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Some methods for minimizing erosion-corrosion include improving the flow lines within the pipe by deburring (i.e. - smoothing out irregularities), allowing bends to have larger angles, and changing pipe diameters gradually rather than abruptly. Other methods include slowing the flow rate (minimizing turbulence), reducing the amount of dissolved oxygen, changing the pH, and switching the pipe material to a different metal or alloy. In addition to the fluid path material used, it is also important to consider your fluid's temperature. At higher temperatures, flow rates should be lowered to minimize erosion-corrosion. For example, as a general rule, water flow velocities should not exceed 8 ft/sec for cold water and 5 ft/sec for hot water (up to approximately 140 °F). In systems where water temperatures routinely exceed 140 °F, flow velocities should not exceed 3 ft/sec. For maximum recommended water velocities in other typical tube materials, refer to Table 1. For other fluids, the maximum allowable fluid velocity can be calculated from: Allowable velocity for given fluid] = [Allowable velocity for water] x [Density of water/density of given liquid] 1/2. There will always be a trade-off between thermal performance and reliability/longevity in any cooling system. Increasing fluid flow will give you more cooling or performance only up to a point. After that, increased fluid velocities may rapidly begin to erode and corrode the inside metal surface of the tubing. Designers should consider many different factors, such as the ones discussed above, in order to determine the best solution for their application.
The Blues Impulse—An Era and the Ambiguity of Adolescence, by Sequella H. Coleman Guide Entry to 97.05.06: The Blues Impulse—An era and the Ambiguity of Adolescence is an interdisciplinary unit, approximately ten weeks in length, with a two-fold purpose: 1) to have students explore the writings, music, and art of Harlem during the 1920s and 30s; and 2) to have students explore their own “blues” in relation to their physical and social development. The students become instruments of adolescent blues representing their segment and perspective of a cultural blues. They are encouraged by creative lessons to explore their feelings through written, artistic, and musical expression. The concept of blues music and the historical migration occurring in that time period are to be covered first. Second is a concentration on the blues women and their contribution to the era, musically and through their lyrics. Thirdly, a literary introduction to blues language in literature is done with the study of Maud Martha and “Karintha,” a story from Cane. The ultimate goal of the unit is to have students do a comparative analysis of the blues influence of the 20s and the “blues” impulse of adolescent years. (Recommended for Social Studies, English and Reading, grades 6-8)
Biology Essentials For Dummies Biology Essentials For Dummies focuses on just the core concepts you need to succeed in an introductory biology course. From identifying the structures and functions of plants and animals to grasping the crucial discoveries in evolutionary, reproductive, and ecological biology, this easy-to-follow guide lets you skip the suffering and score high at exam time. Get down to basics — master the fundamentals, from understanding what biologists study to how living things are classified The chemistry of life — find out what you need to know about atoms, elements, molecules, compounds, acids, bases, and more Conquer and divide — discover the ins and outs of asexual and sexual reproduction, including cell division and DNA replication Jump into the gene pool — grasp how proteins make traits happen, and easily understand DNA transcription, RNA processing, translation, and gene regulation Open the book and find: An overview of cells and their substructures The key facts about reproduction and DNA The 411 on energy and organisms What you need to know about evolution Coverage of ecosystems and populations Ten great biology discoveries Core concepts taught in an introductory biology course The structures and functions of plants and animals The key discoveries in evolutionary, reproductive, and ecological biology Chapter 1: Exploring the Living World. Chapter 2: The Chemistry of Life. Chapter 3: The Living Cell. Chapter 4: Energy and Organisms. Chapter 5: Reproducing Cells. Chapter 6: DNA and Proteins: Life Partners. Chapter 7: Ecosystems and Populations. Chapter 8: Understanding Genetics. Chapter 9: Biological Evolution. Chapter 10: Ten Great Biology Discoveries.
Pot Of Gold Multiplication (C) In this pot of gold multiplication worksheet, students problem solve twelve multiplication equations within each pot of gold. Students circle all of the pots with a sum of 9. 4th - 6th Math 3 Views 2 Downloads Multiplication: A Treasure Hunt to Two and Three Digit by One Digit Multiplication Here is a math instructional activity which has learners practice multiplying two and three digit numbers by one digit numbers. They discuss multiplication strategies and use those strategies to play a game. 4th - 5th Math What Members Say - Jacqueline M., Academic Coordinator
Humans have had a long, contentious history with the other large creatures that share the planet. We nearly pushed the American bison into extinction due to overhunting, while the Western black rhino was given no such second chance--it went extinct in 2011. These herbivorous victims were singled out for use as trophies and meat, however, not becuase we perceived them as direct threats. On the other hand, our relationship with top-level carnivores--such as big cats, wolves and bears is fraught with an extra layer of tension, thanks to the fact that these animals are sometimes considered man-eaters (whether fairly or not) and perceived as competing with us for food and space. These perceptions have led, in some cases, to sustained hunts for these carnivores, from the extermination of wolves in the U.S. and Europe, to retaliatory killing of tigers and lions in Asia and Africa (pdf), respectively. But targeting these predators is now catching up to us. A new paper published in Science by an international team of researchers reveals the central role that top carnivores play in shaping nearly every aspect of an ecosystem, from the number and types of animals that live there, to the plants that grow there, to the diseases that break out. Across the world, top carnivores, they found, stabilize ecosystems, keeping environmental elements in balance and making sure no single creature hijacks the system. To reach these findings, the authors analyzed how the 31 largest mammalian carnivores around the world affect their ecosystem. The carnivores hailed from five different families and included animals such as wolves, wild dogs, dingo, tigers, lions, cheetahs, jaguars, pumas, Eurasian lynx, sea otters, leopards, bears and hyenas. The species they selected were distributed across continents (except Antarctica), although most of the diversity was concentrated in Africa and Asia. About three-quarters of those species are currently suffering population declines, and 61 percent are listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as threatened. To figure out what ecological role these animals play in their communities, they first searched through scientific literature for confirmed impacts caused by predator loss or reintroduction to an area. Lions, for example, occupy just 17 percent of their historic range, while leopards occur in about 65 percent. When lions and leopards disappeared from parts of West Africa, studies show that baboon populations shot up. Those ravenous primates, in turn, began eating up everything in their path, causing other primates and mammals to decline. Reports show that the baboons also took to raiding crops, resulting in some families pulling their kids out of school and sticking them in field to keep a constant guard against the monkeys. In Europe, the Eurasian lynx has disappeared from almost all of its historic range. When Finland recently reintroduced it, red fox populations went down, which triggered an increase of native forest grouse and mountain hares. Likewise, as sea otter populations can make or break an ecosystem, turning it from a sea urchin-covered mess to a diverse, healthy kelp forest. “As sea otter populations recover and decline, shifts between the kelp-dominated and urchin-dominated conditions can be abrupt,” the authors write. Humans win when there’s more sea otters around, too: kelp forests soften the impact of waves and currents that whip through coastal areas. Perhaps the most well documented example of a top carnivore’s impact on the ecosystem, however, are grey wolves. As the wolves were killed off, local deer populations “irrupted,” the authors write, shifting forested areas into grasslands as the deer ate every green thing in their path. As the habitat changed, so too did the species of birds and small mammals that lived there. After removing wolves from much of their environment throughout the U.S., Mexico and Europe, people finally decided it might be a good idea to give the animals a break and allow their populations to recover somewhat. Prior to allowing the wolves to come back, deer populations in North America and Europe were around six times higher than after the predator’s return. Since the wolves come back to Yellowstone, the national park has regained some of its formerly lost forest stands, which provide a home for other native species as well as store more carbon, which helps to offset climate change. Here, the authors visually depict the environmental changes that occurred when various large carnivores disappeared. The years those animals were missing from the environment is written on the far left. The species declines caused by the carnivores’ disappearance are in blue, while increasing species are in orange: Due to their cascading effects throughout an environment, top carnivores also play a role in carbon sequestration and disease control, the authors report. "We say these animals have an intrinsic right to exist, but they are also providing economic and ecological services that people value," William Ripple, a professor at Oregon State University and lead author of the study, said in a statement. This study, the authors warn, only skims the surface of possible repercussions that stem from top carnivore loss. In the future, as populations of these animals decline, or species are lost, “we should expect surprises, because we have only just begun to understand the influences of these animals in the fabric of nature,” they write. The team calls for more research to better understand the essential role top carnivores play. But conservation to protect these animals, they point out, is even more urgently needed. This includes not only protecting their habitats but also facilitating peaceful co-existence with nearby humans. “Many of these animals are at risk of extinction, either locally or globally,” Ripple said. “And, ironically, they are vanishing just as we are learning about their important ecological effects."
Differences between aquatic and terrestrial environments Because of differences between the physical characteristics of air and water, the physical environments facing organisms living in aquatic and terrestrial habitats are very different. Thus, the species that inhabit them face distinct problems that are unique to the two different habitats. Not surprisingly, species that inhabit aquatic and terrestrial environments have quite different characteristics. Water is 800 times denser than air. Buoyancy, the upward force exerted on an object immersed in a fluid, is determined by the mass of fluid displaced by an object. Because water is denser than air, objects of the same volume are more buoyant in water than they are in air. Therefore, many aquatic organisms can “float” relatively effortlessly in the water (i.e., they are neutrally buoyant). Others, however, tend to be be denser than the water and need flotation devices. Many fishes have a swim bladder that they can use adjust their buoyancy in the water. Planktonic organisms may have fat droplets or flattened shapes to increase their buoyancy. However, the greater density of water makes it more difficult for organisms to move through water because there is more drag. Thus, aquatic organisms that actively move through the environment should be selected to have streamlined shapes in order to reduce drag.The fastest swimming fishes like tunas have the most streamlined shapes of all fishes. The Effect of Gravity Although gravity affects all organisms living in air and water, the buoyant effect of water tends to offset the effect of gravity in aquatic environments. Thus, animals living in air must produce structures to fight the effects of gravity that are not necessary in aquatic organisms. For example, terrestrial plants (e.g., a pine tree) invest large amounts of resources in support structures (wood) whereas aquatic plants (e.g., kelp) invest fewer resources to support. Similarly, a much larger proportion of the body mass of large terrestrial animals (e.g., an elephant) is made up of bones than in large aquatic animals (e.g., a whale). In addition, organisms living in air spend a significant amount of energy maintaining support and on locomotion because they must fight the effects of gravity. The largest animals on earth (whales) are aquatic and do not have to deal with effects of gravity. Water is much less compressible than air (water is virtually incompressible). It is easier for organisms to move through air because the air is compressed only slightly by their bodies as they move through it. Thus, air flows smoothly past organisms moving through air. Organisms moving through water must completely displace the water as they move. The resulting turbulence increases the drag experienced by organisms traveling through water. Fast swimmers have mechanisms to reduce drag, such as folding down fins so they do not protrude into the water. Not surprisingly, the maximum speed for organisms flying through air is much greater than the maximum speed of organisms swimming through water. Oxygen makes up about 21% of Earth’s atmosphere and is spread evenly across the Earth’s surface. Thus, oxygen is readily available to most organisms living in terrestrial environments and so oxygen availability is not an important limiting factor in terrestrial environments. However, oxygen is dissolved in relatively low concentrations in water and the content of oxygen is not equal in all aquatic environments. For example, oxygen contents are higher in riffles of streams than in pools, so riffle communities tend to be more diverse and contain a greater biomass. In some aquatic environments with low oxygen, some fish have evolved mechanisms to breathe air. Terrestrial organisms take up oxygen from the air by diffusion or by ventilating their lungs. Water is so dense that ventilation is not an effective strategy for oxygen uptake in aquatic habitats. Most large, active aquatic organisms with high oxygen requirements have gills with special adaptations to allow them to extract oxygen from the water as efficiently as possible. Other aquatic animals, such as sea turtles and aquatic mammals come to the surface to breathe air. Light availability has a much greater influence on the distribution of life in the water than it does on land. Light is easily transmitted through air, so sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis reaches all terrestrial ecosystems (although the rate of photosynthesis may be limited by other factors such as moisture availability, temperature, etc.). However, water affects the penetration and spectral characteristics of light. Light from the red (long wavelength) end of the spectrum is filtered out sooner than light from the violet (short wavelength) end of the spectrum. Sunlight can only penetrate to a depth of about 183 meters (m) (the photic zone). Because photosynthesis is only possible in the photic zone and because the average depth of the oceans is about 3,800 m, most of the ocean is too deep to for photosynthesis to occur. Photosynthesizing plants and algae provide most of the energy used in marine food webs, so most life in the oceans is limited to a fairly narrow ring of shallow depths surrounding the continents. Deep ocean ecosystems rely either on the input of detritus (whose energy originally comes from the photic zone) or deep-sea vents. Many species of deep sea fishes are bioluminescent to make up for the absence of light in their environment. Plate Coral (Fungia sp.) This picture was taken in Papua New Guinea, 2004. (Source: Brocken Inaglory, Wikimedia Commons). Although limits to the depth of light penetration have important implications for life in the oceans (e.g., most life is limited to relatively shallow depths and the characteristics of coral and algae change with depth) many freshwater lakes, rivers, and springs are so shallow that light availability is not an issue. Compared to air, water has a very high specific heat (the energy required to raise the temperature of a gram of water by 1 degree centigrade). Thus, it requires more heat to change the temperature of water than it does to change temperatures in the air. Thus, terrestrial environments have much greater daily and seasonal changes in temperature than aquatic environments, so terrestrial organisms must be able to tolerate larger temperature ranges. - PADI Project Aware. 2000. A.W.A.R.E. Our World, Our Water. PADI. Rancho Santa Margarita, CA. ISBN: 1878663267
At the southeast corner of the house-shaped constellation Cepheus the King, there is an intriguing variable star called Delta Cephei. With clocklike precison, this rather faint star doubles in brightness, fades to a minimum and then doubles in brightness every 5.36 days. You can see it change over a period of days. The entire cycle is visible to the eye alone in a dark-enough sky. This star and others like it have secured a place as important standard candles for establishing the scale of the galaxy and universe. Delta Cephei itself looms large in the history of astronomy. An entire class of supergiant stars – called Cepheid variables – is named in this star’s honor. Like Delta Cephei, Cepheid variable stars dependably change their brightnesses over regular intervals. The time period can range from about one to 100 days, depending on the star’s luminosity or intrinsic brightness. Astronomers have learned that – the longer the cycle – the greater the intrinsic brightness of the star. This knowledge is a powerful tool in astronomy. Follow the links below to learn more about this interesting star. How do Cepheid variable stars help measure cosmic distances? Because Delta Cephei and other stars in its class vary so dependably – and because the cycle of their brightness change is tied so strongly to their intrinsic brightnesses – these stars can be used to measure distances across space. Astronomers call objects that can be used in this way standard candles. How does it work? First, they carefully measure the rates of these stars’ pulsations. Unfortunately, the distances to very few – if any – Cepheid variable stars are close enough to measure directly by stellar parallax. However, the approximate distances of Cepheid variables in relatively nearby star clusters have been determined indirectly by the spectroscopic method (sometimes called by the misnomer spectroscopic parallax). After watching many Cepheid variables pulsate – and knowing their approximate distances via the spectroscopic method – they know how bright a Cepheid variable of a particular intrinsic brightness should look at a given distance from Earth. Armed with this knowledge, astronomers watch the pulsations of this class of stars in distant space. They can deduce the stars’ intrinsic brightnesses because of their rates of pulsation. Then they can infer the distances to more faraway stars by their apparent magnitude. Because light dims by the inverse square law, astronomers know a star of a given luminosity (intrinsic brightness) would appear 1/16th as bright at 4 times the distance, 1/64th as bright at 8 times the distance or 1/100th as bright at 10 times the distance. Why are these stars varying in brightness, by the way? The variations are thought to be actual pulsations as the star itself expands and then contracts. Cepheid variable stars can be seen up to a distance of 20 million light-years. The nearest galaxy is about 2 million light-years away – and the most distant are billions of light-years away. So these stars don’t get you far in measuring distances across space. Still, since astronomers learned the secrets of their pulsation, these stars have been vital to astronomy. The astronomer Henrietta Leavitt discovered Cepheid variables in 1912. In 1923, the astronomer Edwin Hubble used Cepheid variable stars to determine that the so-called Andromeda nebula is actually a giant galaxy lying beyond the confines of our Milky Way. That knowledge released us from the confines of a single galaxy and gave us the vast universe we know today. Even so, this star is much easier to see when it’s high in the northern sky on autumn and winter evenings. You can find Cepheus by way of the Big Dipper. First, use the Big Dipper “pointer stars” to locate Polaris, the North Star. Then jump beyond the Polaris by a fist-width to land on Cepheus. You’ll see the constellation Cepheus the King close his wife, Cassiopeia the Queen, her signature W or M-shaped figurine of stars making her the flashier of the two constellations. They’re high in your northern sky on November and December evenings. How can I watch Delta Cephei vary in brightness? The real answer to that question is: time and patience. But two stars lodging near Delta Cephei on the sky’s dome – Epsilon Cephei and Zeta Cephei – match the low and high ends of Delta Cephei’s brightness scale. That fact should help you watch Delta Cephei change. So look back at the chart at the top of this post, and locate the stars Epsilon and Zeta Cephei. At its faintest, Delta Cephei is as dim as the fainter star, Epsilon Cephei. At its brightest, Delta Cephei matches the brightness of the brighter star, Zeta Cephei. Bottom line: The star Delta Cephei brightens and fades with clocklike precision every 5.36 days. This star and others of its class of Cepheid variables have secured a place as important standard candles for establishing the scale of the galaxy and universe. Delta Cephei is located at the southeast corner of the house-shaped constellation Cepheus the King. Bruce McClure has served as lead writer for EarthSky's popular Tonight pages since 2004. He's a sundial aficionado, whose love for the heavens has taken him to Lake Titicaca in Bolivia and sailing in the North Atlantic, where he earned his celestial navigation certificate through the School of Ocean Sailing and Navigation. He also writes and hosts public astronomy programs and planetarium programs in and around his home in upstate New York.
Buried in lake sediments on Easter Island are fossil pollen grains. These pollen grains indicate that a now-extinct species of palm tree once grew there. All suggestions as to what it might have looked like are inferred from the similarity of its pollen to that of the giant Chilean wine palm, Jubaea chilensis. The Easter Island palm disappears from the pollen record around the year 1650. Some say its demise is inextricably linked to that of Rapanui, the ancient Easter Island society... The extinct palm has been named Paschalococos disperta. Some archaeologists have suggested that the palm would have proved most useful to the ancient Easter Islanders. Could they have felled the trees and used their trunks as rollers to help transport those large moai stone statues from the quarry? Perhaps they used the hollowed out trunks as canoes to get to far-off fishing waters. This idea sounds rather romantic, but they probably used reed ships made of totora bulrushes, not hollow palm trunks. It's quite likely that trees were cut down to get at the edible heart of palm... And so the speculation continues. The bottom line is that we don't know exactly why the palms of Easter Island were annihilated. All we know is that a day must have dawned when someone, for whatever reason, decided to cut down the last tree. With the island completely deforested, societal collapse seemed inevitable. The lack of trees led to severe soil erosion, still apparent to this day. Other species of animals and plants declined, including the toromiro tree, which was saved from extinction when Thor Heyerdahl collected viable seed on his expedition to the island in the mid-20th century. The toromiro was subsequently entered into a breeding program at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. If only Paschalococos had been that fortunate. Even modern biotechnology will not resurrect this species - the fossil pollen from the lake beds and empty coconut shells found in caves yielded no DNA whatsoever. Now more than ever, it is clear that our survival is tied to that of our environment. No, not just survival. Our very essence. Everything that defines culture - food, shelter, clothing, medicine, stories, fears, songs, beliefs, temples, tools, traditions, games, dreams - is shaped and nurtured by the plants and animals and microbes among us. Satellites watch Madagascar bleed red earth into the ocean now. Survey ships document tonnes of plastic garbage collecting in the gyres of the North Pacific. The IUCN keeps adding new species to the Red List. Easter Island was a prediction of what happens when biodiversity is lost. Or perhaps not a prediction. A warning - we should know better now. We finally have the tools to manage a whole planet. Collapse is not inevitable. Respect for nature is respect for human life. Photo credits: moai heads by explora; Chilean wine palm by badthings; single moai by Jean Delard de Rigoulières.
Home >> Others >> Common Chinese characters >> Understanding the pronunciation and explanation of Common Chinese character: 人 How to write Chinese characters The order of strokes of Chinese characters are traditionally classified into eight basic forms, each appearing in the character "eternally" and according to their contemporary names("Dian", "Heng", "Shu", "Gou", "Ti", "Pie", "Duan Pie", "Na"). Though somewhat arbitrary, this system has remained popular for nearly two millenia. Go to this page to learn more about the order of strokes of Chinese characters.
Scripture: Judges 16 - Students will review the story of how God used Samson’s strength to end the Philistines. - Students will learn how God uses all circumstances including people’s bad choices to fulfill his ultimate will. - Students will learn the basics of muscle fatigue and experience it through exercise and graphing. Guiding Question: What is muscle fatigue and how does it affect one’s physical activities? Materials: paper, pencil, stopwatch Procedure: Review the story of Samson and Delilah focusing on how his disobedience to God caused him to lose his strength and ultimately suffer for it. Discuss how Samson became weaker because his hair was cut and he had a covenant with God. Ask students what causes our muscles to weaken? Not exercising muscles, not eating healthy, lack of protein etc. Explain that exercise is good for muscles. However, you have to be careful not to push muscles too hard in a limited amount of time because they will get too tired and give out. This is called muscle fatigue. Organize students in pairs. Time students for 30 seconds and have them do as many push-ups as possible (if students can’t do a regular push-up, they can do them on their knees). Have them record their first trial. Then have them do it for a second trial. Do the same a third time. The partner will observe that the one exercising is doing them correctly and serve as the counter. Have students record how many push-ups they do each time. Then have students switch jobs. Ask them what is happening to the number of push-ups they can do. They do fewer each time. Emphasize that it gets harder as the muscles work longer. This does not mean that they are getting weaker, but rather that their muscles are getting fatigued. If they continue to work in short periods over long periods of time, their muscles will grow. Tell students that the number of push-ups they can do helps their muscular endurance. Endurance is the ability to do an exercise over a longer amount time. Muscle strength is the ability to move a large amount of weight just once. Emphasize that when your muscles feel fatigued you should rest and drink water. God created our muscles so that they protect themselves from being ripped and overextended like a rubber band that is pulled too far. If you exercise them too hard, the body tells you to stop through fatigue. If you exercise regularly your body will build muscle so that it can keep up with the new exercise you want it to do. - What types of exercises are harder and easier for you to do? - How can you incorporate exercise into your life? Supplemental Activity: Have students come up with a short exercise routine to do each day. This can include push-ups, crunches/sit-ups, jumping jacks, running, etc. Challenge them to increase the number that they do each week. First have them test themselves to see how many of each type of exercise they can do. Then have them set long-term goals for how many they want to do. They can keep an exercise journal to see how they progress Written by: Savannah Negas
The use of nanoparticles in cancer research is considered as a promising approach in detecting and fighting tumour cells. The method has, however, often failed because the human immune system recognizes the particles as foreign objects and rejects them before they can fulfil their function. Researchers at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR) and at University College Dublin in Ireland have, along with other partners, developed nanoparticles that not only bypass the body’s defence system, but also find their way to the diseased cells. This procedure uses fragments from a particular type of antibody that only occurs in camels and llamas. The small particles were even successful under conditions which are very similar to the situation within potential patients’ bodies. Describing the current state of research, Dr. Kristof Zarschler of the Helmholtz Virtual Institute NanoTracking at the HZDR explains, “At the moment we must overcome three challenges. First, we need to produce the smallest possible nanoparticles. We then need to modify their surface in a way that the proteins in the human bodies do not envelop them, which would thus render them ineffective. In order to ensure, that the particles do their job, we must also somehow program them to find the diseased cells.” Therefore, the Dresden and Dublin researchers combined expertise to develop nanoparticles made of silicon dioxide with fragments of camel antibodies. In contrast to conventional antibodies, which consist of two light and two heavy protein chains, those taken from camels and llamas are less complex and are made up of only two heavy chains. “Due to this simplified structure, they are easier to produce than normal antibodies,” explains Zarschler. “We also only need one particular fragment – the portion of the molecule that binds to certain cancer cells – which makes the production of much smaller nanoparticles possible.” By modifying the surface of the nanoparticle, it also gets more difficult for the immune system to recognize the foreign material, which allows the nanoparticles to actually reach their target. The ultra-small particles should then detect the so-called epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in the human body. In various types of tumours, this molecule is overexpressed and/or exists in a mutated form, which allows the cells to grow and multiply uncontrollably. The Dresden researchers could demonstrate in experiments that nanoparticles that have been combined with the camel antibody fragments can more firmly bind to the cancer cells. “The EGFR is a virtual lock to which our antibody fits like a key,” explains Zarschler. They even obtained the same results in experiments involving human blood serum – a biologically relevant environment the scientists point out: “This means that we carried out the tests under conditions that are very similar to the reality of the human body,” explains Dr. Holger Stephan, who leads the project. “The problem with many current studies is that artificial conditions are chosen where no disruptive factors exist. While this provides good results, it is ultimately useless because the nanoparticles fail finally in experiments conducted under more complex conditions. In our case, we could at least reduce this error source.” However, more time is required before the nanoparticles can be utilized in diagnosing human tumours. “The successful tests have brought us one step further,” explains Stephan. “The road, however, to its clinical use is long.” The next aim is to reduce the size of the nanoparticles, which are now approximately fifty nanometres in diameter, to less than ten nanometres. “That would be optimal,” according to Zarschler. “Then they would only remain in the human body for a short period – just long enough to detect the tumour.”
Threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) comprises a complex of differentiated populations, many of which are clearly adapted to local environments. This complex of freshwater populations is thus called an adaptive radiation. The radiation is unusual in several respects. First, the freshwater populations (peripheral images in the wheel) are thought to have evolved from a relatively uniform oceanic ancestor like that which exists in the north temperate Atlantic and Pacific oceans today (central image in the wheel). Thus the characteristics of oceanic fish can be used to identify ancestral characteristics relative to the freshwater radiation, which is unusual in that much of this radiation has arisen since the last glacial maximum. Between 15,000 and 20,000 yr ago ice began to retreat, permitting colonization of freshwater habitats by oceanic fish. These populations have adapted rapidly to new habitats, often giving rise repeatedly and independently, to similar phenotypes (ecotypes) in similar environments, and sometimes, to new species. Differences have evolved in behavior, life history and morphology. We take advantage of this radiation to study evolution of these phenotypes by comparing freshwater ecotypes with their oceanic ancestors and by contrasting independently evolved populations within ecotypes. These comparisons enable us to address the issues outlined below.
Imagine ice cream, chocolate and gelatin teaching your students about science. This two-and-a-half-week unit designed for students in kindergarten to second grade allows you to do just that. Students will discover how transformations or changes occur in the kitchen. Students will discover how flour and baking soda react as they are mixed with a variety of liquids. They will observe the changes that occur as a liquid, colored sugar water, freezes, melts and evaporates. Students will see demonstrations of the three phases of matter, leading into discussion of the water cycle or weather patterns. Students will make and compare two types of gelatin. To discover how temperature transforms solids and liquids, the students will follow a recipe to make ice cream and chocolate sauce. Finally, they will observe the growth of a seed as it transforms and becomes something completely different, a radish. This unit is a great way to teach hands-on science activities using food while incorporating writing and math. Students will be able to write about the changes they observe using their five senses, the steps to each mixture, following directions and counting how much of each ingredient is added. (Recommended for Science, Math, and Writing, grades K-2)
The Sacred Mounds Burial Mounds and ritualized mortuary practices were an integral part of the Hopewell culture. The mounds suggest a highly ritualized and very organized society. Burial mound construction varied depending on its regional location. The mounds at Albany are typical of the Illinois region. Over 96 mounds were built at Albany during the 500 year time span from 200 B.C. to A.D. 300. The Albany Hopewell built their mounds on the bluff tops above the village and on the terraces adjacent to the village. Today about 50 of the mounds remain. Some were destroyed by agricultural activities and by railroad and highway construction, others were destroyed in the process of being scientifically excavated in the early 1900’s by the Davenport Academy of natural Sciences. A Final Resting Place Mound construction was fairly uniform. First the topsoil was cleared away. A tomb was constructed either on the surface or placed in a pit dug into the subsoil. The tomb was constructed of stones, plaster, or logs; and the tomb floor was covered with mats of skins, bark or reeds. Over time, or at a designated time, the tomb was filled with the remains of individuals and artifacts. Finally, logs, sometimes covered with flat stones, would cover the tomb and its remains. Covering the tombs with heaping basketfuls of earth completed the mound. Not all burial mounds were alike. They varied in size, number of burials, and even shape. Some individuals were e buried with accompanying grave goods. Others in the same mound were buried with little or nothing besides them; however, perishable artifacts such as wood and clothing would disappear long before modern time. Crafted artifacts found in the excavated mounds include stone tools, copper awls and panpipes, mica mirrors, galena, marine shell containers, platform smoking pipes, and pottery. The majority of the mounds found here are conical in shape; some are linear or oval, and 2 are conjoined conical mounds. Each mound ranges from 32 feet to 1 foot in height, with a diameter range of 200 feet to 15 feet. The average size is 3 feet in height and 40 feet in diameter.
Send the link below via email or IMCopy Present to your audienceStart remote presentation - Invited audience members will follow you as you navigate and present - People invited to a presentation do not need a Prezi account - This link expires 10 minutes after you close the presentation - A maximum of 30 users can follow your presentation - Learn more about this feature in our knowledge base article Do you really want to delete this prezi? Neither you, nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again. Make your likes visible on Facebook? You can change this under Settings & Account at any time. Leonardo da Vinci Transcript of Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo da Vinci: an Inventor Ahead of His Time daVinci drawingThe term "Renaissance man" comes from fifteenth-century Italy and refers to the idea of a person with knowledge and skills in a number of different areas. Perhaps, no single individual defines the idea of a Renaissance man better than Leonardo da Vinci – an artist, scientist, architect, engineer and inventor. Though Leonardo da Vinci may be most famous for his works as an artist, he actually spent quite a bit more time working on his endeavors in science and technology. Of course, his detailed sketches and distinct artistry played a large role in his inventions, and his sketchbooks later provided evidence that da Vinci had envisioned many ideas long before the technology to build them actually existed. One of the most prolific inventors in history, Leonardo da Vinci dreamed up inventions and innovations across a variety of fields. Whether designing weapons of war, flying machines, water systems or work tools, da Vinci the inventor (much like da Vinci the artist) was never afraid to look beyond traditional thinking or "dream big". AnemometerHistorians stipulate that it was Leonardo da Vinci’s fascination with flight that inspired him to innovate the anemometer, an instrument for measuring the speed of wind. His hope was that, eventually, the device could be used to give people insight into the direction of the wind before attempting flight. While da Vinci did not actually invent the device, he did make variations on the existing designed originated by Leon Batista in 1450 (da Vinci’s design was probably made between 1483 and 1486) so that it was easier to measure wind force. Next to his sketches of the anemometer, da Vinci made the following notes: "For measuring distance traversed per hour with the force of the wind. Here a clock for showing time is required." Da Vinci’s anemometer has an arched frame with a rectangular piece of wood hanging in the center by a hinge. When the wind blows, it raises the piece of wood inside the arched frame. Printed on the frame would be a scale. By noting the highest point that the wood reached on the scale, a person could measure the force of the wind. Of Leonardo da Vinci’s many areas of study, perhaps this Renaissance man’s favorite was the area of aviation. Da Vinci seemed truly excited by the possibility of people soaring through the skies like birds. One of da Vinci’s most famous inventions, the flying machine (also known as the "ornithopter") ideally displays his powers of observation and imagination, as well as his enthusiasm for the potential of flight. The design for this invention is clearly inspired by the flight of winged animals, which da Vinci hoped to replicate. In fact, in his notes, he mentions bats, kites and birds as sources of inspiration. Perhaps the inspiration of the bat shines through the most, as the two wings of the device feature pointed ends commonly associated with the winged creature. Leonardo da Vinci’s flying machine had a wingspan that exceeded 33 feet, and the frame was to be made of pine covered in raw silk to create a light but sturdy membrane. The pilot would lie face down in the center of the invention on a board. To power the wings, the pilot would pedal a crank connected to a rod-and-pulley system. The machine also had a hand crank for increased energy output, and a head piece for steering. As the busy pilot spins cranks with his hands and feet, the wings of the machine flap. The inspiration of nature in the invention is apparent in the way the wings were designed to twist as they flapped. Unfortunately, as da Vinci himself might have realized, while the flying machine may have flown once it was in the air, a person could never have created enough power to get the device off the ground. Helicopter (Aerial Screw) HelicopterThough the first actual helicopter wasn’t built until the 1940s, it is believed that Leonardo da Vinci’s sketches from the late fifteenth century were the predecessor to the modern day flying machine. As with many of da Vinci’s ideas, he never actually built and tested it – but his notes and drawings mapped out exactly how the device would operate. Da Vinci scrawled next to his sketches of the screw-like machine the following description: "If this instrument made with a screw be well made – that is to say, made of linen of which the pores are stopped up with starch and be turned swiftly, the said screw will make its spiral in the air and it will rise high." Also known as the "Helical Air Screw" or simply the "airscrew", the device was designed to compress air to obtain flight – similar to today’s helicopters. Da Vinci was a big proponent of the many possibilities offered by the screw shape, and he used the shape for other inventions and designs as well. Da Vinci’s helicopter measured more than 15 feet in diameter and was made from reed, linen and wire. It was to be powered by four men standing on a central platform turning cranks to rotate the shaft. With enough rotation, da Vinci believed the invention would lift off the ground. Unfortunately, due to weight constrictions, modern scientists do not believe da Vinci’s invention would have been able to take flight. ParachuteThough credit for the invention of the first practical parachute usually goes to Sebastien Lenormand in 1783, Leonardo da Vinci actually conceived the parachute idea a few hundred years earlier. Da Vinci made a sketch of the invention with this accompanying description: "If a man have a tent made of linen of which the apertures (openings) have all been stopped up, and it be twelve braccia (about 23 feet) across and twelve in depth, he will be able to throw himself down from any great height without suffering any injury." Perhaps the most distinct aspect of da Vinci’s parachute design was that the canopy was triangular rather than rounded, leading many to question whether it would actually have enough air resistance to float. And since da Vinci’s parachute was to be made with linen covering a wood frame, the hefty weight of the device also was viewed as an issue. Like many of da Vinci’s ideas, the invention was never actually built or tested by Leonardo himself. But, in 2000, daredevil Adrian Nichols constructed a prototype based on da Vinci’s design and tested it. Despite skepticism from experts, da Vinci’s design worked as intended and Nichols even noted that it had a smoother ride than the modern parachute. Machine GunThe way Leonardo da Vinci saw it, the problem with the canons of the time was that they took far too long to load. His solution to that problem was to build multi-barreled guns that could be loaded and fired simultaneously. This idea forms the basis of war inventions like da Vinci’s 33-barreled organ, which featured 33 small-caliber guns connected together. The canons were divided into three rows of 11 guns each, all connected to a single revolving platform. Attached to the sides of the platform were large wheels. All the guns on the organ would be loaded and then, during battle, the first row of 11 would be fired. The platform would then be rotated to properly aim the next row of canons. The idea was that while one set of canons was being fired, another set would be cooling and the third set could be loaded. This system allowed soldiers to repeatedly fire without interruption. The weapon is referred to as an "organ" because the rows of canon barrels resemble the pipes of an organ. Leonardo da Vinci’s design for the 33-barrelled organ is generally regarded as the basis for the modern day machine gun – a weapon that didn’t really develop for commercial use until the 19th century. Armoured CarThe precursor to the modern tank, Leonardo da Vinci’s armored car invention was capable of moving in any direction and was equipped with a large number of weapons. The most famous of da Vinci’s war machines, the armored car was designed to intimidate and scatter an opposing army. Da Vinci’s vehicle has a number of light cannons arranged on a circular platform with wheels that allow for 360-degree range. The platform is covered by a large protective cover (much like a turtle’s shell), reinforced with metal plates, which was to be slanted to better deflect enemy fire. There is a sighting turret on top to coordinate the firing of the canons and the steering of the vehicle. The motion of the machine was to be powered by eight men inside of the tank who would constantly turn cranks to spin the wheels. Leonardo suggested in his notes that the thought of using horses for power crossed his mind, but he dismissed it because he feared the animals would become too unpredictable in the confines of the tank. Despite its elaborate design, da Vinci’s tank has a major flaw - the powering cranks went in opposite directions. This made forward motion impossible. Scholars suggest such a basic engineering flaw would never have escaped the detail-oriented mind of Leonardo da Vinci, and that he may have inserted the flaw intentionally. A pacifist at heart, da Vinci might have sabotaged his own design to discourage the war machine from every being built. Giant CrossbowOne thing Leonardo da Vinci may have understood better than any of his contemporaries was the psychological effects of weapons in warfare. Da Vinci knew that the fear weapons could instill in enemies was just as important (if not more so) than the damage they could actually inflict. This was one of the main ideas behind many of da Vinci’s war inventions – among them, his giant crossbow. Designed for pure intimidation, da Vinci’s crossbow was to measure 42 braccia (or 27 yards) across. The device would have six wheels (three on each side) for mobility, and the bow itself would be made of thin wood for flexibility. Rather than fire giant arrows, Leonardo’s crossbow instead seems to be designed to fire large stones or possibly flaming bombs. For use, a soldier spins a crank to pull back the bow and loads the artillery. The soldier would then use a mallet to knock out a holding pin and fire the weapon. The giant crossbow invention is a great example of the way da Vinci’s artwork really brought his ideas to life. Through his illustrations, an idea, however improbable, becomes realistic and plausible. His vivid drawings of the giant crossbow invention also make it clear the idea behind the impressive weapon was to terrify enemies into fleeing rather than fighting. Triple Barrel Canon Triple Barrel CanonAs a military engineer, one of Leonardo da Vinci’s key beliefs was that mobility was crucial to victory on the battlefield. This idea is seen in many of his war inventions, from his mobile bridges and ladders to many of his weapon designs. A prime example is da Vinci’s triple barrel canon invention. During da Vinci’s time, canons were generally used at home in stationary positions rather than on the battlefield. This was because they were heavy and took a lot of time to reload. Da Vinci designed his triple barrel canon to solve both of these problems – a fast and light weapon that could do a lot of damage on the battlefield. The design featured three thin canons that would be front-loaded and adjustable in height. Unlike a traditional canon, where one shot would be fired before reloading, da Vinci’s canon allowed soldiers to load three shots at once, enabling them to fire more frequently. The lighter weight and large wheels allowed the gun carriage to be moved around to different areas during battle. It is also of note that, while gunpowder was in its infancy during the 15th century, Leonardo used it frequently in his designs, predicting its eventual emergence as the weapon of choice in 19th- and 20th-century warfare. Gears and mechanics of a watchTo put away any initial confusion – Leonardo da Vinci did not invent the clock. What he did was design a more accurate clock. While clocks that showed hours and minutes had become increasingly accurate in da Vinci’s time (the 15th century), they didn’t really make a big leap forward until the incorporation of the pendulum about 200 years later. But, da Vinci actually designed a more accurate clock in his lifetime. Leonardo’s clock had two separate mechanisms: one for minutes and one for hours. Each was made up of elaborately connected weights, gears and harnesses. The clock also has a dial for keeping track of moon phases. Da Vinci’s major innovation was to have springs, rather than weights operate his clock. He also included the detail of some materials that would be used to make the clock – including diamonds and rocks. Colussus conceptPerhaps even more interesting than the ambition and innovation behind Leonardo da Vinci’s Colossus invention is the dramatic and heartbreaking story of his attempts to bring it to life. In 1482, the Duke of Milan commissioned da Vinci to build the largest horse statue in the world. Da Vinci, never afraid of a challenge designed a 24-foot bronze statue, and then went to work creating a clay model. The next step was to cover the model in bronze – not an easy task. Because of the size of the statue, it required 80 tons of bronze, which had to be applied in an even thickness or the statue would be unstable. To do this, da Vinci used his experience designing canons to invent a whole new mold-making technique. He also had to invent an innovative oven to reach the temperature needed to heat such a large amount of bronze. After finally solving all of the design problems that confronted him, da Vinci was ready for bronzing. Unfortunately, fate intervened, and, in 1494, King Charles invaded France. To hold off the French army, the Duke offered a bribe of Leonardo’s bronze – which the French ultimately used to make canons. The last thing Leonardo wrote about the Colossus was: "I will speak of the horse no more." In 1977, a retired airline pilot and artist from Pennsylvania named Charles Dent decided to revive da Vinci’s Colossus project, setting up a non-profit organization to do so. He spent the next 17 years working on it before dying in 1994. Finally, in 1999, the horse was completed and given as a gift to the people of Milan, Italy. the Ideal CityPerhaps no idea speaks to the epic ambition and scope of Leonardo da Vinci’s inventions better than his ideal city. This invention focuses not just on a single area but combines da Vinci’s talents as an artist, architect, engineer and inventor to create an entire city. Da Vinci’s ideal city idea came about after the plague had ravaged Milan, killing off nearly a third of the city’s population. Leonardo wanted to design a city that would be more united, with greater communications, services and sanitation to prevent the future spread of such diseases. His ideal city integrated a series of connected canals, which would be used for commercial purposes and as a sewage system. The city would feature lower and upper areas – the lower being canals for tradesmen and travelers and the upper being roads for "gentleman". The roads were designed to be very broad, most likely in response to Milan’s narrow streets where people were jammed together, probably contributing to the spread of the plague. Being an artist and architect, da Vinci’s city also would be a vision to behold, with elegant buildings featuring large arches and pillars. Da Vinci said of his style of urban planning: "Only let that which is good looking be seen on the surface of the city." Da Vinci detailed many other great and small aspects of his city. These include special stables for horses, which the animal-loving da Vinci saw as integral to the workings of the city, and fresh air vents in buildings. However, since da Vinci’s design was so grand in scale and required an entire city to be rebuilt, his ideal city never actually came to fruition. robotic armWith his innovative, engineering mind, Leonardo da Vinci had many ideas that employed the use of pulleys, weights and gears. Certainly, these three components were crucial to many of his automated inventions - including his versions of the clock, air conditioner and hydraulic power saw. Da Vinci also incorporated these mechanisms into his self-propelled cart invention, which many people consider the very first robot. But da Vinci used the parts to create another robot too – his Robotic Knight. Though a full drawing of da Vinci’s robotic knight has never been recovered, fragments detailing different aspects of the knight have been found scattered throughout his notebooks. Designed for a pageant in Milan (which the Duke had put Leonardo in charge of overseeing), the Robotic Knight consisted of a knight suit filled with gears and wheels that were connected to an elaborate pulley and cable system. Through these mechanisms, da Vinci’s robotic knight was capable of independent motion - sitting down, standing up, moving its head and lifting its visor. Using several different da Vinci drawings as blueprints, roboticist Mark Rosheim built a prototype of the robotic knight in 2002, which was able to walk and wave. Rosheim noted how da Vinci had designed the robotic knight to be easily constructed, without a single unnecessary part. Rosheim also used da Vinci’s designs as inspiration for robots he developed for NASA. car inventionBefore motorized vehicles were even a glimmer in someone’s eye, Leonardo da Vinci designed a self-propelled cart capable of moving without being pushed. Among its other accomplishments, many consider da Vinci self-propelled cart invention to be the world’s first robot. The self-propelled cart was one of the many inventions that Leonardo created dealing with locomotion and transportation. Historians later deduced that da Vinci specifically designed the cart for theatrical use. Leonardo’s cart was powered by coiled springs and it also featured steering and brake capabilities. When the brake was released, the car would propel forward, and the steering was programmable to go either straight or at pre-set angles. Da Vinci’s cart design was so ahead of its time that its exact workings baffled scholars until late in the 20th century. But, in 2006, Italy’s Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence built a working model based on da Vinci’s design and, to the surprise of many, the cart actually worked. Some experts even noted that it looked similar to the Mars Land Rover. Water and Land Machines scuba diverWhat made Leonardo da Vinci such a great artist was also what made him such a great inventor: his fascination with the world around him. This was the case with water. In his lifetime, da Vinci designed many inventions dealing with water – perhaps, most notably, scuba gear. While working in Venice, the "water city", in 1500, da Vinci designed his scuba gear for sneak attacks on enemy ships from underwater. The leather diving suit was equipped with a bag-like mask that went over the diver’s head. Attached to the mask around the nose area were two cane tubes that led up to a cork diving bell floating on the surface. Air was provided from the opening of the tubes to the diver below. The mask also was equipped with a valve-operated balloon that could be inflated or deflated, so the diver could more easily surface or sink. Additionally, Leonardo da Vinci’s scuba gear invention incorporated a pouch for the diver to urinate in. Da Vinci’s idea for Scuba gear (like many of his invention ideas) didn’t actually become well-known until his famous Codex Atlanticus, a twelve-volume set of his drawings and notes, was published after his death. the revolving brigdeDesigned for Duke Sforza, Leonardo da Vinci’s revolving bridge could be quickly packed up and transported for use by armies on the move to pass over bodies of water. The bridge would swing across a stream or moat and set down on the other side so that soldiers could pass with little trouble. The device had wheels and incorporated a rope-and-pulley system for both quick employment and easy transport. It was also equipped with a counterweight tank for balancing purposes. Da Vinci described the bridge in his notes as being "light yet rugged" and it was one of several bridges he designed for the Duke in his lifetime. Another, similar bridge Leonardo da Vinci built for armies was a fast-construction bridge that made it quicker and easier for soldiers to cross multiple rivers. Such temporary bridges helped armies to navigate unfamiliar terrain with less difficulty, and more easily escape from pursuing forces. They also provided armies with what da Vinci believed was one of the most important aspects of warfare: mobility.
2 What is the economic problem? Providing for people’s wants and needs in a world of scarcity * Return to previous slide while in slide show mode 3 What is meant by scarcity? The condition in which wants are forever greater than the available supply of time, goods, and resources 4 What does scarcity force us to do? It forces us to make choices 5 What are resources? The basic categories of inputs used to produce goods and services 6 What are the three categories of resources? Land Labor Capital 7 What is a land resource? A shorthand expression for any natural resource provided by nature 8 What is labor? The mental and physical capacity of workers to produce goods and services 9 What is entrepreneurship? The creative ability of individuals to seek profits by combining resources to produce innovative products. 10 What is capital? The physical plants, machinery, and equipment used to produce other goods 11 What is financial capital? The money used to purchase capital 12 Land Labor Capital Entrepreneurship organizes resources to produce goods and services Entrepreneurship organizes resources to produce goods and services 13 What is economics? The study of how society chooses to allocate its scarce resources to the production of goods and services in order to satisfy unlimited wants 14 What is macroeconomics? The branch of economics that studies decision- making for the economy as a whole 15 What is microeconomics? The branch of economics that studies decision- making by a single individual, household, firm, industry, or level of government 16 What is the scientific method? Problem identification Model development Testing a theory 17 What is the purpose of an economic model? To forecast or predict the results of various changes in variables 18 Identify the problem Develop a model based on simplified assumptions Collect data and test the model 19 What assumption is always made when testing a model? ceteris paribus 20 What is ceteris paribus? A Latin phrase that means that while certain variables can change, “all other things remain unchanged” 21 What is the difference between association and causation? We cannot always assume that when one event follows another, the first caused the second 22 What is positive economics? An analysis limited to statements that are verifiable 23 What is normative economics? An analysis based on value judgement 24 Key Concepts 25 What is the economic problem? What is meant by scarcity? What are resources? What are the three categories of resources? What is entrepreneurship? What is economics? What is macroeconomics? What is microeconomics? 26 What is the scientific method? What assumption is always made when testing a model?What assumption is always made when testing a model? What is ceteris paribus? What is the purpose of model building?What is the purpose of model building? What is positive economics? What is normative economics? 28 Scarcity is the fundamental economic problem that human wants exceed the availability to time, goods, and resources. Individuals and society therefore can never have everything they desire. 29 Resources are factors of production classified as land, labor, and capital. Entrepreneurship is a special type of labor. An entrepreneur combines resources to produce innovative products. 30 Economics is the study of how individuals and society choose to allocate scarce resources in order to satisfy unlimited wants. Faced with unlimited wants and scarce resources, we must make choices among alternatives. 31 Unlimited wants Scarcity Society Chooses Resources 32 Macroeconomics applies an economy wide perspective that focuses on such issues as inflation, unemployment, and the growth rate of the economy. 33 Microeconomics examines individual decision-making units within an economy. Microeconomics studies such topics as a consumer’s response to changes in the price of coffee and the reasons for changes in the market price of personal computers. 34 Models are simplified descriptions of reality used to understand and predict economic events. An economic model can be stated verbally or in a table, graph, or equation. If the evidence is not consistent with the model, the model is rejected. 35 Identify the problem Develop a model based on assumptions Collect data and test the model 36 Ceteris paribus holds “all other factors unchanged” that might affect a particular relationship. If this assumption is violated, a model cannot be tested. Another reasoning pitfall is to think association means causation. 37 Positive economics uses testable statements. Often a positive argument is expressed as an “if-the” statement. Normative economics is based on value judgments or opinions and uses words such as good, bad, ought to, and ought not to.
Friedrich Nietzsche was born on October 15, 1844, in the small town of Röcken, near Leipzig, in the then Prussian province of Saxony. His name comes from King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who celebrated his 49th birthday on the day of Nietzsche’s birth. Nietzsche’s parents were Carl Ludwig (1813-1849), a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska (1826-1897). His sister, Elisabeth, was born in 1846, followed by his brother Ludwig Joseph in 1848. After the death of their father in 1849 and the young brother in 1850, the family moved to Naumburg, where they lived with his maternal grandmother and his father’s two unmarried sisters under the (formal) guardianship of a local magistrate, Bernhard Dächsel. After the death of Nietzsche’s grandmother in 1856 the family could afford their own house. During this time, the young Nietzsche attended a boys’ school and later a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug and Wilhelm Pinder, both of whom came from respected families. In 1854, he began to attend the Domgymnasium in Naumburg, but after he showed particular talents in music and language, the internationally recognized Schulpforta admitted him as a pupil, and there he continued his studies from 1858 to 1864. Here he became friends with Paul Deussen and Carl von Gersdorff. He also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. At Schulpforta, Nietzsche received an important introduction to literature, particularly in regard to the Ancient Greeks and Romans, and for the first time experienced a distance from his family life in a small-town Christian environment. During this period, the fatherless youth came under the influence of the once prominent poet Ernst Ortlepp, who, some modern biographers believe, was probably attracted to the young Nietzsche. After graduation, in 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies in theology and classical philology at the University of Bonn. For a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester and to the anger of his mother, he stopped his studies in theology, and concentrated on philology, with Professor Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl, whom he followed to the University of Leipzig the next year. There, he became close friends with fellow student Erwin Rohde. Nietzsche’s first philological publications appeared soon after. In 1865, Nietzsche became acquainted with the work of Arthur Schopenhauer, and he read Friedrich Albert Lange’s Geschichte des Materialismus in 1866. He found both of these encounters stimulating: they encouraged him to expand his horizons beyond philology and to continue his schooling. In 1867, Nietzsche committed to one year of voluntary service with the Prussian artillery division in Naumburg. However, a bad riding accident in March 1868 left him unfit for service. Consequently Nietzsche returned his attention to his studies, completing them and first meeting with Richard Wagner later that year. Professor at Basel (1869–1879) Based on Ritschl’s support, Nietzsche received an extraordinary offer to become professor of classical philology at the University of Basel before having completed his doctorate degree or certificate for teaching. During his philological work there he discovered that the ancient poetic meter related only to the length of syllables, different from the modern, accentuating meter. After moving to Basel, Nietzsche renounced his Prussian citizenship: for the rest of his life he remained officially stateless. Nevertheless, he served on the Prussian side during the Franco-Prussian War as a medical orderly. In his short time in the military he experienced much, and witnessed the traumatic effects of battle. He also contracted diphtheria and dysentery. On returning to Basel in 1870, Nietzsche observed the establishment of the German Empire and the following era of Otto von Bismarck as an outsider and with a degree of skepticism regarding its genuineness. At the University, he delivered his inaugural lecture, ‘On Homer’s Personality’. Also, Nietzsche met Franz Overbeck, a professor of theology, who remained his friend throughout his life. The historian Jacob Burckhardt, whose lectures Nietzsche frequently attended, became another very influential colleague. Nietzsche had already met Richard Wagner in Leipzig in 1868, and (sometime later) Wagner’s wife Cosima. Nietzsche admired both greatly, and during his time at Basel frequently visited Wagner’s house in Tribschen. The Wagners brought Nietzsche into their closest circle, and enjoyed the attention he gave to the beginning of the Festival House in Bayreuth. In 1870, he gave Cosima Wagner the manuscript of ‘The Genesis of the Tragic Idea’ as a birthday gift. In 1872, Nietzsche published his first book, The Birth of Tragedy out of the Spirit of Music. However, his classical philological colleagues, including Ritschl, expressed little enthusiasm for the work, in which Nietzsche forewent a precise philological method to employ a style of philosophical speculation. In a polemic, ‘Future Philology’, Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff dampened the book’s reception and increased its notoriety. In response, Rohde (by now a professor in Kiel) and Wagner came to Nietzsche’s defense. Nietzsche remarked freely about the isolation he felt within the philological community and attempted unsuccessfully to attain a position in philosophy at Basel. Between 1873 and 1876, Nietzsche published separately four long essays: David Strauss: the Confessor and the Writer, On the Use and Abuse of History for Life, Schopenhauer as Educator, and Richard Wagner in Bayreuth. (These four later appeared in a collected edition under the title, Untimely Meditations.) The four essays shared the orientation of a cultural critique, challenging the developing German culture along lines suggested by Schopenhauer and Wagner. Starting in 1873, Nietzsche also accumulated the notes later posthumously published as Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks. During this time, in the circle of the Wagners, Nietzsche met Malwida von Meysenbug and Hans von Bülow, and also began a friendship with Paul Rée, who after 1876 influenced him in dismissing the pessimism in his early writings. However, his disappointment with the Bayreuth Festival of 1876, where the banality of the shows and the baseness of the public repelled him, caused him to finally distance himself from Wagner. With the publication of Human, All-Too-Human in 1878, a book of aphorisms on subjects ranging from metaphysics to morality and from religion to the sexes, Nietzsche’s departure from the philosophy of Wagner and Schopenhauer became evident. Also, Nietzsche’s friendship with Deussen and Rohde cooled. Nietzsche in this time attempted to find a wife — to no avail. In 1879, after a significant decline in health, Nietzsche had to resign his position at Basel. Since his childhood, various disruptive illnesses had plagued him — moments of shortsightedness practically to the degree of blindness, migraine headaches, and violent stomach attacks. A riding accident in 1868 and diseases in 1870 may have aggravated these persistent conditions, which continued to affect him through his years at Basel, forcing him to take longer and longer holidays until regular work became no longer practical. Free philosopher (1879–1889) Driven by his illness to find more compatible climates, Nietzsche traveled frequently, and lived until 1889 as an independent author in different cities. He spent many summers in Sils Maria, near St. Moritz in Switzerland, and many winters in the Italian cities of Genoa, Rapallo, and Turin, and in the French city of Nice. He occasionally returned to Naumburg to visit his family, and especially during this time, he and his sister had repeated periods of conflict and reconciliation. He lived on his pension from Basel, but also received aid from friends. A past student of his, Peter Gast (born Heinrich Köselitz), became a sort of private secretary to Nietzsche. To the end of his life, Gast and Overbeck remained consistently faithful friends. Malwida von Meysenbug remained like a motherly patron even outside the Wagner circle. Soon Nietzsche made contact with the music critic Carl Fuchs. Nietzsche stood at the beginning of his most productive period. Beginning with Human, All-Too-Human in 1878, Nietzsche would publish one book (or major section of a book) each year until 1888, his last year of writing, during which he completed five. In 1879, Nietzsche published Mixed Opinions and Maxims, which followed the aphoristic form of Human, All-Too-Human. The following year, he published The Wanderer and His Shadow. Both were published as the second part of Human, All-Too-Human with the second edition of the latter. In 1881 Nietzsche published Daybreak: Reflections on Moral Prejudices, and in 1882 the first part of The Gay Science. That year he also met Lou Salomé through Malwida von Meysenbug and Paul Rée. Nietzsche and Salomé spent the summer together in Tautenburg, often with Nietzsche’s sister Elisabeth as chaperone. However, Nietzsche regarded Salomé less as an equal partner than as a gifted student. He fell in love with her and pursued her despite their mutual friend Rée. When he asked to marry her, Salomé refused. Nietzsche’s relationship with Rée and Salomé broke up in the winter of 1882-83, partially due to intrigues led by his sister Elisabeth. (Lou Salomé eventually came to correspond with Sigmund Freud, introducing him to Nietzsche’s thought.) In the face of renewed fits of illness, in near isolation after a falling out with his mother and sister regarding Salomé, and plagued by suicidal thoughts, he fled to Rapallo, where in only ten days he wrote the first part of Thus Spoke Zarathustra. After severing philosophical ties to Schopenhauer and social ties to Wagner, Nietzsche had few remaining friends. Now, with the new style of Zarathustra, his work became even more alienating and his readers received it only to the degree prescribed by politeness. Nietzsche recognized this and maintained his solitude, even though he often complained about it. He gave up his short-lived plan to become a poet in public, and was troubled by concerns about his publications. His books were as good as unsold. In 1885, he printed only 40 copies of the fourth part of Zarathustra, and only a fraction of these were distributed among close friends. In 1886, he printed Beyond Good and Evil at his own expense. With this book and the appearance in 1886 – 1887 of second editions of his earlier works (The Birth of Tragedy, Human, All-Too-Human, Daybreak, and The Gay Science), he saw his work completed for the time and hoped that soon a readership would develop. In fact, the interest in Nietzsche did arise at this time, if also rather slowly and hardly perceived by him. During these years Nietzsche met Meta von Salis, Carl Spitteler, and also Gottfried Keller. In 1886, his sister Elisabeth married the anti-Semite Bernhard Förster and traveled to Paraguay to found a “Germanic” colony, a plan to which Nietzsche responded with laughter. Through correspondence, Nietzsche’s relationship with Elisabeth continued on the path of conflict and reconciliation, but she would not see him again in person until after his collapse. Nietzsche continued to have frequent and painful attacks of illness, which made prolonged work impossible. In 1887, Nietzsche quickly wrote the polemic On the Genealogy of Morals. He also exchanged letters with Hippolyte Taine, and then also with Georg Brandes, who at the beginning of 1888 delivered in Copenhagen the first lectures on Nietzsche’s philosophy. In the same year, Nietzsche wrote five books, based on his voluminous notes for the long-planned work, The Will to Power. His health seemed to improve, and he spent the summer in high spirits. In the fall of 1888 his writings and letters began to reveal an overestimation of his status and ‘fate’. He overestimated the increasing response to his writings, above all, for the recent polemic, The Case of Wagner. On his 44th birthday, after completing The Twilight of the Idols and The Antichrist, he decided to write the autobiography Ecce Homo, which presents itself to his readers in order that they ‘[h]ear me! For I am such and such a person. Above all, do not mistake me for someone else.’ (Preface, sec. 1, tr. Walter Kaufmann) In December, Nietzsche began correspondence with August Strindberg, and thought that, short of an international breakthrough, he would attempt to buy back his older writings from the publisher and have them translated into other European languages. Moreover, he planned the publication of the compilation Nietzsche Contra Wagner and of the poems Dionysian Dithyrambs. On 3 January 1889, Nietzsche had a mental collapse. That day two Turinese policemen approached him after he caused a public disturbance in the streets of Turin. What actually happened remains unknown. The often-repeated (and apocryphal) tale states that Nietzsche saw a horse being whipped at the other end of the Piazza Carlo Alberto, ran to the horse, threw his arms up around the horse’s neck to protect it, and collapsed to the ground. In the following few days, he sent short writings to a number of friends, including Cosima Wagner and Jacob Burckhardt, which showed signs of a breakdown. To his former colleague Burckhardt he wrote: ‘I have had Caiphas put in fetters. Also, last year I was crucified by the German doctors in a very drawn-out manner. Wilhelm, Bismarck, and all anti-Semites abolished.’ (The Portable Nietzsche, trans. Walter Kaufmann) Mental breakdown and death (1889 – 1900) On January 6, 1889, Burckhardt showed the letter he received from Nietzsche to Overbeck. The following day Overbeck received a similarly revealing letter, and decided Nietzsche must be brought back to Basel. Overbeck traveled to Turin and brought Nietzsche to a psychiatric clinic in Basel. By that time, Nietzsche appeared fully in the grip of insanity, and his mother Franziska decided to bring him to a clinic in Jena under the direction of Otto Binswanger. From November 1889 to February 1890, Julius Langbehn attempted to cure Nietzsche, claiming that the doctors’ methods were ineffective to cure Nietzsche’s condition. Langbehn assumed greater and greater control of Nietzsche until his secrecy discredited him. In March 1890, Franziska removed Nietzsche from the clinic, and in May 1890 to her home in Naumburg. During this process, Overbeck and Gast contemplated what to do with Nietzsche’s unpublished works. In January 1889 they proceeded with the planned release of The Twilight of the Idols, by that time already printed and bound. In February, they ordered a 50-copy private edition of Nietzsche Contra Wagner, but the publisher C. G. Naumann secretly printed 100. Overbeck and Gast decided to withhold publishing Der Antichrist and Ecce Homo due to their more radical content. Nietzsche’s reception and recognition enjoyed their first surge. In 1893, Nietzsche’s sister Elisabeth returned from Paraguay after the suicide of her husband. She read and studied Nietzsche’s works, and piece by piece took control of them and of their publication. Overbeck was eventually dismissed, and Gast finally co-operated. After the death of Franziska in 1897 Nietzsche lived in Weimar, where Elisabeth cared for him and allowed people to visit her uncommunicative brother. On August 25, 1900 Nietzsche died after contracting pneumonia. At the wish of Elisabeth, he was buried beside his father at the church in Röcken. His friend, Gast, gave his funeral oration, proclaiming: “Holy be your name to all future generations!” To this, however, Nietzsche might not be particularly exuberant, for he pointed out in Ecce Homo how he did not wish to be called “holy”. Speculation continues as to the cause of Nietzsche’s breakdown. Commentators early and frequently diagnosed a syphilitic infection; however, some of Nietzsche’s symptoms seem inconsistent with typical cases of syphilis. Some have diagnosed a form of brain cancer. Others suggest that Nietzsche experienced a mystical awakening, similar to ones studied by Meher Baba. While most commentators regard Nietzsche’s breakdown as unrelated to his philosophy, some, including Georges Bataille and René Girard, argue that his breakdown must be considered as symptom of a psychological maladjustment brought on by his philosophy. Much controversy surrounds whether Nietzsche advocated a single or comprehensive philosophical viewpoint. Many charge Nietzsche with propounding contradictory thoughts and ideas. Perspectivism offers an alternative thesis regarding the seeming contradictions in Nietzsche’s writings: it suggests that Nietzsche used multiple viewpoints in his work as a means of challenging his reader to consider various facets of an issue. If one accepts this thesis, the variety and number of perspectives serve as an affirmation of the richness of philosophy. The thesis does not claim that Nietzsche himself regarded all ideas as equally valid. Nietzsche’s disagreements with other philosophers, such as Kant, populate his texts. Nor can we always discern exactly where Nietzsche stands on every issue. Whether one holds conflicting elements in his writings as intentional or not, his various ideas continue to have influence. Nietzsche’s main ideas include the following: Nihilism and the death of God Nietzsche saw nihilism as the outcome of repeated frustrations in the search for meaning. He diagnosed nihilism as a latent presence within the very foundations of European culture, and thus, as a necessary and approaching destiny. The religious worldview had already suffered a number of challenges from contrary perspectives grounded in philosophical skepticism, and in modern science’s evolutionary and heliocentric theory. Nietzsche saw this intellectual condition as a new challenge to European culture, which had extended itself beyond a sort of point-of-no-return. Nietzsche conceptualizes this with the famous statement, ‘God is dead’, which appears prominently in The Gay Science and in Thus Spoke Zarathustra. The statement suggests the impending crisis that European thought faces in the wake of the irreparable disturbances to its traditional foundations. Nietzsche treats this phrase as more than a provocative declaration, but almost reverently, as it represents the potential of a nihilism that arrests growth and progress in the midst of an overwhelming absurdity and meaninglessness: The greatest recent event — that ‘God is dead’, that the belief in the Christian god has become unbelievable — is already beginning to cast its first shadows over Europe. For the few at least, whose eyes — the suspicion in whose eyes is strong and subtle enough for this spectacle, some sun seems to have set and some ancient and profound trust has been turned into doubt; to them our old world must appear daily more like evening, more mistrustful, stranger, ‘older’. But in the main one may say: The event itself is far too great, too distant, too remote from the multitude’s capacity for comprehension even for the tidings of it to be thought of as having arrived as yet. Much less may one suppose that many people know as yet what this event really means — and how much must collapse now that this faith has been undermined because it was built upon this faith, propped up by it, grown into it; for example, the whole of our European morality. This long plenitude and sequence of breakdown, destruction, ruin, and cataclysm that is now impending — who could guess enough of it today to be compelled to play the teacher and advance proclaimer of this monstrous logic of terror, the prophet of a gloom and an eclipse of the sun whose like has probably never yet occurred on earth? — Nietzsche, Gay Science, Book V, sec. 343, trans. Walter Kaufmann’ The first instance of the phrase occurs at the beginning of Book III of The Gay Science (section 108), and again prominently in section 125. Amor fati and the eternal recurrence The idea of eternal recurrence has been treated as an important concept in Nietzsche by many, though not all, interpreters. Nietzsche encountered the idea in the works of Heinrich Heine, who speculated that there would one day be a person born with the same thought processes as himself, and that the same was true of every other person on the planet. Nietzsche expanded on this thought to form his theory, which he put forth in The Gay Science and developed in Thus Spoke Zarathustra. In Nietzsche’s reading of Schopenhauer, he came across the idea of eternal recurrence. Schopenhauer claimed that a person who unconditionally affirms life would do so even if everything that has happened were to happen again repeatedly. On a few occasions in his notebooks, Nietzsche discusses the possibility of the Eternal Recurrence as cosmological truth (see Arthur Danto, Nietzsche as Philosopher for a detailed analysis of these efforts), but in the works he prepared for publication, it is treated as the ultimate method of life affirmation. According to Nietzsche, it would require a sincere Amor Fati (Love of Fate), not simply to endure, but to wish for the eternal recurrence of all events exactly as they occurred—all of the pain and joy, the embarrassment and glory. Nietzsche calls the idea “horrifying and paralyzing”, and he also states that the burden of this idea is the “heaviest weight” imaginable (das schwerste Gewicht). The wish for the eternal return of all events would mark the ultimate affirmation of life: What, if some day or night a demon were to steal after you into your loneliest loneliness and say to you: ‘This life as you now live it and have lived it, you will have to live once more and innumerable times more’ … Would you not throw yourself down and gnash your teeth and curse the demon who spoke thus? Or have you once experienced a tremendous moment when you would have answered him: ‘You are a god and never have I heard anything more divine.’ — Nietzsche, The Gay Science According to a few interpreters, the eternal return is more than merely an intellectual concept or challenge, it resembles a koan, or a psychological device that occupies one’s entire consciousness stimulating a transformation of consciousness known as metanoia. Nehamas wrote in Nietzsche: Life as Literature that there are three ways of seeing the eternal recurrence. “(A) My life will recur in exactly identical fashion.” This is a totally fatalistic approach to the idea. “(B) My life may recur in exactly identical fashion.” This second view is a conditional assertion of cosmology, but fails to capture what Nietzsche refers to in GS, 341. Finally, “(C) If my life were to recur, then it could recur only in identical fashion.” Nehemas shows that this interpretation is totally independent of physics and does not presuppose the truth of cosmology. Nehamas’ interpretation is that if individuals constitute themselves through their actions the only way to maintain themselves as they are is to live in a reoccurrence of past actions (Nehamas 153). Some controversy exists over who or what Nietzsche considered the overman (in German, Übermensch). Not only is there some basis to think that Nietzsche was skeptical about individual identity and the notion of the subject, but whether there was a concrete example of the overman remains unclear. The interpretation of Nietzsche as the “Nazi Philosopher” has come to suggest the overman as a Hitler or even Mussolini but modern interpretations of Nietzsche, especially after the work of Walter Kaufmann, suggest that Nietzsche’s vision of the overman is more in line with the concept of a renaissance man such as Goethe or Da Vinci. Master morality and slave morality Nietzsche argued that there were two types of morality, a master morality that springs actively from the ‘noble man’ and a slave morality that develops reactively within the weak man. These two moralities are not simple inversions of one another, they are two different value systems; master morality fits actions into a scale of ‘good’ or ‘bad’ whereas slave morality fits actions into a scale of ‘good’ or ‘evil’. Christianity as an institution and Jesus In his book the Anti-Christ, Nietzsche fights against how Christianity has become an ideology set forth by institutions like churches, and how churches have failed to represent the life of Jesus. It is important, for Nietzsche, to distinguish between the religion of Christianity and the person of Jesus. Nietzsche attacked Christian religion as it was represented by churches and institutions for what he called its “transvaluation” of healthy instinctive values. Transvaluation is the process by which the meaning of a concept or ideology can be reversed to its opposite. He went beyond agnostic and atheistic thinkers of the Enlightenment, who felt that Christianity was simply untrue. He claimed that it may have been deliberately propagated as a subversive religion (a “psychological warfare weapon”) within the Roman Empire by the Apostle Paul as a form of covert revenge for the Roman destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple during the Jewish War. Nietzsche contrasts the Christians with Jesus, whom he greatly admired. Nietzsche argues that Jesus transcended the moral influences of his time by creating his own set of values. As such Jesus represents a step towards the overman. Ultimately, however, Nietzsche claims that, unlike the overman, who embraces life, Jesus denied reality in favor of his “kingdom of God.” Jesus’ refusal to defend himself, and subsequent death, were logical consequences of this total disengagement. Nietzsche then analyzes the history of Christianity, finding it to be a progressively grosser distortion of the teachings of Jesus. He criticizes the early Christians for turning Jesus into a martyr and Jesus’ life into the story of the redemption of mankind in order to dominate the masses, finding the Apostles to be cowardly, vulgar, and resentful. He argues that successive generations further misunderstood the life of Jesus, as the influence of Christianity grew. By the 19th century, Nietzsche concludes, Christianity had become so worldly as to be a parody of itself–a total inversion of a worldview which was, in the beginning, nihilistic. The Will to Power “The will to power” (Der Wille zur Macht) is a highly controversial concept in Nietzsche’s philosophy, generating intense debate and diverse interpretations – some of which, such as the notorious interpretations given by Nazi intellectuals, were deliberate and woefully distortive attempts to mobilize the concept to act as an instrument and ‘justification’ for various political positions. It is important to note that it was not compiled by Nietzsche himself, but posthumously by his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche from fragments he had written. She was married to an anti-Semitic agitator, a marriage which Nietzsche had opposed from the beginning because he didn’t share her husband’s anti-Semitic views. Because of Nietzsche’s frequent use of irony it is therefore highly controversial if this book reflects his beliefs or if his sister intentionally arranged the fragments in a way that they were easily misunderstood in an anti-Semitic way. Place in contemporary ethical theory Nietzsche’s work addresses ethics from several perspectives; in today’s terms, we might say his remarks pertain to meta-ethics, normative ethics, and descriptive ethics. As far as meta-ethics is concerned, Nietzsche can perhaps most usefully be classified as a moral skeptic; that is, he claims that all ethical statements are false, because any kind of correspondence between ethical statements and “moral facts” is illusory. (This is part of a more general claim that there is no universally true fact, roughly because none of them more than “appear” to correspond to reality). Instead, ethical statements (like all statements) are mere “interpretations.” Sometimes, Nietzsche may seem to have very definite opinions on what is moral or immoral. Note, however, that Nietzsche’s moral opinions may be explained without attributing to him the claim that they are “true”. For Nietzsche, after all, we needn’t disregard a statement merely because it is false. On the contrary, he often claims that falsehood is essential for “life.” Interestingly enough, he mentions a ‘dishonest lie,’ discussing Wagner in The Case of Wagner, as opposed to an ‘honest’ one, saying further, to consult Plato with regards to the latter, which should give some idea of the layers of paradox in his work. In the juncture between normative ethics and descriptive ethics, Nietzsche distinguishes between “master morality” and “slave morality.” Although he recognises that not everyone holds either scheme in a clearly delineated fashion without some syncretism, he presents them in contrast to one another. Some of the contrasts in master vs. slave morality: - “good” and “bad” interpretations vs. “good” and “evil” interpretations - “aristocratic” vs. “part of the ‘herd'” - determines values independently of predetermined foundations (nature) vs. determines values on predetermined, unquestioned foundations (Christianity). These ideas were elaborated in his book On the Genealogy of Morals in which he also introduced the key concept of ressentiment as the basis for the slave morality. The revolt of the slave in morals begins in the very principle of ressentiment becoming creative and giving birth to values — a ressentiment experienced by creatures who, deprived as they are of the proper outlet of action are forced to find their compensation in an imaginary revenge. While every aristocratic morality springs from a triumphant affirmation of its own demands, the slave morality says ‘no’ from the very outset to what is ‘outside itself,’ ‘different from itself,’ and ‘not itself’; and this ‘no’ is its creative deed. — Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morals Nietzsche’s primarily negative assessment of the ethical and moralistic teachings of the world’s monotheistic religions followed from his earlier considerations of the questions of God and morality in the works The Gay Science and Thus Spoke Zarathustra. These considerations led Nietzsche to the idea of eternal recurrence and the (in)famous phrase “God is Dead”. Nietzsche is well-known for the statement “God is dead”. While in aphorism 108 in Book III of The Gay Science it is Nietzsche himself who makes this declaration, many add that in the closely following aphorism 125 it is a character, a “madman,” who repeats it. The language of the madman’s aphorism closely resembles the first repetition of “God is dead” by Nietzsche’s Zarathustra. This statement does not necessitate being understood as a physical death, as many have tried to, but can be viewed as a natural end to the belief in God laying at the foundation of the western conceptions of self and truth. It is also sometimes misunderstood as a kind of gloating declaration, but its effects are described as often tragic by Zarathustra. “God is Dead” is as much an observation as a declaration. Nietzsche was primarily saying that, for all practical purposes, his contemporaries lived as if God were dead, though they had not yet recognized it. Nietzsche believed this death was already undermining the foundations of morality and would lead to moral relativism and moral nihilism. As a response to the dangers of these trends he believed in re-evaluating the foundations of morality to better understand the origins and motives underlying them, so that the individual may decide for themselves whether a moral value is born of an outdated or misguided cultural imposition or is something they wish to hold true. While a political tone is easy to discern in Nietzsche’s writings, his work does not in any sense propose or outline a ‘political project’. The man who stated that ‘The will to a system is a lack of integrity’ was consistent in never devising or advocating a specific system of governance – just as, being an advocate of individual struggle and self-realization, he never concerned himself with mass movements or with the organization of groups and political parties. In this sense, Nietzsche could almost be called an anti-political thinker. Walter Kaufmann put forward the view that the powerful individualism expressed in his writings would be disastrous if introduced to the public realm of politics. Later writers, led by the French intellectual Left, have proposed ways of using Nietzschean theory in what has become known as the ‘politics of difference’ — particularly in formulating theories of political resistance and sexual and moral difference. Owing largely to the writings of Kaufmann and others, the spectre of Nazism has now been almost entirely exorcised from his writings. Nietzsche often referred to the common people who participated in mass movements and shared a common mass psychology as “the rabble” or “the herd.” He valued individualism above all else, and was particularly opposed to pity and altruism (one of the things that he seems to have detested the most about Christianity was its emphasis on pity and how this allegedly leads to the elevation of the weak-minded). While he had a dislike of the state in general, Nietzsche also spoke negatively of anarchists and made it clear that only certain individuals could attempt to break away from the herd mentality. This theme is common throughout Thus Spoke Zarathustra. It was also long thought that one central political theme running through much of Nietzsche’s work was Social Darwinism —- the idea that the strong have a natural right to dominate the weak, and that feelings such as compassion and mercy are burdens to be overcome. This, too, is based on a misrepresentation of his critiques of morality and politics: the ‘genealogical method’ is, in this sense, an appeal to the possibility of different moral values rather than a defence per se of what he describes as ‘master-‘ or ‘slave morality’. This has influenced a great variety of political movements in the century that has elapsed since Nietzsche’s death, and, because all those movements claim Nietzsche as part of their intellectual legacy, it is often difficult to distinguish Nietzsche’s own views from the views of those who claim to follow him. Perhaps Nietzsche’s greatest political legacy lies in his 20th century interpreters, among them Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze (and Félix Guattari), and Jacques Derrida. Foucault’s later writings, for example, adopt Nietzsche’s genealogical method to develop anti-foundationalist theories of power that divide and fragment rather than unite polities (as evinced in the liberal tradition of political theory). The systematic institutionalisation of criminal delinquency, sexual identity and practice, and the mentally ill (to name but a few) are examples used to demonstrate how knowledge or truth is inseparable from the state institutions that formulate notions of legitimacy from ‘immoralities’ such as homosexuality and the like (captured in the famous power/knowledge equation). Deleuze, arguably the foremost of Nietzsche’s interpreters, used the much-maligned ‘will to power’ thesis in tandem with Marxian notions of commodity surplus and Freudian ideas of desire to articulate concepts such the rhizome and other ‘outsides’ to state power as traditionally conceived. Nietzsche’s comments on women have provoked a great deal of discussion. Given modern sensitivities regarding the sexes and the rise of feminism, Walter Kaufmann has gone so far as to call these remarks an embarrassment. The fact that Nietzsche also mocked men and manliness has not saved him from the charge of sexism. However, the women with whom he came into contact typically reported that he was amiable and treated their ideas with much more respect and consideration than they generally expected from educated men in that period of time, amidst various sociological circumstances of the time. Much of Nietzsche’s commentary on women (and men) should be read in light of his re-evaluation of morality and his desire for humanity to evolve and overcome the limitations of the individual. Why, for example, push for women’s involvement in politics when women can direct their energies toward something more? Moreover, some of his statements on women seem to prefigure the criticisms of post-feminism against prior versions of feminisms, particularly those that claim orthodox feminism does violence to women by positing and privileging Woman. In this connection Nietzsche was acquainted with Schopenhauer’s work “On Women” and was probably influenced by it to some degree. In fact, some statements scattered throughout his works seem to attack women in a similar vein. Nietzsche’s view of women is informed foremost by their role or potential as mothers, and does not extend much further than that. “Let your hope say: ‘May I bear the Overman!'” he councils them in ‘Old and Young Women’ (Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Book I, sec. 18). Considering that Nietzsche places the creation of things greater than oneself as the central task of a noble life, this is a very sympathetic view of woman whereby she can act in as praiseworthy a fashion as man by the nature of her sex. It is an exultation of womanhood, of womanhood as maternity. This, and the distinction between the sexes as seen by Nietzsche emerges most clearly in the following aphorism: When a woman has scholarly inclinations there is generally something wrong with her sexual nature. Barrenness itself conduces to a certain virility of taste; man, indeed, if I may say so, is ‘the barren animal.’ — Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, sec. 144, trans. Helen Zimmern’ This stands in contrast to the then (and still) prevailing view of Woman as the receptacle of male fertility (exemplified by Sigmund Freud’s views on women). Nietzsche states here a continuation of his anti-nihilism and his belief that fruitfulness is meaning, that it is exactly because man has no natural avenue for a meaningful existence that he sets himself into fruitful pursuits. Woman, however, is herself a source of fertility. Nietzsche places real value in woman, a unique value: woman isn’t weaker as much as she is different, and, indeed, Nietzsche believed there were radical differences the essence of the genders. “Thus,” said Nietzsche through the mouth of his Zarathustra, “would I have man and woman: the one fit for warfare, the other fit for giving birth; and both fit for dancing with head and legs” (Zarathustra III. [56, “Old and New Tables,” sect. 23.]). That is to say: both are capable of doing their share of humanity’s work, with their respective physiological conditions granted and therewith elucidating, each individually, their potentialities. The obvious problem presented with such a view is the narrowness of what is considered a noble path for women: only maternity is a womanly virtue. And while Nietzsche allows woman a hand in her life, it is the supporting hand. Comparing man and woman generally, one may say that woman would not have the genius for adornment, if she had not the instinct for the secondary role. — Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, sec. 145, trans. Helen Zimmern’ However, Nietzsche lacks clarity in expressing whether this image of woman is a product of nature or of nurture: while his language suggests the former, being above all a philosopher of ethics he only explicitly discusses the attitudes, tendencies and values that are the latter. It is notoriously difficult and misleading to generalise from Nietzsche’s writing: he was not a systemic philosopher. The implication exists that woman can take a different path than the one he has laid out, even if it contradicts her ‘nature’. Nietzsche certainly never reprimanded any woman for taking a non-maternal role – in final reading he is not even a proscriptive philosopher, since his emphasis on the transvaluation of all values would not allow it. What Nietzsche would have done when faced with women like Virginia Woolf or Emily Dickinson who seemingly offered up their maternal instincts to follow careers as artists, as those ‘higher men’ Nietzsche admired, is a matter for debate, though his philosophy does not allow for them. There have been several scholarly attempts to address the woman question in Nietzsche’s writing. Peter J. Burgard’s Nietzsche and the Feminine and Frances Nesbitt Oppel’s Nietzsche on Gender: Beyond Man and Woman both read Nietzsche’s statements on women as being yet another series of word-games amongst word-games, meant to challenge the reader and incite inspection of the concepts involved. French post-structuralist theorist Jacques Derrida made a similar argument in his Spurs. Here is an exemplified case where Nietzsche’s use of “woman” (in reference to the feminine word “truth” in German) is mistaken to refer to women in general: Supposing truth is a woman – what then? Are there not grounds for the suspicion that all philosophers, insofar as they were dogmatists, have been very inexpert about women? that the gruesome seriousness, the clumsy obtrusiveness with which they have usually approached truth so far have been awkward and very improper methods for winning a woman’s heart? What is certain is that she has not allowed herself to be won: – and today every kind of dogmatism is left standing dispirited and discouraged. — Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, Preface’ Nietzsche’s influence and reception Different readers have interpreted Nietzsche’s writings very differently, and cases even exist of opposite sides in debates both using Nietzsche to support contradictory views. For instance, Nietzsche became popular among left-wing Germans in the 1890s, but a few decades later, during the First World War, many regarded him as one of the sources of right-wing German militarism. The Dreyfus Affair provides another example: the French anti-semitic Right labelled Jewish and Leftist intellectuals who defended Alfred Dreyfus as Nietzscheans. In 1894/1895 German conservatives wanted to ban Nietzsche’s work, accusing it of subversion; while Nazi Germany used a highly selective version of Nietzsche to promote Nazi ideas on a revival of traditional German culture and national identity. Many Germans read Thus Spoke Zarathustra and gained exposure to Nietzsche’s appeals for unlimited individualism and for the development of a personality. During the interbellum Nazis appropriated various fragments of Nietzsche’s work, notably Alfred Baeumler in his reading of The Will to Power. During the period of Nazi rule German (and, after 1938, Austrian) schools and universities studied Nietzsche’s work widely. The Nazis viewed Nietzsche as one of their “founding fathers”. They incorporated much of his ideology and many of his thoughts about power into their own political philosophy. Although there exist few, if any, resemblances between Nietzsche and Nazism (see political views above), phrases like “the will to power” became common in Nazi society. The wide popularity of Nietzsche among Nazis stemmed partly from Nietzsche’s sister, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, a Nazi sympathizer who edited much of Nietzsche’s works. However, Nietzsche disapproved of his sister’s anti-Semitic views; in a letter to his sister, dated Christmas 1887, Nietzsche wrote: You have committed one of the greatest stupidities – for yourself and for me! Your association with an anti-Semitic chief expresses a foreignness to my whole way of life which fills me again and again with ire or melancholy. … It is a matter of honour with me to be absolutely clean and unequivocal in relation to anti-Semitism, namely, opposed to it, as I am in my writings. I have recently been persecuted with letters and Anti-Semitic Correspondence Sheets. My disgust with this party (which would like the benefit of my name only too well) is as pronounced as possible. — Friedrich Nietzsche, Letter to His Sister, Christmas 1887 Furthermore, Mazzino Montinari, one of editors of Nietzsche’s posthumous works in the 1960s, argued that Förster-Nietzsche had deliberately cut extracts, changed their order, and added false titles to the posthumous fragments, thus constituting the fake Will to power . Since World War II Nietzsche has generally had more influence on the political left, particularly in France by way of post-structuralist thought (Gilles Deleuze and Pierre Klossowski wrote monographs to draw new attention to his work, and a 1972 conference at Cérisy-la-Salle ranks as the most important event in France for a generation’s reception of Nietzsche). In his 1916 Egotism in German Philosophy, American philosopher George Santayana dismissed Nietzsche as a “prophet of Romanticism”. The psychologist Carl Jung recognized Nietzsche’s importance early on: he held a seminar on Nietzsche’s Zarathustra in 1934. In 1936, Martin Heidegger lectured on the “Will to Power as a Work of Art”, and would later publish four large volumes of lectures on Nietzsche. The German novelist Thomas Mann also showed Nietzsche’s influence in his novels, especially his 1947 work Doktor Faustus. In 1938, the German existentialist Karl Jaspers commented about the influence of Nietzsche: The contemporary philosophical situation is determined by the fact that two philosophers, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, who did not count in their times and, for a long time, remained without influence in the history of philosophy, have continually grown in significance. Philosophers after Hegel have increasingly returned to face them, and they stand today unquestioned as the authentically great thinkers of their age. … The effect of both is immeasurably great, even greater in general thinking than in technical philosophy … — Jaspers, Reason and Existenz Early twentieth-century thinkers influenced by Nietzsche include: philosophers Georg Brandes, Henri Bergson, Martin Buber, Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, Aleister Crowley, and Muhammad Iqbal; sociologist Max Weber; theologian Paul Tillich; novelists Hermann Hesse, André Malraux, André Gide, and D. H. Lawrence; psychologists Alfred Adler, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May; popular philosopher Ayn Rand; poets Rainer Maria Rilke, James Douglas Morrison, and William Butler Yeats; and playwrights George Bernard Shaw and Eugene O’Neill. American writer H.L. Mencken read and translated Nietzsche’s works avidly and has been called “the American Nietzsche”. According to Ernest Jones, biographer and personal acquaintance of Sigmund Freud, Freud had frequently referred to Nietzsche as having “more penetrating knowledge of himself than any man who ever lived or was likely to live” (Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud). Nevertheless, Jones also reports that Freud emphatically denied that Nietzsche’s writings influenced his psychological discoveries, since Freud had been uninterested in philosophic works as a medical student. He formed his opinion about Nietzsche later in life. Nietzsche’s appropriation by the Nazis, combined with the advent of analytic philosophy, insured that he was almost completely ignored in Great Britain and the United States until at least 1950. Analytic philosophers often charactized Nietzsche as more of a literary figure than a philosopher. In 1950, the German-American philosopher Walter Kaufmann published Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist, which, along with Kaufmann’s accurate translations of Nietzsche’s major works, began the gradual restoration among English-speaking philosophy departments of Nietzsche as an important nineteenth-century philosopher. Kaufmann was a strong advocate of Nietzsche, but even he had some criticism: “It is evident at once that Nietzsche is far superior to Kant and Hegel as a stylist; but it also seems that as a philosopher he represents a very sharp decline.” (p 79) Recognition of Nietzsche’s contribution to literature continued substantially in the later 20th century, especially among French post-structuralist ideologists. Gilles Deleuze, Jacques Derrida, Jean-Luc Nancy, and Michel Foucault all owe a heavy debt to Nietzsche. Other thinkers influenced by Nietzsche include “Death of God” theologian Thomas Altizer and novelists Nikos Kazantzakis, Mikhail Artsybashev, and Lu Xun. Literary critic Harold Bloom’s theory of the “anxiety of influence” shows Nietzschean influence. Bloom calls Nietzsche “Emerson’s belated rival”. Jim Morrison, poet and frontman of the American rock group The Doors, who had been deeply influenced by Nietzsche, paid tribute to his idol’s breakdown in the song “The Soft Parade” with the lyric “If all else fails we can whip the horse’s eyes/and make them sleep and cry”. He also did a song called “The Ballad of Friedrich Nietzsche”, on the same subject. The group’s organ player Ray Manzarek blamed Nietzsche in his book “Light My Fire” for instilling self-destructive behaviors in Jim. For a complete bibliography, see List of works by Friedrich Nietzsche - The Birth of Tragedy, 1872 - Human, All Too Human, 1878 - The Dawn, 1881 - The Gay Science, 1882/1887 - Thus Spoke Zarathustra, 1883-5 - Beyond Good and Evil, 1886 - On the Genealogy of Morals, 1887 - The Twilight of the Idols, 1888 - The Antichrist, 1888 - Ecce Homo, 1888 - God is dead - Eternal Recurrence - Will to Power - Goodness and value theory - Nietzsche and Kierkegaard comparisons - Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach - Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Philipp Mainländer - Arthur Schopenhauer - Richard Wagner - Menno ter Braak - Emil Cioran - Gilles Deleuze - Jacques Derrida - Michel Foucault - Martin Heidegger - Franz Kafka - Walter Kaufmann - Ayn Rand - Jean-Paul Sartre - Vergílio Ferreira - Søren Kierkegaard - Max Stirner - Nietzsche by Richard Schacht (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983). - Reading the New Nietzsche by David B. Allison (Rowman & Littlefield, 2001). - Nietzsche: Life as Literature by Alexander Nehamas (Harvard University Press, 1985, ISBN 0674624351) - Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist by Walter Kaufmann (Princeton University Press, 1974, ISBN 0691019835). - Nietzsche on Truth and Philosophy by Maudemarie Clark (Cambirdge University Press, 1990). - Nietzsche on Morality by Brian Leiter (Routledge, 2002). - Nietzsche’s System by John Richardson (Oxford University Press, 1996). - Nietzsche’s Philosophy of Science by Babette E. Babich (State University of New York Press, 1994). - Nietzsche Humanist by Claude Pavur (Marquette University Press, 1998, ISBN 0874626145) - Kierkegaard and Nietzsche by J. Kellenberger (St. Martin’s Press Inc, 1997). - Nietzsche in German politics and society, 1890-1918 by Richard Hinton Thomas (Manchester University Press, 1983). - Nietzsche: Volumes One and Two by Martin Heidegger (HarperSanFrancisco, Harper edition, 1991, ISBN 0060638419). - Nietzsche: Volumes Three and Four by Martin Heidegger (HarperSanFrancisco, 1991, ISBN 0060637943) - Nietzsche: A Critical Life. by Ronald Hayman (Oxford University Press, 1980, ISBN 019520204X). - Friedrich Nietzsche. Biographie. by Curt Paul Janz (Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1993, ISBN 3423043830). - To Nietzsche: Dionysus, I Love You! Ariadne by Claudia Crawford (State University of New York Press, 1994, ISBN 0791421503). - Notes and Discussions: Nietzsche’s Knowledge of Kierkegaard by Thomas H. Brobjer. Journal of the History of Philosophy – Volume 41, Number 2, April 2003, pp. 251-263 - Reason and Existenz by Karl Jaspers (Marquette University Press, 1996, ISBN 0874626110). - Nietzsche, Godfather of Fascism? : On the Uses and Abuses of a Philosophy, Jacob Golomb & Walter S. Wistrich (eds.) (Princeton U P, 2002, ISBN 0691007101). - The Essential Nietzsche by Paul Strathern (Ted Smart, 1996, London). Full texts of Nietzsche’s works: - Works by Friedrich Nietzsche at Project Gutenberg - The Antichrist (English translation by H. L. Mencken) - Der Antichrist (German text) - Wiki Nietzsche (French) - Open Directory Project: Friedrich Nietzsche - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Friedrich Nietzsche - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Nietzsche’s Moral and Political Philosophy - Nietzsche Chronicle (Detailed Chronology and Biography) - Nietzsche and the Pillars of Unbelief - The Nietzsche Circle - Friedrich Nietzsche Society - Nietzsche and Ortlepp
On this day 36 years ago, two astronauts aboard the space shuttle Enterprise took the ship out for its initial test flight. It landed on the back of a 747 before undertaking a series of free flights starting in June that year. Enterprise was designed as a test ship only, and was never intended to fly in space. Instead, it was used for a series of flying and landing approach tests to see how well the shuttle maneuvered during the landing. The astronauts first flew a series of “captive” flights aboard the 747, then cut the test shuttle loose for five free flights over several weeks. What lessons were learned and what design changes did NASA implement from the Enterprise test program? And how did Enterprise help shape the future of the space shuttle program? A few clues emerge from the program’s final evaluation report, which was released in February 1978. – Stopping a hydrazine leak. Hydrazine was used as a fuel for the maneuvering thrusters on the space shuttle, but the chemical is toxic and shouldn’t be exposed to humans. During the first captive flight, an auxiliary power unit was turned on about 18 minutes in. That was part of the plan, but the next part wasn’t: NASA observed fuel was being used much faster than expected in the next 25 minutes. It turned out that a bellows seal in the fuel pump had failed and caused “significant hydrazine leakage” in the shuttle’s aft bay. – Preventing brake trouble or ‘chattering’. The first indication of trouble came after the second free flight. The astronauts felt a “chattering” (low-frequency vibration) sensation during braking as they were slowing down on the runway. This 16-hertz vibration happened again during “hard” braking on Flight 3. In light of the vibration, the brake control was modified and the astronauts did not feel the vibrations on Flights 4 and 5. – Minimizing computer vibration. Enterprise’s Computer 2 fell out of sync with its fellow computers as the shuttle separated from the 747 on Flight 1, causing several computer errors. (The other three redundant computers effectively voted the computer off the island, to use Survivor parlance, and the flight carried on.) Ground tests of similar units revealed that the solder keeping the computer attached to the shuttle cracked when subjected to a slight vibration for a long period of time. NASA modified the attachments and the computers were just fine on Flight 2. – Astronaut training. The astronauts experienced several control problems during Enterprise’s fifth free landing, when they deployed the speed brake to compensate for a landing that was a little faster than planned. As the pilot tried to control the shuttle’s sink rate, the elevons (a control surface for pitch and roll) were elevated more than usual, causing the shuttle to gently head back into the air and roll to the right before landing again. The astronauts could not see any unusual changes in pitch because the nose of the shuttle was not visible from the cockpit. Further, the center of gravity for the pitch changes was so close to the cockpit that the astronauts could not feel the sensation. “The pilot was unaware of any problem other than that he was landing long and trying to get the vehicle on the ground near the desired touchdown spot,” the NASA report stated. Several recommendations came out of this incident, such as more simulations of landings, modifying the flight control system, and stating that speed brakes should not be used just before landing. Bottom line, though, was NASA said the approach and landing tests accomplished all objectives. The authors of the report called for modifications to these problems and a few others, but said as soon as these situations were addressed the shuttle was performing well enough for further flights. You can read the whole report here. Enterprise is now on display at the Intrepid Air & Space Museum in New York, but is temporarily closed to the public as the shuttle undergoes repairs from damage incurred during Hurricane Sandy.
Galileo was facing some stiff odds when he published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World. He'd already been officially warned against heliocentrism, and he had enemies. But it's possible, just possible, that he would have squeaked by if he hadn't been a jerk to the Pope. The feud between Galileo and the Catholic Church - the one that resulted in Galileo spending the last years of his life under house arrest - is perhaps the most well-known part of his history. Galileo was tried, threatened with torture, and forced to recant his perfectly correct position about the solar system being centered around the sun, instead of around the earth. What isn't as well known is the fact that Galileo was greatly supported by the Church up until he published this book, and was a particular friend of the reigning Pope at the time of his trial. What hung Galileo out to dry might very well not have been his intellectual position, but his attitude. During much of his life Galileo was not particularly interested in Copernicanism, the idea that the earth orbited around the sun instead of the other way around. Born in 1564, and hailed as a genius from an early age, it wasn't until he in his late forties that he got around to advocating the idea. Even then, he did so only in letters, and so when he went to Rome in 1615, he did so to voluntarily defend his unpublished ideas. He was warned privately not to pursue the matter, and the Inquisition sent out a special Injunction telling him not to hold or argue for Copernicanism, which the Inquisition declared contrary to Scripture. Galileo dropped the matter. But times changed, and Popes changed with them. In 1623, Cardinal Maffeo Barberini became Pope Urban VIII. Barbarini had met Galileo at a dinner in 1611, where he delighted in the sharp arguments Galileo made to completely destroy those who debated his ideas. This was just after Galileo had come by a new telescope, which allowed him to pick out the universe in more detail than anyone had before, and before the Injunction, so he very well might have discussed his heliocentrist ideas with Barberini at the time. The two men maintained a friendship that endured for over ten years. When Barbarini became Pope, Galileo met with him personally to take up the matter of Copernicanism again. The two discussed the idea, and how it affected scripture. Barbarini, in the position to appear magnanimous and fair-minded, formally granted Galileo to write about the theory. Mindful of the political climate, Galileo did not suggest a polemic. Instead of an argument, the idea would be presented as a dialog in which characters discussed the two ideas and compared their merits. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World came out a decade later, and became a huge success in intellectual circles. It was exactly what it was promised to be, a dialog about the two ideas. Then someone noticed something. The advocate for Copernicanism was smart and well-spoken, while the one that espoused the Aristotelian geocentric view of the solar system came off as stupid and pigheaded. Well, authors always find a way to show their intentions, and it might have ended there if people hadn't noticed that the feeble-minded geocentrist used some of the same arguments that the Pope had made during his discussions with Galileo. In some cases, he even used direct quotes of what the Pope had said. And just to underline his authorial intentions, Galileo named the geocentrist 'Simplicio' - the Simpleton. The friendship that Galileo had enjoyed was broken, with a vengeance. He was hauled into Rome and brought before Inquisition, this time not of his own accord. The private warning, and the official Injunction that had been given to him in 1616, were brought forward, and things were looking bleak. Galileo defended himself with technicalities. Although the Injunction had been issued, it had not been signed or properly processed (even in the 1600s, all court systems had bureaucracy). While it was true, he said, that he did discuss Copernicanism, his book was an examination of both sides and so he was technically not 'arguing in favor of it.' While these arguments were technically true, the Church would have been more inclined to come down in favor of technicalities in the case of someone who had refrained from publicly calling the Pope a dummy. It was not technicalities that saved Galileo, but whatever powerful friends he had left and his own celebrity status. Galileo clung to technicalities, and insisted that he did not remember the earlier informal warnings not to 'hold or argue' heliocentrism. The counsel before which he appeared debated the possible punishments, before deciding that he should be "condemned to imprisonment at the pleasure of the Holy Congregation." The Pope, still smarting, resisted all efforts to end Galileo's house arrest, even towards the end of the man's life. He also demanded a public renunciation, during which he probably smiled and muttered, "Who's Simplicio now?"
Laryngectomy is a surgery in which the larynx or voice box is removed. A laryngecotmy is performed most often for laryngeal cancer, but may be performed for individuals who suffer from chronic aspiration. A cut is made on the skin and larynx is removed, the throat is opened and recreated, and the trachea is attached to the skin to create a permanent stoma. After total laryngectomy a patient permanently breathes through the neck stoma and not through the mouth or nose. Total laryngectomy removes the voice box, meaning an individual must rely on artificial means of speech. Despite removal of the voice box, patients are able to phonate or make sound and have very understandable speech. During a total laryngectomy the surgeon removes the voice box, opening the neck to create a new throat. Patients are fed through a feeding tube temporarily while the new throat heals. Voice rehabilitation after total laryngectomy. - Esophageal speech – Air is forced from the belly through the esophagus or eating tube. This causes the throat tissues to vibrate similar to vocal fold vibrating. This sound is transmitted to the mouth and the tongue and lips forms this into words and sentences. - Electrolarynx A hand held external device is placed against the skin. This vibrates, similar to the vocal folds vibrating. This sound is transmitted through the skin, and formed by the mouth/tongue and formed into words and sentences. - Tracheoesophageal puncture – A valve is placed to allow air pushed from the lungs into the throat for sound production. A neck dissection is a surgery performed to remove neck lymph nodes in the treatment of head and neck cancer. Head and neck cancer typically originates in a site within the aerodigestive tract, or regions of the throat including tongue, tonsil, pharynx, and larynx including the vocal folds. Head and neck cancer spreads from its origin through the lymph nodes of the neck. In a neck dissection the lymph nodes and other non-vital structures of the neck are moved to treat disease. A neck dissection is performed under general anesthesia. A broad incision is made on the neck skin. In a radical neck dissection, the sternocleidomastoid muscle, internal jugular vein and spinal accessory nerve is removed along with the lymph nodes of the neck. This procedure was first reported in the early 1900s. In a modified radical neck dissection the sternocleidomastoid muscle, internal jugular vein and spinal accessory nerve are kept intact and preserved. This modification improves a patient’s function and form compared to a radical neck dissection. Patients are admitted to the hospital after surgery with a drain in place. Patients typically do well after surgery and recover within a week after surgery.
Q. 2. Here is an electrode reaction : Cu → Cu2+ + 2e-. [i.e. Cu- 2e- →Cu2+]. At which electrode(anode or cathode) would such a reaction take place. Is this an example of oxidation or reduction. Ans : - At anode. Oxidation. Q. 3. A solution contains magnesium ions(Mg2+), iron (II) ions (Fe2+) and copper ions (Cu2+). On passing an electric current through this solution which ions will be the first to be discharged at the cathode. Write the equation for the cathode reaction. Ans.: - Mg2+ Q.4. An electrode ‘A’ is connected to the positive terminal of a battery and electrode ‘B’ to the negative terminal. (i) Give the names of the electrodes A & B. (ii) Which electrode is the oxidizing electrode. Ans : - (i) A – Anode, B – Cathode. (ii) A. Q. 5. State the appropriate term used for : – A liquid or solution, which conducts electricity with accompanying chemical change. Ans.: - Electrolytes. Q.6. Electrons are getting added to an element Y. (i) Is Y getting oxidized or reduced? (ii) What charge will Y have after the addition of electrons? (iii) Which electrode will Y migrate to during electrolysis? Ans : - (i) Reduced (ii) Negative (iii) Anode Q. 7. Explain how electrolysis is an example of redox reaction. Ans.: - A redox reaction is one in which reduction and oxidation occurs simultaneously. (i) Cathode (Reducing electrode) : – At cathode, the cations gain electrons to form neutral atoms. As electrons are gained, the ion is said to be reduced. (ii) Anode (Oxidizing electrode) : – At anode, the anions lose electrons to form neutral atoms. As electrons are lost, the ion is said to be oxidized. Q. 8. What kind of particles will be found in a liquid compound which is a non-electrolyte? Ans.: - Molecules. Q.9. Complete the sentence by choosing the correct words – Electrolysis is the passage of ………… [electricity / electrons] through a liquid or a solution accompanied by a …………. [physical / chemical] change. Ans.: - Electricity, Chemical. Q.10. Name a liquid which is a non-electrolyte. Ans.: - Alcohol. Q.11. Name one substance which contains : (i) ions only (ii) molecules only (iii) both ions and molecules. Ans.: - (i) NaOH (ii) Alcohol (iii) NaCO3. Q. 12. (i) What is meant by the term ‘electrolyte’. (ii) What are the particles present in a compound which is non-electrolyte? (iii) If an electrolyte is described as a ‘strong electrolyte’, what does this mean. Ans : - (i) Chemical compounds which conduct electricity either in a fused or in aq. solution state and undergo chemical decomposition due to the flow of current through it are called electrolytes. (ii) Molecules only. (iii) (a) They are electrolytes which allow a large amount of electricity to flow through them and hence are good conductors of electricity. (b) Are almost completely dissociated in fused or aqueous solution state. (c) The solution contains almost only free mobile – ions. Q. 13. Explain why (i) solid sodium chloride does not allow electricity to pass through. (ii) copper, though a good conductor of electricity , is a non-electrolyte. Ans : - (i) In sodium chloride, Na+ and Cl - ions are not free to carry the electric current. (ii) Copper metal is solid and has no mobile ions whereas an electrolyte should dissociate into oppositely charged ions to conduct the electric current. Q. 14. Classify the following substances under three headings: (i) Strong Electrolytes (ii) Weak Electrolytes (iii) Non Electrolytes – Acetic acid, ammonium chloride, ammonium hydroxide, carbon tetrachloride, dilute hydrochloric acid, sodium acetate, dilute sulphuric acid. Ans : - (i) Strong Electrolytes – Ammonium chloride, dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sulphuric acid. (ii) Weak Electrolytes – Ammonium hydroxide,...
A Brief History of Glassblowing In prehistoric times, obsidian, a natural glass formed by volcanic eruptions, was prized for its hardness by primitive man and was used to make tools and arrowheads. Man-made glass amulets and beads from as far back as 4000 BC have been discovered by archaeologists. Around this period, the basic formula for glass was discovered – sand, plant ash to help melting and lime to stabilize the glass and protect it from moisture. Around 1500 BC in Mesopotamia and Egypt the first glass vessels were created by shaping hot glass around solid cores of earth and dung. After the glass cooled the earthen plug was removed and discarded, leaving a hollow form. The techniques for making these early glass vessels were a closely guarded secret and glass vessels were owned only by royalty and the very wealthy. The earliest glass tile mosaics were made during this period from thin slices of colored glass rods inlaid upon walls, wooden boxes and ceramic vessels. The Roman Empire The Syrians invented the blowpipe around 300 BC and the foundation of modern glassblowing was laid. The Roman Empire embraced these new techniques for making glass vessels and experimentation with a wide variety of new shapes and forms began. Molds were developed in conjunction with the blowing techniques to make shapes and patterns on the glass. New formulas for color were invented and gold and silver inlays were used to decorate vessels. The first enameling techniques came about during this period and were perfected in Egypt and the Middle East. The production of glass became more affordable and widespread. Glass from the Roman era is sufficiently plentiful that modern collectors can fairly easily afford to obtain small vessels of this period. During the Dark Ages, most of the glassblowing knowledge in Europe was lost, leaving the more civilized Middle East to carry on the glass art tradition. The Middle Ages During the middle ages, Venice, Italy became the center of glassmaking as a result of learning the secrets of glassblowing through trade with the Middle East. In order to maintain their virtual trade monopoly on glass, the government forced all the glassblowers in Venice to move to the island of Murano in 1291. Further perfecting their craft while in exile, the Murano glassblowers developed an incredibly clear glass called cristalo, along with new vivid colors such as deep blue, amethyst and emerald. Despite the fact that leaving the island was punishable by death, many Venetian glassblowers did manage to escape Murano and spread their new techniques and new colors throughout Europe and parts of Asia. During the Renaissance, glassblowing techniques spread and developed throughout Europe. In the 17th century, the first widely available textbook on glassblowing, "L'Arte Vetraria (The Art of Glass)" was published in Italy. Window glass, glass bottles and glass drinking vessels became even more common and available to the average person. New glass technology, such as leaded glass and diamond engraving became widespread. Glass came to the American colonies in 1607 with the Jamestown settlers. Most decorative glass was still imported from Europe during the colonial period with American glassmakers producing primarily windows and bottles. The invention of mechanical presses in the late 1800s made functional glass production faster and easier throughout the world. By the end of the 19th century, even people of very modest means had glass bottles, jars, glasses, butter dishes and flower vases in their homes. Art Nouveau Period The late 1800s saw the marriage of art and production with artists such as Emile Galle, Eugene Rousseau and the famous Louis Comfort Tiffany working with the large glass houses designing lamps, vessels, windows and art pieces from blown and stained glass. The 1960s to Today The 1960s ushered in the rise of the studio glass movement in America. Individual artists, like Harvey Littleton, began opening their own glassblowing studios independently of the large glass factories to pursue their own artistic visions and to develop new techniques for glass blowing, casting and carving. The movement began in America and spread across the globe. Museums began to look at glass art seriously and glass specific museums such as the Corning Museum of Glass in New York were established. The Pacific Northwest became a well known hub of studio glass art, being home to the famous Pilchuck Studio and the new Museum of Glass Art in Tacoma. Pre-historic Obsidian Arrowheads Old Map of Venice, Italy and the Island of Murano. 19th Century Blown Glass Trade Card. Founder of the Studio Glass Movement, Harvey Littleton. Glossary of Basic Glassblowing Terms Cullet: Beads of raw, clear glass used in furnaces for glassblowing. Soft Glass: A term for the type of glass used in the glassblowing process that is malleable but easily breakable when hardened. Borosilicate Glass: Also known as Pyrex, this is the type of glass you will find in kitchenware. Workable at a higher temperature than soft glass, borosilicate glass is stronger and can withstand rougher handling than typical soft glass. Furnace: The heat source for glassblowing and source for the molten glass used in blowing. Glassblowing furnaces are typically gas-powered and are heated to 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit (1,100 degrees Centigrade.) Gloryhole: Heated barrel in which molten glass is reheated for shaping. Blowpipe: Hollow metal pipe used to blow air into hot glass. Yoke: Stand which supports blowpipes while the glass is being reheated in the gloryhole. Gather: The process of placing molten glass onto the end of a blowpipe – the end of the pipe is placed into the mass of furnace glass and twirled. The process of gathering is similar to using a dipper to take honey from a jar. Gather also is the name for the actual mass of glass on the end of the pipe at the beginning of the blowing process. Punty: Solid metal rod applied to the bottom of a blown glass piece for further shaping and work on the lip of the vessel. Gaffer: The technician who is doing the main work of shaping and transferring glass during the glassblowing process. The gaffer has at least one assistant to help in the process of moving the glass from pipe to punty and to shape and properly heat and cool the glass. Marver: Metal table used to add color and aid in shaping hot glass on a pipe. In the old days, marvers were made of marble slabs, hence their name. Bench: Glassblower’s work station – arms of the bench act as supports for rolling the blowpipe. Block: Large wooden spoon-shaped tool for shaping glass. Paddles: Wooden tools used to flatten the bottoms of pieces and protect the glassblowers from the heat of the furnace. Optic Mold: Metal mold with various notches cut into the mold to put a ridged pattern into the glass or separate the color in the glass into lines. Jacks: A very important glassblowing tool with two long metal blades secured at the top by a u-shaped miniature marver called a “heel.” Jacks, which resemble a large pair of tweezers, come in a variety of sizes and have many uses including shaping, opening pieces and adding in a jack line. Jack Line: Constricted area made in hot glass between the glass and the head of a pipe using the jacks. This helps to separate the piece from the pipe. Annealer: Oven used to slowly cool and harden glass after it has been shaped through the glassblowing process. Glass must cool slowly or it will crack and break. Glass Color: Glass coloring comes in several forms and is added to the piece in progress in a variety of ways. Soft glass color is manufactured by only four major companies in the world – one in New Zealand and three in Germany. All the color used at Seattle Glassblowing Studio is made by Kugler Color in Bavaria, Germany, from chemical formulas kept in the Kugler family for generations. Bar Color: Glass color in the form of hard bars of solid color which can be cut into the size needed for the project. Clear glass is infused with metals, chemicals and minerals to produce various colors and effects. Overlay: The process of dropping the heating color bar onto a bubble of clear glass. Frit: Glass color in powdered or ground form. Frit can range in size from fine powder like talc to pieces the size of gravel. The different sizes give different color effects from all over coverage to a mottled, dappled effect. Hot glass is rolled through the frit which is laid out on the marver. Since the frit is also made of glass, the heat of the molten glass piece melts the color into the vessel. Cane: Glass bar that is heated and stretched the length of the room to create thin strips of color. Dichroic Glass: Glass that appears to be different colors when light is shone through it vs. when light reflects against it. It is applied to sheet glass as a vapor. Decals can be made in a variety of designs with this process and then embedded in clear glass. Leaf/Foil: Thin metal foil that can be applied to the exterior of glass. Silver, gold and copper are common foil colors.
Template Matching Theory -The comparison of a picture or other data w/a stored program or template, for purposes of identification and inspection. -A holistic match to stored representation (ex. barcode). Also, idea in our head of what something looks like, then when you look @ something, you match it up w/what's in your head. -Relatively inflexible system -Mismatches based on size, orientation, etc. -Too much variety- violates cognitive economy. -stands for the need to manage one's mental resources, including time, effort and specific processing tools. -performance will suffer if one seeks to perform tasks (or combos of tasks) that demand more resources than are available, and this leads people to use a variety of cognitive shortcuts. Feature Analysis Theory -process that whole bits of sensory info. are matched to its individual small units that are held in our LTM. -1)Stimuli are broken into component lines -2)Similar patterns distinguished from each other on basis of distinctive features (e.g. P vs. R) -3) Letters presented @ rapid rates often confused w/similar letters (Kinney et al., 1966) -4) Neisser's Search for Z: RT longer for letter matrix w/similar features (ex. R & P) -5) Pre-kindergartners trianed to distinguish similar letters (Y-V, G-C, Q-O, M-N, C-X) performed best if distinctive feature was in RED. Dot highlights spatial relations. -6) Adults asked to make same-different judgements take longer w/similar letters (if letters are similar, longer ID time; if letters are dissimilar, easier distinction & faster response) -7) Neuropsychological evidence from Hubel & Wiesel: Feature Detectors (simple cells) certain words that, with the proper grammar, constitute a universal language. feature detectors (simple cells) -neurons in the visual cortex that receive visual info. and respond to certain features, such as lines, angles, movements, etc. -when the visual info. changes, the feature detector neurons will quiet down, to be replaced w/other, more responsive neurons. -_______ ________ (______ ______) are sensitive to orientation (has to be a line @ a given orientation -also sensitive to: part of the visual field (VF) in which it occurs -also sensitive to: size -def from quizlet: The portion of the visual field in which the presentation of visual stimuli will produce an alteration in the firing rate of a particular neuron -def from lecture: (of a sensory neuron) a region of space in which the presence of a stimulus will alter the firing of that neuron. -includes on and off center cells on center cells -part of the functioning of the receptive field. -if a cell falls directly on the center of the receptive field for that neuron, it will fire optimally off center cells -part of the functioning of the receptive field -will fire when something is off center (not much firing) (same as feature detectors) -Cells found in the V1 which have fixed excitatory zones in their receptor field ( respond to mostly horizontal and vertical bars of light). (sensitive to line orientation & movement) -like _____ ______s, they will respond primarily to oriented edges & gratings; however, their receptive field cannot be mapped into fixed excitatory & inhibitory zones. -BUT will respond to patterns of light in a certain orientation w/in a large receptive field, regardless of the exact location. -Some ______ ______s respond optimally only to movement in a certain direction. -Discovered by Wiesel & Hubel. -simple cells feed on them (ex: our visual system is breaking objects down for us to view them, although we process the whole thing.) (Hubel & Wiesel) -cells in the visual cortex that exhibit end-stopping properties (inhibitory responses at each end): a cell's response increases as a stimulus expands to fill the receptive field. -(and stopping is when a cell's response increases as a stimulus, for ex. a bar, expands maximally to fill the receptive field, and then responds less when the stimulus exceeds the size of the receptive field.) -type of aphasia where damage to the brain causes a patient to lose the ability to read -also called "word blindness" or "visual aphasia" -this, unlike dyslexia, refers to an acquired reading disability, where reading ability had previously been developed, usually occurring in adulthood conditions. - quizlet def: Patients are unable to distinguish visual shapes and so have trouble recognizing, copying, or discriminating between different visual stimuli. Unlike patients suffering from associative agnosia, those with ___________ agnosia are unable to copy images. Also poor matching -packet def: a visual disorder that renders a person unable to recognize objects -distinction between shapes is difficult, although other vision aspects, such as the ability to see detail and color, remain intact. -considered, b/c of the inability to ID simple shapes, as a problem in the early (from a young age) part of the visual processing system, unlike associative agnosia, which is caused by brain damage instead. (aka face blindness) -a disorder of face perception where the ability to recognize faces is impaired, while the ability to recognize other objects may be relatively intact. -brain area usually associated: fusiform gyrus
The ability to learn vocalizations from others is believed to be rare among animals, and songbirds are mainly thought to pick up songs from their parents. But a new PLOS Biology study suggests that in young bats, vocalizations and “dialects” are picked up from nest-mates instead, as they listen to and learn from an entire colony. Yossi Yovel and colleagues exposed bat pups to recorded bat vocalizations where the dialect differed from that of the pups’ mothers. The results suggested that young bats adopt the dialect of the bats around them, rather than that of their mother. To find out more about this research, I interviewed Yovel via email. Yovel with the bats he studies Your research group is known as The Bat Lab. What drew you to bats, and what does your lab study? YY: I started off as a physicist with a great interest in animal behavior. Therefore, when I learned about bats’ ability to sense the world acoustically via echolocation, I was fascinated. Since then I have shifted my focus to study additional aspects of bat behavior, including navigation and social behavior. Your lab has an in-house fruit bat colony, which can be viewed via your lab’s live webcam. Tell us about them. YY: Indeed: our unique in-house colony of fruit bats roosts in our facility, where we can monitor them. They are free to forage outdoors in the wild, where we track them with miniature GPS devices. Each bat has a name and the students know their individual “personalities.” In our PLOS Biology study, we used baby bats, or pups, in a different setup so that we had full control over their exposure to audio playbacks and could record all their vocalizations. But once we had finished the study, the pups were released to join our in-house colony. What led you to study language acquisition and dialects in bats? YY: Our interest in mammalian vocal communication is driven by the desire to understand the evolution of human language. We know that vocalizations are learnt in humans, but this ability has not been demonstrated in many other mammals. However, I think that the more we study mammalian communication, the more we learn how complex it really is – and I find it easy to imagine that it could have evolved from mammalian communication. I am also personally very interested in the function of vocal communication in bat social behavior. Bats live in colonies for dozens of years with the same individuals. They can thus form long-term social bonds and I would like to understand how vocal communication supports these bonds. By exposing bat pups to audio recordings of other bats’ vocalizations, you found that young bats adopt their colony’s specific dialect rather than that of their mother. How does this compare to language acquisition in other animals, such as songbirds? YY: Yes, a main finding is that bats don’t learn directly from their mothers, but from the entire vocal stimulus they are exposed to. In songbirds, people usually talk about a tutor (the father) and a pupil (the son), but we show that pups adjusted their dialect to that to which they were exposed, even though it differed from the dialect of their mothers. This finding is perhaps not surprising when you think of a pup bat that is under its mother’s wing in a dark cave hearing hundreds of individuals around it. But this is the first time that this form of crowd vocal learning is shown and I believe that it is probably relevant to many other animals that live in crowded colonies. What part of your study did you find most interesting? YY: For me, the most significant finding is that bat pups will learn from everything they hear. So even though the pups were listening to their mothers’ “normal” dialect, they were influenced by the background dialect. You could think of a child moving with his parents to another country where a different dialect is spoken. This child will probably speak with a dialect that includes features of both parents and environment. What are the next steps for your research, and what do you hope your findings might lead to? YY: There are many possible next steps. One interesting direction would be to examine what influence dialects have on social behavior. Fruit bats roost in the same caves for dozens of years with the same neighbors and we wonder what will happen when a group of “foreigners” enters an established colony. Will they be rejected? Or will they learn the local dialect? Research Article: Prat Y, Azoulay L, Dor R, Yovel Y (2017) Crowd vocal learning induces vocal dialects in bats: Playback of conspecifics shapes fundamental frequency usage by pups. PLoS Biol 15(10): e2002556. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.2002556 Images Credits: Eran Amichai; Yossi Yovel
Ponies are very strong and, despite their smaller size, are actually stronger than a standard sized horse when compared pound for pound! Amazing Facts About the Pony - It is often thought the only difference between horses and ponies is size. This is an important distinguisher but other characteristics also separate horses and ponies - Ponies are generally considered to be 14.2 hands or under. Horses and ponies are measured in ‘hands’ with each ‘hand’ measuring 4 inches. Ponies height is measured at their withers – where their neck and back meet. - Although size is a key distinguisher, the smallest horse, a Falabella is considered to be a horse rather than a pony despite only reaching 8 hands, or 32 inches! - The structure of a pony is different to a horse. Ponies are stockier than horses with shorter legs, wider barrels (bodies), shorter, thicker necks and shorter heads with broad foreheads. Ponies bones are also heavier than horses! - Shetland ponies are the strongest of the smaller ponies in spite of their small size. - Ponies’ temperament also separates them from horses. They are steady and have gentle dispositions as a whole, however each pony will have different characteristics! - Ponies evolved in harsh environments and are known for their surefootedness which allows them to traverse rough terrain well. - There are over 200 breeds of ponies worldwide. - Ponies generally live longer than horses. The oldest living pony recorded was Teddy E. Bear who lived to 55 years old! - Ponies’ teeth take up more space in their head than their brain! The age of a pony can be best estimated by looking at their teeth. - Ponies, like people, can get sunburnt if they have pink skin exposed. This is often on their nose if they are white or have a white patch. - Ponies are highly intelligent and some, such as the Shetland pony, are notorious for being cheeky! - When spoken to, ponies and horses are thought to distinguish tones rather than specific words. - Ponies and horses have an amazing memory. It’s said to be even better than an elephants! - Type: Mammal - Diet: Herbivore - Life span: 25-30 years but it is dependent on breed - Size: 7 hands to 14.2 hands - Weight: 150kg – 550kg - Range: Worldwide - Scientific name: Equus caballus
“Play is an essential part of every child’s life and vital to their development. It is the way children explore the world around them and develop and practice skills. It is essential for physical, emotional and spiritual growth, for intellectual and educational development, and for acquiring social and behavioral skills. Play is a generic term applied to a wide range of activities and behaviors that are satisfying to the child, creative for the child, and freely chosen by the child. Children play on their own and with others. Their play may be boisterous and energetic or quiet and contemplative, light-hearted or very serious.” ~Hampshire Country Council and the Early Years-Development and Childcare Partnership Being a stay-at-home mother, I learned there are so many activities, games and events you can do with your child. Below are examples of the types of games you can do with your child and certain events you can take you child to. The examples listed below are the things I did/do with my toddler who is about to turn 3 years old. Therefore, I am sure most of these you can still do with a new born and up. [Important Note]: Always keep in mind that repetition is key when learning. Activities and Games to Play: - Flashcards.—I did flashcards with my son ever since he was born and now he is almost three, he knows his colors, numbers, counts up to 30, his alphabet, the sounds the letter makes, etc.… It is never too early to start with flashcards. - Read books.—There are so many different types of books out there. Reading books is another activity I have been doing with my toddler ever since he was a new born. Still till this day, he loves to be read to. He even sometimes pulls out a book and acts like he is reading it himself. But there are books to keep your child attentive; for example, there are books that your child can push buttons as you read them the story and so on… - Color.—Crayons, washable markers, colored pencils, etc.… Sit down and color with your child. As your child picks a color, name the color and of course, reassure them how much of a great job they are doing. - Paint and/or Finger-paint.—My son does not like to finger-paint, although he absolutely loves to paint with a paintbrush. This helps them explore their creativity side. - Play-Doh.—Play-doh can be found pretty much anywhere, especially in dollar stores. They also have out little toys to help design and create such structures. - Blow bubbles.—Majority of children love to help blow bubbles and/or even chase after them to pop them. Bubbles can be lots of fun! - “I’m going to get you.”— I know that my toddler loves to play this. I will say, “I am going to get you” (kind of like tag) and chase after him and eventually get him. Once I do, I either tickle him, non-stop kiss him and/or spin him in circles. - Water Time.—Set up an area where you can fill up some pots and pans with water and put out some little cups, dishes, bowls, etc.… and let your child explore with the water. Try and show the child how to pour the water back and forth into different dishes. The child may get wet and make a bit of a mess but that’s ok, it’s only water! - Chalking outside.—Chalking can be a lot of fun. Chalk can be found at many stores, especially the dollar store, grab some colored ones and get ready to have fun and chalk with your child. - Go for a walk and let the child explore. I typically brought a little bag from the dollar store and let my child collect outside environment pieces such as rocks, leaves, flowers, grass, and/or whatever it was that caught his attention. I would also explain to him what it was that he was interested in and explained what I knew about that certain object that he wanted to put in his bag. I know this was something he really enjoyed doing. - Blocks.—When my toddler was in his younger years—one and two years old—he loved building blocks (mega blocks) and then knocking them down. Now as he is older, he still loves building blocks. - Board Games & Games.–There are many board games to choose from; esp for learning. Some games I would recommend is Candyland, Hi Ho Cherry-O, Connect Four, Cards, Go Fish, Snakes and Ladders, Scramble, A Day Out With Thomas Boardgame, Toppel and so on… - Computer Games.— My toddler loves his little child computer ever since I can remember. It surely helped with his alphabet and numbers. It is also a great way to help them get more acquainted with computers since they are our future. - Sing songs and play hand games or even toe games too.—For example: Pat-a-cake. I know my son loved this as an infant and still does as a toddler. Also, “this little piggy went to the market…” and so on. - Face expressions.—Make different face expressions and noises and explain what they are and/or have your child guess what type of expression you are doing. Take for example, surprised: open your mouth (as a face expression) and make a surprised sound. This can help your child become more in tuned with their emotions and feelings. - Hide-and-seek.—My toddler absolutely loves hiding and me finding him. I am sure this is a game that you cannot go wrong with. - Play Ball.—There are so many different things you can do with a ball. Roll the ball back and forth to each other, play catch, bounce it against the wall, soccer, and so on… - Foam matt and letters.—My toddler also learned his letters through foam matts that you lay on the ground. We would take the letters out of its spot and mix them up and then he would tell me what the letter was, the sound it made and put the letter back in it’s spot. - Build a tent/fort.—Building a tent can be fun for both parent and child. I know I have fun when helping my child build a tent. You can use what you already have at home: blankets, pillows, sheets, etc.…. - Puzzles.—Children are never too young to learn how to do puzzles. My son was two at the time he did his first puzzle and is still non-stop doing them. As a parent/guardian, all you have to do it sit down with them and teach them that colors go with colors, edges go with edges and so on. Soon enough with practice, I am sure they will get the swing of it and will be doing all by their self. - Dance.—Put on some music and dance your tushy-butts off. Dancing is always a fun way to interact with your child. - Follow the leader.—You or your child start off by being the leader. You do everything your child does and then take turns and switch it up by having your child follow you and do what you do. For instance, walk around your house, skip, jump, turn in circles, etc.… - Stickers.—Go to the store and grab a blank book (Again, I typically go to the dollar store and just get a blank copybook) and we have sticker time. My toddler usually puts all his stickers in his book that he gets from other people and for occasions. This is also a perfect memory book for the both of us. - Stamps.—Stamps are always fun too. Again, you can get yourself a blank book and let your child stamp away. Also, the stamps can also be found in many stores too such as the dollar store, A.C. Moore, Michael’s Art Store, and so on… - Activity Books.—There are many activity books out there for all ages. This helps children with their writing skills. You can learn how to trace letters, numbers, shapes and so on. - Play an instrument.—You can find instruments of all kinds anywhere. Toys-R-Us, Dollar store, etc…. - Memory Cards.—These cards can be fun and help a child with their memory. - “Red means Stop and Green Means Go.”—This is a fun little game you and your child can play to help your child learn about meaning of color. As a parent/guardian, you stand several feet across from your toddler. You tell them green, they start to walk/run then a couple seconds later you call out red which causes them to stop. You can also make up other ways to play this game—be creative! - Play School.— Get an easel or chalk board and play school. You can even do the dry erase markers and board and help the child learn how to write, draw and/or scribble. Do letters, numbers, math such as plus, minus, and equals and so on… Also, if you do it everyday, write the child’s name on the board and repeat thier name and spelling of it so they get familarized with thier name. - Arts & Crafts.—Trace your child’s hands and/or feet and make flowers out of them. You can also make other cool projects by using their cut-out hands such as ears to their favorite animals or for special occasions. Lots of different things to do with arts and crafts and again, be creative! - Whiffle Ball & Bat.—Whiffle ball and bat can always be a fun way to interact with your child. - Learn Another Language.—It is never too early to teach your child another language. I have been randomly teaching my child since he was born how to sign (as I am going along, I am also teaching myself). I do some signing every here and there and now that he is a toddler, he understands and does some signing himself at times. There are many books out and you can even find some websites on the Internet. “When kids play, they remember. They may not be aware that they are learning but they sure are aware they are having fun. When you have a good belly laugh with your siblings or parents or friends, that stays with you. And the great thing is that it comes naturally… If we only let it.” ~Rebecca Krook, play facilitator for kids with disabilities Events & Outings: Look in your local area for such events: - In my hometown, Philadelphia, The Please Touch Museum is an awesome place to take children to of all ages. However, there are many museums out there for children to attend just look for some in your local area. - “Parent/Guardian and Me classes.”—Example: The Little Gym. My toddler loved this class. It also helps children learn how to open up and interact with other children. - The Beach. - Chuck E. Cheese. - Go to the Library.—I know I already mentioned read books, but find out at your local library about any get-together groups that may be going on. Also, some libraries have computers specifically for young children. I know my toddler absolutely loves playing their computer games. - If you have a lake, river or pond around you, take your toddler there to hang out and watch the water. Hopefully there are ducks, geese and birds that are there too so don’t forget to bring crackers or bread to feed them. This is something my toddler also loves to do. - Take your child out for some ice cream or water ice. “Play builds the kind of free-and-easy, try-it-out, do-it-yourself character that our future needs. We must become more self-conscious and more explicit in our praise and reinforcement as children use unstructured play materials: “That’s good. You use your own ideas….” “That’s good. You did it your way…” “That’s good. You thought it all out yourself.” ~James L. Hymes, Jr., child development specialist, author ~Believe in yourself and you can create what you want.
At Spire Junior School, the National Curriculum for Key Stage 2 has been adapted to meet the specific needs of the children at the school. The curriculum looks to meet the needs of the whole child in terms of staying healthy, feeling safe, enjoying their education and making a positive contribution to society. The ethos of the school promotes the education and wellbeing of all of the children. Spire Junior School – Curriculum Planner Key: Science Geography History English The following subjects are taught: Our Curriculum Overviews The teaching should ensure that work in 'speaking and listening', 'reading' and 'writing' is integrated. In English, during Key Stage 2 our pupils learn to change the way they speak and write to suit different situations, purposes and audiences. They read a range of texts and respond to different layers of meaning in them. They explore the use of language in literary and non-literary texts and learn how language works. We place great emphasis on reading and our children use the Oxford Reading Tree in the early stages and then move onto a choice of carefully selected books. Children read daily in the class and are encouraged to read at home at least three times a week. Children also choose non-fiction books from the school library on a weekly basis. In phonics we use the Read Write Inc scheme and Lexia. Our teaching should ensure that appropriate connections are made between the sections on 'number', 'shape, space and measures', and 'handling data'. During Key Stage 2 our pupils use the number system more confidently. They move from counting reliably to calculating fluently with all four number operations. They always try to tackle a problem with mental methods before using any other approach. Pupils explore features of shape and space and develop their measuring skills in a range of contexts. They discuss and present their methods and reasoning using a wider range of mathematical language, diagrams and charts. During Key Stage 2 our pupils learn about a wider range of living things, materials and phenomena. They begin to make links between ideas and to explain things using simple models and theories. They apply their knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas to familiar phenomena, everyday things and their personal health. They begin to think about the positive and negative effects of scientific and technological developments on the environment and in other contexts. They carry out more systematic investigations, working on their own and with others. They use a range of reference sources in their work. They talk about their work and its significance, and communicate ideas using a wide range of scientific language, conventional diagrams, charts and graphs. The science Key Stage 2 curriculum consists of: - Scientific enquiry - Sc2 Life processes and living things Sc3 - Materials and their properties - Sc4 Physical processes Children are taught R.E. on a weekly basis. We follow the Derbyshire Agreed Syllabus. Children have at least two lessons of P.E. every week. They take part in a variety of sporting activities including gymnastics, dance, games, athletics and outdoor and adventurous activities. In Y5 the children learn to swim. The children are taught about e-safety to help them to keep safe on the internet. They use the internet to research topics and find information. They are taught how to use databases, spreadsheets, multimedia and word processing programmes. Children use ICT in all areas of the curriculum to support their learning. Art, Design, History and Geography are taught through creative topics. Topics focus on key skills for each subject. Topics are planned with a particular focus i.e. history. We encourage the children to be part of the planning process and to contribute to the areas to be taught. Topics studied have included Egyptians, World War 2, Victorians, Chesterfield, Castles, The Titanic, Volcanoes, Vikings and The Tudors. On a weekly basis children take part in: - Personal, Social, Health and Citizenship Education.
The space shuttle is the world's first reusable spacecraft, and the first spacecraft in history that can carry large satellites both to and from orbit. The shuttle launches like a rocket, maneuvers in Earth orbit like a spacecraft and lands like an airplane. Each of the three space shuttle orbiters now in operation -- Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavour -- is designed to fly at least 100 missions. So far, altogether they have flown a combined total of slightly more than one-fourth the first space shuttle orbiter to be delivered to NASA's Kennedy Space Center, Fla., in March 1979. Columbia and the STS-107 crew were lost Feb. 1, 2003, during re-entry. The orbiter Challenger was delivered to KSC in July 1982 and was destroyed in an explosion during ascent in January 1986. Discovery was delivered in November 1983. Atlantis was delivered in April 1985. Endeavour was built as a replacement following the Challenger accident and was delivered to Florida in May 1991. An early space shuttle orbiter, the Enterprise, never flew in space but was used for approach and landing tests at the Dryden Flight Research Center and several launch pad studies in the late 1970s. shuttle consists of three major components: the orbiter which houses the crew; a large external fuel tank that holds fuel for the main engines; and two solid rocket boosters which provide most of the shuttle's lift during the first two minutes of flight. All of the components are reused except for the external fuel tank, which burns up in the atmosphere after each launch. longest the shuttle has stayed in orbit on any single mission is 17.5 days on mission STS-80 in November 1996. Normally, missions may be planned for anywhere from five to 16 days in duration. The smallest crew ever to fly on the shuttle numbered two people on the first few missions. The largest crew numbered eight people. Normally, crews may range in size from five to seven people. The shuttle is designed to reach orbits ranging from about 185 kilometers to 643 kilometers (115 statute miles to 400 statute miles) high. has the most reliable launch record of any rocket now in operation. Since 1981, it has boosted more than 1.36 million kilograms (3 million pounds) of cargo into orbit. More than than 600 crew members have flown on its missions. Although it has been in operation for more than 20 years, the shuttle has continually evolved and is significantly different today than when it first was launched. NASA has made literally thousands of major and minor modifications to the original design that have made it safer, more reliable and more capable today than 1992 alone, NASA has made engine and system improvements that are estimated to have tripled the safety of flying the space shuttle, and the number of problems experienced while a space shuttle is in flight has decreased by 70 percent. During the same period, the cost of operating the shuttle has decreased by one and a quarter billion dollars annually — a reduction of more than 40 percent. At the same time, because of weight reductions and other improvements, the cargo the shuttle can carry has increased by 7.3 metric tons NASA is prepared to continue flying the shuttle for at least the next decade and plans to continue to improve the shuttle during the next five years, with goals of increasing its safety by improving the highest-risk components. NASA will also be working to correct the problems identified by the Columbia Accident Investigation Board during the investigation of the STS-107 accident. and operating the space shuttle, NASA holds the safety of the crew as its highest priority.
Disease: Early Blight of TomatoPathogen: Alternaria solaniHost: Tomato, Lycopersicum esculentum Tomatoes are among the widest grown crops grown in gardens throughout the world. Nearly every garden in the US has a tomato plant or two because they are easy to grow and because they are so widely useful in the kitchen. One of the most common diseases of tomato is early blight. This disease is caused by a fungus, Alternaria solani, and it can be devastating to commercial producers who have many plants and to homeowners who may have just one or two plants. It is very hard to control and can lead to death of the plant if not managed properly. Homeowners can protect their gardens most easily by buying healthy seedlings at reputable markets. Minimize moisture on leaves by spacing plants and removing weeds. Water the plants when they will dry quickly and try to water the soil surface only. Clean up any infested debris at the end of the season. Try to plant tomatoes in a different area of the garden each year.
Clam is a common name for several kinds of bivalve molluscs. The word is often applied only to those that are edible and live as infauna, spending most of their lives partially buried in the sand of the ocean floor. Clams have two shells of equal size connected by two adductor muscles and have a powerful burrowing foot. Clams in the culinary sense do not live attached to a substrate (whereas oysters and mussels do) and do not live near the bottom (whereas scallops do). In culinary usage, clams are commonly eaten marine bivalves, as in clam digging and the resulting soup, clam chowder. Many edible clams such as palourde clams are oval or triangular; however, razor clams have an elongated parallel-sided shell, suggesting an old-fashioned straight razor. Some clams have life cycles of only one year, while at least one may be over 500 years old. All clams have two calcareous shells or valves joined near a hinge with a flexible ligament, and all are filter feeders. \|Edible clams in the family Veneridae\| A clam's shell consists of two (usually equal) valves, which are connected by a hinge joint and a ligament that can be external or internal. The ligament provides tension to bring the valves apart, while one or two adductor muscles can contract to close the valves. Clams also have kidneys, a heart, a mouth, a stomach, a nervous system and an anus. Many have a siphon. In culinary use, within the eastern coast of the United States and large swathes of the Maritimes of Canada, the term "clam" most often refers to the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria. It may also refer to a few other common edible species, such as the soft-shell clam, Mya arenaria and the ocean quahog, Arctica islandica. Another species commercially exploited on the Atlantic Coast of the United States is the surf clam Spisula solidissima. Scallops are also used for food nationwide, but not cockles: they are more difficult to get than in Europe because of their habit of being farther out in the tide than European species. Up and down the coast of the Eastern U.S., the bamboo clam, ensis directus, is prized by Americans for making clam strips although because of its nature of burrowing into the sand very close to the beach, it cannot be harvested by mechanical means without damaging the beaches. On the U.S. West Coast, there are several species that have been consumed for thousands of years, evidenced by middens full of clamshells near the shore and their consumption by nations including the Chumash of California,the Nisqually of Washington State and the Tsawwassen of British Columbia.The butter clam, Saxidomus gigantea, the Pacific razor clam, Siliqua patula, gaper clams Tresus capax, the geoduck clam, Panopea generosa and the Pismo clam, Tivela stultorum are all eaten as delicacies. Clams can be eaten raw, steamed, boiled, baked or fried. They can also be made into clam chowder, clams casino, Clam cakes, stuffies, or they can be cooked using hot rocks and seaweed in a New England clam bake. On the West Coast, they are an ingredient in making cioppino and local variants of ceviche In Japan, clams are often an ingredient of mixed seafood dishes. They can also be made into hot pot, miso soup or Tsukudani. The more commonly used varieties of clams in Japanese cooking are the Shijimi (Corbicula japonica), the Asari (Venerupis philippinarum) and the Hamaguri (Meretrix lusoria). In Italy, clams are often an ingredient of mixed seafood dishes or are eaten together with pasta. The more commonly used varieties of clams in Italian cooking are the Vongola (Venerupis decussata), the Cozza (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and the Tellina (Donax trunculus). Though Dattero di mare (Lithophaga lithophaga) was once eaten, overfishing drove it to the verge of extinction (it takes 15 to 35 years to reach adult size and could only be harvested by smashing the calcarean rocks that form its habitat) and the Italian government has declared it an endangered species since 1998 and its harvest and sale are forbidden. In Kerala clams are used to make curries and fried with coconut. In Malabar region it is known as "elambakka" and in middle kerala it is known as "kakka". Clam curry made with coconut is a dish from Malabar especially in the Thalassery region. On the south western coast of India, also known as the Konkan region of Maharashtra, clams are used in curries and side dishes, like Tisaryachi Ekshipi, which is clams with one shell on. Beary Muslim households in the Mangalore region prepare a main dish with clams called Kowldo Pinde. Local fishermen sell them in rural markets. Some species of clams, particularly Mercenaria mercenaria, were in the past used by the Algonquians of Eastern North America to manufacture wampum, a type of sacred jewelry; and to make shell money. Not usually considered edible:
This fallacy may at first glance seem counter-intuitive; but it illustrates an important distinction between the validity of an argument and the truth of its premises or conclusions. Given that by definition, the conclusion of an invalid argument does not logically follow from its premises, the conclusion of such an argument can be true whether or not its premises are true. The Argument from Fallacy is the fallacy of analysing an argument and inferring that, since it is logically invalid or is otherwise fallacious, the conclusion of the argument must therefore be false. This fallacy is also called the ‘Fallacy Fallacy’ or argument to logic (argumentum ad logicam). The general form of of this argument is: Premise 1: If P, then Q. Premise 2: P is a fallacious argument. Conclusion: Therefore, Q is false. This is a special case of denying the antecedent where the antecedent, rather than being a proposition that is false, is an entire argument that is fallacious. A fallacious argument, just as with a false antecedent, can still have a consequent that happens to be true. The fallacy is in concluding the consequent of a fallacious argument has to be false. To give an example: John: “All dogs are animals. Scottie is an animal. This means Scottie is a dog”. Betty: “Ah, you just committed the affirming the consequent fallacy. Sorry, you are wrong, which means that Scottie is not a dog”. In this example, John has committed the affirming the consequent fallacy, but it does not logically follow that his conclusion that Scottie is a dog is false – it just means that his argument for saying so is invalid. Another example might be a belief that because somebody is unable to defend a position well, then that position must be false. All that has really been demonstrated is that the person in question cannot adequately defend their position, which could happen to be true. On the other hand, if this person is relying on a fallacious argument to support their position, then we should be skeptical of that position unless and until it can otherwise be shown through evidence and valid argument to be true.
The farthest reaches of our solar system remain the most mysterious areas around the sun. Solving the mysteries of the outer solar system could shed light on how the whole thing emerged as well as how life on Earth was born. Why the rainbow of colors in the Kuiper belt? For instance, the Kuiper belt past Neptune is currently the suspected home of comets that only take a few decades or at most centuries to complete their solar orbits so-called "short-period comets." Surprisingly, Kuiper belt objects "show a wide range of colors neutral or even slightly blue all the way to very red," said University of Hawaii astrophysicist David Jewitt. The color of an object helps reveal details about its surface composition. It remains a mystery why Kuiper belt objects show a much wider range of color and thus surface composition than other planetoids, such as the asteroids. Some researchers had suggested volcanic activity could have led to all these colors "absurd in the context of 100-kilometer-sized (60-mile) bodies," Jewitt said, as volcanism needs something bigger. Jewitt and his colleagues had suggested that cosmic rays could have made Kuiper belt objects redder, while impacts with rocks could have dug up more pristine matter that made them less red. Nowadays Jewitt thinks there must be another explanation for this rainbow, but it remains unknown. What is ultra-red matter? There appears to be a material dubbed "ultra-red matter" that exists only on about half of all Kuiper belt objects and their immediate progeny, known as centaurs icy planetoids orbiting between Jupiter and Neptune that very recently escaped from the Kuiper belt. This ultra-red matter does not exist in the inner solar system, "not even on the comets which come from the Kuiper belt. This suggests that the ultra-red matter is somehow unstable at the higher temperatures close to the sun," Jewitt explained. The red colors suggest this substance might contain organic molecules. Comets and other planetoids are often thought to have helped bring organic molecules to Earth. "In the Kuiper belt objects, organics might have been 'cooked' by cosmic ray radiation, giving them dark red surfaces, but there is no proof," Jewitt said. Ideally spacecraft could go out there and find out, he added. Has the Kuiper belt shrunk? Theoretical calculations suggest the Kuiper belt was once hundreds or maybe even thousands of times more populated than it is now. "How was 99 percent or 99.9 percent of the mass lost, and when?" Jewitt asked. One conjecture suggests when Saturn and Jupiter shifted their orbits roughly 4 billion years ago, their gravitational pulls slung Kuiper belt objects out of the solar system. Another says the Kuiper belt objects pulverized themselves to dust, which then was swept away by the sun's radiation. Yet another possibility "is that we are missing something crucial and the conclusion that the belt is heavily depleted is wrong," Jewitt said. "All these possibilities are comparably hard to swallow, but would each be amazing, if true." Secrets in the Oort cloud? A distant reservoir of trillions of comets known as the Oort cloud theoretically lies up to 100,000 astronomical units from the sun an astronomical unit or AU being about 93 million miles (150 million kilometers). This means the Oort cloud is a fifth of the way to the nearest star, so far away that objects within it have never been seen directly, only inferred but it must exist, given all the comets seen over the years. The Oort cloud is the conjectured source of comets that require centuries or millennia to complete their long journeys around the sun. Since these "long-period comets" come from all directions, the Oort cloud is often thought to be spherical. However, while comets such as Halley's do not come from the Kuiper belt, their orbits also do not jibe with a spherical Oort cloud, Jewitt explained. This suggests there may be an "inner Oort cloud" shaped kind of like a doughnut. Astrophysicists think the Oort cloud is a remnant of the protoplanetary disk that formed around the sun roughly 4.6 billion years ago. Learning more about the Oort cloud could shed light on how our solar system and Earth were born, Jewitt said. Are there more dwarf planets? So far, three dwarf planets are recognized Ceres, Pluto and Eris. The Kuiper belt, which lies about 50 AU from the sun, could hold some 200 more. Beyond that there could be scores of dwarf-planet-sized bodies beyond roughly 100 AU from the sun "that nobody had seen before due to their faintness and slow motion," said astronomer Chad Trujillo at Gemini Observatory in Hawaii. "Even a body as big as Mars could be missed in our current surveys if it were moved beyond a couple hundred AU."? Trujillo noted projects such as Pan-STARRS (Panoramic Survey Telescope And Rapid Response System) and the LSST (Large Synoptic Survey Telescope) "should fill this gap in our knowledge in the coming decade." Where do the dwarf planets come from? There are theories that the dwarf planets of the outer solar system may have dwelt in the inner solar system billions of years ago, based on their current orbital trajectories. If so, "why are there so many ices on their surfaces?" Trujillo asked. Bodies in the inner solar system are generally expected to lose their ice due to sunlight. Trujillo and his colleagues suspect the ice now seen on these dwarf planets is relatively new, with such replacement ice coming perhaps from within these worlds, erupting out during "cryovolcanism." Of course, further research is needed to see if such ice renewal would be enough to cover the dwarf planet after they voyaged from the inner to the outer solar system, he added. Do cosmic rays come from a bubble around the solar system? When the supersonic wind of charged particles that flows from our sun collides with the thin gas found between the stars, the solar wind essentially blows a bubble in this interstellar medium a ball known as the heliosphere. Scientists have thought unusually weak cosmic rays energetic particles that zip from space at Earth come from the heliosphere. Specifically, these rays are thought to come from the "termination shock" a shock wave of compressed, hot particles that results when the solar wind abruptly brakes against interstellar gas. (The termination shock appears to be about 75 to 85 AU from the sun.) However, Voyager 1 saw no sign these anomalous cosmic rays were produced at the termination shock. "Perhaps it crossed the shock at the wrong time or place," said MIT astrophysicist John Richardson, or perhaps the standard view on how these anomalous cosmic rays are generated is wrong. Voyager 2 crossed the termination shock in 2007 about 10 billion miles away from where Voyager 1 crossed it in 2004, and its data, which is still being analyzed, "may help us understand where these particle are produced," he explained. "Cosmic rays have been reported to affect Earth's weather so understanding their source is important," Richardson added. Moreover, high-energy particles from shock waves triggered by huge eruptions from the sun known as coronal mass ejections can damage spacecraft and astronauts, and better understanding the termination shock could help understand these other, potentially dangerous particles.
Birds in flight often arrange themselves in aerodynamically optimum positions, according to a new paper in the journal Nature that helps to explain how birds fly in such impressive formations. Lead researcher Steven Portugal and his colleagues focused their study on northern bald ibises, but many bird species also exhibit the amazing flight behavior. Portugal, a University of London Royal Veterinary College researcher, told Discovery News that birds could be using three things to achieve their flying precision: "(1) vision – watching the bird in flight to get all the information they need, (2) feathers – sensing the changes in pressure, wind etc. through their flight feathers, and (3) positive feedback – i.e. they just fly around and when it feels easier/better they stay in that position." The researchers determined that birds try to find "good air," meaning airflows (not just wind, but even the air created by other flapping wings) that minimize their energy expenditure and help them to get where they plan to go. Conversely, birds avoid regions of "bad air" that could work against them. Many birds fly in distinctive V-formations. Portugal said, "The intricate mechanisms involved in V formation flight indicate remarkable awareness and ability of birds to respond to the wing path of nearby flock-mates. Birds in V formation seem to have developed complex phasing strategies to cope with the dynamic wakes (turbulent air) produced by flapping wings." Military planes sometimes fly in what is known as an "echelon formation," which mirrors nearly the exact same flight formation of many birds. This particular bird version is a variation of the "V," only with a rounded edge. The U.S. Navy's famous flight demonstration squadron The Blue Angels often flies in a trademark "diamond formation" once popularized by fighter-bomber pilots. In it, the pilots maintain an 18-inch wing tip to canopy separation. Birds can fly even more tightly together. The term "murmuration" refers to a flock of starlings. These birds can create dramatic patterns in the sky, such as this one over marshlands near Tønder, Denmark. Other small birds, such as sandpipers, may also create what look to be dazzling aerial ballets in the sky as they fly en masse. Even birds flying very close to land can do so in remarkable unison. Here, a formation was photographed as the birds flew over the beach at Camperduin in the Netherlands. The classic "V" formation has all sorts of variations. In this case, three separate -- yet united -- groups create an arrow-like effect in the sky. Alfred Hitchcock's classic horror film "The Birds" included many scenes where numerous birds blanketed the sky. Up close, these starlings look small and harmless but, as a huge murmuration, their power becomes evident. From the earliest planes to those in design today, aircraft have been modeled after birds. It's no wonder. Every inch of this sleek northern bald ibis, snapped while flying over Tuscany, adds to the bird's flying prowess. Its 53-inch wingspan and powerful, synchronized wing beats must have captivated people in the ancient world too, since ancient Egyptians and other early cultures featured the birds prominently in their artwork and legends.
- What Did You Learn Activity: When we are at a good stopping place as far as the topic of discussion or what I am lecturing about but there are just three or four minutes left rather than dismissing early I use those extra minutes to go around the room once or twice and have everyone name something they learned that day without repeating something that has already been said. This has proved to be a great way of quickly and easily seeing what people learned or really focused on that day and of realizing how much they really are listening, how alert they are, and how quickly they are processing information. Additionally, having each student say what they learned out-loud to the class has a greater effect than the “one minute paper” because students benefit from what every person learned. This “scaffolding technique” allows each student to learn and actually “know more” from the collective knowledge by hearing all the different statements and voices. - Weekly Responses: Every semester I try new techniques. One of the most successful experiments in the Spring 2016 semester was requiring weekly reflections and replies. The prompt was the same every week and was as follows: How are you doing? What was most interesting, least interesting, new, and/or confusing and why about the topics and readings this past week? What other questions, comments, or ideas do you have? How did you “fail” in some way as far as an idea, question, or thought related to course material? Do you have any interesting pictures, video or music clips, or something else to share that would help our collective understandings? How does this material relate to the emotional demands of college? How does this material inform hopes, fears, and personal and social responsibility, as well as civil engagement in the 2010s, and why? All semester students continued to surprise me with their outstanding and detailed responses. They never simply “copied” another response. They also used the reflections to support and encourage each other! The question about “how did you ‘fail’ in some way” was inspired by this excellent article in Inside Higher Ed. Students regularly discussed what they wanted to do differently. These were mostly graded based on completion but students worked hard and earned high grades on these! - World Map Activity: Powerful discussions always result when I ask students to draw a quick world map. Students make the same mistakes that most maps make. They draw the continents of Africa and South American too small and draw the various continents in the wrong place. We use this to talk about bias, privilege, and perception. - Draw a Typical [fill in the blank] Activity: This activity started in my Texas History class. I adapted the activity after hearing about it from someone who heard about it from someone else! When drawing the “typical Texan,” my students–regardless of sex–draw a man with some combination of cowboy boots, a cowboy hat, a truck, a gun, etc. Everything that is stereotypically Texan. I then ask: women aren’t Texans? lawyers aren’t Texans? etc. This activity could be used in any class. Ask students to draw a typical United Statesian, a typical scientist, a typical mathematician, and so on. Today I came across this awesome video that does the same thing with a group of children! Check out the results. 🙂 - Deconstructing Textbooks Activity: For some of the classes I teach, especially Texas History and Mexican American History, I really like to use a textbook because there is so much students don’t already have some prior knowledge of. Because I want students to realize that textbooks are far from comprehensive and have agendas of their own, we take time during the first or second week to quickly skim through the entire book and make lists of topics the book does and does not cover. I also regularly remind students when we discuss events in class that there are hundreds of others we could discuss and that we could spend weeks on any given topic. Andrew Joseph Pegoda
Self-Determination Theory and Human Motivation Self-determination theory (SDT) is often part of the diplomatic and political context that describes the process that a country undergoes in order to ascertain its independence. However, self-determination also has a much more personal and relevant meaning in psychology: it’s the process of making one’s own decisions and controlling one’s own life. In fact, self-determination is a vital part of psychological well-being. Self-determination theory suggests that people’s motivation to grow and change stems from purely innate psychological needs. Furthermore, this theory identifies three innate and universal psychological needs: Also, intrinsic motivation plays an important role in this theory. The Meaning of Self-Determination Theory Self-determination theory links personality, human motivation, and optimal functioning. It suggests that there are two main types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic and that they both greatly influence who we are and how we behave. This theory emerged from Edward L. Deci and Richard Ryan’s motivation research in the 70s and 80s. Even though the theory grew considerably, its basic principles stem from the book the aforementioned published in 1985 on this subject. Self-determination theory assumes that people’s activities are always directed towards growth. Mastering challenges and assimilating new experiences is essential to building a sense of self. In this regard, Deci and Ryan’s theory suggests that people’s actions are always motivated by their need to grow and get satisfaction. People act due to a promise of external rewards, such as money, prizes, or social recognition (extrinsic motivation). However, self-determination theory focuses mainly on internal sources of motivation, such as the need to acquire knowledge or independence (intrinsic motivation). According to self-determination theory, people need to feel the following in order to achieve psychological growth: - Competence. People need to master tasks and learn different skills. - Relatedness. People need to experience a sense of belonging and attachment to other people or groups. - Autonomy. People need to feel that they control their behavior and are in charge of their goals. Deci and Ryan suggested that when people experience those three things, they become self-determined. Furthermore, they feel intrinsically motivated to seek out that which interests them. It’s important to keep in mind that the psychological growth described by self-determination theory doesn’t happen automatically. Still, people are oriented towards growth and it requires continuous sustenance. According to Deci and Ryan, social support is key. Through our relationships and interactions with others, we can either encourage or impair well-being and personal growth. Motivation and Self-Determination According to Deci and Ryan, extrinsic motivation sprouts from an interest in external stimuli. Common sources include rating systems, employee evaluations, awards and compliments, and the respect and/or admiration of others. On the other hand, intrinsic motivation comes from within and is closely associated with the task itself. There are internal impulses that motivate you to behave in certain ways, including your core values, interests, and personal sense of morality. It may seem that intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation are opposite concepts. However, with an intrinsic-driving behavior that’s consistent with your own ideal and the extrinsic side that leads you to conform to the standards of others. Then, there’s another important distinction that serves to differentiate motivations. Autonomous vs. Controlled Motivation That’s why self-determination theory makes a distinction between autonomous motivation and controlled motivation: - Autonomous motivation comes from internal sources but it also includes the motivation of extrinsic sources if the individual identifies with the value of activity and thinks it’s aligned or coherent with the image they want to project. - Controlled motivation consists of external regulation and introjected regulation. External regulation is a type of motivation in which the individual’s behavior is directed by external rewards and punishments. Introjected regulation is a motivation that stems from partially internalized activities, values, and reasons such as avoiding shame, seeking approval, and protecting the ego. According to self-determination theory, when an individual is driven by autonomous motivation, they’ll feel self-directed and autonomous. And when the individual is driven by controlled motivation, then they’d feel pressured to behave in a certain way and experience little to no autonomy.It might interest you...
Lesson One: Introduction to Digital and Physical Archives - Before Teaching - Lesson Plan - Activities, Materials & Presentations - Curriculum Standards - Download Lesson Plan [PDF format] - Introduction to Digital and Physical Archives: Distance Learning Video Archives are facilities that house physical collections, where records and materials are organized and protected. Archival materials are used to write history. Through the internet, digital archives make those records more accessible to students, researchers, and the general public. Students learn to navigate a digital archive by browsing and performing effective keyword searches. Through this process, students learn how to use the Helen Keller Archive. They also learn the value of preserving information. - Understand the function and significance of an archive. - Describe the different capabilities of a physical and a digital archive. - Know more about how archives can increase accessibility for people with visual and/or hearing impairments. - Navigate the digital Helen Keller Archive using the Search and Browse tools. - What is an archive? - How do I use a digital archive? - Why are archives important? - Computer, laptop, or tablet - Internet connection - Projector or Smartboard (if available) - Worksheets (provided, print for students) - Helen Keller Archive: https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive - American Foundation for the Blind: http://www.afb.org The Library of Congress images below can be used to illustrate and explain the Define an archive section of this lesson. Library of Congress: The Library of Congress Manuscript Reading Room Courtesy of the LOC Manuscript Division. The digital Helen Keller Archive homepage. Other Digital Archive Examples - Sports: Baseball Hall of Fame; primarily physical archive with partial photographic digital collection (https://baseballhall.org/about-the-hall/477) (https://collection.baseballhall.org) - Politics: United Nations; primarily physical archive with online exhibits (https://archives.un.org/content/about-archives) (https://archives.un.org/content/exhibits - Comics: Stan Lee Archives (https://rmoa.unm.edu/docviewer.php?docId=wyu-ah08302.xml) - History: Buffalo Bill Collection (https://digitalcollections.uwyo.edu/luna/servlet/uwydbuwy~60~60) - Dogs: American Kennel Club; primarily physical archive with partial digital collection (https://www.akc.org/about/archive/) (https://www.akc.org/about/archive/digital-collections/) - Art: Metropolitan Museum of Art Archives; physical archive with separate digital collections and library (https://www.metmuseum.org/art/libraries-and-research-centers/museum-archives) - Travel: National Geographic Society Museum and Archives (https://nglibrary.ngs.org/public_home) - National Geographic digital exhibits (https://openexplorer.nationalgeographic.com/ng-library-archives) - Space travel: NASA Archive; partially digitized (https://www.archives.gov/space) - Music: Blues Archive; partially digitized (http://guides.lib.olemiss.edu/blues) - Books: J.R.R.Tolkien; physical archive (https://www.marquette.edu/library/archives/tolkien.php) Ask and Discuss - Do you have a collection? Baseball cards, rocks, seashells, gel pens, shoes, vacation souvenirs? - Do you and/or your parents save your schoolwork or art projects? - Where and how do you store old photos? Text messages? - Personal collections are a kind of archive. - Things that you store and organize (to look at later) make up a basic archive. - If you wrote a guide for your friend to use when searching through your [vacation photos/baseball cards/drafts of your papers], you would be running an archive like the pros! - Optional: Select a sample archive to show students; options provided in resource section. Define an Archive - Optional: Use the definitions provided in the lesson definitions. - To be an archive, a collection must be: - Composed of unique documents, objects, and other artifacts; and - Organized to make sense of a collection so that people can find what they are looking for. - An archive is sometimes also: - Organized by an institution, managed by archivists, and made available to researchers. - Tells us about a person, organization, or physical things. - Typically held and protected in a physical repository, but may be made accessible electronically in a digital platform. What are the advantages of a physical archive, where you can have the materials right in front of you, versus seeing them on a screen? - Hands-on encounter with the past. For example, how would it feel to see/read from the original Declaration of Independence at the National Archives? - Analyze material properties of objects and manuscripts. - Wider range of access to all the items held in the archive (not all items are digitized). - Can flip through a physical folder rather than load a new page for every document. - What do you think is “easier”? - Have any students experienced something like this? What are the advantages of a digital archive, where you can have the materials available to you in digital format, on a website? - Accessible worldwide on the internet—you don’t have to travel to see what’s in the archive. - Keyword searchable. - Useful information in the format of transcriptions and metadata often included. - Accessible to people with disabilities, including those with impaired vision/hearing. - For example, the digital Helen Keller Archive allows users to change the text size and color of text and provides description for multimedia including photographs, film, and audio. Who is Archiving Information About You Right Now? - How is the public able to access that information now? In the future? - Is there information you would not want them to access now? In the future? Why? Using the Helen Keller Archive Open the digital Helen Keller Archive: https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive Note: The digital Helen Keller Archive team strongly recommends that this or similar demonstration be included in the lesson, unless the teacher has formally taught these students browse and search techniques. We find that students are used to “Google” style searches, which are not as effective on specialized sites like digital archives. We are going to use the digital Helen Keller Archive. Who has heard of Helen Keller? Why is she famous? What did she do? - Keller lost her sight and hearing at a young age but learned to sign, read, write, speak, and graduated college. - She used her fame to advocate on behalf of blind and deaf communities, fought for education/employment for blind people and the inclusion of people with disabilities in society. - She was politically active: Anti-war, advocated for socialism and workers’ rights, as well as the suffrage movement and women’s rights. - Distribute student version of How to Search [download PDF] and How to Browse [download PDF] and explain that you will be going through a few sample searches as a class. Invite the class to follow along if feasible. - Pull up the Helen Keller Archive home page and ask the class to explain the difference between search and browse. For example: - The Browse tool follows the structure and order of the physical collection. Browse is the best way to see how an archive is organized and what it contains. - The Search tool uses a keyword search term or terms. Search is the best way to find a specific item. Show the Browse Function - Click the Browse tab. - Click Browse by Series; point out the series titles and ask students to explain what each “series” contains. - In this archive, series are organized based on the type of materials (letters, photographs, and more). - Explain that this is how a physical archive is organized (in series, subseries, boxes, and folders). - Browse for a type of item. Guide students through the choices they have at each level. - For example: “Browse the photographs in this archive. This series is divided into photographs and photo albums. Let’s explore the photographs. How are these organized? It looks like they are organized alphabetically by subject matter. Wow, there are two folders here just for Helen Keller’s dogs! Let’s take a peek.” - Optional: Ask students to browse for “boomerang given to Helen in Australia”. Show the Search Function - Click the Simple Search tab. - Ask the class to pick a word to search based on either their knowledge of Helen Keller or class curriculum on late 19th/early 20th century. - For example: Let’s search for documents related to the women’s suffrage movement. The best way to start a keyword search is with a simple keyword. Let’s use “suffrage.” - Point out the filters in the left hand column and explain how they are used narrow search results. Ask students to choose one area to refine search to narrow their results for a specific reason. - For example: “Let’s select 1910-1920 so we can find material written before the 19th Amendment was passed.” - Works like a library or e-commerce website. - Optional: Ask students to search for a speech given by Helen Keller while she was traveling abroad. She gave many – they can choose any one. Brainstorm effective search terms and ways they might refine their results, and warn students it will take more than one step to find a speech that qualifies. - Show the Browse by subject functions and ask how they are similar to, or different from, searching by Keyword(s). - Use same topic as keyword search (or as close as possible). For example: Can you find “suffrage” in this subject list? - Explain that not all topics will be present. For example, there is no subject header for “computers”. - Break students into working groups. - Assign each group a “scavenger hunt” item (see in class worksheet). - Optional: Collect scavenger hunt items in a private list to be shared with the whole class. Sample Scavenger Hunt List - Flyer for a 1981 dance production “Two In One” - Film of Helen Keller testing a new communication device in 1953 - Medal from the Lebanese government - Photograph of Helen Keller at a United Nations meeting in 1949 - Or choose your own … Activities, Materials & Presentations Activities & Presentations for Teachers Activities for Students - Exploring the Digital Helen Keller Archive [PDF format] - Exploring the Digital Helen Keller Archive – The Needle in the Haystack [PDF format] Materials (Students & Teachers) - Definitions: [PDF format] - Frequently Asked Questions [PDF format] - How to Search [PDF format] - How to Browse [PDF format] This Lesson Meets the Following Curriculum Standards: Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using different mediums (e.g., print or digital text, video, multimedia) to present a particular topic or idea. Conduct short research projects to answer a question, drawing on several sources and generating additional related, focused questions for further research and investigation. Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, using search terms effectively; assess the credibility and accuracy of each source; and quote or paraphrase the data and conclusions of others while avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation. Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, including visually and quantitatively, as well as in words. Empire State Information Fluency Continuum - Uses organizational systems and electronic search strategies (keywords, subject headings) to locate appropriate resources. - Participates in supervised use of search engines and pre-selected web resources to access appropriate information for research. - Uses the structure and navigation tools of a website to find the most relevant information.
Web scraping (web harvesting or web data extraction) is a computer software technique of extracting information from websites. Usually, such software programs simulate human exploration of the World Wide Web by either implementing low-level Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), or embedding a fully-fledged web browser, such as Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox. Web scraping is closely related to web indexing, which indexes information on the web using a bot or web crawler and is a universal technique adopted by most search engines. In contrast, web scraping focuses more on the transformation of unstructured data on the web, typically in HTML format, into structured data that can be stored and analyzed in a central local database or spreadsheet. Web scraping is also related to web automation, which simulates human browsing using computer software. Uses of web scraping include online price comparison, contact scraping, weather data monitoring, website change detection, research, web mashup and web data integration.
Scientists at the University of Geneva have uncovered significant knowledge on the origins of copper deposit formation and finding new copper deposits. Copper is amongst the most utilised metals on the planet due to its impressive electrical and thermal conduction properties. The largest natural resources of copper are known as ‘porphyry’ deposits that originate from magmas deep in the Earth. In a novel study, researchers from the University of Geneva (UNIGE) reveal that these porphyry deposits are predominantly created by mechanisms comparable to those that trigger large volcanic eruptions. This research is being carried out during an imperative time as this metal plays a significant role in the green energy transition, and current copper resources are declining. Therefore, this breakthrough opens important avenues for the advancement of novel tools to find new deposits. The UNIGE team’s research findings have been published in the Communications Earth and Environment journal. The need for new copper deposits Copper is an incredibly versatile resource; it is an exceptional conductor and is very resistant to corrosion, meaning it is utilised in to manufacture a wide range of wires and electrical connectors. As well as this, it is used in the production of alloys, like bronze and brass. Moreover, copper is highly regarded as a vital metal for the green energy transition. Particularly, it is widely used in the manufacturing of electric vehicles (EVs), and with the increasing demand for EVs, the demand for copper is anticipated to exceed the current supply within the next three decades. This means that finding new copper deposits and learning more about deposit formation is vital going forward. This research, led by Massimo Chiaradia, a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the UNIGE Faculty of Science, has led to an essential breakthrough. It emphasises that porphyry deposits result from mechanisms comparable to those that cause large volcanic eruptions. “We have discovered that large reserves of copper are born of failed eruptions,” explained researchers. Understanding deposit formation Copper forms from hot fluids – largely comprised of water – which is released by cooling magmas. These magmas, which are the basis of eruptions, originate from the layer of Earth between the core and the crust, called the mantle. Magmas then rise to the Earth’s surface where they develop into what is known as a ‘magma chamber.’ This chamber is typically situated between 5km and 15km in depth. “If the volume and speed of magma injection into this reservoir is very large, a large quantity of fluids can be emitted catastrophically into the atmosphere with the magma during a volcanic eruption,” said Chiaradia. However, these fluids can also emerge under the Earth’s surface and give rise to a porphyry copper deposit at a depth ranging between 1km and 6km. It is also significant to point out that this phenomenon is much less recurrent, which somewhat illuminates the rarity of copper deposits. “It takes tens to hundreds of thousands of years for a copper deposit to form, whereas volcanic eruptions are more frequent. A failed eruption depends on the combination of several parameters: the speed of magma injection, the speed of its cooling, and the rigidity of the Earth’s crust that surrounds the magma chamber. The latter must be flexible to absorb the pressure exerted by the new magma arrivals, so that the eruption does not take place,” added Luca Caricchi, second author and Associate Professor at the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences. Towards deposit exploration “The discovery of similarities between large eruptions and deposits will make it possible to use a large amount of knowledge acquired by vulcanologists to advance our understanding of the formation of porphyry deposits,” commented Chiaradia. In order to achieve their results, the UNIGE team utilised data and figures supplied by mining companies as well as data accumulated in the field and the laboratory by various researchers. This was then combined with petrological and geochemical models. The team’s exciting findings open novel opportunities for the development of geological, mineralogical, and geochemical tools for future successful exploration of the largest porphyry copper deposits on Earth. “The next step will be to work on a model that will help us to quantify the total copper content and therefore the quality of a potentially exploitable deposit as accurately as possible,” concluded Chiaradia.
Management of Chronic Cough—Naturopathic Perspectives A cough is one of the most common reasons people visit their doctor. Coughs are annoying, they’re loud and can disrupt sleep for an entire household. With most viral infections, a cough can stick around up to 2 weeks after the infection has cleared. But when a cough lasts longer than 8 weeks, it warrants further investigation. What Is a Cough? A cough is an irritation that triggers a pulmonary reflex. The irritant stimulates receptors in the throat or airways. This signals a nerve to send a message to the brain. The brain then contracts all the muscles in the chest and abdomen to forcefully push air out of the lungs (and, hopefully, the irritant too!). The irritant could be a microorganism like a bacteria or virus, dust particle, or simply mucous dripping from the nasal cavity above. Anything that is not supposed to be there will trigger some kind of immune response. Our immune systems are truly amazing. They can produce excessive mucous to trap foreign bacteria. They can create a forceful sneeze to expel mucous and dust particles that could be potentially dangerous to us. Immune systems raise body temperature to create a difficult environment for microbes to live in. They are highly successful in keeping us alive—but in doing all of this, they can make us feel awful. Very rarely is a cough just a cough acting alone. Most people who come to the doctor with a cough will have multiple issues going on. The most common reasons for chronic cough include the following. 1. Postnasal Drip (Upper Airway Cough Syndrome) The term “postnasal drip” only refers to the production of mucous in the nasal cavity that spills over into the oropharyngeal (back of the mouth and throat) and lower airways. This definition does not tell us why the mucous is there in the first place. Chronic rhinitis or nasal inflammation from allergies are usually the most common triggers. Seasonal allergies may create nasal itching for a few months, but environmental allergies can continue year-round. These can include allergens like dust, mold, and pet dander. Doing a skin-prick allergy test can raise awareness as to the allergens to avoid, but of course, progress comes with complete avoidance of these triggers. Asthma is one of the most common causes of chronic cough among nonsmokers. There are the “classic” and “typical” forms of asthma that present with difficulty breathing, wheezing, and chest pain. In this form, a cough signals the onset of an asthma attack or event. However, there is a whole other category of “cough-variant asthma,” which includes a cough outside of asthmatic events. It is thought that in individuals with cough-variant asthma, one of the triggers is more consistently present in a smaller quantity. This could be an environmental trigger as mentioned above. This causes airway hyperresponsiveness or slight narrowing of the airways, which means the irritant receptors are poised and ready to signal the cough reflex to the brain. The entire immune system remains on edge, and every little trigger will initiate a cough. It is important to note that this subtype of asthma does not present with a wheeze or difficulty breathing. The cough can present at any time of the day but is most noticeable at night. It is sometimes alleviated with puffers and bronchodilators, but as long as the immune system remains on edge, the cough will persist. 3. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) GERD on its own can cause a cough. GERD in combination with asthma and/or postnasal drip will drastically increase the intensity of the cough and make treatment a little more challenging. In GERD, there is failure in the signalling of the digestive tract to close the lower esophageal sphincter (doorway to the stomach from the esophagus). Acid from the stomach splashes back into the esophagus and can travel all the way into the mouth. This can present as heartburn or be completely asymptomatic until it reaches the mouth. Acid is corrosive and can damage our tissues, which is why we have a thick layer of mucous around the inside of our stomachs. But when acid travels into the esophagus, we feel the burning because we don’t have that same layer of mucous to protect us. Over time, our bodies will learn to produce mucous in the esophagus, which we can even feel as a lump at the back of the throat. We may feel like we constantly have to clear our throats and our voices may get hoarse or raspy. This excessive mucous can act as an irritant that initiates the cough reflex. Depending on the foods we eat, when we eat them, and how much we eat of them, we may notice this GERD cough all day and all night. Evaluation of Chronic Cough As naturopathic doctors, we know that assessment of a health concern involves evaluating the whole person. A chest X-ray will help to eliminate the large worrisome diagnoses, so it is not a bad place to start. This is especially true if the person is a smoker, has a family history of lung disease, or has unexplained and significant weight loss in a short period of time. Assess Smoking History and Second-Hand Smoke Exposure. This one may seem like a no-brainer, but second-hand smoke exposure can be just as severe in certain individuals. The lungs are able to repair slowly when the exposure is eliminated, but there will always be a little bit of scarring. Take Note of All Their Medications. ACE inhibitors are a class of blood-pressure medication that are known to cause a dry cough days or even months after beginning the drugs. Even once the drugs are discontinued, the ACE inhibitor cough can continue up to four weeks later. Ask About Environmental and Workplace Exposures. Many of us spend more time at work than we do at home. Our workplaces can be dusty and moldy, have poor air circulation, or be excessively dry. All these factors can trigger a chronic cough in any individual, especially if you are there for more than five hours of the day. Coal miners, construction workers, and anyone working around fine dust particles is subject to chronic inhalation and at high risk of developing a chronic cough. Look at What Works and What Doesn’t. If you’ve been taking antihistamines like Reactine and have not noticed a difference, it is unlikely to be an allergic pathway. In this case, asthma and GERD may be more likely. If GERD is suspected, treatment with diet changes and/or reflux medication should eliminate the cough. How to Manage Chronic Cough Dietary Assessment. Changes in diet and elimination of food sensitivities will be the most noticeable with GERD and postnasal drip. Spicy foods are known triggers of acid reflux and should be avoided late at night and in large quantities. Sugar and dairy are among the top mucous-producing agents and can aggravate an already-aggravated immune system. This is especially true during allergy season, when the immune system is already fighting environmental triggers. The addition of sugar and dairy at this time can send the immune system over its threshold and create very obvious allergy symptoms. Magnesium Bisglycinate. This is one of my top nutrients for immune and allergic presentations. Magnesium is a very calming micronutrient. It relaxes the airways, lowers a heightened neurological response, and reduces immune overactivity. This is great for both asthma and postnasal drip presentations. N-Acetylcysteine. Known as a precursor for the powerful antioxidant glutathione, N-acetylcysteine is known to help relax the airways and reduce wheezing. This is especially true for asthma of any kind and can be taken all year round. Humidifiers and Essential Oils. A dry house, workplace, or bedroom can be an immediate trigger for a cough. Depending on the ventilation of the building, heating and air conditioning units can take a significant amount of humidity out of the room. If you don’t have a humidifier, try hanging a wet towel around your bedroom. If the towel is perfectly dry when you wake in the morning, you know you need to add more humidity. Boil a pot of water on the stove and leave it on a coaster by your bedside. Add 1–2 drops of eucalyptus or lavender into the steaming water for added benefit. Chronic coughs can have a significant impact on your activities of daily living. They can interrupt your sleep, your exercise, and even your productivity at work. A thorough investigation of the whole body can help identify the source and its triggers. - Sivaraman, P., and D. Gianakos. “The 15-minute visit: Chronic cough.” Modern Medicine. April 1 2006. - Mayo Clinic. Cough. https://www.mayoclinic.org/symptoms/cough/basics/definition/sym-20050846 · 2019-06-21. - Cunha, J. “Chronic rhinitis and post-nasal drip.” MedicineNet. · https://www.medicinenet.com/chronic_rhinitis/article.htm · Reviewed 2019-09-09. - Dicpinigaitis, P. “Chronic cough due to asthma.” Chest Journal, Vol. 129, No. 1 (2006): 75S–79S. - Niimi, A. “Cough and asthma.” Current respiratory medicine reviews, Vol. 7, No. 1 (2011): 47–54.
How Do LED Lights Work? It’s really simple actually, and very cheap to produce, which is why there was so much excitement when LED lights were first invented! The Technical Details: LEDs are composed of two types of semiconducting material (a p-type and an n-type). Both the p-type and n-type materials, also called astringent materials, have been doped (dipped into a substance called a “doping agent”) so as to slightly alter their electrical properties from their pure, unaltered, or “intrinsic” form (i-type). The p-type and n-type materials are created by introducing the original material to atoms of another element. These new atoms replace some of the previously existing atoms and in so doing, alter the physical and chemical structure. The p-type materials are created using elements (such as boron) that have less valence electrons than the intrinsic material (oftentimes silicon). The n-type materials are created using elements (such as phosphorus) that have more valence electrons that the intrinsic material (oftentimes silicon). The net effect is the creation of a p-n junction with interesting and useful properties for electronic applications. What those properties are exactly depends mostly on the external voltage applied to the circuit (if any) and the direction of current (i.e. which side, the p-type or the n-type, is connected to the positive terminal and which is connected to the negative terminal).
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning, Prevention Guidance Carbon monoxide (CO), an odorless, colorless gas, which can cause sudden illness and death, is produced any time a fossil fuel is burned. CDC works with national, state, local, and other partners to raise awareness about CO poisoning and to monitor CO-related illness and death in the U.S. For more information follow this link to the CDC – Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. You Can Prevent Carbon Monoxide Exposure - Do have your heating system, water heater and any other gas, oil, or coal burning appliances serviced by a qualified technician every year. - Do install a battery-operated or battery back-up CO detector in your home and check or replace the battery when you change the time on your clocks each spring and fall. If the detector sounds leave your home immediately and call 911. - Do seek prompt medical attention if you suspect CO poisoning and are feeling dizzy, light-headed, or nauseous. - Don’t use a generator, charcoal grill, camp stove, or other gasoline or charcoal-burning device inside your home, basement, or garage or near a window. - Don’t run a car or truck inside a garage attached to your house, even if you leave the door open. - Don’t burn anything in a stove or fireplace that isn’t vented. - Don’t heat your house with a gas oven.
Literally! Idiom Pictionary / Charades Developed by Alice Briney-Rockswold, PCM Play Practicum 2022 (FOCUS: 3-5, ELA, Literal vs. Figurative Language) Introduction: Help students make heads or tails of commonly used English idioms. Materials to gather - Chart paper - OPTIONAL: Made or found props (see extension). Select a few common idioms that can be used as introductory examples for the lesson. Give a mini lesson on literal and figurative language. Explain that an idiom is a saying or expression in English that has a meaning beyond the actual words. Present a few examples such as, “raining cats and dogs,” “Hit the hay,” “Feeling blue.” Choose an idiom and model illustrating an example of both the literal and figurative meaning of an idiom. Think aloud as you draw. Use a T Chart labeled “Literal” and “”Figurative.” Make sure to pre-teach any unfamiliar vocabulary related to the idioms you selected for this activity. Invite students to share examples of idioms from their culture or native language with the class. Determine student pairs. If working with multilingual learners, pair newcomer students with a peer language model. Assign idioms to each pair. It is important that idiom assignments are kept private. Students should not know what idiom other pairs are working on. First, students work together to sketch the literal meaning of the idiom they were given in the first column of their t-chart. These drawings are based on the words alone. Next, pairs research the actual (figurative) meaning. Allow use of an idiom website. Once students have sketched both the literal and figurative interpretation of their idiom, allow pairs in turns to sketch their drafts on chart paper. The paper should be large enough for the whole class to see clearly. Other students must guess the idiom they have based on their drawing. Act it out. In the same pairs, students work together to create two short skits. In the first skit, students’ job is to communicate the literal meaning of their idiom. In the second skit, their job is to communicate the figurative or intended meaning. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, distinguishing literal from nonliteral language. Distinguish the literal and nonliteral meanings of words and phrases in context (e.g., take steps). Connections to a larger unit or previous work? This activity should be used after students have been introduced to the meaning of the words “literal” and “figurative.” Prepare/ Background Info When selecting an idiom to use in the activity’s introduction, select one that connects to students’ personal experiences. Provide meaningful examples of how it is used in context (i.e.model a sample conversation around it). Effective Facilitation Strategies While students are drafting their sketches or skits, circulate to clarify misconceptions. After the lesson, create a class list of favorite idioms that students can add to throughout the year. Play to Notice (Learning Framework) Encourage students to find joy and humor in the process of learning these challenging English phrases. Content Matter to Notice Reinforce the difference between literal vs figurative language as students work. Remember that idioms can be a challenging concept for ELLs. Reinforce the use of academic vocabulary and provide sentence frames to guide discussion. “This idiom sounds like it means ________. This idiom really means _______.” Push students to use their idioms in meaningful sentences and provide short definitions of their actual meanings. SEL to Notice Pay attention to students’ ability to communicate effectively with one another to negotiate meaning of their assigned idiom and co-construct a sketch or skit.
The racial and ethnic groups of the American people has been dynamic over time. It is known that new immigrants from Latin America and Asia have contributed to the large measure of the phenotypic and cultural diversity to the population of America in the recent past. Furthermore, boundaries between the ethnic and racial groups have become intensified because of the large rates due to intermarriages and the high number of those with diverse and mixed ancestry. Research shows that the ethnic racial differences in the mortality and the morbidity are attributed to the socioeconomic resources. The course of American ethnic and racial politics over some years have been known to depend majorly on the African-American community and other racial groups living in America (Telles 45). For many years, the black Americans have been regarded as a minority group in the American society. The issue has been considered as a complex issue and brings about the ethnicity-related policy that impacts on the African-American politics. In the recent past, it has been seen that there is affluent African American greater mistrust of the white society. Some of the blacks have been arguing that the whites are investigating the black elected Americans so as to discredit them because of their minority in the elective positions. Accordingly, the majority minority group issue has been influencing the wellbeing of the American society. In the United States of America, the ethnic and racial classes are categorized into Hispanic or Latino origin, the White Americans, the Black and African Americans, the Asian Americans and also the Native Americans and Alaska Natives. Furthermore, the other ethnic groups are the Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders and the Middle Easterners and North Africans as well. These ethnic classes have been undermining the economic wellbeing of the U.S. Racial discrimination is believed to have originated due to the classification of Americans into the majority and minority groups in terms of ethnic and racial aspects. Historically, racial and ethnic groups have been affecting the economic wellbeing of the American society. White Americans are considered to the racial majority in the United States of America. On the other hand, African-Americans are considered to be the largest racial minority in the country. The African Americans amount to 13.2% of the total American population. Additionally, the Hispanic and Latino Americans make up to 17% of the total population in the country (Yetman 17). Both the Hispanic and Latino Americans are considered the largest ethnic minority in America. Research shows that in every region, the White Americans are the majority except in the Hawaii where their number is small. However, in the Midwest United States, the white Americans stand at 85% of the total population according to the American Community Survey. Additionally, the Non-Hispanic Whites comprise 79% of the total population, and this has been considered as the highest ratio in the region (Yetman 25). Additionally, in the South America, the whites comprise of up to 35%, and this accordingly influences the decision making is such regions. Research shows that in the United States of America, since the early history, Africans, Native Americans, and Europeans are considered to be of different races. For several years, the grouping of such races has been based on the person's appearance, a social circle which includes how they live and also the known ancestry to such groups (Telles 87). History has been used as an important tool especially during the slavery period as it determines those who could work in the plantation farms. Ethnic groups and social groups in America has influenced the political and economic status of the country. Historically, the race has been used to determine the ruling class. For many years, the black Americans have not been given a chance to rule, but the whites have been the dominant ruling class in the country. However, in the 19th century a person of mixed Euro-Amerindian was only considered to rule and given the right but a person of pure black original especially an African origin could not be considered the potential for ruling the country. The rule was however broken when the Obama a black American became the first black American president in the United States of America. Initially, the whites have been mistreating the black Americans as they were considered minority regarding ruling the country (Yetman 76). Furthermore, in healthcare, the racial and ethnic groups disparities have also contributed to the discrimination cases on the American healthcare system. Research shows that healthcare professionals, policy makers and researchers in the American healthcare system have been advocating for the removal of discrimination which is usually based on the racial and ethnic groups. The scholars have also been believing that sometimes access to healthcare services is the centerpiece and this explains the inequalities which are found in the healthcare system of America. With regards to the recruiting of the healthcare workers, the American healthcare system has been recruiting professionals majorly from the American whites (Telles 94). Many scholars have undertaken their research to explain the inequalities found in the healthcare system. Research shows that there is high awareness among the scholars regarding the disparities in the healthcare system in the United States of America and it is thus important country to understand them to ensure that equality in the healthcare is addressed. Furthermore, research has also shown that ethnic minority patients in most hospitals in the United States of America are often cared for by health professionals who are considered to have poorer indicators of technical quality. The quality of such physicians is low because of the lower procedure volume rates that can be followed by the higher-risk-adjusted rates of mortality. Additionally, it has also been shown that when a physician from majority ethnic group serves a patient from a minority group, he or she will tend to have poor communication with the patient. Research also shows that ethnic minority patients are considered to be patients with poor health status and thus are rarely served by a physician from the ethnic majority group. Additionally, there has been reports showing inefficient interpersonal communications from the physicians who come from the ethnic minority group and serves a patient from an ethnic minority group. It is thus important for the government to ensure the elimination of ethnic and racial disparities to make sure that there is quality in the healthcare system (Yetman 58). The strategies that can be used to eliminate such cases include the removal of the stigma that physicians from ethnic majority groups are much better than the physicians from the minority groups. What is more, the labor market has also been affected by the ethnicity and racial disparities in the United States of America. According to the constitution, the job market should be "race blind, " but key indicators shows that the workplace in the country has been faced with racial and ethnicity since time immemorial. Research shows that ethnicity and race play a critical role in determining the career opportunities and job placement. The problem of ethnicity and racial discrimination has been witnessed by those looking for job placement in the United States of America. In most cases, those from the ethnic majority groups secure the jobs while those from the ethnic minority groups find it hard to secure the jobs. Research also shows that whether a person is looking for employment or considering a new line of work, ethnicity and race are used for considering those who are to get the jobs. Even though there have social policies trying to address the same, there still exist ethnicity and racial disparities in different parts of the United States of America. On the other hand, the employees from ethnic minority group have been receiving low salary compared to their counterparts from the ethnic majority groups. American education system has also been impacted by the ethnicity and racial disparities. According to the education act, education should be equal to all the ethnic and racial groups found in the country. However, whenever the ethnicity and racial factors are used as discrimination factor in the education sector, the quality of education in the country goes down. For example, research shows that in the United States students have been admitted to various schools based on the ethnicity and racial factors. Children from ethnic majority groups have been getting places from well-established and equipped schools. Those from the ethnic minority groups are given limited access to schools which are considered to be providing high-quality education. Additionally, the schools have also been employing teachers on the discrimination basis. The teachers from groups which are considered minor in the societies are discriminated when it comes to employment opportunities (Yetman 133). Even when the teachers from ethnic minority and ethnic majority groups have equality of opportunity, the ones from the ethnic majority are given priority. The ethnic and racial disparities in the education sector have been affecting the quality of education in America for quite a length of time. However, stakeholders have been coming up with policies to address to ethnicity and racial discrimination in the American education system. In my opinion, the ethnic and racial groups adversely affect the progress of the United States of America. Because many sectors discriminate other disadvantaged groups such groups might fill undermined, depressed and thus might not be in the position to take part actively in the economic building of the nation. Racial and ethnic classes adversely impact the society and it is important to establish policies that prevent such happenings and ensure equality in all the sectors of economy. Telles, Edward E. Pigmentocracies: Ethnicity, Race, and Color in Latin America. 2014. Yetman, Norman R. Majority and Minority: The Dynamics of Race and Ethnicity in American Life. Allyn and Bacon, 1999. 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- In the parallelogram OAB, A is (-1,7) and C is (-3, -3) . Find the coordinates of B. - In the parallelogram OPQR, P is (5, 8) and Q is (7, 4) Find the coordinates of R. In the figure, x divide OA in the ratio 2: 1, y is the mid point of OB. If OXYP is parallelogram, - The column vector for XY - The coordinates of P - P is (-9, 3) and Q is (5, 10) S and 7 . Find the column vector for PS. Hence find the coordinates of S. - OCDE is a parallelogram. C is (7,6) and D is (16, 8). - find the coordinates of E - calculate the lengths and . - What can you deduce about OCDE? A VIDEO EXPLAINING ABOUT VECTORS - The origin , for the porposes of this question, is at the tip of my nose. Afly is sitting there and when I brush it away its motion is given by the vectors; Where is the fly . After these four moves , assuming that I still? - How far from the origin are the points A(3,4,12) and B (-1,-4,8) AB and C colline or if they lie on the same straight line. AB Parallel BC But AB and BC share the common point B there fore A, B and C are collinear. - A (2,-2) ,B is (8,10) and C is (12, 18) - Find the colunm vectors for AB and BC - Using column vectors, show that OMQN is parallelgram. - A quadrilatral has vertices D(-1, -2) E(-3, 2) F(3, 4) and G(5, -2). - P, Q, R and S are mid points of , , A VIDEO ABOUT VECTORS What are their coordinates? - What is the relation between the diagonals of the quadrilaterals and the sides of the parallelogram. In the figure , εC=C and Dε=D,εB=Dε andAε=2εC By expressing AB and DC in terms of C and D, show that AB and DC are pallel. AB = Aϵ + ϵB What is the relation between the lengths (AB) ̅ and (DC) ̅? In the figure S, Y and Z are oints of the sides of the triangle PQR and PZ = Z and YP = Y. - Show that corresponding sides of he triangle PZY, ZOX and YXP represent equal vectors. Are the riangle congruent. - The diagram below shows a quadrilateral OSRQ . OS = q , OP = p and SX = K (SP) - Express vectors SP and OX interms of P, Q and K. - In figure above OA = a, OB = b, F nad G are points on AC such that AF : AB = 3:4 and AG : Ac = 2:3 respectively. - Express AG and AC interms of AB hence find in terms of a vector a and b the vector AB : AC : DG and OF - Determine the ratio DG : OC
We often hear health claims that the next superfood can help fight free radicals, but what does that really mean? Understanding free radicals comes down to chemistry. All cells are composed of molecules, and all molecules are made of atoms being held together by chemical bonds. If some of these chemicals bonds are broken in such a way that an unstable molecule or atom is created, we call this a free radical. This can create a chain reaction that creates more and more free radicals in the body. A Quick Refresher On High School Chemistry And How It Relates To Free Radicals Atoms are a nucleus formed from protons and neutrons circled by electrons. The important particle for understanding free radicals is the electron, so let’s look closer at what they do. (1) Electrons can be found circling the nucleus in orbitals. Although not completely accurate, for our purposes we can imagine the electrons circling the nucleus in orbits much like the planets circle the sun. This is the Bohr model of an atom that you would have learned back in your high school chemistry class. Each orbit has a certain number of electrons it must contain to be full and it is reactive unless it’s outer layer is full. For example, the first level needs two electrons to be stable, and the next two needs 8 to be stable. A reactive atom, one with it’s outermost shell unfilled, will want to steal electrons, give away electrons, or bond together with other atoms to fill the outer shell, thus becoming stable. Check out this site for diagrams and a longer explanation of the Bohr model and orbitals. (1) When molecules are broken you can end up with what we call free radicals. A free radical is an atom or molecule that is reactive, aka does not have it’s outermost shell filled with electrons. So it wants to steal electrons, give away electrons, or bond together with other atoms, as stated above, which in turn can make those molecules that were acted on reactive, aka become free radicals themselves. This process continues creating a chain reaction that disrupts the chemical bonds of all the molecules involved. (2) This video explains the process of the chain reaction that free radicals create, how it creates more free radicals and how it changes the molecules involved. It uses high school level chemistry but is a useful illustration of the process even to those that do not understand all the nuances of the chemistry. Source: Free Radical Reactions, by Khan Academy What Causes Free Radicals To Occur In Your Body Many factors can cause molecular bonds within your body to be broken which can result in unstable atoms or molecules. Some are natural while others are not. Natural causes include digestion, immune system function, and sun exposure. Unnatural causes that can break molecular bonds include exposure to toxins such as cigarettes, air pollution, pesticides, and herbicides. Even stress and poor diet can be to blame. It is good to keep in mind that your body is equipped to neutralize some free radicals, and some of the free radicals are even helpful, such as when the immune system uses free radicals to destroy pathogens. It is when we end up with too many free radicals that there may be cause for concern. (3) Why Should Care About Free Radicals The chemical behaviour of an atom or molecule is determined by the balance of it’s electrons, so when molecules in your cells that are meant to be stable become reactive, their chemical behaviour and possibly even their structure changes. Enough of these changes and the normal function of the cell is interrupted. Because free radicals can affect the molecules found in the cells and therefore the cells themselves in such a profound way, they have been attributed to many very serious health concerns. Most notably are the claims that they cause cancer, play a major role in aging, and contribute a number of other diseases such as heart disease, atherosclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s. (4) The science on free radicals is still evolving. Studies show many surprising results about the bodies ability to deal with and benefit from free radicals, as well as the destruction they can cause. Some encouraging studies are a 2014 study at McGill University revealing that free radicals were responsible for increasing the longevity of cells in a species of roundworm (5), and another in 2011, where researchers discovered a very efficient method to decompose free radicals that are created during respiration while studying yeast (6). On the negative side, studies such as the one done by the University of Pennsylvania Medical Centre found that patients that died of Alzheimer’s disease had about double the amount of free radical activity in parts of their brains as compared to a normal brain (7). Amy is a writer and a mother of a blended family with three young kids, soon to be four. She has a Bachelors of Mathematics and is a lifelong learner with a wide variety of interest. Her interests include mindful parenting and other family topics, health and wellness, and science, all of which are reflected in her writing. Sources for this article include: (1) Boundless: Electron Shells and the Bohr Model (2) YouTube: Free Radical Reactions, by Khan Academy (3) Humane Living: Fighting Free Radicals, by Salette Andrews (4) Pure New You: Understanding Free Radicals And Antioxidants (5) Science Daily: Free radicals: What doesn’t kill you may make you live longer (6) Science Daily: Cellular metabolism self-adapts to protect against free radicals (7) Science Daily: New Evidence Points To Role For Free Radicals In Alzheimer’s Disease
Developmental disabilities are the diverse group of chronic conditions which are due to mental or physical impairments. It causes individuals living with them many difficulties in certain areas of life, especially in “language, mobility, learning, self-help, and independent living”. Developmental disabilities can be detected in the early stages, and do persist throughout an individual’s lifespan. It is also important to understand that there are no mainline cures and treatments associated with the majority of the developmental disabilities. However the same can be managed well with medication and right medical expertise. Majorly Genetic factors have long been responsible for the developmental disabilities. Also, there are also large environmental components responsible for these disabilities, and the relative contributions of nature versus nurture have been debated for decades. The causes and cases of developmental disabilities are varied and are not known in a large proportion of cases. Common Developmental Disabilities: - Down syndrome: This is the disorder in which people are born with an additional copy of chromosome 21. Normally, a person is born with two copies of chromosome 21. However, if they are born with the disorder, Down syndrome, they have an extra copy of this chromosome. This additional copy of chromosomes affects the development of the body and brain, causing physical and mental challenges for the individual. - Fragile X Syndrome: It results in Autism and Intellectual disabilities. - Pervasive Developmental Disorders: This group of developmental disabilities can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges. - Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: It is a condition that can occur in a person whose mother takes alcohol during pregnancy. This type of disorder is 100% preventable if a woman does not drink alcohol during pregnancy. - Cerebral Palsy: This group of disorders affects a person’s ability to move and maintain balance and posture. - Intellectual Disability: It is also sometimes known as mental retardation and is defined as an IQ below 70 along with limitations in adaptive functioning in children.
The "lub" sounds of the heart are valuable in diagnosis because they provide information about the function of the heart's pulmonary and aortic valves. The dicrotic notch refers to the brief rise in pressure caused by the closure of the AV valves during ventricular systole. Cardiac muscle has more mitochondria and depends less on a continual supply of oxygen than does skeletal muscle. Congestive heart failure means that the pumping efficiency of the heart is depressed so that there is inadequate delivery of blood to body tissues. Chronic release of excess thyroxine can cause a sustained increase in heart rate and a weakened heart. To auscultate the aortic valve, you would place your stethoscope in the ________. second intercostal space to the right of the sternum The source of blood carried to capillaries in the myocardium would be the ________. When the heart is beating at a rate of 75 times per minute, the duration of one cardiac cycle is ________ second(s). If cardiac muscle is deprived of its normal blood supply, damage would primarily result from ________. decreased delivery of oxygen If the length of the absolute refractory period in cardiac muscle cells was the same as it is for skeletal muscle cells ________. tetanic contractions might occur, which would stop the heart's If the vagal nerves to the heart were cut, the result would be that ________. the heart rate would increase by about 25 beats per minute Blood ejected from the ventricles enters which of these vessels during ventricular systole? both the aorta and pulmonary trunk When viewing a dissected heart, it is easy to visually discern the right and left ventricles by ________. noticing the thickness of the ventricle walls Select the correct statement about the heart valves. The AV valves are supported by chordae tendineae so that they Select the correct statement about the function of myocardial cells. The all-or-none law as applied to cardiac muscle means that the Select the correct statement about the structure of the heart wall. The myocardium is the layer of the heart that actually contracts. Hemorrhage with a large loss of blood causes ________. a lowering of blood pressure due to change in cardiac output Compared to skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle ________. has gap junctions that allow it to act as a functional syncytium The deflection waves in an ECG tracing include ________. the T wave, which indicates ventricular repolarization During the period of ventricular filling ________. blood flows passively through the atria and the open AV valves The effect of endurance-type athletic training may be to lower the resting heart rate. This phenomenon ________. is caused by hypertrophy of the heart muscle If a significant amount of connective tissue were to develop connecting the visceral and parietal pericardial layers together, which of the following would be a likely consequence? interference with normal mechanical cardiac activity If we were able to artificially alter the membrane permeability of pacemaker cells so that sodium influx is more rapid, ________. threshold is reached more quickly and heart rate would increase Select the correct statement about cardiac output. A slow heart rate increases end diastolic volume, stroke volume,and force end of contraction During contraction of heart muscle cells ________. some calcium enters the cell from the extracellular space and The left ventricular wall of the heart is thicker than the right wall in order to ________. pump blood with greater pressure Isovolumetric contraction ________. refers to the short period during ventricular systole when the ventricles are completly closed chambers
I have given student the opportunity to make up half of the points they have missed. To do this they need to use lined notebook paper with a correct heading (name, subject and date in the right hand corner). For each question they missed they need to provide the number and write a sentence of two explaining why they missed the question. They may need to review definitions in the Wordly Wise book to do this well. Often words have more than one meaning they need to choose the correct meaning. Students made excellent suggestions to improve future test performance. First next lesson we will begin with a visual match activity created by Mr. Povilaitis. This will allow students to make a visual connection to each of the word’s meanings. Second students discussed how important it was to do each of the lesson. Third many students said the online resources were very helpful. They preferred Quizlet to the resources on my webpage. Here is a link to those sources. https://quizlet.com/subject/wordly-wise-book-4/
Various drugs and disorders can affect the body's system for maintaining blood pressure. When blood pressure is too low, the brain malfunctions, and fainting may occur. Normally, the body maintains the pressure of blood in the arteries The Body's Control of Blood Pressure High blood pressure (hypertension) is persistently high pressure in the arteries. Often no cause for high blood pressure can be identified, but sometimes it occurs as a result of an underlying... read more within a narrow range. When blood pressure is too high, organs and blood vessels can be damaged. High blood pressure High Blood Pressure High blood pressure (hypertension) is persistently high pressure in the arteries. Often no cause for high blood pressure can be identified, but sometimes it occurs as a result of an underlying... read more can even cause rupture of a blood vessel and lead to bleeding or other complications. When blood pressure is too low, not enough blood reaches all parts of the body. As a result, cells do not receive enough oxygen and nutrients, and waste products are not adequately removed. Thus, the affected cells and the organs they are in begin to malfunction. Very low blood pressure can be life threatening because it can lead to shock Shock Shock is a life-threatening condition in which blood flow to the organs is low, decreasing delivery of oxygen and thus causing organ damage and sometimes death. Blood pressure is usually low... read more , in which organs are damaged by lack of blood flow. Healthy people who have blood pressure that is low but still in the normal range (when measured at rest) tend to live longer than people who have blood pressure that is on the high side of normal. The body has several ways to return blood pressure to normal The Body's Control of Blood Pressure High blood pressure (hypertension) is persistently high pressure in the arteries. Often no cause for high blood pressure can be identified, but sometimes it occurs as a result of an underlying... read more after it increases or decreases during normal activities, such as exercise or sleep. They involve Changing the diameter of small arteries (arterioles) and, to a lesser extent, veins Changing the amount of blood pumped from the heart to the body (cardiac output) Changing the volume of blood in the blood vessels Changing the body's position Changing the diameter of arterioles and veins Muscle tissue (called smooth muscle) within the walls of arterioles allow these blood vessels to widen (dilate) or narrow (constrict). The more constricted arterioles are, the greater their resistance to blood flow and the higher the blood pressure. Constriction of arterioles increases blood pressure because more pressure is needed to force blood through the narrower space. Conversely, dilation of arterioles reduces resistance to blood flow, thus reducing blood pressure. The degree to which arterioles are constricted or dilated is affected by Nerves that contract smooth muscle in the arterioles, thus reducing their diameter Veins also play a role in the control of blood pressure, although their effect on blood pressure is much less than that of arterioles. Veins dilate and constrict to change how much blood they can hold (capacity). When veins constrict, their capacity to hold blood is reduced, allowing more blood to return to the heart from which it is pumped into the arteries. As a result, blood pressure increases. Conversely, when veins dilate, their capacity to hold blood is increased, allowing less blood to return to the heart. As a result, blood pressure decreases. Changing cardiac output The more blood pumped from the heart per minute (that is, the larger the cardiac output), the higher the blood pressure—as long as the width of the arteries remains constant. The amount of blood pumped during each heartbeat can be affected by How fast the heart is beating How strongly the heart contracts How much blood comes into the heart from the veins The pressure in the arteries that the heart has to pump against How well the heart valves let blood out and prevent the backflow of blood Changing the volume of blood The higher the volume of blood in the arteries, the higher the blood pressure—as long as the width of the arteries remains constant. The volume of blood in the arteries is affected by How much fluid is in the body (hydration) Whether very small arteries leak fluid (for example, if protein levels in the blood are very low and/or there is damage to the interior wall of the small arteries, fluid will leak from them into the tissues) How much fluid the kidneys remove from the blood to excrete in the urine Certain drugs, particularly diuretics (drugs that help the kidneys remove water from the body) Changing the body's position Blood pressure can vary throughout the body due to the direct action of gravity. When a person is standing, blood pressure is higher in the legs than in the head, much in the way that the water pressure at the bottom of a swimming pool is higher than that at the top. When a person lies down, blood pressure tends to be more equal throughout the body. When a person stands up, blood from the veins in the legs has a harder time getting back to the heart. As a result, the heart has less blood to pump out, and blood pressure may temporarily drop throughout the body. When a person sits down or lies down, blood can more easily return to the heart, and cardiac output and blood pressure may increase. Elevating the legs above the level of the heart can increase return of blood to the heart, which increases cardiac output and raises blood pressure. Monitoring and controlling blood pressure Baroreceptors are specialized cells located within arteries that act as blood pressure sensors. The receptors in the large arteries of the neck and chest are particularly important. When baroreceptors detect a change in blood pressure, they trigger the body to react to maintain a steady blood pressure. Nerves carry signals from these sensors and the brain to The heart, which is signaled to change the rate and force of heartbeats (thus changing the amount of blood pumped). This change is one of the first, and it corrects low blood pressure quickly. The arterioles, which are signaled to constrict or dilate (thus changing the resistance of blood vessels). The veins, which are signaled to constrict or dilate (thus changing their capacity to hold blood). The kidneys, which are signaled to change the amount of fluid excreted (thus changing the volume of blood in blood vessels) and to change the amount of hormones that they produce (thus signaling the arterioles to constrict or dilate and changing the volume of blood). This change takes a long time to produce results and thus is the slowest mechanism for how the body controls blood pressure. For example, when a person is bleeding, blood volume and thus blood pressure decrease. In such cases, sensors activate multiple processes to prevent blood pressure from decreasing too much: The heart rate increases and the heart beats more forcefully with each contraction, increasing the amount of blood pumped The veins constrict, reducing their capacity to hold blood in less important parts of the body The arterioles constrict, increasing their resistance to blood flow If the bleeding is stopped, fluids from the rest of the body move into the blood vessels to begin restoring blood volume and thus blood pressure. The kidneys decrease their production of urine. Thus, they help the body retain as much fluid as possible to return to the blood vessels. Eventually, the bone marrow and spleen produce new blood cells, and blood volume is fully restored. Nonetheless, the ways that the body can monitor and control blood pressure have limitations. For example, if a person loses a lot of blood quickly, the body cannot compensate quickly enough, blood pressure falls, and organs may begin to malfunction (shock Shock Shock is a life-threatening condition in which blood flow to the organs is low, decreasing delivery of oxygen and thus causing organ damage and sometimes death. Blood pressure is usually low... read more ). In addition, as people age, the body responds to changes in blood pressure more slowly. Causes of Low Blood Pressure Low blood pressure typically results from one or more of the following: Dilation of small arteries (arterioles) Certain heart disorders Too little blood volume Dilation of arterioles can be caused by Toxins produced by bacteria during certain severe bacterial infections (septic shock Sepsis and Septic Shock Sepsis is a serious bodywide response to bacteremia or another infection plus malfunction or failure of an essential system in the body. Septic shock is life-threatening low blood pressure ... read more , toxic shock Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxic shock syndrome is a group of rapidly progressive and severe symptoms that include fever, rash, dangerously low blood pressure, and failure of several organs. It is caused by toxins produced... read more ) Spinal cord injuries, in which the nerves that cause the arterioles to constrict are impaired Various heart disorders that impair the heart's pumping ability and reduce cardiac output include A heart attack (myocardial infarction Acute Coronary Syndromes (Heart Attack; Myocardial Infarction; Unstable Angina) Acute coronary syndromes result from a sudden blockage in a coronary artery. This blockage causes unstable angina or a heart attack (myocardial infarction), depending on the location and amount... read more ) An extremely rapid heartbeat (tachycardia Paroxysmal Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT, PSVT) Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia is a regular, fast (160 to 220 beats per minute) heart rate that begins and ends suddenly and originates in heart tissue other than that in the ventricles... read more ) Too little blood volume in the body may be caused by A kidney disorder Low blood pressure also occurs when the nerves that conduct signals between the brain and the heart and blood vessels are impaired by neurologic disorders called autonomic neuropathies Autonomic Neuropathies Autonomic neuropathies are disorders affecting the peripheral nerves that automatically (without conscious effort) regulate body processes (autonomic nerves). Causes include diabetes, amyloidosis... read more . When a person quickly moves from a sitting position to a standing position, blood pressure in the blood vessels to the brain decreases, resulting in a temporary sensation of light-headedness or faintness. This is called orthostatic hypotension Dizziness or Light-Headedness When Standing Up In some people, particularly older people, blood pressure drops excessively when they sit or stand up (a condition called orthostatic or postural hypotension). Symptoms of faintness, light-headedness... read more . It can be more pronounced in people who are dehydrated or warm (such as when emerging from a hot bath), have certain illnesses, or have been lying down or sitting for prolonged periods of time. Orthostatic hypotension can even cause people to faint. In most people, the body quickly acts to increase blood pressure and prevent the person from fainting. Symptoms of Low Blood Pressure When blood pressure is too low, the first organ to malfunction is usually the brain. The brain malfunctions first because it is located at the top of the body and blood flow must fight gravity to reach the brain. Consequently, most people with low blood pressure feel dizzy Dizziness or Light-Headedness When Standing Up In some people, particularly older people, blood pressure drops excessively when they sit or stand up (a condition called orthostatic or postural hypotension). Symptoms of faintness, light-headedness... read more or light-headed, particularly when they stand, and some may even faint Fainting Light-headedness (near syncope) is a sense that one is about to faint. Fainting (syncope) is a sudden, brief loss of consciousness during which the person falls to the ground or slumps in a... read more . People who faint fall to the floor, usually bringing the brain to the level of the heart. As a result, blood can flow to the brain without having to fight gravity, and blood flow to the brain increases, helping protect it from injury. However, if blood pressure is low enough, brain damage can still occur. Also, fainting can result in serious injuries to the head or other parts of the body. Low blood pressure occasionally causes shortness of breath or chest pain due to an inadequate blood supply to the heart muscle (a condition called angina Angina Angina is temporary chest pain or a sensation of pressure that occurs while the heart muscle is not receiving enough oxygen. A person with angina usually has discomfort or pressure beneath the... read more ). All organs begin to malfunction if blood pressure becomes sufficiently low and remains low. This condition is called shock Shock Shock is a life-threatening condition in which blood flow to the organs is low, decreasing delivery of oxygen and thus causing organ damage and sometimes death. Blood pressure is usually low... read more . The disorder causing low blood pressure may produce many other symptoms, which are not due to low blood pressure itself. For example, an infection may produce a fever. Some symptoms occur when the body tries to increase blood pressure that is low. For example, when arterioles constrict, blood flow to the skin, feet, and hands decreases. These areas may become cold and turn blue. When the heart beats more quickly and more forcefully, a person may feel palpitations Palpitations Palpitations are the awareness of heartbeats. The sensation may feel like pounding, fluttering, racing, or skipping beats. Other symptoms—for example, chest discomfort or shortness of breath—may... read more (awareness of heartbeats). Diagnosis of Low Blood Pressure Measuring blood pressure Tests to determine cause The doctor measures blood pressure and pulse while the person is lying down for a few minutes. If the blood pressure is not low and the person feels well, the doctor has the person stand up and rechecks the blood pressure right after standing up, and after a few minutes of standing. Other tests may be done to determine the cause of the low blood pressure, such as: Treatment of Low Blood Pressure Treatment of the cause Fluids given by vein (intravenously) Doctors treat the cause of low blood pressure. They often also give people intravenous fluids if their heart can handle the extra fluid. Depending on the cause of the symptoms, doctors may recommend wearing elastic compression stockings that cover the calf and thigh to help push blood out of the veins in the legs and back up to the heart.
Inflation happens when there is a continuous increase in the price level. Predictably, high rates of inflation create uncertainty and wipe away the value of savings. However, a low inflation rate of about 2 percent is beneficial, and most Central Banks target it. During periods of economic stagnation, some economists suggest that we target a higher rate of inflation. This is because it has its advantages as well as disadvantages. Advantages of inflation - Adjustment of wages – moderation inflation makes wage adjustment possible. People argue that a moderate inflation rate makes it easier for them to adjust to relative wages. For instance, cutting nominal wages might be difficult, but if average wages go up due to moderate inflation, it would be easier to raise the wages of productive workers. - If there was zero inflation, there could be real wage unemployment, which means that firms would not be able to cut wages to attract workers. - Deflation – negative inflation is very harmful. When there was a prolonged period of negative inflation in Japan, their government suffered lower growth due to deflationary pressures. When prices fall, people are afraid of spending money because they fear that the prices will drop further in future. Moreover, deflation raises the real value of debt and lowers the disposable income of people who are struggling with debts. - Inflation boosts growth – at times when inflation rates are very low, the economy is stuck in a recession. Therefore, targeting a higher inflation rate can facilitate an increase in economic growth. However, this perspective is controversial, and not all economists would advise targeting a higher inflation rate if the economy is stuck in a prolonged recession. - Adjustment of relative prices – just as with wage adjustment, moderate inflation makes the adjustment of relative prices easier. This is important for a single currency zone such as the Eurozone. Countries in Southern Europe such as Greece and Spain became uncompetitive, which led to a huge current account deficit. Since Greece and Spain can’t devalue in the single currency, they usually cut relative prices to win back competitiveness. - With very low rates of inflation in Europe, this means that they have to cut wages and prices, leading to lower growth. If the Eurozone had moderate inflation, Southern Europe would have an easier time adjusting and regaining competitiveness without resorting to deflation. Disadvantages of inflation Inflation becomes problematic when the rate of inflation rises above 2 percent. The higher the inflation is, the more serious the issue is. Hyperinflation can wipe away people’s savings and lead to significant instability. Think about Zimbabwe in the 2000s when they had notes of 100 trillion Zimbabwe dollars. Usually, higher interest rates accompany inflation so that savers do not see their money being wiped away. However, it still has disadvantages, which include: - Fall in real wages – high inflation rates can lead to a fall in real wages. When inflation is higher than nominal wages, the real incomes will fall. - Reduces the value of savings – it causes a fall in the value of money. This means that as a saver, you will be worse off if the rate of inflation is higher than the rate of interest. High inflation might cause a redistribution of income in society. In most cases, pensioners lose the most when inflation is high. - Uncompetitive economy – inflation tends to make the economy uncompetitive. For instance, high inflation in Italy can make Italian exports uncompetitive, which leads to lower economic growth, lower AD, as well as a current account deficit. This is especially important for countries that are in the Eurozone since they cannot devalue to bring back competitiveness.
Scientists just discovered an ancient fossil known as the “mother of all lizards,” or: the oldest ancestor of squamates, a category of reptiles that include snakes, lizards and creepy legless worms called amphisbaenians, which make up the largest group of living land vertebrates on Earth. Despite occupying so much of the Earth, scientists have found gaps in its understanding of squamate lineage. Genetic evidence suggests that squamates evolved in the Permian period, over 250 million years ago. But the previous oldest squamate fossil discovered was only about 180 million years old. “That's more time than there is between us and the dinosaurs, and we had no clue what was going on,” Tiago Simões, a paleontologist at the University of Alberta, told the Washington Post. The discovery of the latest ancient fossil might help fill that gap. The 3-inch fossil preserved the form of a Megachirella wachtler, a lizard that lived during the middle Triassic period, 240 million years ago. Back then, flowers had not yet developed, and the world’s land was clumped together in a supercontinent called Pangaea. The fossil was found in marine sediment, surrounded by fossilized land plants, which suggests that she might have been swept out to sea during a powerful coastline. An amateur fossil hunter discovered a part of her skeletons in the mountains of northern Italy, and scientists first described it in 2003. Now, high-resolution micro CT scans has allowed researchers to investigate the fossil’s origins, identifying features that are unique to lizards, and some ancient traits that modern squamates have lost: a small cheek bone called the quadratojugal, belly bones called gastralia that are also found in many dinosaurs. Co-author of the paper on the discovery, Michael Caldwell, called the fossil a “virtual Rosetta stone in terms of the information that it gives us on the evolution of snakes and lizards.” She could help link the evolution of primitive reptiles to the crawling, slithering reptiles that live on Earth today. (via Washington Post)
In this case study, students will analyze video and print resources to explore the characteristics and potential effects of near-space objects in our solar system on the Earth, use an online simulation to investigate the potential effects of an asteroid impact on Earth, and complete structured research to advocate a plan for how the world should deal with the threat of asteroids to the Earth in a mock United Nations Security Council debate. Suggested Timing: 4-5 periods Should the world develop a defense system against asteroids? There are more than 10,000 Near –Earth Objects, including asteroids and comets, whose orbits pass close to the Earth. While the chances of a large (>1km) asteroid or comet impacting the Earth are remote, the consequences of such an event would be terrible. For instance, the 10km asteroid that impacted in the Yucatan peninsula 66 million years ago is widely believed to have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs.
A string is a sequence of characters that are considered a single data item. We have used strings in several instances in the past. Any group of characters defined within a double quotation mark is a string constant. Example : "This is an example text." If we want to include a double quote in the string to be printed, then we may use it with a back slash as shown below : printf("\" This is an example text. "\"); // "This is an example text." printf("This is an example text."); // This is an example text. Character strings are often used to create meaningful and readable programs. Common activities performed on character strings include:
Guidelines for Teaching Vocabulary Using a fun worksheet activity and these tips, your students will learn new vocabulary and have fun doing it! - Grades: 3–5, 6–8 Connect Prior Knowledge When it comes to learning new vocabulary, simply having your students repeat new words is not enough. Your students may learn to pronounce the vocabulary words correctly through this process, but they’re likely to forget the words as soon as you move on. Instead, connect the new vocabulary words to words that your students may already know. For example, Lakeisha may link the unfamiliar word “traverse” to the travel company travelocity.com, where she and her mother get airline tickets. She may differentiate it from “travois,” the term for the pole and hide carrier used by Native Americans to transport belongings behind a horse. Mary Beth may not immediately connect “traverse” to anything and may, therefore, need a nudge to make a connection to a word she already knows, such as “travel.” When students link new information to existing schema, the learning “sticks” because it has personal meaning. Use these two ideas to help your students "anchor" new vocabulary. Vocabulary Anchors (PDF) Developed by R. Winters in The Reading Teacher, Vocabulary Anchors is a graphic strategy that helps students make connections between concepts that are new to them and concepts they already know. It is especially helpful to struggling readers and ESL students who may have problems with technical vocabulary in science and social studies. To introduce Vocabulary Anchors, show students a photo or drawing of a boat at rest in calm water and talk about how a boat can drift away if it doesn’t have an anchor. The Vocabulary Anchors worksheet should help you visualize the exercise. Then, explain how we come to understand something new by “anchoring” it to something we already know. Now, show students what you mean: - Draw a simple boat and write a term on it your students probably know, like mountain. - Choose a related word, such as hill, that students probably also know and write it inside a rectangular anchor under the boat. - Connect the boat and anchor with a line to represent the rope. - Talk about similarities between the words and write them below to the left of the anchor, keying them with a plus sign (+). - Talk about the characteristics that set the words apart and list them below the box to the right, keying them with a tilde sign (~). - Discuss a memorable experience you associate with the main word. - Add a sail to the top of the boat and list a few key words or draw pictures to represent your memory. - Summarize by reviewing the drawing and talking about what the words mean and why they cannot be used interchangeably. Now lead students, as a class, through the construction of a few Vocabulary Anchors for difficult words you have pre-selected that they will encounter in their next science or social studies unit. Creating these anchors together allows students to share their experiences and prior knowledge as they build schemas for new words. Students might complete Vocabulary Anchors you have partially constructed for them as they read, then share their work in small groups or with the class. Picture Walk Words This exercise will connect students’ prior knowledge to a new story, and, in the process, help them learn new words. Choose a picture book to read aloud. Before reading, introduce it by talking about the cover illustration and asking children to predict what the story may be about. Continue to encourage the children to predict as you take a “picture walk” through the book by looking at each page together without reading the text. As students talk about what may be happening in the story, they share their prior knowledge with one another. Through this discussion they begin to learn and use new vocabulary naturally.
Fun With Blends In this year two reading and writing lesson plan, young learners will practise using blends with the letter L to make familiar words. Throughout the lesson, children will have fun with blends such as fl, cl, sl, and gl as they combine blends with word endings to spell words like flower, sleep, and glue. This lesson plan is a great way to increase phonological awareness and reinforce important spelling patterns that learners are sure to encounter again and again. Students will be able to identify and use consonant blends with the letter L to make words. - Ask students to identify what letter comes after K in the alphabet. - Ask students to make the L sound. - Tell students that today they will be learning L blends. Explicit Instruction/Teacher modeling(10 minutes) - Affix the images to the board. - Under each picture, write the L blend (such as FL, CL, or GL) in one colour and the remainder of the word in black. - Tell the students that the FL blend is at the beginning of the word Flower, and point to the blend. - Repeat this with the other words. Guided practise(10 minutes) - Give each student 5 precut Fun With Blends templates printed on white paper. Before the lesson, write each L blend on the templates with the word endings. - Have the students colour all the blends with one colour. - Ask your students to colour the endings in another colour. - When your students have finished coloring, encourage them to match the L blends with the correct endings to make the same 5 words presented during the introduction. - Walk around the classroom as the students match the words, and have them say the words to you. Independent working time(10 minutes) - Give each student a Fun With Blends worksheet. - Read the instructions to the students. - Give your students time to complete the worksheet. - Enrichment:Give the students the option of writing more words with the L blend, such as glass, flour, clean, slide, and blue. Have your students categorize the words according to their L blends. - Support:Give the students just one L blend at a time. For example, only present BL as in block, blanket, and blue. - Collect the worksheet for grading. Review and closing(10 minutes) - Ask the students what sound L makes. - Have your students identify the L blends. - As the students exit the classroom, ask your students to tell you one L blend word they learned today.
\|The barred antshrike has a wide range. Its hooked bill is typical of the antshrikes\| \|Some 45 genera, over 200 species\| \|Global range (in green)\| The antbirds are a large passerine bird family, the Thamnophilidae. They are found in subtropical and tropical Central and South America, from Mexico to Argentina. There are more than 200 species called antshrikes, antwrens, antvireos, fire-eyes, bare-eyes and bushbirds. They are related to the antthrushes and antpittas (family Formicariidae), the tapaculos, the gnateaters and the ovenbirds. Despite some species' common names, this family is not closely related to the wrens, vireos or shrikes. Antbirds are generally small birds with rounded wings and strong legs. They have mostly dull grey, white, brown and rufous plumage. The two sexes have somewhat different pattern and colouring. Some species communicate warnings to rivals by exposing white feather patches on their backs or shoulders. Most have heavy bills, which in many species are hooked at the tip. Most species live in forests, although a few are found in other habitats. They eat mostly insects and other arthropods. Small vertebrates are occasionally taken. Most species feed in the understory and midstory of the forest, although a few feed in the canopy and a few on the ground. Antbirds are monogamous, mate for life, and defend territories. They usually lay two eggs in a nest. Both parents share the tasks of incubating eggs and raising the nestlings. After fledging, each parent cares exclusively for one chick. References[change \| change source] - Zimmer K. & Isler M. 2003. Family Thamnophilidae (typical antbirds) pp. 459–531 in del Hoyo J; Elliot A. & Christie D. (eds) 2003. Handbook of the birds of the world, volume 8: Broadbills to Tapaculos. Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-50-4 - Irestedt M. et al 2004. Phylogenetic relationships of typical antbirds (Thamnophilidae) and test of incongruence based on Bayes factors. BMC Evol. Biol. 4: 23. - Willis E. and Oniki Y. 1978. Birds and army ants. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 9: 243–263.
In this article, you will find the Study Notes on Logic Families which will cover the topics such as Integrated Circuits, Characteristics of digital circuits, Logical Families, Digital IC terminology, DL, RTL, DTL and TTL. 1. Integrated Circuits - Integrated circuits (ICs) are chips, pieces of semiconductor material, that contain all of the transistors, resistors, and capacitors necessary to create a digital circuit or system. - The first ICs were fabricated using Ge BJTs in 1958. - Jack Kirby of Texas Instruments, Nobel Prize in 2000 - Robert Noyes of Fairchild Semiconductors fabricated the first Si ICs in 1959. - SSI Small scale integration [12 gates/chip] - MSI Medium scale integration [100 gates/chip] - LSI Large scale integration [1K gates/chip] - VLSI Very large scale integration [10K gates/chip] - ULSI Ultra large scale integration [100K gates/chip] - A prediction made by Moore (a co-founder of Intel) in 1965: “… a number of transistors to double every 2 years.” 2. Characteristics of digital circuits - Fan in: - Fan in is the number of inputs connected to the gate without any degradation in the voltage level. - Fan out: - Fan out specifies the number of standard loads that the output of the gate can drive without impairment of its normal operation - Power dissipation: - Power dissipation is a measure of power consumed by the gate when fully driven by all its inputs. - Propagation delay: - Propagation delay is the average transition delay time for the signal to propagate from input to output when the signals change in value. It is expressed in ns. - Noise margin: - It is the maximum noise voltage added to an input signal of a digital circuit that does not cause an undesirable change in the circuit output. It is expressed in volts. 2. Logic Families Logic families are sets of chips that may implement different logical functions but use the same type of transistors and voltage levels for logical levels and for the power supplies. These families vary by speed, power consumption, cost, voltage & current levels. The most widely used families are: - DL (Diode- logic) - DTL （Diode-transistor logic） - RTL （Resistor-transistor logic） - TTL （Transistor -transistor logic） - ECL （Emitter-coupled logic） - MOS （Metal-oxide semiconductor） - CMOS (Complementary Metal-oxide semiconductor） 3. Digital IC Terminology - VIH(min): high-level input voltage, the minimum voltage level required for a logic 1 at an input. - VIL(max): low-level input voltage - VOH(min): high-level output voltage - VOL(max): low-level output voltage - For proper operation, the input voltage levels to a logic must be kept outside the indeterminate range. Lower than VIL(max) and higher than VIH(min). - The maximum noise voltage that can be tolerated by a circuit is termed its noise immunity (noise Margin) - IOH – Current flowing into an output in the logical “1” state under specified load conditions - IOL – Current flowing into an output in the logical “0” state under specified load conditions - IIH – Current flowing into an input when a specified HI level is applied to that - IIL – Current flowing into an input when a specified LO level is applied to that 4. Diode Logic (DL) - simplest; does not scale - NOT not possible (need an active element) 5. Resistor-Transistor Logic (RTL) - replace diode switch with a transistor switch - can be cascaded - large power draw 6. Diode-Transistor Logic (DTL) - essentially diode logic with transistor amplification - reduced power consumption - faster than RTL 7. Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) - based on bipolar transistors one of the most widely used families of small- and medium-scale devices – rarely used for VLSI - typically operated from a 5V supply - typical noise immunity about 1 – 1.6 V - many forms, some optimised for speed, power, etc. - High-speed versions comparable to CMOS (~ 1.5 ns) - low-power versions down to about 1 mW/gate TTL NAND Gate: - Input terminals: The emitter of Q1 - Output terminals: collector of Q2 - When any input = logic ‘0’ - Q1 emitter junction is forward biased. - Also, its collector junction is FB, - so Q1 goes in saturation. - Base of Q2 is at Low voltage - This causes base-emitter junction of Q2 to be RB, so Q2 goes in cut-off - Hence output is 5V or logic ‘1’ - When all inputs = logic ‘1’ - Q1 emitter junction is RB. - so Q1 goes in cut-off. - Its collector voltage increases - This forward biases Q2, - so Q2 goes into saturation - Hence output is 0V A TTL NAND gate with open collector output: - Its similar to the previous circuit. - Q2 is used as an emitter follower. The output of Q2 is fed to the input of Q3. Collector of Q2 and Q3 are in phase. - This circuit needs an external ‘Pull- up’ resistor between output and power supply. - The disadvantage of open- collector gate is their slow switching speed. - The pull-up resistance is few kilo ohms. Gives a relatively long time constant, when multiplied by the stray output capacitance. - Is worst when output goes from low to high. TTL NAND gate with totem pole (active pull-up): - In this circuit Q1 and the 4KΩ resistor act like a 2 input AND gate. The remaining circuit acts like an inverter. Transistors Q3 & Q4 form a totem-pole i.e.one NPN transistor in series with another. - With a totem-pole output stage either Q3 or Q4 is on. When Q3 is ‘on’ output is high. When Q4 is ‘on’ output is low. If A or B is low, the Q1 conducts and the base voltage of Q2 is almost zero. - Q2 cuts off, hence Q4 goes into cut off. Q3 base is high, Q3 acts as an emitter follower, the output Y’ is high. - If A and B are high, Q1 does not conduct (cut-off), Q2 base goes high (saturation). Q4 goes into saturation hence output is low. - The drop across Diode D3 keeps the base emitter diode of Q3 reverse biased. Hence Q3 is off or else it conducts slightly when output is low. - Now only Q4 conducts when output is low. Totem pole transistors produce a low output impedance. When Q3 is conducting the output impedance is approx 70 Ω. When Q4 is saturated the output impedance is only 12 Ω. Hence the output impedance of a totem pole circuit is low. - Any stray output capacitance is rapidly charged or discharged through the low output impedance. Hence the output can change quickly from one state to the other. Types of TTL: - Standard TTL - typical gate propagation delay of 10ns and a power dissipation of 10 mW per gate, for a power–delay product (PDP) or switching energy of about 100 pJ - Low-power TTL (L) - slow switching speed (33ns) - reduction in power consumption (1 mW) (now essentially replaced by CMOS logic) - High-speed TTL (H) - faster switching than standard TTL (6ns) - but significantly higher power dissipation (22 mW) - Schottky TTL (S) - used Schottky diode clamps at gate inputs to prevent charge storage and improve switching time. A Schottky diode has a very low forward-voltage drop of 0.15–0.45V approx (silicon diode has a voltage drop of 0.6–1.7V). This lower voltage drop can provide higher switching speed. - Faster speed of (3ns) but had higher power dissipation (19 mW) - Low-power Schottky TTL (LS) - used the higher resistance values of low-power TTL and the Schottky diodes to provide a good combination of speed (9.5ns) and reduced power consumption (2 mW), and PDP of about 20 PJ. All the Best. Prep Smart, Score Better. Go Gradeup!
Samuel “Sam” Sharpe (or “Daddy Sharpe”) led a rebellion which led to the end of legal slavery in the British colony of Jamaica. Records of who his parents were have been lost. Sharpe was a slave of an English attorney and namesake who practiced in Montego Bay. Sharpe was baptized and subsequently became a lay deacon and leader of the congregation at the Burchell Baptist Church. Because the British allowed slaves to hold religious meetings, Sharpe started preaching about freedom from slavery. In 1831 the British Parliament began discussing the abolition of slavery throughout the Empire, and that displeased many Jamaican planters. Sharpe followed the Parliament arguments by reading local and foreign newspapers, and he made certain his congregation was apprised of the latest news concerning the abolition debates. In December 1831, under the mistaken belief that freedom had already been granted to Jamaica’s enslaved people by the British Parliament and that local planters refused to abide by the decision, Sharpe organized a protest. That rebellion was timed to have maximum impact on the sugar cane harvest because Sharpe knew that if the cane was not cut, most of the island’s crops would be ruined. Since Christmas Day 1831 fell on Sunday, a rest day, Sharpe assumed that the workers were entitled to both Monday (Boxing Day) and the following Tuesday off. Sharpe and his followers vowed not to work until they were paid for that day’s work. The strike soon spread to other parishes including St. James, Trelawny, and Westmoreland, and to some sections of St. Elizabeth Parish. Sharpe’s strike did not go according to the initial plan of a passive but firm resistance. On December 28 1831, when the British militia marched on the protesters, the Kensington Estate Great House was set on fire. The rebellion lasted eight days and cost the lives of 186 slaves and 14 white overseers or planters. Over 500 slaves were convicted of participating in the rebellion. Many were hanged and their heads were severed and placed around their plantations as a warning against future rebellions. Those who escaped the death penalty were treated brutally. Sharpe was named the key figure of the rebellion. He surrendered to save Baptist Missionaries blamed for the revolt, and was eventually hanged in Montego Bay on May 23, 1832. Sharpe’s owners were paid £16.00 (about $20) for their “loss of property.” Sharpe was buried like a criminal in the sands of Montego Bay Harbor, but his remains were later recovered and buried beneath the pulpit at the Burchell Baptist Church. In 1975, independent Jamaica honored Sam Sharpe when the Teachers’ College founded in 1975 by the Ministry of Education was named in his honor. The square in Montego Bay where he was executed is now called Samuel Sharpe Square.
they solve the second problem by counting a set of 4, adding in more as they count “five, six,” and then counting those added in to find the answer. Children solve these problems by “acting out” the situation—that is, by modeling it. They invent a procedure that mirrors the actions or relationships described in the problem. This simple but powerful approach keeps procedural fluency closely connected to conceptual understanding and strategic competence. Children initially solve only those problems that they understand, that they can represent or model using physical objects, and that involve numbers within their counting range. Although this approach limits the kinds of problems with which children are successful, it also enables them to solve a remarkable range of problems, including those that involve multiplying and dividing. Since children intuitively solve word problems by modeling the actions and relations described in them, it is important to distinguish among the different types of problems that can be represented by adding or subtracting, and among those represented by multiplying or dividing. One useful way of classifying problems is to heed the children’s approach and examine the actions and relations described. This examination produces a taxonomy of problem types distinguished by the solution method children use and provides a framework to explain the relative difficulty of problems. Four basic classes of addition and subtraction problems can be identified: problems involving (a) joining, (b) separating, (c) part-part-whole relations, and (d) comparison relations. Problems within a class involve the same type of action or relation, but within each class several distinct types of problems can be identified depending on which quantity is the unknown (see Table 6–1). Students’ procedures for solving the entire array of addition and subtraction problems and the relative difficulty of the problems have been well documented.8 For multiplication and division, the simplest kinds of problems are grouping situations that involve three components: the number of sets, the number in each set, and the total number. For example: Jose made 4 piles of marbles with 3 marbles in each pile. How many marbles did Jose have? In this problem, the number and size of the sets is known and the total is unknown. There are two types of corresponding division situations depending on whether one must find the number of sets or the number in each set. For example:
Learning Center flashcards is a great educational game which allows toddlers, kids, and adults alike to learn words, spelling, and concepts in an interactive stimulating format. Learning Center Flashcards includes not only the idea of teaching how to spell words but to teach the concept of the word as well. Players are able to interact with the word by completing the spelling of the word, hearing the pronunciation of the letter, and hearing the pronunciation of the word. This game allows for many different opportunities for players to experience and learn new things in order to build connections to the world around them. The game also promotes fine motor dexterity in toddlers and children.
Anyone can figure out the number of atoms in any amount of water by simply using a formula that involves millimoles and knowing that each mole in a compound has 6.022 x 10 to the power of 23. The microliters and milimoles can then be converted into domestic terms to find out exactly how many molecules are in any amount of water. This method is complicated and useless to most people because most people don't need to know the amount of molecules in larger amounts of water. However, knowing the number of H2O molecules in a drop of water does make figuring out how many are in larger amounts easier. A person can measure the amount of water they are wishing to find the molecular number of and then multiply the number of drops by 1.67 sextrillion to get the exact number of H2O molecules that are present. It is important for scientists, as well as meteorologists and oceanologists, to understand H2O and the amount of molecules that are in the specific amount of water they are studying. This number helps them to better determine how the water will react to different situations.Learn more about Atoms & Molecules
Find schools and get information on the program that’s right for you. Powered by Campus Explorer All Rights Reserved. Site last updated 26 June, 2013 The Decline of Folk Traditions in Modern SocietiesFolk music seems to reflect a universal impulse of humanity. No fieldwork expedition by cultural anthropologists has yet to discover a pre-industrial people that did not have its own folk music. It seems safe to infer that folk music was a property of all people starting from the dawn of the species. However, the development of modern society--first literacy, then the conversion of culture into a saleable commodity--created a new form of transmission of music that first influenced, then in some societies ultimately decimated the folk tradition. The decline of folk music in a culture can be followed through three stages. Stage I: Urban influence One of the first folk traditions impacted by modern society was the folksong of rural England. Starting in Elizabethan times, urban poets wrote broadsheet ballads that (thanks to printing) could be sold widely. The ballads probably didn't need musical notation, since they would have been sung to tunes that everybody knew, the folk tradition being very much alive at the time. These ballads heavily influenced the folk tradition, but did not override it. In fact, the folk tradition showed great resilience. Through the process of folk transmission, the urban ballads were modified, keeping the more vivid content and ironing out the less "citified" material. The resulting body of folk lyrics is widely considered to be a very appealing blend. Thus, the printing press and widespread literacy did not suffice to destroy the English folk tradition, but in some ways enriched it. The English folk song legacy was probably affected by urban melodies as well as words. The clue here is that folk music in remote rural areas of the English-speaking world, such as Highland Scotland or the Appalachian mountains, abounds in tunes that employ the pentatonic scale, a scale widely used for folk music around the world. However, pentatonic music was rare among the rural English villagers who first volunteered their tunes to researchers in the late 19th century. A plausible explanation is that life in rural England was far more closely affected by the proximity to the urban centres. Music in the standard major and minor scales evidently penetrated to the nearby rural areas, where it was converted to folk idiom, but nevertheless succeeded in displacing the old pentatonic music. Stage II: Loss of folk traditions The pattern of urban influence on folk music was intensified to outright destruction, as soon as the capitalist economic system had developed to the point that culture could be widely bought and sold. It was around Victorian times that the common people of the Western world were offered music as a commodity which they could purchase, for example, in the phenomenon of Music Hall. This was happening simultaneously with the latter part of the Industrial Revolution, at a time of great change in lifestyle for the great body of the people. The forces of commercialism made sure that the people were persuaded of the need to buy this commodity; and between these commercial pressures, and the migration of the old agrarian communities to become the new industrial ones, the process of folk creation became lost to the people. Several succeeding generations became enticed with ever more accessible and desirable forms of the commodity of music. Gramophone records became LPs and then CDs; the Music Hall gave way to radio, followed by television. The marketplace kept expanding and it generated an industry dedicated to the creation of a musical product by a paid elite of performers. This is the diametric opposite of 'folk creation', because its motivating force is individual or corporate profit rather than communal need, and also because instead of reflecting the lives of the people, commercial music tends to shape those lives. The loss of folk traditions in favor of commercial culture is lamented by advocates of folk music. However, this loss clearly was due at least in part to choices made freely by members of the community. Sad as it may be for advocates of folk music, it seems that replacement of folk music by commercially-produced music is a very powerful, perhaps even irresistible force. Stage III: Loss of musical ability in the community The terminal state of the loss of folk music can be seen in the United States and a few similar societies, where except in isolated areas and among hobbyists, traditional folk music no longer survives. In the absence of folk music, many individuals do not sing. It is possible that non-singers feel intimidated by widespread exposure in recordings and broadcasting to the singing of skilled experts. Another possibility is that they simply cannot sing, because they did not sing when they were small children, when learning of skills takes place most naturally. Certainly it is very common for contemporary Americans to claim that they cannot sing. There is anecdotal evidence that the loss of singing ability is continuing rapidly at the present time. As recently as the 1960's, audiences at American sporting events collectively sang the American national anthem before a game; the anthem is now generally assigned to a recording or to a soloist. Inability to sing is apparently unusual in a traditional society, where the habit of singing folk song since early childhood gives everyone the practice needed to able to sing at least reasonably well. The loss of folk music is occurring at different rates in different regions of the world. Naturally, where industrialisation and commercialisation of culture are most advanced, so tends to be the loss of folk music. Yet in nations where folk music is a badge of cultural or national identity, the loss of folk music can be slowed. For instance, it is generally believed that Ireland retains a living folk tradition to this day. Contributed by Wikipedia 7 January 2004
Oscar the Ostrich and Ollie the Octopus Rationale: Children must understand that every letter has a sound associated with it. In order to read, children must blend words beginning with the vowel sound, then the body and coda. In this lesson, students will be learning o=/o/. They will learn ways to remember that o=/o/ through introduction of the phoneme with image and mouth placement, reciting a tongue tickler, practice using the letterboxes, and then practice by reading a decodable book. Six boxes per student for letterbox lesson Picture of the letter O with octopus legs coming out of it Poster with "Oscar the Ostrich and Ollie the Octopus" Decodable book Doc in the Fog for each student Cards with phoneme awareness words printed: top/tip, fog/fig, lock/land, frog/free, doc/duck Copies of worksheets for each student (url below) 1. Introduce the letter O by asking students what your mouth looks like when you say /o/. Let students make the sound. 2. Have all of the students say /o/ and feel the shape of their mouth as they say the sound. Ask, "What words have this letter in it?" Have the students feel their mouths as they say the word "top". 3. Show the students the picture of the octopus with the tongue tickler written on it. Read it aloud at a regular pace first, then slowly. The third time exaggerate the /o/ sound on each word. O-o-o-oscar the O-o-o-strich and O-o-o-ollie the O-o-o-ctopus. Have all of the students say it with you. Repeat. 4. Say, "Now we are going to work on recognizing the letter /o/ on words. I am going to say two words and I want you to tell me which word you hear the letter o in. Do you hear /o/ in top or tip, fog or fig, land or lock, frog or free, dock or duck? " 5. Say, "Since everyone did such a great job at recognizing which words have the /o/ sound we are going to practice spelling some words that have the letter /o/ in them. Everyone get your letterboxes out and place them flat on your desk. Line up all the letter neatly and right side up so you can see them. Be sure to only put one sound in each box." Model the word strong on the board. S-t-r-o-n-g. (one phoneme in each box). The students should work individually on spelling the words. [words: 3-sob, rock, top, job 4-frog, smog, block, stop, flop 5-strong] Say, "Raise your hand once you think you have the word spelled out so I can check it". Write all the words on the board and have the students say them after they have spelled them all out. 6. Say, "We will now read the book Doc in the Fog. In this book, Doc does some magic to turn tops into dolls and dolls into mops! Uh-oh, what do you think happens when Doc messes with the fog? We'll have to read to find out!" 7. Have the students read in pairs. Each student should read one page then let the other read the next page. Encourage the students to help each other with words. Assessment: Have all the students complete the work sheet by saying the words to you, then coloring them and practicing writing o. Victoria Barron "Ollie the Ostrich and Oliver the Octopus" http://www.auburn.edu/academic/education/reading_genie/caravans/barronbr.htm King, Michaela. Oscar the Ostrich loves Olive. Return to Adventures index
Matter or antimatter? Why not both? Physicists say they've met a 60-year challenge to create molecules of positronium, a short-lived atom that comprises matter and antimatter. They hope achievement may help develop fusion power as well as directed-energy weapons such as gamma-ray lasers, and spur explanations for a long-standing enigma about the universe. The US research is published today in the journal Nature. Under the standard laws of physics, for every type of ordinary-matter particle, a corresponding antiparticle exists. For instance, the positively-charged proton has a negatively-charged counterpart, the antiproton. The electron, which is negatively charged, is offset by the positively-charged positron. When particles and antiparticles come together, the meeting is only brief as they annihilate each other in a flash of energy. In the case of electrons and positrons, the two species of particle create a short-lived, hydrogen-like atom called positronium, whose existence was first mooted in 1946 and confirmed five years later. The theoretician behind positronium, US physicist Professor John Wheeler, also suggested that positronium should exist as a two-atom molecule, called Ps2, and that there should even be a three-atom version, Ps3. Until now, this hypothesis has never been confirmed, the big problem being the task of creating such finicky, fleeting molecules in the lab. In free space, two atoms of positronium cannot combine together, because they have such excess energy that they simply fly apart again. Now, University of California Riverside physicists Dr David Cassidy and Professor Allen Mills describe how they overcame this obstacle to forge the world's first Ps2 in the lab. They did it by first creating a special trap that confined some 20 million positrons, which were then focused in a nanosecond blast onto the surface of porous silica. Holed up within the pores, the positrons captured electrons to form atoms of positronium. These in turn linked up to form around 100,000 two-atom molecules before annihilation. The silica walls of the pores were the key to the success, as they absorbed the excess energy of the atoms, allowing them to wed, albeit fleetingly. Evidence that the long-sought molecules had been created came from a telltale temperature curve from gamma rays released by the annihilation, the authors believe. Matter-antimatter annihilation has outlets in medicine, where the positron emission tomography (PET) scan provides a 3D image of the body to help doctors detect diseases. Physicists have long pondered over an enigma that challenges the 'symmetrical' law by which matter is balanced by antimatter. Matter appears to dominate in the visible universe, and the new research could help explain why this is, other experts say. "Their research is giving us new ways to understand matter and antimatter," says Professor Clifford Surko from the University of California San Diego. Spot the neutrino And in other particle physics research, an international consortium of scientists has for the first time directly spotted a type of elusive particle emitted by the sun. The detection of these low-energy neutrinos should help confirm theories about how our star functions, say scientists from France's National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS). Neutrinos are uncharged elementary particles that are blasted out in vast amounts from the sun as a result of thermonuclear fusion, and come in a wide range of energies. Until now, detector technologies were able to spot high-energy neutrinos, particles with a kinetic energy of more than 5 million electronvolts. But detectors were, until now, not sensitive enough for low-energy neutrinos, which have less than a million electronvolts. The advance has come thanks to the year-old Borexino detector, located under Gran Sasso mountain in Italy's Apennine range, about 160 kilometres east of Rome. The detector has been placed deep underground to shield it from other energy sources that could skew the results.
Neandertals Apparently Knew Medicinal Plants by Brian Thomas, M.S. * The Institute for Creation Research has long identified Neandertals as fully human.1 But for decades, evolutionists had labeled this extinct variety of humankind as sub-human, alleging that they had eaten mostly meat. A 1970 book titled Early Man illustrated a migrating Neandertal family wearing animal skins and carrying clubs. Part of the caption reads, "At left a man is carrying small game for provisions—a rabbit and a waterfowl—indicating that Neanderthalers hunted other creatures besides cave bears and woolly rhinoceroces."2 The book doesn't mention Neandertals eating plants for food or for medicine. But a recent forensic analysis of Neandertal teeth takes a bite out of this old evolutionary story. Researchers studied tooth calculus, or tartar, from the teeth of five Neandertals found in El Sidrón Cave in North Spain. They used advanced techniques that detect trace amounts of certain chemicals. They wrote in the journal Naturwissenschaften, By using these methods in conjunction with the extraction and analysis of plant microfossils, we have found chemical evidence consistent with wood-fire smoke, a range of cooked starchy foods, two plants known today for their medicinal qualities, and bitumen or oil shale entrapped within the dental calculus. Yet within the same calculus, chemical evidence for lipids/proteins from meat was low to absent.3 Neandertals ate starchy foods for nutrition and plants that provided medicinal benefits, too? The study authors wrote that these ancients "had a sophisticated knowledge of their natural surroundings which included the ability to select and use certain plants."3 Whoever suggested that Neandertals were anything less than fully human must be motivated by dogma, because decades of forensics analyses have demonstrated their humanity ad nauseum. For example, they used musical instruments and jewelry, and their DNA was fully human.4,5 Importantly, Neandertals eating starch refutes the standard excuse that evolutionists use to explain why human population burgeoned starting only about 5,000 years ago, after mankind had supposedly existed for over a hundred thousand years.6 The authors of the Naturwissenschaften study began their report with doctrinaire fare, asserting that "Neanderthals disappeared sometime between 30,000 and 24,000 years ago."3 If fully human beings have been alive for 30,000 years or more, what caused them to wait for 25,000 years before their historical population growth? For evolutionists, , calories from starch in grain were supposedly the key.7 They maintain that the earliest humans were mere hunters for ages, only recently able to farm crops and glean the calories required for population growth. The problem now is that the Neandertal peoples at El Sidrón Cave, given an evolutionary age of 50,000 years, ate grains. If these early people ate "a range of cooked, starchy foods," it is reasonable that others around the world could have also. Fitting this evidence into biblical history instead of an ever-changing man-made history substitute is plain. Neandertal and other human populations descended ultimately from the first created man and woman who were made in the image of God, complete with the ability to make jewelry, play instruments, and "select and use certain plants" for food and medicine. And the reason for the recent population growth is simply that it reflects the time since the Flood described in Genesis, when men began multiplying and filling the earth. No story about calories is required. And that's good, because evidence that Neandertal people ate enough starch to cause tooth tartar shows that calories were available too early to be used as an excuse for why human population growth began later than evolutionary assumptions expect. - Gish, D. 1975. Man...Apes...Australopithecines...each Uniquely Different. Acts & Facts. 4 (11). - Howell, F. C. 1970. Early Man. Morristown, NJ: Silver Burdett Company, Time Inc., 132. - Hardy, K. et al. 2012. Neanderthal medics? Evidence for food, cooking, and medicinal plants entrapped in dental calculus. Naturwissenschaften. 99 (8) :617–626. - Zilhão, J. et al. Symbolic use of marine shells and mineral pigments by Iberian Neandertals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Published online before print January 11, 2010. - Green, R. E. et al. 2010. A Draft Sequence of the Neandertal Genome. Science. 328 (5979): 710-722 - Thomas, B. 2012. A Recent Explosion of Human Diversity. Acts & Facts. 41 (9): 17. - For example, one study said, "What, in the agricultural economy, had an impact on human biology that ultimately determined the growth of the population? The increase in natural maternal fertility, through a reduction in the birth interval, is mainly determined by the energy balance and the relative metabolic load. It implies a positive return of the postpartum energy balance, which occurred earlier in farming than in foraging societies due to the energy gain from the high-calorie food of sedentary farmers (wheat, lentils, peas, maize, rice, and millet) compared to the low-calorie food of mobile foragers (mainly game), coupled with a decrease in the energy expenditure of carrying infants. This signal is interpreted as the signature of a major demographic shift in human history and is known as the Neolithic Demographic Transition (NDT) or, synonymously, the Agricultural Demographic Transition." See Bocquet-Appel, J.-P. 2011. When the World's Population Took Off: The Springboard of the Neolithic Demographic Transition. Science. 333 (6042): 560-561. * Mr. Thomas is Science Writer at the Institute for Creation Research. Article posted on November 26, 2012.
Analysing how assessment may support pupils learning Formative assessment has always existed, even before the national curriculum and assessment had been implemented, but it was never acknowledged in legislation. It is commonly referred to as ‘Assessment for Learning’ and it is only over the past decade that its significance has been recognised by researchers and practitioners (Hall and Burke, 2004). It is now a crucial aspect of the national strategies and personalized learning. There has been numerous research carried out which has been dedicated to formative assessment, providing an understanding of the process and how it functions within the classroom. Black and William (2002, 2003) conducted a review of formative assessment and believe it to be better than any other assessment strategy that has ever been implemented. As a result of their research the DfES made assessment for learning a significant aspect of its key stage three and primary national strategy (James, et al, 2005). Shirley Clarke (2001, 2008) has written extensively on formative assessment and wrote books which provide teachers with guidance in order to help them implement formative assessment within their classroom. Caroline Gipps (1995) investigated the effect of ‘intuition’ and ‘evidence’ in assessment and has helped develop an understanding of suitable feedback. Furthermore, the National Strategies (DfES, 2010) and the TLRP Learning how to Learn Project (James et al, 2005) have created research based on formative assessment to reflect how it is working in schools and how it could be further utilised as an effective method to help pupils learn. However, the effectiveness of formative assessment has been questioned for a number of reasons due to a lack of consistency in schools and sharing of knowledge between teachers and also training (James et al, 2005). This essay will reflect on this research that has been conducted in relation to formative assessment and compare it with my school observations, in order to evaluate its effectiveness in order to reach a conclusion as to if it can enhance learning. Assessment is now focused on the learner and aims to help them consistently make progress. Formative assessment is encouraged occur in all aspects of teaching (Hall and Burke, 2004). It has become increasingly recognised in schools since the introduction of Assessment for learning, in order to promote children’s learning. Alexander (2009, p.315) argues that formative assessment is ‘the process of seeking and interpreting evidence for use by learners and their teachers to decide where the learners are in their learning, where they need to go and how best to get there’. He refers to it as a ‘cyclic process’ in which teachers carefully collect information in relation to pupils understandings and skills, through the teachers regular observations, questioning skills and listening to children’s perspectives and feelings with regards to their learning. Feedback is crucial and is involved in all aspects of preparation for lessons and children are encouraged to think about their own learning and play an important role in active learning through a range of self assessment processes. (Alexander, 2009, Lambert and Lines, 2000). This assessment process keeps the teacher constantly informed as to how the children are making progress (Lambert and Lines, 2000, Clarke, 2008). Teachers then use this information that they have collated in order to devise the next appropriate steps in learning (Alexander, 2009, Lambert and Lines, 2000). Summative assessment plays a crucial role alongside formative assessment and one cannot exist without the other. Sadler (1989, p.120) states that ‘summative contrasts with formative assessment in that it is concerned with summing up or summarising the achievement status of a student and is geared towards reporting at the end of a course of study especially for purposes of certification’. Formative assessment is a continuous process and summative assessment provides a standard of attainment by summing up all of the available evidence (Kyriacou, 2007). However, some argue that summative assessment can often take over from formative assessment. Teaching can be altered due to future testing, making children be tested in preparation rather than allowing opportunities to learn and make use of formative assessment (Harlen, 2006). From my observations in year 6 the whole year is focused on the SATS meaning frequent testing during lesson time and teaching constantly relates to the tests. As a result formative assessment seems to be pushed to one side. Alexander (2009) argues that Primary school records and reports in 2008 focused on children’s performance in levels, despite the fact that providing a level was only necessary at the end of key stages. Sharing the learning objective is the first ‘active element’ of formative assessment (Clarke, 2001, p.19). Teachers are expected to share the learning objectives with the class for each lesson and teachers and children work together in order to develop the success criteria for each unit of work, allowing the children to understand what they need to do to achieve the lesson objective, therefore becoming more engaged in their learning process. The success criteria provides scaffolding which aids the children s learning, making sure that they fully understand their next steps and therefore are in control of their learning. Schools following this process feel that the children have become more confident and autonomous learners as a result. Furthermore, children clearly understand what they are learning and how they will see if they have reached their learning aims though the discussion of learning objectives and learning outcomes . One Year 6 pupil spoke of the success criteria which he refers to it as the ‘steps to success’ and said, 'The "steps to success" guide me through what I have to do in the lesson. They show me how I have improved since the beginning of the week. In Year 4, I sometimes struggled to know what to do if I finished my work but with "steps to success", I know what to do. I find it much easier now because they lead me through the lesson.' (DfES, 2010). Clarke (2008) argues that children become more motivated and on task if they are clear as to what the learning objective is. She interviewed 72 children, asking them if their teachers shared the lesson objectives with the class and a significant proportion of children replied no. Clarke spoke with the teachers and encouraged them to identify the learning objectives at the start of each lesson and display them somewhere in the classroom. She notes that the difference among the same children was hugely significant. When asking the children for a second time, they provided good feedback about the learning objective, how it was displayed and what the learning objectives may have been. It benefited a range of abilities, as the more able children said that it helped them to concentrate on the task ahead and kept them motivated. The less able children could look up at the board to remind themselves of the learning objective and the success criteria when they needed to. I clearly observed this in a school I have been in and some which have not and I have noticed the difference. During my preliminary attachment in a year 2 class the learning objective was to write a simple sentence. She told the class however, what she would be looking for would be good use of capital letters, full stops, finger spaces and a wow word. On the board she displayed the learning objective and success criteria using cartoon laminates of WALT and WILF and the children could refer back to them both throughout the lesson in order to remind themselves what they needed to include in their sentence. It actually got some children excited as they all wanted to achieve the learning objective so that they would receive a stamp on their work. It clearly kept them motivated as they had something to aim for and they knew what they had to do in order to be successful. In another school in which the learning objective and success criteria was not made visible or even discussed, I could see a huge difference. The lesson was about instructions and the children had to create instructions as to how to make a sandwich. The lesson was quite chaotic as the children in this lesson were constantly asking for assistance and were not on task. The standard of work was completely different as they did not seem to be aware of how to set their work out They did not use capital letters, they would forget to use finger spaces and would not write on the line. They did not have anything to aim for and therefore their work was not to the best of their ability. The teacher didn’t seem to know who was struggling or doing well. This clearly reflects the importance of identifying the learning objectives as they are crucial to the children’s understanding of the task. Harris (2007) argues that children need to be fully aware of what is expected of them and what they need to have achieved by the end of the session and how. It is only then that children can subsequently concentrate on their goal and are more likely to achieve it. Children then have the necessary tools in order to succeed, they can visualise success. Questioning plays a significant role in formative assessment. Through effective questioning children play an active role in their learning and can independently explore. Teachers adopt the role of facilitating children’s learning rather than being the ‘font of all knowledge’ (Harris, 2007, p.255). Pollard et al (2008, p.399) states that teachers can ‘use a variety of questions for different purposes, for example, to engage interest, to ascertain current knowledge, to gain insight into children’s understanding or to check learning’. Open questioning can provide a wide range of answers and helps children extend their thinking. Teachers use this form of questioning in order to see what the children understand and know. Children can explore meaning for themselves, in a year six science lesson about dissolving children were asked what they think would happen when water was added to salt. The children had not yet learnt directly about dissolving but they could think about what they thought would happen building on experiences that they had had and knowledge they already knew in order to explore the answer. Piaget spoke of ‘assimilation’ and ‘accommodation’. Pollard (2008, p.175) states that, ‘when children encounter a new experience they both ‘accommodate’ their existing thinking to it and ‘assimilate’ aspects of the experience.’ As a result the children move from one phase of ‘mental equilibration’ and rearrange their thoughts in order to compose another. Through teachers providing children with innovative experiences and situations and adopting an open ended questioning process, this can elicit assimilation and accommodation. As a result children develop a more advanced understanding of their experience. In year two during my preliminary attachment I observed a numeracy lesson. Using whiteboards, the teacher told the children she was thinking of a number which had so many tens and so many units. The children had to write answer on board then they would all show the teacher after a count of 3. Through using her observations skills she could see that a child had misunderstood, instead of pointing out they were wrong she questioned the child skillfully and said ‘Dylan, if I said that this number had 5 tens and 4 units, what should be in my tens column?’ The child quickly realised he had mixed up his tens and units and quickly changed his answer. Through questioning from the teacher the child corrected his own mistake. Clarke (2001) argues that this skilful questioning helps the child to develop thinking without direct teaching. In each class there are children who constantly contribute in class discussions and always want to put their hand up and then there are those who like to shy away and not take part. However, in classrooms today there are opportunities in order to prevent this from happening so that all children are included, such as talk partners, having no hands up and providing children enough time to answer a question. Children know that there is a possibility of them being asked a question and therefore makes all children think of an answer and not just sit back and let others do the work (Hall and Burke, 2004). Piaget who was a constructivist theorist focused on intellectual development. He believed that leaning was an active process and that children construct meaning from the world around them, from their own personal experiences and interaction with others (Pollard, 2008). Therefore, for Piaget it is important for children to have control over their learning so that they are independent and can build knowledge for themselves. Through talk partners I have noticed that the quieter children who refrain from putting their hands up during the lesson, find themselves having to express their thoughts to their partners. Those particular children were more confident after having this time with their partner to share their thought with the rest of the class. The Primary National Strategy (2004, p.19) states that ‘talk is an important means by which we communicate and build social relationships, and it plays a crucial role in learning.’ The ‘talk partners’ strategy is adopted in many classrooms and means that all children get the opportunity to think, discuss and express themselves orally. Some children who usually refrain from answering questions feel more confident discussing their thoughts with their peers as they feel that to the whole class can be quite daunting. Many children fear that they will get a question wrong which prevents their learning process, however, through ‘talk partners’ this obstacle can be defeated as it becomes a shared responsibility which as a result can raise children’s individual confidence and further their engagement. In addition, it provides the teacher with more opportunities to ask higher order questions which require children to think more and through talk partners children have more time to think (LCC, 2006). Butt (2010) states that it is much better to recognise that all learners can and will improve on their previous performance rather than creating two teams of winners and losers. Furthermore, Black and William (1998, as cited in Harris, 2007) argue that learning within the classroom should not focused on getting right answers and should be about how children can develop and move forward with the support of their teacher. In a year 2 classroom that I was in, the children all felt comfortable answering questions in class, there was no fear of getting anything wrong. If they did get it wrong the teacher would answer positively respond and help the child to understand. Questioning should create learning rather than test it. Wrong answers help children learn. Black et al (2002) argues that it is crucial to provide children with enough time to answer a question so that they can think. However, it is argued that it is often common that this is not the case (Butt, 2010 and Black et al, 2002) and teachers either ask another child or simply provide the answer. Through observing class teachers, they have all tried to allow for ample thinking time but due to the age, concentration levels and timing of her lessons this was not always achieved. Rowe (1974, as cited in Black et al, 2003) conducted a study in classrooms and discovered that the average time that teachers waited after asking a question before interceding was only 0.9 seconds. In relation to this study, the KMOFAP (as cited in Black et al, 2003) study acknowledged that such a low wait time prevents many children from taking part in class discussion. If children know that this is what will happen, they will not feel it is necessary to even try and attempt the question, knowing that the teacher will soon move on. Butt (2010) argues that teachers should not accept those children who they know know the answer even if it is human nature for teachers to automatically go to those children first. He argues that by allowing more thinking time, this gives all children the opportunity to respond and improves the collective thinking process. Rowe (1974, as cited in Black et al 2003) investigated the effect that allowing longer waiting time had on children. He concluded that their answers were more extensive, more children wanted to respond and their answers were more confident. Also, other children expanded and questioned answers from their peers and a wider range of explanations evolved. Feedback through marking Sadler (1989, p.120-121) argues that, ‘teachers use feedback to make programmatic decisions with respect to readiness, diagnosis and remediation. Students use it to monitor the strengths and weaknesses of their performances, so that aspects associated with success or high quality can be recognised and reinforced, and unsatisfactory aspects modified or improved’. George and Cowan (1999) and Fautley and Savage (2008) discuss that assessment alone will not solely contribute to pupils progression but it is the timely feedback which is essential for the assessment to be worthwhile and effective. In light of Vygotsky’s theoretical perspective, the teacher adopts the significant role of the 'reflective agent'. The teacher provides 'meaningful and appropriate guidance and extension to the cognitive structuring and skill development arising from the child's initial experiences. This . . . supports the child's attempts to "make sense" and enables them to cross the zone of proximal development' (Pollard, 1990, as cited in Tunstall and Gipps, 1996, p.390). The child becomes more independent and the support is no longer as necessary as the child becomes more confident at that particular level (Torrance and Pryor, 1998, Gipps, 1994, Harris, 2007). Kluger and DeNaisi (1996, as cited in Black et al 2003) looked at reports to show if feedback effected children’s performance. They found that children’s learning improved only when it provided guidance as to how the child could improve. There was a decrease in performance when they are only told if they have done well or poorly as it effected their ego. Butler (1988, as cited in Black et al, 2002, p.8) conducted research and states that, ‘learning can be advanced by feedback through comments, the giving of marks or grades has a negative effect in that pupils ignore comments when marks are also given’. Children work towards targets and tips given if there is no mark or grade present, as that deflects the child’s attention. Black et al (2003) refer to Butler (1987) who carried out a controlled experiment based on the feedback which children received within the classroom for their written work and what she found reflects my observations. In her experiment, she constructed three separate methods of feedback to children, mark, comments, and marks and comment together. The study reflected that the children’s learning was most improved for the particular group who had been given only comments by their teachers. The other two groups had shown no learning gains at all from the marking they received. The teachers involved in the experiment discussed putting into practice comment only marking and argued that from their experience, on rare occasions do children actually ready any comments that their teacher has made and children prefer marks, they want a number or a grade so that they can easily compare these with their friends and compete with on another. They went on to say that teachers tend not to give children the time to read the comments or take them on board and that the same comments appear in children’s book meaning that they are not specific to the child. I witnessed a teacher in year 1 using the 2 stars and a wish feedback strategy which provides positive and constructive feedback to the children. The teacher would write two positive comments in relation to their achievement of the success criteria, then a comment on how they can develop. Through using this strategy the childs self esteem remains intact as there is more focus on the strengths rather than the child’s developmental needs (Harris, 2007). When children received their books in this class they were very excited to see what they had been granted as it was a strategy used for all pieces of work and therefore the children knew what to expect. They were very motivated after receiving two positive reactions to their work. I asked the teacher how the children responded to the wish and she said that they appreciated the target that they had been set and that she always made sure when she returned the books that she gave the children time to read the comments in order for them to take them on board at begin to work at achieving them. She said the children would work hard on their next piece of work on that particular target. This strategy would link to the theory of Lev Vgotsky (1978, p.l86) who argued from a social constructivist perspective. He referred to the ‘zone of proximal development’ which he defined as ‘the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers’ He would argue that it is crucial in order to recognise not just what children have accomplished, but also what they have the potential to accomplish with the assistance and support of others, such as another adult or even a fellow peer (Torrance and Pryor, 1998). Children can achieve the next step and learn actively when they are aware of what they have learnt and what comes next. The teachers provide scaffolding and supply the glue that allows them to fit all the information together and help them to reach that next level (Harris, 2007). However, this process of giving the children time to read their comments is something that I have not observed consistently in all schools. In one school in year 2, the children were given their books back in order to start their next activity and were not prompted by their teacher to look at their marked work. None of the children thought to look back at the previous days work to see what comments they had been given. For the children, the lesson had been forgotten as they had a new objective for that day and something new to focus on. They clearly did not take on board what the comments said. Sadler (1989, as cited in 1998) argued that no learning can occur if the child is not actively involved. Feedback needs both the involvement of the teacher and the child in order to be effective. It is only effective if practiced correctly by the teacher, such as the 3 stars and a wish example I have given above. It is essential that time is given to the children in order to take on board the comments and that the comments were unique to the child. It is then when children can learn. From my observations I have witnessed good deliveration of feedback and poor. Not all teachers follow the same method and there were a few who would simply write good or well done and this also includes when supply teachers would come in, this system would flaw again. One particular teacher did not put meaningful comments on the children’s work, would often write the same comment on all their work and he children would not even read it. I think that many teachers may find it time consuming and simply do not have enough training or support to carry it out efficiently. Black et al (2003) argues that parents, senior management and OFSED inspectors have not reacted in favour of comment only marking. They stress that comments should help parents concentrate and support children’s learning instead of focusing on a single grade and then causing the parents to make their children work harder. A grade or a number gives the child no direction or ways to improve and therefore an opportunity to improve their learning does not exist. Grades and numbers reminds the children of their ability rather than the effort they put in and children can make it into a competition, both which can be quite damaging to the self esteem of some children. Whereas as feedback concentrates on the positive and how the children can improve and enhance their learning. Children need a lot more praise and positive feedback in comparison to the feedback for development. It encourages them immensely through the praise they receive which then causes them to strive to develop and take the comments on board. It also prevents children from comparing grades with one another and therefore eliminating competition within the classroom (Harris, 2007). Feedback has been criticised for focusing on the quality and presentation of work rather than the progress of the learner. Introducing stickers, certificates or gold stars as a reward for good work may see children working to gain these rewards and not recognising the actual learning needs (Torrence and Pryor 2007, Wiliam and Black 2001). Additionally, teacher’s may have difficulty assessing pupil’s without comparing them to others in the class. The influence of negative feedback through formative assessment methods on pupils has shown that some children become less motivated as they think they will amount to nothing and opt out of trying to improve their achievement (Hodgen and Marshall 2005). Their self-esteem, and in turn their motivation to learn becomes dented and they develop a negative disposition to learning that may affect their education throughout life (Pendlington 2004). Teachers must work hard not to damage the quality of pupil-teacher relationships by worsening their educational experiences and undermining their self- confidence. Oral feedback is used constantly within a classroom. Research conducted by Priestly and Sime (2005) in schools showed that teachers felt that they found it useful to the children by giving them feedback during the lesson when moving around the classroom. The children would not have to wait until the next day in which case they would have completely forgotten. Clarke, (2008, mine, pg. 36) argues that through listening the teacher is able to ‘note the level of understanding and addressing any misconceptions on the spot, leading to more immediate feedback and modification of plans to meet learning needs as they arise: active learning and formative assessment in action’. In year 6 during a science lesson the teacher used planned formative assessment. The lesson was on the body and the children in their talk partners had to discuss what they knew about the body and what they would like to know. They were then to write this down in the form of a mind map. During the talking session, the teacher was consciously listening in order to obtain a sense of their understanding and see what they needed to learn. From using her listening and observation skills she could see that some were having difficulty naming and expressing the roles of particular organs. As a result, she discussed the names of organs and then possible vocabulary they could use to describe their roles and they created a word bank which she kept on the board to aid those children. This feedback was immediately effective as those children who were having difficulties were quickly identified and support was given instantly. Self / peer assessment Self and peer assessment is argued to be crucial to children’s learning (Sadler, 1989, as cited in Black et al, 2002). Black et al (2002) claim that, ‘pupils can only achieve a learning goal if they understand that goal and can assess what they need to do to reach it. So self assessment is essential to learning’. Strijbos and Sluijsmans (Birenbaum, 1996, Boud, 1990, Orsmand et al, 2004, Sambell and McDowell, 1998, as cited in Strijbos and Sluijsmans, 2010, p. 266) add that ‘peer assessment stimulates students to share responsibility, reflect, discuss and collaborate’. In order for this process to work effectively, children must be ‘let into the secrets of teachers professional practice’ so that they can gain some knowledge and understanding (James, 1998, p.173). Sadler (1989, as cited in Harris, 2007) argues that when children self and peer assess they work at a much better level and it creates an increase in their self esteem, as the teacher has trusted the children to carry out such a mature teacher like task so competently. Schools have noticed the significant effects of self and peer assessment within the classroom. Children are taking ownership of their own learning, rather than education being something which they simply experience and what is done to them. Through children assessing each others work using the success criteria, teachers have noticed children’s increasing independence and self esteem, as children feel in control of their learning (Harris, 2007, Black et al, 2003, Butt, 2010). Children do tend to complete their work more carefully, with more thought and feel proud, when they know one of their peers will be marking it (Black et al, 2003). Butt (2010) argues however that the self and peer assessment process is quite difficult. Children having to be honest with each other and also having an understanding of what they need to do in order to improve. He claims that more able children find the process a lot easier compared to the less able. More able students he argues have a clear understanding of what they have achieved and how, easily adopting self assessment before handing in their work to be marked as well as being able to question their work if it does not reach the required standard. He states that the less able children do not possess this ability and lack in self confidence and the ambition to succeed. Harris (2007) refers to research in order to support her claims of how beneficial peer/self assessment is. A Portuguese study was carried out by Fontana and Fernandes in 1994, in which 25 maths teachers and 354 children aged 8-14 completed tests before and after a course. Both groups had the same amount of time, learnt the same topics and both groups showed improvements. However, the group which took part in self assessment achieved twice a much compared to the other group. Those children who had self assessed had also been clearly identified what the learning outcomes and the success criteria and they assessed their own learning outcomes based on the activities they had been assigned to do. This evidence reflects how in order for self and peer assessment to function correctly, the learning objective and success criteria needs to be clearly identified. (Pollard et al, 2008) A lot of research claims that children easily accept criticism from their peers rather than their teachers or anyone else in a position of authority (Harris, 2007, Black et al, 2002). However, this claim is something that I disagree with. In year one, peer assessment was used quite frequently especially in literacy. Children would swap books with their partners, they would give a tick each for, capital letters, finger spaces, full stops and a wow word and if they achieved all four ticks they would draw a smiley face for their friend. However, sometimes this strategy was abused by the children, especially between girls. I found that on one particular table of all girls, even though they were only 5 and 6 would often have disagreements on the playground and not talk to one particular member of the group. When peer assessing each others books they were using this strategy against the child who had been left out that day and would make comments about her work that were not necessary. She said ‘I am not giving you a tick for your capital letter because it is too small and your handwriting is not very neat’. Children being unfair and in competition with on another is something I have observed quite frequently during peer assessment. Wragg (2007, p.67) argues that this is something which can occur in peer assessment and states, ‘if children are working in competition with each other, they may be harsh or even unfair in their appraisal of what they see as their ‘competitors’. Even if they are meant to work collaboratively, they may not always behave harmoniously’. In addition, peer and self assessment is argued to not have such a positive effect on autistic children as they felt extremely demanding and caused their self-esteem to be negatively effected (Harris, 2007). A classroom culture is created in which children feel comfortable to share with the rest of the class and their teacher about their learning and if they are not sure about something and what they are confident about. I have observed the traffic light strategy a great deal in the schools I have visited. Children use traffic light fans at the end of a lesson in order to indicate how they found the lesson. Children were comfortable to admit that they were not sure and might need more help. They knew that the teacher’s reaction would be relaxed and positive. When 2 children showed their traffic light as being amber, she said to the children, ‘Thank you for telling me you are unsure, what is it you would like help with and we can go through it now and help you learn’. Problems, difficulties and mistakes are welcomed within the classroom as they are recognised as a way forward to improve learning. Teachers can see who needs more assistance and can then include this in her future planning in order to aid the children. After any piece of work the teacher asked pupil’s to complete a feedback exercise to allow her to know how well they think they did in the session and how far they understood the task they were undertaking. At the bottom of every page the teacher stamped a set of faces; one sad, one undecided and one happy. The pupil would colour the face that best applied to them and their achievement in that piece of work. The teacher looked at these to gauge how the pupil’s had done. If, for example, there were a lot of sad faces the teacher may assume that the pupil’s did not understand or think they did well at an activity. She would them assess her delivery of the lesson, alter her material or take time to do one-on-one input to help that individual child. It has been argued that systems such as this are ineffective forms of formative assessment as they are initiated too late for any worthwhile improvement. The child is assumed to have forgotten or moved onto the next task at hand by the end of the session and thus not be focused on changing or improving that piece of work (Clarke 2008, Briggs et al 2008). Instead instant or continuous feedback throughout the lesson is seen as best practice to allow pupil’s to reflect, internalise and apply changes to their work. This has been reflected in my observations as discussed. However, in a fast paced year one lesson this is not always suitable (Briggs et al 2008). The younger pupil’s may get distracted by the interventions and stop start lesson development. Similarly, a year one lesson usually only last for 50 minutes so after the introduction to the lesson, the setting of lesson objectives and general organising of the class there may be little time for mini-conclusions. Recent research has discovered that most teachers do follow the procedures of AfL correctly, through sharing the assessment criteria with children and using peer or self assessment. However, only 20% of teachers did so in a way which allowed children to become more independent learners (James et al, 2005). In addition, Ofsted (2003, as cited in PNS, 2010, p11) stress that they have observed a great deal of good practice in assessment in schools which has promoted children’s learning. However this practice is not of to this standard in other schools and remains a significant area of development. Their report stated that assessment was ‘unsatisfactory’ in one in six lessons in literacy and one in nine in mathematics. It also criticised targets in numeracy and how they were not effective in helping children move forward (PNS, 2010). Support is being given to schools in order for them to improve their assessment practices (PNS, 2010). Formative assessment is only truly effective when practiced correctly. Simply testing children is not real learning and does not help children progress (Butt, 2010). Evidence from research and from my observations have reflected that it does enhance children’s learning. However, formative assessment is clearly very demanding and complex and changes in classroom practice are central to its effectiveness. My observations and research has reflected that not all teachers are consistently adopting formative assessment correctly or even at all. I have witnessed first hand how when formative assessment is not adopted correctly, the classroom can fall apart. The Government and schools need to raise teacher awareness of what formative assessment is, the important role pupil’s play in their learning, why formative assessment is important, and how it can be incorporated into teaching. Furthermore, it appears that national tests or summative assessment and teacher’s preparation for these levelling exercises diverts teachers towards convergent systems, due to there being such ‘high stakes’ related to the results, especially in year six (Pendlington 2004, Harlen, 2006). Many schools are criticised for being too concerned with attainment and not achievement. There is a need to enlighten teacher’s of effective assessment for learning approaches so that effective life- long learning may take place. Continuing professional development for teacher’s appears to be the key in enabling them to plan and implement effective lessons. There is a lot which I will take and have learnt from my school experiences so far with regards to formative assessment. It is something which I wish to incorporate into my planning and teaching in SBL1 well. I have witnessed a variety of assessment for learning methods adopted, some which proved to be very successful and which I hope to adopt, such as the self assessment using traffic light fans, good questioning skills, observation techniques through talk partners and show me activities. In addition, what seemed to be apparent is that through introducing the children to methods of self-evaluation, feedback to teacher’s and peers, and personalised learning strategies, they play a crucial role in helping the children throughout the school and into adulthood. It highlights the importance of the school environment in equipping children with attitudes, skills and knowledge for the future, which is something I want to play a role in. If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have the essay published on the UK Essays website then please click on the link below to request removal:
The city was first founded by a Spanish gold-seeking expedition led by Pedro de Mendoza, on 2 February, 1536. In 1539, attacks by the native people forced the settlers away and in 1541 the old site was burned. In 1580, Juan de Garay from Asuncion, which is now the capital of Paraguay, established a permanent settlement here. The city remained under the authority of a Spanish viceroy in Peru until 1776. It was the capital of viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata, including much of present-day Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia. The early days of the city were annoying for the residents. The Spanish insisted on some rules that frustrated the traders of the city. The people were not happy with the Spanish rule. After noticing a deep resentment in locals, Charles III of Spain gradually simplified the trade restrictions. Finally in the late 1700s, he declared Buenos Aires an open port. However, most of the residents were hoping for separation from the Spanish Empire. During the attacks on Rio de la Plata, the city was invaded twice in 1806 and 1807 by British forces. But the local militants managed to drive back the forces both times. Eventually when Spain was busy with Peninsular War, the armed people of town council expelled the Spanish Viceroy and founded a provisional representative government on May 25, 1810. This day, May 25 is now celebrated as a national holiday or May Revolution Day all over the country. Later on, the Spanish ruler officially declared the Independence in 1816. Buenos Aires had remained an important centre for liberal and free-trade ideas in Argentina. However, some of the other provinces were having Catholic approach to the political and social issues. These contrasting views became the reason for some conflicts later. After May 25 Revolution, the forces of the city tried to obtain the approval of other provinces. Many of these missions resulted in violent clashes. In the 19th century, the city faced two naval blockades, first by French from 1838 to 1840 and another joint Anglo-French blockade from 1845 to 1848. The city hold out its position and eventually the external powers stopped their demands. In 1853, the internal conflicts forced Buenos Aires province to separate out from Argentina. But after the National political unity, the city became the capital of Argentina in 1862. Further tensions between the city and province resulted in the detachment of the city from province. During the second half of 19th century, the city flourished by all means. The economic power of the city increased with the help of wealth generated by the fertile pampas and railroad construction. The city developed into a multicultural metropolitan and graded itself with the major European capitals. By 1920s, it became the favoured destination for immigrants who came to city from all over Europe and from Argentina's provinces and neighbouring countries too. Due to some economic crises, some citizens moved to the outskirts of the larger cities resulting in the creation of some new villas around the town. In 1935, the population jumped to the 3.5 million mark. The city experienced bombing on June 16, 1955 which killed 364 civilians. In 1970s, it suffered from the fighting between left-wing revolutionary movements (Montoneros, E.R.P. and F.A.R.) and the right-wing paramilitary group Triple A. Jorge Rafael Videla which led to the military coup of 1976. Some developments plans took place during the years of dictatorship. Certain bomb explosions between 1992 and 1994 destroyed the buildings and several Jewish organizations. In 1996, under the 1994 reform of the Argentine Constitution, the city gained autonomous status and held its first mayoral elections. In 2004, the city again underwent one of the greatest non-natural tragedies in Argentine history. A fire at Republica Cromagnon nightclub became the cause for death of 200 people.
“Thus We have appointed you a middle nation, that you may be witnesses upon mankind.” (Quran, Surah 2: Verse 143) General Characteristics of Islamic Civilization Islam was destined to become a world religion and to create a civilization which stretched from one end of the globe to the other. Already during the early Muslim caliphates, first the Arabs, then the Persians and later the Turks set about to create classical Islamic civilization. Later, in the 13th century, both Africa and India became great centers of Islamic civilization and soon thereafter Muslim kingdoms were established in the Malay-Indonesian world while Chinese Muslims flourished throughout China. Islam is a religion for all people from whatever race or background they might be. That is why Islamic civilization is based on a unity which stands completely against any racial or ethnic discrimination. Such major racial and ethnic groups as the Arabs, Persians, Turks, Africans, Indians, Chinese and Malays in addition to numerous smaller units embraced Islam and contributed to the building of Islamic civilization. Moreover, Islam was not opposed to learning from the earlier civilizations and incorporating their science, learning, and culture into its own world view, as long as they did not oppose the principles of Islam. Each ethnic and racial group which embraced Islam made its contribution to the one Islamic civilization to which everyone belonged. The sense of brotherhood and sisterhood was so much emphasized that it overcame all local attachments to a particular tribe, race, or language–all of which became subservient to the universal brotherhood and sisterhood of Islam. The global civilization thus created by Islam permitted people of diverse ethnic backgrounds to work together in cultivating various arts and sciences. Although the civilization was profoundly Islamic, even non-Muslim “people of the book” participated in the intellectual activity whose fruits belonged to everyone. The scientific climate was reminiscent of the present situation in America where scientists and men and women of learning from all over the world are active in the advancement of knowledge which belongs to everyone. The global civilization created by Islam also succeeded in activating the mind and thought of the people who entered its fold. As a result of Islam, the nomadic Arabs became torch-bearers of science and learning. The Persians who had created a great civilization before the rise of Islam nevertheless produced much more science and learning in the Islamic period than before. The same can be said of the Turks and other peoples who embraced Islam. The religion of Islam was itself responsible not only for the creation of a world civilization in which people of many different ethnic backgrounds participated, but it played a central role in developing intellectual and cultural life on a scale not seen before. For some eight hundred years Arabic remained the major intellectual and scientific language of the world. During the centuries following the rise of Islam, Muslim dynasties ruling in various parts of the Islamic world bore witness to the flowering of Islamic culture and thought. In fact this tradition of intellectual activity was eclipsed only at the beginning of modern times as a result of the weakening of faith among Muslims combined with external domination. And today this activity has begun anew in many parts of the Islamic world now that the Muslims have regained their political independence. A Brief History of Islam, The Rightly Guided Caliphs Upon the death of the Prophet (PBUH), Abu Bakr, the friend of the Prophet and the first adult male to embrace Islam, became caliph. Abu Bakr ruled for two years to be succeeded by ‘Umar who was caliph for a decade and during whose rule Islam spread extensively east and west conquering the Persian empire, Syria and Egypt. It was ‘Umar who marched on foot at the end of the Muslim army into Jerusalem and ordered the protection of Christian sites. ‘Umar also established the first public treasury and a sophisticated financial administration. He established many of the basic practices of Islamic government. ‘Umar was succeeded by ‘Uthman who ruled for some twelve years during which time the Islamic expansion continued. He is also known as the caliph who had the definitive text of the Noble Quran copied and sent to the four corners of the Islamic world. He was in turn succeeded by ‘Ali who is known to this day for his eloquent sermons and letters, and also for his bravery. With his death the rule of the “rightly guided” caliphs, who hold a special place of respect in the hearts of Muslims, came to an end. The Umayyad caliphate established in 661 was to last for about a century. During this time Damascus became the capital of an Islamic world which stretched from the western borders of China to southern France. Not only did the Islamic conquests continue during this period through North Africa to Spain and France in the West and to Sind, Central Asia and Transoxiana in the East, but the basic social and legal institutions of the newly founded Islamic world were established. The Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads, shifted the capital to Baghdad which soon developed into an incomparable center of learning and culture as well as the administrative and political heart of a vast world. They ruled for over 500 years but gradually their power waned and they remained only symbolic rulers bestowing legitimacy upon various sultans and princes who wielded actual military power. The Abbasid caliphate was finally abolished when Hulagu, the Mongol ruler, captured Baghdad in 1258 AD, destroying much of the city including its incomparable libraries. While the Abbasids ruled in Baghdad, a number of powerful dynasties such as the Fatimids, Ayyubids and Mamluks held power in Egypt, Syria and Palestine. The most important event in this area as far as the relation between Islam and the Western world was concerned was the series of Crusades declared by the Pope and espoused by various European kings. The purpose, although political, was outwardly to recapture the Holy Land and especially Jerusalem for Christianity. Although there was at the beginning some success and local European rule was set up in parts of Syria and Palestine, Muslims finally prevailed and in 1187 AD, Saladin, the great Muslim leader, recaptured Jerusalem and defeated the Crusaders. North Africa and Spain When the Abbasids captured Damascus, one of the Umayyad princes escaped and made the long journey from there to Spain to found Umayyad rule there, thus beginning the golden age of Islam in Spain. Cordoba was established as the capital and soon became Europe’s greatest city not only in population but from the point of view of its cultural and intellectual life. The Umayyads ruled over two centuries until they weakened and were replaced by local rulers. Meanwhile in North Africa, various local dynasties held sway until two powerful Berber dynasties succeeded in uniting much of North Africa and also Spain in the 12th and 13th centuries. After them this area was ruled once again by local dynasties such as the Sharifids of Morocco who still rule in that country. As for Spain itself, Muslim power continued to wane until the last Muslim dynasty was defeated in Granada in 1492 AD thus bringing nearly eight hundred years of Muslim rule in Spain to an end. Islamic History after the Mongol Invasion The Mongols devastated the eastern lands of Islam and ruled from the Sinai Desert to India for a century. But they soon converted to Islam and became known as the Il-Khanids. They were in turn succeeded by Timur and his descendents who made Samarqand their capital and ruled from 1369 to 1500. The sudden rise of Timur delayed the formation and expansion of the Ottoman empire but soon the Ottomans became the dominant power in the Islamic world. From humble origins the Turks rose to dominate over the whole of Anatolia and even parts of Europe. In 1453 Mehmet the Conqueror captured Constantinople and put an end to the Byzantine empire. The Ottomans conquered much of eastem Europe and nearly the whole of the Arab world, only Morocco and Mauritania in the West and Yemen, Hadramaut and parts of the Arabian peninsula remaining beyond their control. They reached their zenith of power with Suleyman the Magnificent whose armies reached Hungary and Austria. From the 17th century onward with the rise of Westem European powers and later Russia, the power of the Ottomans began to wane. But they nevertheless remained a force to be reckoned with until the First World War when they were defeated by the Westem nations. Soon thereafter Kamal Ataturk gained power in Turkey and abolished the six centuries of rule of the Ottomans in 1924. While the Ottomans were concerned mostly with the westem front of their empire, to the east in Persia a new dynasty called the Safavids came to power in 1502. The Safavids established a powerful state of their own which flourished for over two centuries and became known for the flowering of the arts. Their capital, Isfahan, became one of the most beautiful cities with its blue tiled mosques and exquisite houses. The Afghan invasion of 1736 put an end to Safavid rule and prepared the independence of Afghanistan which occured formally in the 19th century. Persia itself fell into turmoil until Nader Shah, the last Oriental conqueror, reunited the country and even conquered India. But the rule of the dynasty established by him was short-lived. The Zand dynasty soon took over to be overthrown by the Qajars in 1779 who made Tehran their capital and ruled until 1921 when they were in turn replaced by the Pahlavis. As for India, Islam entered into the land east of the Indus River peacefully. Gradually Muslims gained political power beginning in the early 13th century. But this period which marked the expansion of both Islam and Islamic culture came to an end with the conquest of much of India in 1526 by Babur, one of the Timurid princes. He established the powerful Mogul empire which produced such famous rulers as Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan and which lasted, despite the gradual rise of British power in India, until 1857 when it was officially abolished. Malaysia and Indonesia Farther east in the Malay world, Islam began to spread in the 12th century in northern Sumatra and soon Muslim kingdoms were establishd in Java, Sumatra and mainland Malaysia. Despite the colonization of the Malay world, Islam spread in that area covering present day Indonesia, Malaysia, the southern Phililppines and southern Thailand, and is still continuing in islands farther east. As far as Africa is concerned, Islam entered into East Africa at the very beginning of the Islamic period but remained confined to the coast for some time, only the Sudan and Somaliland becoming gradually both Arabized and Islamized. West Africa felt the presence of Islam through North African traders who travelled with their camel caravans south of the Sahara. By the 14th century there were already Muslim sultanates in such areas as Mali, and Timbuctu in West Africa and Harar in East Africa had become seats of Islamic learning. Gradually Islam penetrated both inland and southward. There also appeared major charismatic figures who inspired intense resistance against European domination. The process of the Islamization of Africa did not cease during the colonial period and continues even today with the result that most Africans are now Muslims carrying on a tradition which has had practically as long a history in certain areas of sub-Saharan Africa as Islam itself. Article Contributed by: itsIslam Staff
The Iliad Author/Context Most scholars agree that the time period in which the events in the Iliad took place was about 1200 B.C.E. Similarly, most scholars believe that the Iliad was not written down until somewhere between 800 and 600 B.C.E. During and prior to this time period, there was a strong oral poetic tradition which involved traveling poets called rhapsodoi. These poets performed to audiences all over Greece. They sang the lines of epic poems while playing the lyre. Homer is believed to have been one of these poets. The modern understanding is that the story of the siege of Troy, an integral part of Greek mythology, was not created by a single man. The epic form of this tale as we know it is most likely the synthesis of several oral traditions. The twenty four books of dactylic hexameter we now know as the Iliad have been transmitted with various textual variation since around 300 B.C.E. The oral poetic tradition thrived before the advent of writing. The people who lived in and around Greece at this time lived mostly in rather isolated city-states. Frequent festivals were held where singers and poets would compete for prizes. Out of this tradition comes the Homer whom tradition maintains was born on an island bordering the Ionian Sea. Homer not only composed the two epics that now bear his name, but he also composed numerous hymns. He is often coupled with the archaic poet Hesiod who wrote the Theogony and Works and Days. While his works are on a different subject matter than Homer's, the two authors share many similarities. Both authors are said to have sung their works all over the Greek mainland. The recitation of the Iliad was recorded as one of the early events at the Olympic games. The debate around the authorship of the Iliad is not entirely based on the institution of writing, but it is also based on historical and linguistic analysis of the text. The Greek text possesses many dialectical variants. The subject matter of the text, specifically the understanding of warfare and description of phalanxes, calls into question the historicity of its authorship. The Iliad bears such a myriad of different traits that it is almost impossible to conceive of it as the work of a single individual. The classical tradition, however, is that there was a man named Homer who codified the oral tradition of the siege of Troy. This oral tradition was recorded by others and became the more standard text which we possess today. Although there are still many manuscript variants, the format and the story have remained the same. Through the centuries the Homeric epics have influenced writers and philosophers for many different countries. Every generation, poets and scholars try their hands at translating Homer from ancient Greek into modern languages. Solon is said to have used a portion of Book 2 to assert that Athens had an ancient right to the island of Salamis. In Plato's apology, Socrates compares himself to Achilles and his paradox of living a short glorious life or a long life of anonymity, choosing to die a noble death rather than live in ignominy. According to Oskar Seyffert: "...the Homeric poems remain unsurpassed as works of art, which have had an incalculable influence not only on the development of literature and art, but also upon the whole life of the Greeks, who from the earliest times regarded them as the common property of the nation, and employed them as the foundation of all teaching and culture." Edwards, Mark W. Homer: Poet of the Iliad. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987. Homer. Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. New York: Penguin, 1990. Jensen, Minna Skafte. The Homeric Question and the Oral-Formulaic Theory. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1980. Latacz, Joachim. Homer. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999. Muellner, Leonard. The Anger of Achilles. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996. Plato. Euthyphro, Apology, Crito. Trans. F. J. Church. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1948. Seyffert, Oskar. The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Religion, Literature and Art. Trans. Henry Nettleship and J. E. Sandys. New York: Portland House, 1995
White grubs are the larvae of scarab beetles. Several other species, such as May beetles and June beetles are also present, but usually in low numbers. The Japanese beetle is consistently the most damaging grub in Texas. They have cream bodies with yellow to brown heads, brown hind parts, and six legs. Mature grubs vary from 1/4 to 1-1/2 inches, depending on the species. White grubs usually lie in a curled or C-shaped position. Billbug larvae may also be present but can be distinguished by the absence of legs. All of the important species of white grubs in Texas have a one-year lifespan and spend about 10 months of that in the ground. The life cycle of the Japanese beetle is typical for white grubs of importance in Texas. Eggs are laid in late June and early July, and larvae hatch in July. These larvae feed on grass roots until cool weather arrives in October. In November, the grubs burrow deeper into the soil and return to the root area and begin feeding in March. Larvae pupate and adults emerge in May and early June. This life cycle is basically the same for all species, except the emergence and egg-laying for the oriental beetle is about three weeks earlier than for the Japanese beetle, and emergence and egg-laying for the green June beetle is about three weeks later. Timing of chemical applications for these two species should be adjusted accordingly. The Turfgrass ataenius has two generations per year, overwintering as an adult and developing a second generation of adults by July, so they may require two treatments. Green June beetle larvae are also different in their feeding behavior. Instead of attacking grass roots, these grubs feed mainly on decaying vegetation. Their burrowing smothers grass and uproots seedlings. Sometimes in the fall or after a heavy rain, green June beetle larvae come out of the soil and crawl on their backs on the surface of the ground. They can be identified by this unusual behavior and by distinct dark spots, one per segment, on each side of the body. White grubs can be controlled in a timely and economical manner if proper controls are correctly applied at the right time. To prevent serious damage, examine all turf in April and again in August for the presence of grubs. Birds, moles, skunks and raccoons all feed on grubs, and their digging in the lawn may be a sign of a white grub infestation. However, it is best to verify that grubs are actually present before applying pesticides. Use a knife or spade to cut a 1-square-foot flap of sod and roll it back. Examine the soil and roots in the top 3 or 4 inches. Repeat this process in several locations. If you find an average of five or more grubs per square foot, a pesticide application is justified. The condition of the turf, its value, and its uses (for example, whether it is a home lawn or a golf green), and the amount of damage done by animals searching for the grubs may affect your decision on whether to apply a pesticide. A biological treatment method, useful against only Japanese beetle grubs, is the application of milky spore bacteria. This commercially available bacteria, when applied to the soil, infects the grubs and produces a disease. The spores germinate inside the grubs, eventually killing them. These spores work best when applied in late September or early October to soil with a pH level between 6 and 7. The results are not as rapid as with chemical insecticides, but the effects last many years. When milky spore disease becomes established, it will spread naturally to adjoining, untreated areas. Application at the time of turf installation may result in a more uniform distribution of the spores in the soil. This product is available at many garden shops under such trade names as Doom®, Japidemic®, or Milky Spore. The timing of the insecticide application is critical if control is to be effective. There are two approaches, preventative and curative. Some of the newer products (Merit® and Mach 2®) are preventative, and are most effective when applied prior to when the eggs are laid. This approach should only be used in areas that have a history of grub infestations. The curative approach is used when an existing infestation is detected. The best time to apply curative insecticides is when the grubs are actively feeding near the soil surface. Pesticides applied any other time will be ineffective. As indicated in the life cycle chart, this feeding occurs from August through October, and again in April through early May. Curative treatments applied in late summer or fall are usually more effective than spring applications because the grubs are small. Specific timing depends on the species of grub, and on location in the state. Timing of applications in the mountains will generally be later than in the eastern part of the state. Timing of applications for control of the Turfgrass ataenius varies. Another factor affecting chemical control is irrigation. Irrigation prior to application is highly recommended, especially in dry weather. Grubs stay deep in the soil when conditions are dry, and irrigation a day or two before application helps to bring them closer to the surface and improves control. Insecticides kill grubs more effectively if watered in after application. The only exception is carbaryl (Sevin) used to control green June beetles; it should not be watered in. After treatment, green June beetle grubs may be found on the soil surface, whereas other grub species will die in the soil.
10-11.M.3HS.IC Inferences and Conclusions from Data 10-11. Summarize, represent, and interpret data on a single count or measurement variable 10-11.M.3HS.IC.1 Use the mean and standard deviation of a data set to fit it to a normal distribution and to estimate population percentages. Recognize that there are data sets for which such a procedure is not appropriate. Use calculators, spreadsheets, and tables to estimate areas under the normal curve. 10-11. Perform arithmetic operations on polynomials 10-11.M.3HS.PR.6 Understand that polynomials form a system analogous to the integers, namely, they are closed under the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication; add, subtract, and multiply polynomials. 10-11.M.3HS.PR.10 Know and apply the Binomial Theorem for the expansion of (x + y) to the n power in powers of x and y for a positive integer n, where x and y are any numbers, with coefficients determined for example by Pascal's Triangle. 10-11.M.3HS.PR.11 Rewrite simple rational expressions in different forms; write a(x)/b(x) in the form q(x) + r(x)/b(x), where a(x), b(x), q(x), and r(x) are polynomials with the degree of r(x) less than the degree of b(x), using inspection, long division, or, for the more complicated examples, a computer algebra system. 10-11.M.3HS.PR.12 Understand that rational expressions form a system analogous to the rational numbers, closed under addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division by a nonzero rational expression; add, subtract, multiply, and divide rational expressions. 10-11. Represent and solve equations and inequalities graphically 10-11.M.3HS.PR.14 Explain why the x-coordinates of the points where the graphs of the equations y = f(x) and y = g(x) intersect are the solutions of the equation f(x) = g(x); find the solutions approximately, e.g., using technology to graph the functions, make tables of values, or find successive approximations. Include cases where f(x) and/or g(x) are linear, polynomial, rational, absolute value, exponential, and logarithmic functions. 10-11. Analyze functions using different representations 10-11.M.3HS.PR.15 graph functions expressed symbolically and show key features of the graph, by hand in simple cases and using technology for more complicated cases. Graph polynomial functions, identifying zeros when suitable factorizations are available and showing end behavior. 10-11.M.3HS.TF.5 Explain how the unit circle in the coordinate plane enables the extension of trigonometric functions to all real numbers, interpreted as radian measures of angles traversed counterclockwise around the unit circle. 10-11. Interpret functions that arise in applications in terms of the context 10-11.M.3HS.MM.5 For a function that models a relationship between two quantities, interpret key features of graphs and tables in terms of the quantities, and sketch graphs showing key features given a verbal description of the relationship. 10-11. Build new functions from existing functions 10-11.M.3HS.MM.12 Identify the effect on the graph of replacing f(x) by f(x) + k, k f(x), f(kx), and f(x + k) for specific values of k (both positive and negative); find the value of k given the graphs. Experiment with cases and illustrate an explanation of the effects on the graph using technology. 10-11. Construct and compare linear, quadratic, and exponential models and solve problems 10-11.M.3HS.MM.14 For exponential models, express as a logarithm the solution to ab to the ct power = d where a, c, and d are numbers and the base b is 2, 10, or e; evaluate the logarithm using technology. 10-11.M.3HS.MM.17 Apply concepts of density based on area and volume in modeling situations (e.g., persons per square mile, BTUs per cubic foot). 10-11.M.3HS.MM.18 Apply geometric methods to solve design problems (e.g., designing an object or structure to satisfy physical constraints or minimize cost; working with typographic grid systems based on ratios).
Lesson plan Essay - Part 5 Then, the teacher will relate It to how words or sentences In language become parallel by presenting the following sentences - Lesson plan Essay introduction. Study the following sentences: 1. Larry is fond of jogging, swimming, and to play tennis. 2. He likes reading novels, gardening flowering plants and watching movies. C. Analysis The teacher will discuss parallelism by asking the following questions: 1 . What can you say about the two sentences? Do they differ? In terms of what? 2. Are the words in each sentence similar In form? Which of the two is better and more effective? What rule In grammar is observed in the second sentence? D. Abstraction underline the parallel structures In the following sentences. Do this In your notebook. Yak – Kayaking ? Naira – Mollie company, and to raise the level of excellence in our outputs. 2. Overcoming language barriers, understanding cultural differences, and respecting each other’s customs and practices are sure acts of global unity. 3. Some citizens are misunderstood because of the way they live, the manner they talk, and the way they act. E. Application Write C if the sentence has parallel structures. If the sentence does not have parallel structures, rewrite the part to make the sentence correct. More Essay Examples on Answer Activity 2. ‘V. Assessment Write C if the sentence has parallel structures. If the sentence does not have parallel structures, rewrite the part to make the sentence correct. 1 . An actor knows how to memorize his lines and getting into his character. 2. The plan is creative but a risk. 3. Everyone aims to attain his dreams, to have a good future, and to improve his life. 4. Eight months later, Ben left his Job; moved his family to Dallas, Joins us and started with the company. 5. The contestants are pretty, witty, and they have self – confidence. V. Assignment Do Activity 3 in your English notebook.
Influenza, commonly called the flu, is a contagious illness caused by one of three types (influenza A, B, and C) of the influenza virus. It is extremely common in the US, and every year 5-20% of the population contracts the flu. Symptoms are generally mild and include fever, headache, coughing, runny nose and muscle aches, however, each year about 36,000 people in the US die from the flu or complications related to the flu. Flu season usually lasts from November until about April or May each year. It is recommended that anyone wishing to avoid contracting the flu be vaccinated, especially those under the age of 5 and over 50, as they are at risk of developing complications from the flu. There are several different subtypes of the influenza A virus. Each is distinguished from the others by variations in the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) proteins displayed on the viral surface. Each combination of HA and NA represents a unique subtype, and the only subtypes known to widely circulate between humans are H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2. As a result of selective pressure and the high mutation rate of the virus, there are a number of variants of each influenza subtype. Some variants produce mild disease and transmissibility, while others produce serious disease and are easily passed from person to person. Occasionally a variant of influenza virus can develop that people have little immunity to and also has extremely facile transmissibility. This deadly combination can lead to a global disease outbreak, called a pandemic. The largest pandemic on record occurred in 1918 with the outbreak of the Spanish Flu. Influenza is constantly infecting and interacting with both human and animal hosts. Avian influenza subtype H5N1 is currently causing worldwide concern as it has been able to occasionally infect not only birds but also humans. It is referred to in the media as the bird flu and if it develops the ability to spread easily from person to person it could have devastating effects.
Forced labour under German rule during World War II The use of forced labour in Nazi Germany and throughout German-occupied Europe during World War II took place on an unprecedented scale. It was a vital part of the German economic exploitation of conquered territories. It also contributed to the mass extermination of populations in German-occupied Europe. The Nazi Germans abducted approximately 12 million people from almost twenty European countries; about two thirds of whom came from Eastern Europe. Many workers died as a result of their living conditions, mistreatment, malnutrition and torture were the main causes of death. They became civilian casualties of shelling. At its peak the forced labourers comprised 20% of the German work force. Counting deaths and turnover, about 15 million men and women were forced labourers at one point or another during the war. The liberation of Germany in 1945 freed 11 million foreigners, called "displaced persons" – chiefly forced labourers and POWs. In addition to POWs, the Germans had seized 2.8 million Soviet workers to labour in factories in Germany. Returning them home was a high priority for the Allies. However, in the case of Russians and Ukrainians, returning often meant suspicion, prison, or death. The United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), Red Cross, and military operations provided food, clothing, shelter, and assistance in returning home. In all, 5.2 million foreign workers and POWs were repatriated to the Soviet Union, 1.6 million to Poland, 1.5 million to France, and 900,000 to Italy, along with 300,000 to 400,000 each to Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands, Hungary, and Belgium. Hitler's policy of Lebensraum strongly emphasized the conquest of new lands in the East, known as Generalplan Ost, and the exploitation of these lands to provide cheap goods and labour to Germany. Even before the war, Nazi Germany maintained a supply of slave labour. This practice started from the early days of labour camps of "undesirables" (German: unzuverlässige Elemente), such as the homeless, homosexual, criminals, political dissidents, communists, Jews, and anyone whom the regime wanted out of the way. During World War II the Nazis operated several categories of Arbeitslager (labour camps) for different categories of inmates. Prisoners in Nazi labour camps were worked to death on short rations and in bad conditions, or killed if they became unable to work. Many died as a direct result of forced labour under the Nazis. After the invasion of Poland, Jews over the age of 12 and Poles over the age of 14 living in the General Government were subject to forced labor. In 1942, all non-Germans living in the General Government were subject to forced labor. The largest number of labour camps held civilians forcibly abducted in the occupied countries (see Łapanka) to provide labour in the German war industry, repair bombed railroads and bridges, or work on farms. Manual labour was a resource in high demand, as much of the work that today would be done with machines was still a manual affair in the 1930s and 1940s – shoveling, material handling, machining, and many others. As the war progressed, the use of slave labour increased massively. Prisoners of war and civilian "undesirables" were brought in from occupied territories. Millions of Jews, Slavs and other conquered peoples were used as slave labourers by German corporations, such as Thyssen, Krupp, IG Farben, and even the German subsidiaries of foreign firms, such as Fordwerke (a subsidiary of the Ford Motor Company) and Adam Opel AG (a subsidiary of General Motors). Once the war had begun, the foreign subsidiaries were seized and nationalized by the Nazi-controlled German state, and work conditions there deteriorated as they did throughout German industry. About 12 million forced labourers, most of whom were Eastern Europeans, were employed in the German war economy inside Nazi Germany throughout the war. The German need for slave labour grew to the point that even children were kidnapped to work in an operation called the Heu-Aktion. More than 2,000 German companies profited from slave labour during the Nazi era, including Deutsche Bank and Siemens. A class system was created amongst Fremdarbeiter ("foreign workers") brought to Germany to work for the Reich. The system was based on layers of increasingly less privileged workers, starting with well paid workers from Germany's allies or neutral countries to slave labourers from conquered Untermenschen ("sub-humans") populations. - Gastarbeitnehmer ("guest workers") – Workers from Germanic and Scandinavian countries, France, Italy, other German allies (Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary), and friendly neutrals (e.g. Spain and Switzerland). This was a very small group, only about 1% of foreign workers in Germany came from countries that were neutral or allied to Germany. - Zwangsarbeiter (forced workers) – Forced labourers from countries not allied with Germany. This class of workers was broken down into the following designations: - Militärinternierte ("military internees") – Prisoners of war. Geneva Conventions allowed captor nations to force non-officer prisoners of war to work within certain restrictions. For example, almost all Polish non-officer prisoners of war (c. 300,000) were forced to work in Nazi Germany. In 1944, there were almost 2 million prisoners of war employed as forced labourers in Germany. Compared to other foreign workers, the prisoners of war were relatively well-off, especially if they came from western countries that were still at war like United States or Britain, as the minimum standards of their treatment were mandated by the Geneva Conventions (Soviet prisoners of war, however, were treated with utter brutality as Nazis did not consider them subject to protection under the Geneva Conventions, which had not been ratified nor implemented by the Soviet Union). Their working conditions and well-being were subject to supervision by the International Red Cross and, in cases of mistreatment, retaliation against German prisoners held in US and Britain (and likewise performing forced labor) was almost certain. However, the treatment of these workers varied greatly depending on their country of origin, the period, and the specific workplace. - Zivilarbeiter ("civilian workers") – ethnic Poles from the General Government. They were regulated by strict Polish decrees: they received much lower wages and could not use conveniences such as public transport, or visit many public spaces and businesses (for example they could not attend German-church services, swimming pools, or restaurants); they had to work longer hours and were assigned smaller food rations; they were subject to a curfew. Poles were routinely denied holidays and had to work seven days a week; they could not enter marriage between themselves without a permit; they could not possess money or objects of value: bicycles, cameras, or even lighters. They were required to wear a sign: the "Polish P", on their clothing. In 1939 there were about 300,000 Polish Zivilarbeiter in Germany. By 1944, their number skyrocketted to about 1.7 million, or 2.8 million by different accounts (approximately 10% of occupied Poland's prisoner workforce). In 1944, there were about 7.6 m foreign so-called civilian workers employed in Germany in total, including POWs from Generalgouvernement and the expanded USSR, with and a similar number of workers in this category from other countries. - Ostarbeiter ("Eastern workers") – Former Soviet civil workers, primarily from Ukraine. They were marked with a sign OST ("East"), had to live in camps that were fenced with barbed wire and under guard, and were particularly exposed to the arbitrariness of the Gestapo and the industrial plant guards. Estimates put the number of OST Arbeiters between 3 million and 5.5 million. In general, foreign labourers from Western Europe had similar gross earnings and were subject to similar taxation as German workers. In contrast, the central and eastern European forced labourers received at most about one-half the gross earnings paid to German workers and much fewer social benefits. Forced labourers who were prisoners of labour or concentration camps received little if any wage and benefits. The deficiency in net earnings of central and eastern European forced labourers (versus forced labourers from western countries) is illustrated by the wage savings forced labourers were able to transfer to their families at home or abroad (see table). The Nazis issued a ban on sexual relations between Germans and foreign workers. Repeated efforts were made to propagate Volkstum ("racial consciousness"), to prevent such relations. Pamphlets, for instance, instructed all German women to avoid physical contact with all foreign workers brought to Germany as a danger to their blood. Women who disobeyed were imprisoned. Even fraternization with the workers was regarded as dangerous, and targeted with pamphlet campaigns in 1940–1942. The soldiers in the Wehrmacht and SS officers were exempt from any such restrictions. It is estimated that at least 34,140 Eastern European women apprehended in Łapankas (military kidnapping raids), were forced to serve them as sex slaves in German military brothels and camp brothels during the Third Reich. In Warsaw alone, there were five such establishments set up under military guard in September 1942, with over 20 rooms each. Alcohol was not allowed in there, unlike on the western front, and the victims underwent genital checkup once a week. In the late summer of 1944, German records listed 7.6 million foreign civilian workers and prisoners of war in the German territory, most of whom had been brought there by coercion. By 1944, slave labour made up one quarter of Germany's entire work force, and the majority of German factories had a contingent of prisoners. The Nazis also had plans for the deportation and enslavement of Britain's adult male population in the event of a successful invasion. Foreign civilian forced labourers in Nazi Germany by country of origin, January 1944 with transfer payment to the Reich per labourer Source: Beyer & Schneider Countries Number % of total RM Total 6,450,000 100.0% Occupied Eastern Europe 4,208,000 65.2% median 15 RM Czechoslovakia 348,000 5.4% Poland 1,400,000 21.7% 33.5 RM Yugoslavia 270,000 4.2% USSR 2,165,000 33.6% 4 RM Hungary 25,000 0.4% Occupied Western Europe 2,155,000 33.4 median 700 RM France (except Alsace-Lorraine) 1,100,000 17.1% 487 RM Norway 2,000 – Denmark 23,000 0.4% Netherlands 350,000 5.4% Belgium 500,000 7.8% 913 RM Italy [a] 180,000 2.8% 1,471 RM Greece 20,000 0.3% German allies and neutral countries 87,000 1.3% Bulgaria 35,000 0.5% Romania 6,000 0.1% Spain 8,000 0.1% Switzerland 18,000 0.3% The Organisation Todt was a Third Reich civil and military engineering group in Nazi Germany, eponymously named for its founder Fritz Todt, an engineer and senior Nazi figure. The organization was responsible for a huge range of engineering projects both in pre-World War II Germany, and in all of occupied Europe from France to Russia. Todt became notorious for using forced labour. Most of the so-called "volunteer" Soviet POW workers were assigned to the Organisation Todt. The history of the organization falls into three main phases. - A pre-war period between 1933 and 1938, during which the predecessor of Organisation Todt, the office of General Inspector of German Roadways (Generalinspektor für das deutsche Straßenwesen), was primarily responsible for the construction of the German Autobahn network. The organisation was able to draw on "conscripted" (i.e. compulsory) labour from within Germany through the Reich Labour Service (Reichsarbeitsdienst, RAD). - The period from 1938 until 1942 after Operation Barbarossa, when the Organisation Todt proper was founded and utilized on the Eastern front. The huge increase in the demand for labour created by the various military and paramilitary projects was met by a series of expansions of the laws on compulsory service, which ultimately obligated all Germans to arbitrarily determined (i.e. effectively unlimited) compulsory labour for the state: Zwangsarbeit. From 1938-40, Over 1.75 million Germans were conscripted into labour service. From 1940-42, Organization Todt began its reliance on Gastarbeitnehmer (guest workers), Militärinternierte (military internees), Zivilarbeiter (civilian workers), Ostarbeiter (Eastern workers) and Hilfswillige ("volunteer") POW workers. - The period from 1942 until the end of the war, with approximately 1.4 million labourers in the service of the Organisation Todt. Overall, 1% were Germans rejected from military service and 1.5% were concentration camp prisoners; the rest were prisoners of war and compulsory labourers from occupied countries. All were effectively treated as slaves and existed in the complete and arbitrary service of a ruthless totalitarian state. Many did not survive the work or the war. Extreme cases: extermination through labour Millions of Jews were forced labourers in ghettos, before they were shipped off to extermination camps. The Nazis also operated concentration camps, some of which provided free forced labour for industrial and other jobs while others existed purely for the extermination of their inmates. To mislead the victims, at the entrances to a number of camps the lie "work brings freedom" ("arbeit macht frei") was placed, to encourage the false impression that cooperation would earn release. A notable example of labour-concentration camp is the Mittelbau-Dora labour camp complex that serviced the production of the V-2 rocket. Extermination through labour was a Nazi German World War II principle that regulated the aims and purposes of most of their labour and concentration camps. The rule demanded that the inmates of German World War II camps be forced to work for the German war industry with only basic tools and minimal food rations until totally exhausted. Controversy over compensation To facilitate the economy after the war, certain categories of the victims of Nazism were excluded from compensation from the German Government; those were the groups with the least amount of political pressure they could have brought to bear, and many forced labourers from the Eastern Europe fall into that category. There has been little initiative on the part of the German government or business to compensate the forced labourers from the war period. As stated in the London Debt Agreement of 1953: Consideration of claims arising out of the Second World War by countries which were at war with or were occupied by Germany during that war, and by nationals of such countries, against the Reich and agencies of the Reich, including costs of German occupation, credits acquired during occupation on clearing accounts and claims against the Reichskreditkassen shall be deferred until the final settlement of the problem of reparations. To this date, there are arguments that such settlement has never been fully carried out and that Germany post-war development has been greatly aided, while the development of victim countries stalled. A prominent example of a group which received almost no compensation for their time as forced labourer in Nazi Germany are the Polish forced labourers. According to the Potsdam Agreements of 1945, the Poles were to receive reparations not from Germany itself, but from the Soviet Union share of those reparations; due to the Soviet pressure on the Polish communist government, the Poles agreed to a system of repayment that de facto meant that few Polish victims received any sort of adequate compensation (comparable to the victims in Western Europe or Soviet Union itself). Most of the Polish share of reparations was "given" to Poland by Soviet Union under the Comecon framework, which was not only highly inefficient, but benefited Soviet Union much more than Poland. Under further Soviet pressure (related to the London Agreement on German External Debts), in 1953 the People's Republic of Poland renounced its right to further claims of reparations from the successor states of the Third Reich. Only after the fall of communism in Poland in 1989/1990 did the Polish government try to renegotiate the issue of reparations, but found little support in this from the German side and none from the Soviet (later, Russian) side. The total number of forced labourers under the Third Reich who were still alive as of August 1999 was 2.3 million. The German Forced Labour Compensation Programme was established in 2000; a forced labour fund paid out more than 4.37 billion euros to close to 1.7 million of then-living victims around the world (one-off payments of between 2,500 to 7,500 euros). Germany Chancellor Angela Merkel stated in 2007 that "Many former forced labourers have finally received the promised humanitarian aid"; she also conceded that before the fund was established nothing had gone directly to the forced labourers. German president Horst Koehler stated - It was an initiative that was urgently needed along the journey to peace and reconciliation... At least, with these symbolic payments, the suffering of the victims has been publicly acknowledged after decades of being forgotten. - Baudienst, German (In English, building service or construction service); full name - Polnischer Baudienst im Generalgouvernement, German (In English, Polish Service of Construction in the General Government) - Totaleinsatz, position of 400,000 Czechs under the Arbeitseinsatz programme. - Arbeitseinsatz, forced labour deployment (Zwangsarbeit) - Deutsche Wirtschaftsbetriebe, German (In English, DWB - German Economic Enterprises) - Forced labour of Germans after World War II: the employment of Germans as forced laborers by the Allied powers - Forced labour of Germans in the Soviet Union - Fritz Sauckel - Hunger Plan - Kidnapping of Polish children by Nazi Germany - Organisation Todt - Service du travail obligatoire (STO), (French > "Compulsory Work Service") - Sexual enslavement by Nazi Germany in World War II - Italian military internees - Generalplan Ost a. ^ By January 1944, Italy had switched sides and is included in Occupied Western Europe. Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania would not switch sides till summer 1944 and are included in German allies section. - John C. Beyer; Stephen A. Schneider. "Forced Labour under Third Reich - Part 1" (PDF). Nathan Associates Inc. and John C. Beyer; Stephen A. Schneider. "Forced Labour under Third Reich - Part 2" (PDF). Nathan Associates Inc. - Ulrich Herbert, Hitler's Foreign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labour in Germany under the Third Reich (1997) - Czesław Łuczak (1979). Polityka ludnościowa i ekonomiczna hitlerowskich Niemiec w okupowanej Polsce [Civilian and economic policy of Nazi Germany in occupied Poland]. Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie. pp. 136–. ISBN 832100010X. Retrieved 11 October 2013. Also in: Eksploatacja ekonomiczna ziem polskich (Economic exploitation of Poland's territory) by Dr. Andrzej Chmielarz, Polish Resistance in WW2, Eseje-Artykuły. - Panikos Panayi, "Exploitation, Criminality, Resistance. The Everyday Life of Foreign Workers and Prisoners of War in the German Town of Osnabrück, 1939-49," Journal of Contemporary History Vol. 40, No. 3 (Jul., 2005), pp. 483-502 in JSTOR - William I. Hitchcock, The Bitter Road to Freedom: The Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe (2008), pp 250-56 - Diemut Majer (2003). "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939-1945. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6493-3. - Majer, 2003, p.303 - Sohn-Rethel, Alfred Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism, CSE Books, 1978 ISBN 0-906336-01-5 - Marek, Michael (2005-10-27). "Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Labourers". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 2008-05-20. See also: "Forced Labour at Ford Werke AG during the Second World War". The Summer of Truth Website. Retrieved 2008-05-20. - "Comprehensive List Of German Companies That Used Slave Or Forced Labour During World War II Released". American Jewish Committee. 7 December 1999. Retrieved 2008-05-20. See also: Roger Cohen (February 17, 1999). "German Companies Adopt Fund For Slave Labourers Under Nazis". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-05-20. "German Firms That Used Slave or Forced Labour During the Nazi Era". American Jewish Committee. January 27, 2000. Retrieved 2008-07-17. - Ulrich Herbert (16 March 1999). "The Army of Millions of the Modern Slave State: Deported, used, forgotten: Who were the forced workers of the Third Reich, and what fate awaited them?". Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. Retrieved January 6, 2013. This is an extract from Herbert's Hitler’s Foreign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labour in Germany under the Third Reich, Cambridge University Press 1997. Compiled by Dr S.D. Stein. - A. Paczkowski, Historia Powszechna/Historia Polski, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2008, tom 16, p. 28 - Остарбайтеры (in Russian). Retrieved 2008-05-20. - Special treatment is done by train (Sonderbehandlung) - Robert Edwin Hertzstein, The War That Hitler Won p139 ISBN 0-399-11845-4 - Leila J. Rupp, Mobilizing Women for War, p 124-5, ISBN 0-691-04649-2, OCLC 3379930 - Robert Edwin Hertzstein, The War That Hitler Won p212 ISBN 0-399-11845-4 - Robert Edwin Hertzstein, The War That Hitler Won p211-2 ISBN 0-399-11845-4 - Nanda Herbermann, Hester Baer, Elizabeth Roberts Baer (2000). The Blessed Abyss (GOOGLE BOOKS). Detroit: Wayne State University Press. pp. 33‑34. ISBN 0-8143-2920-9. Retrieved January 12, 2011. - Lenten, Ronit (2000). Israel and the Daughters of the Shoah: Reoccupying the Territories of Silence. Berghahn Books. pp. 33–34. ISBN 1-57181-775-1. - Joanna Ostrowska, Marcin Zaremba, "Do burdelu, marsz!" (March in, to the brothel!), Polityka, No 22 (2707), May 30, 2009; pp. 70-72 (Polish) - Allen, Michael Thad (2002). The Business of Genocide. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 1. See also: Herbert, Ulrich. "Forced Labourers in the "Third Reich"". International Labour and Working-Class History. Archived from the original on 2008-04-15. Retrieved 2008-05-20. - Shirer, William. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, Arrow books 1991. - Christian Streit: Keine Kameraden: Die Wehrmacht und die Sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen, 1941-1945, Bonn: Dietz (3. Aufl., 1. Aufl. 1978), ISBN 3-8012-5016-4 - "Between 22 June 1941 and the end of the war, roughly 5.7 million members of the Red Army fell into German hands. In January 1945, 930,000 were still in German camps. A million at most had been released, most of whom were so-called "volunteer" (Hilfswillige) for (often compulsory) auxiliary service in the Wehrmacht. Another 500,000, as estimated by the Army High Command, had either fled or been liberated. The remaining 3,300,000 (57.5 percent of the total) had perished." - HBC (25 September 2009). "Organization Todt". World War II: German Military Organizations. HBC Historical Clothing. Retrieved 16 October 2014. Sources: 1. Gruner, Wolf. Jewish Forced Labor Under the Nazis. Economic Needs and Racial Aims, 1938–1944 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), published in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 2. U.S. War Department, "The Todt Organization and Affiliated Services" Tactical and Technical Trends No. 30 (July 29, 1943). - Verordnung zur Sicherstellung des Kräftebedarfs für Aufgaben von besonderer staatspolitischer Bedeutung of October 15, 1938 (Notdienstverordnung), RGBl. 1938 I, Nr. 170, S. 1441–1443; Verordnung zur Sicherstellung des Kräftebedarfs für Aufgaben von besonderer staatspolitischer Bedeutung of February 13, 1939, RGBl. 1939 I, Nr. 25, S. 206f.; Gesetz über Sachleistungen für Reichsaufgaben (Reichsleistungsgesetz) of September 1, 1939, RGBl. 1939 I, Nr. 166, S. 1645–1654. [ RGBl = Reichsgesetzblatt, the official organ for he publication of laws.] For further background, see Die Ausweitung von Dienstpflichten im Nationalsozialismus(German), a working paper of the Forschungsprojekt Gemeinschaften, Humboldt University, Berlin, 1996–1999. - Stanisław Dobosiewicz (1977). Mauthausen/Gusen; obóz zagłady (Mauthausen/Gusen; the Camp of Doom) (in Polish). Warsaw: Ministry of National Defense Press. p. 449. ISBN 83-11-06368-0. - Wolfgang Sofsky (1999). The Order of Terror: The Concentration Camp. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 352. ISBN 0-691-00685-7. - Władysław Gębik (1972). Z diabłami na ty (Calling the Devils by their Names) (in Polish). Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Morskie. p. 332. See also: Günter Bischof; Anton Pelinka (1996). Austrian Historical Memory and National Identity. Transaction Publishers. pp. 185–190. ISBN 1-56000-902-0. and Cornelia Schmitz-Berning (1998). "Vernichtung durch Arbeit". Vokabular des Nationalsozialismus (Vocabulary of the National Socialism) (in German). Walter de Gruyter. p. 634. ISBN 3-11-013379-2. - Jeanne Dingell. "The Question of the Polish Forced Labourer during and in the Aftermath of World War II: The Example of the Warthegau Forced Labourers". remember.org. Retrieved 2008-06-02. - Erik Kirschbaum (12 June 2007). "Germany ends war chapter with "slave fund" closure". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2008-07-24. Retrieved 2008-07-13. - Herbert, Ulrich (1997). Hitler's Foreign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labour in Germany Under the Third Reich. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-47000-5. - Homze, Edward L. Foreign Labor in Nazi Germany (Princeton UP 1967) - Edward L. Homze (Dec 1980). "Review of Benjamin B. Ferencz, Less Than Slaves: Jewish Forced Labour and the Quest for Compensation". The American Historical Review 85 (5): 1225. JSTOR 1853330. - Kogon, Eugen (2006). The Theory and Practice of Hell: The German Concentration Camps and the System Behind Them. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-52992-2. - Mazower, Mark. Hitler's Empire: How the Nazis Ruled Europe (2009) ch 10 - Ruhs, Florian. "Foreign Workers in the Second World War. The Ordeal of Slovenians in Germany", aventinus nova # 32 (2011). - Tooze, Adam (2007). The Wages of Destruction. Viking Press. pp. 476–85, 538–49. ISBN 0-670-03826-1. - Compensation for Forced Labour in World War II: The German Compensation Law of 2 August 2000[dead link] - German compensation law - Report on victim compensation, International Organization for Migration - Forced Labour document from Yad Vashem[verification needed] - "Forced and Slave Labour in Nazi-Dominated Europe, 1933 to 1945", United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Symposium (2002) - International Red Cross - Nazi Forced Labour Documentation Centre in Berlin-Schoeneweide - Forced Labour at Salamander AG - Claims against Gerrmany - International Tracing Service - Glossary
The normal heart beats from its formation within the mother’s womb until death. Heart rate is the number of heartbeats per unit of time. Usually heart rate is expressed as beats per minute (BPM). The heart beats to supply oxygenated clean blood from the left ventricle to the blood vessels of the body via the aorta. As the need for oxygen changes in various situations, like exercise, sleep and so forth, the heart rate changes accordingly. Why do healthcare professionals measure heart rate? Heart rate measurement is used by healthcare professionals to aid in diagnosis, follow up of several medical conditions including heart diseases. What is a normal heart rate? Normally humans have their heart rate between 70 to 90 beats per minute. Athletes have a lower basal heart rate while stress, exercise and anxiety in normal persons often raises the heart rate. How is heart rate measured? Heart rate is usually measured by finding the pulse in the body. The pulse is felt by the pads of the index and middle fingers of the examiner. At each beat the heart pumps blood into the blood vessels. As the blood flows into the blood vessels the blood vessels expand and this is felt as a pulse. This pulse rate is felt at any part of the body where the arterial pulsation is transmitted to the skin surface especially when it is compressed against an underlying structure like bone. Some of the pulse sites include:- Temporal artery by the sides of the forehead Facial artery at the angle of the jaws Carotid artery in the neck Radial artery at the wrist Femoral artery at the groin Popliteal artery behind the knees Posterior tibial artery Dorsalis pedis artery over the foot Other ways to measure the heart rate Pulse rate or heart rate can also be determined and using an electrocardiograph, or ECG or heart rate monitors. Heart rate monitors allow accurate measurements of the heart rate during exercise as well as during rest.
Infants with bronchitis face a hard time to inhale and exhale. Persistent cough is the most common symptom of infant bronchitis. Bronchitis is a respiratory disorder in which the air passages (bronchi) that connect the windpipe with the lungs get inflamed. The inflammation, resulting due to an infection (viral or bacterial) disrupts normal airflow within the lungs. Infants who are between 6 months and 2 years old are at risk of developing bronchitis, especially in the months of winter. It is observed that when common cold in infants is not treated properly, it can lead to bronchitis. Types of Infant Bronchitis Bronchitis in infants can be either acute or chronic; In acute bronchitis, the onset of infection is sudden. Although, this is a severe form of bronchitis, the infection lasts for a short while. On the other hand, in chronic bronchitis, the infection gradually invades the airways, which lasts for a long time. Breathing Trouble: Apart from nasal congestion or runny nose, inflammation of the airways interferes with the infant’s ability to breathe properly. Difficulty in breathing is the most common symptom of infant bronchitis. The infection causes shortness of breath and is accompanied by wheezing sound while breathing. Excessive Coughing: The infant experiences frequent bouts of coughing. The recurring stubborn cough, also negatively affects the voice. The cough is the body’s response to accumulated mucus in the lungs or the chest. The voice becomes hoarse and the body tries to get rid of mucus buildup through coughing. Chest Pain: Tightness in chest during the course of infection, can make the child quite uncomfortable. Incessant coughing is primarily responsible for chest pain High Body Temperature: This respiratory problem can also bring fever. In addition to raised body temperature, the infant may also suffer from headache and overall weakness. The doctor will decide the treatment plan depending upon the type of infection responsible for causing infant bronchitis. In case of a bacterial infection, the doctor may prescribe antibiotics to relieve the symptoms. However, as a viral infection cannot be treated with antibiotics, the best option would be to take certain precautions to ease the symptoms. Make sure that the room is well ventilated. Installing humidifier will also help as the device keep the air humid and moist. Thus, breathing moist air into the inflamed lungs can provide a substantial amount of relief. Feeding the infant with plenty of fluids can help to loosen up the mucus, thus making it easier to eliminate through coughing. Using saline drop after consultation with a doctor is also helpful to relieve chest congestion. To strengthen the immune system of the baby, so as to combat infection effectively giving breast milk is recommended. Keep in mind that the bronchitis is a serious respiratory disorder and so urgent medical treatment is essential to keep the infant’s health under control and avert further complications such as pneumonia or respiratory failure. Disclaimer: The information provided in this article is solely for educating the reader. It is not intended to be a substitute for the advice of a medical expert.
Effects of the Rotation of the Earth are listed and explained herein. We hope you find the article helpful and informative. When the earth moves around the sun, it is often referred to as the Rotation of the earth. In this case, the earth moves on its axis from the west to the east at an angle of 23A. the earth takes one full day to complete one rotation. It is usually this rotation that causes the day and night. When the earth is exposed to more sun, it is said to be day and when it is exposed to less sun, the night sets in. In this article, we will look at the effects of the rotation of the earth. Read Also: Factors Affecting Climate Here are the Effects of the Rotation of the Earth: 1. Day and Night As we earlier discussed, as the rotation of the earth takes place, only a part of the earth is usually exposed to direct sunlight and this causes the exposed part to have light while the other side is in darkness. The light gotten from the exposure of the earth to the sun is the Day while the sun rays which reflect on the other part of the earth cause darkness with minimal light. 2. Dawn and Dusk When you hear of dawn, it is that brief period that comes in between sunrise and full daylight. And dusk is the period between the sunset and complete darkness. These two are a result of the rotation of the earth because, at some point, the earth receives diffused or reflected sunlight, causing dawn or dusk to happen. Read Also: Information About The Planets 3. Differences in time zones Have you noticed the countries which are in the eastern parts of the earth have a different time zone than those that are in the western parts? This is one of the effects is the rotation of the earth. The earth rotates through 360° every 24 hours. This means that for every hour, the kit passes through 15°. Because it moves from West to East, for every 15°, the East is always one hour ahead of the West. And the West is one hour behind time. 4. Deflection of the current of the Wind and Ocean The rotation of the earth causes winds and ocean currents to be deflected to the right of the direction in which they move in the Northern Hemisphere and, to the left of this direction in the Southern Hemisphere. 5. Apparent Sunrise and Sunset During the rotation of the Earth, some part of the earth that emerges from the darkness into the rays of the Sun experiences sunrise while the part that is moving away from the rays of the sun to darkness will experience the sunset. Read Also: Why You Should Conserve Natural Resources 6. Daily rising and falling of the tides When the earth is rotating, it results in the rise and fall of water in the oceans and seas. Because of the rotation of the earth, the forces that produce the tides cause oscillation on the surface of the water which in turn results in the rising and falling in the level of water in the oceans and seas. The earth’s rotation appears to be a major determinant of the seasons and times as its effect is felt all around even the whole world.
Between the ages of 12-16, players are developing the physical skills to play effectively within a team in a larger space and, and are ready to be introduced to more complex team concepts in all areas of the game. SKILL REPETITION & GAME CONTEXT: Repetition of key basic skills is certainly an emphasis during this stage. It is also important to put technical skills into game context (incorporating spacial, tactical, decision-making elements). This will help to lay the foundation for a successful player development, and will result refinement of key technical skills in the particular ways needed at the next level. Repetition - Basic Practice: X carries the ball from the 5m line into the circle, shoots, jogs back and repeats. Game Context: Attacker receives a lateral pass at the 22m line, and attacks the circle on an angle. Defender is recovering from 5m behind, to create pressure and forcing the attacker to execute his shot quickly. Both of these require the use of similar technical skills, but the second example re-creates a more game-like situation for the attacker. There is value in practicing both ways. Refining skill through repetition is important, and the first shooting drill here is an example of something that a player can easily do on his own. Executing the same skill under the influence of defensive pressure will help the player to become more effective in a similar situation in a game. Customize your Practice The above shooting drills are a very simple example of how to put a skill into game context. This is easy to do for any skill or situation on the field. The Training to Train Stage is a critical time to begin to move from basic skills and fun games, to introducing both concepts of Skill Repetition vs Game Context. SMALL-SIDED GAMES and NUMBERS-UP/DOWN GAMES: The introduction and frequent use of small-sided games is a key element of this stage of learning. This description includes numbers-up/down, conditioned games with specific rules regarding skills/space/goals, etc. The use of smaller numbers allows more repetition of specific situations than full-field practice games. It also helps coaches to create challenging and stimulating new games for players to train with. Small-Sided Game Example: 4 vs 4 - 4-Goal Game This is just a simple 4 vs 4 game, with two gates as goals to score in by passing or carrying under control. Playing this game as 4 vs 4 or 3 vs 3 creates valuable repetition of specific situations in the defending, attacking and transition areas of the game. Conditions such as 3 touches per player possession can be put on the game to create different effects. In smaller game situations such as this, players learn that they must communicate effectively and work effectively within the small group in order to be effective and competitive. Numbers-Up/Down Drill Example: 1/2/3 v 2 This drill alternately puts players in numbers-down, even-numbers, and numbers-up situations. It is a dynamic drill, fast-moving and fun, but also has a lot of lessons within it about transition, recognizing numerical situations, speeding up and slowing down the game, and much more. This combination makes it a great drill for learning at the Training to Train Stage of Development, although it has enough higher-level components that it can be valuable at the Training to Compete and Training to Win Stages.
Resistance to slavery came in many forms, and its abolition trotted various paths. Resistance came in the form of holding on to African identity through music, food, and culture. Some resistance involved cunning, skillful, and underground measures. Other forms of resistance were quite daring and violent. At the same time, many formally enslaved abolitionists used their education to resist the institution of slavery. No matter which avenue these early Americans took, one can be assured that they risked everything to make certain that America’s future would be free of slavery.
Efflorescence: Causes, Removal, and Prevention Efflorescence is a crystaline deposit on surfaces of masonry, stucco or concrete. It is whitish in appearance, and is sometimes referred to as “whiskers.” Efflorescence has been a problem for many years, and is a topic of much controversy. The formation of these salt deposits are not mysteries. They are, for the most part, water-soluble salts that come from many possible sources to mar and detract from an otherwise beautiful and serviceable structure. First of all, there must be water present to dissolve and transport the salts. Groundwater is often a source of efflorescence. For water to carry or move the salts to the surface there must be channels through which to move and migrate. The more dense the material, whether it be brick, stone, stucco or concrete, the more difficult for the water to transport salts to the surface. Conversely, the more porous the material, the greater the ease with which salts are transported and deposited. Salt-bearing water, on reaching the surface of a structure, air evaporates to deposit the salt. When humidity is low, the water may evaporate before reaching the surface of the structure, leaving the salt deposit beneath the surface, and unseen. When the humidity is high, water evaporation is slower allowing more opportunity for whisker growth. Growths which project ¼ to ½ inch below the surface have been reported in some areas of the country. Since humidity has a definite effect on whether or not the salts appear, it can be assumed that efflorescence is a seasonal problem. The intensity of efflorescence increases after rainy winter seasons, decreases in spring, and by summer has practically disappeared. This cycle may repeat for months or years, but generally the intensity of the efflorescence decreases in all but very extreme cases, and by about the third year it should be practically eliminated. The mechanics by which efflorescing salts are carried to the surface of structures by moisture and capillary action through porous materials, is understood. The amount and character of the material deposited varies considerable, depending on the nature and source of the soluble materials. COMPOSITION OF EFFLORESCENCE The problem of efflorescence, or the deposit of water-soluble salts on the surfaces of masonry, stucco or concrete, is an old one, and one that has been studied and reported on as early as 1877. These reports are all in common agreement that efflorescence originates from more than one source, and may be made up of more than one or two compounds. In addition, other salts such as chlorides and nitrates, and salts of vanadium, chromium and molybdenum are mentioned without giving specific composition. These last, particularly vanadium, are said to produce green efflorescence on white or buff burned clay units, while other salts produce white or gray deposits. Efflorescence derived from complex vanadium compounds contained in the clay used in brick manufacture is not uncommon in the southwestern part of the United States. SOURCES OF EFFLORESCENCE There are many sources for water-soluble salts with some salts more soluble than others. The movement of groundwater into building foundations and by capillary action, or wicking, upwards into masonry, stucco or concrete, is very often the cause of efflorescence. In the case where soil conditions exhibit water soluble sulfates, precautions should be taken to preclude the passage of this sulfate-bearing water to the structure. Low absorption is the best assurance against efflorescence. Properly graded aggregates, low water-cement ratio, good compaction and proper curing practices will produce concrete of maximum density and low water absorption. Sand and gravel, in their natural state, may or may not have been associated with salt bearing water or soil. If they have, and these salts are not removed by washing, this can be a possible source for efflorescence. Most rock, sand and gravel plants, however, are conscientious in washing material so that any contribution made to efflorescence from this source is negligible. When mixing-water used for mortar, stucco or concrete is obtained from a natural source which has been in contact with a sulfate-bearing soil, the resulting structure may exhibit efflorescence. The adherence, again, to a good concreting practice of low water-cement ratio, will help reduce the appearance of salts from this source. Another potential source of soluble salts are clay products, such as building brick and face brick. Generally, in the present day manufacture of these products, the highly soluble salts are washed from the clay, and a barium salt such as barium carbonate is added to the product, to react with the calcium sulfate which may be present. In this reaction, the product is two fairly insoluble compounds-barium sulfate and calcium carbonate. When produced in this manner, clay products exhibit little tendency to efflorescence. Building brick must be stored in a dry place off the ground to prevent absorption of moisture or dampness from possible salt bearing soil. A standard test may be made to show the capacity of brick to contribute to efflorescence through soluble salt content. A brick is placed on end in a pan of distilled water for seven days, in which time water is drawn upward and through the brick and then evaporated from the surface. Soluble salts are taken into solution by the water and deposited on the surface. It has also been noted that the occurrence of efflorescence bears a relationship to the type of mortar used. With a particular type of brick and a certain mortar no efflorescence may occur, whereas, the same brick with different mortar may produce a wall heavily coated with salt deposits. The appearance of sodium and potassium salts (as sulfates) usually suggest portland cement mortar as the origin. The use of low alkali cement in mortar and grout will minimize efflorescence, at least from this source. Since, for the most part, concrete masonry is somewhat porous, evaporation of the salt bearing water usually takes place before reaching the surface when exposed to a drying atmosphere. The hydroxides are converted by reaction with the carbon dioxide of the air to alkali and calcium carbonates. Efflorescence in the form of alkali chlorides and sulfates is formed when the structure is surrounded, exposed, or in contact with salt-bearing water or soil and appears as columnar or whisker-like crystals. Some of the sources of water-soluble salts have been covered. These may be deposited on stucco, masonry or concrete walls as efflorescence. Practically any building materials in direct contact with the earth are potential sources for water-soluble salts. This fact has been recognized by the various producers of building materials, and steps have been taken to reduce their presence to a great degree. REMOVAL OF EFFLORESCENCE Several methods are suggested. One is to use water under pressure; another is muriatic acid with subsequent flushing with water. Acid applied to brick masonry, without previous wetting, may cause “burning” or discoloration of the brick and may also eat into the mortar. The Handbook on Reinforced Grouted Brick Masonry Construction suggests the use of light sandblasting for removal of stubborn efflorescence (after many months). Allowing the surface to dry thoroughly and then using a stiff brush, prior to washing with water, has helped prevent re-penetration of the surface by the salt. Various methods have been used in attempts to remove efflorescence from masonry structures. It has been found that when efflorescence is caused by soluble alkali salts, the salts will dissolve in water applied to the structure and migrate back into it. These salts would then reappear on the surface as the structure redried. It was learned accordingly, that the best way to remove these soluble salts was to brush the surface thoroughly with a stiff brush. Water, however, has been satisfactory for removing efflorescence from the face of concrete structures, since concrete is fairly well saturated with water. In fact, efflorescence in the form of alkali salts will be washed from the surface of concrete structures, if exposed to rain, over some period of time. If the coating is largely calcium carbonate or calcium sulfate, it adheres rather strongly and is difficult to remove by brushing. The practice developed in this case for masonry surfaces, has been to saturate the structure as thoroughly as possible with water, and then wash with diluted muriatic acid, followed immediately with an alkaline wash, then washed with water. The acid recommended is five (5) parts hydrochloric to one hundred (100) parts water, or twenty (20) parts vinegar to one hundred (100) parts water. The alkaline wash recommended is diluted household ammonia. Much care must be taken in applying acid to portland cement products. The acid will attack, not only the calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate efflorescence, but also other calcium compounds to produce calcium salts such as calcium chloride. It is, therefore, very important to neutralize the acid before it can attack other compounds. Thanks to Kaiser Cement who supplied information for this document.
Japanese encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain caused by an RNA virus belonging to the family Flaviviridae. The virus, which is spread by bloodsucking mosquitoes, is endemic to parts of Asia and is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. Examples of areas where Japanese encephalitis is present are Japan, China, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, the Philippines, Nepal, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, the Korean peninsula, and eastern parts of Russia. Thank’sto widespread vaccination, the disease has declined sharply in Japan, South Korea and parts of China. Japanese encephalitis is chiefly associated with agricultural environments, especially those where pigs are kept and where flood irrigation is practiced. Transmission may take place year round, provided that the climate is suitable for mosquitoes. Rainy season (in the tropics) and warm season (in temperate climates) increase the mosquito population and thereby increase the risk of catching Japanese encephalitis It is chiefly mosquitoes of the genus Culex that spread the disease. They can spread the disease between humans, and also between pigs and humans. Some bird species are also suspected of being able to serve as vectors for the Japanese encephalitis virus. Vaccination against Japanese encephalitis There is currently only one Japanese encephalitis vaccine licensed for use in the United Kingdom. It is an injectable vaccine approved for adults and for children from the age of 2 months. Vaccination against Japanese encephalitis is especially important if: - You will be visiting wet rural areas in a high-risk country, e.g. rice fields or marshlands. - You will be in close vicinity of pigs in a high-risk country. - You will visit a high-risk country during the rainy season. - You will spend a lot of time outdoors in a high-risk country, e.g. camping, hiking or biking. - You work in a laboratory or similar where you may be exposed to the virus. To obtain more information about where to obtain your Japanese encephalitis vaccination, contact your GP or practice nurse. Japanese encephalitis vaccination is usually not available for free on the NHS. The cost can vary a lot between clinics, and each dose can cost more than £90. The vaccine is injected. Small children are injected in the leg, while older children and adults are injected in the upper arm. Two doses are given, with 28 days between the first and second dose. If you are in a hurry, you can receive the second dose 7 days after the first dose, but only if you are in the age span 18 – 65 years. Ideally, get the second dose at least 7 days prior to visiting a region where you may encounter Japanese encephalitis To facilitate this, it is advisable to contact your GP or practice nurse at least 8 weeks prior to departure to schedule the two injections. The vaccine provides protection for over 90% of those who receive two doses. There is no guarantee that you will obtain full coverage, so protecting yourself against bloodsucking mosquitoes is still recommended. To stay protected, get a booster dose of the vaccine 1-2 years after the initial vaccination. Side effects of Japanese encephalitis vaccination Examples of common side effects of Japanese encephalitis vaccination - Redness, swelling and tenderness at the injection site Examples of rare side effects of Japanese encephalitis vaccination - Swollen face - Difficulty breathing Should I avoid Japanese encephalitis vaccination? - Vaccination against Japanese encephalitis is not recommended for children younger than 2 months. - Vaccination against Japanese encephalitis is not recommended if you have had a severe allergic reaction to any of its ingredients in the past. - If you have a fever, the vaccination may need to be postponed. - If you are pregnant or breastfeeding, talk to your GP to discuss your options when it comes to vaccination against Japanese encephalitis. About Japanese encephalitis The incubation period for Japanese encephalitis is normally 3-7 days, but reports exists of considerably longer incubation periods that exceeds two weeks. A majority of those infected with the virus develop no symptoms or only mild symptoms. Examples of symptoms: There is no medical treatment that will kill the virus. Treatment is focused on mitigating the symptoms and handling the various problems that may occur while the body’s immune system fights the virus. Among patients that develop serious symptoms of Japanese encephalitis, the death rate is approximately 25% even with hospital care.
Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of conditions with onset in the developmental period. The disorders are characterised by developmental deficits that produce impairments of personal, social, academic or occupational functioning. Neurodevelopmental disorders include: - Autism Spectrum - Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder - Intellectual Disabilities - Global Developmental Delay - Communication Disorders/Language Disorder - Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder - Specific Learning Disorder - Motor Disorders - Developmental Coordination Disorder - Stereotypic Movement Disorder - Tic Disorders Who is a Developmental Paediatrician? A developmental paediatrician is a medical doctor trained in paediatrics, and in addition has specialist training in the physical, emotional, behavioural and social development of children. They work in a multidisciplinary setting, and coordinate care for children across the home, and with therapists, school and other health care workers. This team approach can provide a more in-depth perspective for a parent, which will ultimately help your child be the best that s/he can be. When should my child see a developmental paediatrician? - If you have concerns about your child’s development in any area – social, emotional, behavioural or developmental (speech, motor skills). - If your child has trouble in school (behaviour, learning, making friends) - If your child has bedwetting, faecal soiling, trouble sleeping or eating - If your child is anxious or seems depressed - If your child was born preterm, has a chromosomal abnormality or chronic medical problem - If anyone has raised the probability of a neurodevelopmental disorder Why does my child need an assessment? The purpose of an assessment is not only to arrive at a diagnosis, but most importantly to identify the child’s strength and difficulties. Being able to arrive at a particular diagnosis guides therapy along more appropriate evidence-based treatment, and informs on prognosis and genetic counselling as appropriate. However, having a clear understanding of the child’s current level of functioning forms basis for developing the therapy programme and serves as a baseline to monitor progress. It allows more focus on areas of difficulty, and also uses the child’s strengths to support areas where they may be deficient. A comprehensive assessment also informs of co-morbidies and associated difficulties, which can be targeted with therapy, thereby reducing the burden of the child’s difficulties. Guidelines and clinical practice parameters that guide assessments and diagnosis in neurodevelopmental disorders strongly advocate for all children with difficulties to have a comprehensive assessment by a trained specialist. What happens during an assessment? Assessments are usually conducted over three sessions, with the fourth session happening two weeks after the assessments are completed. Each second and third sessions are with the neurodevelopmental paediatriacian conducting the necessary assessments with the child. Parents/carers of young children are welcome in the assessment with their child. The fourth session is for parents only. This is when the findings of the assessment and recommendations will be discussed with the parents, and a management plan to support the child is agreed upon. The child is then referred to the appropriate department(s) to carry out the management plan. Some children may need to come for extra assessment sessions, depending on the areas of difficulty being assessed. Types of assessments offered: - Developmental assessment Developmental assessments aim to determine a young child’s level of functioning in main areas of their development (gross motor, fine motor, communication, personal-social, problem solving and practical reasoning skills). Assessments are conducted by trained clinicians, using standardised protocols and child engaging dedicated toys, to assess the child’s strengths and difficulties. Children from birth up to eight years old benefit from developmental assessment. Behaviour assessment (e.g ADHD, Anxiety, Depression) Behaviour assessments involve collecting information from parents and teachers about a child’s behaviour in their environment, using stardardised assessment tools. It also involves collecting information and conducting tests (e.g intelligence tests and academic achievement tests) to ascertain if there are other co-morbid factors contributing to a child’s challenging behaviour. Behaviour assessments include, for example, assessment for ADHD, oppositional behaviour, school refusal, mood disorder. - Autism assessment Autism assessment involves administration of a standardised autism specific tool to assess for autism, but also testing to ascertain a child’s developmental level (in young children) or intelligence and academic achievement level (in older and more able children), language level, any medical or genetic associations, and any co-morbid conditions. - Learning difficulties assessment Learning difficulty assessment involves collecting information from the parents and teachers about a child’s areas of strengths and difficulties, behaviour and attitude to learning. The child’s intellectual potential is ascertained, and their levels in reading, phonological processing, comprehension, spelling, writing, maths computation, and maths concepts skills, using stardardised tools. Based on areas of strengths and difficulties, an intervention plan is developed to support the child’s learning. Do you provide school services? A neurodevelopment physician works closely with schools to provide supervision, teacher training, presentations for parents and also early childhood developmental screening.
Posted by Andrea Albert (LANL) What is the stuff that's holding our Universe together? The current hypothesis is that it's a mysterious substance called dark matter. For example, the Milky Way resides in a big cloud of dark matter and would literally fall apart if you took the dark matter away. The most promising hypotheses say that dark matter is a particle called a Weakly Interacting Massive Particle (WIMP). WIMPs are very elusive, like ninjas. However, they are expected to interact with each other and produce gamma rays, which we can look for with the Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT). We know where several clumps of dark matter are, like our friendly neighborhood dwarf galaxies. These small galaxies reside in the Milky Way Galaxy's dark matter cloud, so they are very close by. Gamma rays are special because they travel directly from their source to Earth. So if we saw gamma rays from dwarf galaxies, that would be a smoking gun for dark matter. With the Fermi LAT's all-sky coverage, we observe dozens of dwarf galaxies. Then we can add up all the data taken by the Fermi LAT and see if we see a significant gamma ray detection from one of these objects. Unfortunately we haven't detected any dwarf galaxies as a gamma ray source. But we can still learn something from not seeing gamma rays! We know the sensitivity of the Fermi LAT, so we know how dim the dwarf galaxies have to be to escape detection. This then tells us an upper limit on how strongly the WIMPs could be interacting. We can then compare these limits to various hypotheses and rule out the ones that we would have detected with the Fermi LAT. Dark matter interaction upper limits from the Fermi LAT Collaboration's paper Searching for Dark Matter Annihilation from Milky Way Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxies with Six Years of Fermi-LAT Data, PRL 115 (2015) Credit: Andrea Albert
Researchers scouring decades-old spacecraft data have found clear signs of recent volcanic activity on Venus. The findings, published in the journal Science, reveal not only that the planet’s surface is currently a turbulent place, but offer insights into its geological past and future. By any measure, Venus is a hellscape: crushing pressures, a toxic atmosphere, and surface temperatures hot enough to melt lead. It’s like a scene lifted straight from Dante’s Inferno. It’s “my favorite planet,” says Robert Herrick, a planetary scientist at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. Despite all its hostility, Venus — our nearest planetary neighbor — is actually pretty similar to Earth. So much so that Herrick calls it our “true sibling” in the solar system. The resemblance is “driven by what’s going on in their interior,” he says. “Aside from Earth,” Herrick says, “it’s the only planet that has true mountain ranges and a huge variety of volcanic features.” These features include lava fields, canals carved by molten rock, and hundreds, if not thousands of volcanoes. So it’s clear that Venus is volcanically active, giving it a youthful (in geological terms) appearance. But it’s not clear exactly how active. “That could still mean that the time between eruptions could be months, years, or tens of thousands of years,” says Herrick. So he set out to try to narrow down that time window by searching for evidence of recent volcanic activity. He turned to radar surface imagery collected by the Magellan spacecraft in the early 1990’s. “Thirty years ago,” he says, “it was just not feasible to pan around and zoom in and out and flip back and forth between different global mosaics.” But computer hardware and software have improved substantially, and so Herrick was able to pore over the imagery. “It’s a needle in a haystack search without any guarantee that there’s a needle,” he admits. Herrick focused his search around the highest volcano on Venus called Maat Mons, named after the ancient Egyptian goddess of truth and justice. And after a couple months of looking across an area about the size of Australia, he found something. It’s evident in two side-by-side black-and-white images taken eight months apart of the same spot on the north side of the volcano. Each one is about 15 or 20 miles across. Herrick points out a pockmark towards the bottom. It’s a vent — the area where a volcano erupts, discharging its lava, ash, and rock. But the shape of that vent differs between the two images. “The outline has changed, and the thing’s actually gotten larger, and looks shallower as well,” he says. That is, within a mere eight months in 1991 (the same year that President George H. W. Bush declared victory over Iraq and Clarence Thomas was confirmed as a Supreme Court Justice), Herrick speculates the volcano erupted, forming a lava lake within the vent. “Of course, I could have gotten very lucky and seen the only thing that happened in the last million years on Venus,” Herrick says. “But I think the reasonable interpretation suggests that Venus is relatively Earth-like in the frequency of volcanic eruptions,” similar to the likes of Hawaii and Iceland. Unlike Earth, Venus doesn’t have plate tectonics. So researchers have been trying to work out how the planet has evolved geologically over the last four-and-a-half billion years and where it might be headed. Herrick and his colleague Scott Hensley hope their findings will help do just that. “It is nice to have a visual confirmation of the volcanic activity on Venus,” says Clara Sousa-Silva, a quantum astrochemist at Bard College who wasn’t involved in the research. “But given that this was something we had speculated, it’s not shocking to have this paper come out.” Still, Sousa-Silva says this confirmation of activity on Venus’s surface does help us better understand what to expect in Venus’ atmosphere. “A planet that has a lot of volcanic activity,” she says, “has access to these extreme pressures and temperatures below the surface that can produce molecules that are really unusual and otherwise really hard to make.” Much of NASA’s (and the public’s) recent attention has been drawn to Mars; the space agency has landed five rovers on the Red Planet’s dusty surface since 1997. But Herrick says that Earth’s similarity to Mars is somewhat superficial, being pretty much limited to surface features like sand blowing around, desert landscapes, and signs of what may have once been lakes and rivers. The winds of interest have shifted, though. “Maybe it’s cycling back like bell bottoms,” Herrick says with a chuckle. That’s because NASA currently has two missions to Venus in the works, which will now be informed by Herrick’s findings. “We don’t just think it’s an active planet,” he says. “We know it’s an active planet — right now.” Herrick is working with NASA to develop an instrument for those upcoming missions to monitor volcanic activity on Venus. He’s pretty confident now that the seismometer will register something once it’s deployed — as long as it can survive the infernal planet long enough to make its measurements.
William Glasser, a well-known educator, shares his knowledge with his readers in "The Quality School". The concepts taught in his book are used throughout the world as guidelines for effective education. Glasser's ability to relate complex concepts in a manner that makes understanding simplistic adds to his book's productiveness. Not only does the author give the reader information for daily life, but what he relates concerning the educational system can be applied to school systems past and present, for his material and ideas are not dated. Glasser describes his perception of a quality school and how teachers should teach within the quality school. Such a school pivots on his most important point that a Quality school system can no longer boss but instead lead, which allows a strong teacher/student relationship that enhances learning. Quality learning takes place within reassuring relationships between the two. According to Glasser there are five pillars of a quality school that stems from his belief in the importance of communication. They are: 1. All students do competent work plus some quality work. 2. No discipline problems. 3. Very high test scores. 4. Elimination of almost all learning disabilities. 5. A joyful atmosphere for students to learn and teachers to teach. The Quality School hinges on Glasser's previous work with the method of Control Theory. Much like Total Quality Management, a method widely used in business practices, Control Theory incorporates motivation and coercive management theories to motivate those in "lead-management" positions in schools, such as principles and teachers. Glasser focuses on discouraging the "boss-management", a scientific management approach employing fear, coercion, and intimidation in the hierarchy of the school system, and encourages "lead-management" in teachers and principals. Because of district office bureaucratic power struggles, Glasser feels lead- management usually must be initiated at the building level. He sees teachers and principals as leaders who can make a real difference in producing high quality American schools. The solution lies with understanding the nature of management itself. The Quality School asserts that management techniques are the best evidence we can find concerning the factors undermining the theory of motivation. Success relies on systems that are ultimately geared to the production of quality work, and not to the production of statistics based on tests and examinations, which are abominations. Control theory can be implemented into the curriculum as early as kindergarten with the concept of a Quality World. It is possible for small children to understand the five basic needs and how they relate to making the world a better place.It is necessary to reflect on what quality is when reading Glasser's book. Quality does not result from inspection.
In a recent eBook guide we published on choosing the right eye tracking technology system for researchers, we included a guide on common industry terminology often used when discussing eye tracking systems. – Gaze: A steady, intent look. – Fixation: maintaining visual gaze on a single location for a period of time, typically within a bounded area. – Saccade: Saccades are one of the ways human eyes track an object, and is characterized by rapid, jerky movement of the eye between fixation points. Saccades happen when you don’t have an object to track. The eye will track for a little bit and then the muscles of the eye jerk the eye from one position to the next. Imagine tracking the line between the wall and ceiling from one corner of the room to the next. Your eyes will not smoothly move across this line but will have jerky movements. The brain filters out the jerky nature so that it seems smooth when you do it, but it is not smooth when the eyes are observed. – Smooth Pursuit: The other way for human eyes to track an object is through Smooth Pursuit movements, which occur when the eye has something to track. Imagine holding up your index finger and then moving your hand/arm from left-to-right (and vice versa) or tracking a moving vehicle or object. Your eyes will smoothly follow the object rather than jerking to the next location. This is a biological mechanism which helps humans track single objects very well. Note that saccades and smooth pursuit eye movements are mutually exclusive (if you aren’t performing one, you are performing the other.) But they do work in synergy for visual tracking, as eye movements are typically a combination of saccades and smooth pursuits. If you shift from tracking a moving object to looking at a scene your eyes change the way they operate. – Perceptual Span: Perceptual Span refers to the angular span (vertically and horizontally) within which the human eye has sharp enough vision to perform an action accurately (i.e., reading or face recognition).
Highway is a term commonly used is to designate major roads intended for travel by the public between important destinations, such as cities. Highway designs vary widely. They can include some characteristics of grade separations, multiple lanes of traffic, a median between lanes of opposing traffic, and access control, ramps and grade separation. Highways can also be as simple as a two-lane, shoulderless road. The term highway can also be varied country-to-country, and can be referred to a road, freeway, superhighway, autoroute, autobahn, parkway, expressway, autostrasse, autostrada, byway, auto-estrada or motorway.
When teachers are called on to work with children and families remotely, project work can be a welcome addition to the teacher’s toolbox for a variety of reasons. It is engaging, motivating, flexible, and, if the right topic is selected, families already have all the materials they will need at their fingertips! For example, the teacher might start a project investigation about things most people have in their homes, such as shoes, water, hats, blankets, or things to sit on. Insects, birds, plants, trees, doors, windows, gardening, or rocks also might be useful project topics—all with materials located right outside the family’s home. The teacher can provide suggested activities to family members who are going to help the child with the investigation. For example, in a project on shoes, she could ask children to investigate sizes, colors, closures (e.g., laces, Velcro, slip-ons), and materials that shoes are made from. They could collect data by counting, measuring, and drawing shoes or even doing rubbings of the soles (by turning the shoe upside down, laying a piece of paper on the sole, and rubbing a crayon over it to re-create the sole’s pattern). With a little assistance, they could survey extended family members through e-mail or phone calls. For example, they might ask their grandparents if they have ever had their shoes repaired, or they might ask their aunts what color shoes they have in their closets. Or they could gather data for a graph that shows how many people in their family wear particular shoe sizes. Children could make up and illustrate nonfiction and fiction stories about shoes to share with their classmates. Teachers can take advantage of these kinds of rich, long-term investigations to integrate math, language arts, science, social studies, and arts lessons. - Project Example: “Where Does the Water Go?” Investigating Pipes and Plumbing - Project Example: Garden Project Sprouts From Simple Question: “What’s That?” - Project Example: Discovering the World of Insects on the Playground - Project Guide: From Door to Door: A Project about Doors and Gates - Project Guide: Things to Sit On - Project Guide: Changes in the Trees around Us
HTML (abbreviated as HyperText Markup Language) is a computer language used to develop web pages with the help of various tags and attributes. The major advantage is that it is easy to learn and code even for a newbie. Almost every web browsers and websites use HTML for creating web contents. So, it is necessary for everyone to know about HTML and its capabilities. If you are new to HTML, have a look at the below HTML Basics PPT:
I. What is an Ode? The word “ode” has two separate definitions, one stricter and one looser. In the strict definition, an ode is a classical poem that has a specific structure and is aimed at an object or person. In this sense, odes usually express elevated emotion, and are often used to praise a leader or a work of art. In the loose definition, an ode is any work of art or literature that expresses high praise. This could include a best man’s speech praising the groom, or an emotional eulogy at someone’s funeral. In formal contexts, it’s best to avoid the loose definition and only use the word “ode” if you’re talking about classical poetry. If you’re talking about a work of art that expresses high praise but isn’t a classical ode, use the words “homage,” “encomium,” or “panegyric” instead. II. Examples and Explanation The ancient Greek poet Pindar was one of the earliest authors of classical odes. He wrote numerous “Victory Odes” dedicated to triumphant athletes who had won great victories at the Olympic Games. Pindar was the one who originally developed the poetic structure that we know today as the classical ode. Pacific Rim could be described as an ode to Japanese TV and cinema, especially the kaiju (giant monster) genre. The entire film lovingly embraces all the tropes of this genre, even the silly ones, and incorporates them into its plot line with both genuine reverence and tongue-in-cheek humor. III. The Importance of Odes In ancient Greece, where odes were first written, they were designed to be read out loud, in public settings, to honor the person or thing in question. Often, odes were read at funerals (much the way we read eulogies today) or coronation ceremonies, and were the Greeks’ primary way of giving honor to their leaders and heroes. In later eras, the ode was used in praise of non-human things, especially natural phenomena. Poets, for example, would write odes to the East Wind for guiding their ships across the sea, or odes to the mountains in all their inaccessible majesty. This was particularly common during the Romantic Era, when nature, feelings, and childlike wonder were held to be the highest virtues (today, we would probably think of the Romantic poets as hippies). In the modern world, the function of the ode is fairly similar. It’s a writer or artist’s way of publically declaring their respect and admiration for a person or thing. IV. Examples of Odes in Literature “Row after row with strict impunity / the headstones yield their names to the element, / the wind whirrs without recollection; in the riven troughs the splayed leaves / pile up…” (Allen Tate, Ode to the Confederate Dead) Although few poets in the modern world still adhere to the strictures of the classical ode, some do – especially those who want to refer back to an earlier era of creative writing, when poetry was more formal than it is today. Allen Tate’s Ode to the Confederate Dead has a classical ode structure, and seeks to honor those who died for the South in the Civil War. (The poem is not explicitly racist, but its author certainly was, and literary analysts have debated for years how much his hateful politics should influence our understanding of his literary accomplishments.) Friederich Schiller’s Ode to Joy was a classical ode in praise of happiness itself, an optimistic poem envisioning brotherhood for all mankind. The poem would not have been particularly noteworthy (Schiller himself regarded it as a failure) but for the fact that Beethoven set it to music as part of his 9th Beethoven’s triumphant melody has become one of the most recognizable works of classical music in the world. V. Examples of Odes in Pop Culture The film Lincoln takes an extremely positive stance on the Civil War president. Indeed, its depiction of him is so positive that some critics complained about the film’s glossing over the more troubling aspects of Lincoln’s personal life and political career. Nonetheless, the film could certainly be described as an ode (in the broad sense) to Abraham Lincoln. Opeth is a highly influential Swedish band that has been releasing death metal albums since 1995. On their most recent album, however, most of the songs sound like 1970s progressive rock rather than death metal, incorporating organ sounds and bluesy riffs with more relaxed vocal sounds; this album has been described as an “ode” or “homage” to progressive rock. According to one member of the band,progressive rock is one of their favorite styles of music, and they wanted to honor it despite the fact that they ordinarily play a very different style. VI. Related Terms Ekphrasis is a poem that describes a work of art. The poet’s job in this form is to capture in words the visual experience of looking at the work of art. Unlike a classical ode, an ekphrasis does not have to follow any particular structure. Often, of course, poets choose to write an ekphrasis about some art that they really like, in which case the poem becomes one of high praise, and therefore an ode in the broader sense. John Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urn is actually not an ode in the classical sense, but rather an ekphrasis. It is, however, an ode in the broad sense.
Everyone reacts differently in times of crisis. For many people, the COVID-19 pandemic has caused stress levels to spike. Some may have difficulty sleeping. And many of us are struggling with feelings of isolation and loneliness as the necessity of social distancing keeps us physically apart. “Stress impacts the immune system in a way that impacts a variety of different diseases,” says Christopher Fagundes, a psychological scientist at Rice University who studies the link between mental and immune health. “It’s common for people to think about susceptibility to colds and viruses, and stress not only does that, but it also impacts our inflammatory system.” When people are chronically stressed, he continues, the inflammatory system becomes over-activated, which in turn can trigger disease. While Fagundes says much of this prior research revolves around different cold and upper respiratory viruses, he believes those consequences would be no different for COVID-19. “Obviously, you have to extrapolate when you’re talking about a novel virus,” he notes. “But there’s no reason to think that it would work any differently.” When you’re acutely stressed — say, someone shoots you a nasty look in public — the body releases cortisol, more commonly known as the stress hormone. Cortisol courses through the body, boosting heart rate, blood pressure and muscle tension in response. Meanwhile, Fagundes says, the hormone also helps limit inflammation — part of your immune system’s natural response to a perceived threat. But when people are chronically stressed for weeks at a time — with causes ranging from high-pressure jobs to the death of a loved one — the receptors that recognize cortisol as anti-inflammatory become desensitized. “You just have this chronic over-activation of the system with nothing to turn it off,” Fagundes says. In other words, as the body gets used to the presence of cortisol, it opens the floodgates for more inflammation, not less. These high levels of inflammation are caused by an overburdened immune system that can’t properly defend against diseases. Research shows that periods of prolonged stress, and the chronic inflammation that follows, can catalyze a cascade of disease-causing effects. Chronic stress has been linked to heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. And in the context of respiratory illnesses like COVID-19, says Fagundes, the consequences can be deadly. “When you have this over-activation of the inflammatory response in the lungs [during respiratory infections], it turns into pneumonia for some people” he says. We all need someone to lean on. And scientists have found that when people are lonely, isolated or simply perceive that they have less support from others, they’ll experience higher levels of chronic, physiological stress than their more plugged-in peers. “If you think about it, to them, the world is a more dangerous place,” says Fagundes. “They don’t have people that they can count on.” Beyond that, when these individuals are grappling with a difficult life event, not only do they have to contend with a baseline level of chronic stress, no one is there to support them when they need it most. “Or, at least, they don’t think that there is,” Fagundes adds. Time and again, research has shown that loneliness, and a lack of social support, is associated with a variety of different diseases. We understood this connection as far back as 1988, when scientists found that isolation was as great a risk factor for morbidity and mortality as smoking, obesity and high blood pressure. When it comes to colds and viruses, Fagundes points to research that suggests extroverted individuals are less susceptible to colds, not more, despite their proximity to their potentially germ-ridden friends. But why do loneliness, and social interactions in general, have such a profound impact on us? “It’s probably because of how we evolved,” says Fagundes. “Being in the group was a good thing, while we’re not going to survive very well when we’re ostracized by a group of hunter-gatherers.” This body of research makes our current pandemic even more confounding, as lockdowns and social distancing measures keep us, at minimum, 6 feet apart. Yet Fagundes says there are still strategies for battling loneliness and isolation in the time of the novel coronavirus. “We’re trying to recommend staying in touch with friends and family members as much as possible,” he says. “If you’re a boss, do things like morning Zoom meetings where everyone’s checking in on each other. Anything that you can do to virtually facilitate that social support, the better.” Another tactic Fagundes mentions is one usually recommended to couples in long-distance relationships. “You just have Skype on at night, even if you’re not actively talking to each other,” he says. “There’s this notion that they’re [physically] ‘there.’ Just like if you were at home with your partner.” Along with stress and loneliness, sleep deprivation is another factor that can negatively impact immune health. “We know that stress, of course, disrupts sleep,” says Fagundes. “[But] we do know that sleep, independently [of stress], does predict your susceptibility to colds.” A lack of sleep, continues Fagundes, impacts our bodies the same way as psychological stressors. “The physiology is very, very similar,” he says. “Your immune system is compromised, and at the same time you’re getting this inflammatory buildup.” In short, even with the clear feedback loop between stress and poor sleep, previous research has shown that they can still weaken the immune system as individual factors. A 2016 study in JAMA Internal Medicine found that getting insufficient sleep, as well as having a sleep disorder or simply tossing and turning too much, was associated with a greater likelihood of getting a cold or respiratory infection. But what else can people can do to manage their stress, loneliness and sleep habits — and potentially protect the body against an infection — during the COVID-19 outbreak? Fagundes says that there are a handful of science-backed strategies for limiting these harmful health effects. One of these is to set a schedule or routine and stick to it, even if you’re working from home. “That will prevent you from taking naps during the day, which then completely disrupts your sleep,” he says. “It [also] keeps you from going down the spiral of negative thoughts and ruminations. [And] it makes you feel accomplished.” Beyond that, Fagundes also recommends getting out and doing a bit of exercise — as long as you’re not exposing yourself to other people or breaking any lockdown rules. “We have a paradox, of course, because people can’t do things in the same way [right now],” he adds. “But we know that exercise and doing things helps people fall asleep at the end of the day.”
The most influential Megatrends set to shape the world through 2030, identified by Euromonitor International, help businesses better anticipate market developments and lead change for their industries. As the discussion on sustainability gains traction, food loss and waste still remains a less explored area with immense scopes for governments and businesses, particularly in foods, to take up actions which can not only address grave social issues, but also curb long-term risks and create revenue boosting opportunities. This article forms a part of our upcoming strategy briefing on Global FoodWaste. What is food loss and foodwaste and why is it essential to prevent it? Food loss and waste have damaging environmental and social repercussions and need to be addressed with utmost urgency: Food loss and waste occur when foods suitable for human consumption are discarded or used for alternative purposes leading to a loss in both quantity and quality. It is primarily driven by inefficient production and distribution methods, mostly in developing countries, as well as consumer purchase in excess of their needs, more prevalent in developed countries; Addressing food loss and waste can help to curb global hunger. It is estimated that 1/3 of the food produced is wasted while approximately half of the global population are said to live below the extreme poverty line, which means they are deprived of basic food and shelter; Food loss and waste initiative is more imperative in the face of a looming world food crisis with population growth exceeding food production. By 2030, world population is projected to increase by 1.1 billion with India accounting for 18.7% of the total growth. Food production needs to keep up with the projected population growth, which, however, is reversely matched with falling yields in many cases; To take the example of India, rice, the country’s stable diet, at 157 million tonnes was the country’s second leading crop in 2016, but between 2011 and 2016, yield of rice equalled -0.6 coinciding with a drop in precipitation of 11.1 millimetres during the corresponding period. If this continues, food deficit will intensify, but can be partly addressed by reducing foodwaste; There are also environmental implications of food loss and waste – natural resources used in the process of making the wastedfood could have been used for alternative productive purposes, but more importantly, food wastes are disposed-off in landfills, which discharge greenhouse gases, thus exacerbating the risks of global warming. Government and business organisations need to intensify their effort. Addressing food losses and waste requires a collaborative effort from the civil society organisations, businesses operating in food, packaging and transportation and governments: FAO has undertaken an initiative called Save Food, operating a number of different programs across the world including helping small farmers in the food deficit areas to improve their farming techniques, but initiatives from governments and business organisations need to be more visible; The role of governments entail developing and executing public policies to create an enabling environment including investing in infrastructure which will help to curb foodwaste. Foodbusinesses will need to improve their production planning and preservation and packaging technologies and at the same time intensify pressure on the upstream operators to reduce foodwaste. Retailers can help by donating foods nearing expiry date to soup kitchens, although there are government regulations that may prevent them from doing so. All key stakeholders can play a key role in raising public awareness to change consumer behaviour to buy less which can help to prevent foodwaste; Despite the crucial roles each of the stakeholders can play, their presence in this area continues to remain obscure. Nestlé’s foodwaste is hidden inside its zero waste policy, which includes all types of wastes including industrial wastes. Unilever UK & Ireland is starting to talk about it although admits is it an uncharted territory. Mars and Mondelez have reduced their pack sizes to meet their target for calorie reduction. The reduced pack sizes help to curb foodwaste, but this was initiated as part of a different goal instead of addressing food loss; FAO initiatives are commendable, but more need to be done to include private organisations from the foods, packaging and transportation industry. The top 20 players in the packaged food industry accounted for 25.2% of the total industry revenue, equalling US$415 bn in actual terms in 2016. Given their financial clout, they are in a strong position to make such initiatives more effective through various means including innovations, raising public awareness and intensifying pressure on governments as well as both upstream and downstream players in the supply chain; Top 20 Packaged Food Company Global Revenue vs Rest: 2016 Source: Euromonitor International Packaged Food While this can be a powerful weapon for governments to address hunger in their respective countries, it is only the French government which has passed a law in 2016 forbidding retailers to bin food which are suitable for human consumption. Revenue boosting opportunities in the private sector While addressing food loss and waste can address key social and environmental concerns, there are scopes for commercial gains: A key underlying theme in food waste is the speed in the supply chain, particularly in the developing countries, where the lack of sophisticated road network delays the distribution time. This combined with the hot tropical climate cause food to perish faster, creating opportunities for both packaging and food transportation companies to innovate solutions that help food to last longer in the face of infrastructural deficiency and less suitable weather conditions; Tetra Pak introduced a form of packaging with an embedded chip to show signs of spoilage and the duration the package has been outside the refrigerator. This makes the product exciting and useful, helping to boost the revenue prospects. But such innovations could be expensive for developing countries, leaving more scopes for affordable packaging innovations; There are opportunities for pesticide and fertiliser companies to prevent crop damage and increase the production yields – however, the environmental implications need to be taken into consideration for these. General Mills is working on a technological innovation to use tomato skins and seeds as the main source of nitrogen to boost the yield for tomato growers; There are opportunities for companies working in the agricultural fields to introduce affordable techniques and devices to farmers in developing countries that can help to reduce waste during the harvesting process. Solar driers are devices used by African farmers to dry cocoa beans at the right moisture level for the international manufacturers; Cold storage facilities in developing countries have strong prospects given food can be stored over a longer period of time while they are being supplied to the market in batches in line with consumer demand; Foodwaste can be converted to energy, which is more environmentally friendly although this is further down the line while the immediate objective of food loss and waste is to narrow the gap between food production and global hunger; Niche initiatives are emerging which can contribute towards reducing foodwaste. VeggiDome is a transparent container for fresh vegetables that resembles a cake stand with a dome like lid. It can be placed on dining tables, making the vegetables more visible. The container has an inbuilt technology that helps to keep the vegetables fresher for a longer period of time, which may have otherwise wilted in the obscurity of the refrigerators.
In preparation for the school year, I was approached by one of our Algebra teachers to create a set of Desmos lessons for both face-to-face and online instruction. It is important to note that these lessons are not perfect, and I would recommend looking through the more polished mathematical experiences found at teacher.desmos.com before the ones that I have created. I post the lessons I build to contribute to the math teacher community and receive feedback to improve my craft. Following is an outline of the first unit and some features of the lessons. Overview of Unit 1 The set of nine lessons in this unit is a review of some of the skills students will need to succeed in Algebra. The first three lessons include order of operations, combining like terms, and the distributive property, which are algebraic tools that will be useful throughout the course. The next set of three lessons provides practice in these skills in solving equations and inequalities. Students also encounter other algebraic ideas such as modeling of equations and dividing by a negative coefficient with inequalities. The unit concludes with applying the skills reviewed in the first six lessons to “word-problem” like situations and literal equations. The transition from the calculation of values to the manipulation of variables is a hallmark of student mathematical progression in algebra. Along with building the unit from computation of expressions to manipulating variables, there are few other guiding ideas behind the lessons I created. Understanding how the lessons are structured may be beneficial if you use them in your classes. I like to begin each lesson with a slide that is open for interpretation and is accessible to everyone in the class. Too often, teachers start class with a standardized test question that may discourage some students or turn them off to the math lesson. How would you feel as a student if you missed a problem two minutes into the class starting? In the first video below, students see an animation of a red and yellow counter meeting and disappearing. Students are asked what do you notice? There is no right or wrong answer to the question. It is there to provoke thought and set up the lesson for the day. In the second example, Mario jumps a gap between two hills, and students can choose how they would like to express what they are observing. I love the idea of students having options on how to share their mathematical thoughts. One of the benefits of using a technology such as Desmos is connecting mathematical ideas to visual models or animation. In the distribution lesson, students can visualize an area model by seeing the distribution of a quantity or variable across multiple added values. This type of visualization provides a conceptual level of understanding to support the algebraic process. Visual models also provide meaningful feedback that may help anchor mathematical knowledge. For example, in the make it balance lessons, students receive feedback in the form of the model balancing or tipping one way or another based on student response. This type of visual feedback is more purposeful and powerful than just right or wrong. A key feature of being a mathematician is analyzing a situation and discovering what is going on. I like presenting students an answered mathematical problem and having them determine if it is correct or not and why. I will often throw in a wrinkle that they may not have encountered yet to push their thinking a little bit further. For example, shown below, I ask students to put a series of steps to solve a problem in order, but an alternative way to solve the problem appears when they do. I ask them, would this also work? Students often believe there is only one way to solve a problem in mathematics. I try to think about ways to push students to move away from this mode of thought by having them analyze a variety of related mathematical situations. The creation of these lessons are an attempt to support our Algebra 1 teachers in this time of uncertainty by having a set of mathematical experiences that can be taught virtually or in person. I am happy to share anything that I create to support the mathematics teacher community. If you choose to use them, please let me know how it goes and how they can be improved. You can find the entire collection here: https://kurtsalisbury.com/algebra-1/
SCAMP's landing, climbing, and takeoff capabilities are modeled after various natural adaptations.(Credit: Stanford Biomimetics and Dexterous Manipulation Lab) From butterflies to maple seed pods, drones are increasingly being modeled after the natural world to expand their capabilities. This process of imitating nature is known as biomimicry — a field of research that Morgan Pope is very familiar with. Pope, a Ph.D. student working in mechanical engineering at Stanford’s Biomimetics and Dexterous Manipulation Lab, has helped develop various robotics projects inspired by the animal kingdom. “As robots move out of the laboratory and the factory and into the unstructured world, nature provides an incredibly rich library of solutions to the complex problems we face,” he says. The sort of problems Pope and his research team attempt to tackle are all too familiar to UAS pilots: battery life, difficult flight environments, obstructions and the list goes on. But instead of simply trying to improve existing tech, the lab developed SCAMP, The Stanford Climbing and Aerial Maneuvering Platform. SCAMP can fly, perch, crawl and climb, and is the culmination of years of research conducted by various universities. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bAhLW1eq8eM&feature=youtu.be The landing mechanisms are partially modeled after the feet of geckos, allowing SCAMP to stick to rough and smooth vertical surfaces. Perching and climbing, inspired by the legs on insects, enable the drone to locate a secure and safe place to hang on walls. And each adaptation allows for new applications. Whether perched on a tree in the rainforest or clinging to the side of a building in a disaster site, SCAMP is ideal for both collecting data and monitoring environments. The Key is Understanding It might seem simple to just copy nature, but it’s not that straightforward. It’s not so much about the “how” as it is the “why” of how the biology works, according to Pope. Once an understanding of the “why” is reached, then the real work begins. He explains that this shift is one of the most exciting parts of the research — moving from biomimicry to what Pope and his teammates call biounderstanding or bioinspiration. And that process of understanding is exactly what’s happening in the lab at Stanford, which allows researchers to create effective and innovative technology. Pope explains that the team struggled to imitate the gripping mechanism of a gecko’s foot. At first, they were too focused on the tiny, adhesive “hairs” on the feet as opposed to why those hairs worked. “Once we understood that the key was having a contact area that changed size when it was pulled in the right direction,” Pope says, “we were able to create working patterns that we could manufacture right here in our lab.” He explains that the natural world has been tackling the issue of effective locomotion much longer than human engineers, which is why natural adaptations often appear in tech. “By looking to nature, where animals use remarkable combinations of senses, instincts, and body shapes to do amazing things, we can find shortcuts to develop similarly exciting skills for our robots,” Pope says.
John Adams: Impact and Legacy Historians have difficulty assessing John Adams's presidency. On the one hand, his aloofness and refusal to enter directly into political conflict probably undermined his effectiveness and cost him his reelection in 1800. His stubborn independence left him politically isolated and alone. Even his own cabinet opposed his policies much of the time. He valued no one's opinion half as much as his own—except for that of his wife, Abigail. As an active party politician who nevertheless distrusted factionalism and many Federalist leaders, such as Alexander Hamilton, Adams seems to have been hopelessly out of place in the partisan-style Republic that he had helped bring to life. Much of Adams's isolation reflected a well-conceived value system in which he believed that the executive branch should stand above politics. He viewed the legislature as subject to corruption and thus refused to work with it on a close basis. He prided himself on never giving into public opinion that conflicted with his principles. Adams counted himself among those natural aristocrats who were born for leadership because of their superior reason and virtue. In this sense, he distrusted the people and feared majority rule. Adams believed that the danger to American society in 1800 came not from excessive authority but from conflict and anarchy. Adams's elite republicanism stood in stark contrast to the more egalitarian Jeffersonian democracy that was poised to assume power in the new century. On the other hand, most historians agree that Adams was correct in not expanding the naval war with France into an all-out conflict. Another protracted war, especially one so soon after the War of Independence with the populace deeply divided along partisan lines, might have been fatal for the nascent American union. Historians concur that Adams nearly won the election of 1800 and that history might have judged him differently had he completed a second term. Adams has been justifiably censured for having signed the Alien and Sedition Acts, although it is important to note that he neither openly advocated their passage nor personally implemented them. Moreover, when faced with populist defiance, such as in Fries's Rebellion, he ignored Hamilton's call for a strong show of federal force. In the end, he even pardoned the leaders. Seen in this light, Adams's legacy is one of reason, moral leadership, the rule of law, compassion, and a cautious but active foreign policy that aimed both at securing the national interest and achieving an honorable peace.
Many processors that are currently fitted in spacecrafts are long way back processors; 1990’s processors. But why they are still using so old processors to empower their machines? For designers of spacecraft systems, the difficulty is that it often takes years to complete all testing and preparations necessary to obtain an operational system for space flights, as explained Shaun Dormon the Register. “When a processor is finally ready to be used in space, it is long since expired on Earth,” writes Shaun Dormon. In the long term, these processors may show failures due to the extreme conditions of space, such as the “constant bombardment of ionized hydrogen radicals (more or less as free protons) and electrons that are energy ejected in the form of solar wind, resulting in the immediate degradation of circuits at the nanoscale.” Among other examples of old components that feed the current spacecraft include the Curiosity robot sent to Mars by NASA, which uses a BAE Systems RAD750 computer. The RAD750 is based on the PowerPC 750 processor that was once found on the Apple iMac G3, released in 1997, says Shaun Dormon. Similarly, the Hubble Space Telescope uses an Intel 486 processor, installed in 1999. CPUShack provides a informative chipsets summary that power most spaceships, more or less known.These include the International Space Station, which has several computers, the most important being the control computers that use the processor Intel i386, whose initial release was in 1985. The U.S. space shuttle out of service last year, also performed many essential functions in the i386 components. There are two ways to analyze the situation using older processors may raise concerns about the resilience of the spacecraft, but it also reflects the sustainability of some flagship processors.CPUShack also recalls that the processors used in space must pass very rigorous tests. In addition, most spacecraft use multiple processors and includes many different sub-systems.
Write a program that creates three vector<float objects. Fill the first two objects with 25 floating-point numbers using a for loop as follows: 1. fill the first vector object with the loop counter value; 2. fill the second vector object with the loop counter value squared; 3. finally, write a for loop that adds the corresponding elements in the first two vectors, and puts the result in the corresponding element of the third vector. Display all three vectors using the format “for counter; element + element = element”.
Most people have heard of the term "bits" - a shortened form of "Binary digITS" - and they know that computers process bits. Most have also heard that "it's all ones and zeroes"; that is, computers process signals that are considered either "on or off", the logic one and logic zero levels. At the lowest circuit level in most computers, those bits are handled by logic gates, which are simply groups of transistors used as switches. In the quantum computers, ones and zeroes are the direction of current flow in super-cooled Niobium wire. ... in his quantum computer, a loop of super cold niobium wire has all of its electrons going in one direction and at the exact same time the same piece of wire has all of its electrons going in the opposite direction. Their niobium wire is exhibiting quantum behavior in a macroscopic object.The dirty little secret is that it's very hard to determine if a computer is really operating on quantum principles. Companies and government agencies are paying millions of dollars for them and they're not even sure they're getting a quantum computer and not a conventional computer. Surely it can't be that hard right? Why not take it apart and probe it? Or why not run a sample computation, a benchmark if you will, on it and another computer to see which is faster. Unfortunately, it's not that easy. It violates the laws of quantum physics to be able to look inside (probe it), so the system can't be probed. When a quantum system is observed, it collapses to one state or the other. In the example from the original paragraph, if one measures the current flow in any of the 512 niobium wire loops it will only appear to be moving in one direction, not both.Got that? Since quantum theory says it's impossible to observe the system without changing it, nobody knows if these quantum computers being sold are relying on quantum principles. In June of 2011, an international team of researchers, led by University of Toronto physicist Aephraim Steinberg of the Centre for Quantum Information and Quantum Control, have found a way to observe photons in a dual slit experiment without changing them by applying a new, modern measurement technique to the historic two-slit interferometer experiment in which a beam of light shone through two slits results in an interference pattern on a screen behind. That famous experiment, and the 1927 Neils Bohr and Albert Einstein debates, seemed to establish that you could not watch a particle go through one of two slits without destroying the interference effect: you had to choose which phenomenon to look for.These researchers demonstrated that they can watch a photon and see both phenomena; they can observe the system without changing it. With this new experiment, the researchers have succeeded for the first time in experimentally reconstructing full trajectories which provide a description of how light particles move through the two slits and form an interference pattern. Their technique builds on a new theory of weak measurement that was developed by Yakir Aharonov's group at Tel Aviv University. Howard Wiseman of Griffith University proposed that it might be possible to measure the direction a photon (particle of light) was moving, conditioned upon where the photon is found. By combining information about the photon's direction at many different points, one could construct its entire flow pattern, i.e. the trajectories it takes to a screen.The implications here for quantum computing are important. The friend who found this article says it proves quantum computers are impossible. I'm not sure it goes that far, but it shows that at least it's not impossible that quantum computers can be probed; the method used in this paper to observe these photons might not be amenable to measuring currents, counting electrons or other measurements required on a computer but another method might work. On a more abstract level, what does this say about the superposition of currents in the niobium wires in the D-Wave computer? It was hard for me to grasp how "a loop of super cold niobium wire has all of its electrons going in one direction and at the exact same time the same piece of wire has all of its electrons going in the opposite direction" could be used to make decisions; how it could be useful. As others commented in my post a year ago, that sounds a lot like zero current flowing. "In our experiment, a new single-photon source developed at the National Institute for Standards and Technology in Colorado was used to send photons one by one into an interferometer constructed at Toronto. We then used a quartz calcite, which has an effect on light that depends on the direction the light is propagating, to measure the direction as a function of position. Our measured trajectories are consistent, as Wiseman had predicted, with the realistic but unconventional interpretation of quantum mechanics of such influential thinkers as David Bohm and Louis de Broglie," said Steinberg. The original double-slit experiment played a central role in the early development of quantum mechanics, leading directly to Bohr's formulation of the principle of complementarity. Complementarity states that observing particle-like or wave-like behaviour in the double-slit experiment depends on the type of measurement made: the system cannot behave as both a particle and wave simultaneously. Steinberg's recent experiment suggests this doesn't have to be the case: the system can behave as both. Sorry, but I love this picture of Shroedinger's cat. We found that Schrodinger's cat learned to create a quantum superposition of kibbles in each of the parallel universes he visited, so that alive or dead, he had an unlimited supply of kibbles. Photo from Quartz magazine article.
Case of the Broken Beaker Case of the Broken Beaker is an activity developed by Learning Undefeated to help students explore the use of DNA profiling and gel electrophoresis. In this lab, students will use restriction enzymes and agarose gel electrophoresis to create a genetic profile. DNA profiling is a technique frequently used for solving crimes and confirming if people are related to each other. It involves the testing of skin cells, hair roots, or a small amount of blood or saliva. Restriction Enzymes are enzymes found in bacteria that cut DNA. The reason the DNA needs to be cut is so that you can sequence the small fragments via gel electrophoresis. Gel Electrophoresis is a laboratory method used to separate mixtures of DNA, RNA, and protein according to their size. In gel electrophoresis, molecules are pushed through an electrical field with small pores, and separated based on their length. A molecules distance traveled is inversely related to it’s size, meaning the smaller the molecule, the greater distance it will travel. Below are pre laboratory engagement and post laboratory extension activity suggestions that teachers may use in their classrooms as they see fit. Students who participate in the companion laboratory activity onboard MdBioLab will learn how to create a DNA profile in order to solve the Case of the Broken Beaker. Upon completion of Case of the Broken Beaker Lab, students will be able to: - Explain how restriction enzymes are used to create unique genetic profiles - Explain how gel electrophoresis can be used as a tool to visualize DNA products - Create DNA profiles using the restriction enzyme HindIII and gel electrophoresis - Differentiate between different crime scene suspects based on their DNA - Analyze the validity of the DNA evidence Follow these links for more information: - DNA Profiling: http://science.howstuffworks.com/dna-profiling.htm - Restriction Enzymes: http://www.biology-pages.info/R/RestrictionEnzymes.html - Agarose Gel Electrophoresis: https://askabiologist.asu.edu/agarose-gel-electrophoresis Engage students in studying the relation between DNA profiling and Crime Scene investigation - What are some methods used for DNA profiling? - What is DNA profiling used for? - How can gel electrophoresis help you match two DNA sequences? This morning, the MdBioLab instructors returned to the truck to find that someone had forced their way onboard the night before and stole over $20,000 worth of equipment but examination of the security footage could only confirm that a single person, whose identity was concealed from the camera, carried out the heist. Luckily for us here at MDBio Lab, several witnesses, who observed a person fleeing from the scene the previous night, provided officers with a fairly detailed description of the offender. Using these descriptions, officers have rounded up four suspects that have committed similar crimes and required they submit their DNA for analysis. The MdBioLab and police department need you to help create a DNA profile for each suspect that will assist the D.A. in prosecuting the case For further knowledge of gel electrophoresis and DNA matching, visit: http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/paternitytesting.html For further knowledge of restriction enzymes, visit: http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/dl/free/0072421975/196644/restriction_endonucleases.html - Skill Level: Advanced - Focus: Genetics, forensics - Time: 70 – 90 minutes DNA, electrophoresis, forensics, law enforcement, controls, UV, fragments, fingerprinting, profiling, crime scene investigation Dolan DNA Learning Center Explore animations and other information on restriction endonucleases. Additional information on genetic engineering is also included if you’re feeling saucy! New England Biolabs Restriction endonuclease overview from the suppliers themselves Gel Electrophoresis Tools Run a virtual gel electrophoresis. This site also has many resources
Speaking of renewable energy, you might think of solar, wind, tidal, and hydraulic. Although solar power and wind power are major renewable energies, do you know that there is a technology to generate electricity from rainwater? Until now, rainwater power generation technology has not been able to generate large amounts of electricity with small droplets. However, a research team at the City University of Hong Kong has announced that it may be possible to generate electricity even with a little rain. Professor Wang at the City University of Hong Kong said: “We found that a drop of 100 microliters (1/10,000 liters) of water released from a height of 15cm can generate a voltage of over 140V, which can light up 100 small LED lights.” Although researches on voltage generation using raindrops have been conducted for many years, generating electricity from raindrops energy has been regarded as more difficult than using energy from tides and river flows. However, the research team at the City University of Hong Kong succeeded in improving the efficiency of energy generation over two years. When a falling water droplet hits on the Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene (PTFE) surface, used for Teflon processing of pan, it bridges two electrodes and makes a closed-loop electric circuit. Then, it was found that the stored charges are released to generate electric current. For the results of the research, Professor Wang said: “I hope that the outcome of this research would be helpful to the global problem of renewable energy shortage. I believe that, in the long run, this new discovery could be applied wherever water is in contact with a solid surface.” Although it seems to take a long time to put it to practical use, electricity may be generated from the outside of the hull, the inside of the water bottle, the surface of the umbrella, etc. in the future.

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