the water column. Under the right conditions, Hydrilla can occupy whole ponds. Its high-density growth can slow water movement and add considerably to the organic content of lake systems. It is capable of growing in a wide range of aquatic habitats and has spread rapidly through portions of the United States, interfering with water uses, displacing native aquatic plant communities and causing economic hardship. It is nearly impossible to remove this species from a water body once it is established. Hydrilla is a submerged aquatic perennial plant with a trailing growth habit. The basic structure of the plant is a stem with whorls of small leaves, from three to eight (usually five), at each node. Leaves are 1/16- to 1/8-inch wide, 1/2- to 3/4-inch long, and sessile (lacking a stalk). The leaves have small but visible sharp teeth on the margins and sometimes have spines or glands on the midvein on the lower surface. The teeth are deciduous and leave behind elevated projections. Plants are usually rooted to the lake bottom, though fragments can break loose and survive in a free-floating state. Stems can be quite long when the plant grows in deep water. Many horizontal aboveground stems (stolons) and underground stems (rhizomes) are also produced. Plants can reproduce either by seed or vegetatively. Vegetative reproduction occurs by fragmentation of the stem, or by the production of small tubers. Tubers can form in leaf axils or along with underground shoots. Hydrilla is able to grow in a wide variety of ecological settings including both still and slow- flowing waters. It can handle a wide range of pH values, tolerates mild salinity, and is adapted to low light levels. It is able to grow in both low- and high-nutrient systems. Most of Maine’s ponds, lakes, and rivers are vulnerable to infestation by this species. Only one node or whorl of leaves is necessary to start a new infestation. Hydrilla was originally native to the warmer parts of Asia but now occurs throughout most of the world. In North America, it has been reported from 19 states, mostly in the south. More recently, it has been reported from Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Maine (one location as of 2002). Prevention and Control The best way to control this species or any aquatic invader is to prevent it from being introduced in the first place. Anyone engaged in activities in Maine’s waters should be aware of the potential for the spread of invasive plants and take steps to prevent their introduction. Your actions can make a difference. Simple things to do include inspecting boats, motors, and trailers at the boat ramp before entering the water and again after the boat has been hauled out. Prevent plant material from getting into bait buckets and live wells, and from getting tangled up in anchor ropes or fishing gear. Plants cleaned from boats and gear should be disposed of in a trash receptacle or away from the water on dry land. Once established, invasive aquatic plants are extremely difficult to eradicate. Control has been attempted with water level manipulations, mechanical control, and herbicides. In most cases, these plants have survived attempts at control. Biological controls for invasive aquatics are still being researched and may help limit the growth of some species in the future. Note that the use of herbicide in Maine waters is strictly regulated. Only licensed professionals with a permit from the Department of Environmental Protection may carry out herbicide treatments in Maine’s waters. Hand-pulling of invasive aquatic plants also requires a permit. Also note that in Maine it is illegal to possess, import, cultivate, distribute or transport Hydrilla verticillata (Department of Environmental Protection, Chapter 722 — An Act to Prevent the Spread of Invasive Aquatic Plants). If you think you have found an invasive aquatic plant contact ME DEP at 1.800.452.1942 or the Maine Natural Area Program at 1.207.287.8041. Batcher, M.S. 1987. “Element Stewardship Abstract for Hydrilla verticillata (L.F.) Royle.” The Nature Conservancy in collaboration with the International Network of Natural Heritage Programs and Conservation Data Centers. Arlington, VA: Natural Heritage Databases, 1987. Gleason, H.A. and A. Cronquist. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada, Second Edition. New York: New York Botanical Garden, 1991. USDA, NRCS. The PLANTS Database, Last Modified: June 3, 2019, https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov/java/. Baton Rouge, LA. For more information or for a more extensive list of references on invasive species contact: Department of Conservation #93 State House Station Augusta, ME 04333-0093 University of Maine Cooperative Extension 495 College Avenue Orono, ME 04469 Information in this publication is provided purely for educational purposes. No responsibility is assumed for any problems associated with the use of products or services mentioned. No endorsement of products or companies is intended, nor is criticism of unnamed products or companies implied. Call 800.287.0274 (in Maine), or 207.581.3188, for information on publications and program offerings from University of Maine Cooperative Extension, or visit extension.umaine.edu. The University of Maine is an EEO/AA employer, and does not discriminate on the grounds of race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, transgender status, gender expression, national origin, citizenship status, age, disability, genetic information or veteran’s status in employment, education, and all other programs and activities. The following person has been designated to handle inquiries regarding non-discrimination policies: Sarah E. Harebo, Director of Equal Opportunity, 101 North Stevens Hall, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469-5754, 207.581.1226, TTY 711 (Maine Relay System).
In this activity, students make bird silhouettes to prevent birds from crashing into windows. During the day, reflected light poses a severe threat to birds. Birds can see through glass and what is reflected on glass, but they cannot see the glass itself. Some birds have even been observed attacking their own reflection, believing it to be a competing bird intruding on its territory. Attracted to the reflection of a landscape that is actually behind them, or to a plant that is on the other side of a window, many birds fly straight into windows and reflective building exteriors. Pollinating birds are attracted to specific colours and may get confused by man-made objects. Putting something up on a window gives birds a signal to avoid it. At night, it is artificial light from our buildings that endangers birds. Many species of birds migrate at night, using light from the moon, the stars, and setting sun to navigate. The bright lights of our urban areas confuse these birds, especially on foggy or rainy nights when the cloud cover is low and birds fly at lower altitudes. Turning off lights at night and having downward facing outside lighting reduces the danger to migratory birds from light confusion. It also conserves energy! Crashing into a building, whatever the cause, often results in death on impact. Even where a bird is not killed outright, it may fall to the ground , where it is vulnerable to predators or have serious injuries. Prevention is the key! Bird Safety Tip: To help prevent injury or risk of collision, place birdfeeders and/or birdbaths less than a half metre (< 1.5’) or closer from your windows. Over this short distance, birds cannot build up enough momentum to injure themselves if they hit a window. The closer to your window, the better it is for the birds and your viewing.
Introduction to KS3 Population topic. 4 x 1 hour lessons. Lesson 1: Intro, defining key terms Lesson 2: Population density Lesson 3: Population pyramids Lesson 4: Living in the UK Complete with PowerPoints, all worksheets, resources and detailed lesson plans. Ideal for non-specialist teachers and experienced teachers alike. Can easily be used for GCSE/KS4 as revision or a fresh intro to the topic.
Business Meetings 101 Series (1/6) Lesson Plan To discuss the importance and drawbacks of small talk at meetings. To provide practice and feedback of the situation of small talk in a meeting. To teach some useful phrases for small talk. Procedure (50-60 minutes) 1. Elicit from the class a definition of "small talk". * Suggested answer: Small talk refers to conversations about things which are not directly relevant to the current task we are doing or the situation we are in. Classic examples include discussions at work about the weather, the news, TV programs, family news, etc. Small talk is small in the sense that the conversations tend to be quite short. 2. Divide the class into 2 teams. 3. One team should come up with arguments in favor of allowing or encouraging small talk in business meetings; the other team should come up with arguments in favor of discouraging small talk in meetings. Make sure they write down their arguments. 4. Ask for a volunteer to chair a meeting between the 2 teams to present and discuss their arguments and to decide on the best approach to managing small talk in meetings. 5. At the end, give and elicit feedback on the effectiveness of the meeting itself (e.g., how well did the chair manage to control the meeting or encourage creativity and compromise, did everyone contribute equally, or was the meeting dominated by the most confident speakers, etc.). 1. Students work in pairs to complete the questions by putting the verbs in the best form. When you discuss the answers together, focus on the patterns (e.g., use present continuous to ask about current politics). Elicit more questions for each small talk topic, as well as other suitable topics for small talk. * Suggested answers: 1. are / working 2. is / going 3. Are / making (or: Have / made) 4. did / go 5. was / did / get 6. --- 7. Have / heard (or: Did / hear) 8. have / been 9. will / sign (or: are / going to sign) 10. Are / going 1. Students work in pairs to match the questions with the answers. When you check with the class, draw attention to the verb forms, which generally match the verb forms used in the questions. Elicit other suitable answers for each question. Note that they will have a chance to be more creative in the practice activity later: the aim here is simply to practice the questions and answers from the worksheet. 1. Students work in pairs to ask each other questions about their work or studies. If students know each other fairly well, they can ask fairly specific questions (e.g., their own versions of questions 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, and 9). If they don't know each other well, they can ask more general questions (e.g., questions 1, 6, and 8). 2. If you prefer, you could allow students to invent information about a fictitious job, in which case all 8 questions would work. 3. Students should support each other to plan the best answer for the questions (i.e., they should spend some time deciding which tenses and vocabulary to use in their answers. 4. Afterwards, students swap partners and repeat the activity. This time, their answers should be much more fluent and natural, as they had time earlier to plan them. 1. Open discussion on how the students felt during small talk practice, what they felt comfortable with, and what they felt needs improvement. 2. Introduce next part in lesson plan series: "Getting the meeting started (#2/6)".
Divisions in the Marine Environment The Pelagic (open sea) environment is divided into the Neritic and Oceanic Provinces. Neritic (nearshore zone): Extends from shore with water less than 200 meters. It is subdivided into two zones: - Littoral (intertidal) zone: Interval between high and low tides - Sub-littoral zone: Below the littoral zone to a depth of 200 meters. Oceanic Provinces (based on depth) - Epipelagic: Water less than 200 meters - Mesopelagic: Water between 200 and 1000meters - Bathypelagic: Water between 1000 and 4000meters - Abyssopelagic: Water deeper than 4000 meters - Hadal: Depths below 6000 meters in deep sea trenches Sunlight penetration has its own divisions (Figure 14.25): - Photic zone: The upper part of the ocean where sunlight penetrates - Euphotic Zone: upper ½ of photic zone (usually to about 100 meters) - Dysphotic Zone: lower ½ of photic zone - Aphotic Zone: No light penetrates
India witnessed the Bengal’s partition in 1905. To oppose this decision of the British Indian Government, Indians decided to unite and launch an anti-partition movement in the spirit of Indian nationalism. The Swadeshi movement emphasized the self-production of goods and boycotting the products made by the foreign companies. This economic strategy had a dual impact. It put pressure on the British Indian Government to give in to the demands of the Indians and it also led to improvement in India’s economic conditions with the revival of its domestic goods. The British divided Bengal on the pretext of administrative difficulty due to its vast territory and large population. In reality, the Britishers were applying the Divide and Rule policy by creating a divide between Hindus and Muslims. Lord Curzon, the then Viceroy of India, made an announcement of the Bengal partition in 1905, and this prompted the Indian National Congress to start a movement called “Swadeshi Movement” on a massive scale in Bengal. Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gokhale were the first ones to initiate this movement back in 1850. The ‘second’ Swadeshi Movement lasted from 1905 to 1911 and is considered to be one of the most successful movements before the Gandhi era. Objectives of Swadeshi Movement The word ‘swadesh’ comes from Sanskrit words “Swa” meaning “own” and “Desh” meaning “country”. - To revive the use of domestic Indian goods and promote self-sufficiency. - To negatively impact the British Government by causing open manifestations like the burning of British goods to stop the Bengal’s partition. - To improve India’s economic conditions without the interference of the British rulers. Agitations by the Moderates In the beginning, the Swadeshi movement was led by the Moderates. Petitions were addressed to the government, public meetings were held, and the newspapers were used to spread ideas of unity and nationalism. The moderates wanted to put pressure on the Government to reverse the decision of Bengal’s partition. 7 August 1905 was the date when a huge meeting was held in Calcutta, which led to the official proclamation of this movement. After the partition became official, the people of Bengal mourned. With so many people involved in this movement, it soon spread to other parts of India like Punjab (under the aegis of Lala Lajpat Rai), Madras (under Chidambaram Pillai), and Delhi (under the aegis of Syed Haider Raza). The Contribution of Extremists The Extremists wanted to see better results; as they felt they were being suppressed by the British power. To make the movement more impactful, following Dadabhai Naoroji’s Calcutta declaration in 1906, the Extremists directed to boycott all government schools and colleges. They wanted to stop doing anything which would help the British either directly or indirectly. Impact of the Swadeshi Movement Along with boycott of British goods and services, public meetings started being held more frequently to pass on ideas. Every festival became a reason for people of all religions to gather and spread political messages. With people supporting each other, there was a rise in their confidence and the economic condition of the villages also witnessed improvement. It was during this time that Bengal National College was established, with Aurobindo Ghosh as its principal. This phase witnessed brilliant literary works inspired by social conditions as well. Tagore’s “Amar Sonar Bangla” was also written during this time. Unity in Diversity After Bengal’s partition, India witnessed great unity between Hindus and Muslims. Everyone would participate in social movements to bring about a change. Students would encourage the use of local products. They drove the movement even further and this scared the Britishers. As a result, the Government started to subdue the students by penalizing them. However, there was a certain class of people who supported the partition. The Muslim peasantry, being uneducated, was often blinded by the Government on the pretext of the differences between caste and class. In 1907, the All India Muslim League was formed. Reversal of Bengal’s Partition In 1911, the Government decided to annul Bengal’s partition; as it wanted to put a stop to public movements and demonstrations. The capital was shifted to Delhi. Eventually, Bihar and Orissa were separated from Bengal.
Potassium sulfate (in British English potassium sulphate (SOP), also called sulphate of potash, arcanite, or archaically known as potash of sulfur) is the inorganic compound with formula K2SO4. It is a white water-soluble solid. It is commonly used in fertilizers, providing both potassium and a source of sulfur. 3D model (JSmol) \|E number\|\|E515(i) (acidity regulators, ...)\| CompTox Dashboard (EPA) \|Molar mass\|\|174.259 g/mol\| \|Melting point\|\|1,069 °C (1,956 °F; 1,342 K)\| \|Boiling point\|\|1,689 °C (3,072 °F; 1,962 K)\| \|111 g/L (20 °C) \| 120 g/L (25 °C) 240 g/L (100 °C) \|Solubility\|\|slightly soluble in glycerol \| insoluble in acetone, alcohol, CS2 Refractive index (nD) \|Safety data sheet\|\|External MSDS\| \|Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):\| LD50 (median dose) \|6600 mg/kg (oral, rat)\| \|Potassium hydrogen sulfate\| Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa). Potassium sulfate (K2SO4) has been known since early in the 14th century. It was studied by Glauber, Boyle, and Tachenius. In the 17th century, it was named arcanuni or sal duplicatum, as it was a combination of an acid salt with an alkaline salt. It was also known as vitriolic tartar and Glaser's salt or sal polychrestum Glaseri after the pharmaceutical chemist Christopher Glaser who prepared it and used medicinally. Known as arcanum duplicatum ("double secret") or panacea duplicata in pre-modern medicine, it was prepared from the residue (caput mortuum) left over from the production of aqua fortis (nitric acid, HNO3) from nitre (potassium nitrate, KNO3) and oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid, H2SO4) via Glauber's process: - 2 KNO3 + H2SO4 → 2 HNO3 + K2SO4 According to Chambers's Cyclopedia, the recipe was purchased for five hundred thalers by Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp. Schroder, the duke's physician, wrote wonders of its great uses in hypochondriacal cases, continued and intermitting fevers, stone, scurvy, etc. The mineral form of potassium sulfate, arcanite, is relatively rare. Natural resources of potassium sulfate are minerals abundant in the Stassfurt salt. These are cocrystallizations of potassium sulfate and sulfates of magnesium calcium and sodium. Relevant minerals are: - Kainite, MgSO4·KCl·H2O - Schönite (now known as picromerite), K2SO4·MgSO4·6H2O - Leonite, K2SO4·MgSO4·4H2O - Langbeinite, K2Mg2(SO4)3 - Aphthitalite (previously known as glaserite), K3Na(SO4)2 - Polyhalite, K2SO4·MgSO4·2CaSO4·2H2O The potassium sulfate can be separated from some of these minerals, like kainite, because the corresponding salt is less soluble in water. Approximately 1.5 million tons were produced in 1985, typically by the reaction of potassium chloride with sulfuric acid, analogous to the Mannheim process for producing sodium sulfate. The process involves intermediate formation of potassium bisulfate, an exothermic reaction that occur at room temperature: - KCl + H2SO4 → HCl + KHSO4 The second step of the process is endothermic, requiring energy input: - KCl + KHSO4 → HCl + K2SO4 Structure and properties Two crystalline forms are known. Orthorhombic β-K2SO4 is the common form, but it converts to α-K2SO4 above 583 °C. These structures are complex, although the sulfate adopts the typical tetrahedral geometry. It does not form a hydrate, unlike sodium sulfate. The salt crystallize as double six-sided pyramids, classified as rhombic. They are transparent, very hard and have a bitter, salty taste. The salt is soluble in water, but insoluble in solutions of potassium hydroxide (sp. gr. 1.35), or in absolute ethanol. The dominant use of potassium sulfate is as a fertilizer. K2SO4 does not contain chloride, which can be harmful to some crops. Potassium sulfate is preferred for these crops, which include tobacco and some fruits and vegetables. Crops that are less sensitive may still require potassium sulfate for optimal growth if the soil accumulates chloride from irrigation water. The crude salt is also used occasionally in the manufacture of glass. Potassium sulfate is also used as a flash reducer in artillery propellant charges. It reduces muzzle flash, flareback and blast overpressure. Potassium hydrogen sulfate (also known as potassium bisulfate), KHSO4, is readily produced by reacting K2SO4 with sulfuric acid. It forms rhombic pyramids, which melt at 197 °C (387 °F). It dissolves in three parts of water at 0 °C (32 °F). The solution behaves much as if its two congeners, K2SO4 and H2SO4, were present side by side of each other uncombined; an excess of ethanol the precipitates normal sulfate (with little bisulfate) with excess acid remaining. The behavior of the fused dry salt is similar when heated to several hundred degrees; it acts on silicates, titanates, etc., the same way as sulfuric acid that is heated beyond its natural boiling point does. Hence it is frequently used in analytical chemistry as a disintegrating agent. For information about other salts that contain sulfate, see sulfate. - Patnaik, Pradyot (2002). Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-049439-8. - Windholtz, M (Ed.) & Budavari, S (Ed.), 1983. The Merck Index, Rahway: Merck & Co. - Chambers, Michael. "ChemIDplus - 7778-80-5 - OTYBMLCTZGSZBG-UHFFFAOYSA-L - Potassium sulfate [USAN:JAN] - Similar structures search, synonyms, formulas, resource links, and other chemical information". chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov. - De Milt, Clara (1942). "Christopher Glaser". Journal of Chemical Education. 19 (2): 53. doi:10.1021/ed019p53. - Klooster, van (1959). "Three centuries of Rochelle salt". Journal of Chemical Education. 36 (7): 314. doi:10.1021/ed036p314. Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). "Arcanum duplicatum". Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. 1 (first ed.). James and John Knapton, et al. p. *125. - H. Schultz, G. Bauer, E. Schachl, F. Hagedorn, P. Schmittinger (2005). "Potassium Compounds". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a22_039.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) - Gaultier, M.; Pannetier, G. "Structure cristalline de la forme 'basse temperature' du sulfate de potassium K2SO4-beta" (Crystal structure of the "low temperature" β-form of potassium sulfate) Bulletin de la Societe Chimique de France 1968, vol. 1, pp. 105-12. - Thomas, S. Russian Journal of Physical Chemistry B 2017; 11:195-198 - organization, United Nations industrial development, UNIDO, International Fertilizer Development Center, IFDC (1998). Fertilizer manual (3rd ed.). Dordrecht: Kluwer academic publ. p. 615. ISBN 978-0-7923-5032-3.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - "Super K (Potassium Sulphate)". Retrieved 7 December 2014.
Herschel's View of Orion B Pictured in this image by ESA's Herschel Space Observatory is the Orion B molecular cloud, a vast star-forming complex in the constellation Orion, the Hunter. Invisible to our eyes, these interstellar clouds are located near Alnitak, one of the stars in Orion's Belt. At about 1300 light-years from us, Orion B is one of the closest regions of star formation, where new stars take shape from billowing clouds of gas. Observing the sky at far-infrared and sub-millimetre wavelengths from 2009 to 2013, Herschel could catch the faint glow of dust grains interspersed in these clouds. Astronomers can use this glow to trace the otherwise dark gas where star formation unfolds. The densest portions of the cloud, where many protostars and newborn stars are found, stand out as the brightest regions in the image. The large, bright region in the top right is the Flame Nebula, also known as NGC 2024. This emission nebula is also visible in optical observations due to light from nearby newborn stars that has energised its gas and made it shine. The nebula was originally discovered in the late 18th century by William Herschel, the astronomer after whom the Herschel Space Observatory is named. The cloud seems to come to an abrupt end to the right of the Flame Nebula, where a sharp edge indicates that the material is being compressed by powerful winds blowing from clusters of massive stars located beyond the field of this image. Protruding from this edge, and visible in this image as a small lump, is the iconic Horsehead Nebula. A thick pillar of interstellar material with a shape resembling an equine head, this nebula was first identified by astronomer Williamina Fleming in the 1880s. She spotted this dark nebula in photographic observations that were taken at optical wavelengths, where it appeared as a dark silhouette because of the obscuring effect of the dust interspersed in the gas. Darker regions in the central and lower left parts of the image correspond to colder, less dense portions of the cloud where star formation is not as active. Nestled within the tangle of gas and dust, the two bright regions at the centre of the image are NGC 2071 and NGC 2068, two reflection nebulae, which reflect starlight and also shine brightly at visible wavelengths. This three-colour image combines Herschel observations at 70 microns (blue), 160 microns (green) and 250 microns (red), and spans 8.6 by 6.2; north is to the left and east is down. - September 18, 2017 - ESA/Herschel/NASA/JPL-Caltech CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO; Acknowledgement: R. Hurt (JPL-Caltech) - Orion B - Lightyears 1,300
This animation shows predicted changes in temperature across the globe, relative to pre-industrial levels, under two different emissions scenarios in the COP 17 climate model. The first is with emissions continuing to increase through the century. The second is with emissions declining through the century. This activity illustrates the carbon cycle using an age-appropriate hook, and it includes thorough discussion and hands-on experimentation. Students learn about the geological (ancient) carbon cycle; they investigate the role of dinosaurs in the carbon cycle, and the eventual storage of carbon in the form of chalk. Students discover how the carbon cycle has been occurring for millions of years and is necessary for life on Earth. Finally, they may extend their knowledge to the concept of global warming and how engineers are working to understand the carbon cycle and reduce harmful carbon dioxide emissions. This activity addresses naturally occurring climate change involving ENSO (El-NiÃo Southern Oscillation). In this activity, students play the role of a policy maker in Peru. First, they determine what sort of ENSO variation is occurring. Then, they must decide how to allocate Peru's resources to manage for possible weather-related problems. This is a sequence of 5 classroom activities focusing on the El NiÃo climate variability. The activities increase in complexity and student-directedness. The focus of the activities is on accessing and manipulating real data to help students understand El NiÃo as an interaction of Earth systems. In this activity, students explore the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide over the past 40 years with an interactive online model. They use the model and observations to estimate present emission rates and emission growth rates. The model is then used to estimate future levels of carbon dioxide using different future emission scenarios. These different scenarios are then linked by students to climate model predictions also used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Activity in which students investigate what causes the seasons by doing a series of kinesthetic modeling activities and readings. Activity includes educator background information about how to address common misconceptions about the seasons with students. Bell Telephone Science Hour produced this video in 1958, explaining how the production of CO2 from factories and automobiles is causing the atmosphere to warm, melting the polar ice caps, and causing the sea level to rise. This interactive exposes students to Earth's atmospheric gases of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ozone. As the user manipulates the interactive to increase or decrease the concentration of each gas, explanations and images are provided that explain and visualize what the Earth would be like in each scenario.
A brain tumour is a growth of cells in the brain that multiplies in an abnormal, uncontrollable way. There are two main types of brain tumour: non-cancerous (benign) brain tumours and cancerous (malignant) brain tumours. Non-cancerous brain tumours grow slowly and are less likely to return after treatment. Cancerous brain tumours either start in the brain or spread into the brain from elsewhere; they’re more likely to grow back after treatment. According to Cancer Research UK, common types of brain tumours in adults start in the main part of the brain called the cerebrum. The symptoms vary depending on the exact part of the brain, but some people may experience speech difficulties. It will depend on whether the part of the brain involved in communication is affected. The Brain Tumour Charity said: “The frontal lobe is involved in language production and the temporal lobe is involved in understanding language. “As a result, if your tumour is in one of these lobes, pressure from the tumour itself, swelling around it or treatment directed at that area may have an effect on your communication skills. Another factor is the side of the brain on which the tumour is located. The charity explained: “The brain is also divided into two hemispheres – left and right. If your tumour is located in the left hemisphere, you are more likely to experience language and speech difficulties, as this is where the language areas are generally found. (It is important to note that for some people, the language areas are found in the right hemisphere.)” “These effects may be temporary and reduce with recover, but some effects may be more permanent if that area is removed or damaged,” it added. People with brain tumours may experience a range of symptoms, which will vary in their severity, common communication difficulties include: - Language impairment (also known as ‘dysphasia’) - Speech difficulties - Cognitive communication difficulties; problems with cognitive functions, such as memory, attention, social cognition, can lead to communication difficulties due to forgetting words, losing the thread of a conversation, or not knowing when to talk and when to listen during a conversation Dysphasia is the most common communication difficulty experienced by people with brain tumours, explained the charity: “Dysphasia is a condition caused by damage to the parts of the brain that are responsible for understanding and producing language. It also affects speaking and writing in the same way. “This means you may have difficulty understanding words you hear or read, as well as in producing words (spoken or written).” Dysphasia can manifest itself in the following ways: - Difficulty speaking and may only be able to produce a small number of words in halting sentences, for example “want … tea … sugar” - Getting words muddled up e.g. confuse “yes” and “no” - Being able to describe an object, but not name it - Only being able to say a few words, which may be linked to emotions and could be swear words - People with dysphasia may also have difficulties understanding language or producing meaningful language, explained the health body, which could involve: - Not understanding what others are saying, particularly long sentences - Having difficulty understanding if there is background noise or several people speaking at once - Being able to read headlines, but not the main body of the text - Being able to write, but not read back what you have written Dysphasia can be emotionally upsetting for people living with it, noted the charity. People may feel emotionally ‘cut off’ and this can put a strain on relationships. It is not uncommon for people to feel isolated and experience depression. According to the NHS, other symptoms of a brain tumour include: - Severe, persistent headaches - Seizures (fits) - Persistent nausea, vomiting and drowsiness - Mental or behavioural changes, such as memory problems or changes in personality - Progressive weakness or paralysis on one side of the body - Vision problems Symptoms may not show up initially and may only develop gradually. Treating brain tumours will depend largely on the type of tumour, where it is the brain, how big it is and how far it’s spread, noted the health body. There are a number of treatment procedures available, these include:
Introduction to sound Standing waves in closed tubes - [Voiceover] Okay, so last time we saw that for an open open tube, or an open open pipe, a pipe where both ends were open, there only particular wavelengths that were allowed, because you had to have anti-nodes at both ends. So, you had that one. We had this one. We have this one, and we found the wavelength of all of these. Then, we realized, wait a minute we can write down a formula. For any possible wavelength, in an open open tube, and it depends only on the length of the tube L and N. N is which harmonic we're talking about. One is the fundamental, two is the second harmonic, three is the third harmonic, four and so on. This gave you ever possible wavelength. The questions is, can we do the same thing if we had an open closed end? What happens if one ends closed? What if we closed this end off, so that it's not open anymore. Well, let's do that right now. Here we go. Here's a closed end right here. This end is closed. This is more like a soda bottle, because this end would be open, the top that you drink out of and the bottoms closed off. We've got air inside. If you blow over the top, what possible frequencies, what possible wavelengths could you set up? Well, what do we know here? We know that this end, this air is open or this side is open, and so this air molecule can oscillate wildly. What type of node is that going to be? That's going to be an anti-node, since it can oscillate a lot. This end over here, these air molecules keeping bumping into the side. It's got to be a node over on this end, because there can't be any displacement. What do we do here? This ends a node. We know that. I'm going to put this on the axis here. I know this end has no displacement. We're graphing displacement again versus X. This is, in this case, horizontal displacement. This end is going to oscillate wildly, so I know there's going to be an anti-node. So, I'm going to put it right here. I'm going to draw the simplest possible wave that can go from this anti-node to this node is going to look like this. Anti-node and it goes curve right down to the node. That's it. What wavelength is this? Well, in terms of the length of this tube, so if this is L, what wavelength is this in terms of L? We've got to figure out how much of a wavelength this is. That's always the trick. This is what freaks students out. They don't like figuring out how many wavelengths is this. It's not too hard. First thing I like to do is draw what I know one wavelength looks like. So, what does one wavelength look like? One wavelength looks like this. If we start up here, a wavelength is going all the way and then back to the same point in the process. There we go. That's one entire wavelength, at least if this is a versus X graph it is. So, how much of a wavelength is this pink line for this first fundamental frequency? This first fundamental wavelength? It starts at the top, so let's start at the top. It goes, and that thing just goes till the first crossing of the axis, and that's the node. So, this thing crosses the axis here. That's it. That's all we got. We got a big long ... what is this? This is one-fourth of a wavelength. That's one-fourth, and it goes to here. That's another fourth. Here's another fourth, and here's another fourth. So, this is only one-fourth of a wavelength. That's hard for a lot of people to see. The whole things one wavelength. Half of it is a half, so if I cut it in half, that's a half, and I cut this half in half again, I get one-fourth. So, what I find out is that, okay, the length L equals one-fourth of a wavelength in this case. Our fundamental wavelength divided by four equals the length of this tube. So, if I want to know what the wavelength is, that means my wavelength for the fundamental open closed case is four L. I'm going to write that over here. (Lambda) equals four L, and this would be the fundamental wavelength for this open closed tube. This is bigger. For open open is was two L, so it's four L. How about the next one? All right, we got it started in the anti-node, and we got it into the node. The next simplest case in ... well, we had no nodes in between. We only had one at the end. So, now I need a node in the middle. I'm going to create a node in the middle, and then I have to get all the way back to the node on this end. So, I've got one node here. I've got a node at the end. I've got this anti-node here, and an anti-node up here. How many wavelengths is this? Let's figure it out. Start at the top. All right, this goes all the way down past the node and back up. So, all the way down, past the node, back up, and ends at a node. That's how much of a wavelength I've got here . So, how much is this? Well, it's one-fourth, two-fourths, three-fourths. This time L is the length of my tube. Is my wavelengths fitting into L? In this case, it's three-fourths of a wavelength. Again, if I solved that for wavelength, I'd get four L over three. So, the next possible wavelength is four L over three. If we solve for the next one, let's draw it, started an anti-node, end a node, the next possible one, well, the last one had one node, this time it's going to have two nodes. I'm going to come down here. One node, two node, and then it gets (back) to the node at the end. So, a node at this end, there has to be a node at this end, because it's closed. This time I have two nodes in the middle. I have a anti-node on this end, and two anti-nodes in the middle. So, how many wavelengths is this? All right, let's figure it out. Start at the top. All right, it comes down, let's just trace it out. Down, hits that first node, down to the anti-node, back up to the node, now, I've gotten to here. I keep going. I go up to the top, I'm not done yet. Now, I'm back up to here. I have to keep going one more fourth of a wavelength. This is more than a wavelength. This time L equals, well, this is one whole wavelength just to this point right here. Then, I have to add one more fourth of a wavelength to that. So, this is one wavelength and a fourth, or another way to say that is that this is five-fourths of a wavelength. Five-fourths of a wavelength. Just to here is one whole wavelength, and I have to add one more fourth to that. So, if I solve for lambda, I get lambda is four L, ... we see a pattern. Patters are great. Four L over five. This next wavelength possible is four L over five and shoot, we can do this now. Now, I see enough. If I want to write down any possible wavelength, it's going to be four L. Look, four L, four L over three, four L over five. The next one four L over seven. I get that the possible wavelengths for an open closed tube are four L over N. Except, instead of being any possible integer, the only allowed integers are the odd ones. So, I'm not allowed to put in two or four. It's got to be one, three, five, and so on. Here's the formula. This is it. If I want to know what are the possible wavelengths allowed in an open closed tube, this is it. It depends on the length. It depends on N. Looks just like the case for open open, except it was two L for that case. This case is four L on top. Four times length of the tube, and on the bottom it's only the odd integers. That means I only get the odd harmonics. This four L over three, I wouldn't call this the second harmonic, I'd call this the third harmonic. This five down here, I wouldn't call this the third, I'd call this the fifth. We're missing all the even harmonics on this case for an open closed tube. It's a little bit strange, but that's what happens when you have an anti-node at this end, and a node required at that end. You can try this. Look, this is a function of L. If you want to test this out, next time you're drinking a soda. Look, if the L is large if the length of your tube is large, that means the wavelength should be large. If the wavelength is large, well, let's see. V equals lambda F. If you've got a big wavelength, that'll mean a small frequency, because the speed won't change. The speeds determined by the medium, and you're probably not changing the temperature of the medium all that much. Maybe, you've got ice in your drink or something, but if it melts it'll change a little bit. It's not going to change the speed by that much. If you increase the length, you'll increase the wavelength, it'll decrease the frequency. Low frequency means a low note. You'll hear a lower bassy note. Try this, I want you to try this out the next time you're drinking a soda, or maybe it's a healthy beverage. Whatever it is. You got some soda here, it's up to some level. Where ever the waters at acts as the bottom of the tube. Right now, I only have a tube this length. The top is open, and the bottom is basically where ever there's water level is, because the air can't get past that water level. This would only be a length of that. As you keep drinking, keep blowing over the top. As you keep blowing over the top, listen for what note you hear. You should keep hearing a lower note. The lower this gets, once it's down to here, now your length ... the length of your tube is bigger. It's open at the top closed at the bottom. You'll hear even a lower note, once it gets down to here. When you finish, now it's even longer. You'll hear a much lower notes. The notes should get lower and lower. Not louder and louder, but lower and lower, the frequency should sound lower and lower the lower your drink gets. The higher the length, bigger the wavelength, smaller the frequency. AP® is a registered trademark of the College Board, which has not reviewed this resource.
On Crops: Beans, potatoes, and many other vegetables and flowers Worldwide, wherever host crops are grown Bean plants begin to wilt on hot days and show little new growth. Watering does not help, and plants die within a few days. Often one or two plants will die while others nearby show no symptoms. When root rot strikes seedlings, they emerge from the soil and then turn yellow and die. When you pull up an infected bean plant, it will have a skimpy root system with most small roots missing. A dark area of decay may be present on the main stem near the soil line. Plant beans in soil that has been thoroughly cultivated, and do not follow potatoes with beans. Thin as needed to grow plants at proper spacing, because crowded conditions can contribute to the development of root rot diseases. You will lose fewer seedlings to root rot diseases if you wait until the soil is warm to plant beans. Pull up affected plants and compost them. Place a pile of mature compost on the spot where the failed bean plant had been growing.
Value Of Coins Worksheet. This group of money worksheets focuses on giving kids the basics of the penny, nickel, dime and quarter to make sure they know the names and values of each. Print multiple sheets to inventory all of your old coins. Paste each next to the name of the coin. Use the worksheet as an invoice and packing slip when sending coins through the mail to dealers. One dollar bills and five dollar bills are also being reviewed in this packet. Coin Name And Value Worksheets. Match real coins to the values shown on the worksheet. Coin worksheets are an excellent resource for students to grasp concepts like coin counting, comparing coins, addition, subtraction, and ordering money. 1 half dollar = 50 cents. Coins, Such As Pennies, Nickels, Dimes, And Quarters. Are you looking for activities that practice coins and ad the most. Kindergarten money worksheet match u.s. Names and values of coins. Values of coins worksheet when homeowners get their acreage bulk appraisement from the bounded government this year, they ability acquisition themselves with sticker shock. Coins to their value created date: Kindergarten money worksheet match u.s. This packet includes 40 worksheets to use for review and homework when teaching students to identify u.s. Www.pinterest.com 1 nickel = 5 cents. This money worksheet for kids focusses on teaching kids amounts that coins are worth. Students Roll A Die A Number Of Times Each Face Is Assigned To A. Free and printable identifying money worksheets. Discover practical worksheets, engaging games, lesson plans, interactive stories, & more! These pdf worksheets are a great addition to your handling money lessons and help get kids interested.
The Internet is a global wide area network that connects computer systems across the world. It includes several high-bandwidth data lines that comprise the Internet "backbone." These lines are connected to major Internet hubs that distribute data to other locations, such as web servers and ISPs. In order to connect to the Internet, you must have access to an Internet service provider (ISP), which acts the middleman between you and the Internet. Most ISPs offer broadband Internet access via a cable, DSL, or fiber connection. When you connect to the Internet using a public Wi-Fi signal, the Wi-Fi router is still connected to an ISP that provides Internet access. Even cellular data towers must connect to an Internet service provider to provide connected devices with access to the Internet. The Internet provides different online services. Some examples include: - Web – a collection of billions of webpages that you can view with a web browser - Email – the most common method of sending and receiving messages online - Social media – websites and apps that allow people to share comments, photos, and videos - Online gaming – games that allow people to play with and against each other over the Internet - Software updates – operating system and application updates can typically downloaded from the Internet In the early days of the Internet, most people connected to the Internet using a home computer and a dial-up modem. DSL and cable modems eventually provided users with "always-on" connections. Now mobile devices, such as tablets and smartphones, make it possible for people to be connected to the Internet at all times. The Internet of Things has turned common appliances and home systems into "smart" devices that can be monitored and controlled over the Internet. As the Internet continues to grow and evolve, you can expect it to become an even more integral part of daily life. Updated: September 17, 2015
Racial discrimination refers to the practice of treating individuals differently because of their race or color. Federal law prohibits race discrimination in the workplace and incidents of race discrimination can take many forms, in the workplace particularly, race discrimination can be hard to identify. For more information about race discrimination, read below. Racial discrimination occurs when an individual is treated differently base on their actual or perceived race. Race discrimination also includes discrimination based upon skin color. Though race and color are related concepts, the two are not synonymous. Color generally refers to discrimination based upon one’s pigmentation, complexion, or skin shade (lightness, darkness) or tone. Color discrimination can occur between persons of different races or ethnicities, or between persons of the same race or ethnicity. Race discrimination can also occur if an individual is treated differently based on their association with members of another race. Such discrimination can occur directly, such as when an employer intentionally targets a member of a racial group or indirectly when a seemingly neutral job policy tends to exclude minorities for a reason that is not job-related. Additionally, regulation that prevents race discrimination also prohibits discrimination based upon stereotypes, assumptions about abilities, traits or the performance of individuals of certain racial groups. If you have experienced any of the following situations, you may be a victim of race discrimination: - Hiring/Firing/Promotions:You apply for a job for which you have experience and excellent qualifications. You are not hired because some of the company’s long-time clients are not comfortable working with African-Americans. You are told that you are being laid off due to company cutbacks and reorganization, while white employees with the same job and with less seniority than you keep their jobs. You have worked for your company for several years, receiving excellent reviews and an employee-of-the-year award, yet each of the five times you have applied for promotions, the positions you applied for are instead filled by less qualified people of a different race. - Pay:You worked your way up from the position of executive assistant to project manager. A white project manager with similar training and work experience was recently hired, and you find out that he will be paid more than you. You are a top salesperson for your company but are moved to a less desirable territory because it is a minority neighborhood, while a white employee with much lower sales is given your territory and client base, enabling him to make much more in commissions than you will make for several years. - Job Classification:You work at a company that has an eight-tier job classification system; your responsibilities have increased over time, but your job classification and pay have remained stagnant; white colleagues have their job classification and pay adjusted to reflect their increased responsibilities. - Harassment:One of your coworkers thinks it is “funny” to use the “n-word” in conversation and to tell jokes insulting African Americans, Latinos, Asians, and other minorities. These comments make you very uncomfortable, and you’ve asked him to stop, but he tells you that you need to get a sense of humor. The boss tells you to ignore him but does not talk to or discipline your coworker for his discriminatory behavior. The examples listed above are not an exhaustive list but do illustrate the general elements of race discrimination. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 is a federal law that protects individuals from discrimination in employment based on race. Title VII makes it illegal for an employer to discriminate against individuals because of their race in hiring, firing, discipline, distribution of benefits, promotion, compensation, job training, or any other term, condition, or privilege of employment. The laws of most states also prohibit discrimination based on race. For more information, seequestion 22 below. Title VII covers all private employers, state and local governments, and educational institutions that employ 15 or more individuals. Title VII also includes private and public employment agencies, labor organizations, and joint labor-management committees controlling apprenticeship and training. Anti-discrimination protections apply to job applicants as well as current workers. If you are a current employee and are fired, not promoted, or paid at a lower rate, you are protected under the law. If you are not hired because of your race, you are also protected. Many states also make it illegal to discriminate based on race. For more information, please see our page on theminimum number of employeesneeded to file a claim under your state law. The law forbids discrimination when it comes to any aspect of employment. This includes hiring, firing, pay, job assignments, promotions, layoff, training, fringe benefits, and any other term or condition of employment. There are two broad types of racial discrimination: - Disparate treatment: when individuals are treated differently on purpose because of their race. Examples: offering ethnic minorities lower starting salaries, or posing different interview questions to white applicants and ethnic minorities. - Disparate impact: this is a negative impact that race discrimination might have. It happens when seemingly neutral workplace practices have an unnecessary and negative effect on members of a protected class. Examples: unnecessary requirements for one’s appearance, like requiring men to have short hair, which might eliminate qualified Native American applicants, or requiring hair to be straightened, which would unduly burden many African American women who have naturally curly hair. There is a key legal distinction between disparate treatment and disparate impact race discrimination. A case involving disparate treatment requires a finding of intentional discrimination, and the individual must prove that the employer had a discriminatory intent or motive. However, disparate impact cases do not require a showing of intent. Intentional discrimination occurs when an employment decision is affected by the person’s race. It includes not only racial animosity, but also conscious or unconscious stereotypes about the abilities, traits, or performance of individuals of certain racial groups. Example: An upscale retail establishment with a sophisticated clientele rejects an African American male applicant. The hiring manager stereotypically believes that African American males do not convey a clean-cut image and that they lack the soft skills needed to service customers well. A finding of discrimination would be warranted. No, the law prohibits discrimination based on: - Your marriage to or association with someone of a different race; - Membership in or association with ethnic-based organizations or groups; - Attendance or participation in schools, places of worship, or other cultural practices generally associated with certain minority groups, such as cultural dress or manner of speech, as long as the cultural practice or characteristic does not materially interfere with the ability to perform job duties. Yes, discrimination based on race by someone of the same race is still illegal. There is no requirement under the law that the victim and the perpetrator be of different races. Example: A court in Texas found race discrimination occurred in a case alleging that a shuttle service discriminated against African American drivers in favor of native African drivers. The evidence revealed that the transportation shuttle service denied the African American drivers the more profitable routes, sent them to destinations where no passengers awaited pickup, and misappropriated their tips by giving them to the native African drivers.8. Are racial jokes or slurs against the law? It depends. Racial jokes or slurs may be considered a form of harassment, which courts have determined is a form of discrimination under the law. However, federal law does not prohibit simple teasing, offhand comments, or isolated incidents that are not extremely serious. The conduct must be sufficiently frequent or severe to create an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment, or result in a “tangible employment action,” such as hiring, firing, promotion, or demotion. For more information, see our page on racial harassment. Reverse discrimination is a term created to mean discrimination against members of a historical majority, or “advantaged,” group. However, it is not a legal term identified by U.S. courts. Because anti-discrimination laws were enacted to prevent discrimination against groups that were historically disadvantaged and denied opportunities in the workplace, there may be a perception that the same laws do not protect members of majority groups. However, anti-discrimination laws prohibit all forms of discrimination based on protected characteristics, regardless of whether a person belongs to a majority group. Much of the opposition to affirmative action is based on what are called “reverse discrimination” and “unwarranted preferences.” However, very few employment discrimination cases pending before the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission are reverse discrimination cases. Under the law and interpretations by courts, anyone benefiting from affirmative action must have the relevant and valid job or educational qualifications. If your employer has an affirmative action plan, it may help eliminate some of the barriers to advancement that racial minorities have faced historically. You may wish to consult with your company’s human resource department or your personnel handbook to learn more about how the plan may benefit you and other employees who are racial minorities. It is against the law to limit, segregate, or classify employees or applicants for employment based on race in any way that could deprive them of employment opportunities or otherwise adversely affect their employment status. It is a violation of Title VII if employees of a certain race or races are segregated by being physically isolated from other employees or customer contact. Title VII also prohibits assigning primarily minorities to predominantly minority establishments or geographic areas. It is illegal to exclude minorities from certain positions or to group or categorize employees or jobs so that minority workers generally hold certain jobs, or because of a belief that they should do so. Consequently, an assignment or placement selected because of your race that segregates you or negatively affects your pay, status in the company, or ability to advance would be against the law. Yet, an assignment made for legitimate, nondiscriminatory reasons that do not negatively affect or segregate you would not be illegal. Requesting Requiring pre-employment information that discloses or tends to disclose an applicant’s race suggests that race will be unlawfully used as a basis for hiring. Therefore, if members of minority groups are excluded from employment, asking for such information in the job application process is likely to be evidence of discrimination. However, employers may have a legitimate need for information about their employees’ or applicants’ race for affirmative action purposes and/or to track applicant flow. One way to obtain racial information and guard against discriminatory selection is for employers to use “tear-off sheets” for the identification of an applicant’s race. After the applicant completes the application and the tear-off portion, the employer separates the tear-off sheet from the application and does not use it in the selection process. Additionally, if a company has 100 employees or more, or is owned by/affiliated with a company with 100(+) employees, they are required by law to submit an Equal Employment Opportunity report (EEO-1) each year to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). This report includes a lot of information (including employee statistics) that is reported in aggregate. That means they aren’t reporting anything about individuals, just about big picture numbers for the company overall (aggregate statistics). The company may decide to gather these stats during the hiring process just to make this reporting task easier. But unless you are hired, they won’t be sending your information anywhere. The hiring manager should not see this info while going over applications and resumes. Not if it is not job-related. Title VII makes illegal both intentional discrimination as well as job policies that appeal neutral but in fact are not job-related and disproportionately harm workers of certain races. Example: A policy that requires a high school degree for all employees, which may disproportionately exclude African-Americans and Latinos. If a high school degree is not necessary to perform every position, such as those involving physical labor, then this policy might be illegal. A policy that excludes individuals with sickle cell anemia tends to discriminate against African-American individuals and would be illegal unless proven to have a legitimate business purpose. However, Yes, professionally developed tests may be used to make employment decisions if they do not discriminate on the basis of race. Employment tests that disproportionately exclude applicants/employees of a certain race must be validated. Yes, in very limited circumstances. Title VII makes an exception when age is an essential part of a particular job – also known by the legal term “bona fide occupational qualification” or BFOQ. Example: If a company hires an actor to play the role of an African-American father, being African-American is a necessary part of the job or a BFOQ. However, an employer who claims a BFOQ exists for a particular job must be able to prove a person of a certain race is required because a worker’s ability to do the job is actually diminished if he or she is not a member of that race. Discrimination based on a natural physical characteristic associated with race, such as skin color, hair texture, or certain facial features is against the law, even though not all members of the race share the same characteristic. Title VII also makes it illegal to discriminate based on a condition that affects a certain race or tends to affect a certain race, unless the practice is job-related and necessary for business. As previously mentioned, since sickle cell anemia predominantly occurs among African-Americans, a policy that excludes individuals with sickle cell anemia must be job-related and necessary for business. Similarly, a “no-beard” employment policy may discriminate against African-American men who have a predisposition to pseudofolliculitis barbae (severe shaving bumps) and is illegal unless the policy is job-related and a business necessity. If there are height and weight requirements, they must be necessary for the safe and efficient performance of job-related tasks, because such requirements may exclude or limit women and members of some racial and ethnic groups. An employer, therefore, must show that the requirement is necessary for the safe and efficient performance of job-related tasks. If there is a less restrictive way to accomplish the same goal other than a minimum height requirement, employers are required to use that alternative to avoid liability for discrimination. Affirmative action goals and timetables are targets for equality and a level playing field. Like goals for profits or productivity, they mark and measure progress, but do not carry legal penalties. Quotas are illegal unless they are court ordered as a remedy for discrimination. Your company’s affirmative action plan may be voluntary or may be required by law if your company has contracts with federal, state or local governments or has a past history of discrimination. Much of the opposition to affirmative action is based on what are called “reverse discrimination” and “unwarranted preferences.” However, less than 2 percent of the 91,000 employment discrimination cases pending before the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission are reverse discrimination cases. Under the law as written and interpreted by the courts, anyone benefiting from affirmative action must have relevant and valid job or educational qualifications. If your employer has an affirmative action plan, it may help eliminate some of the barriers to advancement that racial minorities have faced historically, maybe even working for your employer. You may wish to consult with your company’s human resource department or your personnel handbook to learn more about how the plan may benefit you and other employees who are racial minorities. Racial harassment is a form of race discrimination, and that is a violation of Title VII. Although Title VII does not specifically use the words “racial harassment,” courts have held that racial harassment is race discrimination and thus violates the law. As noted throughout this fact sheet, there are many forms of race discrimination that are not racial harassment, such as discrimination in hiring, firing, promotions or benefits, pay discrimination, and racial stereotyping. No, most of the time, it is difficult to come up with direct evidence of discrimination. You can prove racial discrimination indirectly. You must make a prima facie case of discrimination, which is Latin for “on its face” or “at first glance.” A race discrimination lawsuit has four parts: - You are in a protected class. - You are qualified for a job or performing it adequately. - You were denied a job benefit, or subject to a negative job action. - The person who received the job or benefit was a different race, or the company continued to search for other “qualified” applicants Example: If you were denied a promotion and you believe it was because you are Mexican, you would have to prove that you qualified for the promotion, didn’t get it, and the person who got it is not Mexican. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is the agency of the federal government responsible for investigating charges of job discrimination relating to race discrimination in workplaces of 15 or more employees. Most states have agencies that enforce state laws against discrimination. For more information, see question 22 below. Additionally, at both the federal and state level, time is a key consideration. There are often strict timelines for reporting and filing claims of racial discrimination, so if you feel you have been discriminated against, it may be best to contact an employment attorney in your area as soon as possible. Victims of race discrimination can recover remedies that include: - back pay - front pay - compensatory damages (emotional pain and suffering) - punitive damages (damages to punish the employer) - other actions that will make an individual “whole” (in the condition she or he would have been in if not the discrimination had never occurred). Remedies also may include payment of: - attorneys’ fees - expert witness fees - court costs An employer may be required to post notices to all employees addressing the violations of a specific charge and advising them of their right to be free from discrimination, harassment, and retaliation. If necessary, such notices must be accessible to persons with visual or other disabilities that affect reading. The employer also may be required to take corrective or preventive actions regarding the person(s) responsible for the discrimination, take steps to minimize the chance it will happen again, as well as stop the specific discriminatory practices in the case. Your state law may allow for greater or different remedies than federal law. For more information, see question 22 below. State legislation covering workplace generally mirrors federal law in prohibiting discrimination based on race. The primary differences are in the procedures used and agencies contacted to make a claim of discrimination. For more information, see question 22 below. For more information on filing a complaint for race discrimination, select your state from the map or list below.
One purpose of Leaders UNITE is to help students see that leadership can be fun, and that anyone can step up as a leader in any situation. Think about your own school/a program you are a part of. Now take the time to think about how that school/program could incorporate leadership more into their curriculum. What would you do to provide more opportunities for students to be leaders/feel comfortable speaking out at your school? This can be done as an activity or a discussion. For the discussion, just answer the question above. For an activity, do the discussion and then create a letter that you would send to your school showing them what they can do to create more opportunities for leadership in the classroom. If you have time, even think of actual changes you would implement and write them out in a detailed plan. Students will have 25 minutes to do this discussion and activity. Be creative and try to think outside of the box! Note: If you are stuck for ideas, here are a few: - Creating more opportunities for small group learning. - Creating more opportunities for students to step up as leaders in the classroom. - Having afterschool leadership programs. - Having a debate or discussion team where you get to discuss important topics in leadership. - Creating opportunities for people to share their culture/identity with the class. As we are learning through this club, leadership can come about in many different ways, and in many different situations. In this activity, it is your turn to show us what a leader would do in a particular situations. You will be given one of the following scenarios, and you and your team must create a scene to resolve the conflict. You and your group will have to act this out, so make sure your skit really shows what a leader would do in these situations. Your group will have 15 minutes to create and plan your skit! - You are working on a group project with a few of your classmates, and you notice that one of the students always comes late to group meetings. When he is there, you notice that he never says anything, and that he is always yawning. What would a leader do? - You see one kid getting picked on at school by some of his classmates. They claim that they are just joking around, but you see that the student actually looks hurt. What would a leader do? - Your friend comes to you and tells you that she is feeling sad. What would a leader do? - You see a girl sitting by herself during lunch time at school. What would a leader do? Congratulations! You have been selected to create the newest videogame! In this activity (which is similar to The Newest App activity), students will work together to create their own videogame and then will create a commercial pitch to sell their videogame to the “audience”. Students must include the game logo, purpose, rules, and features in their commercial pitch, and every person in the group must speak in their presentation. For younger age groups or for a fun twist, teachers, start by asking the students to name seven things they like in their games (without telling them that they will be creating a videogame). Then once they list their seven things, tell them that they must combine these seven things together to make a brand new videogame. See how they work together to combine these things! Groups will have 15 minutes to create their videogame and their commercial pitch! Students will work together in groups to think of a dance for one of the following songs. Note: The dance must be your own unique creation, not one that already exists (unless you are tweaking it!) - Let it Go (Frozen) - A Whole New World (Aladdin) - Hakuna Matata (Lion King) - Part of Your World (Little Mermaid) All students will have 15 minutes to think of their dance. All students in the group should perform this dance together after time is up. YAS (You are Special) is a central component of the Leaders UNITE curriculum because we believe that a good leader encourages his/her teammates and takes the time to learn why each team member is special and unique. Because of the success of the YAS movement, we have decided to add a YAS activity for our elementary school students. In this activity, students will write cards for their classmates that begin with, “YAS (You Are Special) because…”. The cards will be based on the YAS Valentine’s Day Cards that Leaders UNITE created a few years ago, and students will get to give these to their friends and teachers during this activity! With Christmas and other December holidays coming up, it is important to return to ideas of teamwork and learning more about the people you work with. A leaders job is not only to “lead,” but also to genuinely take time to learn about all of the members of a team. In this activity, students will write one thing that they want for Christmas on a piece of paper (without saying the thing out loud). Then, students will sit in a circle and place all of the pieces of paper in the middle of the circle. Students will go around the classroom picking out a piece of paper and guessing which person wanted which gift. Once they find out who wrote which gift, the person who wrote the gift will tell the class a little bit about why they want that gift, or why it is special to them. If you finish the activity early, go around and do it again, but with Christmas wishes instead! Thanksgiving is a time to think about what and who we are thankful for. It is also a time to spread positivity towards one another, which is something that the Leaders UNITE YAS movement encourages. For this activity, students sit in a circle in a random order. Then, they go around the classroom and say why they are thankful for the person sitting next to them. Students say why they are thankful for the person, and also one nice thing the person next to them has done. After thinking about what a leader is, it is important to think about some leaders in your lives. Remember- leaders come in all forms and do not need to have an official title to be a leader. Who are some people who have helped you, set an example for you, or encouraged you? Take this time to draw a picture of someone who is a leader in your life. Afterwards, feel free to tell this person that they are a leader in your eyes! Students will have 15 minutes to complete this activity. They will then present their drawings to the class and explain why this person is a leader in their eyes. A good team must play to the strengths of the group. Therefore, it is important to have an idea of everyone’s abilities. Each person will have one of these sheets. In order to complete one of the numbers, another person must sign his/her name on your sheet. Be honest about your talents. The first one to have 20 signatures win! Note: If your class is smaller than 20 people, some people can sign for more than one number on the sheet. Find someone who… Find Someone Who (Younger Student Version) **assigned leader activity In this activity, a member of your group will demonstrate and teach the other members of the class how to perform a certain activity or talent that they possess. This gives a chance for students to recognize one another’s talents, because it is important for a group to play to the strengths of the individuals within it. Also, this gives students a chance to explore new activities and practice explaining and getting ideas across in an audible and comprehensive manner. A leader must also possess patience, because not everyone in the group will have the same amount of experience. In your group, you will have 20 minutes to watch the demonstration and learn an aspect from the person presenting. For example, a dancer can perform a dance and then teach the choreography (or a beginning-level dance) to the class. Have fun and get to know one another’s talents.
Here in this tutorial we will discuss python datetime module and also learn how to deal with date and time in python. Python datetime module Python has an inbuilt module datetime which deal with the date and time. With the help of this module, we can use the time and date in our program. There are many methods associated with the datetime module let’s have a look at some of the most important. datetime module to get the current date and time: import datetime current_date_nd_time = datetime.datetime.now() print(current_date_nd_time) Behind the code: We use the datetime.now() method of datetime to get the current date and time. The datetime.now() method return a datetime object in the form of current date and time. In the above output, 2019-08-02 is the date in the form of yyyy-mm-dd and 20:34:54.969255 in the form of hh-mm-ss.ss datetime module to get only current date: import datetime today_date = datetime.date.today() print('its:',today_date) Behind the code: The datetime.date.today() method return local date in the form of yyyy-mm-dd Datetime all inbuilt classes datetime is a module which mean it contains may .py files, that means it must have many inbuilt classes, let’s see all the classes which have been defined in the datetime module. we will use the dir() method to print out all the classes defined in the datetime module: import datetime print(dir(datetime)) ['MAXYEAR', 'MINYEAR', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__spec__', 'date', 'datetime', 'datetime_CAPI', 'time', 'timedelta', 'timezone', 'tzinfo'] The most common classes of datetime modules are: datetime module date class (datetime.date) As we know that datetime module has many inbuilt classes, date is one of them. With the help of this date class we can perform many tasks. Let’s see some example of datetime date class. 1: Use datetime.date to create a datetime object: With the help of datetime.date we can create a datetime object and define a date. from datetime import date sam_DOB = date(1999,11,26) print("Sam date of birth is:", sam_DOB) print('the data type if sam_DOB variable is',type(sam_DOB)) Sam date of birth is: 1999-11-26 the data type if sam_DOB variable is <class 'datetime.date'> Behind the code: We import the date class from the datetime module and with the help of date() we create a date object. The date() class accept 3 arguments year, month and day to create a date object. 2: date class methods In one of the above examples we have used the date.today() method to print the current date. What if we want only the particular year, month, and day from the day.today() object, for this we can use that datetime object to access special attribute from the date class which are obj.year, obj.month and obj.day. from datetime import date today_date = date.today() #datetime.date object by python for current date sam_DOB = date(1999,11,26) #datetime.date object created by user specified date print("Sam date of birth year is:", sam_DOB.year) print("We are in:", today_date.year) print("sam date of birth month is:", sam_DOB.month) print("Today is:", today_date.day) Sam date of birth year is: 1999 We are in: 2019 sam date of birth month is: 11 Today is: 2 Datetime time Class (datetime.time): Datetime module contains time class which deal with time in Hour, minutes, seconds and microseconds. One of the above examples when we printed out the today’s complete date with current time the time was formatted in hour:minutes:seconds.microsecond 1. Lets use the .time() to create datetime.time object from datetime import time dinner_time = time(21,30,00) print("My dinner time is",dinner_time) My dinner time is 21:30:00 Behind the code: Here dinner_time is a time object. 2. Get hour, minutes, seconds and Microsecond from a time object. With the help of hour, minute, second and microsecond we can grab the specific hours and minutes from the time object: from datetime import time dinner_time = time(21,30,50,98937) print('dinner Hour is:' ,dinner_time.hour) print('dinner minute is:',dinner_time.minute) print('second is:', dinner_time.second) print('micro second is:',dinner_time.microsecond) dinner Hour is: 21 dinner minute is: 30 second is: 50 micro second is: 98937 datetime datetime class (datetime.datetime) (from datetime import datetime) The datetime module has a class with similar name datetime, the datetime class is used to deal with both date and time, let’s see some example. from datetime import datetime # datetime(year, month, day, hour, minute, second, microsecond) datetime_obj = datetime(2019,1,1,10,20,40,12323) print('year:',datetime_obj.year) print('month',datetime_obj.month) print('day',datetime_obj.day) print('hour',datetime_obj.hour) print('minute',datetime_obj.minute) year: 2019 month 1 day 1 hour 10 minute 20 datetime timedelta class(datetime.timedelta) or (from datetime import timedelta): timedelta is one of the important and logical concepts of datetime module, the timedelta is used to find out the difference between two time period. Let’s see some examples: from datetime import timedelta # timedelta(weeks, days, hours, minutes, seconds, microseconds) time_1 = timedelta(weeks=10) time_2 = timedelta(weeks=2,hours=10,minutes=40) time_3 = time_1 - time_2 print("the time difference between time_1 and time_2 is:",time_3) the time difference between time_1 and time_2 is: 55 days, 13:20:00 Python Date formatting: By default python datetime module and all its class accept date and time in yyyy-mm-dd hh:mm:ss.ms for and print the date and time in same format. But in datetime module, we have a special method strftime() which can format the date object according to the user will We can format the date time in many formants such as dd/mm/yyyy or yyyy/dd/mm from datetime import datetime current_date = datetime.now() #datetime_object.strftime("%d/%m/%Y, %H:%M:%S") change_format_current_date = current_date.strftime("%d/%m/%Y, %H-%M") print('default format is: ',current_date) print('changed format is: ',change_format_current_date) default format is: 2019-08-02 23:21:41.907656 changed format is: 02/08/2019, 23-21 pytz python timezone module python has a very interesting module pytz which stand for python time zone with the help of this module we can easily printed the date, time of different time zones or countries. This is a third-party library you might have to download this first, use pip install pytz in your command terminal let’s see an example: from datetime import datetime import pytz my_time = datetime.now() new_york_time = datetime.now(pytz.timezone('America/New_York')) print("My country:", my_time.strftime("date %d/%m/%Y time %H:%M")) print('New York:', new_york_time.strftime("date %d/%m/%Y time %H:%M")) My country: date 02/08/2019 time 23:38 New York: date 02/08/2019 time 14:08
A new, small-scale solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) system developed at the Department of Energy’s Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (DoE PNNL) could be used for household and neighborhood power generation. Fueled by methane, the system achieves an efficiency of up to 57 percent, improving on the 30 to 50 percent efficiencies seen previously in SOFC systems of similar size. The PNNL researchers say the pilot system they have built generates enough electricity to power the average American home, and can be scaled up to provide power for 50 to 250 homes. Solid Oxide Fuel CellsLike batteries, fuel cells use anodes, cathodes and electrolytes to produce electricity. But unlike most batteries, fuel cells can continuously produce electricity if provided with a constant fuel supply. Fuel cells are characterized by their electrolyte material, which in the case of SOFCs is a solid oxide or ceramic. Ceramic materials also form the anode and cathode which, along with the electrolyte, form three layers. Air is pumped up against the cathode, which forms the outer layer, with oxygen from the air becoming a negatively charged ion where the cathode and the inner electrolyte layer meet. The negatively charged oxygen ion then moves through the electrolyte to reach the final anode layer where it reacts with a fuel to create electricity, as well as steam and carbon dioxide byproducts. SOFCs can run on different fuels, including natural gas, biogas, hydrogen, but the PNNL team chose methane - the primary component of natural gas - to fuel its new SOFC. Because they are more efficient than other methods of electricity generation, including coal power plants, SOFCs consume less fuel and create less pollution to generate the same amount of electricity. Small-scale SOFCs also have the advantage of being able to be placed closer to where the electricity generated is consumed, reducing the amount of power that is lost when sent through transmission lines. "Solid oxide fuels cells are a promising technology for providing clean, efficient energy. But, until now, most people have focused on larger systems that produce 1 megawatt of power or more and can replace traditional power plants," said Vincent Sprenkle, chief engineer of PNNL's solid oxide fuel cell development program. "However, this research shows that smaller solid oxide fuel cells that generate between 1 and 100 kilowatts of power are a viable option for highly efficient, localized power generation." With the aim of designing a small system that was more than 50 percent efficient and could also be scaled up to produce electricity for neighborhoods, the PNNL team combined external steam reforming and fuel recycling with microchannel technology. Steam reformingSteam reforming involves mixing steam with the fuel so that they react to create carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which in turn reacts with oxygen at the fuel cell’s anode. Because this process requires heat that can cause uneven temperatures on the ceramic layers and lead to weakening and breakage of the fuel cell, the PNNL team used a heat exchanger to allow the initial reactions between steam and the fuel to be completed outside of the fuel cell in what is known as external steam reforming. Heat exchangers consists of a wall made of a conductive material that separates the two gases. The hot exhaust that is expelled as a byproduct of the reaction inside the fuel cell is located on one side, while a cooler gas that is heading toward the fuel cell is located on the other. Heat from the hot gas moves through the wall to warm the incoming gas to temperatures needed for the reaction to take place inside the fuel cell. Microchannel heat exchangersBut instead of having just one wall separating the two gases, the PNNL researchers created multiple walls using a series of tiny looping channels, narrower than a paperclip. These microchannel heat exchangers increase the surface area to allow more heat to be transferred, thereby increasing the efficiency of the system. The microchannel heat exchanger was also designed so that the gas moves through the looping channels with very little additional pressure. Steam RecyclingThe PNNL system also recycles the exhaust coming from the anode, consisting of steam and heat byproducts, to maintain the steam reforming process. Not only does this recycling negate the need for an electrical device to heat water and create steam, it also means that the system is able to use up some of leftover fuel that wasn’t consumed the first time around. The combination of external steam reforming and steam recycling and use of microchannel heat exchangers allow the system to use as little energy as possible with the end result being more net electricity production. In lab tests, the team say net efficiencies ranging from 48.2 percent at 2.2 kW, up to 56.6 percent at 1.7 kW. With a few more adjustments, the team believes they can raise the system’s efficiency to 60 percent. With the average American home consuming roughly 2 kW or electricity, the pilot system could be used for household power generation. However, they also designed it so it could be scaled up to produce between 100 and 150 kW, which could provide enough electricity to power 50 to 100 homes. The PNNL team hope to see their research translate into just such a system that could be used by individual households or utilities. The PNNL team’s small-scale SOFC is detailed in a paper published in the Journal of Power Sources.
In what researchers are describing as the first study of its kind, researchers from the University of California San Francisco revealed that vaping e-cigarettes can put users at risk of serious longterm health effects. The research marks a major departure from the recent health warnings on vaping, which center around a short-term lung injury known as EVALI (more than 2,300 individuals have been diagnosed since August). Instead, this research — which measured the health effects of vaping in 32,000 Americans — provides evidence that vaping e-cigarettes may impact an individual’s health later on. The study, based on data from the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH), concludes that even those who seem healthy in the midst of vaping may be 1.3 times more likely to develop chronic lung disease. Here, to shed more light on the researchers’ findings, are five potential longterm consequences that users should know about. While not as serious as some of the other risks, asthma can be difficult to manage. A chronic respiratory disease, it is characterized by a narrowing of the lungs that makes it difficult to inhale and expel air. Common symptoms include shortness of breath, coughing, wheezing, chest tightness and difficulty breathing. The CDC estimates that as many as 25 million Americans have asthma, which can be treated with medication, but flare-ups are not uncommon. The UCSF study isn’t the first to connect vaping and asthma. A 2018 study published in the British Medical Journal found evidence that vaping fuels widespread inflammation in the lungs, which can be a precursor to asthma. Much like asthma, bronchitis is fueled by inflammation of the airwaves —specifically the bronchial tubes, which carry oxygen from the mouth to the lungs. When these become inflamed they can fill with mucus, causing a cough, chest pain and difficulty breathing. Although you may have experienced some of these symptoms during a cold (what’s known as acute bronchitis), that condition is one brought on by a virus or bacteria which usually clears up within 10 days. Chronic bronchitis, on the other hand, is incurable and flares repeatedly over time. A study released this July by the American Thoracic Society found that vaping e-cigarettes can cause what’s known as “mucociliary dysfunction,” or inability to clear mucus from the airwaves. This breakdown can lead to multiple different chronic lung conditions, including bronchitis. Brought to public attention through anti-cigarette smoking campaigns, emphysema is a condition in which the air sacs of the lungs (or alveoli) become chronically inflamed, hindering an individual’s ability to breathe normally. Unlike some chronic lung diseases, emphysema gets progressively worse. The Mayo Clinic explains: “Over time, the inner walls of the air sacs weaken and rupture — creating larger air spaces instead of many small ones. This reduces the surface area of the lungs and, in turn, the amount of oxygen that reaches your bloodstream.” One of the early studies connecting emphysema and e-cigarettes was released in 2019. In it, researchers from the University of North Carolina School of Medicine tested the lung fluid of smokers, vapers and non-smokers and found that those who vaped had increased levels of an enzyme that is linked to emphysema. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) When one or more of the lung diseases above becomes chronic, doctors refer to the condition by an overarching term: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease or COPD. Much like the individual conditions that cause COPD, the main symptoms are shortness of breath, coughing, wheezing, mucus buildup and chest tightness. The lung damage that occurs with COPD worsens over time, sometimes requiring supplemental oxygen. The first study to draw a link between COPD and vaping was released by the American Thoracic Society in May 2018. In it, researchers concluded that e-cigarette users were “twice as likely to have COPD” than those who do not vape. Although not a feature of the study released Monday, e-cigarettes have long been connected to an increased risk of heart disease. Based on a study from researchers at the University of California San Francisco released in February 2018, smoking e-cigarettes may actually double an individual’s chances of having a heart attack. When vaping is combined with regular cigarettes, the individual’s risk increased five-fold. Heart attacks — caused by lack of blood flow to the heart — are marked by symptoms like chest pain, tightness in the chest and sudden fatigue. Read more from Yahoo Lifestyle:
Digital Camera Fundamentals The principles behind digital camera technology In the last few years, light measurement has evolved from a dependence on traditional emulsion-based film photomicrography, to one where electronic images are the media of choice. The imaging recording device is one of the most critical components in many experiments so understanding the process of how the light images are recorded and the choices available can enhance the quality of the light measurement data. In this guide we aim to provide an understanding of the basics of light detection and also help select a suitable detector for specific applications. High performance digital cameras can be defined by a number of variables.Each of these variables is discussed in detail in subsequent sections but a brief description is included here for convenience. Scientific Digital cameras come in 4 primary types based on the sensor technology they use and these are; CCD's, EMCCD's, CMOS and ICCD cameras. The different cameras and their various architectures have inherent strengths and weaknesses and these are covered in depth. The most common scientific camera the Charge Coupled Device camera (CCD) comes with three fundamental architectures and these are Full Frame, Frame Transfer and Interline format. The different architectures and their inherent strengths and weaknesses are also covered in depth. The spectral response of a camera refers to the detected signal response as a function of the wavelength of light. This parameter is often expressed in terms of the Quantum Efficiency (hereinafter in this document referred to as QE), a measure of the detector's ability to produce an electronic charge as a percentage of the total number of incident photons that are detected. The sensitivity of a camera is the minimum light signal that can be detected and by convention we equate that to light level falling on the camera that produces a signal just equal to the camera's noise. Hence the noise of a camera sets an ultimate limit on the camera sensitivity. Digital cameras are therefore often compared using their noise figures and noise derives from a variety of sources principally: Read Noise: inherent output amplifier noise Dark Noise: thermally induced noise arising from the camera in the absence of light (can be reduced by lowering the operating temperature) Shot Noise (Light Signal): noise arising out of the stochastic nature of the photon flux itself It is often overlooked that the light signal has its own inherent noise component (also know as Shot Noise) which is equal to the square root of the signal. Another noise source which is often overlooked is the excess noise that arises from the camera's response to light signal, which is known as the Noise Factor. Dynamic Range is a measure of the maximum and minimum intensities that can be simultaneously detected in the same field of view. It is often calculated as the maximum signal that can be accumulated, divided by the minimum signal which in turn equates to the noise associated with reading the minimum signal. It is commonly expressed either as the number of bits required to digitise the associated signals or on the decibel scale. A camera's ability to cope with large signals is important in some applications. When a CCD camera saturates it does so with a characteristic vertical streak pattern, called Blooming. In this section the effect is explained and how it can be compensated for. A camera's signal-to-noise ratio (commonly abbreviated S/N or SNR) is the comparison measurement of the incoming light signal versus the various inherent or generated noise levels and is a measure of the variation of a signal that indicates the confidence with which the magnitude of the signal can be estimated. Digital cameras have finite minimum regions of detection (commonly known as Pixels), that set a limit on the Spatial Resolution of a camera. However the spatial resolution is affected by other factors such as the quality of the lens or imaging system. The limiting spatial resolution is commonly determined from the minimum separation required for discrimination between two high contrast objects, e.g. white points or lines on a black background. Contrast is an important factor in resolution as high contrast objects (e.g. black and white lines) are more readily resolved than low contrast objects (e.g. adjacent gray lines). The contrast and resolution performance of a camera can be incorporated into a single specification called the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF). The Frame Rate of a digital camera is the fastest rate at which subsequent images can be recorded and saved. Digital cameras can readout sub sections of the image or bin pixels together to achieve faster readout rates, therefore typically two frame rates are defined, i.e. one is a full frame readout rate and the other is the fastest possible readout rate. Cameras to some degree all exhibit blemishes which affect the reproduction of the light signal. This is due to several variables, i.e.: Gain variations across the sensor Regional differences in noise EMCCD cameras are relatively new types of cameras which allow high sensitivity measurements to be taken at high frame rates. The operation and properties of these cameras are outlined. Intensified CCD cameras combine an image intensifier and a CCD camera and are inherently low light cameras. In addition the image intensifier has useful properties which allow the camera to have very short exposure times. The operation and properties of these cameras are outlined in this section. In this section a detailed comparison between CCD, EMCCD and ICCD cameras is shown and the applications suited to each camera is highlighted.
Procedure Oriented Programming Let’s have a look at procedure-oriented and object-oriented programming. Traditional Programming languages like COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC, C, etc. are commonly known as Procedure Oriented Programming (POP) languages. This POP approach lets developers use their logic by applying a number of functions to enable program productivity. In simple language, POP can be understood as: Suppose you’re asked to make a pizza, pizza sauce, and French fries for a meal. If you follow the POP approach, you’ll first make the pizza and keep it aside. Then you’ll again make pizza sauce for the second time. After making French fries, you’ll assemble them together at the dinner table. Similarly, in the POP system, many instructions are written to carry out a task. These instructions are grouped together to form functions. These individual functions are integrated together to form the main program. All the important data are applied globally to all the functions and the prime focus is on the functions rather than the data items. The data items are globally accessible throughout the program and to make any changes in any function, you’ll have to change the value of the associated data individually. In the above example, you should have observed that we had to make pizza sauce twice, first for the pizza and the second time for the individual pizza sauce. The process wasn’t convenient because we had to do the same work twice. The optimal solution was making the pizza sauce once in greater quantity, using it once for the pizza and keeping the rest aside for separate serving This approach is called Object Oriented approach. Object-Oriented Programming is a modular programming approach which stresses on the data items rather than the functions. In Object-Oriented Programming, the entire program is decomposed into the number of entities called objects. These objects are maintained so that their content cannot be changed or modified by execution of other functions. Using OOPs enables, both, increase in programmer’s productivity as well as outperform the POP based languages. Features of Object Oriented Programming: - Lays stress on the data items rather than functions. - Makes the problem-solving process simpler by dividing the problem into a number of smaller modules called objects. - Data can be modified wherever required without making changes in the entire program. A simpler way of understanding object-oriented programming is: Suppose you have bought a packet of French Fries for you and your friend. While you want it as it was: classic salty, your friend likes it spicy. So the best solution would be: dividing the French fries and serving it to your friend with ketchup and spices while you take it as it was. Here you didn’t have to mix the spices into the entire packet and both you and your friend were relishing the French Fries without any sacrifice for each other! This is the concept of Object Oriented Programming. More stress was laid to on the personal taste rather than on the French Fries Composition.
posted April 30, 2006 Finding Basalt Chips from Distant Maria--- Tossed chips of lava help fill in blanks in our knowledge of lunar basalts. Written by G. Jeffrey Taylor The Apollo 16 landing site is in the lunar highlands, over 200 kilometers away from the nearest maria. Nevertheless, the Apollo 16 regolith contains a small percentage (<1%) of tiny fragments thrown to the site from distant maria. Ryan Zeigler, his colleagues at Washington University in St. Louis: Randy Korotev, Brad Jolliff, and the late Larry Haskin, and Jeffrey Gillis-Davis (University of Hawaii) made a detailed study of the chemical composition and mineralogy of fragments (only 2-4 millimeters across) of mare basalts. The basalts vary in composition, but are similar to other types identified previously. The team matched the compositions of the fragments to compositions of mare surfaces in the Apollo 16 region using remote sensing data from the Clementine mission. This blending of cosmochemical and remote sensing analyses allowed them to make educated guesses about where each of the basalt fragments may have originated. We now have a fuller understanding of the range of compositions of mare basalts and, because basalts record a wealth of information about planetary interiors, this research enlightens us about the diversity of rock compositions in the lunar mantle. The Maria and the Mantle Lava flows contain a detailed record of the composition of a planet's interior and of the processes that affected the magma when it formed and as it oozed to the surface. The composition of planetary interiors is central to deciding among models of how the planets formed. In the case of the Moon, its composition holds the clues to the processes that operated during and soon after the giant impact with the still-assembling Earth that may have created the Moon, as well as the composition of the impactor. If the Moon was not made by a giant impact, its composition still contains important information about the formation of moon-sized objects during planet formation. Several lava flows in Mare Imbrium are visible in this Apollo photograph taken from lunar orbit. The most prominent one comes from the lower right of the image and goes half way up the photograph. The light shines from the left, illuminating the left margin of the flows, and creating shadows on the right margins. Chemical compositions of lava flows provide information about the composition and mineralogy of the lunar interior. The lunar maria (the dark regions as viewed from Earth) are composed of basalt lava flows. They generally fill up low-lying regions inside enormous impact basins, though the basalts flowed across the surface tens to hundreds of million years after the basins formed. Analysis of Apollo samples showed that there are several distinctive types of mare basalts, varying most prominently in their concentrations of TiO2 (titanium dioxide). Carlé Pieters (Brown University) showed in 1978 that the Apollo collection only sampled about one-third of the types of mare basalts that occur on the Moon. Data from the Clementine mission revealed that there is a full range in titanium concentrations, not just low or high. However, the remote sensing data do not give us the entire story. We need to know how all the elements vary in abundance, both those present in large amounts (>1%, major elements) and those present in small amounts (down to about the parts per million range, called trace elements). For that type of information, we need samples. Ryan Zeigler and his colleagues searched for samples of maria not studied previously. \|Map of TiO2 concentrations in the lunar maria on the nearside of the Moon, determined from images obtained by the Galileo spacecraft. Highland areas (black) have been masked out.\| Picking Small Rocks The Apollo 16 landing site is in the lunar highlands, over 200 kilometers from the nearest mare surface. The large rocks collected by the crew are all highland rock types (much richer in feldspar, hence in aluminum, than mare basalts), so they contain no information about the maria. But the astronauts collected almost 20 kilograms of regolith from about 30 places. The regolith is the fragmental layer on the Moon. It formed from underlying rock by impact, with non-local rocks flung to the Apollo 16 site by distant impacts. A few percent of the regolith consists of fragments of rock between 2 and 4 millimeters across. These are very useful samples because they are abundant (so we can find rare rock types) and because they are large enough to analyze in amazing detail. For example, the first anorthosites, which we now know make up most of the lunar highlands, were found among the 1-4 millimeter fragments in the Apollo 11 regolith samples. Apollo 11 did not land on the highlands--it landed on Mare Tranquillitatis. That's opposite to Zeigler and colleagues finding mare basalts at a highland site. Incidentally, the Apollo 11 anorthosite fragments led to the invention by John Wood (Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory) of the magma ocean concept (see discussion of lunar magma ocean in PSRD article A Primordial and Complicated Ocean of Magma on Mars). The Apollo 16 mission landed (arrow) in the lunar highlands. Everything in this picture is highlands. The site lies at least 200 kilometers from the nearest mare surface, yet small fragments of mare basalts are present in the regolith samples returned by Apollo 16 astronauts. Studies during the 1970s revealed the presence of mare basalts. The new research by Ryan Zeigler and his co-workers show that a fuller range of basalt types are present at the Apollo 16 landing site. The lunar science group at Washington University is making a thorough study of 506 rock fragments in the 2-4 millimeter size range, selected from all sampling stations at the Apollo 16 site, except for those near the young North Ray Crater. As part of this heroic effort, they hand picked fragments from sieved samples containing many rock chips. The team was purposely trying to find a diversity of rock types, so the percentage of lithologic categories does not necessarily represent the proportions of rock types in the regolith. Of the 506 rock fragments, five were mare basalts, as distinguished by their chemical compositions (high iron, scandium, and chromium, and low aluminum). Analyzing the Small Rocks It has always amazed me what cosmochemists can do with even small samples (see, for example, PSRD article Analyzing Next to Nothing). In the case, it involved analyzing each fragment of basalt by neutron activation and then making polished thin sections of the same pieces for study by optical and electron microprobe analysis. Neutron activation is a tried and true technique, and the Washington University team members are world-class practitioners, especially Randy Korotev, who has analyzed thousands of samples. In neutron activation analysis the samples are irradiated by neutrons in a nuclear reactor. Nuclear interactions take place, producing a bunch of radioactive isotopes. When the isotopes decay, they produce gamma rays with energies characteristic of the isotope, giving a measurement of the abundance of an element. Each package that goes into the reactor contains rock standards of known chemical composition and a monitor to measure the total number of neutrons that zapped the samples. The packages experience a rain of 50 trillion neutrons per square centimeter every second for 24 to 48 hours. The samples are taken back to the laboratory at Washington University and placed into shielded detectors for gamma ray measurements. Typically, the concentrations of 25 to 30 elements are determined. Follow the steps of sample analysis in the pictures below, starting with the topmost picture and proceeding to the counting room at Washington University. The detectors in the counting room are in the green box to the right. The box is made of lead lined with cadmium to shield the samples. Counts are accumulated by computer systems, which then make assorted corrections to convert gamma-ray counts to elemental concentrations. Neutron activation analysis done this way is called "Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis," INAA for short, because it is done non-destructively. An even more sensitive method is called "Radiochemical Neutron Activation Analysis" (RNAA) because the samples are dissolved and groups of elements separated from each other chemically before counting (but after irradiation). INAA has the great advantage that cosmochemists can make thin sections from the same chips used for INAA. Once the gamma-ray counting was done, which takes place at intervals over a period of about four weeks to allow interfering peaks to decay away, Zeigler and his colleagues made polished thin sections (30 micrometers, about 1/10,000 inch, thick). They studied the samples in the optical microscope and electron microprobe. If enough material remained after making the thin sections, they melted them into glass beads for analysis of major elements by electron microprobe. (They were able to do this for 4 of the 5 mare basalt fragments). In some cases the team also determined the bulk chemical composition for major elements by electron microprobe by using a broad beam (50 micrometers instead of the usual 1 micrometer) or by combining mineral abundances with average mineral compositions to calculate an overall chemical composition. Five Important Little Rocks Ryan Zeigler and his coauthors found that the five basalt fragments differ from each other in chemical composition and mineralogy. Brief summaries of each rock fragment follow, but first a word about sample numbering. Note that the samples are labeled with numbers like this: 60603,10-16. This means that it is the 2-4 millimeter sieve fraction (labeled 60603) from bulk, unsieved regolith sample 60600. The ,10 means that it is from subsample #10, the pile of grains allocated to the Washington University team for chemical and mineralogical studies. The -16 indicates the sample number from the #10 subsample of 60603. There is great logic to numbering this way, and prevents confusion in the future if another investigator wished to analyze the samples by a different technique. Sample numbering over the years has resulted in the Apollo collection being subdivided into over 110,000 individually numbered subsamples! The textural, chemical, and mineralogical properties of the five fragments are summarized in the table below, with a backscattered electron image of each sample. The compositional diagrams that follow are just the tip of the chemistry berg used by Zeigler and his coworkers to compare the samples to known types of mare basalts returned by the Apollo missions and the Luna (Russian unpiloted) missions. Fragment 60603,22-7 : High-titanium basalt Fragment 60603,10-16 : Very-high titanium basalt Fragment 62243,10-22 : Very-low titanium basalt Fragment 65703,9-13 : Very-low titanium basalt Fragment 60053,2-9 : High-aluminum, low-titanium basalt The two graphs shown above elaborate on the chemical variations among mare basalts. The colored areas in these diagrams show the compositions of the main types of mare basalts that have been defined by detailed studies of the Apollo (labels starting with A) and Luna (labels starting with L) sample collections. Note how they plot in well-defined fields. The five new basalt fragments studied by Zeigler and colleagues are plotted as black squares and are labeled with their subsample numbers. The left diagram shows the variation of Na2O (sodium oxide) versus FeO (iron oxide); right diagram shows variation of TiO2 (titanium dioxide) versus FeO. Quite a few other lunar scientists had described mare basalts in the Apollo 16 regolith. However, all but one of these was discovered in a thin section, precluding analysis for trace elements, and in most cases the fragments were too small to obtain a reliable analysis for major elements. On the basis of the compositions of the minerals present, those investigators suggested that the fragments fell into high- and low- titanium categories, two of which were high in aluminum, too. Three of the particles might not even be mare basalts and their classification is inconclusive. The new results by Zeigler and colleagues expand those to include very-high titanium and very-low titanium basalts. Most important, the team reports trace element concentrations for all samples and can classify them unambiguously as mare basalts. The most interesting of the five fragments may be 60603,10-16, the very-high titanium basalt with similarities to very-high titanium pyroclastic glass. Pyroclastic glasses are frozen droplets of lava erupted in fire fountains [see PSRD article Explosive Volcanic Eruptions on the Moon]. Although they have the typical large range in titanium concentration seen in mare basalts, the pyroclastic glasses cannot be related in any simple way to a specific type of basalt. Yet the pyroclastic eruptions may have produced lava flows as well as dispersed piles of lava rain. Fragment 60603,10-16 might be a sample of partly crystallized rock related to a pyroclastic eruption. But which eruption? Where? In fact, where do any of these five basalt fragments come from? To answer those questions, Zeigler and his colleagues turned to remote sensing data. Where Did the Little Rocks Come From? One possible source of the basalt fragments is ancient lava flows at the Apollo 16 site that were demolished by large local impacts or when ejecta was deposited from distant immense basins such as Imbrium, Serentatis, and Nectaris. If this were the case, then ancient impact breccias at the Apollo 16 site ought to contain mare basalt fragments. Such breccias contain fragments of mare basalt at the Apollo 14 and Apollo 17 sites. (This was an important discovery because it showed that lavas like those composing the surfaces of the maria began to erupt long before the visible maria formed.) However, detailed studies of Apollo 16 regolith breccias have not revealed the presence of any significant amount of mare basalt. Thus, even ejecta from Imbrium and Serentatis did not deliver mare basalts to the Apollo 16 site. The mare basalts at the Apollo 16 site most likely come from maria and other volcanic deposits formed after the large lunar basins. Zeigler and his cohorts conclude that impacts onto mare surfaces tossed the fragments to the Apollo 16 site. But tossed from where, specifically? The team narrowed down the possibilities by using measurements obtained by the Clementine mission of the amount of light reflected at a few wavelengths. These data were converted to concentrations of FeO and TiO2 (see maps below) using techniques developed by Paul Lucey (University of Hawaii) and modified by Jeff Gillis-Davis (formerly at Washington University, now at the University of Hawaii). For more information about how to convert the intensity of reflected light to element concentrations, see PSRD articles Moonbeams and Elements and Composition of the Moon's Crust. Maps of the FeO (top) and TiO2 (bottom) concentrations in the Apollo 16 region of the Moon. The Apollo 16 site is in the center (A16), surrounded by a vast area of highlands (low FeO and TiO2) rock. Possible launching craters for mare basalts found at Apollo 16 are labeled. Black bands are places where there are no Clementine data. Zeigler and coworkers argue that the high-Ti basalt fragments most likely originated in Mare Tranquillitatis, the large area to the northeast of Apollo 16 with the highest TiO2 concentrations. Although there are other maria with somewhat high TiO2, Mare Tranquillitatis has the highest and is closest to the Apollo 16 site. Deciding on what crater launched the fragments to Apollo 16 is trickier. There are several craters in western Tranquillitatis that could have done the job. The team gives Dionysius a slight edge because it has rays elevated in both FeO and TiO2 that extend into the highlands towards the Apollo 16 site. The closest low-Ti basalts are in Mare Nectaris, only about 220 kilometers east of Apollo 16. Mare Nectaris is closer than it seems on the FeO and TiO2 maps because its eastern part was demolished by the formation of the relatively young, 100-kilometer crater Theophilus. In fact, Zeigler and colleagues think that Theophilus is a good candidate for the source crater for the low-Ti basalts at Apollo 16. It has secondary craters only 10 kilometers from the site, so it seems certain that it delivered some basalt. Other candidate craters may have, too, such as Madler and Torricelli. The important conclusion is that Nectaris is the most likely source for the low-Ti basalts. The very-low titanium basalts may also come from Nectaris, again because it is closest to the site. Although Nectaris contains on average 2.5 wt% TiO2, it may contain very-low titanium lava flows (possibly buried by younger low-Ti flows). This is the case in Mare Crisium, far to the northeast of the Apollo 16 site. The largest expanse of very-low-Ti basalt is Mare Frigoris, 1500 kilometers to the north. That's pretty far, so Zeigler and coauthors conclude that Nectaris is the best bet. The same candidate craters that might have flung the low-Ti basalts to the Apollo 16 site are candidates for the very-low-Ti basalts, too. Very-high-Ti and high-Ti pyroclastic glasses have been found in Apollo 16 regolith samples. Fragment 60603,10-16 is compositionally similar to the very-high-Ti type. The largest expanse of high-Ti pyroclastic glass deposits is in the southern part of Mare Vaporum, about 500 kilometers from the Apollo 16 site. It occupies about 25,000 square kilometers. Zeigler and colleagues consider these deposits to be the most likely source, but could not identify any obvious source craters. Research will continue on the rare rock types in the lunar regolilth (from all missions), helping us fill in the gaps in our knowledge of mare basalt compositions, hence in our knowledge of the lunar mantle. But it cannot all be done with existing samples. We need to collect some more. There are two ways to collect samples. One is by sending unpiloted robotic spacecraft to collect samples from specific maria. A prime target would be the youngest lava flows on the Moon, such as those located near the crater Lichtenberg on the lunar nearside. This would provide absolute ages on those flows. They have been dated by counting the number of craters on them, but there are large uncertainties in this approach. Samples from such surfaces would help calibrate the crater counting method and give us the time when mare volcanism ceased on the Moon, an important parameter in understanding the variation of temperature with time of the lunar interior. Besides mare basalts, there are probably other types of lava flows in the highlands. These may contain less iron and more magnesium than do mare basalts. These will be valuable probes of the portions of the mantle that have a high ratio of magnesium to iron [see PSRD article Gamma Rays, Meteorites, Lunar Samples, and the Composition of the Moon]. The other way to collect samples is by the human (gloved) hand. Human missions are scheduled to resume in about 2018. These may go to a few new places on the Moon before concentrating on a single base location. These missions could return valuable, well-selected samples of the lunar maria or of other types of lava flows. Detailed studies of previously unsampled mare basalts will be done when astronauts return to the Moon. This artist's conception shows astronauts examining a lava tube. [ About PSRD \| [ Glossary \| General Resources \| Comments \| Top of page ]
\|\|It has been suggested that this article be merged with centralisation. (Discuss) Proposed since September 2014.\| A centralized government (also centralised government (non-Oxford spelling)) is one in which power or legal authority is exerted or coordinated by a de facto political executive to which federal states, local authorities, and smaller units are considered subject. In a national context, centralization occurs in the transfer of power to a typically sovereign nation state. Menes an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the early dynastic period, credited by classical tradition with having united Upper and Lower Egypt, and as the founder of the first dynasty (Dynasty I), became the first ruler to institute a centralized government. All constituted governments are, to some degree, necessarily centralized, in the sense that a theoretically federal state exerts an authority or prerogative beyond that of its constituent parts. To the extent that a base unit of society — usually conceived as an individual citizen — vests authority in a larger unit, such as the state or the local community, authority is centralized. The extent to which this ought to occur, and the ways in which centralized government evolves, forms part of social contract theory. - Williams, C (1987), The Destruction of Black Civilization, Chicago: Third World Press, p. 80. \|This article about a political term is a stub. You can help Infogalactic by expanding it.\|
for National Geographic News Most scientists agree that global warming presents the greatest threat to the environment. There is little doubt that the Earth is heating up. In the last century the average temperature has climbed about 0.6 degrees Celsius (about 1 degree Fahrenheit) around the world. From the melting of the ice cap on Mount Kilimanjaro, Africa's tallest peak, to the loss of coral reefs as oceans become warmer, the effects of global warming are often clear. However, the biggest danger, many experts warn, is that global warming will cause sea levels to rise dramatically. Thermal expansion has already raised the oceans 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 centimeters). But that's nothing compared to what would happen if, for example, Greenland's massive ice sheet were to melt. "The consequences would be catastrophic," said Jonathan Overpeck, director of the Institute for the Study of Planet Earth at the University of Arizona in Tucson. "Even with a small sea level rise, we're going to destroy whole nations and their cultures that have existed for thousands of years." Overpeck and his colleagues have used computer models to create a series of maps that show how susceptible coastal cities and island countries are to the sea rising at different levels. The maps show that a 1-meter (3-foot) rise would swamp cities all along the U.S. eastern seaboard. A 6-meter (20-foot) sea level rise would submerge a large part of Florida. Just as the evidence is irrefutable that temperatures have risen in the last century, it's also well established that carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere has increased about 30 percent, enhancing the atmosphere's ability to trap heat. The exact link, if any, between the increase in carbon dioxide emissions and the higher temperatures is still under debate. Most scientists believe that humans, by burning fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum, are largely to blame for the increase in carbon dioxide. But some scientists also point to natural causes, such as volcanic activity. "Many uncertainties surround global warming," said Ronald Stouffer at the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton, New Jersey. "How much of it would still occur if humans were not modifying the climate in any way?" The current rate of warning is unprecedented, however. It is apparently the fastest warming rate in millions of years, suggesting it probably is not a natural occurrence. And most scientists believe the rise in temperatures will in fact accelerate. The United Nations-sponsored Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reported in 2001 that the average temperature is likely to increase by between 1.4 and 5.8 degrees Celsius (2.5 and 10.4 degrees Fahrenheit) by the year 2100.
Researchers Shine Light on Gold Nanoparticles to Produce Electricity Not only are these gold nanoparticles gorgeous to look at – they may one day act as microscopic powerhouses for molecular machines. Researchers at the Nano/Bio Interface Center at the University of Pennsylvania recently discovered a novel to way to generate solar power by shining light onto gold nanoparticles. The discovery has far-reaching implications in the realm of nanotechnology, and may open the door for everything from self-powering molecular circuits to super-efficient data storage. To generate current the researchers first packed a bunch of light-sensitive gold nanoparticles together on a glass substrate and then exposed them to optical radiation (light). This knocks conductive electrons free from the gold particles, which run along the surface to create surface plasmons, which in turn induce an electrical current across the molecules. The amount of electricity generated is minute, but the researchers believe that by optimizing size, shape, and orientation of the nanoparticles they could create a current strong enough to power nano-sized circuits. Professor Bonnell, who participated in the experiment, said “If the efficiency of the system could be scaled up without any additional, unforeseen limitations, we could conceivably manufacture a 1A, 1V sample the diameter of a human hair and an inch long“. Previous Story: Let There Be Current Next Story: A New Way Forward for Nanocomposite Nanostructures The Institute of Nanotechnology puts significant effort into ensuring that the information provided on its news pages is accurate and up-to-date. However, we cannot guarantee absolute accuracy. Consequently, the Institute of Nanotechnology disclaims any and all responsibility for inaccuracy, omission or any kind of deficiency in relation to the news items and articles hosted herein. - 17 May 2013NanoSustain Factsheet and Case Studies - 16 May 2013Making Gold Green: New Non-Toxic Method for Mining Gold - 13 May 2013Cold atoms for quantum technology - 02 May 2013Quantum information: Computing with a single nuclear spin in silicon - 30 April 2013LESL launches start up challenge to celebrate 25th anniversary - View All
Compared to the human mouth, human hands can appear to be sterile. Hands have approximately 150 types of bacteria and the type and quantity can vary from hand to hand and gender to gender. However, unlike teeth, hands can easily pick up more germs throughout the course of the day based on basic activities such as grocery shopping, meeting new people and even tending to private bathroom experiences. It is that belief that has helped fuel the reactions gathered on the survey and the general fear of picking up germs. Some common infections that can be unknowingly picked up by human hands include the common cold, pink eye, salmonellosis, shigellosis, hepatitis A, giardiasis, enterovirus, amebiasis, typhoid, staphylococcal organisms, Epstein-barr virus and campylobacteriosis. There is no denying the bacteria risk to the hands, however the odds of developing gum disease from dental neglect is much higher than catching an debilitating disease via the hand. Keep It Clean Individuals looking to minimize health risks must make regular hand washing and oral hygiene a part of their daily practices. When it comes to reducing hand germ exposure, individuals are advised to wipe down shopping cart handles prior to navigating aisles, avoid touching the handles on bathroom doors (use a paper towel instead) and avoid grabbing poles and grips on public transportation. If those moves are not possible, washing your hands using the proper methodology ASAP should be a top priority. Individuals should begin by running their hands under warm water, using soap and scrubbing hands for 20 seconds making sure to get underneath fingernails and in between fingers and making sure run-off goes into the sink, not down one's elbow. Individuals can then dry their hands using a fresh paper towel or air dryer. When it comes to cleaning the human mouth, brushing twice a day and flossing at least once daily is the best way to remove harmful bacteria. Brushing should take a full two minutes allowing 30 seconds for each dental quadrant. Using a fluoride toothpaste is recommend by many dentists. Individuals should pay special attention to brushing teeth gently while maneuvering a toothbrush to reach the back teeth and the gum lines. After brushing,flossing will help remove dental plaque and food particles wedged between teeth and adhered to gum lines. Individuals are advised to use around 18 inches of dental floss and then take the thread, place it at the gum line and gentle maneuver the device between teeth starting from back to front and hitting every surface during the process. If dental plaque has already hardened into dental tartar, only a cleaning from a professional dentist will do. Individuals looking to find a dentist in order to remove tartar and keep oral bacteria at bay can count on 1-800-DENTIST to connect them to a great dentist fast. Operators are available to handle requests 24/7 and all 1-800-DENTIST members have been pre-screened prior to letting them join our team.
Hyperthermia is the condition when the body is unable or has no effective ways left to lower down the body temperature in extensive heat. Human body can regulate its temperature through several strategies such as sweating. The body sweats to lower down the body temperature however when a person spends too much time in the heat without taking in enough fluids, the body may no longer be able to effectively control the temperature. Since so mechanism is effectively working to cool the body down, the body temperature may rise high enough to make the person sick. The symptoms of above normal body temperature includes headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps and fatigue. However if quick steps aren't taken to lower down the body temperature and recover from dehydration, it may even result in a heat stroke. A heat stroke is an emergency condition where the body's core temperature is markedly elevated to more than 40 degrees Celsius. The elderly and young children are at higher risk for heat stroke. While prolonged exposure to high temperatures or doing strenuous activity in hot weather is the main cause of hyperthermia or heat stroke, factors such as dehydration, alcohol, side effects of certain medications, and wearing excess and tight clothing can also contribute to causing heat stroke. Heat stroke occurs when the body's core temperature increase substantially, activating inflammatory cytokines which may result in multiple organ dysfunctioning. Organ dysfunction may occur in the skeletal muscle, liver, kidneys, lungs and heart. It involves a systemic inflammatory response causing multiple organ dysfunction and often death. Since heat stroke requires immediate and aggressive cooling, it prognosis of hyperthermia or heat stroke depends a lot on the promptness and aggressiveness of cooling provided. The morbidity and mortality rate after hyperthermia or heat stroke are significantly high and vary depending on the age, underlying disorders and the maximum temperature. However, the most important factor is the duration of hyperthermia. While prompt and effective treatment can easily save a person after heat stroke, lack of it can lead a mortality rate as high as 80%. Even the 20% survivors have some residual brain damage. The treatment may even last for weeks while the temperature is still higher than normal. Even after proper treatment some people may still have renal insufficiency. Having suffered from heat stroke in the past also increases the risk of heat stroke in the future. Prompt cooling is very crucial for treatment heat stroke, delaying which can have serious consequences, including kidney or liver damage, congestive heart failure or heart arrhythmias, coma or death. Prompt and aggressive body cooling is the most effective treatment of heat stroke. It can either be done through cold water immersion or evaporation, but the main goal is to reach a core temperature of below 39 C as fast as possible, usually within the first 60 minutes. Supportive measures for breathing, hypotension, and seizures may also be required while cooling the body temperature. Image Courtesy : Getty Read more articles on Understand Heat Stroke Though all possible measures have been taken to ensure accuracy, reliability, timeliness and authenticity of the information; Onlymyhealth assumes no liability for the same. Using any information of this website is at the viewers’ risk. Please be informed that we are not responsible for advice/tips given by any third party in form of comments on article pages . If you have or suspect having any medical condition, kindly contact your professional health care provider.
Videos, worksheets, games and acivities to help PreCalculus students learn about three dimensional vectors. Introduction to the 3D Coordinate System With vectors, we begin to work more with the 3D coordinate system. In the 3D coordinate system there is a third axis, and in equations there is a third variable. We will work with vectors in the 3D coordinate system and learn how to interpret the coordinates an of a vector in the 3D coordinate system. With the introduction to the 3D coordinate system, we also encounter other vector operations, lines and planes. This video introduces the xyx coordinate system and explains how to plot point in R3. Vector Length in the Third Dimension Find the length of a 3d Cartesian vector Vectors in 3 dimensions Vectors with 3 components can be drawn in 3 dimensions. We also learn how to calculate the length of a vector in 3 dimensions Vector Operations in 3D Although they are similar to 2D vector operations, it is good to get practice doing 3D vector operations. 3D vector operations include addition and scalar multiplication, the dot product and the calculation of magnitude. The biggest difference in these 3D vector operations is an added step of computation. With 3D vector operations we can do computation such as find the angle between vectors in space. We welcome your feedback, comments and questions about this site - please submit your feedback via our Feedback page.
Cross Site Scripting (originally CSS but the acronym was changed to XSS to avoid confusion with Cascading Style Sheets), also known as an arbitrary script injection flaw, is a pernicious vulnerability in web applications. Noted in the OWASP Top 10 most common web application vulnerabilities XSS is an often misunderstood and overlooked. XSS can allow an attacker to take control of a victim web browser, often without leaving any trace of their attack. XSS targets web application users rather than the application server, as is the case in attacks leveraging SQL injection, authentication bypass, or code execution vulnerabilities. Because XSS vulnerabilities affect site users, rather than application infrastructure, it is often overlooked by developers or security officers. However, as the browser becomes closer to a complete operating system for many users it is becoming an increasingly attractive target, and platform, for attack. Causes of XSS XSS is caused by the fact that HTML encodes data and instructions in the same format (plain text). When HTML transmission occurs (over HTTP) the body of the communication contains the content of the HTTP message encoded in HTML. As anyone who has tried to write HTML knows, the only difference between instructions to browsers concerning the layout and appearance of a page and the text to present on the page are less-than (<) and greater-than (>) symbols that delineate tags. Tags are HTML elements surrounded by these less than and greater than symbols in the same way that XML delineates content. Thus, the characters that segregate data from instructions are used as character of data for display as well. Confusion over delineation is further exacerbated by the fact that tags can have attributes, delimited by quotes (single or double, or in some cases no quotes) and spaces, which are also displayed characters. The complexity of segregating instructions to the client browser from content being displayed makes for a fertile attack surface. XSS is a vulnerability that allows an attacker to exploit this confusion, escape the bounds of delineation (much like in SQL Injection attacks) and hijack either data or instructions given to the browser. This enables arbitrary script injection into a web page. In order to carry out an exploit attackers craft malicious pieces of user supplied data to inject attack code. This injection can take two main forms: a transient attack where the malicious content is carried within the request (such as within a link), called reflected XSS, and persistent XSS where malicious data is injected into an applications permanent data store (such as a back end database). Whenever an application displays user supplied input, of any form, from web form post data to url data to previously supplied data like profile information, or even the filenames of uploaded pictures, the potential for XSS attack exists. Threats from XSS Many security researchers consider XSS a "lame" exploit. It is much derided in the popular information security press. Part of this perception stems from the sheer volume of XSS vulnerabilities. An entire website, xssed.com, exists to highlight publicly disclosed cases of XSS vulnerabilities. ComputerWeekly recently published an article showing XSS as the top threat to web applications (http://www.computerweekly.com/news/2240168930/XSS-attacks-remain-topthreat- to-web-applications). As aforementioned, OWASP considers XSS one of the top threats facing web applications as well (https://www.owasp.org/index.php/Cross-site_Scripting_(XSS)). It doesn't take much skill to find XSS vulnerabilities in applications simply because they are so common. This fact combines with the fact that due to the deductive reasoning required to identify XSS in applications, automated tools cannot identify any but the simplest of XSS flaws. This means that running an application security scanner against a web application will more than likely to reveal only a small portion of XSS flaws. Examining any major vulnerability announcement list will show such a volume of XSS vulnerabilities that many vendors simply don't publish them. Bug bounty programs often refuse to pay for such flaws simply because they are so common. Despite the derision, however, XSS vulnerabilities present a serious threat to most organizations. Real World XSS To demonstrate the seriousness of an XSS vulnerability I would like to propose the following, very real, scenario. Using XSS it becomes trivial to harvest user credentials. The reason for the simplicity of this attack is that with XSS an attacker can leverage a user's trust in both their web browser, and the application source. The fact is that an XSS attack can fundamentally change the behavior of a web application, without changing any visual queues to a user such as the URL bar, the green SSL padlock, or other security countermeasures. Because the XSS attack is operating under the context of the targeted web application, with the full privileges of the web browser, it is nearly impossible for a victim to spot the attack. Additionally, because a careful XSS attack issues legitimate instructions to the web browser, the malicious content is technically indistinguishable from legitimate content. This means that anti-malware software cannot detect an XSS attack. A far more insidious XSS attack would not attempt to make any unauthorized changes to a users system. Because XSS is invisible to an end user it is possible to use XSS to socially engineer (trick) a user into supplying valid credentials for accounts or even to download and install malware voluntarily. XSS allows an attacker to take the place of trusted sources, even if only for a short time, and leverage that trust to attack users without their knowledge. Consider, for a moment, a typical organizational environment of reasonable size. Think of an organization with a few web applications that support business process. Usually such organizations implement some sort of Single Sign On (SSO) infrastructure like Kerberos, OpenID, Integrated Windows Authentication, CoSign or even Facebook or Google authentication. Whenever an authorized party interacts with one of the web applications they are presented with an authentication form. Once completed this form is submitted and the client is authorized for all the applications without having to re-authenticate. This type of authentication and authorization is convenient because it is simple. It is dangerous because one set of credentials will typically allow access to a mixed range of security sensitive resources (for instance the same credentials might give access to the organizational calendar as well as the employee retirement allocation application). The SSO model is easy for employees who only have to remember a single set of credentials. However, it has the side effect of habituating users to the presentation of a standard login form. Often times, due to credential expiration, the login form may appear in the middle of a workflow. A user may authenticate, use an application, step away for a while, return to the application and click on an internal link only to be presented with the login form. Thus the authentication process doesn't always happen at the "front door" of the application, with a single workflow that starts with authentication, but may present itself once the user is already using the application if the authenticated session has a time expiry. This landscape is a gold mine for attackers. If an attacker can find an XSS flaw in an application, not necessarily even one behind authentication, they can use the XSS to present the authentication screen to a user. It is easy for an attacker to find and copy the authentication screen because it is uniform and the attacker merely needs to find a link to a resource that requires authentication to discover its format. The attacker then scrapes the page and injects it using an XSS attack. Victims will encounter a page, at a valid organizational URL, that suddenly presents them with the login screen. Victims are habituated to being presented with the login screen unprompted and will fill out the form, which can silently post the results back to an attacker. This attack could even defeat two factor authentication if the second factor is valid for a time window and the attacker can harvest and re-use the credentials in time. The only indication to a victim is the URL, which will differ from the correct SSO URL but will not be invalid. Implementing a Harvesting Attack While the description of this attack may seem interesting to all but technical users who can instantly visualize an attack, this article will now enumerate exactly how a real attack could take place in order to demonstrate the ease of the attack and the magnitude of the impact. I won't use any real organizations in this demonstration, but applying this model is trivial. var newdiv = document.createElement('div'); newdiv.style.width = "100%"; newdiv.style.height = "100%"; newdiv.style.position = "absolute"; newdiv.style.left = 0; newdiv.style.top = 0; document.body.appendChild(newdiv); newdiv.innerHTML = 'Any arbitrary HTML code'; The following screenshot shows a typical login screen that a user might encounter in a Drupal web application if their session timed out or the first time they encountered restricted content (for instance by clicking on a bookmark to the administrative secion of the site): Fig 1: Example access denied (supply credentials) screen Next is a demonstration of a typical content page. Note the URL is valid and complete, and although this example is not served over HTTPS it could well be, and include a valid lock. Fig 2: Example webpage as it would normally appear This web page contains a trivial XSS vulnerability. A traditional proof of concept would cause an alert box to appear. Note the URL is still valid and unchanged. Fig 3: Trivial XSS demonstration with an alert box Fig 4: A credential harvesting XSS attack is undetectable XSS flaws are some of the most common flaws in web applications today. Unfortunately, due to the complexity of web applications and the need for customized filtering rules when sanitizing user supplied input, it is extremely difficult for automated tools to identify any but the simplest XSS vulnerabilities. Sadly, it is quite easy for a human to deductively reason through defensive filters that are applied to user supplied data. This means that while automated scanners are not very good at finding XSS vulnerabilities, human adversaries are quite adept at finding these flaws. The resulting situation is that XSS flaws abound, they are difficult for defenders to detect, involve complex technical fixes, and are easy for adversaries to exploit. This provides a fertile ground for attack. Real world XSS attacks often involve client side exploits using third party plugins. These technical attacks are easily addressed using technical solutions such as update browsers and plugins and anti-virus software. Non technical attacks are set to become more common as attackers realize their effectiveness. The growth of online applications is dramatically increasing the value of application credentials. The convenience and proliferation of single sign on mechanisms is broadening the usefulness of a single set of credentials. Thus, the returned value of compromised credentials is rising. The fact that technical controls cannot easily prevent social engineering attacks, combined with the proliferation of XSS flaws and the potential for these flaws to be used for extremely successful social engineering attacks creates a house of cards waiting to fall. Although SQL injection has dominated the news recently, it is only a matter of time before XSS replaces SQLi as the top threat occupying the media, and attackers. While SQLi is quite easy to find in source code, and remedy through a broad array of technical solutions from prepared statements to SQL filtering proxies, no such equivalent exists for XSS vulnerabilities. This fact, combined with evolving attack tools, and the broad impact of XSS as well as the pervasiveness of SSO means that at some point in the very near future XSS will become the dominant threat facing the web application ecosystem.
Back to School Basics posts are those that review simple math, reading, and writing skills for preschoolers and pre-k students. Today I am sharing two simple apple activities- one that reviews short vowels and one that reviews alphabet letters and sounds. We love to sing songs about the alphabet letter names and sounds daily. We also talk about the two types of letters in the alphabet- consonants and vowels. Vowels are short when there is one vowel followed by only consonants. This week we reviewed the alphabet letters and sounds and I introduced my son to the short vowel a with this simple apple pull-through activity. Here's how we made it... - red and green cardstock - contact paper or laminating paper - popsicle sticks - Cut an apple out of red cardstock and a stem and leaf from green cardstock. - Taped the pieces together to make an apple, laminated the whole apple, and cut it out. - Cut two vertical slits in the center of the apple - Wrote the letter a with a Sharpie (if you want to practice other short vowels then just write with a whiteboard marker). - Make popsicle stick worms by drawing faces on the popsicle sticks and writing consonants on them to make simple short vowel words (when combined with the short vowel a). *If you are reviewing the alphabet then make some sticks with all alphabet letters on them. How to play: Short Vowel Apples (Pre-K+)- Simply have your child slide the different popsicle stick worms through the slits in the apple to make different words. Have them practice sounding out the words by point at the letter on the left and moving letter by letter to the right as they say the letter sounds. My son likes to use his "magic finger" to sound out and blend the letters to make words. Alphabet Apples (Preschool+)- If your child isn't ready for blending words yet, then you can leave the center of the apple blank and make some popsicle stick worms with alphabet letters (or just vowels) on them. Your child can slide the popsicle stick worm through the hole (in reverse) and you can have your child guess the letter name and sound that each worm makes. Have you ever seen anyone this excited about sounding out new words? ;) My son was in heaven. The worms (with smiley faces) definitely made reading even more fun. How else do you like to review alphabet letters, sounds, and short vowels? Here are a few resources that are fabulous: - Alphabet for Starters via No Time for Flashcards - 50 Ways for Preschoolers to Learn their ABCs via Hands On: As We Grow - ABC/Alphabet/Letter Crafts and Alphabet Fun Pinterest Boards via Mom to 2 Posh Lil Divas - Alphabet Pinterest board via Teach Preschool
Felis Sylvestris Grampia - better known as the Scottish wildcat - is the only true wild cat in Britain. Felis Sylvestris Grampia (which is Latin for 'cat of the Grampian forests') is a larger and heavier descendant of the European wildcat (Felis sylvestris sylvestris). The British cats were isolated after the last Ice Age, approximately 7,000-9,000 years ago, as the sea level rose, making Britain an island. Once Felis sylvestris was found across the entire British mainland, but now only a handful are left, confined to the Scottish Highlands. It is estimated that less than 400 of these cats remain, making them perhaps the most endangered species in Britain. A true wild cat, the Scottish wildcat is untameable, even if raised by humans from infancy. The species has been protected under the Wildlife & Countryside Act since 1981, but their numbers are still declining and have reached the point where some believe that the cats may be extinct within a few years. There are three main reasons why the numbers of wildcats are going down: - loss of habitat - direct killing by humans - interbreeding with feral domestic cats Causes 2 and 3 are inter-related. The bloodline of the Scottish wild cat is being bred out as declining numbers make it harder for the cats to find mates, and though the pure-bred Scottish wild cat is protected, the cross-breeds are not. Since these can be a nuisance to small livestock they may be legitimately hunted. However, there has been a change of attitude in recent years, and many farmers are now proud to boast that their lands include a wild cat range. A Scottish wildcat looks a bit like a large, muscular tabby. The adult male is typically between 6-9kg (13-17lb) . Females are a bit smaller, weighing on average 5-7kg (11-15lb). The wild cat has a rough coat with distinctive markings which have earned it the nickname 'Tiger of the Highlands'. Another very characteristic feature of the wildcat is its thick tail with symmetrical black rings. A scientific paper on Scottish wildcats (Kitchener et al 2005) identified seven key features which distinguish Felis Sylvestris Grampia from a domestic tabby. These are listed below: - the wildcat shape of the stripes on the back of the neck are more wavy - there are two stripes on the shoulders - the tail is bushy - the tail has a blunt, black tip - the tail has distinct rings - there are stripes along the lower back - the dorsal line stops at the start of the tail. Like most wild cats, the Scottish Wildcat is a solitary and rather elusive animal. Few people have ever seen one and even those who work within the wildcats’ habitat see them only infrequently. (A wild cat has a range of about 8km - slightly smaller for females, somewhat larger for males.) Although a wildcat is unlikely to attack a human, it may do so if it thinks it is threatened and has no way of escape. Also if a human (or any other animal) gets between a mother cat and her kittens it is likely that the cat will attack. Seven kilograms of infuriated wild cat can be dangerous, so much so that the cats were believed to be man-killers until the myth was disproven in the 1950s. The most common victims of wild cats are dogs which assume that they are chasing domestic felines, and are unpleasantly surprised when their quarry vigorously counter-attacks. (A healthy wild cat can take down an Alsatian, and smaller dogs have little chance.) The Scottish Wildcat has no serious predators (apart from humans). It is a pure carnivore - which means it gets all its nutrition from meat -mainly from rabbits and smaller rodents. In the wild these cats live between 6-8 years. Female wildcats come into heat once a year around January or February and normally produce 3 to 4 kittens. As mentioned above, female wildcats are quite happy to mate with domestic cats and their hybrid offspring are relatively numerous in Scotland (an estimated 3500 of them). Hybrids can be identified genetically, and also generally by coat markings such as large white patches, a slimmer tail and body, or fused and broken-up stripes on the flanks. Recently a rare wildcat has been spotted on a Scottish Island. The animal was seen and photographed by holidaymaker Peter Harris on Mull in the Inner Hebrides, about a mile from the mainland. Although it is well-known that wildcats are generally less averse to water than domestic cats and are strong swimmers, reaching the island was an epic long-distance swim. It is also unclear whether this wildcat is a pure-bred wildcat or a hybrid. A team of experts are hoping to investigate the sighting. There's more about Scottish wildcats on this short documentary which has been split into two videos: and Part II
Whenever an event such as a fire, clear cut, or lava flow creates an empty habitat, species arrive, interact, and assemble to form a new ecological community--a process known as "succession." How quickly does succession proceed" Most ecologists might expect change to be rapid at first and then decline as the community ages, but there was no systematic analysis of this idea until recently. In a study published in the June issue of the American Naturalist, ecologist Kristina Anderson of the University of New Mexico showed that in many communities--ranging from plants in abandoned agricultural fields to arthropods on carcasses--species do indeed turn over most rapidly early in succession, when many new species arrive to take advantage of available resources. However, she also found that certain adverse conditions--such as isolation of the new community or an unfavorable climate--may hinder the arrival of new species, thereby slowing the rate at which the community fills with species and sometimes causing peak rates of change to occur later in succession. Anderson's study provides a framework to understand why communities mature at different rates. According to the author, "Understanding how quickly new ecological communities develop is fundamental to numerous ecological questions ranging from, 'How often should fires or clear cuts be allowed on landscapes?" to 'What determines how many species are found on an island?" yet we were unable to make many generalizations about succession rate. That is what motivated this study." In her study, Anderson first developed a method for quantifying rates of community change and how these vary as the community ages. She then collected data on over 60 different communities--a novel approach in succession research--and documented the changes in species composition throughout succession. Using these results, she was able to relate temporal patterns in rates of community change to processes that limit colonization and persistence of species: competition, harsh environmental conditions, and difficulty getting to the site. The author states, "We still have many unanswered questions regarding rates of succession. My hope is that this study will inspire and inform future research on succession rate." Article: Kristina J. Anderson (University of New Mexico), "Temporal patterns in rates of community change during succession" American Naturalist (2007), 169:780--793, DOI: 10.1086/516653. Cite This Page:
Mariana Ruiz Nascimento has a degree in English from the Federal University of Uberlândia in Brazil and an Advanced Certification in English Language Teaching from the University of Oregon in the United States. In this article, Mariana shares an activity that is aimed at integrating language skills and life competencies by encouraging students to come up with and present their own invention in English. The following activity consists of four parts: discussion, creation, presentation, and feedback – each one can be easily adapted to the purpose of the class, available resources, number of students, and their language proficiency. It’s ideal for those who want to increase collaboration and nurture their students’ critical thinking ability, which is an essential skill for children, teenagers, and adults alike. Practising a range of skills In order to challenge and engage learners in English language classes, I have designed an activity that encourages teamwork by promoting negotiation, discussion, and task organisation between students. It also enables them to develop their critical thinking skills and creativity as they have to come up with an invention that can solve a problem or improve an aspect of their daily life – a skill often required by employers and one that is necessary for both personal and professional development. In addition, learners can practise their language skills as they prepare a presentation in English using strategies to convince their classmates that their product is the best. Furthermore, they are encouraged to ask questions and offer feedback to their classmates in a respectful and polite way. Activity name: Creating an invention in English Materials: Sheets of paper, coloured pencils Skills: Speaking, writing, listening To warm up, I asked students to mention inventions that they considered to have had the biggest impact on their lives. I wrote them on the board and encouraged them to explain how these inventions have changed the way we live today: What do you know about the invention? (e.g., When and where was it invented? Who was the inventor? How does it work?) I separated students into groups and asked them to think about a problem they wanted to solve or an everyday situation they wanted to improve. After listing the problems, the students had to discuss and select one of them. I then asked each group to invent a product (it could be an object or app) that could solve this problem, agree on the features and design of the invention (name, colour, characteristics, size, price, etc.), and draw it on a sheet of paper. At this point I taught vocabulary that would enable the students to describe these inventions and I helped them search for unfamiliar words in the dictionary. Once they had created the product, it was time to present it to the class! I chose a group leader to delegate tasks and organise the presentation. The next step was to present the name, design, and characteristics of their invention and to use arguments to convince their classmates that theirs was the best. This part of the activity provides many opportunities to help your students build and express strong arguments in English. I decided to evaluate each presentation using a rubric. To make it more student-centered, I asked the group to come up with criteria that they thought should be included in the rubric. Next, I showed the students the complete rubric before the presentation so that students were aware of the criteria that they were going to be evaluated on. After the presentation, the groups had to ask questions about the product that had been presented and list one positive point about the presentation and one area that could be improved on. At the end, the class had to vote and select the best invention. These inventions can be displayed in the classroom or made available online so that students feel motivated and proud of their work. Integrating life competencies into teaching practice I noticed that my students were able to work collaboratively as part of a team and, even though they disagreed on some points, they respected their classmates. I believe this activity had a positive outcome on learners because they were able to reflect on certain situations they have faced and identify where improvements could be made in order to find effective solutions. After preparing for the presentation, students were able to use English to present their product and most of them were satisfied with the final result. This activity has shown that it’s possible to integrate life competencies into my teaching practice (creativity, critical thinking and problem-solving, collaboration, emotional development, and social responsibilities, among others), and that teaching English means more than opening a coursebook and explaining grammar rules. Teaching a language is a constant process of construction and dialogue and it is essential to have a clear goal that students can relate to in their daily lives. Furthermore, students find the activity very entertaining. And this is how learning English should be, isn’t it? If you are interested in learning more about life competencies, why not check out our post on The Cambridge Framework for Life Competencies where you can download and read about the full framework.
Double Entry Journal STEP-BY-STEP: HOW TO DESIGN AND IMPLEMENT DEJs Step 1. Before designing DEJs, read carefully the targeted text. Step 2. Identify some of the key topics or concepts from the reading selection that readers are likely to have encountered in the past. Step 3. Formulate questions or request responses that will activate information about those topics or concepts. Keep in mind that you want to activate relevant knowledge during this pre-reading activity. Step 4. Formulate post-reading questions or response prompts that will require readers to review the reading selection in order to reflect productively. Identify aspects of the reading that are likely to lead either to growth in knowledge or understanding, or to applications of knowledge for problem solving. Step 5. Ask students to write about 150 to 200 words in response to both pre- and post-reading prompts. Length will vary from class to class and text to text. Step 6. Provide opportunities for students to meet in pairs or small groups to read and share their DEJs during class time, perhaps in preparation for a class discussion. Step 7. After students read their partner's DEJ, ask students to comment on them by finding a sentence they like, underlining it, and writing a marginal statement explaining why it was selected.
\|\|This article needs attention from an expert in Physics, Science or Systems. The specific problem is: problems with Q factor definitions. (April 2016)\| In physics and engineering the quality factor or Q factor is a dimensionless parameter that describes how under-damped an oscillator or resonator is, and characterizes a resonator's bandwidth relative to its center frequency. Higher Q indicates a lower rate of energy loss relative to the stored energy of the resonator; the oscillations die out more slowly. A pendulum suspended from a high-quality bearing, oscillating in air, has a high Q, while a pendulum immersed in oil has a low one. Resonators with high quality factors have low damping so that they ring or vibrate longer. - 1 Explanation - 2 Definition - 3 Q factor and damping - 4 Physical interpretation - 5 Electrical systems - 6 Mechanical systems - 7 Acoustical systems - 8 Optical systems - 9 See also - 10 References - 11 Further reading - 12 External links Sinusoidally driven resonators having higher Q factors resonate with greater amplitudes (at the resonant frequency) but have a smaller range of frequencies around that frequency for which they resonate; the range of frequencies for which the oscillator resonates is called the bandwidth. Thus, a high-Q tuned circuit in a radio receiver would be more difficult to tune, but would have more selectivity; it would do a better job of filtering out signals from other stations that lie nearby on the spectrum. High-Q oscillators oscillate with a smaller range of frequencies and are more stable. (See oscillator phase noise.) The quality factor of oscillators varies substantially from system to system. Systems for which damping is important (such as dampers keeping a door from slamming shut) have Q near 1⁄2. Clocks, lasers, and other resonating systems that need either strong resonance or high frequency stability have high quality factors. Tuning forks have quality factors around 1000. The quality factor of atomic clocks, superconducting RF cavities used in accelerators, and some high-Q lasers can reach as high as 1011 and higher. There are many alternative quantities used by physicists and engineers to describe how damped an oscillator is. Important examples include: the damping ratio, relative bandwidth, linewidth and bandwidth measured in octaves. The concept of Q originated with K. S. Johnson of Western Electric Company's Engineering Department while evaluating the quality of coils (inductors). His choice of the symbol Q was only because, at the time, all other letters of the alphabet were taken. The term was not intended as an abbreviation for "quality" or "quality factor", although these terms have grown to be associated with it. In the context of resonators, there are two common definitions for Q, which aren't necessarily equivalent. They become approximately equivalent as Q becomes larger, meaning the resonator becomes less damped. One of these definitions is the frequency-to-bandwidth ratio of the resonator: where fr is the resonant frequency, Δf is the resonance width or full width at half maximum (FWHM) i.e. the bandwidth over which the power of vibration is greater than half the power at the resonant frequency, ωr = 2πfr is the angular resonant frequency, and Δω is the angular half-power bandwidth. The other common equivalent definition for Q is the ratio of the energy stored in the oscillating resonator to the energy dissipated per cycle by damping processes: The factor 2π makes Q expressible in simpler terms, involving only the coefficients of the second-order differential equation describing most resonant systems, electrical or mechanical. In electrical systems, the stored energy is the sum of energies stored in lossless inductors and capacitors; the lost energy is the sum of the energies dissipated in resistors per cycle. In mechanical systems, the stored energy is the maximum possible stored energy, or the total energy, i.e. the sum of the potential and kinetic energies at some point in time; the lost energy is the work done by an external conservative force, per cycle, to maintain amplitude. where ω is the angular frequency at which the stored energy and power loss are measured. This definition is consistent with its usage in describing circuits with a single reactive element (capacitor or inductor), where it can be shown to be equal to the ratio of reactive power to real power. (See Individual reactive components.) Q factor and damping The Q factor determines the qualitative behavior of simple damped oscillators. (For mathematical details about these systems and their behavior see harmonic oscillator and linear time invariant (LTI) system.) - A system with low quality factor (Q < 1⁄2) is said to be overdamped. Such a system doesn't oscillate at all, but when displaced from its equilibrium steady-state output it returns to it by exponential decay, approaching the steady state value asymptotically. It has an impulse response that is the sum of two decaying exponential functions with different rates of decay. As the quality factor decreases the slower decay mode becomes stronger relative to the faster mode and dominates the system's response resulting in a slower system. A second-order low-pass filter with a very low quality factor has a nearly first-order step response; the system's output responds to a step input by slowly rising toward an asymptote. - A system with high quality factor (Q > 1⁄2) is said to be underdamped. Underdamped systems combine oscillation at a specific frequency with a decay of the amplitude of the signal. Underdamped systems with a low quality factor (a little above Q = 1⁄2) may oscillate only once or a few times before dying out. As the quality factor increases, the relative amount of damping decreases. A high-quality bell rings with a single pure tone for a very long time after being struck. A purely oscillatory system, such as a bell that rings forever, has an infinite quality factor. More generally, the output of a second-order low-pass filter with a very high quality factor responds to a step input by quickly rising above, oscillating around, and eventually converging to a steady-state value. - A system with an intermediate quality factor (Q = 1⁄2) is said to be critically damped. Like an overdamped system, the output does not oscillate, and does not overshoot its steady-state output (i.e., it approaches a steady-state asymptote). Like an underdamped response, the output of such a system responds quickly to a unit step input. Critical damping results in the fastest response (approach to the final value) possible without overshoot. Real system specifications usually allow some overshoot for a faster initial response or require a slower initial response to provide a safety margin against overshoot. In negative feedback systems, the dominant closed-loop response is often well-modeled by a second-order system. The phase margin of the open-loop system sets the quality factor Q of the closed-loop system; as the phase margin decreases, the approximate second-order closed-loop system is made more oscillatory (i.e., has a higher quality factor). Quality factors of common systems - A unity gain Sallen–Key filter topology with equivalent capacitors and equivalent resistors is critically damped (i.e., Q = 1⁄2). - A second-order Butterworth filter (i.e., continuous-time filter with the flattest passband frequency response) has an underdamped Q = 1⁄√. - A Bessel filter (i.e., continuous-time filter with flattest group delay) has an underdamped Q = 1⁄√. Physically speaking, Q is 2π times the ratio of the total energy stored divided by the energy lost in a single cycle or equivalently the ratio of the stored energy to the energy dissipated over one radian of the oscillation. It is a dimensionless parameter that compares the exponential time constant τ for decay of an oscillating physical system's amplitude to its oscillation period. Equivalently, it compares the frequency at which a system oscillates to the rate at which it dissipates its energy. Equivalently (for large values of Q), the Q factor is approximately the number of oscillations required for a freely oscillating system's energy to fall off to e−2π, or about 1⁄535 or 0.2%, of its original energy. The width (bandwidth) of the resonance is given by The resonant frequency is often expressed in natural units (radians per second), rather than using the f0 in hertz, as and the damping ratio can be expressed as: The envelope of oscillation decays proportional to e−αt or e− t⁄τ, where α and τ can be expressed as: The energy of oscillation, or the power dissipation, decays twice as fast, that is, as the square of the amplitude, as e−2αt or e− 2t⁄τ. For this system, when Q > 1⁄2 (i.e., when the system is underdamped), it has two complex conjugate poles that each have a real part of −α. That is, the attenuation parameter α represents the rate of exponential decay of the oscillations (that is, of the output after an impulse) into the system. A higher quality factor implies a lower attenuation rate, and so high-Q systems oscillate for many cycles. For example, high-quality bells have an approximately pure sinusoidal tone for a long time after being struck by a hammer. Relationship between Q and bandwidth The 2-sided bandwidth relative to a resonant frequency of F0 Hz is F0/Q. For example, an antenna tuned to have a Q value of 10 and a centre frequency of 100 kHz would have a 3 dB bandwidth of 10 kHz. In audio, bandwidth is often expressed in terms of octaves. Then the relationship between Q and bandwidth is where BW is the bandwidth in octaves. For a parallel RLC circuit, the Q factor is the inverse of the series case: Consider a circuit where R, L and C are all in parallel. The lower the parallel resistance, the more effect it will have in damping the circuit and thus the lower the Q. This is useful in filter design to determine the bandwidth. In a parallel LC circuit where the main loss is the resistance of the inductor, R, in series with the inductance, L, Q is as in the series circuit. This is a common circumstance for resonators, where limiting the resistance of the inductor to improve Q and narrow the bandwidth is the desired result. Individual reactive components The Q of an individual reactive component depends on the frequency at which it is evaluated, which is typically the resonant frequency of the circuit that it is used in. The Q of an inductor with a series loss resistance is the Q of a resonant circuit using that inductor (including its series loss) and a perfect capacitor. - ω0 is the resonance frequency in radians per second, - L is the inductance, - XL is the inductive reactance, and - RL is the series resistance of the inductor. The Q of a capacitor with a series loss resistance is the same as the Q of a resonant circuit using that capacitor with a perfect inductor: - ω0 is the resonance frequency in radians per second, - C is the capacitance, - XC is the capacitive reactance, and - RC is the series resistance of the capacitor. In general, the Q of a resonator involving a series combination of a capacitor and an inductor can be determined from the Q values of the components, whether their losses come from series resistance or otherwise: For a single damped mass-spring system, the Q factor represents the effect of simplified viscous damping or drag, where the damping force or drag force is proportional to velocity. The formula for the Q factor is: where M is the mass, k is the spring constant, and D is the damping coefficient, defined by the equation Fdamping = −Dv, where v is the velocity. The Q of a musical instrument is critical; an excessively high Q in a sound box will not amplify the multiple frequencies a instrument produces evenly. For this reason, string instruments often have curvy soundboxes with complex shapes, so that they will amplify a range of frequencies fairly evenly. The Q of a brass instrument or wind instrument needs to be high enough to pick one frequency out of the broader-spectrum buzzing of the lips or reed. A vuvuzela is made of flexible plastic, and therefore has a very low Q for a brass instrument, giving it a muddy, breathy tone. Instruments made of stiffer plastic, brass, or wood are higher-Q. An excessively high Q can make it harder to hit a note. Q in an instrument may vary across frequencies, but this may not be desirable. Helmholtz resonators have a very high Q, as they are designed for picking out a single frequency. where fo is the resonant frequency, E is the stored energy in the cavity, and P = −dE/ is the power dissipated. The optical Q is equal to the ratio of the resonant frequency to the bandwidth of the cavity resonance. The average lifetime of a resonant photon in the cavity is proportional to the cavity's Q. If the Q factor of a laser's cavity is abruptly changed from a low value to a high one, the laser will emit a pulse of light that is much more intense than the laser's normal continuous output. This technique is known as Q-switching. - Harlow, James H. (2004). Electric power transformer engineering. CRC Press. pp. 2–216. ISBN 978-0-8493-1704-0. - Tooley, Michael H. (2006). Electronic circuits: fundamentals and applications. Newnes. pp. 77–78. ISBN 978-0-7506-6923-8. - Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology: Q factor - Time and Frequency from A to Z: Q to Ra - B. Jeffreys, Q.Jl R. astr. Soc. (1985) 26, 51–52 - Paschotta, Rüdiger (2008). Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology, Vol. 1: A-M. Wiley-VCH. p. 580. ISBN 3527408282. - James W. Nilsson (1989). Electric Circuits. ISBN 0-201-17288-7. - Jackson, R. (2004). Novel Sensors and Sensing. Bristol: Institute of Physics Pub. p. 28. ISBN 0-7503-0989-X. - Benjamin Crowell (2006). "Vibrations and Waves". Light and Matter online text series., Ch.2 - Siebert, William McC. Circuits, Signals, and Systems. MIT Press. - Chapter 8 – Analog Filters – Analog Devices - Series and Parallel Resonance - Frequency Response: Resonance, Bandwidth, Q Factor - Di Paolo, Franco (2000). Networks and Devices Using Planar Transmission Lines. CRC Press. pp. 490–491. ISBN 9780849318351. - Methods of Experimental Physics – Lecture 5: Fourier Transforms and Differential Equations - Agarwal, Anant; Lang, Jeffrey (2005). Foundations of Analog and Digital Electronic Circuits. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 1-55860-735-8. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quality factor.\|
PHILADELPHIA, Dec. 15 (UPI) — Scientists say the sea-level rise along the U.S. Atlantic Coast was 2 millimeters faster during the 20th century than at any time in 4,000 years. The U.S.-led team of international scientists also determined the magnitude of the sea-level rise increases in a southerly direction from Maine to South Carolina. That, the researchers said, is the first demonstrated evidence of the phenomenon from observational data alone. The scientists say the sea level rise might be related to the melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet and ocean thermal expansion. “There is universal agreement that sea level will rise as a result of global warming, but by how much, when and where it will have the most effect is unclear,” said University of Pennsylvania Assistant Professor Benjamin Horton. “Such information is vital to governments, commerce and the general public. An essential prerequisite for accurate prediction is understanding how sea level has responded to past climate changes and how these were influenced by geological events such as land movements.” The research provides the first accurate dataset for sea-level rise for the U.S. Atlantic coast, identifying regional differences that arise from variations in subsidence and demonstrate the possible effects of ice-sheet melting and thermal expansion for sea level rise. The study that included Florida International University, the University of Toronto and Tulane University appears in the Dec. 1 issue of the journal Geology. Copyright 2009 by United Press International
Electronics Components: Use a Transistor as a Switch One of the most common uses for transistors in an electronic circuit is as simple switches. In short, a transistor conducts current across the collector-emitter path only when a voltage is applied to the base. When no base voltage is present, the switch is off. When base voltage is present, the switch is on. In an ideal switch, the transistor should be in only one of two states: off or on. The transistor is off when there's no bias voltage or when the bias voltage is less than 0.7 V. The switch is on when the base is saturated so that collector current can flow without restriction. This is a schematic diagram for a circuit that uses an NPN transistor as a switch that turns an LED on or off. Look at this circuit component by component: LED: This is a standard 5 mm red LED. This type of LED has a voltage drop of 1.8 V and is rated at a maximum current of 20 mA. R1: This 330 Ω resistor limits the current through the LED to prevent the LED from burning out. You can use Ohm's law to calculate the amount of current that the resistor will allow to flow. Because the supply voltage is +6 V, and the LED drops 1.8 V, the voltage across R1 will be 4.2 V (6 – 1.8). Dividing the voltage by the resistance gives you the current in amperes, approximately 0.0127 A. Multiply by 1,000 to get the current in mA: 12.7 mA, well below the 20 mA limit. Q1: This is a common NPN transistor. A 2N2222A transistor was used here, but just about any NPN transistor will work. R1 and the LED are connected to the collector, and the emitter is connected to ground. When the transistor is turned on, current flows through the collector and emitter, thus lighting the LED. When the transistor is turned off, the transistor acts as an insulator, and the LED doesn't light. R2: This 1 kΩ resistor limits the current flowing into the base of the transistor. You can use Ohm's law to calculate the current at the base. Because the base-emitter junction drops about 0.7 V (the same as a diode), the voltage across R2 is 5.3 V. Dividing 5.3 by 1,000 gives the current at 0.0053 A, or 5.3 mA. Thus, the 12.7 mA collector current (ICE) is controlled by a 5.3 mA base current (IBE). SW1: This switch controls whether current is allowed to flow to the base. Closing this switch turns on the transistor, which causes current to flow through the LED. Thus, closing this switch turns on the LED even though the switch isn't placed directly within the LED circuit. You might be wondering why you'd need or want to bother with a transistor in this circuit. After all, couldn't you just put the switch in the LED circuit and do away with the transistor and the second resistor? Of course you could, but that would defeat the principle that this circuit illustrates: that a transistor allows you to use a small current to control a much larger one. If the entire purpose of the circuit is to turn an LED on or off, by all means omit the transistor and the extra resistor. But in more advanced circuits, you'll find plenty of cases when the output from one stage of a circuit is very small and you need that tiny amount of current to switch on a much larger current. In that case, this transistor circuit is just what you need.
A concussion is a traumatic brain injury that alters the way your brain functions. Effects are usually temporary but can include headaches and problems with concentration, memory, balance and coordination. Although concussions usually are caused by a blow to the head, they can also occur when the head and upper body are violently shaken. These injuries can cause a loss of consciousness, but most concussions do not. Because of this, some people have concussions and don't realize it. Concussions are common, particularly if you play a contact sport, such as football. But every concussion injures your brain to some extent. This injury needs time and rest to heal properly. Most concussive traumatic brain injuries are mild, and people usually recover fully.
Table of contents About this book This book offers a comprehensive analysis of character focalization in ten contemporary realistic children’s novels. The author argues that character focalization, defined as the location of fictional world perception in the mind of a character, is a prominent textual structure in these novels. He demonstrates how significant meanings are conveyed in a variety of forms related to characters’ personal and interpersonal experiences. Through close analysis of each text, moreover, he exposes distinctive perceptual, psychological, and social-psychological patterns in the opening chapters of each novel, which are thereafter developed by the principles of continuation, augmentation, and reconfiguration. This book will appeal to scholars, teachers, and students in the fields of narrative studies, stylistics, children’s literature scholarship, linguistics, and education. Pragmatics Literary Stylistics Focalization Narratology Cognitive development
The Mangrove is a shrub or small tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics, mainly between latitudes 25° N and 25° S. Mangrove are salt-tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted to live in harsh coastal conditions. They contain a complex salt filtration system and complex root system to cope with salt water immersion and wave action. They are adapted to the low oxygen (anoxic) conditions of waterlogged mud. Species of Florida’s Mangroves: Growing along the edge of the shoreline where conditions are harshest, the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) is easily distinguished from other species by tangled, reddish prop roots. These prop roots originate from the trunk with roots growing downward from the branches. Extending three feet (1 m) or more above the surface of the soil, prop roots increase stability of the tree as well as oxygen supply to underground roots. Under optimal conditions, this mangrove tree can grow to heights of over 80 feet (25 m), however, in Florida, red mangroves typically average 20 feet (6 m) in height. Habitat range in Florida is limited by temperature. Red mangroves occur from Cedar Key in the Gulf of Mexico and Daytona Beach in the Atlantic, southward through the Florida Keys. The smooth-edged, elliptical leaves have shiny, dark green uppersides and pale green undersides and occur opposite from each other along the branches. Trunks and limbs are covered with gray bark, over a dark red wood from which the common name originates. Clusters of white to pale yellow flowers bloom during the spring and early summer months. Reproductive adaptations enable seedlings to germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Seeds sprout into 6 inch (15 cm), pencil-shaped propagules. Seed germination while still attached to the tree gives this mangrove a higher chance of survival. When the seedling falls into the water, it may either take root alongside its parent or be carried by the tides and currents to other suitable habitat. Avicennia germinans, the black mangrove, is characterized by long horizontal roots and root-like projections known as pneumatophores. It grows at elevations slightly higher than the red mangrove where tidal change exposes the roots to air. The pencil-shaped pneumatophores originate from underground horizontal roots projecting from the soil around the tree’s trunk, providing oxygen to the underground and underwater root systems. The black mangrove reaches heights of over 65 feet (20 m) in some locations, however in Florida they are smaller with heights to 50 feet (15 m). Within Florida, they range from the Keys north to Cedar Key on the west coast and St. Augustine on the east coast. Leaves occur opposite of each other along the branches, with upper sides that are shiny and undersides densely covered with hairs. The bark of this mangrove is dark and scaly. Black mangroves blossom in spring and early summer, producing white flowers. Reproductive adaptations enable seedlings to germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Seeds sprout into 1 inch (2-3 cm), lima bean-shaped propagules. Seed germination occurs while still attached to the parent tree, increasing the chances of survival in this adverse environment. Occupying higher land than the red and black mangroves, the white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa) has no visible aerial roots, unlike the black mangrove which has pneumatophores and the red mangrove with prop roots. However, when it is found in oxygen-depleted sediments or flooded for extended periods of time, it often develops peg roots. White mangroves are the least cold-tolerant of the three mangrove species found in Florida, occurring from Levy County and Volusia County southward in Florida. This small tree or shrub grows rapidly in rich soils to heights of 50 feet (15 m). The light yellow-green leaves are broad and flat with two glands located at the base of the leaf where the stem originates. These glands are sugar glands called nectaries. White mangroves produce greenish-white flowers in spikes, blooming from spring to early summer. Often found in the upland transitional zone, the buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus) is often associated with mangrove communities. Sensitivity to frost restricts its range to south Florida. The name buttonwood comes from the button-like appearance of the dense flower heads that grow in branched clusters, forming cone-like fruit. This plant does not reproduce via propagules, but instead producing seed cases. While the three mangrove species have leaves that occur opposite of each other, the buttonwood leaves alternate. The leaves are leathery with pointed tips and smooth edges. There are two salt-excreting glands located at the base of each leaf. Flowers appear in cone-like heads and are greenish in color.
● Adds up to100 using objects and the concept of 10’s. ● Subtracts or adds 10 to a 2 digit number in his/her mind, without counting, and subtracts by 10 from numbers 1-90, using concrete objects or tools. ● Orders three objects by length. ● Begins to tell and write time using both digital and analog clocks. ● Understands data, specifically, the total number of data points, how many are in each category and how many more or less there are in a category. ● Understands the definition of and difference between shapes and creates shapes using ● Creates 2 and 3 dimensional shapes. ● Breaks up circles and rectangles into two and four equal parts, and understands that the parts are halves, fourths, and quarters, and that smaller parts make up larger ones. ● Explores and experiments with the world around him/her and with objects provided by ● Makes observations and records what s/he sees and learns using graphs, pictures and ● Uses her 5 senses to observe and learn about objects. ● Forms conclusions based on comparisons, sense observations and exploration ● Knows that the Sun supplies heat and light energy to the Earth ● Recognizes basic patterns in weather ● Recognizes how people impact the Earth, including concepts of conservation, recycling and reducing pollution ● Understands that all living things have basic needs ● Distinguishes between living and non-living things ● Recognizes how living things change as they grow and mature ● Compares and describes the structural characteristics of plants and animals ● Distinguishes between types of environments and their inhabitants (hot, cold, wet, dry, ● Oceans and sea life: Waves, currents, coral reefs, sea animals, and sea plants. ● The human body: The systems that make up the body — circulatory, muscular, skeletal, nervous, and digestive — and how to take care of the body. ● Matter: Materials come in solid, liquid, and gas forms, and matter can change states.
When it comes to reading, many parents are confused about what young children should be able to do at what age. Jean Ciborowski, a researcher and reading specialist at Children's Hospital, Boston, believes that three, four, and five year olds have a wide range of abilities. Dr. Ciborowski does not want parents to think that kids this age should learn how to read. Just to put things in perspective, she says, "Europeans don't expect children to read until they are seven years old." What she does suggest is for parents to play some fun pre-reading games with their kids. These word games will get them ready for reading later on.Game One -- Recognizing words that sound alike If a child gets this it shows she understands the concept of like sounding words. In general these games have to do with emphasizing the sound structures of words. Recognizing and breaking down a word's sound structure is one of the first steps in getting ready to read. Most four and five year old children can begin to understand that some words sound the same and some sound different and that words are made of different sounds.Game Two -- Recognizing Letters You can use something as simple as a cereal box to expose your child to print and flex your child's letter knowledge. When kids can do simple compound word deletions, this is the best indication that they will be able to learn how to read. If at age five or six a child doesn't get these deletion games Ciborowski says, "it may be a red flag that they may need extra help in reading later on because it's an indication that they have a difficult time breaking down a word into it's sounds - a step needed to learn to read.Game Three -- Breaking down compound words This is called a compound word deletion. Most four and five year olds can do deletions and this is a sign your child is able to break down words. By playing these games, and reading to your child, you can have a larger role in your kids' literacy development - you don't have to wait for the kindergarten teacher. But overzealous parents beware! Preschool kids are ready for these reading warm up games but in most cases are not ready to actually learn how to read. Play these games, and keep them fun. Your kids will enjoy making up their own versions, and you can take turns asking the questions. What a great way to warm up for reading later on.Game Four -- Breaking down sounds Once a child gets the compound word deletions, they may be ready for more sophisticated sound deletions. More on: Reading Difficulties
SPECT (single-photon emission computed tomography) shows the blood flow in the brain. A safe, very low-level radioactive substance is injected into your arm. The particles (very minute amounts) given off or emitted from the substance are measured. The more blood that flows through a certain area, the more particles are emitted. The result is displayed as a picture with different colors representing different levels of blood flow. - This test is readily available in most hospitals, but it is seldom needed as a routine test for epilepsy. - SPECT scans obtained during or immediately after a seizure may show increased blood flow in the area where seizures arise. These can be helpful in finding where a seizure begins in the brain. - These tests can be misleading, however, especially when they are done between seizures. - New computer techniques allow doctors to measure the differences between SPECT scans taken during and between seizures to obtain "subtraction" SPECT images. - These pictures can be used with a person's MRI to pinpoint the seizure focus. This technique also known as SISCOM may be most helpful when seizures begin outside the temporal lobe and MRI scans do not show a structural abnormality.
Thesis Statement: The Sun is fascinating because it has so many layers. The Sun has different types of layers that all play an important role in producing it's fuel. It's Core is 27 million degrees Fahrenheit and contains 6% of the Sun's mass. The Core is located in the center of the Sun and it produces all of the Sun's energy. What sits on top of the Core is the Radioactive Zone. In the Radioactive Zone energy travels in form of Photons. The Radioactive Zone is also very dense and is 300,000 km thick. Atoms are so closely packed together that light takes millions of years to pass through. Another very important layer of the sun is the Convective Zone. It is 200,000 km thick, hot gases rise from inside while cooler gases sink towards the center. It is a region where energy is carried by convection cells. The Photosphere is on top of the Convective Zone, it is the Sun's visible surface. At 300 miles gases are produced so thick that you can see them. The Chromosphere is an irregular layer of the atmosphere above the Photosphere. It is 3,000 km thick, making the color deep red. The Sun has many fascinating layers that all have their own characteristics.
Melas Dorsa reveals a complex geological history on Mars ESA’s Mars Express has imaged an area to the south of the famed Valles Marineris canyon on the Red Planet, showing a wide range of tectonic and impact features. On 17 April, the orbiter pointed its high-resolution stereo camera at the Melas Dorsa region of Mars. This area sits in the volcanic highlands of Mars between Sinai and Thaumasia Plana, 250 km south of Melas Chasma. Melas Chasma itself is part of the Valles Marineris rift system. The image captures wrinkle ridges, some unusual intersecting faults and an elliptical crater surrounded by ejecta in the shape of a butterfly and with a strange ‘fluid-like’ appearance. Elliptical craters like this 16 km-wide example are formed when asteroids or comets strike the surface of the planet at a shallow angle. Scientists have suggested that a fluidised ejecta pattern indicates the presence of subsurface ice which melted during the impact. Subsequent impacts have created a number of smaller craters in the ejecta blanket. The rim of another large crater is visible in the upper centre part of the image, but it appears mostly to have been almost buried during some distant epoch by volcanic dust and ash. This makes any detailed study of it almost impossible. However, its centre shows concentric deposits that could provide insights into the composition of the volcanic material that buried it. Several wrinkle ridges can be seen across the image. These form when horizontal compression forces in the crust pushes the crust upwards. To the left, the ridges are bisected by crustal displacement faults. These have cut into the ridges and the surrounding surface at some later epoch. This highlights the different tectonic phases responsible the formation of this region.
Leveling effect or solvent leveling refers to the effect of solvent on the properties of acids and bases. The strength of a strong acid is limited ("leveled") by the basicity of the solvent. Similarly the strength of a strong base is leveled by the acidity of the solvent. When a strong acid is dissolved in water, it reacts with it to form hydronium ion (H3O+). An example of this would be the following reaction, where "HA" is the strong acid: - HA + H2O → A- + H3O+ Any acid that is stronger than H3O+ reacts with H2O to form H3O+. Therefore, no acid stronger than H3O+ exists in H2O. Similarly, when ammonia is the solvent, the strongest acid is ammonium (NH4+), thus HCl and a super acid exert the same acidifying effect. The same argument applies to bases. In water, OH- is the strongest base. Thus, even though sodium amide (NaNH2) is an exceptional base (pKa of NH3 ~ 33), in water it is only as good as sodium hydroxide. On the other hand, NaNH2 is a far more basic reagent in ammonia than is NaOH. The pH range allowed by a particular solvent is called the acid-base discrimination window. Leveling and differentiating solvents In a differentiating solvent, various acids dissociate to different degrees and thus have different strengths. In a leveling solvent, several acids are completely dissociated and are thus of the same strength. A weakly basic solvent has less tendency than a strongly basic one to accept a proton. Similarly a weak acid has less tendency to donate protons than a strong acid. As a result a strong acid such as perchloric acid exhibits more strongly acidic properties than a weak acid such as acetic acid when dissolved in a weakly basic solvent. On the other hand, all acids tend to become indistinguishable in strength when dissolved in strongly basic solvents owing to the greater affinity of strong bases for protons. This is called the leveling effect. Strong bases are leveling solvents for acids, weak bases are differentiating solvents for acids. Because of the leveling effect of common solvents, studies on super acids are conducted in solvents that are very weakly basic such as sulfur dioxide (liquefied) and SO2ClF. Types of solvent on the basis of proton interaction On the basis of proton interaction, solvents are of four types, (i) Protophilic solvents: Solvents which have greater tendency to accept protons, i.e., water, alcohol, liquid ammonia, etc. (ii) Protogenic solvents: Solvents which have the tendency to produce protons, i.e., water, liquid hydrogen chloride, glacial acetic acid, etc. (iii) Amphiprotic solvents: Solvents which act both as protophilic or protogenic, e.g., water, ammonia, ethyl alcohol, etc. (iv) Aprotic solvents: Solvents which neither donate nor accept protons, e.g., benzene, carbon tetrachloride, carbon disulphide, etc. HCl acts as an acid in H2O, a stronger acid in NH3, a weak acid in CH3COOH, neutral in C6H6 and a weak base in HF. - Atkins, P.W. (2010). Shriver and Atkins' Inorganic Chemistry, Fifth Edition. Oxford University Press. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-42-921820-7. - Zumdahl, S. S. “Chemistry” Heath, 1986: Lexington, MA. ISBN 0-669--04529-2. - Olah, G. A.; Prakash, G. K. S.; Wang, Q.; Li, X. (2001). "Hydrogen Fluoride–Antimony(V) Fluoride". In Paquette, L. Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/047084289X.rh037m.
Oldest squawk box suggests dinosaurs were no songbirds The discovery of the oldest known bird voice box is shedding light on what sounds dinosaurs were capable of making — or not! - Birds have a voice box called a syrinx which has never been found in dinosaurs - A syrinx has been found in a bird that was around at the time of the dinosaurs - This suggest the syrnix evolved late in the evolution of birds from dinosaurs CAT scans of fossils from a bird called Vegavis iaai that lived in Antarctica 66 million years ago, reveal the presence of a syrinx, an organ unique to birds, which enables birds to produce their amazing array of sounds. "It's always been a mystery how and when this special voice box evolved," biologist Professor Franz Goller of the University of Utah, who was involved in the discovery, reported today in the journal Nature. The fact that Vegavis iaai was around at the same time as the dinosaurs and yet no syrinx has ever been found in a dinosaur is telling, Professor Goller said. He said it suggests dinosaurs were no songbirds. Apart from birds, all other air-breathing vertebrates rely on the larynx to vocalise. Birds do have a larynx at the top of their windpipe, but they only use it to open and close the windpipe and do not produce any sounds with it. While humans can use their larynx to shout across the street and sing opera, most reptiles do not make much sound at all with their larynx. The syrinx of birds is at the base of the windpipe, just near the heart, where the windpipe splits into two. This means the whole windpipe above is able to help resonate and amplify sound. Some people had speculated that dinosaurs probably had syrinxes since they have bird-like characteristics in their respiratory systems. But no syrinx has ever been found in a dinosaur fossil, which suggest the syrinx evolved quite late in the evolution of birds from dinosaurs. Dinosaurs likely had to contend with using a reptile-like larynx, Professor Goller said. They might have been capable of producing a loud growl by closing their mouth and using their oesophagus to resonate like crocodiles and alligators do. But this would have only produced low frequencies and not the range of sounds birds can make. Professor Goller said well-modulated vocalisations that can be used by birds to call to their mates over some distance would be a strong selective pressure for a syrinx to develop as birds evolved from dinosaurs. Apart from hinting that dinosaurs didn't have much of vocal range, it is difficult to know exactly how they sounded, Professor Goller said. The size of an animal roughly determines the pitch of its voice — smaller animals have higher voices. But it's the soft tissues that really help determine the characteristics of the sounds made by an animal. While vocal cords inside voice boxes — be they a larynx or a syrinx — are soft tissue that doesn't fossilise well, the muscles that control them are attached to cartilage that mineralises in the mature bird, and then easily fossilises. By looking at the fossilised cartilage Professor Goller and colleagues were able to determine that Vegavis iaai probably had two sets of vocal cords in its syrinx and likely honked like modern-day ducks or geese.
This is part of IEEE Spectrum's Special Report: Why Mars? Why Now? Planetary geologists speculate that the moon’s polar craters may hold billions of tons of hydrogen, perhaps even in the form of water ice. Intriguing evidence returned by the Lunar Prospector and the Clementine probes in the 1990s seemed to support this idea. The latest raft of lunar missions, including Chandrayaan-1 and the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, may confirm it. In situ prospecting could then determine the quantity, quality, and accessibility of the hydrogen. Discovering rich concentrations of hydrogen on the moon would open up a universe of possibilities—literally. Rocket fuels and consumables that now cost an average of US $10 000 per kilogram to loft could instead be produced on the moon much more cheaply. For the first time, access to space would be truly economical. At last, people would be able to begin new ventures, including space tourism, space-debris cleanup, satellite refueling, and interplanetary voyages. Lunar prospecting will cost a lot of money—perhaps $20 billion over a decade. Rovers would have to descend into the polar craters to sample the deposits and test for ice, and then move on to other spots to form an overall map, much as wildcatters do every day in oil fields. At the moment, no country seems eager to foot the bill. But where governments fail to act on a vitally important opportunity, the private sector can and should step in. Two years ago, I and a group of like-minded businessmen, expeditionary explorers, and space-systems managers and engineers formed the Shackleton Energy Co. in Del Valle, Texas, to conduct lunar prospecting. Should we find significant reserves of ice, we would then establish a network of refueling service stations in low Earth orbit and on the moon to process and provide fuel and consumables. Like modern highway service stations, these celestial stations would be able to refuel space vehicles of all kinds and would be positioned at key transportation nodes; an obvious spot would be near the International Space Station. Such stations would radically change the way nearly every space system is designed. No longer would you have to carry your fuel and water into orbit with you. Entirely new classes of space vehicles would become possible, ones that operate only at and beyond low Earth orbit, such as vehicles for orbital transfer and satellite repair. Today launch systems must be designed to withstand the punishing effects of high-speed atmospheric drag, pressure, vibration, and heating that occur on the way to space. Protecting the rocket and its payload adds enormously to launch costs. But a vehicle that is designed from the start to operate only in space—say, between low Earth orbit and the moon—is not bound by the same design rules. We would also be able to clear up the ever-growing space debris problem. There’d be plenty of fuel for maneuvering satellites and other spacecraft to avoid debris, and you could also deploy cleanup vehicles to remove obsolete materials from orbit. Within a decade or two, we would soon see the dawn of a new age of space exploration, space tourism, and space business ventures. So where exactly is the raw material, and how will we retrieve it? The most likely place to look is within the regolith—the loose surface material—at the bottom of lunar craters, such as Shackleton Crater at the moon’s south pole. The cold interior of this crater may act as a trap that captures volatiles like water and hydrogen, which scientists believe may have been shed by comets and asteroids that collided with the moon. In the 1990s, the Lunar Prospector spacecraft sensed unexpectedly high amounts of hydrogen in the polar regions, which may indicate the presence of water ice. NASA has considered Shackleton Crater as the site for the first lunar outpost under its Constellation program, which envisions returning astronauts to the moon by 2020. Assuming the ice exists and can be extracted, our plan calls for establishing a fuel-processing operation on the lunar surface. The first step would be to melt the ice and purify the water. Next, we’d electrolyze the water into gaseous hydrogen and oxygen, and then condense the gases into liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen and also process them into hydrogen peroxide, all of which could be used as rocket fuels. Should other volatiles like ammonia or methane be discovered, they, too, would be processed into fuel, fertilizer, and other useful products. Getting the fuels and other consumables from the moon into low Earth orbit will be relatively cheap. Because of the peculiarities of celestial mechanics, such a haul requires just 1/14th to 1/20th of the fuel it takes to bring material up from Earth. Prospecting within the crater won’t be easy, of course. It’s extremely cold (a steady −173 °C) and perpetually dark—like an Antarctic winter but worse, because it’s constant. Also, the moon’s low gravitational field makes excavating that much trickier than it is back on Earth. Our plan therefore calls for developing a new generation of highly reliable, human-tended robotic machinery that would be built to withstand even that harsh environment. We think it can be done. We won’t know unless we try. Three elements are essential for the commercial success of our operation. First, to save about $1 billion during the initial staging of the lunar mining base, the first human team will take only enough fuel to land and establish the base—not enough for a return trip to Earth. This may sound radical, but the human crew who will undertake this mission will do so knowing that their success and survival depend on in situ fuel generation for the return. Should they fail, theirs will be a one-way trip; the risk is theirs to take. For government-sponsored space agencies, such a concept is unthinkable; they cannot tolerate the political risk of failure. Yet it is the only viable business choice. Centuries of explorers made the same hard choice in pushing the limits on land, sea, and air. It’s time to carry it forward into space. This is not reckless bravado but calculated risk management to satisfy mission needs and affordability. Second, we need a relatively inexpensive means of returning to low Earth orbit. To do that involves the dissipation of nearly 3 kilometers per second of excess velocity. Decelerating with rocket propellant alone would be prohibitively expensive—we’d be ”eating the seed corn.” So we plan to do it with actively controlled aerobraking. The water-laden spacecraft will repeatedly dip into and skip out of the upper atmosphere, losing some velocity with each dip, until it ultimately ends up in the orbit of the fueling station. This same maneuver was previously used only for much smaller planetary robotic missions, such as Magellan and the Mars Global Surveyor, but the physics and engineering are well understood. We intend to take the concept to an industrial scale, which would have obvious applications for other space missions. Third, we plan to rely on inflatable structures. Constructed of multilayer fabrics shielded with Kevlar or other strong materials and banded by steel exoskeletons, these structures could provide most of our habitation, storage, and transportation requirements. They would be both lighter and less expensive than traditional spacecraft. A number of companies have done extensive R&D on such inflatable space structures, including Boeing and Bigelow Aerospace, which has even lofted two test modules to low Earth orbit. Reliance on such technologies will decrease the cost of our operation, but it still will not be cheap. We estimate that establishing a lunar mining outpost and low-Earth-orbit fueling network will cost about $20 billion and take about a decade to put in place. That may sound like a lot, but in terms of complexity it’s comparable to a North Sea oil production complex. And it’s just a third of what the state-owned oil company Saudi Aramco said it will spend on oil and gas projects over the next five years. We live in interesting times. Right now, the technology, opportunity, and need to undertake such a mission are converging. Global tensions over resources, energy, and the environmental balance will only intensify in the coming years. New technologies may solve some of these problems, but ultimately we must look further afield for answers. The Shackleton project offers a solution. We seek the boldest and most imaginative managers, policy makers, investors, engineers, and explorers to partner with us and to ignite the Earth-moon economy. It is time for the private sector to take the lead in creating new markets and expanding humanity’s presence in space. Governments cannot and will not do it by themselves anytime soon. Our company is prepared to open up space to those who have the vision, stamina, and wherewithal to make it a reality. Join us! For more articles, go to Special Report: Why Mars? Why Now? About the Author William Stone is an aerospace engineer and explorer. He serves as the chairman of Shackleton Energy Co., based in Del Valle, Texas.
Challenging Moore's law is all the rage lately. First, IBM unveils an ultra-dense chip design, and now scientists have created what may be the smallest transistor it will ever be possible to create, at just a single molecule in size. An international team of researchers gathered from Germany's Paul-Drude-Institut für Festkörperelektronik and Freie Universität Berlin, Japan's NTT Basic Research Laboratories, and the US Naval Research Lab, have created a transistor out of a phthalocyanine molecule surrounded by 12 positively-charged atoms of indium. The 'construct' sits on an indium arsenide crystal. It's a radical leap from 2012, when IBM researchers crammed a single bit -- as in the data measurement -- onto 12 atoms, but could prove even more revolutionary. The atoms forming the new transistor are only 167 picometres in diameter, making them 42 times smaller than the tiniest circuits possible at present. Unexpectedly, the orientation of the phthalocyanine molecule was discovered to be affected by its charge. By altering it, a more complex range of states than the simple on-off in conventional transistors was achieved. While commercial applications are still a long way off, the development could pave the way for a massive step forward in quantum computing, which relies on these hypothetical extra states -- very broadly, a qubit of data allowing for representations of a one, a zero, or both, rather than the binary bits we're used to. Because the indium atoms are arranged precisely, using a scanning tunnelling electron microscope, electron flow can also be controlled through the gate. This prevents electrons 'jumping' out of the transistor, a problem that has plagued earlier attempts at atomic scale miniaturisation. Moore's law states that processing power is observed to double every 18-24 months, a rate of change usually achieved by fitting more, smaller processors onto each generation of chips. IBM's recent breakthrough potentially halves the current size from 14 nanometres to 7, and the concept of molecular transistors could see even smaller, more powerful chips in future. Whether or not it can be commercialised, however, is of course unclear. WIRED.co.uk has contacted the study authors for comment. This story will be updated accordingly.
My early readers simply read each sound individually, and then blend them together. By starting with a simple vowel board I can really use this game to isolate what sounds they are having trouble with, and whether or not they are able to identify where the beginning and ending sounds are. My more advanced decoders read the word and also use it in a sentence. This allows me to see if they understand the words they are reading and it also helps with building vocabulary too. For example hem, pep and fib are always new words they have not heard before. I use these trickier words in a sentence and then they try it out in their own sentence. ("Oh no, the hem on my shirt is ripped!!") My ELL students and I even act out some of the words. When we landed on "dim" I showed them how to dim the lights on my macbook. I am always amazed at how quickly they remember these new words and what they mean, even when we have not played the game for awhile! The patterns in these games are Erin Bradley Designs Colorful Polka Dots and Stripes Digital Papers. I absolutely love these! CVC Games featuring Short Vowels is available in my TpT and Teachers Notebook shops! Have a great Saturday!
Deionized water is also spelt deionized water or call. Another name that sounds a bit more understandable to many people is demineralized water. However, it is called or spelled, it means water which is extremely little ions or minerals in it. The ions are charged atoms. Atoms become charged after gain or lose at least one electron. A sodium atom (Na) becomes a sodium ion after losing an electron (Na +). An atom of chlorine (Cl) becomes a chloride ion (CL?) after gaining an electron. Metallic salts are composed of ions and molecules do not. That's why they're called Ionic compounds. The example was just as popular. Table salt is sodium chloride (NaCl) and is a popular household Ionic substance. For those who have forgotten the basic chemistry, NaCl is not composed of molecules of NaCl, but is actually composed of ions Na + and Cl-bound tightly together by electrostatic forces. However, water does the trick to separate ions. As table salt dissolves in water dissociates to its component ions. The same thing happens at any other salts in water and why water is a solvent, it is never found in pure form, but he always impurities. Filtration and chlorination of water can remove organic impurities and bacteria, but minerals may still be present. These minerals are present in the form of ions such as calcium (Ca ++) and magnesium (Mg ++), as well as chlorides, nitrates, and carbonates. If the water contains minerals and ions cannot be a health problem, has some drawbacks. For example, tap water, which has a lot of impurity ions leave blemishes or stains on the surfaces when used as a cleaning agent. This is where deionization steps. Deionization is the process of removal of ionic impurities in the water. It is also called demineralization. In the industrial scene, this may involve two phases. The first phase removes positive ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron. They are displaced by hydrogen ions (H +). The second step removes negative ions such as chloride, nitrate and sodium bicarbonate. These are then moved from hydroxyl ions (OH-). The resulting water teems with hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, which fuse to form water molecule. Both stages use resin beads that serve as an ion-exchange site. The resulting water is said to have no value of pH since there are no ions to measure the pH. However, water is stripped of its solvent ion is a more aggressive. If left in an open container, which sucks the carbon dioxide from the air. The result of an acidic solution, causing the water to take a lower pH value. However, the solution to the boiling point of heating can remove carbon dioxide and restore the quality of deionized water. There are controversies about the effects of demineralized water to drinking. There is a fear that because it is too pure may actually be harmful to humans. Water extremely pure steal the body out of its electrolyte ions or useful. The issue with this statement is based on very little evidence. Industrial purposes never deionized water can be rebutted. It supports extensive application in semiconductor industry, as it uses during processing and cleaning of materials as silicon wafer. The optical industry also relies on this type of high purity water, since the optical surfaces are supposed to be extremely clean as requirement for the coating. GLASSWARES laboratory are rinsed in water as tap water is never recommended for this purpose. Water that is free of ions is also used in car wash shops. It is also very suitable and is used in the cleanup. The effectiveness of this pure water as a cleaning agent due to its aggressiveness as a solvent, since water that does not contain dissolved ions will tend to draw solutes by ions or surrounding surfaces. This means that no spots or stains left on surfaces. In addition, in the manufacture of pharmaceutical products and cosmetics, water is often used because it does not contain impurities that can cause adverse reactions with other substances used in these products. Jo is an author and Publisher for '-Water-Company.com ', a well known producer of high quality water settled in the United Kingdom for over thirty years, supplying products such as deionized water and water demineralized a wide range of consumers in the United Kingdom, Europe and worldwide. If you have a high quality water autoclave therefore needs to take a look of The Water-Company.com.
Click here for a great selection of Amazon.com books about the Arctic Fox. Arctic Fox Quick Facts - The scientific name for the Arctic fox is Vulpes lagopus. Vulpes is the word for "fox" in Latin whereas lagopus is derived from the two Greek words lagos (hare or hair) and pous (foot) referring to the fur on these animal's feet. - The Arctic fox also goes by the name white fox, snow fox, and polar fox. - The Arctic fox's habitat is the most northerly regions of North America, Europe, and Asia. It is mostly found on the arctic tundra and pack ice and has even been seen close to the North Pole. - The Arctic Fox is not a picky eater; its diet consist of small animals, including its favorite lemmings, it also eats eggs, birds, fish, and berries. This mammal will also eat the remains of animals killed by large predators like wolves. Arctic Fox Appearance Facts - The average length, not including the tail, of a male Arctic fox is 22 inches (55 centimeters), with females, in some regions, being slightly smaller. The tail of both males and females is approximately 12 inches (30 centimeters) long. - These mammal's height measured at the shoulder is generally between 9.8 and 11.8 inches (25 to 30 centimeters). - The average weight of the male Arctic Fox is 7.7 pounds (3.5 kilograms); females weigh slightly less. - The Arctic Fox is shielded from the cold by a thick fur coat. For most populations of these foxes the coat is white in winter but turns brown in the warmer months; however a few have a bluish-gray coat in the colder months and a paler bluish-gray coat in the warmer months. - Many populations of this animal have fur on the bottoms of their feet to protect them from the cold. Interesting Arctic Fox Facts - This animal has amazing hearing which helps it hunt. - Like many arctic animals the Arctic Fox has a lot of body fat which helps keep it warm. - The Arctic fox's body uses counter current heat exchange to lessen heat lost. Warm blood from the heart flows past cool blood from the body surface heating this blood. This helps retain heat within the body. - The Arctic Fox is not an endangered animal, there are believed to be several hundred thousand worldwide. Due to hunting, it is endangered in certain regions like Scandinavian where there are only a few hundred left. - In many areas of the world the Arctic fox's numbers are being decreased due to an increase in the population of the larger red fox. In regions where their habitats overlap Red Foxes kill Arctic foxes. Red Fox populations have been increasing in these regions due to its main predator the gray wolf being driven to near extinction by hunting. - Carl Linnaeus, known as the father of modern taxonomy, documented this animal in his famous Systema Naturae in 1758.
Almost as chaotic, a map of all the native languages spoken in Europe. Although chaotic, we can follow the colors. On this European map, the languages in GREEN are so called Romance languages in the south: Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, etc... The Germanic languages in the north (English, German, Dutch, Swedish, etc..) are in ORANGE. Slavic languages in the east (Russian, Polish, Bulgarian, etc) are PURPLE/BLUE. Those are the 3 big language groupings in Europe. They are different from each other but eventually related. The big family of which they all are part is called Indo-European and almost every language in Europe is part of this family. The YELLOW languages (Finnish, Hungarian, Estonian, etc) are not, just like Basque (although on this map in orange). The Americas are 4 times the size of Europe. It shouldn't come as a surprise then that there are more languages, and more diversity. There's more than 1 big language family in America... Let's begin in the North. North America has 5 to 8 big language families. Take a look at the map: Green (western Canada) , these are the Na-Dene languages. The most famous Na-Dene language is Diné bizaad, better known as Navajo. The Navajo's (Diné) live in the southwestern part of the US and with +/- 300.000 memers, they are the largest indian nation in North America (that is, north of Mexico). The Navajo are closely related to the various Apache ("Inde") nations. Ancestors of these peoples migrated from the north and arrived in the southwest just before the first Europeans came into this area. Yellow (eastern Canada and much of eastern US), the Algonkians. These were the first peoples to meet the Europeans along the "northeast coast" in the 16th & 17th century. Famous Pocahontas spoke an Algonkian-language, so did the indians who greeted the English Pilgrims around 1620. The Ojibwe (Anishnaabe) and the Cree (Nehilawe) are the largest native nations in Canada (both more than 200.000). Red (central US), the Siouan languages. Probably originated in the eastern part of the US, but most Siouan speaking nations migrated to the central Plains after the arrival of the Europeans. The "Great Sioux Nation" gave its name to the language family although the word "Sioux" (in English pronounced as "soo", in Spanish and Portuguese as "su", and in Dutch as "soe", from the French pronounciation "sou") itself is not a native word. The native name for all the "Sioux nations" is Lakota (also pronounced with a D or N instead of the L). Purple (western US), Uto-Aztecan languages. Named after the most northern (not entirely true) nation speaking such a language, the Utes (Nuutsiu), and the most southern one, the famous Aztecs (Nahuah/Mexicah) in Mexico. Another very famous Uto-Aztecan speaking people is the Hopi (Hopituh Shi-nu-mu) nation. Three big language families of which the first one (blue on the CA-map) is the already mentioned Uto-Aztecan. It is not exactly known how many speakers of Nahuatl (the Aztec language) there were in 1519, when the Spaniards arrived. Probably many millions. Today it is one of the most important (native) American languages with more than one million speakers. Purple on the Central America Map are the Oto-Mangue languages of which the languages of the Zapotecs (Binizaa) and the Mixtec (Ñuu Savi) both are spoken by about half a million people, mainly in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. A lot of Mixtecs and Zapotecs also live in the US (California). The languages in (dark) green are the ones spoken by the Mayas. What many people in the Western World often don't realize is that there are many different Mayan peoples. In Guatemala alone, there are more than 20 and they all have their own Mayan-language. The most well known are the largest groups, the K'iche' (more than 1 million), & the Kaqchikel (around 1 million) in Guatemala, the Yucatec Mayas (a million) in Mexico (Yucatán) SOUTH AMERICALinguistic diversity is the south (especially in the western part of the Amazon) was (and still is) very high. The 5 largest families were/are: Light blue/turquoise: Quechuan, today spoken by about 8 million people in the Andes and bordering Amazonian areas, from south Colombia all the way to northern Chile and Argentina. One of the Quechuan languages was the lingua franca of the Incan empire. Most Quechuan speaking peoples call themselves "Runa" Green: Cariban. The name comes from a people that lived and lives in the Guyanas and Venezuela: the Kaliña (Kalinha/Kali'na/Kari'na/Carib). It was a word Columbus recorded in his diaries and that very soon became the Spanish word for a "maneating savage", a cannibal. It should be noted however that the word cannibal/carib in most cases actually didn't describe a man eating people but a people that refused to cooperate or to surrender with/to the Spaniards. In a lot of cases rebellious natives who simply resisted Spanish colonization, were specifically called cannibals/caribs to justify war against them or even their complete extermination. A lot of so called caribs didn't even speak a Cariban language. There are about 10.000 Kali'na people today (Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French Guyana), but there are almost 3 times as many Macuxi (Macushi) in Brazil and Guyana. Yellow: almost every Ge (actually Macro-Gê) language is spoken in Brazil. Although many people have never heard of the word Ge (or "Jê", the G/J is pronounced as in Portuguese), most people do have an immage of an amazonian indian, and that's because of the +/- 7.000 Kayapó indians (own name Mebêngôkre) who were made famous by singer Gordon Matthew Thomas Sumner, himself better known as Sting. Purple: the first people Columbus met in 1492 were Arawakan speaking peoples who lived on the Bahama's, Hispañola (Haiti & Dominican republic), Cuba and other islands in the Caribbean like Puerto Rico. The Arawakan speakers had/have the most widespread population of all South American families. From the Bahama's (some scholars even think Florida), south to Argentina, and from the Andes to the Atlantic Ocean. The name is derived from the Arawaks (Lokono) who live (+/- 3000) in the Guyana's and Venezuela. The Goajiro (own name and most used one nowadays Wayuu), living in Colombia and Venezuela are half a million people strong. Red/Orange: Tupian languages. Like the Arawakan languages, spread over almost the whole South American continent. From northern Brazil to Argentina and westwards neighbouring the Andes. Named after the Tupinamba who lived along the coast of Brazil when the Portuguese arrived in 1500. Today they are almost gone (through genocide and absorption into the mainstream Brazilian society). The (different) Guaraní (Avá) peoples (+/- a million) however are one of the largest American nations still alive. They live in southern Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina & Bolivia, but mainly in Paraguay, where one of the Guaraní languages even is -together with Spanish- the official language. It is the only native language on the American continent that is wildely spoken by non-natives (up to 5 million).
Presentation on theme: "Complete and Incomplete Metamorphosis Let’s look at the difference! Modified from a presentation by the Lebanon Special School District."— Presentation transcript: Complete and Incomplete Metamorphosis Let’s look at the difference! Modified from a presentation by the Lebanon Special School District. What is metamorphosis? Metamorphosis refers to the way that certain organisms develop, grow, and change form. Metamorphosis actually means "change". Two Types of Metamorphosis INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS - has THREE stages COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS - has FOUR stages. INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS Let’s take a closer look at each stage! 3 STAGES OF INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS Egg Nymph Adult EGG A female insect lays hundreds or thousands of eggs. These eggs are often covered by an egg case which protects the eggs and holds them together. NYMPH In an incomplete metamorphosis, the eggs hatch into nymphs. Nymphs looks like small adults, but usually don't have wings. Insect nymphs eat the same food that the adult insect eats. Nymphs shed or molt their exoskeletons (outer casings made up of a hard substance called chitin) and replace them with larger ones several times as they grow. Most nymphs molt 4-8 times. ADULT The insects stop molting when they reach their adult size. By this time, they have also grown wings. COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS Let’s take a closer look at each stage! 4 STAGES OF COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS Egg Larva Pupa Adult EGG The female lays hundreds or thousands of eggs. LARVA Larva hatch from the eggs. They do not look like adult insects. They usually have a worm-like shape. Caterpillars, maggots, and grubs are all just the larval stages of insects. Larvae molt their skin several times and they grow slightly larger. PUPA A pupa makes a cocoon around itself. A pupa doesn't eat while it’s inside its cocoon. Their bodies develop into an adult shape with wings, legs, internal organs, etc. This change takes anywhere from 4 days to many months. ADULT Inside the cocoon, the larvae change into adults. After a period of time, the adult breaks out of the cocoon. Let’s see what we know! Let’s take Professor Know-It-All’s Quiz and see what we have learned! QUESTION #1 What are the two types of metamorphosis? 1.Complete 2.Incomplete QUESTION #2 How many stages are there in an incomplete metamorphosis? Answer: 3 QUESTION #3 Name the three stages of an incomplete metamorphosis. 1.Egg 2.Nymph 3.Adult QUESTION #4 How many stages are there in a complete metamorphosis? Answer: 4 QUESTION #5 Name the stages in complete metamorphosis. 1.Egg 2.Larva 3.Pupa 4.Adult QUESTION #6 Identify the pictured life cycle as complete or incomplete metamorphosis. QUESTION #7 Identify the pictured life cycle as complete or incomplete metamorphosis. QUESTION #8 Identify each stage of the complete metamorphosis of the butterfly. A B C D E F YOU’VE JUST COMPLETED A PROFESSOR KNOW-IT- ALL QUIZ!!!! How did you do???
More info about the Late Carboniferous By the end of the Paleozoic Era, most of the oceans that had opened during the breakup of Pannotia, were consumed as the continents collided to form the supecontinent of Pangea.Centered on the Equator, Pangea stretched from the South Pole to the North Pole, and separated the Paleo-Tethys Ocean to the east, from the Panthalassic Ocean to the west. During the Late Carboniferous and Early Permian the southern regions of Pangea (southern South America and southern Africa, Antarctica, India, southern India, and Australia) were glaciated. Evidence of a north polar ice cap in eastern Siberia during the Late Permian. The broad Central Pangean mountain range formed an equatorial highland that during lateCarboniferous was the locus of coal production in an equatorial rainy belt. By the mid-Permian, the Central Pangean mountain range had moved northward into drier climates and the interior of North America and Northern Europe became desert-like as the continued uplift of the mountain rangeblocked moisture-laden equatorial winds. The term "Pangea" means "all land". Though we call the supercontinent that formed at theend of the Paleozoic Era, "Pangea", this supercontinent probably did not include all the landmasses that existed at that time. In the eastern hemiphere, on either side of the Paleo-TethysOcean, there were continents that were separated from the supercontinent. These continents were North and South China, and a long "windshield-wiper"-shaped continent known as Cimmeria. Cimmeria consisted of parts of Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Tibet, Indochina and Malaya. It appears to have rifted away from the Indo-Australian margin of Gondwana during the LateCarboniferous - Early Permian. Together with the Chinese continents, Cimmeria moved northwards towards Eurasia, ultimately colliding along the southern margin of Siberia during the late Triassic Period. It was only after the collision of these Asian fragments that all the world's landmasses were joined together in a supercontinent deserving of the name "Pangea".
Currently, there aren't any medical tests that can diagnose autism. Usually a specially trained physician or psychologists administer autism-specific behavioural evaluations. Often parents are the first to notice that their child is showing unusual behaviours such as failing to make eye contact, not responding to his or her name or playing with toys in unusual, repetitive ways. Autism is not only found in children and sometimes the disorder is diagnosed later in life. This again is often in relation to learning, social or emotional difficulties. Like with young children, the diagnosis of adolescents and adults involves observation and sometimes an interview by a trained specialist. A diagnosis in an older person can bring relief to those who have struggled with difficulties with social interaction while not understanding the source of these difficulties. Once diagnosed with the disorder, it can also open access to therapies that can improve function in areas of difficulty and in turn improve the quality of relations and life. One of the ways that many people have actively sought treatment for their child or adolescent is through a Speech Pathologist. When a Speech Pathologist is assisting a patient with Autism Spectrum Disorder, it's their job to evaluate how well the child can communicate and socialise in every aspect. This analysis can take place at a clinic, as well as at home and other informal settings. It's not a quick process, as Autism Spectrum Disorder can have such varying degrees of intensity and presentation in a patient. A well-trained and experienced Speech Pathologist can gauge communicative and language skills effectively and will work to have a diagnosis as quickly as they can. A Speech Pathologist can also pick up on social cues that suggest the presence of Autism Spectrum Disorder but could be misdiagnosed as a variety of other conditions. The prevalence of language and communication-based difficulties in the condition means that a good Speech Pathologist is well-equipped to 'connect the dots' and draw conclusions based on their required professional expertise. The amount of sessions that one may need will vary, and it is always important to find the right person for treatment.
Register to enable "Calculate" button. Units in critical depth calculation: cm=centimeter, ft=feet, gal=US gallons, m=meters, min=minute, s=second For water flowing in a culvert, it is important to know the critical depth. Though water may not actually be flowing at the critical depth, it is helpful to know if the actual water depth is greater than or less than critical. Critical depth is a quantity of fundamental importance to understanding the flow characteristics. If the actual depth is greater than critical depth, then the flow is considered "subcritical". Subcritical flow is "slow flow" and is impacted by downstream conditions. If the actual depth is less than critical depth, then the flow is "supercritical". Supercritical flow is "fast flow" and is impacted by upstream conditions. It flows faster than the wave speed and is unimpacted by downstream conditions. A detailed discussion of subcritical and supercritical flow can be found on our gradually varied flow calculation page. As water flows down a culvert, the depth may change and pass through the critical depth if the bottom slope, geometry, or pipe material changes. If the flow is initially subcritical and the channel slope increases, the water may undergo a hydraulic drop if it transitions from subcritical to supercritical. Conversely, if the flow is supercritical and the culvert slope becomes flatter, then there could be a hydraulic jump such that the water passes through the critical depth as it becomes subcritical. For a circular pipe, critical depth can be computed based on first principles (mass, momentum, and energy conservation). For a mild downward sloping culvert (slope less than about 10%), the specific energy is (Chow, 1959, p. 41): The channel cross-sectional area can be written in terms of the geometry as (Chow, 1959, p. 21): Critical depth occurs when energy is at a minimum with respect to depth, dE/dY=0. The following equation is obtained when energy is minimized: LMNO Engineering uses a numerical solution method to solve the above equation for θc and then for Yc. Our calculation allows you to use a variety of units with all of the conversions computed internally. The units shown below are SI (international system of units). A = Flow area of water, m2. D = Inside diameter of pipe (culvert), m. E = Specific energy, m. g = Acceleration of gravity = 9.8066 m/s2. Q = Flow rate (discharge), m3/s. V = Velocity, m/s. Y = Water depth, m. Yc = Critical depth, m. θ = Angle of water in cross-section, radians. θc = Angle at critical depth, radians. Messages given by calculation "Need Diameter > 0", "Need Flowrate > 0", "Need D≥1e-6 m", "Need D≤1000 m", "Need Q≥1e-9 m3/s", "Need Q≤1e6 m3/s". These are input checks. Input diameter and flow rate must be positive numbers. D must be between 10-6 m and 1000 m. Q must be between 10-9 m3/s and 106 m3/s. "Need larger Q or smaller D". Run-time error. The combination of flow rate and diameter that were input result in a very small critical depth approaching "Need smaller Q or larger D". Run-time error. The combination of flow rate and diameter that were input result in critical depth greater than the pipe Chow, V. T. 1959. Open-Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill, Inc. © 2009-2013 LMNO Engineering, Research, and Software, Ltd. (All Rights Reserved) LMNO Engineering, Research, and Software, Ltd. 7860 Angel Ridge Rd. Athens, Ohio 45701 USA LMNO Engineering home page (more calculations) Manning Equation for Circular Culvert Culvert Design using Inlet and Outlet Control Flowrate using End Depth Method Unit Conversions Page
Monday, May 16, 2011 Seniors- A Class Divided In 1968 Jane Elliot of Ricetown, Iowa was supposed to teach a Sioux Indian lesson to her third grade class with the prayer "Help me not judge a person until I have walked in his shoes." However, the day after Martin Luther King was assassinated, she decided her students needed a life-long lesson. As a result, her brown eyes, blue eyes experiment taught her third graders an influential lesson on discrimination. Hopefully, it was an eye-opening program for you seniors to watch. Choose one of the following questions and write a one page typed response, citing specific examples from the program. Click here if you need to watch it again. 1. What did you learn from the program? What scenes do you remember the most? Did any part of the film surprise you? 2. How did the negative and positive labels placed on the group become self-fulfilling prophecies? Be sure to discuss the children's body language. 3. How did Jane Elliot's discrimination create no-win situations for those placed in the inferior group? How did she selectively interpret behavior to conform the stereotypes she assigned?
What do Stonehenge, Mayan pyramids, and a spacecraft a million miles away have in common? They're linked by a human need to explore and understand the Sun, moon, planets, and stars. Image to right: A Snapshot of the Sun: This up-to-date solar movie is from SOHO (Solar and Heliospheric Observatory), a NASA-European Space Agency satellite. Click on image for movie (no audio-1.3 MB.) You can also watch live views from your computer. Credit: NASA/ESA This year's Sun-Earth Day on March 20 focuses on "Ancient Observatories: Timeless Knowledge" and falls on the vernal equinox when day and night are the same length. Appropriately, NASA and the Exploratorium in San Francisco are focusing on ancient peoples and their fascination with the Sun, which played a major role in most Native American religious practices and social events. NASA continues to pay close attention to the Sun today through ground and satellite-based observatories, still seeking to understand this star as a dominant influence on our lives. The Sun seems to have a major role not only in religious practices of indigenous people, but also art, culture, and more. Image to left: Hovenweep National Monument: This spectacular sunset was taken during the 2004 summer solstice at Hovenweep National Monument (HNM). Hovenweep National Monument protects five prehistoric, Puebloan-era villages spread over a twenty-mile expanse of mesa tops and canyons along the Utah-Colorado border. The "sun room" a rectangular room attached to southern side of this tower could have been used to mark the equinoxes and solstices. Beams of light shine through portholes illuminating lintels on doorways in the room. Credit: Troy Cline For example, the Mayans built the Pyramid of Kulkulkan in El Castillo, Mexico between 1000 and 1200 A.D. with the Sun's movement in mind. Located in the ruins of Chichen Itza, this 75 foot-tall, squared based pyramid is unique among all known pyramids worldwide for its central role in a dramatic shadow and light display during the spring and fall equinoxes. The axes that run through the northwest and southwest corners of the pyramid are oriented toward the rising point of the Sun at the summer solstice and its setting point at the winter solstice. Kukulcan is the Mayan name for the Feathered Serpent God (also known as Quetzalcoatl to the Aztecs). Image to right: Brochure-Ancient Observatories, Timeless Knowledge: Download the official Sun-Earth Day brochure and explore ancient and modern observatories throughout the world. Click here for the official website Credit: NASA In Chaco Canyon, located in the Chaco Culture National Historic Park, N.M., several structures indicate the ancient culture's understanding of the Sun's movements. Pueblo Bonito's special corner windows let sunlight through, but only as time marches onwards to the winter or summer solstice. At Casa Rinconada, a window on the south wall lets a beam of light shine into a niche on the back wall at the time of the summer solstice. Fajada Bute projects a dazzling "Sun Dagger," where during equinoxes and solstices, one or sometimes two, thin slivers of light frame a spiral petroglyph. Across the globe to ancient Egyptians, the Sun God Ra was the most universally worshipped king of the gods and all-father of creation. He commanded a chariot that rode across the sky during the day. The magnificent temple at Karnak celebrates Ra through its enormous pillars, designed in harmony with the Sun and stars over a span of nearly 2000 years. Image to left: Sun-Earth Day Site: Play the part of archaeologist on this companion Sun-Earth Day site that uses satellite images, photographs, and historical records to provide a timeline for two ancient observatories. Credit: NASA/Ideum We may never know for certain just how these solar-inspired structures were used. There also remains some controversy about their exact details and the actual intent of their creators. But we can at least admire their creators for what must have been a sophisticated understanding of the Sun's movements. We can also admire them for their cleverness in applying this knowledge to enhance their own survival in a largely unforgiving environment. The purpose of Sun-Earth Day is to get people to understand that the Sun is a magnetic star that impacts the Earth and other planets in our solar system, and that humans of all cultures and times have and will use technology to understand the Sun and the Universe beyond. Image above left: STEREO animation: STEREO is the next big solar mission set to launch in 2006. Two nearly identical spacecraft will image the Sun and its massive explosions in 3-D for the first time ever. Read more about the STEREO mission and click on image for movie (no audio-7.2 MB). Credit: NASA/Chris Meaney. Image above right: The animation shows how Earth's tilted orbit around the Sun creates the different seasons we experience. Day and night are the same length on the vernal equinox, March 20. This year marks the sixth Sun-Earth Day, which falls on or near the equinox (no audio-13 MB). Credit: NASA/Walt Feimer. The latest about the webcast from Chichen Itza: English Educational Program 5pm EST, 4pm Mexico, 2pm PST Observations of solar alignment - Bilingual in English and Spanish 5:45pm EST, 4:45pm Mexico, 2:45pm PST Spanish Educational Program 6pm EST, 5pm Mexico, 3pm PST Governor of Yucatan addressing museum audience after Spanish webcast After the end of the Spanish webcast program, at approximately 3:50-4:10pm PST on Sunday, March 20th, there will be a short segment of webcast featuring the governor of Yucatan, two city mayors, and a group of local children from the Chichen Itza area. This is part of a community outreach program in the San Francisco area and our guests will be addressing the webcast audience attending the Exploratorium event. However, this segment will be available for the general national audience via the same internet and satellite access for the Sun-Earth Day webcast program. Please feel free to view this segment during your event if you find it relevant to your scheduled activities. For more information about Sun-Earth Day, please visit on the Internet: En Espanol por favor visite en el Internet: http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/sun_earthday_spanish.html
Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia or “snail fever”, is a parasitic disease carried by fresh water snails infected with one of the five varieties of the parasite Schistosoma. Found predominantly in tropical and sub-tropical climates, schistosomiasis infects 240 million people in as many as 78 countries, with a vast majority of the burden occuring in Africa. Schistosomiasis ranks second only to malaria as the most common parasitic disease. Schistosomiasis is transmitted by contact with contaminated fresh water (lakes and ponds, rivers, dams) inhabited by snails carrying the parasite. Swimming, bathing, fishing and even domestic chores such as laundry and herding livestock can put people at risk of contracting the disease. Larvae emerge from the snails and swim in the water until they come into contact with an individual and penetrate the skin. Once inside the body, the larvae develop into male and female worms which pair up and live together in the blood vessels for years. Female worms release thousands of eggs which are passed out of the body in the urine and feces. If people urinate or defecate in bodies of freshwater, the eggs migrate to snails where they eventually hatch and begin the cycle again. Some Schistosoma eggs, however, remain trapped in the body and migrate to specific organs (depending on the type of parasite) where they can inflict major damage. Urinary schistosomiasis causes scarring and tearing of the bladder and kidneys, and can lead to bladder cancer. Intestinal schistosomiasis develops slowly, causing abdominal bleeding; enlargement of the liver, lungs and spleen; and damage to the intestines. A major indicator of the disease is blood in the urine and/or feces. - Contact with freshwater sources where infected snails carrying the disease live - Prevalent in as many as 78 countries with over half of all documented cases residing in Africa - Children under age 14 - Individuals with labor or domestic chores centered around freshwater areas - Symptoms for the disease vary depending on the type of worm involved and the location of the parasite inside the body, and can include:Initial itching and rash at infection site (“swimmer’s itch”) - Frequent, painful or bloody urine - Abdominal pain and bloody diarrhea - Fever, chills and muscle aches - Inflammation and scarring of the bladder - Lymph node enlargement - Enlargement of the liver or spleen - Secondary blood disorders in cases of colon damage - If infection persists, bladder cancer may eventually develop in some cases - Children with repeated infection can develop anemia, malnutrition and learning disabilities - Parasites penetrate the skin during contact with freshwater containing contaminated snails. The larvae migrate to the blood vessels where they mate and produce eggs. Some eggs travel to the bladder or intestines and are passed into the urine or stool. Others remain trapped in the body and cause damage to internal organs. - Education campaigns about risks of getting infected by bathing in fresh water lakes and ponds - Praziquantel is the primary form of treatment - A single dose of praziquantel has been shown to reduce the severity of symptoms in cases of subsequent re-infection - 250 million tablets are donated by Merck KGaA for as long as there is need - Praziquantel is also available for purchase for 8¢ per tablet - A schistosomiasis vaccine is currently in the early stages of development by Sabin’s vaccine development team - 240 million people worldwide - A majority of the burden occurs in Africa - Schistosomiasis is the most deadly NTD, killing an estimated 280,000 people each year - Twenty million schistosomiasis sufferers develop severe and sometimes disfiguring disabilities from complications from the disease, including kidney disease, liver disease and bladder cancer - Children with chronic disease can suffer from anemia and malnutrition, which can contribute to lost days at school and pervasive learning disabilities Efforts at Control Recent efforts have focused on targeted distribution of Praziquantel in specific areas thought to be disease-endemic. Schistosomiasis outbreaks can be identified by mapping the rates of blood in the urine of school-age children. If the rates are high, the drug is distributed to the entire community at risk. Annual dosing of Praziquantel is sometimes recommended for areas at high risk for re-infection with the disease, and has also been used to help reduce the severity of symptoms in chronic sufferers. Chronic disease contributes to major organ damage, so reducing the severity of symptoms is critical to the management of schistosomiasis.
The mechanism that helps the brain to to locate where a sound is coming from has been identified by researchers. Animals have to capacity to locate the source of a sound by detecting microsecond (one millionth of a second) differences in arrival time at their two ears. Scientists have now discovered that one reason these neurons are able to perform such a rapid and sensitive computation is because they are extremely responsive to the input's "rise time"-the time it takes to reach the peak of the synaptic input. The brain computes the different arrival times of sound into each ear to estimate the location of its source. The neurons encoding these differences-called interaural time differences (ITDs)-receive a message from each ear. After receiving these messages, or synaptic inputs, they perform a microsecond computation to determine the source of sound. The researchers examined this process in gerbils, which are good candidates for study because they process sounds in a similar frequency range and with apparently similar neuro-architecture as humans. They showed that the rise times of the synaptic inputs coming from the two ears occur at different speeds: the rise time of messages coming from the ipsilateral ear are faster than those driven by the contralateral ear (the brain has two groups of neurons that compute this task, one group in each brain hemisphere-ipsilateral messages come from the same-side ear and the contralateral messages come from opposite-side ear). In addition, they found that the arrival time of the messages coming from each ear were different. Given this newfound complexity of the way sound reaches the neurons in the brain, the researchers concluded that neurons did not have the capacity to process it in the way previously theorized. Key insights about how these neurons actually function in processing sound coming from both ears were obtained by using the computer model. Their results identified that neurons perform the computation differently than what neuroscientists had proposed previously. These neurons not only encode the coincidence in arrival time of the two messages from each ear, but they also detect details on the input's shape more directly related to the time scale of the computation itself than other features proposed in previous studies. "Some neurons in the brain respond to the net amplitude and width of summed inputs; they are integrators. These auditory neurons respond to the rise time of the summed input and care less about the width. They are differentiators-key players on the brain's calculus team for localizing a sound source," explained Pablo Jercog and John Rinzel, two of the study's co-authors. The findings will be published in PLoS Biology.
Anthropomorphism is a term coined in the mid 1700s to refer to any attribution of human characteristics (or characteristics assumed or believed by some to belong only to humans) to animals or non-living things, phenomena, material states and objects or abstract concepts. Examples include animals and plants and forces of nature such as winds, rain or the sun depicted as creatures with human motivations, and/or the abilities to reason and converse. The term derives from the combination of the Greek ἄνθρωπος (ánthrōpos), "human" and μορφή (morphē), "shape" or "form". As a literary device, anthropomorphism is strongly associated with art and storytelling where it has ancient roots. Most cultures possess a long-standing fable tradition with anthropomorphised animals as characters that can stand as commonly recognised types of human behavior. From the beginnings of human behavioural modernity in the Upper Paleolithic, about 40,000 years ago, examples of zoomorphic (animal-shaped) works of art occur that may represent the earliest evidence we have of anthropomorphism. One of the oldest known is an ivory sculpture, the Lion man of the Hohlenstein Stadel, Germany, a human-shaped figurine with a lion's head, determined to be about 32,000 years old. It is not possible to say what exactly these prehistoric artworks represent. A more recent example is The Sorcerer, an enigmatic cave painting from the Trois-Frères Cave, Ariège, France: the figure's significance is unknown, but it is usually interpreted as some kind of great spirit or master of the animals. In either case there is an element of anthropomorphism. This anthropomorphic art has been linked by archaeologist Steven Mithen with the emergence of more systematic hunting practices in the Upper Palaeolithic (Mithen 1998). He proposes that these are the product of a change in the architecture of the human mind, an increasing fluidity between the natural history and social intelligences, where anthropomorphism allowed hunters to empathetically identify with hunted animals and better predict their movements. In religion and mythology In religion and mythology, anthropomorphism refers to the perception of a divine being or beings in human form, or the recognition of human qualities in these beings. Many mythologies are concerned with anthropomorphic deities who express human characteristics such as jealousy, hatred, or love. The Greek gods, such as Zeus and Apollo, were often depicted in human form exhibiting human traits. Anthropomorphism in this case is referred to as anthropotheism. Numerous sects throughout history have been called anthropomorphites attributing such things as hands and eyes to God, including a sect in Egypt in the 4th century, and a 10th-century sect, who literally interpreted Genesis 1:27: "So God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them". From the perspective of adherents to religions in which humans were created in the form of the divine, the phenomenon may be considered theomorphism, or the giving of divine qualities to humans. In Genesis 1&2 The accounts in the Hebrew Bible of the creation located in the first book of the Torah named Genesis often give anthropomorphic qualities to the Deity credited for creation. “The Lord God is down to earth, immanent, and described in vividly anthropomorphic language.” Examples of these anthropomorphism of God are instances such as “and God said…” which would allude to the deity speaking like a human would. Perhaps a clearer example would be from the second creation account found in Genesis 2:7 when it speaks to the notion that God created man from the dust of the ground. In essence, this gives God a pair of hands, another human characteristic. Verse 7 also alludes to the idea that God “breathed into his nostrils the breath of life” giving God a mouth and oxygen to breath into a human to produce life. “he is formed form the dust of the ground rather than created in the image of God. Formed suggests an act of physical molding, as a potter forms clay.” Much of this text is used as the basis for creationism. Some religions, scholars, and philosophers found objections to anthropomorphic deities. The Greek philosopher Xenophanes (570–480 BC) said that "the greatest god" resembles man "neither in form nor in mind". Anthropomorphism of God is rejected by Judaism and Islam, which both believe that God is beyond human limits of physical comprehension. Judaism's rejection grew during the Hasmonean period (circa 300 BC) due to Greek philosophy becoming incorporated in Jewish belief. Judaism's rejection grew further following the Muslim Renaissance (10 century BC) later codified in 13 principles of Jewish faith authored by Maimonides in the 12th Century. Hindus do not reject the concept of God in the abstract unmanifested but note problems; Lord Krishna said in the Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 12, Verse 5, that it is much more difficult to focus on God as the unmanifested than God with form, i.e., using anthropomorphic icons (murtis), due to human beings having the need to perceive via the senses. In his book Faces in the Clouds: A New Theory of Religion, Stewart Elliott Guthrie theorizes that all religions are anthropomorphisms that originate due to the brain's tendency to detect the presence or vestiges of other humans in natural phenomena. Anthropomorphism, sometimes referred to as personification, is a well established literary device from ancient times. It extends back to before Aesop's Fables in 6th century BC Greece and the collections of linked fables from India, the Jataka Tales and Panchatantra, which employ anthropomorphised animals to illustrate principles of life. Many of the stereotypes of animals that are recognised today, such as the wiley fox and the proud lion, can be found in these collections. Aesop's anthropomorphisms were so familiar by the 1st century AD that they coloured the thinking of at least one philosopher: \|“\|\|And there is another charm about him, namely, that he puts animals in a pleasing light and makes them interesting to mankind. For after being brought up from childhood with these stories, and after being as it were nursed by them from babyhood, we acquire certain opinions of the several animals and think of some of them as royal animals, of others as silly, of others as witty, and others as innocent.\|\|„\| \|~ Apollonius of Tyana\| Apollonius noted that the fable was created to teach wisdom through fictions that are meant to be taken as fictions, contrasting them favourably with the poets' stories of the gods that are sometimes taken literally. Aesop, "by announcing a story which everyone knows not to be true, told the truth by the very fact that he did not claim to be relating real events". The same consciousness of the fable as fiction is to be found in other examples across the world, one example being a traditional Ashanti way of beginning tales of the anthropomorphic trickster-spider Anansi: "We do not really mean, we do not really mean that what we are about to say is true. A story, a story; let it come, let it go." Anthropomorphic motifs have been common in fairy tales from the earliest ancient examples set in a mythological context to the great collections of the Brothers Grimm and Perrault. The Tale of Two Brothers (Egypt, 13th century BC) features several talking cows and in Cupid and Psyche (Rome, 2nd century AD) Zephyrus, the west wind, carries Psyche away. Later an ant feels sorry for her and helps her in her quest. Building on the popularity of fables and fairy tales, specifically children's literature began to emerge in the 19th century with works such as Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) by Lewis Carroll, The Adventures of Pinocchio (1883) by Carlo Collodi and The Jungle Book (1894) by Rudyard Kipling, all employing anthropomorphic elements. This continued in the 20th century with many of the most popular titles having anthropomorphic characters, examples being The Tales of Beatrix Potter (1901 onwards), The Wind in the Willows (1908) by Kenneth Grahame, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe by C. S. Lewis and Winnie-the-Pooh (1926) by A. A. Milne. In many of these stories the animals can be seen as representing facets of human personality and character. As John Rowe Townsend remarks, discussing The Jungle Book in which the boy Mowgli must rely on his new friends the bear Baloo and the black panther Bagheera, "The world of the jungle is in fact both itself and our world as well". Another notable work is George Orwell's Animal Farm. The fantasy genre developed from mythological, fairy tale and Romance motifs and characters, sometimes with anthropomorphic animals. The best-selling examples of the genre are The Hobbit (1937) and The Lord of the Rings (1954–1955), both by J. R. R. Tolkien, books peopled with talking creatures such as ravens, spiders and the dragon Smaug and a multitude of anthropomorphic goblins and elves. John D. Rateliff calls this the "Doctor Dolittle Theme" in his book The History of the Hobbit and Tolkien saw this anthropomorphism as closely linked to the emergence of human language and myth: "...The first men to talk of 'trees and stars' saw things very differently. To them, the world was alive with mythological beings... To them the whole of creation was "myth-woven and elf-patterned". In the 20th century, the children's picture book market expanded massively. Perhaps a majority of picture books have some kind of anthropomorphism, with popular examples being The Very Hungry Caterpillar (1969) by Eric Carle and The Gruffalo (1999) by Julia Donaldson. From the 1960's through the 1990's, anthropomorphism has also been involved in various animated TV shows such as "Biker Mice From Mars" and "SWAT Kats: The Radical Squadron". In the mid-2000's, a Canadian-New Zealand-American animated TV show called "Turbo Dogs" starred anthro dog characters. In 2010, a French-American animated TV show "The Mysteries of Alfred Hedgehog" was entirely consisted of woodland anthropomorphic characters. The upcoming 2011 animated Hindi remake of the 1998 film "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai": "Koochie Koochie Hota Hain" will consist of three anthropomorphic dogs (one female and two males) and the supporting cast of anthro farm animals.
using turbines just like the ones in hydroelectric power stations. Britain has four pumped storage facilities, which can store 30 GWh be- tween them (table 26.4, figure 26.6). They are typically used to store excess electricity at night, then return it during the day, especially at moments of peak demand – a profitable business, as figure 26.5 shows. The Dinorwig power station – an astonishing cathedral inside a mountain in Snowdonia – also plays an insurance role: it has enough oomph to restart the national grid in the event of a major failure. Dinorwig can switch on, from 0 to 1.3 GW power, in 12 seconds. Dinorwig is the Queen of the four facilities. Let’s review her vital statis- tics. The total energy that can be stored in Dinorwig is about 9 GWh. Its upper lake is about 500 m above the lower, and the working volume of 7 million m3 flows at a maximum rate of 390 m3/s, allowing power delivery at 1.7 GW for 5 hours. The efficiency of this storage system is 75%. If all four pumped storage stations are switched on simultaneously, they can produce a power of 2.8 GW. They can switch on extremely fast, coping with any slew rate that demand-fluctuations or wind-fluctuations could come up with. However the capacity of 2.8 GW is not enough to replace 10 GW or 33 GW of wind power if it suddenly went missing. Nor is the total energy stored (30 GWh) anywhere near the 1200 GWh we are interested in storing in order to make it through a big lull. Could pumped
Mesothelioma is a rare form of cancer that begins in the thin layer of tissue that covers most of the internal organs (the mesothelium). It is most commonly caused by exposure to asbestos and can take many years to develop. There are three main types of mesothelioma: pleural mesothelioma, peritoneal mesothelioma and pericardial mesothelioma Mesothelioma is a type of cancer that affects the mesothelial cells of the body, which make up the protective linings of many of our organs. It is most commonly associated with exposure to asbestos and is the leading cause of asbestos-related deaths in the United States. Mesothelioma was first identified in the late 1800s and is believed to have been caused by exposure to asbestos, however, its full potential for developing into a serious condition was not understood until much later. The first recorded death from mesothelioma occurred in the 1920s, but it wasn’t until the late 1960s that medical professionals began to fully recognize the dangers of asbestos exposure and the connection to mesothelioma. Mesothelioma is a preventable and highly treatable form of cancer, but it is also an aggressive form of cancer that can quickly spread to other parts of the body. Treatment for mesothelioma usually consists of surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, or a combination of the three. The most effective treatments often depend on the stage of the cancer at the time of diagnosis. The history of mesothelioma is an important part of understanding the effects of asbestos exposure, and the need to protect individuals from this dangerous substance. Despite the fact that mesothelioma is a largely preventable and treatable form of cancer, the number of people who are diagnosed with mesothelioma is still on the rise, making it an important issue to educate people about. Mesothelioma, after diagnosis The first step after being diagnosed with mesothelioma is to seek medical attention from a specialist who is familiar with treating the disease. A specialist may recommend various treatments, such as chemotherapy, radiation, and/or surgery, depending on the stage of mesothelioma and the patient’s overall health. It is also important to speak with an experienced lawyer and a mesothelioma patient advocate to explore legal options and find additional support. A lawyer can explain the process of filing a claim for compensation from a liable party and assist the patient in receiving the compensation they deserve. The patient is also encouraged to connect with a mesothelioma support group. These groups provide emotional and practical support, such as advice on coping with the diagnosis, finding financial assistance, obtaining resources for care, and more. Finally, mesothelioma patients can work with their doctor and treatment team to develop a tailored treatment plan that meets their individual needs. This plan should include regular monitoring and testing to detect any changes in the mesothelioma. Mesothelioma is a type of cancer that affects the lining of the lungs, abdomen, or heart. It is caused by exposure to asbestos, a natural mineral made up of tiny fibers. The earliest recorded cases of mesothelioma were reported in the early 1900s. However, it was not until the 1930s that the cause of mesothelioma was linked to asbestos exposure. During this time, reports of asbestos-related diseases began to emerge worldwide. In the 1940s and 1950s, asbestos was used extensively in the construction industry, resulting in significant exposure to workers. During this time, many workers developed mesothelioma, but the cause of the disease was not yet understood. In the 1960s, research began to show a clear connection between asbestos exposure and mesothelioma. In the 1970s and 1980s, more studies were conducted which confirmed the link between asbestos exposure and mesothelioma. In the 1990s, governments around the world started to recognize the dangers of asbestos and began to enact regulations to limit its use. As a result, the incidence of mesothelioma began to decline. Today, mesothelioma is a recognized occupational disease and is treated with a variety of treatments, including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation. Despite this progress, asbestos is still used in some countries, and the incidence of mesothelioma remains high in certain areas. - Shortness of breath - Chest pain - Abdominal pain - Fluid buildup in the chest or abdomen - Difficulty swallowing - Weight loss - Hoarseness/changes in voice - Muscle weakness - Clubbing (enlargement) of the fingers or toes - Blood clots Mesothelioma cancer lawyer If you or a loved one has been diagnosed with mesothelioma, it is important to contact a mesothelioma cancer lawyer as soon as possible. A mesothelioma cancer lawyer can help you understand your legal rights, protect your interests, and fight for justice and compensation. Mesothelioma cancer lawyers are experienced in handling mesothelioma-related cases and can provide comprehensive legal advice and guidance. They have a deep understanding of the science and medicine behind mesothelioma, the various legal theories that may apply to your situation, and the compensation options available to you. A mesothelioma cancer lawyer can also help you craft creative legal strategies, negotiate with insurers and other parties, and ultimately win justice for you and your loved ones. Mesothelioma cancer lawsuit If you or a loved one have been diagnosed with mesothelioma cancer, you may want to consider filing a mesothelioma lawsuit to seek compensation for the losses associated with your illness. Mesothelioma is an aggressive form of cancer that is caused by asbestos exposure. When filing a mesothelioma lawsuit, you will need to prove that you were exposed to asbestos at some point in your life, and that it caused your cancer. An experienced mesothelioma lawyer can help you through this process, and guide you through the legal process of filing a mesothelioma lawsuit. They can also help you determine the best legal strategy for your situation, as well as explain your rights and the types of compensation you may be entitled to. Mesothelioma class action lawsuit settlements The amount of any settlement or award for a mesothelioma class action lawsuit will depend on the specific facts and circumstances of the case. Generally, mesothelioma settlements or awards are based on the extent of harm suffered by the plaintiff, the amount of medical bills, lost wages, and other damages as a result of the mesothelioma diagnosis. It is important to keep in mind that each case is different and the amount of any settlement or award may vary significantly from case to case. What is the lowest mesothelioma settlement? The lowest mesothelioma settlement can vary depending on factors such as the location of where the injury occurred, the amount of asbestos exposure, and the severity of the injury. Generally, settlements are anywhere between $15,000 and $1.5 million. Best Mesothelioma Lawyer If you or a loved one has been diagnosed with mesothelioma, it’s important to seek out the best mesothelioma lawyer for your case. The best mesothelioma lawyers are those with a track record of success in handling mesothelioma cases, experience in the field, and knowledgeable of the legal complexities associated with asbestos lawsuits. Examples of top mesothelioma law firms include Baron & Budd, Weitz & Luxenberg, and Belluck & Fox. Each of these firms have experienced attorneys with a proven track record of success in mesothelioma cases. Additionally, they offer free consultations and provide legal services on a contingency fee basis, meaning that you only pay for their legal fees if there is a successful outcome for your case. Finding the right mesothelioma lawyer can mean the difference between getting the resources you need to fight the disease and not getting the compensation you are owed. The best mesothelioma lawyer will know the law and be able to provide you with the legal knowledge you need to pursue your case. When looking for a mesothelioma lawyer, you should always consider the experience, reputation and abilities of the lawyer. Find out how many mesothelioma cases they have handled in the past and look for testimonials from satisfied clients. It’s also important to find out what kind of settlements have been won in the past and if the lawyer is well-versed in the laws governing mesothelioma cases. You can find a mesothelioma lawyer by searching online, looking through the Yellow Pages, or talking to friends or family. The American Bar Association is also a good resource to find a qualified mesothelioma lawyer. Once you have narrowed down your choices, it’s important to schedule a consultation with your chosen attorney. This will give you an opportunity to discuss your case in more detail and get to know the lawyer. When looking for the best mesothelioma lawyer, it’s important to remember that the attorney you choose should be able to provide you with the legal knowledge and experience to successfully pursue your case. They should be knowledgeable about the laws governing mesothelioma cases and be able to provide you with the representation you need to fight for the compensation you are owed. A mesothelioma lawyer is an attorney who specializes in representing clients who have been diagnosed with mesothelioma (a rare cancer caused by asbestos exposure). Mesothelioma lawyers have extensive knowledge of state and federal laws related to asbestos and provide legal counsel to mesothelioma patients and their families on issues such as filing a claim, and filing a lawsuit against those responsible for their asbestos exposure. They also represent mesothelioma survivors and their families in their pursuit of financial compensation.
Makey Makey Orchestra About this lesson In this learning sequence students explore an orchestra and use Makey Makey to make a musical instrument for an ensemble. Year band: 5-6Curriculum Links Assessment Links with Digital Technologies Curriculum Area \|Digital Technologies Knowledge and Understanding\|\|Examine the main components of common digital systems and how they may connect together to form networks to transmit data (ACTDIK014).\| \|Digital Technologies Processes and Production Skills\|\|Design, modify and follow simple algorithms involving sequences of steps, branching, and iteration (repetition) (ACTDIP019).\| Links with the Arts Curriculum Area \|Music\|\|Rehearse and perform music including music they have composed by improvising, sourcing and arranging ideas and making decisions to engage an audience (ACAMUM090)\| After collecting the learning reflections, you can analyse the reflections to identify if students have: - described digital systems as having inputs and outputs - described digital systems as having internal and external components that perform different functions - shown the individual steps for the ensemble - shown loops or iterations as well sequences in the algorithm - used their own language to show what to do in an algorithm that can be understood by everyone in the ensemble. See an annotated student reflection as an example Download PDF here. Watch the iPad Orchestra play Beethoven’s Symphony No. 5. Ask the students what they notice about the instruments in the orchestra. They’ll see that the musicians are using iPads to play their different instruments. Ask students to list all of the different instruments they can see being played. Ask students to compare the iPad Orchestra to the instruments used in the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra’s performance of Sergei Prokofiev’s Romeo and Juliet. What are the different instruments? How do they work together? Do they all play at the same time? What do both orchestras have in common? Finally, watch a portion of Who says you can't play with food? The Vegetable Orchestra at TEDxVienna. In this video, the orchestra uses vegetables to create music. Discuss with the students the three different types of orchestras they have seen, and their similarities and differences. Orchestras are groups of instruments that play together to create a piece of music, but as we have seen in these videos the instruments can be different. The commonalities include - instructions (sheet music) telling musicians when and what to play - playing patterns - individual patterns coming together. Each member of the orchestra is aware of what the others are doing, and they keep in time to create a piece of music. Learning map and outcomes In this sequence of lessons, students will improvise and experiment with combinations of sounds and technologies to create moods and atmospheres. Using a Makey Makey, they will create an ensemble piece using sounds they have recorded and they will perform this with others. Show students the short clip of a Makey Makey orchestra to give an example of what one might look like. Students will explore the following understandings: - We can describe digital systems as having inputs and outputs. - We can describe digital systems as having internal and external components that perform different functions. - Algorithms are steps that can tell a computer what to do. - We use special languages to show what to do in an algorithm. Explain to students that they will make their own piece of music in groups, using different sounds to do so. Music can tell a story or set a theme. Listen to examples of music that tell a story, such as Camille Saint-Saëns’ The Carnival of the Animals or Sergei Prokofiev’s Peter and the Wolf. Creating a topic and collecting sounds Students form groups of three or four and select a topic or story for their project (eg ‘Penguins on the ice’, ‘Little Red Riding Hood’, ‘Children in a playground’ or ‘Birds in the sky’). They brainstorm the different musical effects they might need to consider and storyboard the different parts of the music, annotating for when the tempo is slow or fast. Students explore different sounds they can use to make up their ensemble. This may include walking around the school grounds or collecting items. They can revisit the video of the Vegetable Orchestra to identify different ways sounds can be made (eg scraping, hitting and rattling). Exploring the Makey Makey Show students the Makey Makey board. A Makey Makey is a peripheral device just like a USB keyboard or mouse. It is a circuit and it works like a switch with a light bulb, opening and closing circuits. When the circuit is closed through the conductive objects you connect with alligator clips, the Makey Makey sends a command to your computer, just like when a button is pressed on a keyboard. Be explicit in your explanation to students that in this digital system the wires are used to connect and transfer data from one digital system to another. If the wires are not connected the data does not get transferred. Ask students to follow the instructions to set up the Makey Makey. They can then spend some time exploring how it works. They can test different types of conductors (eg playdoh, fruit, sticks and foil) and different websites or programs with the Makey Makey (eg games, Word documents or Scratch). Making sounds with Scratch Students can use Scratch to make and play their sounds with the Makey Makey. Scratch is a drag-and-drop programming language that allows you to create your own interactive stories, games and animations. Each block tells the game or app what to do. Students will need to start with the event block ‘When space bar key pressed’. Connected to this they will need to add a sound. They can record sounds using the sounds tab on the Scratch page. They then follow the same process for the left, right, up and down arrows, recording different sounds. They record their sounds and decide on the materials they will use for their ‘keys.’ Useful links include: Students now have all of the tools (instruments) they will need to create the algorithm (or compose the music). Show students a piece of sheet music. Like an algorithm telling a computer what to do, the sheet music tells the musician what to play. In the same way, students will create a language to tell the musician which part of the Makey Makey materials they need to press and when or how often. Give students time to explore what their composition will be by allowing them to try different tempos, patterns and melodies. Students then consider how they can represent the different sounds that will be played and when (eg in words, symbols or pictures). This will become their algorithm for the piece of music, telling the user what to do and the steps that will be taken. Use an example algorithm to show how their music might be represented. Point out some of the features of the algorithm that students should show in their composition: - input and output - ‘if … then’ statements to show what will happen when the instrument is touched - iterations to show when sounds or patterns repeat - symbols to show the different buttons pressed and the tempo. When students have completed their composition and algorithm, they can practise their composition for the final performance. At this point they should be encouraged to make modifications to their algorithm as needed. Set up an opportunity for groups to share their final composition. This could be in a special event where they share their compositions with the school community or a show they put on for another class. Student can share their theme and ask for feedback as to whether the audience understood what was happening in the music and could visualise the topic chosen. Alternatively, the performance can be recorded to an MP3 album for students, which could also be further developed into creating album art or a music clip to go with the recording. Students complete a reflection about their learning using the following questions to consider their piece of music. - Theme of music: What are you trying to have the audience imagine when you are playing your composition? - How does your ensemble work?: Explain how the Makey Makey creates music. - Algorithm: What are the inputs and outputs of your instruments? What are the steps and sequences that your composition has? Remember to add any iterations. During the reflection, you can discuss with students the challenges they had, what they needed to consider when working in a group, the changes they had to make, and what they would do differently.
Engage your students with activities and content readings on Reconstruction in Texas – all offered as an independent work packet or for Distance Learning with Google Slides. This resource includes a paper version and a 1:1 Google version to be used with Google Classroom. On the first page will be a link that will have you make a copy of the Google Doc, so be sure to be signed in to your Google account. You can then share directly with your students. In this resource, students will learn about the political, social, and economic effects of Reconstruction in Texas with content area readings, summarize their learning in a variety of process activities, and analyze images and primary sources. You will receive: -A Vocabulary Activity – to introduce and practice key vocabulary terms. – Preview assignments to serve as pre-reading before each content topic. – Readings for each of the topics – these are short “chunked” reading selections to help your students understand each topic: Reconstruction, Texas Governments, Black Codes, Presidential and Radical Reconstruction, and sharecropping. – Additional primary source images, quotes and video clip links. Video clips and songs are accessed with embedded links. – Multiple Processing Activities – to keep students engaged with higher order thinking skills. ⭐Please download the preview for a sample of the activity. ⭐ (5) History. The student understands how events and issues shaped the history of Texas during the Civil War and Reconstruction. The student is expected to: (A) explain the central role the expansion of slavery played in the involvement of Texas in the Civil War; (C) explain the political, economic, and social effects of the Civil War and Reconstruction in Texas. (20) Social studies skills. The student applies critical-thinking skills to organize and use information acquired through established research methodologies from a variety of valid sources, including technology. The student is expected to: (A) differentiate between, locate, and use valid primary and secondary sources such as media and news services, biographies, interviews, and artifacts to acquire information about Texas; (B) analyze information by applying absolute and relative chronology through sequencing, categorizing, identifying cause-and-effect relationships, comparing, contrasting, finding the main idea, summarizing, making generalizations and predictions, and drawing inferences and conclusions; (C) organize and interpret information from outlines, reports, databases, and visuals, including graphs, charts, timelines, and maps; Please review all product descriptions and previews. If you have a question, contact me before you purchase at [email protected]. As this is a digital product, all sales are final. There are no reviews yet.
Publicador de contenidos Back to opinion_CIE_20210624_vulcanismo Researcher at Biodiversity and Environment Institute of the University of Navarra. Beyond the obvious risk to the population posed by a volcanic eruption, the release of magma to the earth's surface has implications for biodiversity that go far beyond the geological risk itself. To take a recent example, we all remember 11 years ago the eruption of an unpronounceable volcano in Iceland.1B Eyjafjallajökull, which affected air traffic all over Europe due to training clouds of ash and gases that spread over the continent. Well, apart from the economic losses in air traffic, tourism, commerce or local industry, the deposit of ash on land caused the contamination of aquifers (especially by fluorine) and a rapid proliferation of plankton in the ocean. However, despite the tremendous effects it caused, the Eyjafjallajökull eruption can in fact be considered small in terms of magma volume when compared to the huge magma outflows that occur when so-called "large igneous provinces" (LIPs) are emplaced. These GPIs are formed by the accumulation of igneous rocks from immense mantle plumes that emit an extraordinary amount of magma to the surface, generating vast extensions where basalts (very basic mantle magmas) are arranged to form large submarine plateaus, when emplaced in oceanic crust (Kerguellen, Seychelles) or large plateaus in continental crust, as in the case of the Deccan basalts (India), the Siberian "trapps" or the shelf basalts in the Columbia River (USA). Given that none of our hominid ancestors have ever coexisted with the outflow of such a colossal amount of magma, we have no data about what would happen to humans in that status. However, it is easy to predict that it would be something catastrophic that would leave the current (and terrible) climate change we are suffering in an almost anecdotal detail. Like many disciplines in geology, we need only look to the past and see what happened to other species when the main manifestations of these large mantle plumes were emplaced. In this sense, their correlation with the five great extinctions that have occurred throughout the history of the planet is well known. The reason is quite evident: an eruption of these characteristics would produce changes of such magnitude in the atmosphere that it would not only darken it for years, but would even modify its composition. In addition to the harmful effects caused by the gases emitted (due to the direct toxicity of compounds such as SO2 or Hg), the ashes expelled in the eruption would produce a global cooling as a result of the decrease in incident radiation. To this we should add other effects such as the destruction of the ozone layer (as a consequence of the emission of halogenated compounds) or the acidification of the environment as result of the emission of sulfur compounds. All this would prevent the development of plant life and lead to a massive loss of species. The last great extinction (the 5th), which occurred 65 million years ago, coinciding with the famous Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, led to the disappearance of 75% of the planet's species, including dinosaurs. The most accepted hypothesis at present establishes that this extinction was caused by a change in the climate produced by the impact of a large meteorite in the area of Mexico. However, coinciding with that moment was the emplacement of the Deccan basalts in India, which has led part of the academic community to postulate that it could have been the combined effect of both catastrophic events that caused the disappearance of the dinosaurs. The question we can ask ourselves is whether a magmatic manifestation of these dimensions is currently possible. The answer is that it is not possible to know. One of the largest magma chambers underlain by the Earth's crust is the Yellowstone chamber, which, according to the US Geological Survey (USGS), is 40 by 80 kilometers in size. This magmatic manifestation seems to be heir to the one that gave rise to the emplacement of the basalts of the Columbia River, which has been migrating towards this area due to the movement of tectonic plates. As intensively monitored as it is, its large-scale outflow to the surface cannot be predicted. 1 Iceland is a zone in the Earth's crust where there is a continuous magma outflow due to the extraordinary coincidence of two igneous manifestations that take place in that area of the North Atlantic; on the one hand, the mid-oceanic ridge, which separates the tectonic plates of North America and Eurasia by about 2 cm/year, and on the other hand, the outflow of a large mantle plume in the Cenozoic.
Electric cars have surged in popularity in recent years, driven by concerns about climate change, air pollution, and the need for sustainable transportation solutions. At the heart of these vehicles lie sophisticated battery systems that power their electric motors. In this article, we’ll delve into the fascinating world of electric car batteries, exploring how they work, the different types available, and their role in shaping the future of transportation. Understanding Electric Car Batteries Electric car batteries, also known as traction batteries, serve as the primary energy storage devices in electric vehicles (EVs). Unlike conventional vehicles that rely on internal combustion engines fueled by gasoline or diesel, EVs use electric motors powered by rechargeable batteries. These batteries store electrical energy that is then converted into mechanical energy to propel the vehicle. Types of Electric Car Batteries There are several types of batteries used in electric cars, each with its own unique characteristics and performance attributes. The most common types include: - Lithium-Ion Batteries: These are the most widely used batteries in electric cars due to their high energy density, lightweight design, and relatively low self-discharge rate. Lithium-ion batteries offer excellent power-to-weight ratios, making them ideal for electric vehicles where weight and efficiency are critical factors. - Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries: While not as prevalent as lithium-ion batteries, nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries have been used in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) for many years. NiMH batteries offer a good balance of energy density, power output, and durability, making them suitable for HEVs that combine internal combustion engines with electric propulsion. - Lead-Acid Batteries: Although less common in modern electric cars, lead-acid batteries have been used historically in some electric vehicles and hybrid applications. Lead-acid batteries are known for their low cost and durability but have lower energy density and shorter lifespans compared to other battery types. - Solid-State Batteries: Solid-state batteries represent the next frontier in battery technology, offering higher energy density, faster charging times, and improved safety compared to traditional lithium-ion batteries. These batteries use solid electrolytes instead of liquid electrolytes, which enhances their stability and reduces the risk of fire or leakage. How Electric Car Batteries Work Electric car batteries operate on the principle of electrochemical reactions, where energy is stored and released through the movement of ions between electrodes. In a typical lithium-ion battery, the cathode (positive electrode) contains lithium ions that move towards the anode (negative electrode) during charging, and vice versa during discharging. During charging, an external power source applies a voltage to the battery, causing lithium ions to migrate from the cathode to the anode through the electrolyte. This process stores energy in the battery, which can then be used to power the electric motor during vehicle operation. When the vehicle is in use, the stored energy in the battery is discharged to the electric motor, generating the mechanical power needed to propel the vehicle forward. As the battery discharges, lithium ions move back to the cathode, completing the electrochemical cycle. Battery Management Systems Battery management systems (BMS) play a crucial role in monitoring and controlling the performance of electric car batteries. BMS systems regulate the charging and discharging processes to optimize battery life, prevent overcharging or overheating, and ensure safe operation under various conditions. Additionally, BMS systems provide real-time data on battery health, state of charge, and remaining capacity, allowing drivers to monitor their battery’s performance and plan their journeys accordingly. These systems also incorporate safety features such as thermal management systems and voltage monitoring to prevent battery damage or failure. The Future of Battery Transport As electric vehicles continue to gain traction in the automotive market, advancements in battery technology will play a key role in shaping the future of transportation. Researchers and manufacturers are constantly innovating to develop batteries with higher energy density, faster charging times, and improved durability. Solid-state batteries, in particular, hold immense promise for revolutionizing battery transport, offering a leap forward in performance and safety compared to conventional lithium-ion batteries. With continued investment in research and development, electric car batteries are poised to drive the transition towards a cleaner, more sustainable future for transportation. Battery safety is a critical aspect of electric vehicle (EV) technology, influencing both consumer confidence and regulatory considerations. With the widespread adoption of lithium-ion batteries in EVs, ensuring their safety throughout their lifecycle has become paramount. Thermal runaway, a rare but potentially hazardous event, occurs when a battery cell undergoes uncontrolled heating and can lead to fires or explosions. To address this risk, EV manufacturers have implemented advanced thermal management systems, including liquid cooling and active temperature monitoring, to regulate battery temperatures and prevent overheating. Furthermore, advancements in fire suppression technologies, such as flame-retardant materials and automatic extinguishing systems, are being integrated into EV designs to enhance safety in the event of a thermal runaway. Rigorous testing and certification standards, established by regulatory agencies and industry organizations, play a crucial role in verifying the safety of electric car batteries. These standards encompass various aspects of battery performance and durability, including crashworthiness, waterproofing, and resistance to mechanical abuse. By prioritizing battery safety, stakeholders can build trust in electric vehicles and accelerate their adoption while ensuring the protection of both consumers and the environment. In conclusion, electric car batteries represent the cornerstone of electric vehicle technology, enabling emission-free driving and reducing our dependence on fossil fuels. By understanding how these batteries work and the different types available, we can appreciate their significance in advancing the electrification of transportation and combating climate change.
The numbers we use in our everyday calculations are based on the decimal number system, also known as the denary number system. In this system, the number 10 is used as the base. Each digit in a denary number placeholds a power of 10. For example, starting from the right side and going leftwards, the first digit represents 100 = 1; the second digit represents 101 = 10, the third one represent 100; and so on. Computers, as we know, follow another number system. They work in binary numbers, where each digit can either be a 0 or a 1. This time, each digit is a power of 2 — this is the base of binary numbers. Now binary numbers can get long and gibberish very quickly. The binary representation of See how cryptic the binary equivalent of 35000 looks! This is the reason why we humans can't work the same way with binary numbers as computers can — we just can't comprehend the never-ending sequences of This is where hexadecimal and octal numbers step in. As can be judged by the names, hexadecimal uses base 16 while octal uses base Numbers that otherwise span long lines in binary notation, span considerably lesser space in hex and oct notations. In this chapter, we shall explore the conversion of numbers in Python across these four bases. Specifically, we'll see how to go from bin, hex and oct notation to decimal numbers, and then how to use strings to represent bin, hex and oct numbers. Representing numbers in binary, octal and hexadecimal To represent an integer, specifically in decimal representation, we don't need to do anything special — just write the integer, as it is. x = 10 # 10 in decimal notation However, to represent a number in binary, hexadecimal or octal notation, we need to use a prefix. For binary the prefix is 0b; for hexadecimal, it's 0x; and for octal it's We put a prefix, so that Python knows exactly how to convert the number into a decimal equivalent. All prefixes start with a 0 and end with an alphabet, which can be lowercase or uppercase. For instance, both the prefixes 0B are the same. However, owing to the fact that in uppercase, 0O (octal prefix) might look like two zeroes, it's preferred to use lowercase alphabets. 0bcomes from 'binary'; the 'x' in 0xcomes from 'hexadecimal'; and the 'o' in 0ocomes from octal. A number written in this way gets converted from the respective base into a decimal integer by Python. Let's see some examples in all three of these notations: x = 15 bin_x = 0b1111 hex_x = 0xf oct_x = 017 In line 3, 0b1111 represents the binary number 1111 which is 15 in decimal, and gets converted into this decimal equivalent. If we print bin_x we see that it is 0xf represents the hexadecimal number f, which is also 15 in decimal, and ultimately gets converted into this decimal number. 0o17 denotes the octal number 17 which is once again, equal to Converting to bin, hex and oct In the section above, we saw how to go from bin, hex and oct representations to the decimal representation by prefixing the numbers with the respective prefix and then letting the interpreter do its computation. It's also possible to go from decimal to these 3 representations. However you have to understand one key idea here.. Non-decimal numbers are stringified Numbers in Python are based on the decimal number system. Any number in any other notation is automatically converted into a decimal number, as we saw above. This means that if you wish to get the representation of a decimal number in binary, hexadecimal or octal notation, you will get it in the format of a string. A number that is represented within a string, is known as a stringified number. With this in mind, let's now see the ways to convert numbers from decimal notation to binary, hexadecimal and octal representations. oct() functions take a single argument which is an integer, and return its representation in their corresponding number system. The return value of each of these functions is a string, that is preceded by the respective number system's prefix — 0b for binary, 0x for hexadecimal and 0o for octal. The snippet below illustrates a couple of conversions: Converting from string to decimal Let's say you've converted a number from decimal notation to binary using the bin() function, or have a similar case with the oct() functions. What you have in the end is a string representing the number. Now what if you wish to go back from this string to the original decimal integer? This isn't something one wouldn't ever want to do! Fortunately, Python has a way — use the int() function with its second parameter. int()function can be used to convert a stringified number into an integer in Python. The second parameter to the int() function specifies the base of the number that is provided as the first argument. It ought to be an integer. The default value is 10, which is the base of the decimal number system. In this way, the interpreter knows how to translate the stringified number (in the first arg) into decimal representation. For example to convert the stringified binary number '1111' (or equivalently '0b1111') into an integer, we would call int('1111', 2). The second arg is 1111 is a binary number and we know that binary numbers have a base of 2. Similarly, to convert 'fa' from hexadecimal to decimal, we'll call int('fa', 16) this time passing 16 as the second arg. This is because hexadecimal numbers have a base of 16. int()as the first argument can also contain a prefix. For example, calling int('1111', 2)is the same as calling int()must be an integer! How to convert the stringified number '645' from octal representation to decimal representation?
Diabetes describes a group of conditions with high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) caused by decreased insulin production, decreased effect of insulin, or both. Typical symptoms at diagnosis include excessive thirst, excessive urination, and weight loss. The diagnosis is based on symptoms and the results of urine and blood tests. Treatment depends on the type of diabetes but includes insulin injections or other drugs and changes in food choices, exercise, and weight loss (if overweight). The symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of diabetes are similar in children and adults ( see Diabetes Mellitus (DM) Diabetes Mellitus (DM) Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which the body does not produce enough or respond normally to insulin, causing blood sugar (glucose) levels to be abnormally high. Symptoms of diabetes may... read more ). However, management of diabetes in children may be more complex. It must be tailored to the child’s physical and emotional maturity level and to constant variations in food intake, physical activity, and stress. Diabetes is a disorder that affects the amount of sugar in the blood. There are many kinds of sugar. The white granules of table sugar are known as sucrose. Sucrose occurs naturally in sugar cane and sugar beets. Another kind of sugar, lactose, occurs in milk. Sucrose consists of two different simple sugars, glucose and fructose. Lactose consists of the simple sugars glucose and galactose. Sucrose and lactose must be broken down by the intestine into their simple sugars before they can be absorbed. Glucose is the main sugar the body uses for energy, so during and after absorption, most sugars are turned into glucose. Thus, when doctors talk about blood sugar, they are really talking about blood glucose. Insulin is a hormone Endocrine Function The main function of endocrine glands is to secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. Hormones are chemical substances that affect the activity of another part of the body (target site)... read more that is released by the pancreas Pancreas The pancreas is an organ that contains two types of glandular tissue: Pancreatic acini Islets of Langerhans (See also Overview of the Digestive System.) The acini produce digestive enzymes.... read more . Insulin controls the amount of glucose in the blood and allows glucose to move from the blood into the cells. Without a proper amount of insulin, glucose does not move into the cells and builds up in the blood. As glucose levels in the blood increase, glucose begins to appear in the urine. This glucose pulls more water into the urine, so people urinate more (polyuria Excessive or Frequent Urination Most people urinate about 4 to 6 times a day, mostly in the daytime. Normally, adults pass between 3 cups (700 milliliters) and 3 quarts (3 liters) of urine a day. Excessive urination can refer... read more ) and thus become thirsty and drink more (polydipsia). Without insulin, electrolyte problems Overview of Electrolytes More than half of a person's body weight is water. Doctors think about water in the body as being restricted to various spaces, called fluid compartments. The three main compartments are Fluid... read more and dehydration can develop. A lack of insulin also causes fat and protein to break down. Types of Diabetes The types of diabetes in children are similar to those in adults. The types include Type 1 diabetes Type 2 diabetes Prediabetes is a condition in which blood glucose levels are too high to be considered normal but not high enough to be considered diabetes. Among children, prediabetes is more common among obese adolescents. It is temporary in over half of adolescents, but the remainder develop diabetes, especially those who continue to gain weight. Type 1 diabetes Type 1 diabetes occurs when the pancreas produces little to no insulin. Type 1 diabetes is the most common type among children, causing about two thirds of all cases of diabetes. It is one of the most common chronic childhood diseases. By age 18, 1 in 350 children has developed type 1 diabetes. The number of affected children has recently been increasing, particularly in children under age 5. Type 1 diabetes can develop at any time during childhood, even during infancy, but it usually begins between ages 4 years and 6 years or between ages 10 years and 14 years. In type 1 diabetes, the pancreas does not produce enough insulin because the immune system attacks and destroys the cells in the pancreas that make insulin (islet cells). Such an attack may be triggered by environmental factors in people who have inherited certain genes that make them susceptible to developing diabetes. These genes are more common among certain ethnic groups (such as Scandinavians and Sardinians). Close relatives of a person with type 1 diabetes are at increased risk of developing diabetes. Brothers and sisters have about a 4 to 8% risk, and identical twins have a much greater 30 to 50% risk. The risk of diabetes for a child who has a parent with type 1 diabetes is about 10% if the father is affected and is about 4% if the mother is affected. Children who have type 1 diabetes are at higher risk of some other disorders in which the body's immune system attacks itself (autoimmune disorders Autoimmune Disorders An autoimmune disorder is a malfunction of the body's immune system that causes the body to attack its own tissues. What triggers an autoimmune disorder is not known. Symptoms vary depending... read more ), particularly certain types of thyroid disease Overview of the Thyroid Gland The thyroid is a small gland, measuring about 2 inches (5 centimeters) across, that lies just under the skin below the Adam’s apple in the neck. The two halves (lobes) of the gland are connected... read more , and celiac disease Celiac Disease Celiac disease is a hereditary intolerance to gluten (a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye) that causes characteristic changes in the lining of the small intestine, resulting in malabsorption... read more . Type 2 diabetes Type 2 diabetes occurs because the cells in the body do not respond adequately to insulin (called insulin resistance). Unlike in type 1 diabetes, the pancreas can still make insulin but cannot make enough insulin to overcome insulin resistance. This deficiency is often referred to as a relative insulin deficiency as opposed to the absolute deficiency seen in type 1 diabetes. Among children, type 2 diabetes occurs mainly in adolescents but is becoming increasingly common among overweight or obese younger children. Up until the 1990s, more than 95% of children who developed diabetes had type 1 diabetes, but now, mainly because of the increase in the number of children who are overweight or obese, about one third of children newly diagnosed with diabetes have type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes typically develops after puberty Sexual Maturation (Puberty) During adolescence (usually considered age 10 to the late teens), boys and girls reach adult height and weight and undergo sexual maturation ( puberty). The timing and speed with which these... read more has begun. Although many children develop type 2 diabetes between 10 years and 14 years of age, the highest rate occurs during late adolescence, between 15 years and 19 years of age (see Obesity in Adolescents Obesity in Adolescents Obesity is defined as a body mass index (BMI) equal to or greater than the 95th percentile for age and gender. Although genetics and some disorders cause obesity, most adolescent obesity results... read more ). Compared to children with type 1 diabetes, children with type 2 diabetes are much more likely to have a first-degree relative (parent, sibling, aunt, uncle, or grandparent) with type 2 diabetes. Did You Know... The increase in childhood type 2 diabetes has been particularly prominent among people who are Native American, Black, Hispanic, Asian American, and Pacific Islander. Other children at higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes include those who Are overweight (weigh more than 85% of children of similar age, sex, and height), particularly those who are obese (weigh more than 95% of children of similar age, sex, and height) Have a parent, sibling, aunt, uncle, or grandparent who has type 2 diabetes (60 to 90%) Have high blood pressure High Blood Pressure High blood pressure (hypertension) is persistently high pressure in the arteries. Often no cause for high blood pressure can be identified, but sometimes it occurs as a result of an underlying... read more , high blood levels of lipids Dyslipidemia Dyslipidemia is a high level of cholesterol and/or triglycerides or a low level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. Lifestyle, genetics, disorders (such as low thyroid hormone levels... read more (fats), obstructive sleep apnea Sleep Apnea Sleep apnea is a serious disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops long enough to disrupt sleep and often temporarily decrease the amount of oxygen and increase the amount of carbon dioxide... read more , dark and thick skinfolds on the nape of the neck (acanthosis nigricans), fatty liver, polycystic ovary syndrome Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) Polycystic ovary syndrome is characterized by irregular or no menstrual periods and often obesity or symptoms caused by high levels of male hormones (androgens), such as excess body hair and... read more (PCOS), or a small-for-gestational-age birth weight Small-for-Gestational-Age (SGA) Newborns A newborn who weighs less than 90% of newborns of the same gestational age at birth (below the 10th percentile) is considered small for gestational age. Newborns may be small because their parents... read more Have a mother who had diabetes while pregnant (gestational diabetes Gestational diabetes For women who have diabetes before they become pregnant, the risks of complications during pregnancy depend on how long diabetes has been present and whether complications of diabetes, such... read more ) or who has a history of diabetes Are not physically active Symptoms of Diabetes in Children and Adolescents High blood glucose levels cause a variety of immediate symptoms and long-term complications. Type 1 diabetes Symptoms develop quickly in type 1 diabetes, usually over several days to weeks, and tend to appear in a typical pattern. High blood glucose levels cause the child to urinate excessively. Children may wet the bed or become unable to control their bladder during the day. Children who are not toilet-trained may have an increase in wet or heavy diapers. This fluid loss causes an increase in thirst and the consumption of fluids. About half of children lose weight and have impaired growth. Some children become dehydrated, resulting in weakness, fatigue, and a rapid pulse. Children may also have nausea and vomiting due to ketones (by-products of the breakdown of fat) in their blood. Vision may become blurred. If the symptoms are not recognized as being caused by diabetes and treated, children may develop diabetic ketoacidosis Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which blood sugar (glucose) levels are abnormally high because the body does not produce enough insulin or fails to respond normally to the insulin produced... read more . Type 2 diabetes Many children do not have any symptoms or have only mild symptoms, and doctors diagnose type 2 diabetes only when blood or urine tests are done for other reasons (such as during a physical before playing sports or going to camp). Symptoms in children with type 2 diabetes are milder than those in type 1 diabetes and develop more slowly. Parents may notice an increase in the child’s thirst and urination or only vague symptoms, such as fatigue. Children with type 2 diabetes are less likely to develop ketoacidosis or severe dehydration than those with type 1 diabetes. Complications of Diabetes in Children and Adolescents Diabetes can cause immediate complications and long-term complications. The most serious immediate complication is diabetic ketoacidosis. Long-term complications are usually due to mental health issues or to blood vessel problems. Although blood vessel problems take years to develop, the better the control of diabetes, the less likely that complications will ever occur. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) Diabetic ketoacidosis is present at the time of diagnosis in about one third of children with type 1 diabetes. Diabetic ketoacidosis is also common among children with known type 1 diabetes. It develops in about 1 to 10% of children with type 1 diabetes each year, usually because these children have not taken their insulin or are having problems with insulin delivery (for example, problems with their insulin pump Type 1 diabetes treatment Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which blood sugar (glucose) levels are abnormally high because the body does not produce enough insulin or fails to respond normally to the insulin produced... read more ). Diabetic ketoacidosis can also occur if children do not receive enough insulin during illness (when ill, children need more insulin). Without insulin, cells cannot use the glucose that is in the blood. Cells switch to a back-up mechanism to obtain energy and break down fat, producing compounds called ketones as by-products. Ketones make the blood too acidic (ketoacidosis), causing nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and abdominal pain. The ketones make the child’s breath smell like nail polish remover. Breathing becomes deep and rapid as the body attempts to correct the blood’s acidity ( see Overview of Acid-Base Balance Overview of Acid-Base Balance An important part of being healthy is for the blood to maintain a normal degree of acidity or alkalinity. The acidity or alkalinity of any solution, including blood, is indicated on the pH scale... read more ). Some children develop a headache and may become confused or less alert. These symptoms may be caused by accumulation of fluid in the brain (cerebral edema). Diabetic ketoacidosis, when untreated, can progress to coma and death. Children with diabetic ketoacidosis are also dehydrated and often have other chemical imbalances in the blood, such as abnormal levels of potassium and sodium. Mental health problems Mental health problems ( see Support Support Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which blood sugar (glucose) levels are abnormally high because the body does not produce enough insulin or fails to respond normally to the insulin produced... read more ) are very common among children with diabetes. Up to half of children develop depression, anxiety, or other psychologic problems ( see Overview of Mental Health Disorders Children and Adolescents Overview of Mental Health Disorders Children and Adolescents Several important mental health disorders, such as depression, anxiety disorders, and eating disorders, often start during childhood and adolescence. Some disorders, such as autism, start only... read more ). Because insulin can cause weight gain, eating disorders Overview of Eating Disorders Eating disorders involve a disturbance of eating or of behavior related to eating, typically including Changes in what or how much people eat Measures people take to prevent food from being... read more are a serious problem in adolescents, who sometimes skip their insulin doses to try to control their weight. Mental health problems can affect children's ability to follow their meal plan and drug regimens, which means their blood glucose is poorly controlled. Blood vessel problems Diabetes eventually causes narrowing of small and large blood vessels. The narrowing can damage many different organs. Although the blood vessel narrowing starts to develop within a few years after diabetes begins, the organ damage usually does not become apparent until years later and is rarely present during childhood. Damage to small blood vessels most often affects the eyes, kidneys, and the nerves. Damage to the blood vessels of the eyes can cause loss of vision (diabetic retinopathy Diabetic Retinopathy Diabetic retinopathy is damage to the retina (the transparent, light-sensitive structure at the back of the eye) as a result of diabetes. Blood vessels in the retina can leak blood and fluid... read more ). Damage to the kidneys (called diabetic nephropathy Kidney damage in diabetes People with diabetes mellitus have many serious long-term complications that affect many areas of the body, particularly the blood vessels, nerves, eyes, and kidneys. (See also Diabetes Mellitus... read more ) can result in kidney failure. Damage to the nerves (called diabetic neuropathy Polyneuropathy Polyneuropathy is the simultaneous malfunction of many peripheral nerves throughout the body. Infections, toxins, drugs, cancers, nutritional deficiencies, diabetes, autoimmune disorders, and... read more ) can result in numbness, tingling, or burning pain in the arms and legs. These problems are more common among children who have type 2 diabetes than type 1 diabetes. These problems also may be present at the time of diagnosis or earlier in children who have type 2 diabetes. Damage to large blood vessels most often involves the arteries to the heart and the brain. Narrowing of arteries to the heart can cause heart attack Acute Coronary Syndromes (Heart Attack; Myocardial Infarction; Unstable Angina) Acute coronary syndromes result from a sudden blockage in a coronary artery. This blockage causes unstable angina or a heart attack (myocardial infarction), depending on the location and amount... read more . Narrowing of arteries to the brain can cause stroke Overview of Stroke A stroke occurs when an artery to the brain becomes blocked or ruptures, resulting in death of an area of brain tissue due to loss of its blood supply (cerebral infarction). Symptoms occur suddenly... read more . Heart attack and stroke do not commonly occur during childhood. Diagnosis of Diabetes in Children and Adolescents Blood glucose tests Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test Sometimes an oral glucose tolerance test The diagnosis of diabetes is a two-part process. Doctors first determine whether children have diabetes and then determine the type. Children who appear to have complications also have other testing. Doctors suspect diabetes when children have typical symptoms or when a urine test done during a routine physical examination reveals glucose. The diagnosis is confirmed by measurement of the blood glucose level. Blood glucose levels can be measured in the morning before children eat (called the fasting glucose level) or without regard to meals (called the random glucose level). Children are considered to have diabetes if they have both typical symptoms of diabetes and a high blood glucose level. If the fasting glucose level is 126 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL—7.0 mmol/L) or higher on 2 different occasions, children have diabetes. If the random glucose level is 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) or higher, children probably have diabetes and should have their fasting glucose level tested to confirm. Doctors also measure the level of a protein in the blood called hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c). Hemoglobin is the red, oxygen-carrying substance within red blood cells Red Blood Cells The main components of blood include Plasma Red blood cells White blood cells Platelets read more . When blood is exposed to high blood glucose levels over a period of time, glucose attaches to the hemoglobin and forms HbA1c. Because HbA1c takes a relatively long time to form and to break down, levels change only over weeks to months rather than from minute to minute like blood glucose levels do. HbA1c levels thus reflect blood glucose levels over a 2- to 3-month period of time. People whose HbA1c level is 6.5% or higher are considered to have diabetes. HbA1c levels are more helpful in the diagnosis of type 2 diabetes in children who do not have typical symptoms. Another kind of blood test called an oral glucose tolerance test may be done in children who have no symptoms or whose symptoms are mild or not typical. In this test, children fast, have a blood sample taken to determine the fasting glucose level, and then drink a special solution containing a large amount of glucose. Doctors then measure blood glucose levels 2 hours later. If the level is 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) or higher, children are considered to have diabetes. This test is similar to the test that pregnant women have to look for gestational diabetes Gestational diabetes For women who have diabetes before they become pregnant, the risks of complications during pregnancy depend on how long diabetes has been present and whether complications of diabetes, such... read more . Diagnosing the type of diabetes To help distinguish type 1 diabetes from type 2, doctors do blood tests that detect antibodies to various proteins produced by the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. Such antibodies are usually present in children with type 1 diabetes and are rarely present in children with type 2 diabetes. Testing after diagnosis Children who are diagnosed with type 1 diabetes usually have other blood tests to look for autoimmune disorders such as celiac disease Diagnosis Celiac disease is a hereditary intolerance to gluten (a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye) that causes characteristic changes in the lining of the small intestine, resulting in malabsorption... read more and thyroid disease Thyroid function tests The thyroid is a small gland, measuring about 2 inches (5 centimeters) across, that lies just under the skin below the Adam’s apple in the neck. The two halves (lobes) of the gland are connected... read more . These tests are done at diagnosis and every 1 to 2 years thereafter. Doctors sometimes do tests to look for other problems such as a disorder of the adrenal glands (Addison disease Adrenal Insufficiency In adrenal insufficiency, the adrenal glands do not produce enough adrenal hormones. Adrenal insufficiency may be caused by a disorder of the adrenal glands, a disorder of the pituitary gland... read more ), joint and muscle disorders (such as rheumatoid arthritis Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) Rheumatoid arthritis is an inflammatory arthritis in which joints, usually including those of the hands and feet, are inflamed, resulting in swelling, pain, and often destruction of joints.... read more ), and additional digestive tract disorders (such as inflammatory bowel disease Overview of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) In inflammatory bowel diseases, the intestine (bowel) becomes inflamed, often causing recurring abdominal pain and diarrhea. The 2 primary types of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are Crohn... read more ). Children who are diagnosed with type 2 diabetes have blood tests to determine how their liver and kidneys are functioning and urine tests. At diagnosis, children who have type 2 diabetes are also tested for other problems, such as high blood pressure High Blood Pressure High blood pressure (hypertension) is persistently high pressure in the arteries. Often no cause for high blood pressure can be identified, but sometimes it occurs as a result of an underlying... read more , high blood levels of lipids Diagnosis Dyslipidemia is a high level of cholesterol and/or triglycerides or a low level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. Lifestyle, genetics, disorders (such as low thyroid hormone levels... read more (fats), and fatty liver Diagnosis Fatty liver is an abnormal accumulation of certain fats (triglycerides) inside liver cells. People with fatty liver may feel tired or have mild abdominal discomfort but otherwise have no symptoms... read more , because these problems are common among children with type 2 diabetes. Other tests are done depending on symptoms. For example, children with daytime sleepiness who snore are tested for obstructive sleep apnea Diagnosis Sleep apnea is a serious disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops long enough to disrupt sleep and often temporarily decrease the amount of oxygen and increase the amount of carbon dioxide... read more and adolescent girls who are hairy and have acne or menstrual irregularities are tested for polycystic ovary syndrome Diagnosis Polycystic ovary syndrome is characterized by irregular or no menstrual periods and often obesity or symptoms caused by high levels of male hormones (androgens), such as excess body hair and... read more . Prevention of Diabetes in Children and Adolescents Because prompt measures (such as changes in food choices, an increase in physical activity, and weight loss) may help prevent or delay the start of type 2 diabetes, children at risk of type 2 diabetes Type 2 diabetes Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which blood sugar (glucose) levels are abnormally high because the body does not produce enough insulin or fails to respond normally to the insulin produced... read more should be screened with a blood test that measures the hemoglobin A1C levels. This test should first be done when children are 10 years old or when puberty starts (if puberty occurred at a younger age) and should be repeated every 3 years if normal. Some risk factors for type 2 diabetes can be prevented. For example, children who are obese should lose weight, and all children should get regular exercise (see Nutrition and exercise Nutrition and exercise Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which blood sugar (glucose) levels are abnormally high because the body does not produce enough insulin or fails to respond normally to the insulin produced... read more ). Nothing can be done to prevent type 1 diabetes. Treatment of Diabetes in Children and Adolescents Nutrition and exercise For type 1 diabetes, injections of insulin For type 2 diabetes, metformin by mouth and sometimes injections of insulin or liraglutide The main goal of diabetes treatment is to keep blood glucose levels as close to the normal range as can be done safely. However, no treatment completely maintains blood glucose at normal levels. When people try very hard to keep blood glucose levels normal, they increase the risk that their blood glucose levels will sometimes become too low. Low blood glucose is called hypoglycemia Hypoglycemia Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which blood sugar (glucose) levels are abnormally high because the body does not produce enough insulin or fails to respond normally to the insulin produced... read more and can be dangerous. Although advances in diabetes technology have improved quality of care and control of blood glucose, not all people have benefited. Low-income and non-Hispanic Black children remain at higher risk of complications and negative outcomes because of poor control of blood glucose. Children with diabetes should carry or wear medical identification (such as a bracelet or tag) to alert emergency care providers to the presence of diabetes. This information allows providers to start life-saving treatment quickly, especially in the case of injury or change in mental status. Nutrition and exercise Children with either type of diabetes need to Make healthy food choices Lose weight if overweight General nutritional management and education are particularly important for all children with diabetes. Dietary recommendations for children with diabetes are based on healthy eating recommendations for all children and aim to maintain ideal body weight and optimal growth and to prevent short-term and long-term complications of diabetes. All children should eat regularly and not skip meals. Although most dietary regimens allow some flexibility in carbohydrate intake and meal times, having meals and scheduled snacks at about the same time each day and that contain similar amounts of carbohydrates is important for optimal glucose control. Because carbohydrates in food are turned into glucose by the body, variations in carbohydrate intake cause variations in blood glucose levels. Choosing healthy foods can help control blood glucose and protect heart health. Children should focus on eating fruits and vegetables, whole grains, and high-fiber foods (for example, foods that have at least 3 grams fiber or more per serving). Food should not contain many highly processed (refined) carbohydrates Carbohydrates Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are the main types of macronutrients in food (nutrients that are required daily in large quantities). They supply 90% of the dry weight of the diet and 100%... read more , particularly candy, baked goods (such as cookies, donuts, and pastries), and sugary drinks. Children should have no more than 4 to 8 ounces of 100% fruit juice per day. They should avoid regular soda, sweetened iced tea, lemonade, fruit punch, and sports drinks altogether. Children also should avoid foods with saturated fats Kinds of fat Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are the main types of macronutrients in food (nutrients that are required daily in large quantities). They supply 90% of the dry weight of the diet and 100%... read more , such as baked goods, snack foods (such as potato chips and corn tortilla chips), deep-fried foods (such as french fries), and fast food. Some of these foods may still contain trans fats Fat in the diet Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are the main types of macronutrients in food (nutrients that are required daily in large quantities). They supply 90% of the dry weight of the diet and 100%... read more , common ingredients in certain commercial foods, which are being removed because they have been shown to be associated with an increased risk of heart disease. In type 1 diabetes, parents and older children are taught how to gauge the carbohydrate content of food and to develop a meal plan. In most children with type 1 diabetes, food intake is not rigidly specified and is based on the child's usual eating patterns and insulin doses are matched to actual carbohydrate intake. Infants and preschool-aged children present a particular challenge to parents because they do not eat consistent amounts of food and because they may develop hypoglycemia Hypoglycemia Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which blood sugar (glucose) levels are abnormally high because the body does not produce enough insulin or fails to respond normally to the insulin produced... read more but may not be able to communicate symptoms of hypoglycemia to their parents. In type 2 diabetes, lifestyle modifications focus on weight in the majority of children. Steps to improve food choices and manage food intake include eliminating sugary drinks, controlling portion size, switching to low-fat foods, and increasing fiber by eating more fruits and vegetables. Regular exercise is important because it improves glucose control and makes it easier to lose weight. Because vigorous exercise can cause a significant drop in blood glucose, some children with type 1 diabetes may need to consume some extra carbohydrates before and/or during a workout. Children with diabetic ketoacidosis Diabetic Ketoacidosis Diabetic ketoacidosis is an acute complication of diabetes that occurs mostly in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Symptoms of diabetic ketoacidosis include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and a characteristic... read more (DKA) are usually treated in an intensive care unit. They often require fluids given by vein (intravenously) to correct dehydration. They often also need intravenous potassium solutions to correct low potassium levels. Children often require intravenous insulin during DKA. To prevent the development of DKA and minimize the need for hospitalization, children and families should use ketone test strips to check for ketones in blood or urine. Blood testing may be preferred in younger children and in others in whom it is difficult to obtain a urine sample, those who have frequent episodes of DKA, and insulin pump users. Ketone testing should be done whenever children become ill (regardless of the blood glucose level) or when the blood glucose is high. High ketone levels may indicate DKA, especially if children also have abdominal pain, vomiting, drowsiness, or rapid breathing. Type 1 diabetes treatment To control blood glucose, children with type 1 diabetes take injections of insulin. When type 1 diabetes is first diagnosed, children are usually hospitalized. Children with type 1 diabetes are given fluids (to treat dehydration) and insulin. They always require insulin because nothing else is effective. Children who do not have DKA at diagnosis typically receive two or more daily injections of insulin. Insulin treatment is usually begun in the hospital so that blood glucose levels can be tested often and doctors can change insulin dosage in response. Less commonly, treatment is started at a regular doctor visit. Once children are released from the hospital, they must take insulin regularly. Doctors work with children and their family to determine which insulin regimen is best. There are several types of insulin regimens: Multiple daily injections (MDI) regimen using a basal-bolus regimen Insulin pump therapy Premixed insulin regimen (less common) Most children who have type 1 diabetes should be treated with MDI regimens or with insulin pump therapy. With MDI regimens, a basal-bolus insulin regimen is preferred. This regimen involves taking one injection of a longer-acting insulin (basal dose) every day and then separate supplemental injections (bolus doses) of a short-acting insulin immediately before meals. Each bolus dose can be different depending on how much food the child is going to eat or what the blood glucose level is at that time. An advantage of the basal-bolus regimen is that it allows for flexibility as to when meals are eaten and how much is eaten. Fixed forms of MDI regimens are less commonly used. If a basal-bolus regimen is not an option (for example, if adequate supervision is not available, such as when an adult is not available to give injections at school or daycare), fixed forms of MDI regimens can be an option. In these regimens, children typically receive a specific (fixed) amount of shorter-acting insulin before eating breakfast and dinner and a fixed dose of longer-acting insulin at bedtime. Fixed regimens provide less flexibility, require a daily set schedule for meals, and have been largely replaced by basal-bolus regimens wherever possible. In insulin pump therapy, the basal dose of insulin is delivered through a small, flexible tube (catheter) that is left in the skin. Supplemental boluses that are given at mealtime or that are given to correct a high blood glucose level are given as separate injections of rapid-acting insulin via the insulin pump. Insulin pump therapy is increasingly being used in children. Potential benefits include better glucose control, safety, and user satisfaction compared to MDI regimens. This therapy is preferred for younger children, such as toddlers and preschoolers, and overall offers an added degree of control to many children. Premixed insulin regimens use a fixed mixture of two forms of insulin: one that works quickly and lasts for only a few hours, and one that takes longer to work but lasts longer. The usual ratios of insulin are 70/30 (70% longer-acting and 30% shorter-acting) or 75/25. Children are given one injection at breakfast and one at dinner. An advantage of premixed regimens is that they require fewer injections and are easier to manage. However, premixed regimens have less flexibility with respect to timing and amount of meals and cannot be adjusted as frequently. Thus, these regimens do not control blood glucose levels as well as other regimens. Insulin delivery methods Insulin can be injected in several ways: Vial and syringe Some children use a vial and syringe. In this method, each dose of insulin is drawn up into a syringe from a vial and is injected under the skin, usually in the arm, thigh, or abdominal wall. Small syringes with very thin needles make the injections nearly painless. The amount of insulin the syringe will hold varies depending on the amount of insulin needed per injection. Young children often use syringes with 1/2 unit markings to allow for smaller adjustments in the doses of insulin to be used. An insulin pen, is a convenient way for many children to carry and use insulin, especially for children who take several injections a day outside the home. The pen contains a cartridge that holds enough insulin for several doses. The dose delivered on each injection is adjusted by turning the top of the pen. Another device is an insulin pump, which automatically pumps insulin continuously from a reservoir through a catheter that is left in the skin. The catheter site must be changed every 2 to 3 days. More and more children, even young children, are using insulin pumps. The pump more closely mimics the way the body normally delivers insulin. Pumps are programmed to release small doses of insulin continuously over 24 hours (called the basal dose) and can be triggered manually to deliver extra insulin (called the bolus dose) with meals or to treat high blood glucose. Unlike other methods, insulin pumps use only short-acting insulin. Children do not need longer-acting insulin because they are continually receiving a small amount of insulin in the basal dose. The pump can be programmed to give different amounts of insulin at different times of day and night. Insulin pumps may be used with continuous glucose monitoring systems ( see Treatment Treatment Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which blood sugar (glucose) levels are abnormally high because the body does not produce enough insulin or fails to respond normally to the insulin produced... read more ) to better track trends in blood glucose throughout the day. Newer insulin pumps have been developed that combine insulin pump therapy with continuous glucose monitoring systems in one device. For some children, the pump offers an added degree of control, whereas others find wearing the pump inconvenient or develop sores or infections at the catheter site. Children must rotate their injection and pump sites to avoid developing lipohypertrophy. Lipohypertrophy is an accumulation of fatty lumps of tissue under the skin. The lumps occur at injection sites that have been overused for insulin and can cause blood glucose levels to vary because they can prevent insulin from being absorbed consistently. Type 2 diabetes treatment Children with type 2 diabetes usually are not treated in the hospital unless the diabetes is severe. Usually they are given drugs to lower blood glucose levels (antihyperglycemic drugs) at a regular doctor's office visit. Children with severe diabetes may need to be hospitalized to start insulin treatment. Less commonly, children with type 2 diabetes develop severe dehydration or, as in type 1 diabetes, DKA. Metformin is the main drug given by mouth (orally) for children and adolescents. It is started at a low dose and often increased over several weeks to higher doses. It can be taken with food to prevent nausea and abdominal pain. Liraglutide and exenatide are injectable drugs that can be given to children over 10 years of age who have type 2 diabetes. These drugs may lower HbA1c levels and may also reduce appetite and promote weight loss. They may be given to children who are taking metformin but whose HbA1c level is not in the target range or they can be given instead of metformin to children who cannot tolerate that drug. Other drugs used for adults with type 2 diabetes may help some adolescents, but they are more expensive, and there is limited evidence for their use in children. Insulin is given to children who are hospitalized. Insulin can often be stopped after several weeks once glucose levels return to normal after treatment with metformin. Children whose type 2 diabetes is not controlled by metformin and/or liraglutide need to take insulin. About half of adolescents with type 2 diabetes ultimately require insulin. Some children who lose weight, improve their food choices, and exercise regularly may be able to stop taking the drugs. Low blood glucose (hypoglycemia Hypoglycemia Hypoglycemia is abnormally low levels of sugar (glucose) in the blood. Hypoglycemia is most often caused by medications taken to control diabetes. Much less common causes of hypoglycemia include... read more ) occurs when too much insulin or too much of an antihyperglycemic drug is taken or when the child does not eat regularly or exercises vigorously for a long period of time. Warning symptoms include confusion or other abnormal behavior, and children often appear pale and/or sweaty. To treat hypoglycemia, children are given sugar in any form, such as glucose tablets, hard candies, glucose gel, or a sweet drink, such as a glass of fruit juice. If children are unable to eat or drink (for example, because they are confused, disoriented, are having a seizure, or are unconscious), an injection of glucagon is given. If untreated, severe hypoglycemia causes weakness, confusion, and even coma or death. In adults, adolescents, and older children, episodes of hypoglycemia rarely cause long-term problems. However, frequent episodes of hypoglycemia in children younger than 5 years of age may impair intellectual development. Also, young children may not be aware of the warning symptoms of hypoglycemia. To minimize the possibility of hypoglycemia, doctors and parents monitor young children with diabetes particularly closely and use a slightly higher target range for their blood glucose level. Continuous glucose monitoring systems Type 1 diabetes treatment Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which blood sugar (glucose) levels are abnormally high because the body does not produce enough insulin or fails to respond normally to the insulin produced... read more can help children because they sound an alarm when glucose falls below a specified range. Monitoring diabetes treatment The frequency of monitoring depends on the type of diabetes. In type 1 diabetes, blood glucose levels should be checked up to 6 to 10 times per day and should be measured before all meals and before a bedtime snack. A fingerstick glucose test is most often used to monitor blood glucose. Most blood glucose monitoring devices (glucose meters) use a drop of blood obtained by pricking a fingertip (fingerstick) with a small implement called a lancet. The lancet holds a tiny needle that can be jabbed into the finger or placed in a spring-loaded device that easily and quickly pierces the skin. The drop is placed on a test strip and the test strip is read by a machine. The machine reports the result on a digital display. Because exercise can lower glucose levels for up to 24 hours, glucose should be measured more frequently on days children exercise or are more active. Sometimes levels need to be measured during the night. In type 2 diabetes, blood glucose levels should be measured regularly but typically less often than in type 1 diabetes. Several factors determine the frequency of self-monitoring, including children's glucose levels between meals and after eating. The frequency of monitoring should increase to at least 3 times a day if children do not have good control of their glucose, during illness, or when symptoms of hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia are felt. Once glucose is controlled, home testing is limited to a few between-meal and after-meal blood glucose measurements per week. Once experience is gained, parents and many children can adjust the insulin dose as needed to achieve the best control. In general, by 10 years of age, children start to become interested in testing their own blood glucose levels and injecting insulin themselves. Parents should encourage this independence but make sure the child is being responsible. Doctors teach most children how to adjust their insulin dosage in accordance with the patterns of their home blood glucose records. Children with either type of diabetes typically see their doctor several times a year. The doctor evaluates their growth and development, reviews blood glucose records that a family member keeps, provides guidance and counseling about nutrition, and measures glycosylated hemoglobin levels (hemoglobin A1C— see Diagnosing diabetes Diagnosing diabetes ). The doctor usually screens for long-term complications of diabetes Complications Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which blood sugar (glucose) levels are abnormally high because the body does not produce enough insulin or fails to respond normally to the insulin produced... read more by measuring protein in the urine, doing tests to determine how the thyroid gland is functioning (thyroid function tests Thyroid function tests The thyroid is a small gland, measuring about 2 inches (5 centimeters) across, that lies just under the skin below the Adam’s apple in the neck. The two halves (lobes) of the gland are connected... read more ), doing tests to look for nerve damage, and doing eye examinations. Screening tests may be done once a year or every other year. Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) systems are an increasingly common method of monitoring blood glucose levels and can replace routine self-monitoring of blood glucose for some children. In CGM systems, a small glucose sensor placed under the skin measures blood glucose levels every 1 to 5 minutes, 24 hours a day. They transmit real-time results of blood glucose levels wirelessly to a device that may be built into an insulin pump or to a wireless monitor that can be worn on a belt. The systems also record results for the doctor to review. Alarms on CGM systems can be set to sound when blood glucose levels drop too low or climb too high, so the devices can help people quickly identify worrisome changes in blood glucose that they can treat right away. Use of CGM devices may help lower HbA1c levels. Two types of CGM systems are currently available: real-time CGM and intermittently scanned CGM. Real-time CGM can be used in children 2 years of age and older. This type of system automatically transmits a continuous stream of glucose data to the user in real time, provides alerts and active alarms, and also transmits glucose data to a receiver, smartwatch, or smartphone. Real-time CGM should be done as close to daily as possible for maximum benefit. Intermittently scanned CGM can be used in children 4 years of age and older. This type of system provides the same type of glucose data as real-time CGM but requires the user to purposely scan the sensor to obtain information and does not have alerts and alarms. Intermittently scanned CGM should be done frequently, at least once every 8 hours. Children who use a CGM device need to be able to measure blood glucose with a fingerstick to calibrate their monitor and to verify glucose readings if they do not match their symptoms. Although CGM devices can be used with any insulin regimen, they are typically worn by insulin pump users. When used in conjunction with an insulin pump, the combination is known as sensor-augmented pump therapy. This therapy requires manual adjustment of insulin doses based on CGM data results. Other CGM systems are integrated with a pump and can also lower the insulin dose if blood glucose drops too low. This integration can reduce the number of episodes where blood glucose drops too low, even when compared to sensor-augmented pump therapy. Closed-loop insulin pumps can be used in children 2 years of age and older. They automatically provide the right amount of insulin by using sophisticated computer algorithms that are on a smartphone or similar device and link a CGM sensor to an insulin pump to determine blood glucose levels and control insulin delivery. Current closed-loop systems are not truly automated because they require users to manually provide insulin for meals and snacks and make adjustments for exercise. These systems help to more tightly control insulin dosing and limit episodes where blood levels of insulin are too high or too low. A fully automated closed-loop system, sometimes known as an artificial pancreas, continues to be evaluated and is not commercially available. Did You Know... Adolescents with diabetes Some children with diabetes do very well and control their diabetes without undue effort or conflict. In others, diabetes becomes a constant source of stress within the family, and control of the condition deteriorates. Adolescents may have particular problems controlling their blood glucose levels because of Hormonal changes during puberty: These changes affect how the body responds to insulin. As a result, higher doses are usually needed during this time. Adolescent lifestyle: Peer pressure, increased activities, erratic schedules, concern about body image, or eating disorders may interfere with the prescribed treatment regimen, particularly their meal plan. Experimentation with alcohol, cigarettes, and illicit drugs: Adolescents who experiment with these substances may neglect their treatment regimen and may be at greater risk of complications of diabetes (such as hypoglycemia and DKA). Conflicts with parents and other authority figures: Such conflicts may make adolescents less willing to follow their treatment regimen. Thus, some adolescents need a parent or another adult to recognize these issues and give them the opportunity to discuss problems with a health care practitioner. The practitioner can help make sure adolescents remain appropriately focused on keeping their blood glucose levels under control. Parents and health care practitioners should encourage adolescents to check their blood glucose levels frequently. An adolescent benefits if the doctor considers the adolescent’s desired schedule and activities and takes a flexible approach to problem solving by working with the adolescent rather than imposing solutions. Mental health issues affect children with diabetes and their families ( see Mental health problems Mental health problems ). The realization that they have a lifelong condition may cause some children to become sad or angry, and sometimes even deny that they have an illness. A doctor, psychologist, or counselor needs to address these emotions to secure the child’s cooperation in adhering to the required regimen of meal plan, physical activity, blood glucose testing, and drugs. Failure to resolve these issues can lead to difficulties controlling blood glucose. Summer camps for children with diabetes allow these children to share their experiences with one another while learning how to become personally more responsible for their condition. For the treatment of diabetes, the child’s primary care doctor usually enlists the aid of a team of other professionals, possibly including a pediatric endocrinologist, dietitian, diabetes educator, social worker, or psychologist. Family support groups may also help. The doctor may provide parents with information to bring to school so that school personnel understand their roles. The following English-language resources may be useful. Please note that THE MANUAL is not responsible for the content of the resources. American Diabetes Association: Comprehensive information on diabetes, including resources for living with diabetes JDRF (previously called Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation): General information on type 1 diabetes National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases: General information on diabetes, including on the latest research and community outreach programs Drugs Mentioned In This Article \|Generic Name\|\|Select Brand Names\| \|Fortamet, Glucophage, Glucophage XR, Glumetza, Riomet, RIOMET ER\| \|Bydureon, Bydureon BCise, Byetta\| \|BAQSIMI, GlucaGen, Glucagon, Gvoke, Gvoke HypoPen, Gvoke PFS\|
The label main clause refers to a clause which is capable of making a meaningful sentence by itself. A sentence will always have at least one main clause. For example, in the sentence ‘John finished his work’, the whole sentence is the main clause. While a simple sentence consists only of a single main clause, a compound sentence has two main clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction. The label malapropism refers to the use of a wrong word, especially when another of similar sound is intended. An adverb which answers the question ‘how’. Examples are: slowly, carefully, beautifully, kindly, rashly etc. Most manner adverbs end in -ly. There are, however, several exceptions as well. A noun which denotes something which cannot be counted. Examples are: rice, wheat, sand, wine etc. A clause which contains a subordinate clause within it. In the complex sentence, ‘The children who stood first in the examination were given prizes’, the matrix clause is ‘The children … were given prizes’, while the remainder is the subordinate clause (who stood first in the examination) contained within it. A matrix clause need not necessarily be a main clause. It can also be a subordinate clause. A language used to talk about a language. The terms noun, pronoun,voice, tense etc., are part of the metalanguage we use to talk about English grammar. The label metaphor refers to the use of words which are not literally accurate, but which call up a resemblance. For example, ‘a lame duck’ is a metaphor for ‘a failing business’. The English modals are the words may, might, will, would, shall, should, can, could, must and ought (to). The verbs dare and need sometimes behave like modals, and are then called semi-modals. The modals have only finite forms with no participles, infinitives or gerunds. They also do not take -s in the third person singular. The label morph refers to any piece of a word we may want to talk about. For example, the cran- of cranberry is an example of a morph.
Odissi is a traditional classical dance form that originated in the state of Odisha in Eastern India. It is one of the eight classical dance forms of India and has a rich history and cultural significance in the region. The origins of Odissi can be traced back to the ancient temples of Odisha, where it was performed as a devotional dance in honor of the gods and goddesses. Over time, the dance form evolved and developed into a highly stylized and expressive art form that incorporates elements of music, storytelling, and ritual. Odissi is characterized by graceful and fluid movements, intricate footwork, and expressive facial expressions and hand gestures. It also emphasizes the use of the eyes as a tool for communication and expression. The dance form typically follows a structured format, beginning with an invocation to the gods and goddesses, followed by a series of dances that tell stories from Hindu mythology or explore themes related to love, devotion, and spirituality. Odissi also features a number of complex rhythms and musical compositions, performed by a live orchestra. Common Odissi instruments are the pakhawaj and mardala. Other instruments which are frequently used are the bansuri (bamboo flute), the manjira (metal cymbals), the sitar, and the tanpura. Today, Odissi continues to be a popular dance form both in India and around the world, with many schools and institutions dedicated to its preservation and promotion. Its combination of technical skill, storytelling, and spiritual expression make it a unique and powerful form of classical dance. Get in touch
Table of Contents: - What does historical materialism mean? - What is Marx's dialectical materialism? - What is the difference between Hegel and Marx's use of dialectics? - Why positivism is better than Interpretivism? - What did Comte mean by positivism? - What is Marxism Upsc? What does historical materialism mean? : the Marxist theory of history and society that holds that ideas and social institutions develop only as the superstructure of a material economic base — compare dialectical materialism. What is Marx's dialectical materialism? Dialectical materialism is a philosophy of science, history, and nature developed in Europe and based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxist dialectics emphasizes the importance of real-world conditions, in terms of class, labor, and socioeconomic interactions. What is the difference between Hegel and Marx's use of dialectics? Marx applied dialectic to “justify” the proletarian revolution and radicalism. Hegel idealized the state through dialectical method and ultimately it culminated to fascism. Marx's application of dialectic led to the proletarian revolution and establishment of communism. Marx had no interest in metaphysics. Why positivism is better than Interpretivism? Positivists believe society shapes the individual and use quantitative methods, intepretivists believe individuals shape society and use qualitative methods. ... Positivist prefer scientific quantitative methods, while Interpretivists prefer humanistic qualitative methods. What did Comte mean by positivism? invariant laws of the natural and social world What is Marxism Upsc? Marxism is a social, political, and economic theory originated from Karl Marx, focusing on the struggles between capitalists and the working class. Communism is based upon the ideas of common ownership and the absence of social classes, money and the state. - What's the difference between justice and equality? - What are some examples of the hidden curriculum? - What is Hegel's theory? - What is Marxism Brainly? - Does laissez faire still exist? - What are other terms used for Marxism? - What is Marxist view of justice? - What is Marxist theory of law? - What are the key features of Marxist literary theory? - What is the theory of Karl Marx? - What is Marx's view of a utopian society? - What is Leninism theory? - What is the most important quote in The Great Gatsby? - Was Marx rich or poor? - What do Marxists think about the nuclear family? - What are the books written by Karl Marx? - Is communism utilitarian? - What is a major belief associated with Marxism? - What does Marxism have to say about international relations? - What are the theories of Marxism?
When we use our two eyes to look at the world around us, our brain is able to combine the two slightly different views from each eye to produce three dimensional (3-D) perception. Having these three dimensions to work with is useful because we human beings are then able to make judgements about distances, angles, shapes and volumes. The majority of machine vision algorithms work on 2-D cases. For industrial applications, there are many ways of obtaining three dimensional information about the world, e.g., using special purpose sensors like acoustics, radar, or laser range finders. Another commonly used technique called stereo vision, similar in concept to human binocular vision, is to use two cameras to obtain two images from which distance information can be obtained. Compared to the alternatives mentioned above, stereo vision has the advantage that it achieves the 3-D acquisition without energy emission or moving parts. For any particular application, the key issue in making stereo vision practical is to find the most suitable combination of algorithms that will provide reliable estimates of distance. The way that machine stereo vision generates the third dimension is achieved by finding the same features in each of the two images, and then measuring the distances to objects containing these features by triangulation; that is, by intersecting the lines of sight from each camera to the object. Finding the same points or other kinds of features in two images such that the matched points are the same projections of a point in the scene is called “matching” and is the fundamental computational task underlying stereo vision. Matching objects at each pixel in the image leads to a distance map. As shown in the figure, two images are obtained from the left and right cameras observing a common scene. This pair of stereo images allows us to obtain the 3-D information about the object. The example shown in the figure is a bent circuit board. Once we have obtained a distance map of the scene, we can then measure the shape and volume of objects in the scene or even view them from virtual or imaginary camera angles. The models obtained can be output in various formats allowing integration with other applications. Possible application areas of stereo vision are: - industrial inspection for 3-D objects (quality control, deformation analysis, food inspection, printed web defect analysis) - 3-D sensing (three dimensional measurement of objects), 3-D growth monitoring - novel view synthesis, image-based rendering, virtual environments - autonomous vehicles, robotics - medical, biomedical and bioengineering (stereoendoscopy, stereoradiographs, automatic creation of three dimensional model of a human face or dental structure from stereo images) - scanning electron microscope - surveillance (motion tracking and object tracking to measure paths) - transport (traffic scene analysis) - digital photogrammetry, remote sensing (generating Digital Elevation Models, surveying, cartography) - 3-D database for urban and town planning - stereolithography, stereosculpting (automatic acquisition of digital 3-D information used in CAD-CAM systems. This information can be fed into computer controlled milling machines for rapid solid modelling) - asset monitoring and management - 3-D model creation for e-commence or on-line shopping Fast Stereo Matching Demo We have developed fast algorithms to carry out dense stereo matching which is then used for generating 3-D data. You can test the computational speed and reliability of the algorithms by accessing our demo page. Our highly skilled team of world class researchers and engineers is open to partnerships and collaborations for research, development, and commercialisation. Contact us to learn more.
Music can change the feel of a classroom and make learning more engaging for students of all ages. Using it in ways that benefit students the most is key. Thankfully, there are plenty of ways to use music in the classroom that will make learning more fun and your teaching a lot easier. We asked the veteran teachers in our group, Mrs. D’s VIPs, what their best tips were for using music in the classroom. As always, they had some fantastic ideas and were generous with their suggestions. Read their ideas below and check out the original post here. Using Music in the Classroom Give Your Brain a Break! Learning is hard work, and it is essential to give students a chance to breathe and give their brains a break. Using music for brain breaks helps stimulate different areas of the brain and improves students’ moods before they need to concentrate again. When the songs are over, their brains are ready to learn. Calm Down Corner If you have a special area in your classroom where students can go to calm down or have a few minutes of quiet time, music is a beautiful addition to that space. Have a CD or an MP3 player uploaded with nature music playing. Headphones are a must, but they are worth the investment! Everything from skip counting to learning the letters of the alphabet can be reinforced with music. YouTube is an excellent resource for finding learning songs, but it is important to preview them before playing them for your students. Indoor Recess/Social Time Some fun, kid-appropriate dance music is a fine alternative for indoor recess. It helps kids burn off some energy as they dance and releases those happy hormones that will make the rest of the day go more smoothly. Background Music During Lessons Having calming music playing while you are running small groups is another way to use music in the classroom effectively. Classical music or nature sounds are good choices for those times, but it really depends on your students. For some students, the background music may be more distracting than not having any music playing at all. Take a poll of your students and see what works best for them. Playing music that distracts them is definitely not ideal. Moving from one activity to another or from one class to another can be difficult for students. Music does a lot to make that transition easier. It is a good idea to use the same song so that students have consistency. If playing the same music all year is not appealing, change up the song every month or every week so that there is variety while still having some consistency. Calendar Time/Morning Meeting Starting the day with upbeat, uplifting music is a great way to set the tone for the day. It makes kids smile and lets them know that the day is about to start. Concept songs related to the months of the year or days of the week can also be incorporated into this time. No matter how you use music in the classroom, make sure that it is appropriate and conveys the mood you are trying to establish. Music can transform your classroom if you give it a chance! How do you use music in the classroom? Share with us below! We’d love to know how you make it work for you!
Groundwater age is defined as the time between recharge at the water table to the time when groundwater was sampled. Groundwater age estimates are based on concentrations of environmental tracers (i.e., tracers derived from the atmosphere, as opposed to artificial tracers) in groundwater. Because no tracer is perfect, these age estimates are typically referred to as "apparent" ages. Groundwater transit time is the time between recharge and discharge from the aquifer. So groundwater transit time is equal to groundwater age at the point of exit from the aquifer, such as the point of discharge from an irrigation well, or discharge to a stream. Groundwater transit times are strongly linked to the ratio of groundwater recharge rate and groundwater storage capacity (commonly represented as saturated thickness times porosity). Rapidly recharged groundwater is less likely to be depleted over time though it can be more vulnerable to surface activities leading to nitrate or pesticide contamination. Because water quality is a concern over the entire state, many groundwater age studies in Nebraska have utilized dating methods that focus on groundwater <70 years old. However, groundwater with apparent age of >45,000 years has been observed. The range of groundwater ages, and links to each groundwater age study, can be viewed by clicking on the location symbols in the map above. Note that some locations are generalized (samples may have been collected over a range of locations), and some studies are represented by multiple symbols because samples were collected at locations that were relatively far apart. It is helpful to remember that total transit time is equal to groundwater transit time plus the time it takes water to move through the unsaturated zone above the water table. Where unsaturated zones are greater than a few meters, the unsaturated zone transit time may be a significant portion of total transit time. Map revised 2/4/2019 Research & Applications Groundwater Nitrate: Lag times and variability Have you ever wondered why groundwater nitrate concentrations vary in aquifers? One reason is that there are substantial lag times between groundwater quality changes and the human activities that cause them. These lags can cause distinct patterns of groundwater age and quality in aquifers. This module introduces the concept of groundwater age and how age information can be used to understand groundwater variables, including nitrate and recharge. Groundwater and Sandhills Streams How groundwater feeds the unique and steady streams in the Nebraska Sandhills. Whether you consider them beautiful, breathtaking, monotonous or mundane, the Nebraska Sandhills can make a person feel small. The Nebraska Sandhills (or Sand Hills) are the largest intact temperate grassland in the world and the largest vegetated dune field in the western hemisphere. The Sandhills are located over a large part of the High Plains Aquifer, a critical resource for humans, natural ecosystems, and a variety of industries including ranching and agriculture. Bazile Creek and Groundwater Nitrate An NDEE- and UENRD-funded project focused on nitrate dynamics and groundwater age in the Bazile Creek watershed. Bazile Creek is a groundwater-fed stream. About 50% of the annual flow in the creek comes from groundwater seeping out of the connected aquifer. Working in Bazile Creek helps to understand surface water nitrate dynamics, but we can also use the creek as a portal, or a way of peering into the invisible groundwater system below. The 3H/3He Groundwater Age-Dating Method and Applications This review is focused on the tritium-helium (3H/3He) method, which is a robust and widely applied age-dating technique for young groundwater. We present the development of the 3H/3He method and practical considerations for sampling groundwater in shallow unconfined aquifers.
Nitrates in and of themselves are not harmful, but what our body does with nitrates may or may not be dangerous to health. In the mouth, bacteria and other enzymes turn nitrates into nitrites. In turn, nitrites may form one of two different chemical compounds in the body: nitric oxide or nitrosamine. Nitric oxide is a chemical the body uses in specific concentrations and in specific tissues to derive benefit, notably by relaxing arteries, reducing blood pressure and improving circulation. Conversely, nitrosamines are associated with cancer, particularly along the gastrointestinal tract, including the esophagus, stomach, colon, and rectum. So what decides the fate of the nitrites and whether they will be converted to nitric oxide or nitrosamines? Nitrates are found in many types of vegetables, such as celery. When ingested in vegetables, nitrates may be converted into nitric oxide, which can significantly improve cardiovascular health. Nitrites, however, form nitrosamines when they are subjected to high heat or when they enter an acidic environment in the presence of proteins. Nitrates and nitrites are commonly used to preserve processed meats such as hot dogs and bacon so the heat from a skillet, grill, or broiler can be the perfect laboratory for the production of nitrosamines. In addition, the acidic environment of the stomach can produce nitrosamines from cold processed meat. Check labels to see if your package of smoked meat says, “No nitrates added.” Look for a disclaimer such as, “Except those occurring naturally in celery juice,” or something similar. Alternatively, there may be celery powder, celery juice, or celery salt listed in the ingredients panel. This is a deceptive tactic that the food companies use to hide nitrates. Even though celery juice is a source of nitrates, a product can contain celery juice and sport a “No nitrates added” label. The nitrate source is irrelevant. Nitrates + protein + high heat = nitrosamines. The government has recognized the potential carcinogenic nature of nitrates and has issued two requirements on food suppliers. For one, food manufacturers are now required to limit the amount of nitrites and nitrates they use in processed meats. In addition, food manufacturers are required to add vitamin C to their products, which has been shown to inhibit nitrosamine formation. It would stand to reason, therefore, that if you ingest vitamin C with your bacon at breakfast, perhaps by taking a supplement or by drinking a glass of juice containing vitamin C, this will also help inhibit the production of nitrosamines. In general, processed meat eaten today contains much less nitrates and nitrites than it did a few decades ago. But even so, the World Health Organization recently declared processed meat as carcinogenic to humans due to nitrosamine formation as well as the formation of other toxic compounds during processing and digestion.
How Did Dinosaurs Regulate Body Temperature? This activity extends concepts covered in the film The Origin of Birds. Students analyze and interpret data from a scientific paper to explore thermoregulation in living and extinct animals, including dinosaurs. The activity challenges students to use data to investigate the following question raised in the film: How did dinosaurs regulate their body temperature? Students will consider whether dinosaurs regulated their body temperature more like birds (endotherms), reptiles (ectotherms), or something in between. In the process, they will learn about the methods used to determine animals’ metabolic rates, and will analyze, interpret, and graph scientific data. Student Learning Targets - Analyze and interpret scientific data. - Make claims based on evidence from scientific data. - Participate in a collaborative discussion about the evidence with classmates. ectotherm, endotherm, growth rate, homeostasis, mesotherm, metabolism, resting metabolic rate, thermoregulation HS-LS1-7, HS-LS4-1; SEP2, SEP4, SEP5, SEP6 SYI-2.C, EVO-1.N, EVO-3.B,EVO-3.C ; SP1, SP2, SP4 2.8, 5.1, 8.1 ELA.RST.9–12.2, ELA.RST.9–12.4, ELA-WHST.9–12.1 Math.S-ID.1, Math.S-ID.3, Math.S-ID.6, Math.S-ID.7; MP2 CC1, CC4; DP1, DP2, DP3
Most people don't realize how much food they throw away every day — from uneaten leftovers to spoiled produce. About 95 percent of the food we throw away ends up in landfills or combustion facilities - more than 35 million tons of food waste each year. Once in landfills, food breaks down to produce methane, a potent greenhouse gas which contributes to climate change. Benefits of Reducing Wasted Food - Saves money from buying less food. - Reduces methane emissions from landfills and lowers your carbon footprint. - Conserves energy and resources, preventing pollution involved in the growing, manufacturing, transporting, and selling food (not to mention hauling the food waste and then landfilling it). - Supports your community by providing donated untouched food that would have otherwise gone to waste to those who might not have a steady food supply. Ways to Reduce Wasted Food Planning, prepping, and storing food can help your household waste less food. Below are some tips to help you do just that: - By simply making a list with weekly meals in mind, you can save money and time and eat healthier food. If you buy no more than what you expect to use, you will be more likely to keep it fresh and use it all. - Keep a running list of meals and their ingredients that your household already enjoys. That way, you can easily choose, shop for and prepare meals. - Make your shopping list based on how many meals you’ll eat at home. Will you eat out this week? How often? - Plan your meals for the week before you go shopping and buy only the things needed for those meals. - Include quantities on your shopping list noting how many meals you’ll make with each item to avoid overbuying. For example: salad greens - enough for two lunches. - Look in your refrigerator and cupboards first to avoid buying food you already have, make a list each week of what needs to be used up and plan upcoming meals around it. - Buy only what you need and will use. Buying in bulk only saves money if you are able to use the food before it spoils. - It is easy to overbuy or forget about fresh fruits and vegetables. Store fruits and vegetables for maximum freshness; they’ll taste better and last longer, helping you to eat more of them. - Freeze, preserve, or can surplus fruits and vegetables - especially abundant seasonal produce. - Many fruits give off natural gases as they ripen, making other nearby produce spoil faster. Store bananas, apples, and tomatoes by themselves, and store fruits and vegetables in different bins. - Wait to wash berries until you want to eat them to prevent mold. - If you like to eat fruit at room temperature, store in the refrigerator for maximum freshness then take what you’ll eat for the day out of the refrigerator in the morning. - Prepare perishable foods soon after shopping. It will be easier to whip up meals or snacks later in the week, saving time, effort, and money. - When you get home from the store, take the time to wash, dry, chop, dice, slice, and place your fresh food items in clear storage containers for snacks and easy cooking. - Befriend your freezer and visit it often. For example, freeze food such as bread, sliced fruit, or meat that you know you won’t be able to eat in time. Cut your time in the kitchen by preparing and freezing meals ahead of time. - Prepare and cook perishable items, then freeze them for use throughout the month. - Be mindful of old ingredients and leftovers you need to use up. You’ll waste less and may even find a new favorite dish. - Shop in your refrigerator first! Cook or eat what you already have at home before buying more. - Have produce that’s past its prime? It may still be fine for cooking. Think soups, casseroles, stir fries, sauces, baked goods, pancakes or smoothies. - If safe and healthy, use the edible parts of food that you normally do not eat. For example, stale bread can be used to make croutons, beet tops can be sautèed for a delicious side dish, and vegetable scraps can be made into stock. - Learn the difference between “sell-by,” “use-by,” “best-by,” and expiration dates. - Are you likely to have leftovers from any of your meals? Plan an “eat the leftovers” night each week. Casseroles, stir-fries, frittatas, soups, and smoothies are great ways to use leftovers too. Search for websites that provide suggestions for using leftover ingredients. - At restaurants, order only what you can finish by asking about portion sizes and be aware of side dishes included with entrees. Take home the leftovers and keep them to make your next meal. - At all-you-can-eat buffets, take only what you can eat. If You Can't Reduce Wasted Food, Divert It From Landfills - Nutritious, safe, and untouched food can be donated to food banks to help those in need. - Compost food scraps rather than throwing them away.
While West African tropical waves continue to propagate out into the tropical North Atlantic, none are expected to develop into a tropical cyclone soon. Today, the 2:00 PM EDT NHC Two-Day Graphical Tropical Weather Outlook shows one of these waves accompanied by a broad low pressure system, which particularly looks impressive on satellite imagery (see image below). Still, environmental conditions are not too favorable for a cyclone to form. Generally, tropical waves are accompanied with areas of disturbed weather that along with other dynamics of the atmosphere (that include climatological and synoptic conditions) could lead to cyclogenesis. One of the main favorable atmospheric conditions for tropical cyclone development is sustained, deep, moist convection. However, constant and extensive episodes of Saharan Air Layer (SAL) outbreaks are disrupting the formation of a nearly-saturated middle troposphere, which has contributed to the overall weak tropical waves pattern. Below, enhancements of Meteosat satellite imagery with the TAFB surface analysis overlaid depict various tropical waves being affected by SAL outbreaks during mid July. The imagery show how the dry air (orange and yellow shades) and dust (pink shade) associated with this Saharan airmass cover a large part of the waves environment, thus acting to suppress any convection originating in the marine layer.
January 14th, 2019 Components of Wire Rope Wire rope is signified as an intricate piece of engineering marvel that comprises of individual elements which work in unison to serve its multi-disciplinary purposes. We`ll go through all the components that makes up a wire rope and overview the strand patterns that facilitates its identification. Components of Wire rope: There are three essential elements that make up a wire rope: The essential building block of wire rope embodies a thin metallic wire. These wires symbolizes the smallest component of a wire rope and are bundled together round a core to form a wire rope altogether. Strands of wire rope constitutes of two or more wires wrapped around an axial member in a geometric pattern or in combination with steel wires and other materials. These individual strands are then laid around the core in a helical pattern. Strands represents the major portion that acts as a primary load bearing entity. A typical strand can constitute any number of wires, same goes for rope which can contain ‘n’ number of strands. The core forms the backbone of a wire rope as it runs through the center of the rope. It supports the strands and helps to maintain their relative position under loading and bending stresses. The construction of wire rope dictates the arrangement of each wire within an individual strand. The basic strand construction are explained below: - Single Layer– This construction consists a total of 7 wire, with a single wire at center and six wires surrounding it having identical diameter. - Filler Wire– This construction has two layers of uniform size wire wrapped around a center. This arrangement is characterized by inner layer having half the number of wires as the outer layer. It also consists of small filler wire equal in number to the inner layer that are laid in valleys of inner wire. - Seale– This construction has two layers wrapped around a center with equal number of wires in each layer having same diameter. The larger outer wires of which rest between the smaller inner wires. - Warrington– This construction consists of two layers wrapped around a center with one diameter of wire in inner layer, and two diameters of wire alternating large and small in outer layer. The larger outer layer of which lay in valleys while the smaller outer layer lays on the crowns of inner layers. - Combination– When a strand is constructed in single operation using two or more of the above constructions, it can be referred to as a “Combination pattern”. In this post we provided you with an insight into wire rope components and essential attributes to identify them. In our next article we`ll extrapolate the application of wire rope pertaining to individual industry domains.
Signs and Symptoms of Pancreatic Cancer The pancreas is an organ in your abdomen, behind the stomach. It is responsible for releasing enzymes which help digestion, and it also produces hormones to regulate blood sugar levels. Pancreatic cancer occurs when cells in the pancreas grow abnormally and form a tumor. Pancreatic cancers are categorized based on where they start and what type of cell they originate in. Most pancreatic cancers start in the head of the pancreas, and the most common cells where pancreatic cancer forms are in the lining of ducts which transport digestive enzymes away from the organ. This is known as pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma which accounts for around 95% of pancreatic cancer cases and forms in the exocrine cells. Endocrine pancreatic cancer is much less common when compared with exocrine cancer. Endocrine cells are those which create insulin and other hormones such as glucagon. Other rarer forms of pancreatic cancer include sarcoma, lymphoma and pancreatoblastoma. Ampullary cancer isn’t strictly pancreatic cancer but it is treated in the same way and starts where the bile duct meets the pancreatic duct in the ampulla of Vater. Pancreatic tumors aren’t always malignant. Benign tumors can be cysts which are filled with fluid or a substance called mucin. Although these aren’t cancerous, if left untreated they can spread to other parts of the body or lead to cancer. Pancreatic Cancer Causes Although doctors are unsure exactly what causes pancreatic cancer, there are several risk factors, some of which are lifestyle-based. Smoking is one of the main risk factors for pancreatic cancer, and smoking is a primary factor in around 20% to 30% of cases. A history of chronic pancreatitis is also a risk factor, as are some genetic conditions such as inherited pancreatitis. Drinking large volumes of alcohol, being overweight and eating a lot of processed meat are factors that increase the risk of developing pancreatic cancer. Older people are more likely to get pancreatic cancer, with the majority of cases in those aged over 65. It is also more common in people who have had cancer previously. There is also a slightly increased risk if a member of your family has had pancreatic cancer, or other factors such as the breast cancer gene, BRCA2. Warning Signs of Pancreatic Cancer Pancreatic cancer doesn’t often cause symptoms in its early stages, which is a shame, as it would be more treatable if it were picked up sooner. You can learn more about the stages of pancreatic cancer here. One of the first signs and symptoms of pancreatic cancer is often jaundice, which occurs when the body has too much bilirubin, which is a yellowish substance in the blood. The excess bilirubin occurs when a tumor blocks the bile duct, which is very close to the head of the pancreas, so the usual flow of liquids in and out is interrupted. Symptoms of jaundice include yellow skin and whites of the eyes, dark urine, light stools and itchy skin. Back pain and abdominal pain are very common in those diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. Large tumors press on nerves causing back pain and other organs which cause the abdominal pain. Other signs and symptoms of pancreatic cancer include unexpected weight loss, lack of appetite, nausea and vomiting. Fatigue and depression are often experienced, as is a new diabetes diagnosis. What Measures Can You Take to Prevent Pancreatic Cancer? There are steps you can take to help the prevention of pancreatic cancer, especially if you are at a greater risk due to family history. As smoking is such a major risk factor, it is really important to quit, and there is plenty of support available to help you do this. Whether it’s medication to reduce the urge, or nicotine patches and other devices, it’s worth speaking to your doctor to see what services are available. It’s also important to keep your BMI at a healthy level, ideally under 25, so if you’re overweight then try and cut back. A healthy diet is important for everyone and will reduce the risk of developing pancreatic cancer. So, make sure you eat plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables, restricting processed meat by avoiding things like ham and sausages. Reducing red meat consumption and including plenty of plant-based foods including whole grains, beans and lentils is vital for reducing the risk of many serious diseases including cancer. Limit alcohol consumption so that it is within the recommended level of 14 units per week, spread over a few days rather than binge drinking. If you do have a family history of pancreatic cancer, then a genetic specialist can test you to see if you are at a greater risk genetically. Pancreatic Cancer Treatment Several treatments are available for pancreatic cancer. The first is surgery, and depending on the staging of the tumor, it can either be removed or as much cut away as possible to relieve symptoms. If surgery can entirely remove the tumor, then it can potentially be a curing treatment. However, this is not always possible, especially if it wasn’t detected at an early stage. Ablation is another treatment for pancreatic cancer; this is where extreme heat or cold is applied directly into the tumor via a thin probe. Embolization is a treatment where a catheter is fed into an artery and substances are then injected, which block the flow of blood to cancer cells. This is typically used if the tumor is difficult or impossible to remove. Embolization for pancreatic cancer is highly effective at slowing down growth of a tumor or shrinking it. Chemotherapy is another option for pancreatic cancer; drugs are injected into a vein or taken orally. Chemotherapy can be combined with radiation therapy, which is called chemoradiation. Chemotherapy can be used to shrink the tumor, relieve symptoms and prevent future recurrence. Radiotherapy uses high energy x-rays to destroy cancer cells. It is targeted at the area of the body which has the tumor, and the process usually takes place over a few weeks, requiring the patient to visit the hospital every day. A newer form of this therapy is called proton therapy, which can have fewer side effects compared with traditional radiotherapy. Treatment options are much more effective when pancreatic cancer is diagnosed early, so it’s important to understand the causes and do as much as possible to reduce your risk by adopting a healthier lifestyle.
When we think of “obesity”, we think of an overly large person who struggles to walk or catch a breather. There are several ways to define it, though most of them carry the same meaning. One way to define it is someone is considered obese when his or her body weight exceeds what it should be by 20% (MedicalNewsToday). The World Health Organization (WHO) defines it as the excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to one’s health. For adults, the ranges for overweight and obesity can be measured using the body mass index (BMI), a value that is derived from your weight in relation to your height. Though it is not an accurate representation of one’s body fat, it does give a rough idea on his or her overall fat composition and physical well-being. The table below shows the values of the BMI reading and their corresponding categories: Besides BMI, another method to estimate body fat distribution and body fat percentage is via waist-to-hip ratios, skinfold thickness, ultrasound, and even magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Causes of Obesity Believe it or not, there are multiple factors of obesity, and it’s not just overeating. Science has proven that genetics and illnesses can increase the chances of being obese. Genetics do play a role in obesity; however, it is quite rare. Monogenic obesity is a rare form of obesity, and it is because of spontaneous mutations in single genes. This is called a monogenic mutation. These mutations are found in genes that are instrumental in appetite control, food intake, and energy homeostasis. There are genetic syndromes, too, such as the Prader-Willi and Bardet-Biedl where obesity is commonly accompanied by mental retardation and reproductive anomalies. The growing trend of obesity isn’t exclusive to the western world. In many developing countries, obesity is growing at a steady rate. According to a study in the New England Journal of Medicine, 12% of adults and 5% of children in the world are obese[note]Gregg, E. and Shaw, J. (2017). Global Health Effects of Overweight and Obesity. New England Journal of Medicine, 377(1), pp.80-81.[/note]. High-energy foods are readily available, and they’re as convenient as ever. Unfortunately, a lot of us work regular nine to five office jobs and barely get any physical exercise done. When you’re self-reflecting, ask yourself these questions: - Would you rather take the elevator than take the stairs three floors up? - Would you rather walk to work rather than taking the car? - How many times do you reach out for that chocolate-chip cookie jar in a day? Obesity doesn’t happen overnight. Unfortunately, our bad habits and small chunks of laziness build up over time, and by the time you realize you’ve gained weight, these habits have been embedded into your lifestyle! If you’ve finally realized this, is time to stick to your fitness routine! Overeating is when one consumes more calories than he or she burns off, resulting in excess energy stored as fat. Unfortunately, most of us don’t realize this. In a study done to measure the calorie and portion increase in 18 recipes over time, it was found that in 18 recipes, 14 of those has seen an increase of calories by nearly 50% in a 70-year time span[note]Wansink, B. (2009). The Joy of Cooking Too Much: 70 Years of Calorie Increases in Classic Recipes. Annals of Internal Medicine, 150(4), p.291.[/note]. Portion sizes per serving in America are getting bigger, and so are the waistlines of the citizens. Consequences of Obesity The link between obesity with cardiovascular risk factors, such as high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and diabetes has been well documented by science. For instance, a study from JAMA Cardiology concluded that overweight and obese adults between the ages of 40 to 59 had a 21-85% higher chance of developing cardiovascular disease, compared to those of normal weight adults[note]Association of Body Mass Index With Lifetime Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Compression of Morbidity.[/note]. Type 2 Diabetes Overweight or obese people add pressure to their body’s ability to properly use insulin in controlling blood levels. This is because the body needs to work harder in producing more insulin to transport the glucose into adipose tissue cells, which can lead to failure in insulin production. The extra weight an obese person puts extra pressure on the heart. During the “relaxation” phase of the heartbeat, or diastole, there is increased pressure in the heart. Over time, this can cause people to have heart failure symptoms. Other common health consequences of diabetes include: - Sleep apnea - Respiratory problems - Liver disease - Fertility issues - Cancers (endometrial, colon, and breast) The best way to reduce these chances is to lose that unnecessary fat! Overweight, obesity, and the diseases associated with them have a significant impact on the U.S health care system economically, considering that an estimated 160million Americans are obese. Currently, estimates for the cost of obesity range from $147billion to $210billion per year. Medical costs that are linked to overweight and obese may include both direct and indirect costs. Direct cause: Fees charged to the patient that may include preventive, diagnostic, and treatments that are directly related to obesity Non-direct cause: Relates to morbidity and mortality costs. Morbidity is the income value lost due to decreased productivity, absenteeism, and bed days. Mortality cost is the value lost in future income, due to premature death. According to Finkelstein et. al, obese adults spend 42% more than healthy adults for direct healthcare costs[note]Finkelstein EA, Trogdon JG, Cohen JW, Dietz W. Annual Medical Spending Attributable to Obesity: Payer-and Service-Specific Estimates. Health Affairs, 28(5): w822-831, 2009.[/note]. In the emergency room, the costs for patients with chest pains are 41% higher for severely obese patients, 28% higher for obese patients, and 22% higher for overweight patients, when compared to healthy-weight patients[note]Peitz GW, et al. Association of body mass index with increased cost of care and length of stay for emergency department patients with chest pain and dyspnea. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes, 7(2): 292-298, 2014.[/note]. Obesity Trends & Statistics Researchers from the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation found that at least 2 billion people worldwide are either overweight or obese[note]Health Effects of Overweight and Obesity in 195 Countries over 25 Years. (2017). New England Journal of Medicine, 377(1), pp.13-27.[/note]. In America alone, there are more obese adults than ever. Researchers found that Americans make up about 13 percent of the world’s fat population, which is the greatest percentage from any country. The graph below shows the increasing trend of obese American Adults from 2009 to 2016: Source: NCHS, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey The following animated map first appeared on the Government’s CDC (Centers for disease and control) website. Unfortunately, it’s not available anymore on the original website. Obesity Rates By State (US) \|District of Columbia\|\|23\|
Researchers believe dark matter makes up about 80% of the universe's mass, but its origins and composition remain among the most elusive mysteries in modern physics. A new Johns Hopkins University study suggests dark matter may have existed before the big bang. The study, published in Physical Review Letters, presents a new idea of how dark matter was created and how it might be identified during astronomical observations. "The study revealed a new connection between particle physics and astronomy," says Tommi Tenkanen, a postdoctoral fellow in JHU's Department of Physics and Astronomy and the study's author. "If dark matter consists of new particles that were born before the big bang, they affect the way galaxies are distributed in the sky in a unique way. This connection may be used to reveal their identity and make conclusions about the times before the big bang, too." While not much is known about its origins, astronomers have shown that dark matter plays a crucial role in the formation of galaxies and galaxy clusters. Though not directly observable, scientists know dark matter exists by its gravitation effects on how visible matter moves and is distributed in space. For a long time, researchers believed that dark matter must be a byproduct of the big bang. Scientists have long sought this kind of dark matter, but so far all experimental searches have been unsuccessful. "If dark matter were truly a remnant of the big bang, then in many cases researchers should have seen a direct signal of dark matter in different particle physics experiments already," Tenkanen says. Using a new, simple mathematical framework, the study shows that dark matter may have been produced before the big bang during an era known as the cosmic inflation when space was expanding very rapidly. The rapid expansion is believed to lead to copious production of certain types of particles called scalars. So far, only one scalar particle has been discovered, the famous Higgs boson. "We do not know what dark matter is, but if it has anything to do with any scalar particles, it may be older than the big bang," Tenkanen explains. "With the proposed mathematical scenario, we don't have to assume new types of interactions between visible and dark matter beyond gravity, which we already know is there." While the idea that dark matter existed before the big bang is not new, other theorists have not been able to come up with calculations that support the idea. The new study shows that researchers have always overlooked the simplest possible mathematical scenario for dark matter's origins, he says. The study also suggests a way to test the origin of dark matter by observing the signatures dark matter leaves on the distribution of matter in the universe. "While this type of dark matter is too elusive to be found in particle experiments, it can reveal its presence in astronomical observations," Tenkanen says. "We will soon learn more about the origin of dark matter when the Euclid satellite is launched in 2022. It's going to be very exciting to see what it will reveal about dark matter and if its findings can be used to peak into the times before the big bang."
Albert Einstein famously said, “Education is not the learning of facts, but the training of the mind to think.” Yet here we are, in a world where exam results still play such an influential role on our pupils’ futures. The World Economic Forum estimates that 65% of children entering primary education will eventually have jobs that do not exist yet. So, how can the exams of today prepare them for their futures? Forres Sandle Manor School (FSM) in Hampshire is a preparatory school for 3–13-year-olds which is leading a different approach to pupil development; it has embedded PSB (Pre Senior Baccalaureate) skills across the curriculum. FSM – using the PSB framework – focus on developing the six ‘learning powers’ of independence, collaboration, communication, grit, reflection and risk-taking throughout the school concurrently whilst learning traditional subject material. From designing independent and collaborative learning activities to constantly discussing with children and encouraging their use of learning powers in what they are doing, teachers embed the skills of learning both implicitly and explicitly in the classroom. Children are given independent or collaborative tasks, opportunities to listen to others’ thoughts and ideas and to communicate their own, whether during formalised debates or through more spontaneous conversations, pupils are encouraged to stretch themselves, to take risks and get outside their comfort zones. Whilst the use of these learning powers is both formally and informally assessed, the children are also encouraged to recognise these traits in themselves and each other. For example, they could be asked to predict which learning powers they are going to need in a task or to reflect on how they have used them. They record evidence of their use of these learning powers in their personal journal while others write reflective blogs on how they have used them during the week. PSB is a philosophical shift on what is important in education. Due to the unknowns, uncertainties and complexities of our children’s futures in the 21st century, we believe we need to prepare children by focusing not just on the ‘what’ of learning but also on the ‘how’. Children need to acquire knowledge but also to learn how to learn: a synthesis of knowledge and skills. In addition to the traditional acquisition and development of subject-specific knowledge, a PSB school is one which also values, promotes and develops the character traits of successful learners, such as independence, leadership, collaboration and communication. Skills to thrive FSM believe that a curriculum that places as much value on learning skills as it does on acquisition of knowledge means that children not only learn what they need to learn to pass exams, they also develop character traits which enable them to be mentally flexible, resilient and open-minded – traits which will help them not just survive but also thrive in life academically, socially and professionally. In years 7 and 8, pupils have three larger projects to complete. This work is sent to the pupils’ future senior schools alongside a pupil profile, enabling teachers to learn invaluable insights into their incoming students before they even sit in their first lesson. In March 2019, FSM invited representatives from the senior schools to hear pupils present their reflections on their experiences. The 10 senior school representatives were overwhelmingly impressed by the eloquence of the pupils and understanding of their growth in learning. Toby Smith, head of English at King’s College, Taunton, said: “The confidence shown by the speakers, the structure to their content, and the clarity of their delivery, all showed a professionalism that I hope they will be able to sustain through their work in senior school and into the world of careers, where these qualities will continue to be essential. This work is sent to the pupils’ future senior schools alongside a pupil profile, enabling teachers to learn invaluable insights into their incoming students “The sort of enquiries they were undertaking will be of real benefit when, in senior school, they come to the planning of extended essays, academic presentations, working on Extended Project Qualifications and writing university prize essays.” Matthew Harris, head of theology, philosophy and ethics at Cheltenham College, said: “PSB at FSM prepares pupils for the challenge of lifelong learning by providing the framework for them to learn how to learn. In an ever-changing world, this is a valuable skill to have.” Chris Barnes, assistant head (pupil progress), said: “It was a privilege to have the opportunity to visit FSM to listen to the pupils’ presentations as part of their PSB. I was struck by the confidence and enthusiasm the pupils exhibited, as well as their ability to reflect on their own learning in such a mature and insightful manner. “There is absolutely no doubt in my mind that the pupils develop a skillset through this project that will stand them in strong stead when they reach their senior schools and allow them to begin the next stage of their education confident in the knowledge that they have the skills and experience to succeed.” So, what will be done differently in 2020? As with any good practice, FSM are looking to keep evolving what they are doing. While teachers will continue to foster learning powers in lessons, examples of best practice will be highlighted more formally and consistently, and progression and target setting will become a far more specific aspect of tutor sessions. They will also be encouraging pupils to take on the responsibility of recording their own learning powers in action. This type of initiative can surely only produce world-ready young people. Pupils who have had a skills-based education at prep school are already thinking and learning in appropriate ways and do not find the transition to senior school to be so alien or need such care and attention that traditionally educated arrivals do. You might also like: Interview: Jody Wells, Forres Sandle Manor
I definitely liked this course more than I thought that I would, and I learned a lot of new material that I hadn’t learned in APUSH. With that being said, I really think that the role of the white elites in US History set up the rest of the country’s history as a whole. Before the revolution, the white elites wanted to be equal to the elites of the Brits. When that didn’t happen, they fought for what they thought that they deserved. In the early years of the new nation, the government was trying to figure out how to represent its people to set up national success. Luckily, for the common man, the Bill of Rights slipped into the new constitution, and the people felt like they had a say in how their government was run. The question of ‘who do we serve?’ as a government, though was still unanswered. Does the government only serve the elites, or does it serve everyone? Andrew Jackson was the first person to vehemently agree with the latter, and he won the support of the people. As crazy as he may have been, he spoke on behalf of the ‘common man’ and gave the people a sense of citizens’ rights. This idea was the beginning of a sliding slope that eventually led to greater male suffrage, emancipation of slaves, women’s suffrage, civil rights, and greater equality that we have today. This may never have taken place, or it could have taken a completely different course if the rights of the common man as described through his politics by SYSTRAUSS weren’t, at least in theory, promoted by Jackson. Jackson forever changed the course of American History because of his brand new style of politics.
The psychological and physiological effects of different genres of music are well documented in humans. These concepts have also been studied in kenneled dogs and some exotic animals, implying that animals may experience benefits similar to those of humans. This study tested the hypothesis that auditory enrichment changed the behavior of ten zoo-housed psittacines. All animals were exposed to six conditions of auditory stimulation; a ???control??? (no auditory stimulation), and ???experimental??? conditions, during which animals were presented with commercially-available CDs of classical music, pop music, natural rainforest sounds, parrot sounds and a talking radio. Each type of stimulation lasted two days, with a wash-out day between different stimulation conditions. We recorded key parameters relating to the birds??? social environment ??? whether they were group or single-housed and whether they had been hand or parent-reared. The parrots??? behaviour was recorded every minute for a 25??min period seven times a day using instantaneous sampling. The incidence of calm vocalisations and the level of preening changed with the different conditions. Birds exposed to rainforest and talking radio preened more than control birds. Birds exposed to several genres of auditory stimulation expressed fewer calm vocalisations than control birds. A further finding from this study was that hand-reared birds exhibited dramatically increased incidences of stereotypic behavior, more learned vocalisation and interacted less with enrichment than parent-reared and the implications of hand rearing for welfare are discussed. Similarly solo housed birds showed changes in behavior compared to group housed, such as less preening and more stereotypic behaviour. Hand reared, solo housed parrots express less normal behavior and maybe at risk of impaired welfare. - Auditory enrichment - Hand rearing Williams, I., Hoppitt, W., & Grant, R. (2017). The effect of auditory enrichment, rearing method and social environment on the behavior of zoo-housed psittacines (Aves: Psittaciformes); implications for welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 186(January), 85-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2016.10.013

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