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The capability of animals to emit light, called bioluminescence, is considered to be a major factor in ecological interactions. Because it occurs across diverse taxa, measurements of bioluminescence can be powerful to detect and quantify organisms in the ocean. In this study, 17 years of video observations were recorded by remotely operated vehicles during surveys off the California Coast, from the surface down to 3,900 m depth. More than 350,000 observations are classified for their bioluminescence capability based on literature descriptions. The organisms represented 553 phylogenetic concepts (species, genera or families, at the most precise taxonomic level defined from the images), distributed within 13 broader taxonomic categories. The importance of bioluminescent marine taxa is highlighted in the water column, as we showed that 76% of the observed individuals have bioluminescence capability. More than 97% of Cnidarians were bioluminescent, and 9 of the 13 taxonomic categories were found to be bioluminescent dominant. The percentage of bioluminescent animals is remarkably uniform over depth. Moreover, the proportion of bioluminescent and non-bioluminescent animals within taxonomic groups changes with depth for Ctenophora, Scyphozoa, Chaetognatha, and Crustacea. Given these results, bioluminescence has to be considered an important ecological trait from the surface to the deep-sea. In marine environments, the presence of light plays a major role in the spatial distribution of marine communities. However, in the photic zone during nighttime and in the deeper parts of the water column, where sunlight has been absorbed, animals live in perpetual dim light or darkness1. Light emitted by organisms is called bioluminescence; this emission of cold light is due to a biologically generated chemiluminescent reaction. It is an active ability to communicate, in contrast to the passive traits of fluorescence or phosphorescence in which photons are absorbed by a tissue or structure and then re-emitted at a different wavelength. Moreover, bioluminescence is known to play many roles in intra- and inter-specific interactions2. Due to the wide diversity of organisms using this process, bioluminescence has also been utilized to detect biological activities in the deep ocean3,4, the presence of pelagic animals5,6,7,8,9,10,11, and to evaluate biomass for oceanographic studies12. A robust description of the abundance and distribution of organisms able to emit light and their ecological niches in the water column is needed to accurately perform such surveys. To our knowledge, the most complete catalog of known bioluminescent organisms was compiled by Herring13 and updated more recently2,14. For coastal environments less than 2.5% of the species are estimated to be bioluminescent15, while for pelagic environments, this percentage is considerably higher. Indeed, the earliest studies estimate that bioluminescence occurs in approximately 70% of fish species16, and by number of individuals, 90% of fishes observed below 500 m depth in the eastern North Atlantic were said to be bioluminescent16,17. For decapod shrimp (Crustacea) 80% of individuals from the surface to 500 m depth and 41% between 500 and 1,000 m depth were said to be bioluminescent17,18. Later studies described bioluminescence capability for a range of jellyfish (Cnidaria)2,19 and established a value of about 90% for species of planktonic siphonophores20 and ctenophores21. Because of this surprisingly high percentage, these estimates for pelagic species have been intensively used since, in scientific publications22,23,24,25 and for outreach on marine biology. However, these studies were limited by: focusing on certain restricted taxonomic categories (siphonophores, ctenophores, jellyfish); being based on general phylogenetic description of bioluminescence ability within taxa; or using non-quantitative approximations. Well documented data sets on diverse taxa are still needed to evaluate the importance of this capability across marine diversity. A primary interest of understanding the distribution of bioluminescent and non-bioluminescent taxa is to examine ecologic niches with co-occurring bioluminescent taxa, and establish the niches shared with taxa where biological interaction or avoidance could be due to light emission. Another interest of collating this information across a large number of taxa is to identify gaps in our understanding of bioluminescence capability for marine ecosystems. Because depth is the main spatial variable driving the distribution of organisms, the development of deep-sea technologies such as cameras, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), and non-destructive sampling methods has increased the number of dives and in situ observations in the pelagic ocean. This study is based on in situ video observations performed by the MBARI ROVs over the last 17 years in the eastern Pacific. Each observation in the videos has been identified taxonomically and its bioluminescence capability has been associated from the literature. Using this information, we quantify the distribution of bioluminescent and non-bioluminescent organisms from the surface to the deep-ocean across 13 taxonomic categories (8 phyla), and 553 phylogenetic concepts (species, genera, families) of organisms observed. Finally, this study shows that bioluminescence is important in the water column, as an ecological trait, spanning the range of depths and the diversity of organisms. A total of 350,536 water-column observations were annotated from videos taken during 240 ROV dives between 1999 and 2016, with about 3/4 of the data between 2006 and 2012. This large amount of data in number, depth, and the large time coverage gives reliable patterns of the vertical distribution of bioluminescence features, which may be considered largely representative of the deep-ocean. The data set, having been gathered during periodic cruises and only during the day, is less suitable for analysis of seasonal or long-term trends, or subtleties like vertical migrations. This data set focuses only on planktonic or pelagic species; any predominantly benthic organisms, such as echinoderms, anthozoans, and ascidians were pre-filtered from the data set, although they can include bioluminescent entities. For analyzing trends, organisms were grouped into broader taxonomic categories, based on functional groupings and broader bioluminescent patterns (see Materials and Methods) section. For example Cnidaria were split into hydromedusae, siphonophores, and scyphozoans because these three groups are readily identifiable and have different patterns with depth. Chordates were sorted into three categories because fishes are functionally very different from urochordates, and within the urochordates, appendicularians are mainly luminous while Thaliacea (salps and doliolids) are mainly non-luminous. Initially organisms were placed into 14 of these taxonomic categories, but the group Nemertea (about 0.1% of the data set), representing 3 concepts, was excluded from further analyses because of its low numbers of observations. The rest of the 553 concepts belonging to 13 broader taxonomic categories ranged from 0.2% (Pteropoda) to 17.9% (Hydromedusae) of the observations (Fig. 1), and these were further analyzed for trends. Crustacea are pelagic planktonic species mainly represented in our dataset by mysids, decapods, and euphausiids. Infrequently annotated copepods were excluded due to inability to identify them from videos and inconsistencies in how well organisms smaller than a few mm have been annotated. Ctenophores and cnidarians are the most abundant gelatinous organisms. Within cnidarians, Siphonophora, Hydromedusae, and Scyphozoa have been divided into different taxa in this study based on known differentiated behaviors and distributions. Appendicularia are pelagic tunicates producing a feeding structure called a “house”, known to contain bioluminescent inclusions and to be a significant fraction of the organic material sinking to the oceans depths. Fishes mainly represent the marine ray-finned fishes, but for this analysis we have included sharks, while the Pteropoda is a place-holder for pelagic gastropods and also includes heteropods (non-luminous) and pelagic nudibranchs (often luminescent). Distribution of bioluminescence over depth The total number of counts per hour is represented (Fig. 2a), for probably bioluminescent and probably non-bioluminescent organisms, after normalization of the data set. The total sum of counts per hour (including bioluminescent, non-bioluminescent from Fig. 2 and undefined, not shown) increased from the surface to the maximum of 411 counts per hour at 350 m depth (bioluminescent and non-bioluminescent, respectively 265 and 131 counts per hour, Fig. 2, and undefined with 15 counts per hour). Then, the number of counts per hour decreased with depth to the lowest value of 14 counts per hour of operation at 3,650 m depth. Bioluminescent and likely bioluminescent organisms were dominant in the entire water column (in blue, Fig. 2b), ranging between 48 and 77% of the organisms observed. The non-bioluminescent and unlikely bioluminescent organisms represented a small portion of the observations (in dark grey, Fig. 2b), ranging between 2 and 35%. These numbers do not total 100% due to animals undefined for bioluminescence, accounting for between 2 and 43% of the observations. Raw numbers of observations in each depth bin were normalized using the amount of time spent at each depth. As might be expected, the upper part of the water column has a lower percentage of undefined organisms than the less known deeper waters. However, when omitting the undefined organisms, in the global data set, probably bioluminescent organisms accounted for 76% of all observations (down, Fig. 2b), and the probably non-bioluminescent reached 24%. The variability of these percentages over depth is low, and the variability due to undefined organisms is also relatively constant. Indeed, the percentage varies only a small amount, from a low of 69%, if all undefined animals are assumed to be non-luminous, to 78% if they are all assigned as bioluminescent. Distribution of bioluminescence within taxa The proportion of bioluminescent observations calculated for each of the 13 main taxonomic categories showed clear taxon-specific trends (Fig. 3). In this part of the analysis, the undefined observations were not taken into account when computing the percentage of probably bioluminescent observations within each taxon. As with the water-column calculations, these numbers are based on in situ observations of organism abundance (total counts), and not on the number of species within each group, meaning that the abundance of some numerically dominant organisms could drive the observed trends. For example, within the Polychaeta, Poeobius meseres, which is bioluminescent, was observed in high abundance at all the sampling stations and dives, especially in the deeper waters, and thus was largely responsible for the pattern seen in the Polychaeta. This worm was found with a maximum abundance at about 1,800 m depth. Other bioluminescent-dominant taxa included Appendicularia (94.2% of probably bioluminescent), Polychaeta (92.9%), Ctenophora (91.8%), and all the subgroups of cnidarians i.e.: Siphonophora (99.7%), Hydromedusae (100.0%) and Scyphozoa (97.6%) were bioluminescent dominant. In contrast, Rhizaria (34.7% probably bioluminescent), Chaetognatha (11.4%), Pteropoda (6.1%) and Thaliacea (2.4%) were mainly probably non-bioluminescent with a low diversity of identified luminous species. For Chaetognatha, the recently studied Caecosagitta macrocephala and Eukrohnia fowleri were the only two bioluminescent species observed26. Only two species of bioluminescent Pteropoda (Haddock, pers. obs.) and four species of bioluminescent Thaliacea were also observed (Doliolula equus, Paradoliopsis harbisoni, Pseudusa bostigrinus and Pyrosoma atlanticum). Each of the three sub-groups of cnidarians are clearly bioluminescent dominant (no Cubozoa, which are probably all non-bioluminescent, were observed). The two groups of urochordates, Thaliacea and Appendicularia, show completely contrasting dominance for bioluminescence capability (2.4 and 94.2% of probably bioluminescent, respectively). It also has to be noted, for Crustacea and fishes, a substantial fraction of the observations remain undefined, representing together about 15% of the total observations for those groups. We explain this further in the discussion. Distribution of bioluminescence over depth and taxa The proportion of observations within each taxon shows variability over depth (Fig. 4), taking into account only the probably bioluminescent and probably non-bioluminescent entities. The photic zone, above 100 m depth, shows a unique distribution of taxa for both probably non-bioluminescent and for probably bioluminescent organisms, compared to deeper depths, which have a more uniform taxonomic make-up. For the probably non-bioluminescent taxa, this shallow layer was mainly composed of Thaliacea, Chaetognatha, Ctenophora, and Pteropoda while for the probably bioluminescent taxa Siphonophora, Ctenophora, and Hydromedusae were dominant. Below 100 m, the probably non-bioluminescent taxa were dominated by Chaetognatha, Thaliacea and Crustacea. Chaetognatha were dominant almost continuously, from 0 to 3,900 m depth, while Thaliacea were mainly present shallower than 2,100 m, and Crustacea below 2,100 m. For the probably bioluminescent taxa, below 100 m, a succession of dominant taxa appeared from the surface to the meso- and bathypelagic zones. Firstly, Siphonophora was the most represented bioluminescent group from the surface to about 500 m. Then, the Hydromedusae dominated the distribution from 500 m to 1,500 m followed by Polychaetes, dominant down to 2,250 m depth. In the deepest layer, below 2,250 m depth, the Appendicularia were the most represented bioluminescent taxon, although they were also well represented throughout the entire water column. Within each taxonomic category, the proportion of observations belonging to each of the 5 classes of bioluminescence capability was tabulated within depth bins across the full range of depth (Fig. 5). Siphonophora, and Polychaeta had a homogeneous distribution with no clear pattern that varied with depth, mainly due to the fact that more than 99% of them are probably bioluminescent with a low portion of undefined (Fig. 3). In contrast, Ctenophora, Scyphozoa, Pteropoda, Chaetognatha, Crustacea, and Thaliacea show large changes in the distribution of bioluminescence capability through the depths. A clear pattern is observed for Crustacea: bioluminescent Crustacea were mainly observed above 500 m depth (krill, mesopelagic shrimp), while the non-bioluminescent ones (isopods, decapods) were observed below 2,500 m with a gap in between. For Ctenophora, Scyphozoa, and Pteropoda the non-bioluminescent observations predominate in the upper part of the water column (above 500, 200 and 1,500 m respectively). Cephalopoda, Polychaeta, and fishes show the same proportion for probably bioluminescent and non-bioluminescent over depth, with differences in the numbers of counts only (Fig. 6). The probably non-bioluminescent Ctenophora and Scyphozoa (and to some extent Chaetognatha on Fig. 6) are strongly represented in the epipelagic zone and above 500 m but almost absent below. For Ctenophora, this is attributable to the two non-luminous genera (Hormiphora and Pleurobrachia) being constrained to shallow depths, and for Chaetognatha, the only two luminous species mainly occur below 700 m. For Scyphozoa, Chrysaora fuscescens is the main non-bioluminescent species exclusively observed in the upper part of the water column (above 200 m). Figure 6, showing the number of observations over depth, gives a quantification of the distribution patterns. Although the proportion of non-bioluminescent Scyphozoa is high in the upper part of the water column, the absolute numbers of this taxon remain low (Figs 1 and 6). Similarly, the Crustacea show strong proportional patterns, but the absolute counts of deep observations (below 1,000 m) are relatively low. Finally, it is notable that most of the undefined animals, particularly in Hydromedusae, Polychaeta, and fishes occurred in the deeper parts of the water column (Fig. 5), mirroring the pattern seen in the combined observations (Yellow bars in Fig. 2b). Moreover, because bioluminescent organisms are strongly represented in Hydromedusae and fishes (Fig. 3), it will be of interest to examine deeper representatives of these groups collected in good condition, to discover previously undocumented bioluminescence capabilities. ROV detection and associated biases The use of ROVs fitted with high-definition cameras is a powerful way to conduct observations and surveys over long time scales in the deep-sea27,28. This method does require a great deal of effort, including time at sea aboard a support ship, video annotation, and organism identification, but it provides an unparalleled view of the abundance and diversity of macroscopic deep-sea organisms. Indeed, ROVs provide a large coverage in space, time, and depth with the ability to investigate the deep sea over a dive lasting several hours29. Moreover, the accuracy of the data recorded by video camera is also highly valuable for exploration, in several ways. It allows classification to more precise taxonomic levels than acoustical and other methods, and there is the potential to update annotations over time to keep pace with evolving classifications and species descriptions. The archived images also allow the verification of the data, with recognition of artifactual annotations of organisms (dead or sinking animals, misidentification or identification revised by experts) during the data processing. One shortcoming is that for a few active species, in particular some fishes, crustaceans and cephalopods, the lights (and sounds) of the vehicle may lead to avoidance behavior, and rarely to attraction30,31,32. Such behaviors are known to be a reaction to bright artificial light, motor noise, electrical fields and vehicle-induced water motion33,34. In particular, potential reaction to light has to be taken in consideration for bioluminescence studies. The degree to which this can bias quantification is variable and dependent on species. In 2016, Ayma et al.35, found that fishes would freeze and become motionless in the presence of an ROV, rather than being attracted or fleeing. Some bias is present in our survey, with potentially not all organisms detected by the video cameras. However, the large amount of data collected and the consistency of instruments (3 ROVs and 4 cameras) used over 17 years, and the lack of avoidance response for the majority of organisms analyzed, reinforce the reliability of the survey conducted in this study with the most suitable instrumentation for exploration of the large deep-sea fauna. When using ROV for camera-based surveys another limitation is the minimum size of organisms that can be recognized. With high-definition video, and depending on the species, this size can be as small as a few millimeters, but typically animals should be larger than a centimeter. This minimum size evolved through the time-span of this study, due to upgrades of the camera sensor and recording at HD resolution. Due to this limit of the ROV for the smallest organisms, this study focused on organisms bigger than one cm. Based on this limitation, copepods (Crustacea) have been removed from the dataset. Indeed, most copepods can only be identified upon close microscopic examination. While this group includes both bioluminescent and non-bioluminescent species, their inclusion would have increased the “undefined’’ group without providing more information on depth-related bioluminescence capability. Ostracods are another group of abundant crustaceans that contain bioluminescent species, but which are too small to be identified using this methodology. Bioluminescence description for taxa in the literature While some estimates of the proportion of bioluminescent organisms in the open ocean have been previously published16,17,18,27, to our knowledge, there has been no study based on a thoroughly quantified data set for the full range of midwater taxa. Moreover, the most complete list of bioluminescent taxa in the literature was published 30 years ago13 with few addition since2,14. Because there is a fairly low-level of activity in deep-sea research, and even less work on potentially bioluminescent organisms in good condition, the rate of discoveries of bioluminescent taxa occurs at a very slow decadal rate. Such a slow rate and lack of studies on bioluminescence as an ecological capability is given the high estimates of bioluminescence capabilities (up to 90%) for fauna living in the deep ocean27. Our study quantifies that 76% of the organisms observed have the ability to emit bioluminescence. This value is remarkably consistent throughout a 3,900-meter depth range. Although our work is limited to organisms above one cm in size, and may miss some especially reclusive fish, crustacea and cephalopods due to the escape behavior, this value is the most accurate and consistent current estimate across a very broad depth range. Our results also highlight that for some taxa such as Ctenophora and cnidarians (including Siphonophora, Hydromedusae, and Scyphozoa) this percentage was higher than 90%. In contrast, Chaetognatha, Pteropoda, and Thaliacea showed the opposite pattern, with less than 15% of organisms observed being bioluminescent, and most of those newly documented. In fact, until recently, chaetognaths, doliolids and pteropods were considered to be the three main planktonic groups that had no bioluminescent representatives13. Based on the prevalence of bioluminescence capability within Hydromedusae, and because about 9% of observations are organisms with undefined capability, it will be interesting to continue exploration of the full extent of luminescence in this group. One of the interesting patterns was that the uppermost layer contained the predominance of non-bioluminescent species of scyphozoan jellyfish. This shallow group includes the most commonly encountered medusae such as Aurelia (moon jellies) and Chrysaora (sea nettles), which are not bioluminescent. Although they are abundant shallow, they are not a significant portion when considering the water-column as a whole. Deeper, the most abundant scyphozoans are coronate medusae which have been shown to have dramatic bioluminescent displays36. It will be very interesting in the future to examine the bioluminescent capabilities of the recently discovered deep Ulmaridae (Scyphozoa), relatives of the moon jellies, such as Tiburonia37, Deepstaria, and Stellamedusa38. Representativeness of the water column The sampled area is located offshore of central California, and stations extent out into the California current, one of the major coastal currents affiliated with upwelling zones39 and blooms40. The California Current is part of the North Pacific Gyre, occupying the northern basin of the Pacific. One of the distinctive features of the sampled zone is the distance to the continental shelf break. In this stretch of coast, the shelf is relatively narrow, so that the abyssal seafloor is within a few hundred km from shore. These results, therefore, which are not limited to one particular canyon, should be somewhat representative of other deep-sea waters, comparable to other well-studied areas such as the Porcupine Abyssal Plain station in the North Atlantic (49°N 16.5°W; 4,800 m)41. Our results, interestingly, showed a low variability in the percentages of probably bioluminescent and probably non-bioluminescent organisms over depth. This study is restricted to daytime observations, the dives being almost exclusively conducted between 06:00 and 19:00 local time. Organisms occurring above the oxygen minimum zone (above 700 meters) may undergo day/night vertical migration through the water column. Interestingly, the organisms living in the twilight zone actively use their bioluminescence during day and night. They do not undergo daily changes in their bioluminescent capabilities like surface-dwelling dinoflagellates and crustaceans. Our results, therefore, should be considered to apply to the daytime depths of these shallower deep-sea taxa, while still representative of the deeper and non-migrating taxa. Examining the effects of organism migrations and chronobiological rhythms will be interesting material for future studies. Several studies measuring bioluminescence intensity using bathyphotometers42, or high sensitivity video cameras43,44,45 found a decrease in the bioluminescence intensity recorded with depth. One important implication of our results is that if the proportion of bioluminescent organisms remains stable over depth, as we found, then such decreases are principally related to the decrease of biomass (Fig. 2a). In future works, the relationship between such decrease of abundance and the decrease of bioluminescence measured in situ over depth will be interesting to investigate. These future investigations, based on our results, could assess the effectiveness of bulk bioluminescence measurements as a reliable proxy for water-column biomass. Bioluminescence is frequently viewed as an exotic phenomenon, but its widespread occurrence and the high diversity of organisms with this capability support that it serves many important ecological roles2. Our study found that 76% of oceanic marine organisms observed in deep waters offshore of California have the capability of bioluminescence. This percentage is surprisingly stable throughout the water column, from the surface to the deep sea, although the dominant taxonomic groups contributing to this proportion change over depth. In situ measurements of bioluminescence profiles, which decline with depth, are potentially a powerful proxy to detect the changes in biomass with depth and in different water masses. The full extent of bioluminescence capability is yet to be established, especially in the deep sea where continued discoveries await. However, given that the deep ocean being the largest habitat on earth by volume, bioluminescence can certainly be said to be a major ecological trait on earth. Materials and Methods Sampling using Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) The data were recorded off California, from nearshore waters to 300 km offshore, (latitude from 34.23° to 37.00°N and longitude from 125.02° to 121.73°W) during 240 cruises exploring down to 3,900 m depth (Fig. 7). The study covered the water column within diverse areas from the Monterey canyon to the abyssal plain, and from relatively shallow coastal waters to deep pelagic habitats. During the 17 years sampled, from March 1999 to June 2016, several ROVs were used (Tiburon, Doc Ricketts, Ventana) and 4 cameras were mounted (Panasonic 3-chip, Sony 3-chip, Ikegami HDL40 and Sony HDTV). The focus distance was defined as 1.5 m from the camera. The typical volume observed by the camera varied between 1.2 and 3 m3 during this period, although our normalization method is not dependent on this value. The ROV video transects were annotated by staff experts using the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute’s open source Video Annotation Reference System (VARS)46 for database entry. Each observation of an animal was logged as a concept, defined at its most specific phylogenetic level observable from video, along with concurrent physical parameters (depth, location). After filtering and quality checks, the final analyzed data set included 350,536 entities within 553 taxonomic concepts (species or higher). The observations’ depths were discretized into 100-m bins from 0 to 3,900 m. Because the ROV spends less time at the deepest depths, in order to obtain comparable values over depth independent of the time spent for observation, the data were normalized by the total time spent (in hour) per 100-m depth bin. This study focuses on the water column, so benthic taxa were removed from the observations. Data treatment has been performed using Python scripts for retrieval and normalization, and R version 3.3.147 for stats and plotting. Bioluminescence capability attribution A database of concepts (taxonomic entities) was annotated for the capability of bioluminescence. The capability was classified into one of the following five categories: bioluminescent, likely, undefined, unlikely, and non-bioluminescent, Table 1. Those descriptions are mainly based on previous literature2,13,14 and supplemented with additional unpublished discoveries and observations since (Haddock, pers. obs.). They have been collated for each taxon and are accessible online through the “Deep Sea Guide’’ from MBARI (http://dsg.mbari.org/dsg/home). For classifying an organism’s capability, as an example, Aequorea was defined as bioluminescent48. On the opposite end, for the non-bioluminescent category, Pleurobrachia was described as non-bioluminescent based on the literature21. An example from the undefined category is the Hydromedusa Ptychogastria that has never been described for this capability. The categories with the most likely and unlikely observations are Ctenophora (comb jellies), Chaetognatha (arrow worms), and Appendicularia (larvaceans). In the case of Ctenophora, all members examined are luminous except for certain benthic species (not included in this study) and the genera Pleurobrachia and Hormiphora, which are restricted to fairly shallow waters. The deep-sea ctenophores that could not be identified to a precise taxonomic level are mostly species that have not been given names yet. These are all luminous, so when there are undefined ctenophores from deeper depths it is likely that they are luminous species. For chaetognaths, the inverse is true: nearly all are non-luminous except for two orange-colored deep-living species. If a chaetognath therefore was not specifically identified, then it is unlikely to be one of these two distinct luminous species, and therefore it is catalogued as unlikely. Non-specific appendicularians observed are mainly small animals, which are most abundantly in the luminous genus Oikopleura, and they are visible due to the presence of their mucus house, which acts as a particle accumulator. For these there is a likely probability that the observed and non-described appendicularians are bioluminescent. In this work and several of the subsequent plots, the bioluminescent and likely-bioluminescent were grouped into “probably bioluminescent’’ and the non-bioluminescent and unlikely-bioluminescent were grouped into “probably non-bioluminescent’’. Data sets and the script (Rmarkdown under R-Studio) of the representations are available as Supplementary Information (S1 to S3 datasets). How to cite this article: Martini, S. and Haddock, S. H. D. Quantification of bioluminescence from the surface to the deep sea demonstrates its predominance as an ecological trait. Sci. Rep. 7, 45750; doi: 10.1038/srep45750 (2017). Publisher's note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. The authors thank Kyra Schlining, Susan Von Thun, Brian Schlining, Nancy Jacobsen Stout, and Linda Kuhnz for annotations and the implementation of the VARS database, and the ROV and ship crews for their expert surveys. Monique Messié, Darrin Schultz, Manabu Bessho, and Anela Choy provided helpful discussions. This work is supported by the David and Lucile Packard Foundation and S. Martini is supported in part by a grant from the Bettencourt-Schueller Foundation.
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- 7.1: Organic Molecules - Biochemistry is the discipline that studies the chemistry of life, and its objective is to explain form and function based on chemical principles. Organic chemistry is the discipline devoted to the study of carbon-based chemistry, which is the foundation for the study of biomolecules and the discipline of biochemistry. Both biochemistry and organic chemistry are based on the concepts of general chemistry. - 7.2: Carbohydrates - The most abundant biomolecules on earth are carbohydrates. From a chemical viewpoint, carbohydrates are primarily a combination of carbon and water, and many of them have the empirical formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number of repeated units. This view represents these molecules simply as “hydrated” carbon atom chains in which water molecules attach to each carbon atom, leading to the term “carbohydrates.” - 7.3: Lipids - Although they are composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen, lipid molecules may also contain oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorous. Lipids serve numerous and diverse purposes in the structure and functions of organisms. They can be a source of nutrients, a storage form for carbon, energy-storage molecules, or structural components of membranes and hormones. Lipids comprise a broad class of many chemically distinct compounds, the most common of which are discussed in this section. - 7.4: Proteins - Amino acids are capable of bonding together in essentially any number, yielding molecules of essentially any size that possess a wide array of physical and chemical properties and perform numerous functions vital to all organisms. The molecules derived from amino acids can function as structural components of cells and subcellular entities, as sources of nutrients, as atom- and energy-storage reservoirs, and as functional species such as hormones, enzymes, receptors, and transport molecules. Thumbnail: An enzyme binding site that would normally bind substrate can alternatively bind a competitive inhibitor, preventing substrate access. Dihydrofolate reductase is inhibited by methotrexate which prevents binding of its substrate, folic acid. Binding site in blue, inhibitor in green, and substrate in black(PDB: 4QI9). Image used with permission (CC BY 4.0; Thomas Shafee).
Australian Aboriginal culture is one of the world's longest surviving cultures, which if one accepts the most recent dating of occupational remains at the Malakunanya II shelter, this period commences at least 50,000 years ago! Amongst the cultural items recovered from the site's lowest levels were used pieces of haematite which had been used in the preparation of paint, as well as yellow and red ochre. This period ended with the rise of the sea following the last Ice Age and the development of an estuarine environment 8000 years ago. All of Australia's Aborigines were semi-nomadic hunters and gatherers, with each clan having its own territory. Those communities living along the coast or rivers were expert fishermen. The territories or 'traditional lands' were defined by geographic boundaries such as rivers, lakes and mountains. All Australian Aborigines shared an intimate understanding of, and relationship with, the land. That relationship was the basis of their spiritual life and shaped the Aboriginal culture. Land is fundamental to the well-being of all Aboriginal people. The 'dreamtime' stories explain how the land was created by the journeys of the spirit ancestors. Those creation stories describing the contact and features which the spiritual ancestors left on the land are integral to Aboriginal spirituality. 'Ancestor Spirits' came to Earth in human and other forms and the land, the plants and animals were given their form as we know them The expression 'Dreamtime' refers to the 'time before time', or 'the time of the creation of all things', while 'Dreaming' is often used to refer to an individual's or group's set of beliefs or spirituality. For example, an Indigenous Australian might talk about their Kangaroo Dreaming, Snake Dreaming, or Honey Ant Dreaming, or any combination of Dreamings pertinent to their 'land'. However, many Indigenous Aborigines also refer to the creation time as 'The Dreaming'. For Indigenous Australians, the past is still fervantly alive in the present moment and will remain so into the future. The Ancestor Spirits and their powers have not gone, they are present in the forms in to which they changed at the end of the 'Dreamtime' or 'Dreaming', as the stories tell. The stories have been handed down through the ages and are an integral part of an Indigenous person's 'Dreaming'. this harmonious affinity with their surroundings that reveals to us how Australian Aborigines survived for so many millennia. Indigenous Aborigines understood and cared for their different environments and adapted to them. It is the intimate knowledge of the land, its creatures and plants that sits at the core of traditional Aboriginal culture. From this deep and intricate understanding of their environment, Aboriginal Australians have developed many plant and animal based By the aquisition of knowledge, rather than material possessions, an Aborigine attains status in Aboriginal culture. Art is an expression of knowledge and it is therefore a statement of authority. Through the application of ancestrally (wangarr) inherited designs and ceremonial initiations, Aboriginal artists assert their identity, their rights and responsibilities. The paintings and the ancestral beings within them are as much the property of clans as the land itself. Traditional Aboriginal society is structured by systems which organises all aspects of Aboriginal life and perceptions. The systems have a foundation of skin groups and moieties which determine an individual's rights to marry in to particular groups. The ideology of the clan system is based on a patrilineal descent with the male and female off-spring belonging to the clan of the father, which is a clan of opposite moiety to their mother. However, in 1770, the Australian Aboriginal's culture and way of life dramatically changed when Lieutenant James Cook took possession of the east coast of Australia and named it New South Wales. The British colonisation of Australia began 18 years later, which was a catastrophic event for indigenous Australians. The Europeans spread epidemic diseases such as chickenpox, smallpox, influenza and measles. British settlement then appropriated land and water resources from the Australian Aborigine, and were ignorant in their assumption that the semi-nomadic Aborigines could be driven off and made to live somewhere else. In fact, the loss of 'traditional lands,' food sources and water resources was a fatal blow to the Aboriginal communities, who already weakened by disease, were then forced to relinquish their deep spiritual and cultural connection to their land. As a direct consequence of the 'invasion,' the enforced move away from traditional areas adversely impacted upon Aboriginal cultural and the spiritual practices which had been necessary for maintaining the cohesion and well-being of the tribal group. Settlers also brought venereal disease (which greatly reduced indigenous fertility and birthrates) and introduced alcohol to the indigenous Aborigine and to which the Aborigine had no tolerance and the Aboriginal community had no prior experience in dealing with such issues. Substance abuse has remained a chronic problem for indigenous communities ever since. The combination of disease, loss of land and direct violence culled the Aboriginal population by an estimated 90% between 1788 and 1900. It wasn't until many years later that a referendum gave Aborigines full legal status as Australian citizens, where up to that point they had no legal rights as citizens at all! In 1976 the Aboriginal Land Rights Act gave nearly 36% of Northern Territory back to the Aborigines. Aboriginal protest movements also began and developed strength in the 1960's. One Aboriginal protest group declared Australia Day (the celebration of the day Captain Cook landed in Botany Bay) to be a Day of Mourning in 1938. This became something of a tradition. recently, the National Inquiry into the separation of Aboriginal children in 1997 was a major acknowledgement of the wrongs inflicted on Aborigines during the 'protection' era. The National Inquiry was conducted by the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission in an attempt to assess the damaging effects national policies had on Aborigines. The Inquiry found that 1/10 to 1/3 of all indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families between 1910 and 1970. Children and their families were actively discouraged from contact with one another after separation. The children were taught contempt for their cultural heritage and their parents, and had to endure the racist attitudes of their foster guardians, teachers and peers. The schools and foster homes were underfunded and in poor condition. Children placed in foster care were often the victims of severe punishment and sexual abuse. Mothers and children both felt "great personal loss" and helplessness. "Today we honour the Indigenous peoples of this land, the oldest continuing cultures in human history..." It was a momentous occasion when on February 13th 2008, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd apologised for the hurt caused by decades of state-sponsored treatment of indigenous Australians. If you are interested in sponsoring a project for Aboriginal Artists to over to the UK to share their rich arts, crafts and culture, please The London Aboriginal Art & Didgeridoo Shop
Cotton was among the earliest plants to be cultivated by English settlers at Jamestown in their experimental attempts to discover valuable export crops. In 1622 a promising crop was reported in Newport News, and as late as 1692 Governor Edmund Andros was encouraging its commercial development. Despite a reported export of 43,350 pounds sent to Great Britain in 1768, cotton never became a major crop in Virginia during its colonial period — mainly for three reasons. First is the nature of cotton itself, which likes a long and hot summer of 77 degrees mean temperature and 200 days between frosts. Virginia does not always have such favorable-to-cotton conditions. Secondly and more importantly was the nature of the green-seeded, heavy-yielding variety whose short, course fibers adhere to its seed tightly, making the process of deseeding by hand slow and tedious. It would not be until 1793 that a breakthrough in ginning technology (Eli Whitney’s saw-type engine) would allow efficient cleaning of this variety, thus ushering in King Cotton — and a great appetitefor slave labor — into the South. When the black, smooth, seeded variety was grown, a simple roller press could be used to quickly accomplish this critical task. Fine, long staple barbadense only grew well along the southeastern seaboard but produced less fiber than green-seeded. Oddly, both varieties seem to have been grown in Virginia with accompanying roller gins before the Revolution. And finally, the nature of the market slowed the cultivation of large-scale cotton. Although England controlled the cotton textile industry, it was not until 1784 that innovations in manufacturing machinery stimulated demand for raw cotton beyond the traditional French, West Indian, and Brazilian sources. Thus, during Virginia’s colonial period and following the War, cotton was generally a patch crop (less than 10 acres) grown for domestic processing and use, except during periods of high prices. Like tobacco, it was labor-intensive and required well-cultivated, rich soil. It too was grown in broadly spaced (four to eight feet) hills, but was planted like Indian corn, thinned, and sometimes placed on ridges. It required tobacco-like topping and suckering which prevented barren bushy plants. And like tobacco, it was planted in May and did not mature all at once. However, its harvest time was later and longer, often through the months of October and November as the mature bolls dried and split open. Fluffy white wads were plucked from prickly shells and carried in linen bags at the rate of 50 to 100 pounds per day, per worker. Northern Neck planter Landon Carter reported on Oct. 20, 1770, that: “Yesterday the two wenches that went to pick the fork cotton brought home about 40 pounds in the seed.” He was probably dissatisfied with that amount. Forty pounds “in the seeds” would yield 10 pounds of clean, picked cotton worth about one shilling per pound. Thomas Jefferson estimated that 1,000 hills would yield 10 to 15 pounds of the “Common kind.” During the early decades of the 19th century, large-scale cotton production occurred south of the James River, displacing both tobacco and Indian corn as money-makers. This resurgence of interest in growing commercial cotton peaked in 1826 with the export of 25 million pounds. Today, cotton is grown both south and north of the James River, with a commercial gin in Portsmouth.
AC-to-AC voltage converters, or travel converters, are designed to convert the voltage used in a foreign country to the voltage required for a particular AC device. These converters are either transformer-based or solid-state, and this affects what type of devices the converter can power. In addition to converting the power, you will often need to also use a plug adapter. Plug adapters are generally either built into the converter, or provided as separate parts. They are also sold separately, for use with multi-voltage devices that are designed to convert the power internally. These are one of the more confusing of the power conversion devices. Because of the range of voltages, plug types and converter designs, many customers find that they need help determining exactly which converter they need. To aid in that process, we have put together a short worksheet to help you determine what type of converter is needed: We recommend that you print out thi sheet when taking a number of different devices to a different country. First, you should determine the electrical requirements (voltage, frequency, and wattage) for the device(s) you will be taking with you. This information is generally on a label or embossed into the back or bottom of the device. Make a note of the voltage(s), frequency or frequencies, and the wattage indicated for each device. - The voltage may be given as either V, VAC or VDC. The standard voltage for US devices is 120 V. Devices that are designed to operate using different input voltages will be labeled, such as 110/120 V, or 120/240 V. - The frequency will be given in Hz. The standard frequency for US devices is 60 Hz. Devices that are designed to operate using different frequencies will be labeled, such as 50/60 Hz. - The wattage will be given in either watts (W) or volt-amps (VA). If the wattage is not listed on the device, you will need to contact the device's manufacturer for this information. If you have the maximum current consumption (in amps), you can calculate the wattage by multiplying the voltage (V) times the current consumption (A). Next, you will need to know the electrical requirements for the country you are going to be visiting. Next, you will need to compare your equipment requirements to the country's information to determine whether you need a Step-up or Step-down Voltage converter. - If your equipment accepts the voltage and frequency provided by the country you will be visiting, then only a Plug Adapter will be required. - If the voltage of the target country is higher than the voltage required by your device(s), you will need a Step-Up Voltage Converter. - If the voltage of the target country is lower than the voltage required by your device(s), you will need a Step-Down Voltage Converter. Once you know what type of converter or adapter you need, consult our list of travel power conversion products to find one that meets your requirements. - The AC outlet in many foreign bathrooms is for low-wattage devices only. To avoid damage to your converter and/or attached device, check with your host or hotel before powering a high-wattage device (such as a hair dryer) from this plug. - Do not use a voltage converter with electronic devices such as televisions, VCR's and computers unless the device indicates that it can handle both 50 Hz and 60 Hz. - Do not use heating appliances, such as hair dryers, irons and coffee-makers, on a transformer-based voltage converter. - Do not use non-heating electronic devices, such as calculators, electric razors and portable audio players, on solid-state voltage converter. - Do not use 110-120 VAC Surge protectors or Uninterruptible Power supplies on a 220-240 VAC system. Even with a step-down power converter, damage could occur as the two power systems are wired differently.
Atrial septal defect About ASD \| Causes \| Why a concern? \| Symptoms \| Diagnosis \| Treatment \| Postoperative care \| Home care \| Long-term outlook \| Find a doctor \| Locations An atrial septal defect (ASD) is an opening in the dividing wall (atrial septum) between the two upper chambers of the heart, known as the right and left atria. ASD is a congenital (present at birth) heart defect that develops early in pregnancy. As the fetus is growing, something occurs during the first eight weeks to affect heart development, resulting in an ASD. Experts in treating atrial septal defects Atrial septal defects are relatively rare and can be difficult to distinguish from other types of holes in the heart. Treatment is required, but does not always include surgery – at least early in life. Herma Heart Center’s pediatric cardiologists and heart surgeons have diagnosed and treated hundreds of children with ASDs and have seen 100 percent survival in the last five years among children who did have surgery. Data shown is “risk adjusted,” meaning that it factors in co-existing conditions such as diabetes or patient attributes such as a family history of heart disease that make their cases more complicated and place them at higher risk. For hospitals like Children’s that often treat the most complicated cases, risk adjustment allows a more realistic comparison of our outcomes and the outcomes of hospitals that care for more routine cases. Risk adjusting is based on the internationally recognized Risk Adjustment for Congenital Heart Surgery (RACHS-1) method, which groups procedures into six categories according to how complex they are. In children without congenital heart disease, oxygen-poor (blue) blood normally enters the heart’s right atrium from the body, flows to the right ventricle, and then is pumped into the lungs to receive oxygen. From the lungs, the oxygen-rich (red) blood flows into the left atrium, passes into the left ventricle, and then is pumped out to the body through the aorta. With ASD, the opening between the two upper chambers of the heart allows oxygen-rich (red) blood from the left side of the heart to mix with oxygen-poor (blue) blood that is headed from the heart’s right side to become oxygenated in the lungs. As a result, the heart works much less efficiently, with some blood never reaching the ventricles, and too much blood leaking to the right side and getting pumped into the lungs. Atrial septal defect occurs in 5 to 10 percent of all babies with congenital heart disease. The most common form of ASD is an ostium secundum, an opening in the middle of the atrial septum. For unknown reasons, girls have atrial septal defects twice as often as boys. What causes an atrial septal defect? The heart is forming during the first 8 weeks of fetal development. It begins as a hollow tube, then partitions within the tube develop that eventually become the septa (or walls) dividing the right side of the heart from the left. Atrial septal defects occur when the partitioning process does not occur completely, leaving an opening in the atrial septum. Some congenital heart defects may have a genetic link, either occurring due to a defect in a gene, a chromosome abnormality, or environmental exposure, causing heart problems to occur more often in certain families. Most atrial septal defects occur sporadically (by chance), with no clear reason for their development. Why is an atrial septal defect a concern? This heart defect can cause lung problems if not repaired. When blood passes through the ASD from the left atrium to the right atrium, a larger volume of blood than normal must be handled by the right side of the heart. Extra blood then passes through the pulmonary artery into the lungs, causing higher pressure than normal in the blood vessels in the lungs. A small opening in the atrial septum allows a small amount of blood to pass through from the left atrium to the right atrium. A large opening allows more blood to pass through and mix with the normal blood flow in the right heart. Extra blood causes higher pressure in the blood vessels in the lungs. The larger the volume of blood that goes to the lungs, the higher the pressure. The lungs are able to cope with this extra pressure for a while, depending on how high the pressure is. After a while, however, the blood vessels in the lungs become diseased by the extra pressure. What are the symptoms of an atrial septal defect? Many children have no symptoms and seem healthy. However, if the ASD is large, permitting a large amount of blood to pass through to the right side of the heart, the right atrium, right ventricle, and lungs will become overworked, and symptoms may be noted. The following are the most common symptoms of atrial septal defect. However, each child may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include: - Child tires easily when playing - Rapid breathing - Shortness of breath - Poor growth The symptoms of an atrial septal defect may resemble other medical conditions or heart problems. Always consult your child's physician for a diagnosis. How is an atrial septal defect diagnosed? Your child's physician may have heard a heart murmur during a physical examination, and referred your child to a pediatric cardiologist for a diagnosis. A heart murmur is simply a noise caused by the turbulence of blood flowing through the opening from the left side of the heart to the right. A pediatric cardiologist specializes in the diagnosis and medical management of congenital heart defects, as well as heart problems that may develop later in childhood. The cardiologist will perform a physical examination, listening to the heart and lungs, and make other observations that help in the diagnosis. The location within the chest that the murmur is heard best, as well as the loudness and quality of the murmur (harsh, blowing, etc.) will give the cardiologist an initial idea of which heart problem your child may have. However, other tests are needed to help with the diagnosis, and may include the following: - Chest x-ray - a diagnostic test which uses invisible electromagnetic energy beams to produce images of internal tissues, bones, and organs onto film. With an ASD, the heart may be enlarged because the right atrium and ventricle have to handle larger amounts of blood flow than normal. Also, there may be changes that take place in the lungs due to extra blood flow that can be seen on an x-ray. - Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) - a test that records the electrical activity of the heart, shows abnormal rhythms (arrhythmias or dysrhythmias), and detects heart muscle stress. - Echocardiogram (echo) - a procedure that evaluates the structure and function of the heart by using sound waves recorded on an electronic sensor that produce a moving picture of the heart and heart valves. An echo can show the pattern of blood flow through the septal opening, and determine how large the opening is, as well as how much blood is passing through it. - Cardiac catheterization - a cardiac catheterization is an invasive procedure that gives very detailed information about the structures inside the heart. Under sedation, a small, thin, flexible tube (catheter) is inserted into a blood vessel in the groin, and guided to the inside of the heart. Blood pressure and oxygen measurements are taken in the four chambers of the heart, as well as the pulmonary artery and aorta. Contrast dye is also injected to more clearly visualize the structures inside the heart. If the echocardiogram has provided enough information, this procedure is often not needed to evaluate ASD. Treatment for atrial septal defect Specific treatment for ASD will be determined by your child's physician based on: - Your child's age, overall health, and medical history - Extent of the disease - Your child's tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies - Expectations for the course of the disease - Your opinion or preference Ostium secundum atrial septal defects may close spontaneously as a child grows. Once an atrial septal defect is diagnosed, your child's cardiologist will evaluate your child periodically to see whether it is closing on its own. Usually, an ASD will be repaired if it has not closed on its own by the time your child starts school - to prevent lung problems that will develop from long-time exposure to extra blood flow. The decision to close the ASD may also depend on the size of the defect. Treatment may include: - Medical management - Many children have no symptoms, and require no medications. However, some children may need to take medications to help the heart work better, since the right side is under strain from the extra blood passing through the ASD. Medication that may be prescribed include the following: - Sigoxin - a medication that helps strengthen the heart muscle, enabling it to pump more efficiently. - Diuretics - the body's water balance can be affected when the heart is not working as well as it could. These medications help the kidneys remove excess fluid from the body. - Infection control - Children with certain heart defects are at risk for developing an infection of the inner surfaces of the heart known as bacterial endocarditis. A common procedure that puts your child at risk for this infection is a routine dental check-up and teeth cleaning. Other procedures may also increase the risk of the heart infection occurring. However, bacterial endocarditis can often be prevented by giving children with heart defects an antibiotic by mouth before the procedure. It is important that you inform all medical personnel that your child has an ASD so they may determine if the antibiotics are necessary before a procedure. - Surgical repair - Your child's ASD may be repaired surgically in the operating room, or by a cardiac catheterization procedure. The surgical repair is performed under general anesthesia. The defect may be closed with stitches or a special patch. The cardiac catheterization procedure may also be an option for treatment. During the procedure, the child is sedated and a small, thin, flexible tube (catheter) is inserted into a blood vessel in the groin and guided to the inside of the heart. Once the catheter is in the heart, the cardiologist will pass a special device, called a septal occluder, into the open ASD preventing blood from flowing through it. This procedure is still very new. Consult your child's physician for more information. Postoperative care for your child In most cases, children will spend time in the intensive care unit (ICU) for several hours, or overnight, after an ASD repair. During the first several hours after surgery, your child will most likely be drowsy from the anesthesia that was used during the operation, and from medications given to relax him/her and to help with pain. As time goes by, your child will become more alert. While your child is in the ICU, special equipment will be used to help him/her recover, and may include the following: - Ventilator - a machine that helps your child breathe while he/she is under anesthesia during the operation. A small, plastic tube is guided into the windpipe and attached to the ventilator, which breathes for your child while he/she is too sleepy to breathe effectively on his/her own. Many children have the ventilator tube removed right after surgery, but some other children will benefit from remaining on the ventilator for a few hours afterwards so they can rest. - Intravenous (IV) catheters - small, plastic tubes inserted through the skin into blood vessels to provide IV fluids and important medications that help your child recover from the operation. - Arterial line - a specialized IV placed in the wrist, or other area of the body where a pulse can be felt, that measures blood pressure continuously during surgery and while your child is in the ICU. - Nasogastric (NG) tube - a small, flexible tube that keeps the stomach drained of acid and gas bubbles that may build up during surgery. - Urinary catheter - a small, flexible tube that allows urine to drain out of the bladder and accurately measures how much urine the body makes, which helps determine how well the heart is functioning. After surgery, the heart will be a little weaker than it was before, and, therefore, the body may start to hold onto fluid, causing swelling and puffiness. Diuretics may be given to help the kidneys to remove excess fluids from the body. - Chest tube - a drainage tube may be inserted to keep the chest free of blood that would otherwise accumulate after the incision is closed. Bleeding may occur for several hours, or even a few days after surgery. - Heart monitor - a machine that constantly displays a picture of your child's heart rhythm, and monitors heart rate, arterial blood pressure, and other values. Your child may need other equipment, not mentioned here, to provide support while in the ICU, or afterwards. The hospital staff will explain all of the necessary equipment to you. Your child will be kept as comfortable as possible with several different medications; some which relieve pain and some which relieve anxiety. The staff may also ask for your input as to how best to soothe and comfort your child. After discharged from the ICU, your child will recuperate on another hospital unit for a few days before going home. You will learn how to care for your child at home before your child is discharged. Your child may need to take medications for a while and these will be explained to you. The staff will provide instructions regarding medications, activity limitations, and follow-up appointments before your child is discharged. Care for your child at home following ASD surgical repair Most children feel fairly comfortable when they go home, and have a fair tolerance for activity. Your child may become tired more quickly than before surgery, but usually will be allowed to play with supervision, while avoiding blows to the chest that might cause injury to the incision or breastbone. Within a few weeks, your child should be fully recovered and able to participate in normal activity. Pain medications, such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen, may be recommended to keep your child comfortable at home. Your child's physician will discuss pain control before your child is discharged from the hospital. Long-term outlook after ASD surgical repair The majority of children who have had an atrial septal defect surgical repair will live healthy lives. Your child's cardiologist may recommend that your child take antibiotics to prevent bacterial endocarditis for a specific time period after discharge from the hospital. Consult your child's physician regarding the specific outlook for your child.
By Maria Fleming From caterpillar to butterfly—this is the story of a butterfly's life cycle. In this 4-page mini-book, children match a text box to the picture on each page, then sequence the pages. Recognizing that stories have a beginning, middle, and end deepens comprehension, builds logic and critical thinking skills. Common Core Alignments: Any of the mini-books can easily be adapted to a pocket chart activity. Simply write the mini-book text on sentence strips or use the illustrations to create picture cards. (Or make cards with both the text and illustrations.) Place the sentence strips or picture cards out of sequence in a pocket chart. Then invite children to put them in the proper order. As they work, encourage children to talk about the picture or text clues that help them make their decisions about the story sequence.
NIOS DLED Assignment Course-503 Full Answer In English. Here are all the answer of dled assignment course-503. I hope this can help you through your assignment. ASSIGNMENT REFERENCE MATERIAL (2017-18) LEARNING LANGUAGES AT ELEMENTARY LEVEL Q1. Explain the meaning of ‘fine motor skills’. How these skills can be developed in Ans. Fine motor skills involve the use of the smaller muscle of the hands, commonly in activities like using pencils, scissors, construction with Lego or duplo, doing up buttons and opening lunch boxes. Fine motor skill efficiency significantly influences the quality of the task outcome as well as the speed of task performance. Efficient fine motor skills require a number of independent skills to work together to appropriately manipulate the object or perform the task. Fine motor skills let kids perform crucial tasks like reaching and grasping, moving objects and using tools like crayons, pencils and scissors. As kids get better at using their hands, their hand-eye coordination improves. They also learn skills they need to succeed in school, such as drawing and writing. Developing these abilities helps kids become more independent and understand how their bodies work. And as they learn how to have an impact on the world around them, their self-esteem may grow, too. In order to encourage the development of these skills, children should be allowed to manipulate solid objects as they see fit. Holding, turning, twisting and playing with objects develops grasping ability in children. Another very important activity that provides children with enjoyment in addition to developing motor skills, essential for writing, is drawing. Therefore, children should be encouraged to draw. Children’s early drawings often resemble meaningless scribbles which later evolve into discernible shapes and figures. Apart from drawing, some other activities that help develop the motor skills necessary for writing include games such as pouring water into a container, stringing beads and flowers, making objects out of clay or dough, etc. The home environment of the child provides him/her with enough opportunity to engage in such activities. However, this is not always the case. Therefore, it is necessary for teachers to help children engage in such activities wherever required. Practicing Letters, Words, Sentences: Generally, it is believed that achievement of sentence writing is helped by practicing writing letters and then words again and again. This is true to a certain extent, but if children are made to engage in tedious repetition of letters and words, they may be disenchanted with writing before they even begin to write. Therefore, while individual letters and carnivals are useful in introducing children to writing, they might not be meaningful to children unless their relationship with whole words or sentences is made clear. Two things – respecting children’s abilities and creating meaningful contexts in which they can learn are of great importance in teaching children to write. It is necessary to appreciate the fact that the child has an immense innate capability to learn language. They learn their native languages naturally through meaningful social experiences involving speaking and listening. Similarly, they grasp the rules of writing mostly through meaningful experiences involving written material. In teaching, we often act under the assumption that children need to be told everything and that they would not understand unless they are told. This, however, is not true. It is necessary to get rid of this mindset and to start respecting the capabilities of children. Children have a unique ability to write before coming to school. It is normal for children to create figures and symbols in sand, on the floor or on paper and to make up stories about them. For them, these drawings are not meaningless, but rather they represent a unique script through which they express what they wish to say. Children should be given the opportunity to make full use of their abilities. Their learning process does not involve joining pieces of knowledge together to get the complete picture, but in fact it involves the opposite. The whole picture is formed first, and then the specifics become clear in different ways. Unless a meaningful whole is supplied, the small specifics, such as individual letters of the varnmala or alphabet, will not make sense and will be boring. Which out of accuracy and fluency in language, you, as a language teacher, would give priority while facilitating learning of language and why? Ans. Accuracy is the ability to produce correct sentences using correct grammar and vocabulary. On the other hand, fluency is the ability to produce language easily and smoothly. It is very difficult to choose where accuracy should be stressed over fluency and vice versa. The level of accuracy of a child at primary level is different from that of an adult. A child learns language by committing mistakes. A child’s errors help her in learning and simultaneously even while committing error she is following the rules of language. For instance, a 3 year old child speaks in order to express herself: Mummy khilona chahiye hai. khana chahiye hai. The child knows that every sentence ends with the word “hai” and therefore she uses “hai” after “chahiye”. As per language rules, “chahiye” is an auxiliary verb. Another auxiliary verb “tha” is used along with “chahiye”, only in past tense. Although the child is unaware of this rule but she uses it. In reference to the learning proficiency, fluency means the ability through which a child is spontaneously able to express herself by speaking, reading and writing. In this, emphasis is laid on meaning and context rather than on grammatical errors. Today a language teacher faces a huge dilemma, as to which out of the two should she seriously pursue? Both the perspectives are present in front of us. Traditional teachers give greater importance to accuracy, in language learning. They force the children to read and write in correct grammatical terms. For this, they test the children through various periodic assessments. In most of the classes children are hardly given an opportunity to improve by recognizing their own errors. Examination centered approach is influenced by this accuracy based perspective. Another group of teachers believe that language is the medium for expression of feelings and experiences. They give more importance to fluency. Instead of grammar, they lay focus on understanding the meaning and reference, along with this, they emphasize that the children speaking fluently should be able to express themselves in such a way that the listener understands it correctly. These teachers believe; that since initiation, the more the child will make use of language, the more her level of fluency will rise. After having a look at both the perspectives, in fact, it seems that both stand correct in their own place. In order to learn language from an overall perspective, children have to be skilled in both. Reaching class 10, children start using language with fluency. It is then that we should focus on accuracy because in child’s language development, timely and appropriate help plays a very important role. Q2. Critically analyse the strengths and limitations of any two methods through which ‘reading’ can be developed as skill among children. Ans. Some of the methods of teaching reading and their shortcomings are as follows: (1) Knowing the rules of reading quickly: Actually, there are no rules for reading. At least none that can be simplified and defined for children. All fluent readers develop the knowledge necessary to read but they develop it from the effort to read rather than by being told. This process is akin to the process of the child acquiring oral language. The child is able to develop the rules for articulation and comprehension without being taught any formal rules. There is no evidence to suggest that teaching grammar helps in making children develop the ability to speak. There is also no evidence indicating that practicing pronunciation or other non-reading tasks help in developing reading ability. (2) For reading, the child has to remember rules of pronunciation and follow them: One view which is widely accepted that the ability to read comes from being able to link sound to its corresponding symbolic representation. We, however, know reading does not end or begin at being able to pronounce the text. We have to grasp the meaning even before we pronounce the word unless we know the word we cannot speak it. Converting letters to sound is not only unnecessary but also a waste of effort. If we look carefully, it is obvious that a fluent reader does not get into changing letters to sounds. Such a process does not help in making meaning; it rather takes one away from it. In spite of this, it is often argued that children will have to develop competence in pronunciation of the word, part by part, as per letters used otherwise they will not be able to recognise words they have not seen earlier. Some of the enablers for learning to read are as follows: (1) Contextual reading material: Students need context to learn language and learn to read. Stories and poems also form interesting contexts. While relating a story a teacher should stop in between and let students complete what would follow. Many important concepts are natural parts of the stories (for example- big, small, near-far, fat-thin etc.). Students acquire or consolidate them easily through a story. The context of the story introduces these and when enacted their meaning gets clearer. Besides, the student gets an opportunity to place herself in different characters and in imaginary situations. Initially students mimic and copy only the gross visible features of the characters. (2) Reading must be purposeful and challenging: Reading material for students must be useful, meaningful and challenging. Whenever we read something, we read it for some purpose. These could be, for example, reading for fun, reading due to curiosity, reading to understand the sequence of events in a story, to know what happens at the end of story, to learn about, what is happening around and find whether such materials are even being written or not. If they are given challenges of this kind, challenges that give them opportunity to learn more, talk about what they have learnt and share their experiences, they will learn to read faster. If reaching the meaning of a text to find something that they want to know is a challenge, they will feel inspired to make an effort. Enumerate the principles to be followed to choose material for language laboratories. Ans. Some important principles that can help the teacher to use materials appropriately in the classrooms are as follows: (1) To store the materials properly is essential but it is equally important to ensure that it can be quickly distributed to children. If children have to get materials and return them then the system of distribution and collection must involve children. They must feel responsible and help. Such a participation would also ensure that the total time taken for distribution and collecting back is not too much. (2) Material should be easy to reach. Even if only the teacher has to use the material, the preparations must be made in advance. It is upsetting for children to wait while the teacher searches for the appropriate material to begin. The continuity and interest in learning gets broken. (3) If we have to use a lot of material then it is better to use them one by one. Only when there is a need to show a relationship between different materials or show the reaction between them that we can use them together. (4) Breakage of materials is possible during use, it is necessary that there is an acceptance of damage and writing off and replacement of materials in the system. When children read books handle charts, use chalks or colours these materials will get torn, broken or consumed. Any system that does not allow for such processes cannot encourage the use of materials. (5) It is important to remember that the materials must be used for learning and not just for display. Materials will not teach on their own; teachers must know which material is useful in which situation. TLM is only a tool for making lessons meaningful. The work of choosing teaching materials has to be done by the teacher keeping the interest and abilities of children in mind. The various principles or basis of choosing study material are as follows: (1) The material should be such that they fulfill the educational objectives. That means they make possible the work that we want to do and the opportunity we want to provide children. For example, if we want children to develop imagination and express their ideas in an organized manner, we need to pick up a picture that can give them this opportunity. (2) The material should be usable for diverse purposes. We should procure such materials and prepare teachers so that they can use materials in a flexible way. (3) The materials should be easily available and require no extra effort. It is also necessary that they should be available in sufficient quantity and not be expensive. Children should be able to use it. Models of thermocol that get damaged and break on touching are not good materials. We must remember that most of the materials should be for use of children. (4) The material that children have to use must be such that it does not require very elaborate precautions. They should not be security hazard. (5) It is necessary that both teachers and children be participants in the process of choosing and developing materials. It is not appropriate to pre-decide, choose and then send materials to the school and teachers. (6) Participation of teacher and children in selecting materials is essential. They must also have opportunity to learn to and think about ways of using the materials in classrooms. NIOS DLED Assignment Course-503 Full Answer In English Q1. Enumerate the various methods which can be used to facilitate the learning of language. Ans. Some important methods of language-teaching methods are as follows: (1) Grammar Translation method: The grammar–translation method is a method of teaching foreign languages derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. In grammar–translation classes, students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules by translating sentences between the target language and the native language. Advanced students may be required to translate whole texts word-for-word. The method has two main goals: to enable students to read and translate literature written in the source language, and to further students’ general intellectual development. The biggest limitation of this method is that the children do not acquire proficiency in listening and speaking the language. (2) Communicative method: Communicative language teaching (CLT), or the communicative method, is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of study. Language learners in environments utilizing CLT techniques learn and practice the target language through interaction with one another and the instructor, study of “authentic texts” (those written in the target language for purposes other than language learning), and use of the language in class combined with use of the language outside of class. Learners converse about personal experiences with partners, and instructors teach topics outside of the realm of traditional grammar in order to promote language skills in all types of situations. This method also claims to encourage learners to incorporate their personal experiences into their language learning environment and focus on the learning experience in addition to the learning of the target language. According to CLT, the goal of language education is the ability to communicate in the target language. (3) Natural Approach: The Natural Approach is a language learning theory developed by Drs. Stephen Krashen of USC and Tracy Terrell of the University of California, San Diego. This method gives maximum attention to the fact that in language teaching the focus should not be on the teacher or the teaching-learning material but on the learner (student). This fact was also affected by researches done in linguistics. From these researches it also became clear that making mistakes is an essential step in the process of acquiring language. On analyzing these errors it was also found that these errors are in fact indicators of a child’s knowledge and learning process. The theory is based on the radical notion that we all learn language in the same way. According to this method, children have innate ability to acquire language from birth. A 4-year old internalizes the rules of her language and does not make mistakes in speaking even before entering school. That is why the Natural Approach focuses on giving the child a tension free environment for learning language as well as providing interesting and challenging teaching–learning material of their level. (4) Audio Lingual Method: With the outbreak of World War II armies needed to become orally proficient in the languages of their allies and enemies as quickly as possible. This teaching technique was initially called the Army Method, and was the first to be based on linguistic theory and behavioral psychology. “Creation of suitable environment is an important pre-requisite for language learning”. Discuss. Ans. Even though we have the sensory organs and the tendency to speak, no child can learn language until she hears it being spoken and practises speech. Each child learns the language of her group-the way she speaks, the words she uses and the accent of her speech. The child who grows up without contact with people, she cannot speak normally and it will be difficult to teach her later. Also the children who are hard of hearing or deaf, begin to babble at the same time as other children but after some time the amount of babbling decreases, since they do not get a feedback. If not provided a hearing aid, the child will grow up they do not get a feedback. If not provided a hearing aid, the child will grow up without learning to speak. This brings out the importance of environmental factors in language acquisition. Research studies have shown that when parents are sensitive to the child’s speech and respond to her utterances, the child’s language develops. A rich language environment leads to better speech development. We know that children living in institutions generally show lower levels of language development compared to children in families. A positive emotional relationship with the parents helps the child to feel secure and lays the foundation for language acquisition. It is clear that the child must be maturationally ready to learn to speak and must get opportunities for hearing and practicing speech. Adults and older children help the infant in acquiring language, especially during the first year of the child’s life, in the following ways: (i) Caregivers, whether adults or children, keep their language simple when they are talking to infants, especially those only a few months old. They use short and simple sentences, speak in an exaggerated manner and do not use pronouns like ‘I’ or ‘you’ since these are difficult for the infant to understand. Adults call out the child’s name rather than saying ‘you’ and call themselves ‘mummy’, ‘daddy’ or ‘aunty’ rather than ‘I’. They also produce nonsense sounds, i.e. those which have no meaning, but which the child delights to hear. They respond to the child’s cooing and babbling by talking to her, imitating her and encouraging her. Most of this modification in the way of talking is instinctive. Caregivers also see what type of speech the infant responds to most and then use that in their interactions. (ii) When the infant is around 4-5 months of age, the caregivers begin to show them toys and household objects. While showing these they refer to them by their names and describe them a little. Siblings delight in such activities with the baby and are untiring in their efforts to attract her attention to an object. By 6-7 months the infant also begins to point at objects, picks them up and shows them to people. This increases the interaction between caregivers and the child. By the time the infant is 7-8 months old, the family members also begin to talk about what is going on around the child. They refer to their own actions and the actions of the child. While walking with the infant on the road the father, on seeing a fruit seller, is likely to say: “Banto, look! Bananas! See, there! Banto, eats banana everyday, don’t you? It tastes good, mm……?” Thus, in a normal environment, the child is continuously surrounded by people who talk to each other and her. The infant picks up new words from the context in which they are spoken and in this manner her language develops. (iii) Lullabies and songs are a delightful part of the caregiver-child relationship. There is hardly anyone of us who grew up without hearing them. Some of the songs refer to everyday events like eating, bathing and sleeping. Some of them are about myths and stories. Infants enjoy the rhythm of the lullabies greatly. In addition, they also learn new words. In this way, by 6-7 months the infant begins to recognize the sound and meaning of commonly used words. The infant is able to understand language not because she understands all the words that we use. She may understand one or two words but she relies on the gestures used; the tone of the voice and the context in which they are spoken. When the father says: “No, don’t touch that!”, the child is able to understand because he points to the forbidden object, shakes his head and raises his voice to convey anger or anxiety. This brings us to another aspect of language development that we must keep in mind. At any age, the child is able to comprehend more than she is able to speak. (iv) When children are around 9-10 months of age, parents and relatives begin to play language games with them. They say a word like “bye-bye” and encourage the child to reproduce it. They also teach her to wave by showing her the gesture. Increasing competency in language helps the baby to interact with more people and form relationships with them and this helps in her social and emotional development. Language helps her to learn about people and objects. Thus, we see that language influences development of cognition and social relationships. This shows how development in one area influences development in other areas as well. Q2. Critically analyse any two methods which can be used to develop ‘writing skills’ for their strengths and limitations. Ans. Writing is an important form of communication and a key part of education. It takes time to develop strong writing skills, and it can be a tough task to accomplish. Following are some of the activities to develop writing skills among lower classes: (1) Picture composition: The teacher can give a picture to students and ask them to write about it. This writing can include a wide variety of compositions. They may be asked to write a story, to describe the picture, to write a dialogue between the characters, to fill in a missing gap in the picture and write about it, etc. When a series of pictures depicting a story is provided, they can be asked to write the story. (2) Continuing the story: The teacher can tell the beginning of a story, and can ask to write what they think happened next. (3) Independent writing: The teacher can as to children to write about something that they evidently show great interest in or something that they talk about a lot. This will not only help to develop writing skills, but may point the teacher towards more techniques for facilitating learning. (4) Dictation: The teacher can speak aloud some words and ask the children to write them to see if they are able to link the spoken sounds to their written forms. (5) Developing stories from given outlines: The teacher can give a rough outline of a story in the form of a series of words and phrases, and then ask to build a story using these words and phrases. (6) Last-letter-first: The teacher can make some groups of students and ask to write down words one by one, such that the first letter of the word they write is the last letter of the word that came before. Through this activity, the teacher can identify the problem areas without pointing them out directly to the child. (7) Topic of interest: The teacher can let children talk about a topic of their interest and write down what they have said. This will clarify the communicative purpose of writing and will clarify the link between speech and writing. (8) Rhyming words: The teacher can ask to students to come up with words which rhyme with the given word, or are similar in sound of the given word. Higher forms of writing are taught in schools for the development of expression, creativity and communicative ability. Those higher forms are as follows: (1) Paragraph writing: Paragraph writing remains one of the most important parts of writing. The paragraph serves as a container for each of the ideas of an essay or other piece of writing. It helps children learn how to think and write focusing on one theme. It is a good exercise for encouraging young children to express themselves coherently and also forms the basis for essay writing. It is advisable to ask children to write about things that they find relevant to their lives. (2) Essay writing: An essay is a short piece of writing that discusses, describes and analyses one topic. It can discuss a subject directly or indirectly, seriously or humorously. Essay writing is the most important branch of composition. In the process of essay writing, the student has to gather up ideas associated with the topic, analyze them, reject the irrelevant ideas and choose the relevant ones. This process acts as health tonic to the powers of the mind of the student. His intelligence grows keener, reason sharper and imagination livelier. (3) Letter writing: Unlike essays, letters have a very specific communicative purpose. Therefore, they do not require the elaboration of points as required in essays. On the other hand, they do require a certain skill in writing to communicate. The style of writing will vary according to the writer’s relationship with the recipient. The writer needs to understand how the recipient will react to the content of their message. (4) Story writing: Writing stories is something every child is asked to do in school, and many children write stories in their free time, too. By writing story, children learn to organize their thoughts and use written language to communicate with readers in a variety of ways. Writing stories also helps children better read, and understand, stories written by other people. Story writing should be introduced when children are beginning to write, so that their imagination aids their writing skills and also for older children. In the case of the latter, the aims of this exercise remain roughly the same. However, promotion of thinking skills and imaginative faculties is emphasised over learning of language. As children grow, they are expected to regard issues from different perspectives, engage in problem solving and appreciate the aesthetic qualities of writing. These skills develop through an affinity with different forms of literature. By the time they get to senior classes, children have been exposed to different forms of literature such as poems, stories, plays etc., and these further help in the development of thinking and story writing skills. In turn, story writing helps generate interest in literature and language. (5) Poetry writing: Writing poetry is a transferable skill that will help children write in other ways and styles. Children in smaller classes usually know only those poems which include rhyming words. Younger children enjoy rhyme and rhyming words help in generating interest and in giving children an impression of words, because of which they can read easily. Rhyming words can also generate interest in writing and develop the skill of writing on the basis of sound. Therefore, small poem making activities may be taken up with young children. Children can be asked to make up poems either individually or in groups, with their peers. This can be an enjoyable activity. “Real assessment of children’s performance should be continuous and comprehensive in its nature”. Justify. Ans. Continuous and comprehensive assessment (CCA) emphasises on two fold objectives. These are continuity in assessment and assessment of all aspects of learning. Thus the term ‘continuous’ refers to assessment on intermittent basis rather than a onetime event. When the assessment exercises are conducted in short intervals on regular basis, the assessment tends to become continuous. In other words, it can be said that if the time interval between two consecutive assessment events can be lessened or minimised then the assessment will become continuous. In order to make the assessment process continuous, the assessment activities must be spread over the whole academic year. It means regularity of assessment, frequent unit testing, diagnosis of the learning difficulty of the learners, using corrective measures, providing feedback to the learners regarding their progress, etc. will have to happen maximally. The second term ‘comprehensive’ means assessment of both scholastic and co-scholastic aspect of student’s development. Since all the abilities of the learners’ development cannot be assessed through written and oral activities, there is a need to employ variety of tools and techniques (both testing and non-testing techniques) for the assessment of all the aspects of learners’ development. ‘Continuous’ is generally considered by teachers as a regular conduct of ‘tests’. Many schools are practicing weekly tests in the name of continuous assessment in all subjects. ‘Comprehensive’ is considered as combining various aspects of child’s behaviour in isolation. Personal-social qualities (empathy, cooperation, self-discipline, taking initiatives etc.) are judged in isolation and are being graded on four/five point scale, which appears impractical. By continuously observing the learners to see what they know and can do, the teacher can make sure that no learner fails. Everyone is given a chance to succeed and more attention is given to children who were falling behind. Continuous assessment process fosters cooperation between the student and teacher. While the student learns to consult the teacher, classmates and other sources on aspects of her/his project work; the teacher is able to offer remedial help for further improvement in learning. Comprehensive component means getting a sense of ‘holistic’ development of child’s progress. Progress cannot be made in a segregated manner, that is, cognitive aspects, personal-social qualities, etc. After completion of a chapter/theme, teacher would like to know whether children have learnt (assessment of learning) as s/he expected based on lesson’s objectives/learning points. For that, s/he broadly identifies the objectives of the lesson and spells out learning indicators. The teacher designs activities based on expected learning indicators. These activities need to be of varied nature. Through these questions/activities she would assess the learners and that data would be one kind of summative data of a lesson/theme. Such assessment data must be recorded by the teacher. Likewise in one quarter, she/he would cover 7-8 lessons/topics and in this manner she/he would have substantial data covering varied aspects of child’s behaviour. It would provide data on how the child was working in groups, doing paper-pencil test, drawing pictures, reading picture, expressing orally, composing a poem/song, etc. These data would give ‘comprehensive’ picture of child’s learning and development. NIOS DLED Assignment Course-503 Full Answer In English Q1. With suitable example discuss the role of drama, theatre and play in developing students’ core skills in language. Ans. The use of drama/play/theater has been used over the course of history from the time of Aristotle, who believed that theater provided people a way to release emotions, right to the beginning of the progressive movement in education, where emphasis was placed upon “doing” rather than memorizing. Integrating drama helps children in various ways. Using plays with children can: • Improve their reading and speaking skills • Encourage creativity • Help them experiment with language – tone of voice, body language and their own lines if they are involved in writing the play. • Bring them out of themselves – some students like performing or find the script gives them confidence. • Involve the whole class – non-speaking parts can be given to learners who do not wish to speak or are less confident. In order to use drama as a linguistic activity, two features need to be included – freedom and enjoyment. No special preparation is needed by the teacher or children for conducting drama in the classroom. The teacher only needs to encourage the children to share their experiences naturally. At the primary level: any incident, story or cartoon that children see in their environment can be taken up for acting. For example, any animal, its movement, its complexion, etc. At upper primary level, the teacher should motivate children so that they form small groups wherein they themselves decide the topic, write the dialogues and act it out. At the same time, children should be encouraged to act out traditional games and folk tales as this will not only enhance their creativity but also connect them to their cultural environments. We can enact or write the script for any play or drama. What grade would each learner get on the script written by her depends upon whether what has to be expressed is emerging in the dialogues written by him/her. We need to check if learner is able to explain his/her ideas? Is (s)he able to use words other than the words already used in the original text of drama. Are the dialogues simple, crisp and interesting? These can be the main points for assessment for drama. (1) Rama, the singer (2) Madhu, Rama’s wife Rama: (sits with his harmonium and practices singing). Do, Re, Me, Fa, So, La, Te, Do Ist Neighbor: (to Rama’s wife) Madhu, ask your husband to stop singing. It gives me a headache. 2nd Neighbor: He thinks himself to be a good singer but he’s awful. 3rd Neighbor: He hardly sings. He croaks like a frog. 4th Neighbor: He’s indeed disgusting. (Neighbors go out) Rama: (Continues singing) Doe, a deer, A female deer Ray – A Drop of golden sun Me – A Name I call myself…. 1st Neighbor: All our requests have fallen on deaf ears. 2nd Neighbor: We’ll have to teach him a lesson. 3rd Neighbor: He’s as stubborn as a mule. 4th Neighbor: (Throws a shoe at him) Rama: No one in this village admires my talent. Madhu: (Comes from the kitchen) Don’t worry. You keep on singing. That person will throw the second shoe also and we will have a pair of shoes. Following questions may be asked to children: (1) What other title would you like to give to this play? (2) Which character do you admire most in this play? Why? (3) (a) What is the name of Rama’s wife? (b) Does Madhu enjoy Rama’s singing? (4) The 4th Neighbor throws a shoe at Rama. Suppose it falls on his face. What would happen next? Complete the play in the same form (dialogue from) as given above. (5) Write a conversation between you and your friend about playing some game together. (6) Write a paragraph on something or someone that disturbs you in your day-to-day life. Describe how you would tackle the problem peacefully. (7) Enact the play in groups. Example 2nd: CLEVER BHOLA Characters: Bhola, the villager Bhola’s wife – Diya Dabbu, the robber Narrator: One day, Bhola was going to a nearby village. He had to cross a dense jungle. Suddenly a voice stopped him. Dabbu: Stop. Stop I said. If you move I’ll shoot you. Divya: We are poor people. We have nothing with us. Dabbu: Nonsense! Everyone says so. Give me whatever you have or I will kill you all. Bhola: No. No. Leave us all. I’ll give you my wallet. Dabbu: Ha!Ha!Ha! See how I befooled you. There are no bullets in this gun…. ha ha ha ha! Bhola: Ha! Ha! Ha. ha ha! Dabbu: Why the hell are you laughing? Bhola: I also befooled you. There is no money in that wallet. Bhola: You thought yourself to be very smart. Ha! Ha! Ha! These questions may be asked to children: (1) What other title would you like to give to this play? (2) If you were Bhola what would you have done in the same situation? (3) (a) What was Dabbu carrying with him? Why? (b) Why did Divya say that they are poor people? (4) Suppose Dabbu takes out some bullets after Bhola befools him. Complete the play in the same form (dialogue form) as given above. (5) Write the play in story form. (6) Enact the play in groups. Develop a comprehensive plan of activities for language learning using ‘word cards’ and ‘picture cards’. Ans. One purpose of the cards in the context of language teaching is to help children learn to decode. We can give them picture cards to match with word cards. We can also ask them to take a word card and find a word card which is similar to this one. They can put together word cards and make a story. Similarly, pictures and picture cards can be used for conversations, discussions, extending imagination, opportunities for creating descriptions and thinking of stories. These exercises can be initially oral and then can also be written. The cards can be used for any class through activities at different levels with different objectives. For example, think about the use of word cards for class-1 and then for class – 3. It is clear that one material can be used for many purposes and their use is informed by the objectives and understanding of learning and teaching. If we consider all this then we can see that TLM is only useful when the person using it understands what the children have to learn, the steps for it and activities that can be used for it. Obviously, children have to be able to engage with these activities. Once this happens then it is not difficult to find materials for it around us. Preparation of Picture Cards: Find or draw a set of 10-20 picture of people, places, animals and objects. Make copies of the picture set on card stock so we have one set for each student in class. In large letters, print the name of each picture on a separate card. Step 1: Distribute picture card sets to students. Step 2: Hold up each name card one at a time. Read the name aloud. Hold up the matching picture card. Cue students to repeat the name and hold up their matching picture cards. Repeat this activity two or three times, if appropriate, for practice. Step 3: Randomly select a name card from the set. Hold it up and say the name aloud. Cue students to say the name and hold up the matching picture card. Step 4: Repeat the activity without showing the name card. Say the name of each picture and cue students to repeat the name and hold up the appropriate picture card. Step 5: This time around hold up a word card but do not say the word aloud. Students say the word and hold up the matching picture card. Step 6: For the final go-round do not display the word cards. Simply pronounce a word and ask students to hold up the correct picture card. “Picture and Word” cards can be used at home, in therapy, and throughout a classroom in multiple activities and learning centers. They are beautiful large picture cards that we can customize to meet children needs. Following are few ideas: (1) Word Wall: These large cards are great for display on a word wall. Word walls may focus on vocabulary and/or sight words. (2) Class Stories: Display preselected picture and word cards for students to incorporate in a class story. For example place girl, boy, some animals, and food. As the class write a story together on large chart paper, children may be called to offer “what happens next” in the story. The cards may offer visual support for ideas the story such as “There was a girl who met a turtle. The turtle asked the girl, ‘do you have any apples?’….” (3) Story Characters: Offer the picture and word cards prior to a story in teaching about characters. “Today we are going to read a story about a girl and three bears”. Or, after a story is read aloud, display picture cards which include the story characters. Ask the students to identify who the main characters in the story are. (4) Labeling the classroom: Use Picture and Word cards to label items around the classroom. We can use our own photos of classroom materials by uploading pictures on “Our Lesson Pix” page if needed. Labeling creates a print-rich environment that links objects with pictures and with words, and giving meaning to print. (5) Scavenger Hunt: Create groups of pictures that correspond with a unit of study or targeted phonemes. Hide the pictures around a designated area and have the students hunt for the picture cards. When they find the picture, they can share what they found with the group. (6) Language Master: If we have a Language Master machine, we may print and attach the picture and word cards to blank Language Master cards. A Language Master Machine is a recorder /player that has cards which slide through the machine. These cards have a strip that has a prerecorded and/or allows the teacher /therapist to record their voice. When the card is put through the machine, the audio is played. Many Special Education teachers and Speech Pathologist use a Language Master to reinforce learning concepts. (7) Vocabulary Development: Create Picture and Word Cards to teach a vocabulary word(s) of the week. There are Level 1 words which are more concrete and Level 2 words which are more abstract or have multiple meanings. Some early childhood classrooms select one or two words for a week to practice, find, and use. To differentiate instruction, the teacher may select one level 1 and one level 2 word per week to focus on. For example, when talking about feelings at the beginning of the year, a level 1 word may be “mad” and a level 2 word may be “bursting” (burst a balloon, bursting through a door, bursting with anger, bursting with excitement). (8) Word Hunt: Give each student a Picture and Word Card. Have them hunt through specific books for the matching word. (9) What’s Missing?: Place 4-5 Picture and Word cards out for the students to see. Collect them and pull one card out. (Make sure the children don’t see it!) Place the remaining cards out on display and have students guess which Picture and Word card is missing. NIOS DLED Assignment Course-503 Full Answer In English Also See:- NIOS D.EL.ED. Help Book Course-503 In English Medium Good Luck For Your Exams 🙂 Articles in this sectionSee more Understanding Penda Activity Points How To Earn Points: - Students earn 50 base points for successful completing an activity from start to finish. - Student earn the most amount of "bonus" points for each question they answer correctly on the first attempt. As a rule of thumb, green check marks = more "bonus" points - Students earn additional points for "completing homework" assignments issued by the teacher versus the automated Penda assignment system. - The final screen of an activity will always report the student final score (0 - 100%) and total points earned, as shown in the example below.
End/Start InsertsLanguage brain teasers are those that involve the English language. You need to think about and manipulate words and letters. For each of the pairs of words below, insert a word in the blank space between them to form two separate words such that the inserted word finishes the first word and begins the second. For example, given "MAN ____ ON", you would insert the word "GO" to form "MANGO" and "GOON". The hint gives the number of letters in each of the words that must be inserted. BOW ____ AGE GENE ____ KING LAND ____ GOAT DIG ____ SELF PAR ____ ATE HintThe number of letters of each word that must be inserted are, respectively: 4, 3, 5, 2, 3. AnswerLINE (bowline, lineage) TIC (genetic, ticking) SCAPE (landscape, scapegoat) IT (digit, itself) ROT (parrot, rotate) or DON (pardon, donate) See another brain teaser just like this one... Or, just get a random brain teaser If you become a registered user you can vote on this brain teaser, keep track of which ones you have seen, and even make your own. Back to Top
As the Vandals descended upon north Africa, the Huns reappeared as Eastern and Western Rome's primary nemesis. Geographic stasis in the Balkans just beyond the Danube from the 380s and subjugation of resident Gothic and Suevi remnants had caused a political change in Hunnic society. Though previously the Hunnic hordes recognized no unitary political leadership, by the 420s Rouia (Rugilla) emerged as their overlord. He began to steeply increase the tribute Constantinople had to pay as ransom for those lands precious to the Eastern Emperor. In 433 this tribute was doubled again to 700 yearly pounds of gold, and the Hun leader, Attila, additionally demanded that Emperor Theodosius II return all Germans who had fled Attila's wrath. Extortion continued to 441, when Attila took a mixed Hun-German army over the Danube. Ravaging valuable agricultural lands, he withdrew only after increasing tribute to 21,000 pounds of gold. Six years later, he returned, pillaging Balkan and Thracian cities, and demanding imperial evacuation from land south of the Danube equal to five days' march. In 450, the new Eastern Emperor Marcian (450-457) refused a further tribute increase. Marcian was saved from destruction by the Western Emperor Valentinian III's daughter, Honoria. Rejecting her father's command to marry an aged senator, she requested Attila's protection. Reading this as a marriage proposal, in 451 he came West for his bride, demanding a dowry of the western half of the Empire. Aetius, who had heretofore relied on Huns to rein in Germans, was forced to change course and turn to Germanic tribes for soldiers. Equally terrified of the Huns as were the Romans, the Franks, Burgundians, Alans, and Visigoths supplied him with troops. In 451, at the Battle of Catalaunian Plains, Aetius and Theodoric (who died during the battle) defeated Attila. Visigoths played the main part, while Roman regulars were nearly absent. Attila returned the next year, crossing totally undefended eastern Alpine passes into the Po Valley and Northern Italy. Aetius was unable to recruit Germans, as the region was of no concern to them. Plundering a prosperous region, Attila withdrew without proceeding to Rome. It may be, as some versions hold, that a party of Senators and Pope Leo I convinced him to relent. Alternatively, a plague among his troops, or recognition that the terrain was inappropriate to his horse-borne forces, could have convinced him to leave. In 453, he took a new barbarian bride, dying the night of his wedding. In this political vacuum, subject Germans revolted against the Huns under Gepid leadership. The Germans won, and the Huns scattered, no longer impinging on European history. Feeling he no longer needed Aetius and resenting his closeness to the Huns, Valentinian III had his Master of Soldiers killed. Valentinian himself was murdered in 455 by Barbarians of Aetius' retinue. That same year, the North African Vandal leader Gaiseric sent a pirate fleet up the Tiber River, sacking Rome and plundering it heavily for fourteen days. The next twenty-one years were the practical end of the Roman state, and saw a series Germanic generals who controlled puppet Western Emperors, and through those Emperors cared only for Italy and, at times, North Africa. One Ricimer, of Visigothic and Suevian origin, defeated the Vandals at sea in 456. In 460 he and his emperor Marjorian set out to regain Africa, but the imperial fleet was decimated. In 461, another puppet Emperor of Ricimer's (he had discarded Marjorian) was not recognized by Gaulic Roman forces, so areas north of the Loire slipped from Italian control. Ricimer began to favor rapprochement with the Vandals rather than war, and succeeded in this endeavour by installing as Emperor an unimportant senator with a slight familial relation to Gaiseric by marriage. Ricimer and the Emperor had died by 472, at which time areas under imperial control had further contracted to include only Italy and Southeastern France. South of the Loire in central and Western France was Visigothic, while South-Central France was Burgundian. Ricimer's successor as Master of Soldiers, Orestes made his own son Emperor Romulus Augustulus in 475. The two were both overthrown in 476 by the Barbarian-Roman general Odovacar. Not setting up a puppet emperor as had become fashion, Odovacar, supported by senators, notified the Eastern Emperor Zeno that there was no need to appoint a Western colleague: Odovacar would rule the West as Zeno's agent, and thus was sealed the official end of the Western Roman state. Zeno seemed to acquiesce, then sent Theodoric the Ostrogoth to unseat Odovacar in 488-93 as a way to prevent the Ostrogoths from causing more damage in the Balkans and Thrace. Theodoric succeeded, and became 'king of Italy'. As had countless Barbarians before him, Theodoric presented himself as a Roman official. Along with the Burgundian and Visigothic kingdoms, his realms gave form to the first post-Roman, Medieval order, soon to be joined by the Franks from the 520s. We are left asking how such an ignoble end could encompass the once glorious Western Empire. Countless reasons have been offered. In terms of immediate causality, it appears that policy incoherence and a lack of resolve by emperors and other elites combined to sap all resilience out of the Roman government. What was missing was the will-power to break the cycle of Germanic military strongmen in Roman ranks, the senseless intriguing of Roman politics, and the general relinquishment of government responsibilities. Indeed, for its last eighty years Rome appears to have been bereft of the spirit of past rulers, such as Augustus, Vespasian, Diocletian, or Constantine. Was it simply the magnitude of military and fiscal challenges that overwhelmed uninspired leaders? This is possible, though it should be recalled that the sedentary population of the Empire, while decreasing in the fourth and fifth centuries, was still much larger than the population of invading Germanic tribes. Reviewing the sequences of Germanic infiltration into Roman military, administration, and society, it seems that rather than falling, the Roman state in the West willingly gave up, letting day to day control of its holdings slip from its fingers without so much as a spasm, delegating itself out of existence. It is not even clear that those responsible for this irreversible delegation were even aware they were presiding over the destruction of a state. Did they see their world as a continuation of Roman policies and methods dating back centuries, with potential for preserving the state? Moving to theories of the long-term causes, some are quite far-fetched. Debilitating malaria epidemics among the ranks have been posited, just as some have suggested that the use of lead piping in aqueducts, sewerage, etc. in Roman cities caused a gradual lead poisoning and inability to conceptualize complex solutions. Such ideas are unquantifiable. More serious is the notion that the city-state was the basis of civilization in Antiquity. With its economic and then demographic decline from the mid- second century, the intellectual and pragmatic problem-solving vitality of the Empire diminished. This is not unrelated to the theory that from the ascendance Severi, as more of the empire's rulers were raised in Balkan areas or regions far from long-time Roman cultural centers, they were unable to conceptualize 'Rome' as a civilization, and unable to distinguish it from lesser cultural forms. As Rome began to fail, then, few noticed, as they could no longer recognize what Rome actually was. This thesis also applies to those proleterians or former slaves that were able to rise through the ranks of army and bureaucracy based on Diocletian and Constantine's reforms. These men, the power in Rome, were protecting a world and ideal they did not fully understand, and their protection was therefore haphazard and incomplete. On a much more abstract level are two suggested reasons for the fall. According to one, after 200 CE, the Empire became 'Orientalized' in the ethnic complexion of its rulers and administrators. This does not seem to count for much in real policy; indeed, the Eastern Empire was much more 'Oriental', and it outlasted the West by half a century. Still, some see Christianity and other mystery religions as a philosophy and world view imported from the East, and perceive of these religions as both sapping Roman rational thinking and removing from Roman imperial service talented people who chose church service. Only the latter aspect appears to have merit, and that only in the most guarded sense.
Burns may be classified according to degree or according to skin thickness. Classification by degree: - First degree burns: painful, tender, reddened skin without blisters - Second degree burns: painful, tender, redness skin with blisters - Third degree burns: painless, charred skin that becomes white or dark - Fourth degree burns: burns involving muscle, bone or other structures beneath the skin Classification by thickness: - Partial-thickness burns: - Injury limited to the outer layers of the skin - Full-thickness burns: - Injury to all the layers of the skin Burns First Degree This is a superficial burn that involves only the epidermis. It causes redness to the skin and may cause some minor swelling. Blisters do not result from this degree of burn. First-degree burns heal without scarring. The most common example of a first-degree burn is sunburn. Burns Second Degree Second degree burns extend deeper into the skin, but do not involve all 3 layers. Second-degree burns can be superficial or deep. Superficial second degree burns involve not only the epidermis, but also a portion of the next skin layer, called the dermis. There is not injury to the deeper layer of the dermis, which contains the sweat glands and the hair follicles. These burns are also called superficial partial-thickness burns. Second degree burns are usually due to household hazards such as scalding from hot liquids, faulty heating pads or misuse of ignition fluids. Deep second degree burns, or deep partial-thickness burns, involve the deep layers of the dermis, which contain the sweat glands and the hair follicles. These burns are often difficult to distinguish from full-thickness burns. The skin appears charred and is tender. Common causes of deep second degree burns include: - Hot oil Burns Third Degree Third degree burns are the most serious form of a burn. They are also called full-thickness burns. Third degree burns are due to prolonged contact with a very hot object, liquid or gas that damages all 3 layers of skin. Deeper structures, such as muscle, tendon, bone, blood vessels and nerves, may be injured or destroyed. These burns may cause charring of the skin and loss of sensation due to damaged nerve endings. Infections, scarring and loss of function are common with these deep burns. Continue to Burns Anatomy - Allison K, Porter K. Consensus on the prehospital approach to burns patient management. Emerg Med J. 2004 Jan;21(1):112-4. - Drago DA. Kitchen scalds and thermal burns in children five years and younger. Pediatrics. 2005 Jan;115(1):10-6. - Phillips BJ, Kassir A, Anderson B, Schiller WR. Recreational-outdoor burns: the impact and severity--a retrospective review of 107 patients. Burns. 1998 Sep;24(6):559-61. - Smith MA, Munster AM, Spence RJ. Burns of the hand and upper limb--a review. Burns. 1998 Sep;24(6):493-505.
Serving Orange County, Beverly Hills and Surrounding Los Angeles Communities A pterygium is a growth of the conjunctivita – the clear, thin tissue that lays over the white part of your eye. The name derives from a Greek word meaning “butterfly-shaped.” One or both eyes may be affected by pterygia, which can vary in size. Once a pterygium has grown onto the cornea, it can cause vision problems. Left untreated, it is possible for a pterygium to grow completely over the pupillary zone and cause blindness. On occasion, some pterygia can become red and swollen. Large and advanced pterygia can actually cause a distortion of the surface of the cornea (called “corneal scarring”), inducing astigmatism. This means that the pressure of the pterygium causes the normal spherical shape of cornea to change, making it more difficult for your eyes to focus. Causes of Pterygium The exact cause of pterygium is unknown, but researchers believe its development is associated with excessive exposure to wind, sunlight, or sand. UV radiation is the most likely culprit. Therefore, it is more likely to occur in populations that inhabit areas near the equator. Since it is associated with excessive sun or wind exposure, wearing protective sunglasses with side shields and/or wide brimmed hats can help prevent the formation of pterygium, or stop further growth. Additionally, using artificial tears throughout the day may help. Surfers and other water-sport athletes should wear eye protection that blocks 100% of the UV rays from the water. Other diseases that may lead to pterygium should be treated or controlled, such as dry eye syndrome, allergies, or demodex blepharitis. Symptoms of Pterygium Many people with pterygia do not notice any symptoms. Inspect your eye closely: is there a painless area of elevated white tissue? Do blood vessels appear on the inner or outer edge of your cornea? Other signs to look out for are: - Persistent redness - Sensation of a foreign body in the eye - Dry, itchy eyes Untreated pterygia can lead to many serious consequences, including: - Blindness: If the pterygium crosses the dark part of your eye it can interfere with the light reaching the eye. This can lead to blindness. - Restriction of Eye Movement: Pterygium can be considered like an elastic string attached to the eye. If this becomes fibrotic the elasticity is lost the pterygium then acts like a restrictive chain interfering with eye movements. - Decreased Vision and Astigmatism: As the pterygium grows it pushes the corneal tissue causing flattening in the horizontal axis. This causes vision problems. - Cancer: Pterygium may harbor cancer cells some times. This is more common if it is a younger patient, only one eye has a pterygium (asymmetric), or the pterygium starts growing aggressively. It is recommended to do a biopsy examination on these removed specimens. Surgical removal is the only way to permanently treat pterygium. Dr. Khanna has performed thousands of pterygium surgeries; if you have this unusual eye disorder, you have come to the right place. We offer the latest suture-less technique of pterygium surgery. Drops or gel are used to numb the eye, allowing for painless removal of your pterygium. A piece of surface eye tissue called a “graft” is then placed to prevent re-growth of the pterygium. Most patients can go back to work or normal activities the next day. If you have pterygium, now is the time to get treatment and protect your vision. Most medical insurances cover the cost of pterygium treatment. Please contact The Khanna Institute today to schedule a free initial consultation. We serve patients throughout the Los Angeles area, with offices in Beverly Hills and Westlake Village, California.
Because of the blurring effect of the atmosphere on optical telescopes, the astronomers use high resolution radio telescopes - the Very Large Array in New Mexico and the MERLIN array in the UK (see the main MERLIN WWW page at http://www.merlin.ac.uk/) - to pick out gravitational lens systems. Only about one in every five hundred distant radio sources (galaxies and quasars) is lensed and so thousands of radio sources have to be searched to have a good chance of success. The British team, working together with an international team of colleagues, have now found thirteen such systems - more than doubling the number The radio picture produced by MERLIN (Figure 1), which allowed the system to be recognised in the first place, shows only part of a ring. The reason is that, while the source of r adio emission is embedded in the distant galaxy, it is not exactly aligned with the lens galaxy. The ``optical'' picture produced by the Hubble (Figure 1) is actually in the infra-red region of the spectrum taken with the NICMOS camera. The wavelength used is about twice that of red light. The infra-red emission from the distant galaxy is more extended than the radio emission. Some of it comes from directly behind the lens galaxy and hence a complete ring is formed. Unlike the lenses with which we are familiar, in spectacles for example, a gravitational lens can produce not one but several images of a given object; these images may be highly distorted and magnified. Whereas a conventional glass or plastic lens has a simply curved shape the analogy with a gravitational lens is a piece of glass shaped like the base and stem of a wine glass with the bowl cut off. Even without breaking the glass the ring effect can easily be seen by tipping the glass and looking at a mark on a piece of paper (or a table cloth) through the base. The way in which a gravitional lens produces multiple images, including the special Einstein ring case, is illustrated in the explanatory diagram (Figure 2). Why study gravitational lenses? By studying this and other gravitational lenses astronomers can not only measure the masses and shapes of distant galaxies, including any ``dark'' matter which will not show up in the optical or radio pictures, but also can measure Hubble's constant which is related to the time elapsed since the Big Bang. Einstein's ``greatest blunder'' refers to the elusive Cosmological Constant. This describes the strength of the long-range repulsive force he introduced into the General Relativity equations in 1916. Other astronomers soon showed, however, that this force was not needed to explain the properties of the Universe as it was then known. Einstein ruefully wrote ``away with the cosmological term''. But like a genie, once released it has proved hard to put away and many astronomers now invoke the Cosmological Constant to account for modern observations of the distant universe. A Universe in which the Cosmological Constant is not identically zero has different geometrical properties to one governed solely by gravity. Counting gravitational lenses, in other words counting the number of lines-of-sight ``blocked'' by intervening galaxies, is acknowledged to be the best way of measuring the geometry of the Universe at large distances. By the end of this year we expect to be able to place the best limit so far on the Cosmological Constant.
Glossary of Technical Terms The smallest angular size that the instrument can resolve. The difference in the property of a system with changes in direction. In this case, anisotropy refers to the difference in the temperature of the cosmic microwave background radiation with direction. Antenna temperature is a way of expressing the brightness of a radiation source - it is proportional to the power per unit area emitted by the source. In most cases where it is used it corresponds to the thermodynamic or physical temperature of the source being observed. It thus relates the power emitted by the source to an interesting physical property of that source. When we observe the brightness of the CMB, we often express the measurements in units of antenna temperature for the same reason. However, because the CMB is so cold, 2.75 K (degrees above absolute zero), the correspondence between antenna temperature and physical temperature breaks down above ~70 GHz in frequency, as shown for example in this plot. Einstein first proposed the cosmological constant (not to be confused with the Hubble Constant), usually symbolized by the greek letter "lambda" (Λ), as a mathematical fix to the theory of general relativity. In its simplest form, general relativity predicted that the universe must either expand or contract. Einstein thought the universe was static, so he added this new term to stop the expansion. When Hubble's study of nearby galaxies showed that the universe was in fact expanding, Einstein regretted modifying his elegant theory and viewed the cosmological constant term as his "greatest mistake". Many cosmologists advocate reviving the cosmological constant term on theoretical grounds, as a way to explain the rate of expansion of the universe. Modern field theory now associates this term with the energy density of the vacuum. For this energy density to be comparable to other forms of matter in the universe, it would require new physics theories. So the addition of a cosmological constant term has profound implications for particle physics and our understanding of the fundamental forces of nature. The amount of energy emitted at a specific wavelength of light. For example, the Sun emits light at many wavelengths, which can be seen by passing sunlight through a prism. The energy spectrum of sunlight is strongest at the wavelength of yellow light, thus the Sun appears yellow to our eyes. A component that "feeds" the signal from the optical system to the amplification electronics. Also called a "feed horn" or "horn". High Electron Mobility Transistor. This is a particular kind of transistor that is especially appropriate for use in microwave amplifiers. The limiting distance from which we can have received information since the Big Bang, 13.7 billion years ago, due to the finite speed of light. Since the universe has been expanding throughout its history, the "proper" distance to our horizon today is close to 45 billion light-years. This bounds our observable universe. The state in which an atom is missing one or more of its electrons, and is therefore positively charged. An ionized gas is one in which some or all of the atoms are ionized, rather than electrically neutral. The ionized electrons behave as free particles in this gas. Atoms which have the same number of protons in the nucleus (this defines an element), but a different number of neutrons. This changes the atomic mass, producing a "variety" of the element. One Kelvin degree is equivalent to one Celsius degree. The difference between the two temperature scales: All motion within an atom ceases at zero Kelvin (K) -- this point is called absolute zero. Water freezes at zero degrees Celsius, which is approximately 273.16K. Positions in space where the gravitational pull of the two orbiting masses precisely equals the centripetal force required to rotate a third smaller mass with them in a constant pattern. Last Scattering Surface Also known as the Surface of Last Scattering. This is the point at which the ionized plasma that filled the early universe cooled to less than 2967 kelvin. At this temperature electrons and protons were then able to combine to make neutral hydrogen, allowing photons to travel through space without scattering. While this happened everywhere at the same time, our vantage point on Earth, 13.7 billion years later, results in the view of a surrounding bubble of faint microwave light to reach us from that long ago time. NASA's Mid-Class Explorer. The level of random noise in the temperature measurement. The patterns of the distribution of matter in the universe, as probed by the cosmic microwave background radiation or observations of galaxies. Measurement errors that are not random. A scientifically testable general principle or body of principles offered to explain observed phenomena. In scientific usage, a theory is distinct from a hypothesis (or conjecture) that is proposed to explain previously observed phenomena. For a hypothesis to rise to the level of theory, it must predict the existence of new phenomena that are subsequently observed. A theory can be overturned if new phenomena are observed that directly contradict the theory.
Using a Scientific Calculator In Mathematics Exams By Nicholas Pinhey With exams approaching this is a short article with reminders and advice for anyone about to take a mathematics exam and who will need to use a scientific calculator. The most common calculator problems are: - setting up the calculator in the right mode - not being able to find the calculator manual ! - remembering to change calculator modes - rounding and inaccurate answers Why Use a Scientific Calculator? Scientific calculators all use the same order for carrying out mathematical operations. This order is not necessarily the same as just reading a calculation from left to right. The rules for carrying out mathematical calculations specify the priority and so the order in which a calculation should be done - scientific calculators follow the same order. This order is sometimes abbreviated by terms such as BODMAS and BIDMAS to help students remember the order of doing calculations. 1st. Brackets (all calculations within bracket are done first) 2nd. Operations (eg squaring, cubing, square rooting, sin, cos, tan ) 3rd. Division and Multiplication 4th. Addition and Subtraction Being aware of this order is necessary in order to use a scientific calculator properly. This order should always be used in all mathematical calculations whether using a calculator or not. Scientific Calculator Check There are two types of scientific calculator, the most recent type being algebraic scientific calculators. Algebraic scientific calculators allow users to type in calculations in the order in which they have been written down. Older scientific calculators need users to press the mathematical operation key after they have entered the number. For example to find the square root of nine (with an answer of three) press: [button] Algebraic scientific calculator: [SQUARE ROOT] [=] Non algebraic scientific calculator: [SQUARE ROOT] [=] Both these types of scientific calculator are fine for exams, but make sure you know how to use your type. If you are not sure whether you have a scientific calculator are not, type in: [+] [x] [=] If you get an answer of 14, then you have a left to right non-scientific calculator. If you get an answer of 10, then you have a scientific calculator as it has worked out the multiplication part first. Lost Calculator Manuals Calculator manuals tend to get lost very easily or you can never find them as an exam is approaching. A frequent request is what can you do if you have lost your calculator's manual? If it is a relatively new model then you can download a copy from the manufacturer's web site. If it is an old Sharp or old Casio calculator manual then you can still find these on the internet. Even with search engines, finding these manuals can take some time - the following link has information about new and old calculator manuals for Casio, Sharp, Hewlett-Packard and Texas Instruments: here. Now that you have your calculator manual you can set your calculator to the correct settings. The standard settings are usually: (use MODE button - choose normal not stat) NOT: SD or REG (use MODE or DRG button) NOT: RAD OR GRAD (use MODE or SETUP and arrow keys) NOT: FIX, SCI, ENG Many calculators have a reset button on the back that can be pressed in using a pen or paper clip if you want the original factory settings. The most common mistake is to leave your calculator in a previous mode and FORGETTING TO CHANGE IT BACK AGAIN ! (We've all done it, just try to avoid doing it in the exam !) Common Calculator Mistakes (a) Pressing the DRG button by mistake and not doing trigonometry questions in DEGREES mode. (If you are doing more advanced work then forgetting to change out of DEGREES mode !). (b) Borrowing an unfamiliar calculator or getting a new calculator too close to the exam and not being familiar with the keys and how to change modes. (c) Forgetting to write down and check work. Any exam with a calculator should have a warning on it! It is essential to write down the calculations that you're doing so that you can get method marks. You should also try and double check all calculations in case of pressing a wrong button. (d) Rounding only at the end of a calculation. Store calculations in the memory and use all the decimal places during calculations. If you use a rounded value too soon then you will lose accuracy. (e) Forgetting to use brackets on division calculations (e.g. when dividing by ALL the bottom part of a fraction). Many calculators are now very powerful and have amazing computational power. Some of the programmable calculators are mini computers. Although they will all calculate 100% accurately every time, unfortunately they are only as good and as accurate as their operator! It is often the case that candidates perform better without a calculator as it is very easy to make simple mistakes when using one. If you can do so, it certainly helps to have an idea of the rough size of the answer, so that you can see if an answer is sensible or not. It is also a good idea to repeat all key presses just in case you have made a mistake. About the Author: Nicholas Pinhey is the designer of Revision Cards which include the best and fastest methods for the calculator and non-calculator GCSE Mathematics exam papers. Visit Revision Cards for more information on fast GCSE Mathematics revision.
Slavery in Ancient China Slaves, a sad group of people in the ancient world, occupied a large portion of the population in ancient China since 2,100 BC, when Xia Dynasty started. Slavery society last for about 1,800 years in China, with minor groups of slaves existed to 1950s in remote mountain areas in China. Before Xia Dynasty, people lived and worked together, led by the tribe leaders. During the prehistoric times – before the establishment of Xia Dynasty, people in China used simple stone tools. It is also called stone age, which is divided into two periods: the Paleolithic age and Neolithic age. According to the historians, people had to work together in order to make a living. They had to fight against natural disasters, beasts, diseases, in order to remain a relatively stable population of a tribe. When there were battles between tribes for food or land, the captured people were killed. By and by, people learned how to grow plants. Therefore, more labors were needed, because it was tedious task to grow vegetable and plants at that time. The tribe leaders realized that it would be much better to keep the captured people from anther tribe and forced them to work in the field. So, the captured people turned into slaves. Before the establishment of Xia, there were slaves. It was before there was no records to tell us when the slavery society started exactly, and Xia is the dynasty which is believed to be the first dynasty to use bronze tools in the history of China. Therefore, most of the historians agreed that the society during Xia Dynasty is featured with slavery, followed by Shang, Zhou. The slaves had no freedom, and they had to work hard for their masters. After their master died, they were killed or buried alive to serve their masters in the underworld. People believed the after-life world at that time. During Xia Dynasty, the farming work was done mostly by the slaves. Jie, the last king of Xia, was noted for his cruelty. Tang led the tribe leaders who were against Jie to fight with Jie. Tang won the battles, and Jie was killed, which marked the end of Xia. However, after Tang established Shang Dynasty, there was no improvement of the live of slaves, and slavery was further developed during Shang. Today, we can find relics in Henan province of China, which show the skeletons of slaves in the tombs of the kings and slave masters. These are the evidences of the cruelty of slavery in ancient China. Historians say that not only the captured people after battles between tribes and countries were turned into slaves, but also the people in the same tribe who could hardly make a living and had to work for the other people were turned into slaves. Shang Dynasty is the first Dynasty that we can explore with written records of ancient times. As we all know, Zhou Dynasty is the longest dynasty in the history of China, which last for about 1,100 years. During that period, the farming tools were further developed. There were iron tools at the end of Zhou Dynasty. Since Zhou Dynasty was relatively peaceful during the reign of most of the kings and the tools for farming were further developed, some of the slave masters began to stop killing the slaves or applying sever punishment for the bad behaviors of the slaves. After the death of the slave masters, people started to use “pottery man” – like sculpture in the shape of man – to serve them in the underworld. They didn’t kill the slaves any more. However, some of the slave masters kept on killing slaves for sacrifice and their funerals at the same time. Generally, the slavery society are believed to be ended after the establishment of Qin Dynasty, though there were slaves in remote mountain areas in China until 1950s. Lives of slaves were the hardest of all. Many Chinese people were slaves. Most people who were slaves worked in the fields, the same as free people. Some of them worked as servants in rich people’s houses. The Emperor owned hundreds of slaves, and some of them worked for the government, collecting taxes or building roads. Some people were born slaves, because their mothers were slaves, and other people were sold into slavery to pay debts.
1 Answer \| Add Yours In George Orwell’s novel Animal Farm, Old Major, the boar who symbolizes the German philosopher Karl Marx, emphasizes the equality of the animals in a number of ways, including the following: - He assumes that all the animals are equally entitled to benefit from his wisdom. - He assumes that all the animals are equally abused by humans. Thus, early in his speech he proclaims that No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. No animal in England is free. - He assumes that all animals are equally entitled to a life of “comfort and . . . dignity.” - He assumes that all animals will ultimately be killed by humans (“no animal escapes the cruel knife in the end”), although he himself lives a long life, dies naturally, and is given a decent burial after his death. Nevertheless, he proclaims that You young porkers who are sitting in front of me, every one of you will scream your lives out at the block within a year. To that horror we all must come \| cows, pigs, hens, sheep, everyone. - He assumes that no animal has any friend or possible ally among the humans, as when he declares that No argument must lead you astray. Never listen when they tell you that Man and the animals have a common interest, that the prosperity of the one is the prosperity of the others. It is all lies. Man serves the interests of no creature except himself. And among us animals let there be perfect unity, perfect comradeship in the struggle. All men are enemies. All animals are comrades. - He thus assumes that all animals, unlike humans, are equal in their ability to behave virtuously. - He assumes that all animals, unlike humans, are equal in their desire for, and commitment to, equality. - He assumes – as when he asks for a vote about the status of rats – that all the farm animals have an equal right to express and vote about their opinions. (Later, after Old Major dies, this emphasis on political equality quickly evaporates under the regime established by Napoleon.) - He assumes that all animals should be viewed, equally, as allies, as when he proclaims, “Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend.” As he puts it near the end of his speech, Weak or strong, clever or simple, we are all brothers. No animal must ever kill any other animal. All animals are equal. Of course, most of the rest of the book will endeavor to show how naïve and simple-minded these assumptions are. By assuming that all animals are alike, Old Major neglects the possibility that some animals may be more cunning and evil and selfish than others. We’ve answered 317,671 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question
History of Anthrax Anthrax, is an animal disease caused by Bacillus anthracis that occurs in domesticated and wild animals— including goats, sheep, cattle, horses, and swine. Humans usually become infected by contact with infected animals or contaminated animal products. Infection occurs most commonly via the cutaneous (skin contact) route and only very rarely via the respiratory or gastrointestinal routes. Anthrax has a long association with human history. The fifth and sixth plagues described in Exodus may have been anthrax in domesticated animals followed by cutaneous anthrax in humans. The disease that Virgil described in his Georgics is clearly anthrax in domestic and wild animals1. And during the 16th to the 18th centuries in Europe, anthrax was an economically important agricultural disease. Anthrax was intimately associated with the origins of microbiology and immunology, being the first disease for which a microbial origin was definitively established, in 1876, by Robert Koch2. It also was the first disease for which an effective live bacterial vaccine was developed, in 1881, by Louis Pasteur3. During the latter half of the 19th century, a previously unrecognized form of anthrax appeared for the first time, namely, inhalational anthrax4. This occurred among wool sorters in England, due to the generation of infectious aerosols of anthrax spores under industrial conditions, from the processing of contaminated goat hair and alpaca wool. It probably represents the first described occupational respiratory infectious disease. Owing to the infectiousness of anthrax spores by the respiratory route and the high mortality of inhalational anthrax, the military’s concern with anthrax is with its potential use as a biological weapon. This concern was heightened by the revelation that the largest epidemic of inhalational anthrax in recent history occurred in Sverdlovsk, Russia, in 1979. The epidemic occurred after anthrax spores were accidently released from a military research facility located upwind from where the cases occurred. 5'6 1. Dirckx JH. Virgil on anthrax. Am J Dermatopathol. 1981;3:191–195. 2. Koch R. Die Aetiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus anthracis [in German]. Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen. 1876;2:277–310. 3. Pasteur, Chamberland, Roux. Compte rendu sommaire des expériences faites à Pouilly-le-Fort, près Melun, sur la vaccination charbonneuse [in French]. Comptes Rendus des séances De L’Académie des Sciences. 1881;92:1378–1383. 4. LaForce FM. Woolsorters’ disease in England. Bull N Y Acad Med. 1978;54:956–963. 5. Abramova FA, Grinberg LM, Yampolskaya OV, Walker DH. Pathology of inhalational anthrax in 42 cases from the Sverdlovsk outbreak of 1979. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993;90:2291–2294. 6. Walker DH, Yampolska L, Grinberg LM. Death at Sverdlovsk: What have we learned? Am J Pathol. 1994;144: 1135–1141. (The proceeding information was derived from the Virtual Naval Hospital web site, www.vnh.org )
Returning to the Moon has been the fevered dream of many scientists and astronauts. Ever since the Apollo Program culminated with the first astronauts setting foot on the Moon on July 20th, 1969, we have been looking for ways to go back to the Moon… and to stay there. In that time, multiple proposals have been drafted and considered. But in every case, these plans failed, despite the brave words and bold pledges made. However, in a workshop that took place in August of 2014, representatives from NASA met with Harvard geneticist George Church, Peter Diamandis from the X Prize Foundation and other parties invested in space exploration to discuss low-cost options for returning to the Moon. The papers, which were recently made available in a special issue of New Space, describe how a settlement could be built on the Moon by 2022, and for the comparatively low cost of $10 billion. Put simply, there are many benefits to establishing a base on the Moon. In addition to providing refueling stations that would shave billions off of future space missions – especially to Mars, which are planned for the 2030s – they would provide unique opportunities for scientific research and the testing of new technologies. But plans to build one have consistently been hampered by two key assumptions. The first is that funding is the largest hurdle to overcome, which is understandable given the past 50 years of space mission costs. To put it in perspective, the Apollo Program would cost taxpayers approximately $150 billion in today’s dollars. Meanwhile, NASA’s annual budget for 2015 was approximately $18 billion, while its 2016 is projected to reach $19.3 billion. In the days when space exploration is not a matter of national security, money is sure to be more scarce. The second assumption is that a presidential mandate to “return to the Moon to stay” is all that is needed overcome this problem and make the necessary budgets available. But despite repeated attempts, no mandate for renewed lunar or space exploration has resolved the issue. In short, space exploration is hampered by conventional thinking that assumes massive budgets are needed and that administrations simply need to make them available. In truth, a number of advances that have been made in recent years are allowing for missions that would cost significantly less. This, and how a lunar base could be a benefit to space exploration and humanity, were the topics of discussion at the 2014 workshop. As NASA astrobiologist Chris McKay – who edited the New Space journal series – told Universe Today via email, one of the key benefits of a cost-effective base on the Moon is that it will bring other missions into the realm of affordability. “I am interested in a long term research base on Mars – not just a short term human landing,” he said. “Establishing a research base on the Moon shows that we know how to do that and can do it in a sustainable way. We have to get away from the current situation where costs are so high that a base on the Moon, a human mission to Mars, and a human mission to an asteroid are all mutually exclusive. If we can drive the costs down by 10x or more then we can do them all.” Central to this are several key changes that have taken place over the past decade. These include the development of the space launch business, which has led to an overall reduction in the cost of individual launches. The emergence of the NewSpace industry – i.e. a general term for various private commercial aerospace ventures – is another, which has been taking recent advances in technology and finding applications for them in space. According to McKay, these and other technological developments will help resolve the budget issue. “Beyond the launch costs, they key to driving down the costs for a base on the Moon is to make use of technologies for sustainability being developed on Earth. My favorite examples are 3D printing, electric-cars, autonomous robots, and recycling toilets (like the blue diversion toilet).” Alexandra Hall, the former Senior Director of the X Prize Foundation and one of the series’ main authors, also expressed the importance of emerging technologies in making this lunar base functional. As she told Universe Today via email, these will have significant benefits here on Earth, especially in the coming decades where rises in population will coincide with diminishing resources. “The advances in life support and closed loop living necessary for sustaining life for long periods on the Moon will undoubtedly provide positive spin offs that benefit both the environment and our ability to live with changing climate and diminishing resources,” she said. “If we can figure out how to build structures with what’s already on the Moon, we can use that technology to help us create infrastructure and shelter solutions out of in-situ materials on Earth. If we can use rock that’s right there, perhaps we can avoid shipping asphalt and bricks across the world!” Another important aspect of making a lunar base cost-effective was the potential for international partnerships, as well as those between the private and public sectors. As Hall explained it: “While there will be commercial markets for the eventual fruits of our lunar exploration endeavors, the initial markets are likely to be dominated by governments. The private sector is best able to respond in ways that provide cost effective and competitive solutions when governments specify and commit to long term exploration goals. I believe that a Google Lunar XPRIZE win will flush out other private and commercial partners for pursuing a permanent settlement on the Moon, that could eclipse the need for significant government participation. Once a small company demonstrates that it is actually possible to get to the Moon and be productive, that allows others to start to plan new business and endeavors.” As for where this base will go and what it will do, that is described in the preface article, “Toward a Low-Cost Lunar Settlement“. In essence, the proposed lunar base would exist at one of the poles and would be modeled on the U.S. Antarctic Station at the South Pole. It would be operated by NASA or an international consortium and house a crew of about 10 people, a mix of staff and field scientists that would be rotated three times a year. Activities on the base, which would be assisted by autonomous and remotely-operated robotic devices, would center on supporting field research, mainly by graduate students doing thesis work. Another key activity for the residents would be testing technologies and program precedents which could be put to use on Mars, where NASA hopes to be sending astronauts in the coming decades. Several times over in the series, it is stressed that this can be done for the relatively low cost of $10 billion. This overall assessments is outlined in the paper titled “A Summary of the Economic Assessment and Systems Analysis of an Evolvable Lunar Architecture That Leverages Commercial Space Capabilities and Public–Private Partner“. As it concludes: “Based on the experience of recent NASA program innovations, such as the COTS program, a human return to the Moon may not be as expensive as previously thought. The United States could lead a return of humans to the surface of the Moon within a period of 5–7 years from authority to proceed at an estimated total cost of about $10 billion (–30%) for two independent and competing commercial service providers, or about $5 billion for each provider, using partnership methods.” Other issues discussed in the series are the location of the base and the nature of its life-support systems. In the article titled “Site Selection for Lunar Industrialization, Economic Development, and Settlement“, the case is made for a base located in either the northern or southern polar region. Written by Dennis Whigo, founder and CEO of Skycorp, the article identifies two potential sites for a lunar base, using input parameters developed in consultation with venture capitalists. These include the issues of power availability, low-cost communications over wide areas, availability of possible water (or hydrogen-based molecules) and other resources, and surface mobility. According to these assessments, the northern polar region is a good location because of its ample access to solar power. The southern pole is also identified as a potential site (particularly in the Shackleton Crater) due to the presence of water ice. Last, but certainly not least, the series explores the issue of economic opportunities that could have far-ranging benefits for people here on Earth. Foremost among these is the potential for creating space solar power (SSP), a concept which has been explored as a possible solution to humanity’s reliance on fossil fuels and the limits of Earth-based solar power. Whereas Earth-based solar collectors are limited by meteorological phenomena (i.e. weather) and Earth’s diurnal cycle (night and day), solar collectors placed in orbit would be able to collect energy from the Sun around the clock. However, the issues of launch and wireless energy transmission costs make this option financially unattractive. But as is laid out in “Lunar-Based Self-Replicating Solar Factory“, establishing a factory on the Moon could reduce costs by a factor of four. This factory could build solar power satellites out of lunar material, using a self-replicating system (SRS) able to construct replicas of itself, then deploy them into geostationary Earth orbit via a linear electromagnetic accelerator (aka. Mass Driver). An overriding theme in the series is how a lunar base would present opportunities for cooperation, both between the private and public sectors and different nations. The ISS is repeatedly used an example, which has benefited greatly in the past decade from programs like NASA’s Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) – which has been very successful at acquiring cost-effective transportation service to the station. It is therefore understandable why NASA and those companies that have benefited from COTS want to extend this model to the Moon – in what is often referred to as Lunar Commercial Orbital Transfer Services (LCOTS) program. Aside from establishing a human presence on the Moon, this endeavor is being undertaken with the knowledge that it will also push the development of technologies and capabilities that could lead to an affordable to Mars in the coming years. It sure is an exciting idea: returning to the Moon and laying the groundwork for a permanent human settlement there. It is also exciting when considered in the larger context of space exploration, how a base on the Moon will help us to reach further into space. To Mars, to the Asteroid Belt, perhaps to the outer Solar System and beyond. And with each step, the opportunities for resource utilization and scientific research will expand accordingly. It may sounds like the stuff of dreams; but then again, so did the idea of putting a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s. If there’s one thing that particular experience taught us, it’s that setting foot on another world leaves lasting footprints! Further Reading: New Space 3D printing, additive manufacturing, apollo missions, apollo program, Bigelow Aerospace, commercial aerospace, commercial spaceflight, George Church, Google Lunar X PRIZE, in-situ resource utlization, lunar base, Mars, mass driver, moon base, NASA, New Space, NewSpace, ommercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS), Peter Diamandis, shakleton crater, Skycorp, space solar power (SSP), U.S. Antarctic Station, X Prize Foundation
The Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR or Sed Rate) is a very simple test that the lab can run on a fresh blood sample. The test is run by putting a few milliliters of whole, anticoagulated blood into a long slender tube. The tube is then placed in a rack and allowed to stand for 60 minutes. After the 60 minute incubation, the distance that the erythrocytes (red blood cells, or RBC) have settled is measured. Everyone’s blood will show some settling during the 60 minute period. The normal values for the Sed Rate are usually accepted to be 0-15 mm/hr for males, and 0-20 mm/hr for females. However, age can also cause a slight increase in ESR, so some labs use these formulas: [(age divided by 2)=normal ESR] for males and [(age+10) divided by 2=normal ESR] for females. The rate at which the blood cells settle is actually a very intricate set of interactions between the cells and the proteins in the blood plasma. The proteins in the plasma increase the viscosity of the plasma, so the more proteins, the slower the Sed Rate. During inflammatory reactions, many plasma proteins move out of the blood stream to the tissues that are inflamed. The lower levels of plasma proteins lead to an increased Sed Rate. Anemia can also cause the Sed Rate to increase, because if there are fewer red blood cells in the whole blood, they will settle faster. Some labs use a correction factor to correct the Sed Rate for severely anemic patients Elevation of the Sed Rate usually indicates that an inflammatory process is happening somewhere in the body. The Sed Rate does not indicate any specific disease process, nor does it indicate the prognosis for the patient. Multiple Sed Rates measured during and after the inflammatory process may be helpful in predicting remission from the inflammation. The ESR is elevated in a lot of different conditions. Often the C-Reactive Protein (CRP) is also elevated. (I’ll write a separate page on CRP.) Some labs are looking at a test that measures plasma viscosity directly. The advantage of the viscosity test is that it is not subject to interference from anemia or age.
1. Global vision The world has yet to formally agree a goal in the battle against global warming. This could be a maximum temperature rise, such as 2C, or concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. More likely, it will be a vaguer 'direction of travel' such as the G8 pledge to halve global emissions by 2050. The key issue - who will cut their carbon by how much and by when. To be meaningful, targets must be short-term, perhaps something like 25-40% by 2020 for the developed world. Developing countries, such as China, could be allowed to increase pollution, as long as they reduce the rate of increase, and agree to take on proper reductions within 15 years or so. How much rich countries will pay poorer ones to cope with floods and droughts. And how the developed world can make sure the promised money is paid. How developing countries will access affordable clean technology to reduce emissions, such as carbon capture and solar power, developed by companies in industrialised countries. How developed countries will provide funds for adaptation and mitigation in the developing world, and how those funds will be managed. How developing countries with tropical forests can be paid to keep them intact - deforestation causes about a fifth of all greenhouse gas emissions. 7. Carbon trading and offsets How systems such as the UN clean development mechanism and the European emissions trading scheme set up under Kyoto can be strengthened and expanded.
\|he Continental Artillery was well served in having Henry Knox as its commander. He insisted on thorough and ongoing training for artillerists. Field artillery was stationed in the center of the Valley Forge camp. This allowed for quick deployment to a threatened area of the encampment. Although no attack came at Valley Forge, the well-trained artillery was in a constant state of readiness. he process of firing a muzzle-loading cannon was a highly skilled art and science. The gun crew consisted of seven to fourteen men. Each performed a particular task using specialized equipment. Knowing each other's duties increased the crew's efficiency. The drill of loading and firing was practiced until the complicated process became second nature. Precision in execution and timing was essential for swift, accurate, and safe firing. Their hard work at Valley Forge paid off. At the Battle of Monmouth, the first confrontation after evacuating the encampment, a British officer commented that "No artillery could be better served than the Americans." \|<_Prev Page\|\|Next Page_>\|
Defining the hyperbolic tangent function The hyperbolic tangent function is an old mathematical function. It was first used in the work by L'Abbe Sauri (1774). This function is easily defined as the ratio between the hyperbolic sine and the cosine functions (or expanded, as the ratio of the half‐difference and half‐sum of two exponential functions in the points and ): After comparison with the famous Euler formulas for the sine and cosine functions, and , it is easy to derive the following representation of the hyperbolic tangent through the circular tangent function: This formula allows the derivation of all the properties and formulas for the hyperbolic tangent from the corresponding properties and formulas for the circular tangent.
Algebra I Common Core Regents Exam - August 2015 High School Math based on the topics required for the Regents Exam conducted by NYSED. The following are the worked solutions for the Algebra 1 (Common Core) Regents High School Examination More Lessons for the Regents High School Exam More Lessons for Algebra Algebra I Common Core Regents New York State Exam - August 2015 Algebra 1 - August 2015 Regents - Q #1 - 5 1. Given the graph of the line represented by the equation computations. f(x) = -2x + b, if b is increased by 4 units, the graph of the new line would be shifted 4 units 2. Rowan has $50 in a savings jar and is putting in $5 every week. Jonah has $10 in his own jar and is putting in $15 every week. Each of them plots his progress on a graph with time on the horizontal axis and amount in the jar on the vertical axis. Which statement about their graphs is true? 3. To watch a varsity basketball game, spectators must buy a ticket at the door. The cost of an adult ticket is $3.00 and the cost of a student ticket is $1.50. If the number of adult tickets sold is represented by a and student tickets sold by s, which expression represents the amount of money collected at the door from the 4. Which function could represent the graph of f(x)? 5. The cost of a pack of chewing gum in a vending machine is $0.75. The cost of a bottle of juice in the same machine is $1.25. Julia has $22.00 to spend on chewing gum and bottles of juice for her team and she must buy seven packs of chewing gum. If b represents the number of bottles of juice, which inequality represents the maximum number of bottles she can buy? Algebra 1 - August 2015 Regents - Q #6 - 10 6. Which graph represents the solution of y ≤ x + 3 and y ≥ -2x - 2? 7. The country of Benin in West Africa has a population of 9.05 million people. The population is growing at a rate of 3.1% each year. Which function can be used to find the population 7 years from now? 8. A typical cell phone plan has a fixed base fee that includes a certain computations. amount of data and an overage charge for data use beyond the plan. A cell phone plan charges a base fee of $62 and an overage charge of $30 per gigabyte of data that exceed 2 gigabytes. If C represents the cost and g represents the total number of gigabytes of data, which equation could represent this plan when more than 2 gigabytes are used? 9. Find the equivalent expression. 10. Last week, a candle store received $355.60 for selling 20 candles. Small candles sell for $10.98 and large candles sell for $27.98. How many large candles did the store sell? Algebra 1 - August 2015 Regents - Q #11 - 15 11. Which representations are functions? 14. Which recursively defined function has a first term equal to 10 and computations. a common difference of 4? 15. Firing a piece of pottery in a kiln takes place at different temperatures for different amounts of time. The graph below shows the temperatures in a kiln while firing a piece of pottery after the kiln is preheated to 200°F. Algebra 1 - August 2015 Regents - Q #16 - 20 16. Which graph represents f(x)? 18. Alicia has invented a new app for smart phones that two companies computations. are interested in purchasing for a 2-year contract Company A is offering her $10,000 for the first month and will increase the amount each month by $5000. Company B is offering $500 for the first month and will double their payment each month from the previous month. Monthly payments are made at the end of each month. For which monthly payment will company B’s payment first exceed company A’s 19. The two sets of data below represent the number of runs scored by two different youth baseball teams over the course of a season. Team A: 4, 8, 5, 12, 3, 9, 5, 2 Team B: 5, 9, 11, 4, 6, 11, 2, 7 Which set of statements about the mean and standard deviation is 20. If Lylah completes the square for f(x) = x2 - 12x + 7 in order to find the minimum, she must write f(x) in the general form f(x) = (x - a)2 + b. What is the value of a for f(x)? Rotate to landscape screen format on a mobile phone or small tablet to use the Mathway widget, a free math problem solver that answers your questions with step-by-step explanations. You can use the free Mathway calculator and problem solver below to practice Algebra or other math topics. Try the given examples, or type in your own problem and check your answer with the step-by-step explanations.
20Concepts Lesson 05 - Time (Needed: Example Video) So far, everything that we've done has required user action (mouse clicking, dragging or text entry) in order to generate events. But Max is often used to generate event. This tutorial will be all about generated events, with a variety of objects that are made for that purpose. Max Time - An Introduction Generally, time within Max is measured in milliseconds - 1/1000th of a second. A millisecond is a useful timeframe for most media types; for example, video frames are generally produced around 1/30th of a second (33 milliseconds). In this tutorial, we are going to look at the main timer system provided by Max, the metro object, and some new objects that help us make useful, automatically-generated systems. The metro object is the most popular way to generate events. Given a time interval, it will create bang messages in a metronomic fashion (which makes sense, given its name). Create a patch like this: (Image: Simple metro patch) The argument for the metro object is the interval between bang message in milliseconds. Since millisecond is 1/1000th of a second, the argument of 500 represents a half-second interval. Click on the "1" message box to start the metro output, and click on the "0" message box to stop it. The metro object uses numbers rather than symbols (like "stop" and "start") to turn it on and off, allowing us some flexibility in the objects we can use for the on/off function. You probably noticed that there is a second inlet to the metro object. As you may have already guessed, this inlet allows us to change the metro's event interval with a numeric entry (such as a number box). Let's connect an integer number box to the metro to see how it works: (Image: Metro patch with numeric interval) Now you can change the interval by entering a new value into the number box. Very small numbers will create very fast pulses (in some cases, faster than the output button can display them), while very long intervals create very slow output times. If you are used to working with "tempo" for timing, you may find this counter-intuitive. However, it is important to remember that this is "programming", and programs prefer to work with interval timing. One object that you will see next to almost every metro is the toggle object. This is a checkbox-like object, and outputs a 1 when turned on and a 0 when turned off. You can see why this would be useful for metro - that is exactly the message that the metro needs to turn it on and off. Let's replace the message boxes from our earlier patch with a toggle object: (Image: Metro patch with toggle) This patch is a lot more obvious, and makes our patch more user-friendly. The toggle object has another, less-obvious function: when it receives a bang message, it will reverse its current setting. Connect a toggle to the output of the display button, turn on the metro, and watch the toggle change its state: (Image: Metro patch with bang leading into the toggle) Now, creating bang message can be useful, and we can connect this to other objects to create generative work. However, there is nothing built into the metro object that lets us know how long it has been running, or keeps any sort of count. For this, we need to learn about another new object: the counter object. As this object's name implies, it counts things - bang messages, to be precise. Each time the counter object receives a bang message, it will increment its internal counter and output the new value. Here is a simple example: (Image: Simple couner patch) The counter object takes a varying number of arguments, based on what you need to tell is. If you give it a single numeric argument, it will count from 0 to the number you enter: (Image: One-argument counter patch) If you give it two numbers, it will count starting at the first value until it reaches the second value: (Image: Two-argument counter patch) Finally, if you give it three values, it will use the first as a "direction" flag: (Image: Three-argument counter patch) The direction flag supports the following options: 0 = "up": counts upward from the low value to the high value, then resets. 1 = "down": counts downward from the high value to the low value, then resets. 2 = "up-down": counts upward from low to high, then downward from high to low. Hint: If you want a little pop-up menu to display these options, look in the counter help file... In addition to using arguments, you can also send messages to the counter object to change its settings, or use some of the inlets to directly control the current counter value. Let's make a patch let's us check how this works: (Image: Counter-to-numberbox patch, with values coming into inputs) The left outlet of the counter object sends the value, which we show in the number box. The other outputs of the counter are for tracking the "carry" flag - the flag that shows we have hit our maximum. We won't use this in our example, but the counter help file can show you how it is used. The combination of metro, toggle and counter provide many of the tools we need to have Max generate events for complex Max patching. If you start investigating other people's patches, you will see these few objects at the heart of many of the most interesting programs. We will be using these objects constantly throughout the rest of the lessons, so make sure that you know them cold! Also, remember to dig into the help patches so that you understand the nuances of the arguments, inlet and outlet use, and potential output messages. - A handy time converter: UnitConversion.org - Create a patch that uses a metro to produce the following phrase: "The metronome is producing bang messages every NN milliseconds.", using the current interval setting. - Create a patch with several metro objects. Have each metro start with a different interval, but connect them together so that they turn each other on and off based on their bang outputs affecting toggle objects. You may also want to intersperse some delay objects throughout the patch to alter the timing. - Create a metro/counter combo that runs between 10 and 20, and prints the phrase "The current counter value is NN." each time a number is produced. Hint: Think about using replaceable parameters to do this.
Heartworm Disease in Cats Heartworm disease, so named because the adult worms live in the right side of the heart, is common in dogs, less so in cats. In fact, cats may be accidental hosts only, and certainly they are less perfect hosts for this parasite than dogs are. Heartworm Life Cycle A knowledge of the life cycle of this parasite (Dirofilaria immitis) is needed to understand how to prevent and treat it. Infection begins when L3 infective larvae in the mouthparts of a mosquito enter the cat's skin at the site of a bite. The larvae burrow beneath the skin and undergo two molts that eventually lead to the development of small, immature worms. The first molt (L3 to L4) occurs 1 to 12 days after the cat is bitten by the mosquito. The larvae remain in the L4 stage for 50 to 68 days, and then molt into the L5 stage (immature worms). Immature worms make their way into a peripheral vein and are carried to the right ventricle and the pulmonary arteries. In cats, the larvae may become disoriented and migrate into body cavities and the central nervous system. Approximately six months after entering the cat's body, they mature into adults. Adults can grow from 4 to 12 inches (10 to 30 cm) long and live up to two to three years. In dogs, mature heartworms produce larvae, called microfilaria, that circulate in the bloodstream. This is much less common in cats, possibly because the cat's immune system removes the microfilaria or because low numbers of adult worms or same-sex worms actually prevent the production of microfilaria to begin with. Because of the small size of the cat's heart, one or two worms may be enough to cause serious heart trouble or even sudden death. Signs of heartworm infestation include a cough made worse by exercise, lethargy, loss of weight and coat condition, and bloody sputum. At this point, it may appear that the cat has asthma or allergic bronchitis. The cat's pulmonary artery response to heartworms is much more severe than is the dog's. Cats who pass through this phase of infection may be relatively fine until the adult heartworms start to die in two to three years. Labored breathing and mild, low-grade, chronic respiratory signs may go on for a while. Congestive heart failure, along with heart murmurs, loss of condition and appetite, and intermittent vomiting may all appear late in the disease. Worms may be discovered at autopsy following sudden, unexplained death. Diagnosis is generally done by blood tests looking for the heartworm antigens or antibodies produced to fight them. Both types of tests are valuable before starting treatment for a suspected infection. X-rays of the chest and the use of echocardiography can be especially helpful in diagnosing heartworms in cats. Treatment: Treatment is complex and potentially dangerous. If the cat seems reasonably healthy, monitoring his condition and following the lifespan of the heartworms may be the best option. Medical support may be needed for any respiratory or cardiac signs. Corticosteroids may be useful in reducing reactions to the worms. Ivermectin has been used to treat heartworm infections in cats, but the drug is still considered experimental as a treatment. Surgery can also be done to physically remove any heartworms, but it is not common. Prevention: Heartworms are spread by mosquitoes, and areas along coastal regions with swamps or other brackish water provide ideal conditions for mosquitoes to breed. Areas with warm temperatures most of the year have a longer mosquito season, and any nearby areas of standing water can provide a mosquito habitat. In theory, the best way to prevent heartworms is to keep your cat from being bitten by a mosquito. Even indoor-only cats can become infected, however, because mosquitoes often get through screens or open doors and windows, or come in on other pets. Preventive drugs for cats include ivermectin, selamectin, and milbemycin oxime, all of which guard against some internal parasites as well. A heartworm test (preferably both antigen and antibody) is recommended but is not absolutely necessary before starting your cat on a preventive regimen. Many practitioners now advocate year-round prevention, although theoretically cats need not be protected in the winter months in cold areas, because there are no mosquitoes alive outside. This article is excerpted from “Cat Owner’s Home Veterinary Handbook” with permission from Wiley Publishing, Inc. Copyright © 2008 by Delbert Carlson, DVM, and James M. Giffin, MD. All rights reserved. - Allergic Skin Disorders - Bacterial Skin Diseases - Bites and Infestations - Diseases of Pigment - Fungal Skin Diseases - Medical Anatomy and Illustrations - Noncancerous, Precancerous & Cancerous Tumors - Oral Health Conditions - Papules, Scales, Plaques and Eruptions - Scalp, Hair and Nails - Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) - Vascular, Lymphatic and Systemic Conditions - Viral Skin Diseases - Additional Skin Conditions
I'm saving the NS for when I do the plants comment. A - N* has been learning that soil is not just dirt but rather soil is an essential source of life and nutrients for many living things. 4 showed a thorough understanding of different types of soil and of the mutual relationship between the living and non-living things that make up soil. N was an attentive participant in our Scientist in Schools workshop, participating in demonstration of soil erosion. B - N has been learning that soil is not just dirt but rather soil is an essential source of life and nutrients for many living things. 4 showed a good understanding of different types of soil and of the mutual relationship between living and non-living things that make up soil. N was an attentive participant in our Scientist in Schools workshop, handling and learning about part of a worm. C - N has been learning that soil is not just dirt but rather soil is an essential source of life and nutrients for many living things. 4 showed an understanding of different types of soil and of the mutual relationship between living and non-living things that make up soil. N was a participant in our Scientist in Schools workshop making a collage of the different layers of soil. In Health, ~name demonstrated a good understanding of the importance of good oral health to overall health. He assessed the effect of different food choices on oral health by making recommendations to a fictional child who was not making good food choices. ~name also used grocery store flyers and magazines to sort unhealthy and healthy food choices. ~name is encouraged to use what he has learned this term and include dairy products in his meals in order to promote strong teeth and bones. Level 3 Mult/Div ~name has a good understanding of how to relate multiplication of one-digit numbers and division by one-digit divisors to real life situations by using a variety of strategies such as arrays, "cookie math" and number sentences. He confidently determined ways to arrange a number of desks when presented with a classroom desk arrangement challenge. This summer continue to reinforce mental multipication and division accuracy using flash cards. geometry level 3 ~name is generally accurate when describing, comparing, sorting and naming 2D figures and 3D solids. He used a venn diagram to compare and sort 2D figures and 3D solids by their geometric properties such as the number of vertices and the number of edges. When sorting 2D figures, remember to consistently include appropriate math language such as number of vertices, edges and types of angles. Level 3 patterns With considerable accuracy, ~name can extend repeating, growing and shrinking number patterns. In our 3 part math lessons, he learned how to effectively use a table to help him organize and solve a pattern in a problem. next step needed level 3 probability ~name predicted and investigated the frequency of a specific outcome in a simple probability experiment that used coins, dice and spinners. He demonstrated a general understanding by frequently using appropriate math language (likely, unlikely) and fractions (3 out of 12) to describe probability. next step needed science level 3 During our unit on the "Growth and Changes in Plants" ~name observed and compared the similarities and differences of two plants as well as the growth and changes of a seed he planted, using a variety of forms (e.g. venn diagram). His observations consistently included illustrated entries with labels that included appropriate science vocabulary (e.g. stem, leaves, pistil, stamen). ~name demonstrated considerable understanding of the parts of a plant and how each part contributes to the plant's survival. Continue to observe and record the growth and changes in your plant as it grows this summer. level 3 SS This term, our class used a wiki to collaborate with another grade 3 class from St.Jacobs, Ontario. Through the use of this class wiki, ~name was able to ask questions to gain information about a rural community and then identified and compared it's features to Windsor. With considerable accuracy, ~name created his own map of St.Jacobs using the co-constructed success criteria that included mapping skills (legend, symbols) and appropriate details that we collected about St.Jacobs (Farmer's market, Maple Sugar Bush, etc.) ~name is encouraged to use a map this summer when planning their family vacation. ~name demonstrated considerable knowledge and understanding of a variety of text forms (e.g. friendly letter, adventure story, procedure writing and haiku poetry) taught this term. During writer’s workshop, he routinely used the success criteria for his writing as well as a peer editing checklist for conventions (e.g. grammar, spelling, punctuation) to ensure that he was completing the assignment to the best of his ability. next step needed Collaboration level 3 ~name generally shares information and enthusiastically participates in all partner and group activities in the classroom. When solving math problems during our "Bansho" math lessons, ~name usually responded positively to the ideas and opinions of his math buddy. Continue to work towards being a consistent listener when collaborating with your peers. indep level 3 ~name is often attentive and generally follows instructions with minimal supervision. This is evident on a daily basis when his work is handed in or shared with the group. next step needed initiative level 3 ~name is an eager learner who demonstrates a genuine interest in learning and aims to do his best. When ~name is finished his learning task, he usually knows what to do next without interrupting the learning of his classmates. ~name frequently follows the class whiteboard, step by step, without teacher supervision. next step needed organization level 2 ~name continues to be challenged by the organization of his personal and classroom materials. Assignments are rarely placed in the notebooks they are for and important notes home are not placed in the pouch of his agenda. As a result, his desk is consistently untidy and only cleaned with teacher prompts. For future academic success, ~name must learn to take more responsibility for their things and place materials where they belong. responsibility level 3 ~name frequently demonstrated responsibility by completing and submitting class work, homework and assignments. His poem of the week, EQAO practice folder and math duotang were often returned to school on the dates they were due. next step needed self reg level 3 With the use of learning goals, success criteria, teacher feedback and self assessments, ~name has been able to assess and reflect on his own strengths and areas for improvement. When assessing his EQAO responses, ~name independently used the success criteria we developed as well as exemplars to effectively identify areas of need and 'bump up' his work. He is encouraged to continue to use success criteria to stay on track when completing assignments and 'bump up' his work when necessary. Hi I am brand new to this board and don' t use boards much at all so I apologize for my mistakes. I wanted to send this privately but am not a junior member yet. Anyway, it is easy to tell you know what you are doing in this grade and I was wondering if you could help me out. I am senior math trained and only taught k for ten years , weird I know. I am in over my head. I cannot grasp ow to use my time as there seems to be so much to do a day. Could you outline in some detail what atypical day would be like. Could you also tell me ow much reading and writing the skids do a day. One last request is what math text do you use? The one we have is not good but since all the texts have been bought we continue to use it. I like the look of the Hands On program but will have to purchase it myself and after spending hundreds already I hesitate to spend $239 and take a chance . I am so appreciative to all your help on report cards. As I said it seems as if you have a great program running. I am having problems getting my kids to finish their work, even staying in at recess. We are in a high needs school, with lots of social issues. I really want to help my kids and keep changing as I find out things but I do not feel at all good at what I am doing. Thanks again
Specific stars and constellations are used by some Aboriginal language groups to help them remember key waypoints along a route, detailed oral histories reveal. The research, reported in the Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, documents how people from two language groups in north-central New South Wales and south-central Queensland use the night sky. "A while ago I was contacted by a Kamilaroi man who had seen some of our work and wanted to tell us some traditional stories," said Norris. "They're working with us to rebuild their language and we're collecting the astronomy. During this process we discovered that there's this fantastic store of knowledge about how people navigated." The two language groups have a long history of using the position of features in the sky such as the Milky Way to predict when resources such as emu eggs are available. While some Aboriginal groups travel at night using stars as a compass, it was thought that the Euahlayi and Kamilaroi people, who did not travel extensively at night, did not use the night sky for navigation. But the stories of the Kamillaroi and Euahlayi people provide the first evidence of how they use star maps to teach travel routes based on songlines. "We've known for a long time that Aboriginal people have these songlines where the songs describe the features of the land," said Norris. "And we've known that [some Aboriginal groups] use the stars as a compass. But then people talk about these journeys that you can see in the sky but it's never quite clear about how that maps onto the songlines on the ground. "For the first time we are actually hearing the details of how this actually works. We've never been able to map one onto the other like this before." Rather than use stars as direction points, the Euahlayi and Kamilaroi elders use the stars as a reminder of where songlines go, often months before they travel to their destination. "In some cases people have these songlines with the words of the song telling them how to navigate, but they also identify places on the ground with places in the sky," said Norris. The songlines covered thousands of kilometres, with one example going from Heavitree Gap near Alice Springs in central Australia, all the way across to Byron Bay on the New South Wales east coast connecting the Arrenrte people to the Euralayi people. The songline is marked in the sky by the star Achernar in the in the West overhead to Canopus, to Sirius, and then to the east. "Songlines cross over the lands of many different Aboriginal groups, and each has their own bit of the song in their own language," said Norris. "Someone from the east will recognise a specific star songline right across Australia, even though it's not in their language." Although massive songlines exist right across Australia, Norris says it is not known if they use star maps the same way as the Euahlayi and Kamilaroi people. Further research on the use of other star maps for travel by other language groups, particularly other language groups that may have met the Euahlayi peoples, may lead to a clearer understanding of the Aboriginal use of the night sky for travel, say the researchers. Get more from ABC Science This article originally appeared on ABC Science; all rights reserved.
Job Descriptions, Definitions Roles, Responsibility: File Clerks The amount of information generated by organizations continues to grow rapidly. File clerks classify, store, retrieve, and update this information. In many small offices, they often have additional responsibilities, such as entering data, performing word processing, sorting mail, and operating copying or fax machines. File clerks are employed across the Nation by organizations of all types. File clerks, also called records, information, or record-center clerks, examine incoming material and code it numerically, alphabetically, or by subject matter. They then store paper forms, letters, receipts, or reports ,or enter necessary information into other storage devices. Some clerks operate mechanized files that rotate to bring the needed records to them; others convert documents to film that is then stored on microforms, such as microfilm or microfiche. A growing number of file clerks use imaging systems that scan paper files or film and store the material on optical disks. In order for records to be useful, they must be up to date and accurate. File clerks ensure that new information is added to files in a timely manner and may discard outdated file materials or transfer them to inactive storage. They also check files at regular intervals to make sure that all items are correctly sequenced and placed. Whenever records cannot be found, the file clerk attempts to locate the missing material. As an organizationís needs for information change, file clerks implement changes to the filing system established by supervisory personnel. When records are requested, file clerks locate them and give them to the person requesting them. A record may be a sheet of paper stored in a file cabinet or an image on microform. In the former case, the clerk retrieves the document manually and hands or forwards it to the requester. In the latter case, the clerk retrieves the microform and displays it on a microform reader. If necessary, file clerks make copies of records and distribute them. In addition, they keep track of materials removed from the files, to ensure that borrowed files are returned. Increasingly, file clerks are using computerized filing and retrieval systems that have a variety of storage devices, such as a mainframe computer, CD-ROM, or floppy disk. To retrieve a document in these systems, the clerk enters the documentís identification code, obtains the location of the document, and gets the document for the patron. Accessing files in a computer database is much quicker than locating and physically retrieving paper files. Still, even when files are stored electronically, backup paper or electronic copies usually are also kept.
ASL& 221 American Sign Language IV • 5 Cr. Reviews and expands basic first-year ASL skills. Students increase their understanding of ASL grammar, expand vocabulary, and improve productive and receptive language skills within a cultural context. Prerequisite: ASL& 123 (prev ASL 103) with a C- or better or permission of instructor. After completing this class, students should be able to: - Read and write basic ASL sentences using contemporary methods of gloss. - Identify, define and give examples of basic linguistic properties of American Sign Language. - Identify and explain historical events, and agents pursuant to the development of American Sign Language. - Engage in culturally appropriate, signed conversations about home environments and life events, as well as making socially appropriate complaints, suggestions, and requests. - Respond appropriately to signed complaints, suggestions, and requests, in accordance to Deaf cultural norms. - Demonstrate vocabulary and grammatical acumen to engage in various conversations about household items, locations, nationality, immigration, family history, and common life events and to identify and explain the cultural values that shape the norms of Deaf conversation and behavior related to these topics. - Produce and understand signed numbers from 1-1000, ordinal numbers, addresses, phone numbers, clock numbers, dates, and multiples of 100. - Ask questions in a variety of contexts, and to express agreement and disagreement. - Fluently produce yes/no and “WH” questions with proper supporting non-manual grammatical signals. - Identify, explain, and effectively apply the topic-comment structure, and supporting non-manual grammatical signals. - Understand and produce Inflecting verbs with proper verb agreement, with spatial and conceptual accuracy. - Demonstrate ability to use and understand locative, descriptive, plural, semantic, body part, element, instrument, and body classifiers. - Express and understand grammatical properties of temporal aspect related to recurring and continuous time signs; “when” clauses, and phrasing for sequencing events. - Understand and apply role shifting. - Understand and apply the grammar related to conditional sentences and contrastive structures. - Understand and apply singular, plural, and possessive pronouns.
Artificial Intelligence chatbots are everywhere. They have captured the public imagination and that of countless Silicon Valley inventors and investors since the arrival of ChatGPT about a year ago. The stunning human-like abilities of conversational AI – a form of artificial intelligence that enables computers to process and generate human language – have sparked widespread optimism about their potential to transform workplaces and increase productivity. In what may be a world first, a UK school has appointed an AI chatbot as a “principal headteacher” to support its headmaster. While little is known about the nature of the AI behind it, the chatbot is meant to advise staff on issues such as helping pupils with ADHD and writing school policies. But, before deploying chatbots in the workplace, it is crucial to understand what they are, how they work and how to use them responsibly. How chatbots work For example, an AI chatbot can craft a persuasive scholarly argument but, to use chatbot terminology, can “hallucinate” the list of references or get simple facts wrong. To understand why hallucinations occur it is important to understand how these chatbots work. At their core, AI chatbots are powered by large language models (LLMs), large neural networks trained on massive datasets of text (what we lovingly call “the Internet”). Importantly, LLMs do not store any data or knowledge in any traditional sense. Rather, when they are built (or “trained”) they encode, in large statistical structures, sophisticated content or language patterns contained in the training data. Simply speaking, text is turned into numbers, or probabilities. When in use, LLMs no longer have access to this training data. So when we ask it a question, the response is generated from scratch, every time. Technically, everything is “hallucinated”. When AI chatbots get things right, it is because much of human knowledge is patterned and embedded in language, not because “it knows”. By design, AI chatbots cannot produce definitive factual answers. They are probabilistic, not deterministic systems, and therefore cannot be relied on as authoritative sources of knowledge. But their ability to recognise linguistic patterns makes them excel at helping humans with tasks that involve text generation or enhancement. Writing persuasive arguments follows certain patterned regularities, whereas factual answers cannot reliably be generated from probabilistic patterns. The new workplace assistant Don’t think of your AI chatbot as an omniscient artificial brain, but as a gifted graduate student assigned to be your personal work assistant. Like an eager grad student, they work tirelessly and mostly competently on assigned tasks. However, they are also a little bit cocky. Always overconfident, they might take risky shortcuts and provide answers that sound good but lack any factual grounding. It is wise always to verify chatbot outputs, much as you would double-check a grad student’s work. Because of their probabilistic foundation they don’t comprehend your question with any human understanding. But in the right roles, when used appropriately, chatbots greatly augment productivity on language-related tasks. Working with AI chatbots The three levels of chatbot capability can be summed up using the acronym ACE – assisting, creating, exploring. - assisting – chatbots can assist with many writing tasks, such as summarising, analysing and refining text, or extracting key points and themes. They can express arguments in academic text in more accessible ways. - creating – chatbots can generate original text, turning dot points into business reports or ideas. They can mimic different genres and write in different styles. As they encode countless bodies of text from different domains, they can be told to take a perspective, impersonating business strategists, scholars, marketers or journalists, to create content useful across many professions. - exploring – chatbots make intriguing “discussion partners” about hypothetical ideas (“what would happen if…”). When exploring new issues, let the chatbot set you questions then get it to answer them. If you want to explore what makes a good project report, or social media post, ask the chatbot to write one and then reflect on why it wrote what it did. The business of chatbots What do we know about the use of AI chatbots in the workplace so far? Some initial studies point to significant productivity gains. A pilot project at Westpac found a 46% productivity gain in software coding tasks, with no drop in quality. The experiment compared groups of developers using AI chatbots for a range of programming tasks with a control group that did not. A study by global management company Boston Consulting Group also reported significant improvements. In a controlled experiment, consultants used AI chatbots to problem-solve and develop new product ideas, which involved both analytical work and persuasive writing. Those who worked with the chatbot finished 12.2% more tasks, 25.1% more quickly, and at 40% higher quality, than those who didn’t. In yet another case, an AI chatbot is reportedly being used by a US software company to help write proposals for clients. It scours thousands of internal files for relevant information to generate a suitable response, saving the company time. These cases give glimpses into the future of AI chatbots, where companies fine-tune generative AI models with their own data or documents, using them for specialist roles such as coders, consultants or call-centre workers. Many workers are worried AI will be used to automate their work. But given the probabilistic nature of the technology, and its inherent lack of reliability, we do not see automation as the most likely area of application. AI chatbots might not be coming for your job after all, but they are certainly coming for your job description. AI fluency, the skill to understand and work with AI will soon become essential, similar to working with PCs. Finally, you might ask, did we let a chatbot write this article? Of course we didn’t. Did we use one in writing it? Of course we did, much like we used a computer, and not a typewriter. The Conversation requires authors to disclose if they have used AI in the preparation of an article. Articles that use AI for fact-finding or idea generation will generally not be accepted. Image: Google DeepMind
Unit hydrograph is a tool commonly used in hydrology to depict the response of a river or stream to a specific amount of rainfall. This widely accepted method is based on the assumption that the hydrological characteristics of a watershed remain relatively constant over time. Developed in the early twentieth century, the unit hydrograph has become an essential concept in hydrological engineering for analyzing and predicting flood events. In this article, we will delve into the history and principles behind the unit hydrograph, its applications, and its importance in hydrological studies. Table of Contents USES & LIMITATIONS OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH A unit hydrograph is a widely used tool in hydrology that helps in predicting the flood discharge from a catchment area in response to a specific amount of rainfall. It is a graphical representation of the relationship between rainfall intensity and runoff over time, and it is generally derived from streamflow data collected in a particular catchment. The “unit” in unit hydrograph refers to one unit of rainfall, typically 1 inch or 1 millimeter. USES OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH: 1. Flood Prediction and Management: The primary use of unit hydrograph is in predicting and managing floods. By analyzing the shape and characteristics of a unit hydrograph, hydrologists can estimate the magnitude and timing of peak flood flows for a particular storm event. This information is crucial for flood forecasting and warning systems, allowing authorities to take appropriate measures to mitigate the impact of floods. 2. Design of Hydraulic Structures: Unit hydrographs are also used in the design of hydraulic structures such as dams, bridges, and culverts. They provide valuable information on the peak flow rates and duration of peak flow, which are essential considerations in the design of these structures. Designers can also use unit hydrographs to assess the capacity of existing structures to withstand potential flood events. 3. Watershed Management: Unit hydrographs are useful tools in watershed management. By analyzing unit hydrographs from different storms, hydrologists can understand the hydrologic response of a watershed to different rainfall patterns. This information is crucial in developing effective watershed management plans and strategies. 4. Estimation of Streamflow: Unit hydrographs can also be used to estimate the streamflow at different points in a catchment. By analyzing the unit hydrograph, hydrologists can calculate the peak flow and volume of water that will reach different points in a watershed in response to a specific amount of rainfall. This information is essential for water resource management and planning. LIMITATIONS OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH: 1. Assumes Uniform Catchment Characteristics: One of the main limitations of unit hydrograph is that it assumes the catchment to have uniform characteristics. In reality, catchment characteristics such as topography, soil type, land use, and vegetation cover, vary both spatially and temporally, which can affect the shape and characteristics of the unit hydrograph. 2. Limited Applicability: Unit hydrographs are derived from streamflow data collected at a particular catchment. Therefore, they are only applicable to catchments with similar characteristics. The use of unit hydrographs from one catchment to predict floods in another catchment can result in significant errors. 3. Limited Accuracy: Unit hydrographs are based on several assumptions and simplifications, which can affect their accuracy. For instance, they assume that the catchment’s antecedent moisture condition remains the same for all storms, which may not always be the case. Moreover, unit hydrographs cannot account for factors such as groundwater flow, which can significantly affect the shape and magnitude of flood peaks. 4. Does not Account for Climate Change: With the changing climate, the frequency and intensity of storms are also changing. Since unit hydrographs are based on historical data, they may not accurately predict flood events in the future, where rainfall patterns may be different. Therefore, it is essential to regularly update unit hydrographs to account for climate change. In conclusion, unit hydrographs are a valuable tool in predicting floods and managing water resources. However, they have limitations that should be considered when using them. It In conclusion, the introduction of Unit Hydrograph provides a valuable tool for hydrologists and engineers in understanding and predicting the effects of precipitation on a watershed. This graphical representation of runoff can help in designing effective stormwater management systems and planning for flood control measures. By studying the characteristics of a watershed, a unit hydrograph can be developed, which allows for the estimation of flood peaks and flow volumes for a given storm event. In this way, Unit Hydrograph has become an essential component in water resource planning and management, contributing to more informed decision-making and reducing the potential risks of flooding. As technology and modeling capabilities continue to advance, the use of Unit Hydrograph will only become more accurate and beneficial in the management of our water resources.
History is a branch of the social sciences that studies human activity over time. Its purpose is to understand and explain how people and societies have changed over time. It uses archival material, written primary sources, and oral accounts to discover, collect, and analyze information. Historical data includes evidence about country formation, family formation, and group formation. When discussing history, we often speak of the “discourse of the past”. This discourse is formed through historical analysis. A historian collects and synthesizes information about a particular event and describes the events in a way that makes them understandable. The information is based on evidence that comes from a variety of sources, including archival materials, archeological evidence, and written primary sources. As a result, different historians have different conceptions about how to write history. Some historians, for example, believe that history is the result of a series of random events that aren’t controlled by any central authority. Others, on the other hand, think that history is a product of the interaction of individual actors. These ideas are a part of the hermeneutic tradition of history, which emerged in the twentieth century as a response to the Holocaust. Other philosophers, such as Karl Marx, have attempted to demonstrate how historical change is rooted in a struggle between economic classes. Many of these ideas are rooted in philosophical discussions about how to define history. Max Weber, for example, emphasized the role of the scholar’s values in selecting a period and subject matter for research. He also argued that there was a need for a “value-guided” approach to defining history. Another important concept in history is that of the material dialectic. It is the idea that most social structures are centered on ownership of capital. Individuals and groups with power over capital exploit their workers. Such practices have caused many stinging criticisms. However, such a perspective overlooks the importance of other factors in the historical process. In addition, history is a field of inquiry that is constantly evolving. It is shaped by ancient cultural influences that spawn variant interpretations of its events. Therefore, each generation views history with a different set of lenses. Another important element in understanding history is that it is composed of stories. Stories are powerful tools that can help us gain insight into how individuals work. They give us a glimpse into how we function and how others might have done the same in the past. Because of this, histories tend to be characterized by various types of stories, from legends to myths to stories that are shared by members of a culture. While there are some who consider the value of history to be essential, there are others who see it as a weapon in culture wars. History can be used to legitimize present events. At the same time, it can be used to discredit present individuals. Ultimately, however, the goal of studying history is to build experience in evaluating evidence.
Magnesium chloride is the chemical compound with the formula MgCl2. It is an inorganic salt, which is highly soluble in water. This salt is commonly used as a de-icer agent; the solution of magnesium chloride is sprayed on the road pavement to prevent snow and ice adhering. This compound is also used in biochemistry as well as in some cooking recipes. The concentration of the dissolved magnesium chloride is usually expressed with the percent units--10 percent solution, for example. Calculate the mass of magnesium chloride required to prepare the solution using the following equation: mass (MgCl2) / (mass (MgCl2) + mass (water) = percent concentration. For example, to make 400 ml of solution with the salt concentration of 10 percent you need: mass (MgCl2) = (400 x 0.1) / (1 - 0.1) = 44.44 grams. Note that 0.1 is 10 percent in the decimal form. Weigh the computed amount of magnesium chloride on the scale. Pour water (400 ml in this example) into a beaker. Add magnesium chloride (44.44 g in this example) to the water in the beaker. Stir the solution using a spoon until the salt completely dissolves. Things You'll Need - Material Safety Data Sheet: Magnesium Chloride - "Chemistry: Textbook"; Raymond Chang; 2007 About the Author Oxana Fox is a freelance writer specializing in medicine and treatment, computer software and hardware, digital photography and financial services. She graduated from Moscow Medical College in 1988 with formal training in pediatrics. Brand X Pictures/Brand X Pictures/Getty Images
By learning to deviate from known information in the same way that humans do, an "imagination" algorithm for artificial intelligence (AI) is able to identify previously unseen objects from written descriptions. The algorithm, developed by KAUST researcher Mohamed Elhoseiny in collaboration with Mohamed Elfeki from the University of Central Florida, paves the way for artificial imagination and the automated classification of new plant and animal species. “Imagination is one of the key properties of human intelligence that enables us not only to generate creative products like art and music, but also to understand the visual world,” explains Elhoseiny. Artificial intelligence relies on training data to develop its ability to recognize objects and respond to its environment. Humans also develop this ability through accumulated experience, but humans can do something that AI cannot. They can intuitively deduce a likely classification for a previously unencountered object by imagining what something must look like from a written description or by inference from something similar. In AI, this ability to imagine the unseen is becoming increasingly important as the technology is rolled out into complex real-world applications where misclassification or misrecognition of new objects can prove disastrous. Also important is the sheer volume of data needed to reliably train AI for the real world. It is unfeasible to train AI with images of even a fraction of the known species of plants and animals in the world in all their permutations, let alone the countless undiscovered or unclassified species. Elhoseiny and Elfeki’s research aimed at developing what is called a zero-shot learning (ZSL) algorithm to help with the recognition of previously unseen categories based on class-level descriptions with no training examples. “We modeled the visual learning process for ‘unseen’ categories by relating ZSL to human creativity, observing that ZSL is about recognizing the unseen while creativity is about creating a ‘likable unseen’,” says Elhoseiny. Read the full article
The fun part about drawing a robot is that you can do a completely new kind of robot every time you draw. And, you can practically keep drawing all day long and still have a different kind of robots. They can be really simple and they can also be very realistic and sophisticated too. Here we shall see how to draw a robot using simple geometric shapes like squares for example. - Get your Supplies First - This is simple. All you need is a piece of paper and a pencil. - The kind of paper or quality of paper does not matter here at all. - Just try to find something clean like a white sheet of A4 paper or maybe from your notebook. - Do not use something like a magazine cover or something because you can’t see clearly what you are drawing. - Secondly, get a pen, a marker, a sketch pen or just an HB pencil. You can actually get a drawing book if you happen to have and start on a fresh page. - Sharpen your pencil and get an eraser as well if you like that way. - Start with a Nice Big Square at the Center of the Paper - So, hold your pencil or marker and draw a nice big square right at the center of your paper. - Not too big either so that you can draw the legs and hands and stuff. - This is going to be the chest and belly so imagine a big person. - Once you are done with it draws some rectangles now. - These shall be the shoulders and part below the belly of the robot. - Draw the Belt, Neck, and Shoulders - Now draw few rectangles. - A small one below the square, little smaller than both the right and left edges. - This is the belt of the robot just like you wear it. - This is the waist and it is smaller than the belly. It is much shorter than the chest too. - Now, draw two rectangles on the right and left sides of the big square. - These are like placed on top of it. They are shorter too reaching the length of the chest only. - So, about half of the height of the square. And, finally one in the middle of the top of the square. - This is also smaller because it will be the neck of the robot. It is smaller from the right and left sides and shorter in height too. - Draw the Head Now - The head of the robot is also a big square now. - The square sits on top of the neck with the same length on both sides of the neck. - Start with a line first on the neck. - Then, extend it towards the top straight upwards and another across joining the two to complete the square. - You can also draw a square right away that touches the neck with half of it on the left of it and the half on the right, that is, even on both sides. - This square is also big, but little smaller than the first squares, the one for the chest and belly combined. - Draw the Eyes - This is going to circle actually. - Well, you can also your squares for the eyes as well, but circles look nice. - Draw two circles inside the hear square. One on right and one on the left side of the square. - Keep them towards the corners so that you have space for the nose and the mouth. - The robot has all squares and rectangles but maybe this one we let just be circles. - You can draw two more circles inside these circles now and fill them completely by sketching with your marker to look dark. If you are using a black marker it will be like two black blobs. - Draw the Mouth and Teeth - Now draw two lines across the lower part of the head. - This space must be there because you had drawn the circles towards the top side. - The lines are close to each other. Join both these lines on the left and right sides with small half circles. - You can also just join them straight. Now, to put teeth draw some lines straight into these small rectangles you just completed. - Make three or four lines inside joining the top line to the bottom one. - Draw the Arm and Hands - Now, draw a rectangle, a long but thin one on the left shoulder of the robot. - The shoulder was a smaller rectangle that we had drawn earlier in Step Three. The arm is just a rectangle. - You can draw the hand now as a small square right below this long rectangle. Do the same on the right side too. - Draw the Legs - Now, just like the arms draw one long rectangle from the under the belt. - A long but thin rectangle. Draw a small rectangle below this leg. These will the shoes. - Do the same on the right side. So, you have now two legs. So, we have drawn a robot now. How do you draw a 3d robot? How do you make a robot sketch? How do you draw a biggest robot? How do you draw a love robot? How do you make a robot draw so cute? How do you make a robot arm? Is it possible to have a robotic arm? What are robot arms called? What are the 6 axis of a robot? What is a 6 axis arm? What is a 7 axis robot? What is a 3 axis robot? What kind of robots are there? - Articulated Robots. An articulated robot is the type of robot that comes to mind when most people think about robots. - SCARA Robots. - Delta Robots. - Cartesian Robots. What are types of robot kinematics? What is a cylindrical robot? Is Scara a cylindrical robot? How expensive is a robot? What are 3 types of robots? Ads by Google
Reducing waste is essential for protecting the natural world and ensuring an environmentally friendly future for future generations. The amount of garbage produced keeps rising as the world’s population rises and consumer habits alter, causing serious problems for ecosystems and human health, especially the availability of resources. Recognising the significance of waste reduction allows us to take significant action to lessen its negative effects and foster a more positive connection with the environment. Living in the beautiful town of Prestwich, if you need someone to clean the waste near you, then contact skip hire Prestwich and get it cleaned. Waste Management System Are you sick and tired of trash clogging up our rivers and littering the streets? Do you want to find out how to keep our world safe from hazardous chemical products? The management of waste systems is the solution! Effective waste management techniques can help lower pollution and protect the health of the planet. In this blog article, we’ll look at how garbage disposal systems function and how they affect everyone’s access to a cleaner, healthier environment. Let’s start now! Conservation of Natural Resources Waste minimization is essential for the preservation of the Earth’s limited natural resources. Numerous goods must be manufacture using raw materials and energy, and when these goods are thrown away as garbage, the resources use in their creation are waste. By reducing waste, we can lessen the strain on ecosystems, the need for fresh resources, and habitat degradation brought on by resource exploitation. Energy Savings and Change in Climate Mitigation Energy is need for the production, transportation, and disposal of commodities, and fossil fuels account for the majority of this energy. By lowering the amount of trash, we indirectly lower the need for energy-consuming procedures, which in turn lowers the amount of greenhouse gases that fuel climate change. A circular economy, where things are recycle and used again, lessens the need for highly energy-intensive manufacture from virgin resources. Cutting down on waste helps create this economy. Prevention of Pollution and Contamination Pollution and contamination may be avoid by properly disposing of garbage instead of burning it or dumping it in the open. If not managed appropriately, hazardous waste materials can pollute ecosystems and endanger human health. We reduce the hazards of contamination and the discharge of pollutants into the natural environment by decreasing trash at the source. Ecosystem And Biodiversity Preservation The waste buildup may negatively affect ecosystems by modifying habitats and interfering with natural processes. For instance, marine debris can hurt marine life by entangling and ingesting it. By minimising waste, we safeguard communities and the diversity of life they sustain, fostering the health. And robustness of organisms that are crucial to maintaining the balance of our world. More energy isn’t need to produce new materials than to recycle old ones. Reducing the demand for fresh materials, which is a process that consumes a lot of energy while creating consumer items, may result in considerable energy savings. Reduction In The Cost Of Landfill And The Burning Process Easing the strain of incinerators and landfills Human health and the environment are regularly negatively impact by landfills and incinerators. Landfills create methane, a potent greenhouse gas, while incineration releases air pollutants. By reducing trash, we ease the burden on current waste management strategies. And pave the way for new, environmentally friendly methods of disposing of it. Water Resources Conservation Waste reduction indirectly protects water resources by lowering the demand for water-intensive production and waste management processes. Furthermore, effective waste management prevents landfill leachate as well as runoff from improperly disposed trash from damaging rivers. The primary sources of hazardous emissions of greenhouse gases that are bad for the environment are mining, refining, and manufacturing. By reusing and recycling things and reducing the quantity of trash we make, we can provide your grandchildren and children with a healthier tomorrow. Since all of the resources in the world are limit, as is our capacity to handle waste. It is essential to make everyday contributions to a sustainable future. In the end, waste reduction involves rethinking the way we interact with resources, consumerism, and the environment, as well as lowering the quantity of trash that we make. We may contribute to a healthier, less polluted. And more ecological planet for both present and future generations by realising the importance of reducing garbage and adopting proactive measures to reduce waste.
Biology is designed for multi-semester biology courses for science majors. It is grounded on an evolutionary basis and includes exciting features that highlight careers in the biological sciences and everyday applications of the concepts at hand. To meet the needs of today’s instructors and students, some content has been strategically condensed while maintaining the overall scope and coverage of traditional texts for this course. Instructors can customize the book, adapting it to the approach that works best in their classroom. Biology also includes an innovative art program that incorporates critical thinking and clicker questions to help students understand—and apply—key concepts. By the end of this section, you will be able to:Explain when seed plants first appeared and when gymnosperms became the dominant plant groupDescribe the two major innovations that allowed seed plants to reproduce in the absence of waterDiscuss the purpose of pollen grains and seedsDescribe the significance of angiosperms bearing both flowers and fruit By the end of this section, you will be able to:Discuss the challenges to plant life on landDescribe the adaptations that allowed plants to colonize the landDescribe the timeline of plant evolution and the impact of land plants on other living things
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Would WWII have happened without Hitler? - Although the leader of Germany during WWII, Adolf Hitler was born in Austria in 1889 and “never advanced beyond secondary education.” Wishing to study art, however, Hitler applied to Vienna’s Academy of Fine Arts on two separate occasions but was never granted admission. For Hitler, the experience of serving the Bavarian military during WWI was a “great relief from the frustration and aimlessness of civilian life.” - Signed in 1919 after the first World War, the Treaty of Versailles explained that Germany was “responsible for starting the war and imposed harsh penalties on the Germans, including loss of territory, massive reparations payments and demilitarization.” - World War II, which began on September 3, 1939, and ended on September 2, 1945, involved the so-called “Axis Powers” of Germany, Italy, and Japan fighting the “Allies” of France, Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. The estimated 50,000,000 deaths attributed to the war made the conflict the bloodiest in history. - Although there are conspiracy theories that Hitler fled to Argentina at the end of WWII, the official story is that on April 30, 1945, Adolf Hitler committed suicide “by swallowing a cyanide capsule and shooting himself in the head” in his underground bunker in Berlin. This act effectively led to Germany “unconditionally [surrendering] to the Allied forces, ending Hitler’s dreams of a “1,000-year” Reich.” The Second World War would have still happened if Hitler had never been born. The Treaty of Versailles humiliated Germany and severely weakened its economy. It was only a matter of time before someone rose up and channeled that humiliation and hatred among the population toward war and redemption. Hitler wasn't the only person motivated to change things during the Weimar Republic. There was also Dr. Goebbels, Himmler, Hess, and so on. All of these major Nazi party members rose to fame independently, and they helped build the Nazi party together after the Beer Hall Putsch. The only reason Hitler took the leadership role was that he was an excellent public speaker. That said, someone else would have taken Hitler's place, as there was a vacuum in Germany that was just begging to be filled by a strong, fascist leader. Dr. Goebbels, for instance, was also an extremely effective public speaker. Additionally, there were other fascist states at that time that would have sparked a world conflict. Italy is a prime example--although the war would have been over much sooner due to Mussolini's poor military. On the other hand, Japan would have still posed a significant threat with its imperialist desires throughout China, Asia, and perhaps most notably, Australia. Russia might have also caused a world conflict--and indeed, it did in a delayed manner via the Cold War. In fact, one might argue that Hitler's rise to power prevented the inevitable clash between Russia and the West, at least for a few decades. Without Nazi Germany, the Cold War would have simply happened sooner, and without Hitler, we would call the Cold War 'World War II.' The Treaty of Versailles and Germany's economy are often cited as the primary motivations for World War II. Yet, Hitler had already halted the payment of reparations, as laid out by the treaty, by 1933. While Hitler's economic focus on military production had made the German economy unsustainable, the fact remains that the German economy was no longer in shambles, having had sufficient time to recover in the post-war era. Throughout history, there has never been a shortage of people wanting to start wars; however, these voices are generally not listened to. For a nation to be driven to war and willing to sacrifice for a cause, the people must be inspired to do so. As the historical record demonstrates, Hitler was an excellent orator who could sway the masses in his favor. So strong was Hitler's charisma that it was felt worldwide, even earning Hitler the cover of Time Magazine as Person of the Year in 1938. Another important aspect concerning Hitler's unique rise was his backing by an influential, occultic, and highly antisemitic organization, the Thule Society, which is important for two reasons. One, Germany and the rest of Europe were and still are considered Christian, putting the members and adherents of the Thule Society at odds with the religious and philosophical beliefs of Europe during that time. And two, the Thule Society's strong antisemitism was a driving force behind Hitler committing the Holocaust. Given these facts, it seems reasonable to assume that the start of World War II required Hitler—or someone with the exact same temperament and qualities. Because despite his horrific agenda, Hitler’s incredible charisma was enough to garner his nation’s support and start the most prominent war witnessed in modern history.
Punctuation marks are the unsung heroes of writing. They may not be as flashy as adjectives or verbs, but they are essential for conveying meaning and creating clear, concise sentences. Without them, our writing would be difficult to read and comprehend. One of the most important punctuation marks is the hyphen. It might seem like a small squiggle between words, but it can have a big impact on how your writing is perceived. In this article, we will delve into the world of hyphens: what they are, why they matter, and how to use them effectively. The Importance of Punctuation Marks in Writing Punctuation marks serve several key functions in writing: They clarify meaning: Commas and periods help break up sentences into manageable chunks that can be easily understood. They convey tone: Exclamation points and question marks indicate excitement or uncertainty respectively. They provide structure: Colons and semicolons help organize ideas and create flow. They prevent confusion: Apostrophes indicate possession or contractions to prevent misunderstanding. In short, punctuation marks are crucial for effective communication. They help writers convey their intended message with clarity and precision. The Role of Hyphens in Creating Clear and Concise Sentences Hyphens play an especially important role in creating clear sentences by joining words or parts of words together to form compound modifiers that clarify meaning. Consider the following example: The well known author was coming to town. In this sentence, “well” modifies “known” but isn’t connected to it with a hyphen; this creates ambiguity about whether “well” modifies “known” or “author”. However, by adding a hyphen, we can create a compound modifier that removes all doubt. The well-known author was coming to town. This sentence makes it clear that “well” and “known” are working together to describe the author. Without the hyphen, the sentence might be confusing or misleading. In addition to creating clarity, hyphens also help create concise sentences by avoiding repetition. Consider this example: Mary is an English teacher who teaches at a high school in California. By using a hyphenated adjective, we can easily compress this information into a single phrase: Mary is a California-based English teacher. Not only does this new sentence sound more professional and concise, but it also makes it easier for readers to process the information quickly and efficiently. What is a Hyphen? Punctuation marks play an important role in creating clear and concise sentences. They help readers to understand the intended meaning of a sentence, and hyphens are no exception. A hyphen is a punctuation mark used to join words or parts of words together. It is typically used to create compound words or to clarify the meaning of a sentence. The hyphen is often confused with other punctuation marks like the dash or the en dash, but it has distinct differences from both. The dash is longer than the hyphen and is used for emphasis or interruption in a sentence, while the en dash is slightly longer than the hyphen and is primarily used to indicate ranges of numbers or dates. In contrast, the hyphen joins two words together, creating one cohesive unit out of two separate words. While it seems simple enough on its surface, understanding when and how to use a hyphen can be complex. There are specific rules for using it that can be difficult to remember without practice and attention to detail. However, mastering these rules can make writing more impactful and professional-looking. Rules for Using Hyphens A hyphen is a small but mighty punctuation mark that can make a big impact on the clarity and effectiveness of your writing. Understanding the rules for using hyphens correctly is essential for any writer who wants to create polished, professional prose. Rule 1: Use Hyphens to Join Two or More Words That Function as a Single Adjective Before a Noun (e.g. Well-Known Author) One of the most common uses of hyphens is to join two or more words that work together as a single adjective before a noun. This helps clarify the meaning of complex phrases and makes them easier to read and understand. consider the phrase “a well-known author.” Without the hyphen, this phrase could be interpreted as “a well author who is known. ” But with the hyphen, it becomes clear that “well-known” is functioning as a single adjective modifying the noun “author.” Other examples of this type of phrase include “long-term solution,” “full-time job,” and “high-quality product.” In each case, the hyphen helps ensure that readers understand which words are working together as one unit to modify the noun. Rule 2: Use Hyphens to Spell Out Numbers Between Twenty-One and Ninety-Nine (e.g. Fifty-Two) Another important rule for using hyphens is to spell out numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine with a hyphen. This helps avoid confusion when reading or writing numbers in text. For example, consider the number fifty-two Without a hyphen, it could easily be misinterpreted as fifty two separate units rather than one number in its entirety. But with the hyphen, it becomes clear that fifty-two represents one entity. This rule applies whether you’re using numbers in text or writing them out longhand. So whether you’re discussing a group of twenty-three people or writing a check for $ seventy-seven, you’ll want to remember to use the hyphen correctly. Rule 3: Use Hyphens to Indicate Word Breaks at the End of Lines in Printed Text (e.g. Com- Hyphens can also be used to indicate word breaks at the end of lines in printed text. This is especially important for typesetting and formatting purposes, where it’s essential to ensure that lines break in appropriate places without disrupting the flow or meaning of the text. consider the word “computer.” If it appears at the end of a line in printed text, it may need to be broken up as “com-” on one line and “puter” on the next line. The hyphen helps indicate where this break should occur without causing confusion or altering the intended meaning of the word. It’s worth noting that this rule only applies to printed text, not digital or online writing. So if you’re writing content for a website or social media platform, you won’t need to worry about using hyphens for word breaks unless they’re specifically required by your formatting guidelines. Exceptions to Hyphen Rules Words Without Hyphens: While hyphens have their rightful place in creating clarity and conciseness to your writing, there are some exceptional scenarios where they are not required. Over time, many compound words that once required a hyphen have become widely accepted without them. These include words like “email,” “website,” and “biweekly.” This phenomenon of removing hyphens from compound words is seen as a natural progression in the evolution of language. So, it is essential to stay updated with the changes in word usage. Moreover, another way of omitting hyphens occurs when two words combine to form new meanings or phrases. The Gray Areas: In certain cases, there are no clear-cut rules about whether or not to use a hyphen. The decision comes down to how it affects readability and clarity. While some compound words like “well-being” necessitate a hyphen between them for ease of comprehension when read by an audience unfamiliar with the language; others like “cooperation” may be more easily understood without it. Therefore, writers need to consider context and their target audience when deciding whether or not to use a hyphen. Additionally, keeping up-to-date with current spellings often requires research beyond one’s own instincts or what one learned in school long ago! New dictionaries every year add new lexicon as well as define nuances between similar-sounding phrases that require attention before committing them into one’s writing. Ultimately, the use of hyphens should aim to contribute to the coherence, clarity, and comprehension of your text without impeding readers’ understanding. Examples of Hyphen Usage Rule 1: The fast-paced thriller kept me on the edge of my seat. One common use of hyphens is to join two or more words that function as a single adjective before a noun. For example, in the sentence above, “fast-paced” describes the type of thriller being referred to. Without the hyphen, this phrase would read as “fast paced”, which could be confusing for readers. Another example of this rule in action is “well-known author”, where the hyphen clarifies that “well” and “known” are meant to be read together as one concept, rather than separate adjectives modifying “author”. Rule 2: I scored ninety-two points in my last basketball game. Another use for hyphens is to spell out numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine. This rule applies even when multiple words are used to express a number (e.g. sixty-four instead of 64). This helps ensure consistency and clarity when writing out numbers in sentences. In the example above, using a hyphen in “sixty-four” indicates that these two words should be read together as one number. Rule 3: My computer crashed mid-document because I hadn’t saved it yet. Hyphens can be used to indicate word breaks at the end of lines in printed text. While this usage isn’t strictly necessary for digital writing , it’s still important to understand how it works especially if you’re working with printed materials like books or newspapers. In practice, this means dividing a word with a hyphen if there isn’t enough space for it at the end of a line (as seen above with “com-puter”). While they might seem like small details, proper punctuation usage including hyphen use – is essential for creating clear, concise, and professional writing. By taking the time to understand the rules for hyphen usage and practicing with examples like those provided in this article, writers can ensure that their prose is easy to read and interpret. So next time you’re working on a document or even just drafting an email, take a moment to double-check your punctuation and hyphen use. It may seem like a minor detail, but it could make all the difference in how your message is received!
The Cray supercomputer is a high performance computing system designed by Cray Inc. The first Cray supercomputer was the Cray-1, which was released in 1976. Since then, Cray has released several other models of supercomputers, including the Cray-2, Cray-3, and Cray-4. Today, the company offers several different models of supercomputers, including the Cray XC30 and the Cray XE6. Cray supercomputers are used in a variety of scientific and industrial applications. They are often used for tasks such as weather prediction, climate modeling, oil and gas exploration, and medical research. In addition, Cray supercomputers are also used for military applications, such as missile defense and cryptography. The Cray company was founded in 1972 by Seymour Cray, who is considered to be the father of supercomputing. Cray left the company in 1989, and it was later acquired by Silicon Graphics in 1995. However, the Cray brand has continued to be used for the company’s products.
Chapter 4 A Kitchen Course in Electricity Chapter 4 covers the essential principles and concepts related to transistors. It explains how transistors work, their different types (e.g., bipolar junction transistors, field-effect transistors), and their applications in amplification and switching circuits. The authors delve into transistor characteristics, such as voltage gain and current gain, and discuss transistor biasing and amplification configurations. Moreover, the book addresses the concept of integrated circuits (ICs). It elucidates the integration of multiple transistors and other components onto a single semiconductor substrate to create complex electronic circuits. Readers are introduced to various types of ICs, including analog and digital ICs, and gain insights into their design, fabrication, and applications. “Elements of Transistors, and an Integrated Circuit” serves as a valuable resource for electronics enthusiasts, students, and professionals seeking a deeper understanding of the core components that drive modern electronic devices. It equips readers with the knowledge necessary to work with transistors and appreciate the significance of integrated circuits in the contemporary electronics landscape.
As technology develops, parents and school districts are becoming more involved in environmental efforts. Preserving our planet for future generations is undeniably important, and green living and recycling efforts have more immediate effects as well, including cleaner, healthier learning environments. According to GreenSeal.org, “green schools have a considerable impact on improving student health, the environment, student and teacher performance and decreasing operating costs.” The organization goes on to explain that shifting product and service purchases to be more environmentally friendly is a good place to start. For example, certain paints, stains and finishes are created to meet environmental requirements without compromising performance. School desks and chairs can be colored with these products, which have limited levels of VOC (volatile organic compound) to minimize indoor and outdoor air pollution. Toxic chemicals commonly found in paints and stains, including benzene, formaldehyde and heavy metals, are forbidden. Green paints are also contained in packaging made from recycled materials.
Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Sciences’ Professor Peter Raymond was lead author on “Global Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Inland Waters”, published in Nature. An ecosystem ecologist,” Raymond tracks carbon, the element most closely associated with life, as it makes its way between living and non-living realms. Today’s provides the first global maps of inland water that account for their total CO2 emissions. You only need three things to calculate that value, says Raymond. The surface area of the world’s lakes and streams, the amount of dissolved CO2 in their water, and the gas transfer velocity, which looks at the physics of exchange. Until recently, none of them had been mapped globally. Raymond et al, determined that annual efflux of Carbon from inland waters was 2.1 pentagrams, more than double that of previous estimates. Streams and tropical lakes are described as hot spots for CO2 exchange, with 70% of the efflux coming from 20% of the streams, and lakes in the tropics contributing approximately 1/3 of the world’s total lake-derived CO2 despite representing just 2.4% of its lakes. By demonstrating how much more CO2 was transported from the system by inland waters, Raymond’s group challenged standard assumptions about terrestrial Carbon’s pathway. To force that redetermination Raymond’s group had to determine how the worlds’ wetted perimeters expand and shrink as time goes on. A continued effort is needed to map inland waters and understand how they impact global processes such as the carbon budget, species habitat, and production of clean drinking water.” “If you’re going to plan for the future, you’ve got to know where the water is,” says Raymond. Colleagues at the Yale Climate and Energy Institute are investigating how to incorporate his estimations of changing stream, river and lake areas into their current efforts to develop developed a high-resolution model to estimate how global warming will effect Yale and the New England area. The complete text is on line at:
Inside this article, you will learn how serious that danger of Carbon Monoxide can be at home and at work. It is recognized as a serious health hazard, responsible for more deaths than any other form of poisoning around the world Carbon Monoxide (CO) especially dangerous because it is a combination of Carbon and Oxygen that cannot be seen, smelled, or tasted. On average, in the United States death from CO poisoning averages nearly 170 annually. The final outcome of inhaling CO is oxygen-starvation of the body’s internal organs. As CO is taken into the lungs, it unites to the hemoglobin far more rapidly than oxygen can. This results in the failure of internal organs, as they become starved for enough oxygen to work properly. Early warning signs of poisoning include headaches, fatigue and nausea, all of which can easily be mistaken for influenza.
Researchers can uncover a lot of information about an animal from studying its teeth, such as what it eats, how it eats, and what role it plays in its ecosystem. But most tooth studies are done on mammals, according to Michalis Mihalitsis and David Bellwood at James Cook University, who published a study in Royal Society Open Science on September 11 on the jaws of piscivorous fishes such as coral trout, grouper, and lionfish. They categorized the species into three groups based on tooth and jaw traits: edentulate (few or no teeth), villiform (many long, thin teeth), and macrodont (large teeth either in the front or back of the jaw). The location of the teeth has implications for the animals’ feeding behavior. The researchers found that edentulate and villiform fishes tend to ambush and engulf their prey, while macrodont fishes are better at grabbing prey with their teeth after lunging or pursuing over long distances. M. Mihalitsis, D. Bellwood, “Functional implications of dentition-based morphotypes in piscivorous fishes,” doi/10.1098/rsos.190040, Royal Soc Open Sci, 2019. Emily Makowski is an intern at The Scientist. Email her at [email protected].
Genealogy: The Evolution of the Census The First in 1790 An indentured servant is one who entered into a contract binding himself or herself into the service of another for a specified term, usually in exchange for passage. The number of years could vary; usually it was four to seven years. When the census schedules show age brackets such as males 10 to 16, males 16 to 26, and so on, the ages included within the category are actually one year under the next category. For example, males 10 to 16 includes males through age 15; males 16 to 26 includes males through the age of 25. Marshals were required to list the number of inhabitants within their districts. They were to omit those Indians not taxed (those who did not live within the towns and cities) and list those who were taxed. They listed free persons (including indentured servants) in categories of age and sex. The rest were counted as “all others,” that is, slaves. Free white males in the 1790 census were listed by two age groups, those of 16 years and upward, and those under that age. The total free white females were listed with no age distinction at all. Only the head of the household was listed by name. John Jackson, who was age 40 and who had a son, age 18; a son, age 12; a wife, age 38; and two daughters, ages 8 and 10, would be listed as two males 16 or over, one male under 16, and three females. In 1908, the federal government transcribed and printed the 1790 census for all available states: Connecticut, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, and the reconstructed census of Virginia. The 1790 census for Delaware, Georgia, Kentucky, New Jersey, Tennessee, and Virginia were lost or destroyed. The printed 1790 census is available in most large libraries. A reprint edition by Genealogical Publishing Company in 1952 made the set widely available. Creatively Using Sparse Information Let's say you are tracing Jonathan Calavary who was born, according to a Bible record, on 3 March 1783. You find him in census records in 1830, '40, and '50 as head of household. But who is his father? He was only about seven when the 1790 census was taken. He should therefore be listed as a male under 16 in his father's home in 1790. Search the 1790 census for the state for the name Calavary. You may find a family with a male listed as under 16. With that unusual surname, there won't be many and it will be a starting place for the search. 1800 and 1810 Census The 1800 and 1810 censuses were more expansive. The head of the family was listed; the free white males and free white females were listed by age: under 10, 10 to 16, 16 to 26, 26 to 45, and 45 or older. They also included the number of other free persons in the household (except Indians not taxed), the number of slaves, and the place of residence. In some early censuses, the lists were copied and rearranged alphabetically by the census taker. This loses the advantage of listing the family with neighbors. However, most often the lists are in the order that the families were contacted by the census taker. Since only the head of household is actually named in the censuses of 1790 through 1840, it isn't possible to determine with certainty which are family members. Some of the others listed by age may not be part of the immediate family. Another relative or a helper could have been living in the home. In 1820 the males listed in the 16-to-18 column are also included in the 16-to-26 column. Keep this in mind when you are figuring the total number of people living in the household. 1820 Census Adds Males 16 to 18 The 1820 census included the same questions as in 1810. It also added a category for males 16 to 18, while retaining the 16-to-26 category. Other questions included the number of those not naturalized; the number engaged in agriculture, commerce, or manufacturing; the number of “colored” persons; and the number of other persons, with the exception of Indians. 1830 and 1840 Censuses Narrow Age In 1830, the age categories were narrowed, enabling researchers to establish ages with more precision. The categories for males and females were as follows: under 5, 5 to 10, 10 to 15, 15 to 20, 20 to 30, 30 to 40, 40 to 50, 50 to 60, 60 to 70, 70 to 80, 80 to 90, 90 to 100, and over 100. The number of those who were “deaf, dumb, and blind” and the number of aliens were listed. In addition, the number of slaves and free “colored” persons were included by age categories. The medical profession was not as advanced as it is today. Even cases of senility, retardation, and misunderstood behavior might be listed as “insane.” The 1840 census contained the same columns as 1830, with an addition important to genealogical research. A column was added for the ages of military war pensioners (usually for Revolutionary War service). Also added were columns to count those engaged in agriculture; mining; commerce; manufacturing and trade; navigation of the ocean; navigation of canals, lakes, and rivers; learned professions and engineers; number in school; number in family over age of 21 who could not read and write; and the number of “insane.” The value of knowing the age of pensioners in the 1840 census is immense. The pensioner might have been the soldier, or the widow, or other entitled person. You will find that Mary Conklin at age 97 was living with Mary Montanya in Haverstraw, Rockland County, New York. John Jones of Metal, Franklin County, Pennsylvania, was living at the remarkable age of 110. This listing of pensioners was extracted and published by the federal government in 1841, with a reprint by Southern Book Company in 1954 and subsequent reprints with an added index by the Genealogical Publishing Company. More on: Family History and Genealogy Excerpted from The Complete Idiot's Guide to Genealogy © 2005 by Christine Rose and Kay Germain Ingalls. All rights reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. Used by arrangement with Alpha Books, a member of Penguin Group (USA) Inc. To order this book visit the Idiot's Guide web site or call 1-800-253-6476.
(October 19, 2000, Gazette) traces changes to landscape line of evidence for lower sea levels around Newfoundland comes from submerged forests. This spruce stump, excavated at low tide near Burgeo, was radiocarbon-dated at 1,400 years old. Trees generally cannot grow in saltwater conditions. Therefore the sea 1,400 years ago must have been at least several metres lower By Andris Petersens What we see today is not the same as what we saw yesterday. Still, the small changes in the environment may pass by our eyes unnoticed and a century from now, everything may look as if we had never Nevertheless the landscape has changed. To find out more about those changes we have to explore past landscapes. According to Dr. Trevor Bell, Geography, the Newfoundland landscape looked much different 20,000 years ago than it looks today with land covered in ice and the sea floor, such as the Grand Banks, exposed At that time, most of mainland Canada was covered with a large continental ice sheet while Newfoundland had its own smaller ice cap. As the climate slowly warmed, the ice melted and retreated. Today scientists are interested in the dynamics of ice retreat and climate changes in the past to find out how large ice masses like the Antarctic or Greenland ice sheets might respond to future The growth and decay of ice sheets cause changes in sea level, Dr. Bell explained. Sea level changes in Newfoundland are mostly the legacy of the last glaciation. The source of water for these large ice sheets is the oceans. So, as ice sheets grow, ocean volume decreases and sea levels fall everywhere. At high latitudes, however, the weight of the ice sheets cause the Earths crust to sink, causing local sea levels around the ice sheet to be higher. Later, as the ice sheet melts, the crust rebounds slowly. My work looks at the pattern, magnitude and timing of these sea level changes around the province. One way to document changes in sea level is to examine marine features and sediments that relate to former shorelines and to date fossil shells, driftwood and whalebone found in them. On the Northern Peninsula, the sea level at the end of the last glaciation was 140-150 metres higher than it is today. Much of the coastal lowlands was below sea level. Gradually, the land has emerged from the sea exposing islands and peninsulas. Meanwhile, for the remainder of the island portion of the province, the sea has been submerging the land, drowning islands and eroding the coastlines. In such places as Stephenville, Port-aux-Basques and Burgeo, the sea has risen 30 metres or so in the last 10,000 Dr. Bell, together with Dr. Joyce MacPherson from the Geography department, explores how the vegetation has changed since the ice sheets retreated. It is a succession from pioneer species, to shrubs and then trees, the forest itself evolves as the landscape changes. We use the change in vegetation as a sort of proxy for climate change and other types of environmental change. For instance, our coastal climate is influenced by the Gulf Stream and Labrador Current the Gulf Stream being warm and the Labrador Current being cold. If you have changes in the strength of those currents, for example, then it may affect the climate, which may in turn influence the vegetation. My graduate student, Nicola MacIllfhinnein, is looking to see whether we can recognize these large-scale environmental or ocean changes in the postglacial vegetation record, using pollen preserved in pond sediments on the Grey Islands, off the Northern Peninsula, Dr. Bell said. Dr. Bell also works closely with Dr. Priscilla Renouf, Archaeology, on a collaborative project that started in 1997 when they received a special new initiatives grant from vice-president (research and international relations). This grant allowed them to start the project and apply for NSERC and SSHRC funding. By integrating cultural history, archeology, paleogeography and sea level history, Drs. Bell and Renouf have located sites of Maritime Archaic Indians, the oldest inhabitants of Newfoundland. One of our approaches was to do targeted archaeological survey based on our knowledge of sea level history, Dr. One of the immediate successes of this collaboration was the discovery of a large site in Port aux Choix. The Northern Peninsula is the only place on the island where sea level has been constantly falling since the ice retreated said Dr. Bell. If we are going to find the older shorelines and possibly more Archaic Indian sites, it is going to be on the Northern Peninsula, where the fall archaeological record should be preserved above present sea level. Unfortunately, many of the older shorelines of the peninsula are in the woods, not around the present day coast. It makes field surveys challenging. Drs. Bell and Renouf are also interested in how ancient people affected the local vegetation, how they used that vegetation, how they located their sites on the landscape, and what was important to them in selecting a site. In Port aux Choix, the Maritime Archaic Indian cemetery today is on a peninsula in the centre of the town but in the past it was on an island. For 1,000 years, the Archaic Indians probably lived on the mainland while they buried their dead in the cemetery. They were obviously living on a beach that was poorly vegetated. Over time, as they kept coming back to the site, vegetation developed starting with a shrub forest and then eventually a full forest. There may also be evidence of human impact on the vegetation. We have found a spruce log dated to the Maritime Archaic period with cuts in it that look as if it has been worked. We have also reconstructed the local vegetation history and at the times when the site was occupied, we see dramatic changes in the vegetation, Dr. Bell added. Over the next couple of years, Dr. Bell hopes to extend his work from the west coast of Newfoundland to Labrador, where he will continue to document past changes in our landscape and environment and the history of humans on that landscape. Top of Page
How To Conduct Research How To Evaluate Sources Evaluate any website for currency, relevance, authority, accuracy, and purpose using this handy worksheet. Search, select, and evaluate information sources. Tutorials on finding and critically evaluating information sources. Learn the differences between search engines and how to use them more effectively. How to look at website to verify their value plus all things research-related. What are Primary Sources? "Primary sources provide first-hand testimony or direct evidence concerning a topic under investigation. They are characterized by their content, regardless of their format." (Primary Sources at Yale) - Artifacts (coins, plant specimens, fossils, furniture, tools, clothing) - Audio recordings (radio programs, podcasts) - Internet communication on e-mails and listservs - Interviews (oral histories, telephone, e-mail) - Journal articles in peer-reviewed publications - Newspapers written at the time - Original documents (birth certificate, will, marriage license, trial transcript) - Proceedings of meetings, conferences, symposia - Records of organizations, government agencies (annual report, treaty, constitution, govenment document) - Speeches (including transcripts) - Survey research (market surveys, public opinion polls) - Video recordings (television programs) - Works of art, architecture, literature, and music (paintings, sculptures, musical scores, buildings, novels, poems) Finding Primary Sources: - Calisphere: The University of California's free public gateway to a world of primary sources. - CIESE: Science and Engineering - Digital Library School Access: Primary sources will come up in your search results when exploring databases - Finding Library Sources: Starting points for finding Library of Congress primary source documents - Internet Public Library For Teens No longer updated but the resources previously linked are still available on this site. - Library of Congress: Access the wealth of our nation's premier library - National Archives: A trove of teacher resources and primary source documents - Picturing America: US history through art and artifacts - Smithsonian Education: Teachers, families, and students can find lesson plans and resources linked to Common Core State Standards and California Standards - Smithsonian Institute: Archives materials for K-12 teachers - Web Gallery of Art: Virtual museum and searchable database of Western European art - World Digital Library: Browse by time period, topic, type of item, or institution - Conversations with History: Search for interview videos by topic, time, name, transcripts also available from UC Berkeley's archives. Teaching With Primary Sources: - Library of Congress Teachers: Classroom materials and professional development to help teachers effectively use primary sources. - SOAPS Primary Source Think Sheet: Tool for evaluation of primary sources using the SOAPS mnemonic: Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Speaker (see attachment below) - Teaching with Document Lesson Plans: From the National Archives - Teaching With Primary Sources: Using digital primary source materials from the Library of Congress What are Secondary Sources? "...[Secondary sources] are accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. They are interpretations and evaluations of primary sources." (University of Maryland: "Research Using Primary Sources"). - Biographical works - Commentaries, criticisms - Dictionaries, encyclopedias - Journal articles (depending on the discipline can be primary) - Magazine and newspaper articles (this distinction varies by discipline) - Monographs, other than fiction and autobiography - Website (also considered primary) What are Tertiary Sources? "Tertiary sources consist of information which is a distillation of collection of primary and secondary sources." (Yale University: "Comparative Sources: Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Sources"). - Bibliographies (also considered secondary) - Dictionaries and Encyclopedias (also considered secondary) - Fact books - Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies used to locate primary and secondary sources - Textbooks (also considered secondary)
1. They might be rich in diamonds A thick layer of diamond, provided there’s enough pressure, could exist under a topping of carbon in the form of the mineral, graphite, which can be found in the very lead of pencils. Diamonds might also erupt from volcanoes on the surface of carbon planets, spitting out mountains of these jewels. 2. We may have found candidates We think that there are at least two possibilities of carbon worlds, or diamond planets, out of the incredible number of exoplanets that we have detected so far. One could be around pulsar PSR 1257+12 which formed from the disruption of a star churning out carbon. A second might be the planet we know as 55 Cancri e, weighing in at around 7.8 Earth masses and whipping around its Sun-like star 55 Cancri A – a star that forms part of the binary 55 Cancri – at a relatively short 18 hours. This particular candidate has shown some evidence of being bathed in graphite or diamond rather than the water and granite that we’re used to here on Earth. 3. They have got no snow beyond the snow-line It is thought that comets and possibly asteroids delivered water to our planet early in the history of the Solar System. These distant travellers are thought to have begun their journey far beyond Earth, way past a boundary known as the snow-line before smashing into its surface and depositing their water, previously locked up as ice. Yet overlaying our Solar System’s model over planetary systems containing carbon worlds, astronomers have discovered that water, no matter which body it’s on, just disappears beyond the snow-line. What this now means is that carbon worlds are home to a surface of frozen organic materials such as tar or methane as well as choking carbon monoxide. You would be hard pressed to find oceans of water on their surfaces and this is because the overly abundant carbon found in developing star systems would snag any oxygen, refusing to let water form, causing them to come up quite dry. 4. Hydrocarbon rain might drizzle from their smoggy atmospheres If a carbon world has a temperature cool enough – at around 77 degrees Celsius – a cycle would be kick-started where rain, made of organic materials, would shower down onto the surface from an atmosphere abundant in carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide along with some other gases. Such a combination of gases would cause their skies to be incredibly thick with smog. 5. They are likely to be on the increase These worlds are probably to be close to the core of our Galaxy or in the globular clusters found orbiting it. This is because you are most likely to find old stars in these places. When these ancient stars pass on, they spew out gigantic amounts of carbon and go on to create these unusual planets. All stars must end, so it makes sense that, as more and more generations are snuffed out, we will find more and more carbon worlds. Image Credit: NASA
If you're like most people, you probably can't stand the sound of fingernails scraping across a blackboard. In fact, you're probably cringing just thinking about it. But what is it about this ear-piercing noise and others like it that evokes such a visceral reaction? A new study by musicologists in Europe suggests that the shape of our ear canals, as well as our own perceptions, is to blame for our distaste in such shrill sounds. The researchers, who presented their work on Nov. 3 at a meeting of the Acoustical Society of America, began their experiment by subjecting study participants to various unpleasant noises, such as a fork scraping against a plate or Styrofoam squeaks. The participants rated their discomfort with each sound, allowing the researchers to identify the two worst sounds: fingernails scratching on a chalkboard and a piece of chalk running against slate. They then created variations of these two sounds by modifying certain frequency ranges, removing the harmonic portions, or getting rid of the grating, noisy parts. They told half of the listeners the true source of the sounds, and the other half that the sounds came from pieces of contemporary music. Finally, they played back the new sounds for the participants, all the while monitoring certain indicators of stress, such as heart rate, blood pressure and the electrical conductivity of skin. They found that the offensive sounds changed the listeners' skin conductivity significantly, showing that they really do cause a measureable, physical reaction. [What Makes Music Enjoyable?] Interestingly, the most painful frequencies were not the highest or lowest, but instead were those that were between 2,000 and 4,000 Hz. The human ear is most sensitive to sounds that fall in this frequency range, said Michael Oehler, professor of media and music management at the University of Cologne in Germany, who was one of the researchers in the study. Oehler points out that many acoustic features of human speech, as well as the sound of a crying baby, fall in this frequency band, suggesting that the shape of our ear canal may have evolved to amplify frequencies that are important for communication. Having these frequencies amplified could have been advantageous for survival, allowing people to come to the rescue of their screaming infants quicker, and thus improve their offspring's chance of survival, or coordinate more effectively during a hunt. In this scenario, a painfully amplified chalkboard screech is just an unfortunate side effect of this (mostly) beneficial development. "But this is really just speculation," Oehler told Life's Little Mysteries. "The only thing we can definitively say is where we found the unpleasant frequencies." Of course, this explanation might lead one to wonder why the ear canal doesn't amplify a larger range of human speech, which spans 150 to 7000 Hz. "I have no real explanation for it, but this would be a good subject for future research," Oehler said. In any case, Oehler and his colleague Christoph Reuter of the University of Vienna found that our hatred of chalkboard screeches is not solely based in physiology; there are some psychological factors at work, too. Overall, the listeners in the study rated a sound as more pleasant if they thought it was pulled from a musical composition (though this didn't fool their bodies, as participants in both study groups expressed the same changes in skin conductivity). The implication, then, is that chalkboard screeches may not irk us so much if we didn't already think the sound is impossibly annoying. We are now getting to the bottom of why we hate these sounds so much, but how does this help us? "Our findings might be useful for the sound design of everyday life," Oehler said. Engineers may someday be able to modify or mask those frequencies within factory machinery, vacuum cleaners or construction equipment, making the noises much easier to bear. Now imagine that: construction noise that doesn't cause you to run for cover.
Learn how teachers can make brainpop-style assessments by using the quiz mixer with a my brainpop account close you are leaving brainpop to. Fraction games, videos, word problems, manipulatives, and more at mathplaygroundcom menu convert fractions/decimals to percents calculating the tip percents. 373 dwriting the percent as a ratio and dividing: 325%= 325 100 =325 since percents are used so frequently to compare different ratios, we often want to convert ratios. Display numbers as fractions use the fraction format to display or type numbers as actual fractions, rather than decimals select the cells that you want to format. Reading and writing percents definition of percent interpret each of the following statements a mortgage interest rate is 63% terminating decimals to percents. Reviews how to convert between percents, fractions, and decimals. Numbers & operations, common core state standards, remedia publications, fractions, base ten. Decimals worksheets from comparing and thanks for visiting the us number format version of the decimals and percents worksheets page at writing expanded. Fractions and decimals date_____ period____ write each as a decimal use repeating decimals when necessary 1) 1 4 2) 2 3 5 3) 5 8 4) 3 5 5) 7 200 6) 8 33 7) 6 11. Maths number exercise - converting fractions to decimals activity. Section 61 percents and decimals 217 write the decimal as a percent use a model to check your answer 5 094 6 12 7 0316 8 0005 example 3 writing a fraction as a percent and a decimal. Pre-algebra percents how to convert a first, i need to remind you about something with decimals: remember place use decimal place values to convert.Representing fractions, decimals and percents decimals and percents using physical models, writing words,. Working with decimals, percents, and ratios working with decimals, percents, we can convert to a fraction by writing in the numerator the decimal,. The goals of the lessons are to give all students the chance to: (1) extend their understanding of the place value system to include decimals (2) learn how decimals relate to fractions (3) represent, read, and interpret decimal numerals (4) compare decimal numerals and (5) learn what percents are and how they relate to fractions and decimals. Lesson 73 percents and decimals 341 fractions, decimals, and percentsa fraction, a decimal, and a percent can all represent the same. Model and compare fractions, decimals, and percents using area models each area model can have 10 or 100 sections and can be set to display a fraction, decimal, or percent click inside the area models to shade them compare the numbers visually or on a number line compare fractions, decimals, and. Writing out percentages correctly as to writing out if the decimals only go to two or three places then we might talk about. Writing decimals as fractions decimals & percents the transactions between tutor and writer support the writing center’s central goal of helping the. Purpose: to show equalities and relationships of fractions, decimals and percents materials: master #10 - blank decimal squares on. Practice converting fractions to decimals at mathplaygroundcom. Converting fractions, decimals and percentages characters from transformers comics/movies present conversions between fractions, decimals and percentages. Fractions, decimals, and percents lesson: fractions, decimals, and percents lesson lesson excerpt - 100 students.Download 2018. Education database.
Potassium is the most abundant mineral in the human body. Furthermore, it plays a significant role in some of the body processes. However, some people do not consume enough of it. Just like any other minerals that our body needs, there is a proper amount of taking Potassium as well. This article will answer your question “How much potassium do you need?” This is in order to fill in the right amount of Potassium needed by the body to function well. Potassium: What is it? Table of Contents Potassium is an important mineral and an electrolyte. In a variety of whole foods like leafy vegetables, fish, and legumes. 98% of the potassium in our body is found mainly in the cells. 80% of which are found inside the muscle cells, while the other 20% are found in the bone, red blood cells, and liver. Potassium plays an important role in several processes that our body does. It is intricate in the contractions of muscle in the body, water balance management, and heart function. Notwithstanding its significance, some people don’t get enough of it. A diet plan that is rich with this amazing mineral is often associated with lower risk of high blood pressure. Furthermore, it also helps in reducing the risk of having some serious conditions like kidney stones and osteoporosis. Is Deficiency Common? Unluckily, some people do not consume enough amount of potassium. However, it doesn’t necessarily mean that they are deficient in it. Hypokalemia or potassium deficiency is often characterized by a less than 3.5 mmol blood level of potassium per liter. Astoundingly, deficiencies are infrequently triggered by the lack of potassium in the diet. It actually occurs when the body loses a large amount of potassium, same as with vomiting or diarrhea. Taking diuretics may also cause a deficiency in potassium. Diuretics, by the way, is a certain type of medication which causes the body to lose water. Dietary Sources of Potassium The most suggested way of increasing potassium in the body is by means of diet. Here are some of the foods that you may take to increase potassium levels in your body. Furthermore, also indicated here are the corresponding potassium contents of each food. -Bananas: 358 mg -Salmon, cooked: 414 mg -Edamame beans: 436 mg -Spinach, cooked: 466 mg -Baked Sweet potato: 475 mg -Avocado: 485 mg -Soybeans, cooked: 539 mg -Baked White potatoes: 544 mg -Yams, baked: 670 mg -Beet greens, cooked: 909 mg Health Benefits of Potassium A potassium-rich diet is often associated with astounding health benefits. It can alleviate or prevent some illnesses including the following: – Kidney stones -Studies show that potassium-rich diets are linked with a significantly reduced risk of kidney stones than the diets low in potassium. – Osteoporosis -Studies show that potassium-rich diets help in preventing osteoporosis, a condition where there is an increased risk of bone fractures. – Stroke –Some studies show that a potassium-rich diet helps in reducing the risk of stroke by up to 27%. – Salt sensitivity –Some people who are sensitive to salt may experience a 10% increase in their blood pressure after eating salt. Potassium-rich diet helps in eliminating salt sensitivity. – High blood pressure -Many studies show that potassium-rich diets can help in reducing blood pressure. Hence, it is essential for those who have high blood pressure. How much potassium do you need every day? We now know that it is beneficial to our health, however, how much potassium do you need really to be healthier? The daily intake of potassium depends on some factors including the health status, ethnicity, and activity levels. Despite the fact that there is no RDI for potassium, health organizations all over the world suggest or recommend potassium intake of at least 3500 mg a day. This is through food consumption. The said organizations include the WHO or World Health Organization, and some other countries like Spain, UK, Belgium, and Mexico. Moreover, countries like Canada, US, Bulgaria, and South Korea recommends potassium consumption of at least 4700 mg a day. Surprisingly, it seems that when some people consume more than 4700 mg/day, there are a lesser or no extra health benefits. Conversely, there are some who can benefit more than the recommended potassium intake. This includes the: –High-risk groups: This is a group of people who are at risk of high blood pressure, osteoporosis, stroke, or kidney stones. They may benefit from consuming no less than 4,700 mg of potassium per day. – Athletes: We all know that all the athletes should be strong and all tough. Those who involve themselves in different sports may lose a substantial amount of potassium through sweating. Potassium is essential for the body. Furthermore, it helps in maintaining the heart function, water balance, and muscle contraction. Large consumption of this mineral may help in reducing high blood pressure, the risk of stroke, and salt sensitivity. Additionally, it helps in protecting the body from kidney stones and osteoporosis. As to the question, how much potassium do you need, it has to be answered by professionals or your own doctor. This is to ensure that the given dosage is just good for your health condition.
Date: June 23, 2009• A new study by a team of researchers led by Jessica Hellmann, assistant professor of biological sciences at the University of Notre Dame, offers interesting insights into how species may, or may not, change their geographic range — the place where they live on earth — under climate change. The lead author on the paper is recent Notre Dame doctoral degree recipient Shannon Pelini. Researchers have hypothesized that populations near the northern boundaries of geographic ranges in the Northern Hemisphere would be pre-adapted to warming and thus will increase with warming, facilitating range expansions. However, the assumptions underlying this theory have not been previously tested. If these northern populations do not increase under warming, species may not track changing climatic conditions and instead decline under climate change. In a paper appearing in this week’s edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), Hellmann and her team describe how they tested the assumption that populations at the northern edge of a species’ range will increase with warming and thereby enhance the colonization process by using two butterflies: the Propertius duskywing and the Anise swallowtail. Hellmann notes that butterflies serve as a kind of flagship species for studying the effects of climate change. They live and die relatively quickly and researchers have garnered a substantial amount of information about them and their habits. Insects in general are important subjects for climate studies because of the key role they play in areas such as pollination and the cycling of nutrient in ecosystems. Hellmann pointed out that by comparing and contrasting two distinct butterfly species in the same geographic area, researchers can obtain general principles to help predict if species will change their geographic ranges under climate change. Hellmann and her colleagues found that populations at the northern range edge in both butterfly species experienced problems when exposed to warmer conditions — the conditions that they will experience under climate change. The duskywing performed well in the summer months, initially suggesting that populations could increase with warming conditions. However, it performed poorly under warmer winter conditions, which would likely offset the summer population gains. Additionally, range expansion of the species is inhibited by the lack of host plants. Northern populations of the swallowtail did not benefit from any of the warming treatments. The species fared badly during heat waves occurring during the summer months when tested under field conditions and fared no better under conditions of steady, moderate warming in the laboratory. Temperatures at the northern edge of the geographic range also impacted the host plant the species relies on, implying that interactions among species could change under climate change. The results shed doubt on the assumption that populations near the upward range boundary are pre-adapted to warming and will increase with upward range expansions and this paper is the first based on experiments to say so. Other authors of the paper include Jason D.K. Dzurisin, Kirstin M. Prior and Travis D. Marsico (a recent doctoral degree recipient currently at Mississippi State University) of Notre Dame’s Department of Biological Sciences; and Caroline M. Williams and Brent J. Sinclair of the University of Western Ontario’s Department of Biology. The paper also is an important addition to the ongoing discussion among scientists on when and how to use an environmental strategy known as “managed relocation.” Managed relocation, also known as “assisted migration,” has emerged as a possible means of preserving species endangered by rapid climate change and other environmental threats. The concept involves picking a species up and moving it potentially hundreds of miles to a place thought to be more accommodating, but which is outside of the species’ native range. Hellmann, and fellow Notre Dame researchers Jason McLachlan and Alejandro Camacho were among the authors of another PNAS paper last month that described a ground-breaking tool designed to help policy makers assess potential managed relocations. The latest managed relocation PNAS paper suggests some issues, such as unexpected impacts on the relocated species and the creation of further environmental problems, that scientists and policy makers will confront in considering managed relocations. The research was funded by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Program for Ecosystems Research (http://per.ornl.gov/). Contact: Jessica Hellmann, assistant professor, biological sciences, 574-631-7521, [email protected]
MS-ESS2-2: Geoscience Processes at Varying Scales Construct an explanation based on evidence for how geoscience processes have changed earth's surface at varying time and spatial scales. Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on how processes change Earth’s surface at time and spatial scales that can be large (such as slow plate motions or the uplift of large mountain ranges) or small (such as rapid landslides or microscopic geochemical reactions), and how many geoscience processes (such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and meteor impacts) usually behave gradually but are punctuated by catastrophic events. Examples of geoscience processes include surface weathering and deposition by the movements of water, ice, and wind. Emphasis is on geoscience processes that shape local geographic features, where appropriate. Assessment Boundary: none Disciplinary Core Ideas ESS2.A: Earth Materials and Systems ESS2.C: The Roles of Water in Earth’s Surface Processes The following assessments were created by science teachers hoping to better understand the NGSS. In most cases teachers went from standard to assessment in around an hour. These are drafts and should be used accordingly. Feel free to improve these assessments or contribute to the collection. Learn more about assessment design here. Surface processes (i.e. weathering, erosion, deposition) - Large (e.g. plate motion, uplift of large mountains) - Small (e.g. landslide, microscopic geochemical reactions) - Slow (e.g. plate motion, mountain uplift) - Catastrophic (e.g. earthquake, volcanoes, meteor impact) *Next Generation Science Standards is a registered trademark of Achieve. Neither Achieve nor the lead states and partners that developed the Next Generation Science Standards were involved in the production of this product, and do not endorse it. Visit the official NGSS website.
Teaching kiddos simple math concepts is definitely something you want to do long before they enter the classroom. There are so many ways we can embed math concepts in their daily lives like counting, measuring, identifying differences like more and less, and so many other activities which we can enjoy with our children alongside them. I am going to share some quick and easy-to-set-up activities that help you introduce your child to some simple math concepts! We are going to start with NUMBERS and OPERATIONS! WHAT ARE NUMBERS & OPERATIONS? “I have more crackers than you do. See, I have 1, 2, 3, and you have 1, 2. I’m going to eat one of mine. Now I have the same as you!” “That’s the third time I’ve heard you say mama. You’ve said mama three times!” WAYS WE CAN TEACH KIDS ABOUT NUMBERS & OPERATIONS - count forward and backward - recognize what a number looks like and name it - understand one-to-one correspondence (each number corresponds to one specific quantity) When we are exploring numbers with toddlers it is all through PLAY and everyday experiences and interactions! This is not the time to break out flashcards or do drill and kill rote learning activities. - They understand “more” and “enough” and “no more.” - They also may understand the words one and two or “pick two.” - Many two-year-olds can hold up two fingers to show you. - Some two-year-olds will be able to recite numbers words in sequence or may be able to identify some numbers. - Many will still recite numbers out of order. There is a broad spectrum of abilities during the toddler years. Each toddler will be different. I encourage you to focus on exploring these math concepts and not worry about comparing your toddler with their peers or trying to rush them to mastery of these skills. 5 WAYS WE CAN EXPLORE NUMBERS WITH TODDLERS 1. Match Numbers Matching numbers is a simple way to teach kids to recognize numbers and be able to say their names. These activities are great for helping kids learn to recognize, name, and match numbers. Number Pocket Matching Game– Take a pocket made out of just about any material such as cloth, paper, foil, plastic, etc. and make it colorful and feel free to decorate it to entice our busy little ones to play this game, put a number on the outside of it, then use a tongue deppressor from the store and use a colorful marker to write a matching number on it. The object of the game is to place the stick with the appropriate number in the matching pocket. This game is one I got from Toddler Approved Leaf Number Movement Game by, Toddler Approved Car Parking Match Game by Housing a Forest Cup Number Matching Game by Laughing Kids Learn Sticky Number Match Activity by Busy Toddler Number Dig and Match– Happy Toddler Playtime 2. Sing rhymes and counting songs 3. Count together These simple, but fun activities are great for helping kids count from 1-10 and even higher in a playful way! Race to Lose a Tooth Counting Game by, Toddler Approved Boat Sink Challenge by, Toddler Approved Candy Cane Hunt and Match by, Toddler Approved Number Toy Hunt by, Toddler Approved Counting Croquet by, Toddler Approved Pipe Cleaner Pick Up Sticks Game by, Toddler Approved 4. Read books about numbers 5. Play with numbers These number activities are great for helping your toddler explore numbers while also moving, exploring, and playing! EVERY DAY WAYS TO EMBED MATH INTO YOUR DAY - Count cars as you are driving - As you collect items at the grocery store, count them up - Go on a number hunt at the store, on a walk, or while you are driving - Count together and count the eggs that are added, tablespoons, etc. - Play “pick up 5” and see if everyone can pick up 5 toys in a messy room and put them away - Hunt for specific numbers on license plates - Workout together! Count jumping jacks, laps around the kitchen, and push-ups! - Build with blocks- work together to create a tower with a specific number of blocks and then count them together - Count when you are having a snack! Encourage your child to eat 5 raisins or 3 slices of apples. Count them up together. *As a teaching resource, I based a great deal of this post on the teachings of Kristine from Toddler Approved. I find that so much of what I have to say is duplicate that of her website or taken directly from her website for purpose of teaching my moms and dads out there and I just wanted to give her credit where it is due! She is awesome!O:) ABOUT KELLI RIEBESEHL Kelli is the creator of Shooting Stars And Little Toy Cars, a blog full of family, fabulous finds, and simple fun and learning. She is the mother of 4 children 3 girls and 1 boy, loves learning and playing even more. She was a teacher before staying home with her baby bunch. She believes that family activities, especially kid’s, don’t have to be difficult to have fun and that learning is always more memorable when introduced with play. Some of the links in this post are our referral links (to products we not only believe in but also very happily use ourselves), meaning, at no additional cost to you, we will earn a commission if you make a purchase. The commission we earn helps us to keep our blogs up and running smoothly. We thank you! O:)
HIGH ORDER THINKING SKILLS ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS 1. Why is Plaster of Paris stored in a moisture proof container? 2. What do you mean by neutralization reaction? Give two examples. 3. Mention two uses of baking soda and washing soda. 4. Why does a milkman add a small amount of baking soda to fresh milk to shift the pH of fresh milk from 6 to slightly alkaline? 5. Why do acids not show acidic behavior in the absence of water? 6. Rain water conducts electricity but distilled water does not. Why? 7. Why don’t we keep sour substances in brass and copper vessels? 8. What is the common name of CaOCl2? 9. Name the compound used for softening hard water. 10. What happens when baking soda is heated? 11. Give the properties and uses of bleaching powder. 12. Give a few uses of acids, bases and salts respectively.
Ancient Kruger Park History Kruger National Park embodies not only the spirit of wild Africa, but is a window into the world that gave birth to humanity itself. We are, after all, a product of the African landscape. The grasslands and mixed bushveld of the Park are typical of the environment from which our earliest ancestors emerged some two-and-a- half million years ago. There is a long record of human occupation in Kruger, stretching from the early Stone Age to the late Iron Age. To visit the Kruger Park is without a doubt a primal experience , an opportunity to open one's senses and to tune into the deepest recesses of humanity's collective memory; to remember that, once upon a time, long, long ago, this was our species' birthplace. Humankind's earliest ancestors lived and hunted in what is today the Kruger Park. The southern lowveld between the Drakensberg escarpment and the Mozambican border has been occupied by humans for at least the last one million years. This spans the time between Homo erectus, a primitive species of Homo sapiens and modern humans - Homo sapiens sapiens. The evolution of the human brain is mirrored by archaeological ﬁnds in the Park, showing the transition from the cruder stone tool kits of the Early and Middle Stone Ages to the more reﬁned and aesthetic tools of the Late Stone Age. Rock art and rock engravings are also to be found in Kruger. In more recent times, northern Kruger was a crucial cog in a major subcontinental pre-colonial trading network , known as the Thulamela culture. Although Thulamela itself is a relatively late site, dating from the 13th to 17th centuries, there is evidence from Mapungubwe further up the Limpopo Valley that active trading with the coast began around 900 AD. Arab, Indian and possibly even Chinese ships docked on the Mozambican coastline to trade for commodities from the southern African interior. These included animal skins, ivory products, gold and copper , which were sourced from South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe, and then channelled down the Limpopo River to the Indian Ocean. At Thulamela Indian glass beads and Chinese porcelain have been found among the locally manufactured copper, gold and iron artifacts. Over time the untold story of Kruger's ancient human heritage may rival the fascination visitors currently entertain for the Big Five. Human evolution in Africa Africa is the birthplace of humankind. Every critical event in our physical evolution occurred on this continent before our ancestors inhabited the rest of the world. Evolution is usually driven by changes in the physical environment. In this case, far-reaching climatic shifts between ﬁve and seven million years ago resulted in the destruction of the great African forests and the rapid expansion of the savannah. Most scientists believe this led to a split in the primate lineage and the emergence of the ape men. Among them were the Australopithecines, who adapted to the emergent mixed woodlands by walking on two legs and utilizing new food sources. Of the many australopithecine species that existed between three and six million years ago, one evolved into the genus Homo, sometime between two and three million years ago. It is commonly accepted that, after two million years ago, a series of outward migrations saw Homo erectus populate the rest of the world. Since then there have been several species of Homo, leading to the appearance some 200 000 years ago of Homo sapiens sapiens, the species which embraces all people on earth today. There is strong evidence that Homo sapiens sapiens evolved ﬁrst in Africa.
We depend on plants for necessities including food, water and medicine. Now, research shows we might have plants to thank for giving us some much-needed help in slowing the rate of global warming. Humans have continued to pump increasing amounts of carbon into the atmosphere. Since the 1950s, the rate at which carbon dioxide was accumulating in the atmosphere had climbed steadily. It surged from 0.75 parts per million per year in the 1950s to 1.86 ppm per year in 1989. But from 2002 to 2014, the rate stagnated, holding steady at around 1.9 ppm per year. (However, the overall concentration of atmospheric CO2 did rise over this period— just not as quickly as one might’ve expected it to.) A study published in Nature Communications last month suggests the reason for this is that as CO2 levels have risen, plants have been ramping up photosynthesis and, therefore, absorbing more carbon dioxide than usual. More photosynthesis has also meant more plants, which have in turn absorbed more CO2 and so on. For several years, this so-called “greening” of the planet is believed to have helped slow the rise of carbon in the atmosphere. “These results are very exciting,” lead author Trevor Keenan, an ecologist at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, told PRI’s Living On Earth podcast in a December interview. “We’ve known for decades that ecosystems have been taking up a lot of the carbon dioxide we emit into the atmosphere. Now, they are not taking up near enough to really stop climate change, but they are slowing it down significantly.” Without the help of plants, the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide would be far higher than it is today, according to Keenan. In September, CO2 levels reached a daily average of above 400 parts per million for the first time in history. We’d already be at 460 ppm if not for the greening effect, a level “we don’t expect until about 2050 or 2060,” Keenan said. But researchers warn this effect is only temporary and will soon start to wane (if it hasn’t already). That’s because though plants take in carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, they also release CO2 through a process called respiration, which is sensitive to temperature increases. “So, as CO2 is going up, plants take more CO2 from the atmosphere,” Keenan told PRI. But as global temperatures rise, plants will “also release more CO2.” “We expect temperatures to continue to increase in the future and they already have over the past two years with the large El Nino event we’ve seen globally, and the net effect of this is a release of carbon dioxide,” Keenan added. “A lot of carbon goes into soils, and these soils are respiring ... [A]s temperature rises, that carbon that has been stored there could be released back into the atmosphere.” Ultimately, Keenan stressed that though the research offers “good news for now, we can’t expect it to continue,” he told The Washington Post. The study should, instead, serve as a reminder of how important it is to protect carbon sinks ― forests, oceans and other natural environments that help absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. Oceans and land plants help remove about 45 percent of the CO2 emitted by humans every year, according to a 2015 study. It should also be another wake-up call for people to immediately reduce our greenhouse gas emissions. “The growth of CO2 in the atmosphere continues to grow. And until we really cut our emissions, that’s what’s going to continue to happen,” Keenan told The Verge. “So plants are helping us out, they’re buying us time, but ultimately it’s up to us.”
Programming paradigm – Wikipedia Programming paradigms are a way to classify programming languages according to the style of computer programming. Features of various programming languages determine which programming paradigms they belong to; as a result, some languages fall into only one paradigm, while others fall into multiple paradigms. Some paradigms are concerned mainly with implications for the execution model of the language, such as allowing side effects, or whether the sequence of operations is defined by the execution model. Other paradigms are concerned mainly with the way that code is organized, such as grouping code into units along with the state that is modified by the code. Yet others are concerned mainly with the style of syntax and grammar. Common programming paradigms include: - imperative which allows side effects, - functional which disallows side effects, - declarative which does not state the order in which operations execute, - object-oriented which groups code together with the state the code modifies, - procedural which groups code into functions, - logic which has a particular style of execution model coupled to a particular style of syntax and grammar, and - symbolic programming which has a particular style of syntax and grammar. For example, languages that fall into the imperative paradigm have two main features: they state the order in which operations occur, with constructs that explicitly control that order, and they allow side effects, in which state can be modified at one point in time, within one unit of code, and then later read at a different point in time inside a different unit of code. The communication between the units of code is not explicit. Meanwhile, in object-oriented programming, code is organized into objects that contain state that is only modified by the code that is part of the object. Most object-oriented languages are also imperative languages. In contrast, languages that fit the declarative paradigm do not state the order in which to execute operations. Instead, they supply a number of operations that are available in the system, along with the conditions under which each is allowed to execute. The implementation of the language’s execution model tracks which operations are free to execute and chooses the order on its own. Just as software engineering (as a process) is defined by differing methodologies, so the programming languages (as models of computation) are defined by differing paradigms. Some languages are designed to support one paradigm (Smalltalk supports object-oriented programming, Haskell supports functional programming), while other programming languages support multiple paradigms (such as Object Pascal, C++, Java, C#, Scala, Visual Basic, Common Lisp, Scheme, Perl, Python, Ruby, Oz, and F#). For example, programs written in C++ or Object Pascal can be purely procedural, purely object-oriented, or can contain elements of both or other paradigms. Software designers and programmers decide how to use those paradigm elements. In object-oriented programming, programs are treated as a set of interacting objects. In functional programming, programs are treated as a sequence of stateless function evaluations. When programming computers or systems with many processors, in process-oriented programming, programs are treated as sets of concurrent processes acting on logically shared data structures. Many programming paradigms are as well known for the techniques they forbid as for those they enable. For instance, pure functional programming disallows use of side-effects, while structured programming disallows use of the goto statement. Partly for this reason, new paradigms are often regarded as doctrinaire or overly rigid by those accustomed to earlier styles. Yet, avoiding certain techniques can make it easier to understand program behavior, and to prove theorems about program correctness. Programming paradigms can also be compared with programming models which allow invoking an external execution model by using only an API. Programming models can also be classified into paradigms, based on features of the execution model. For parallel computing, using a programming model instead of a language is common. The reason is that details of the parallel hardware leak into the abstractions used to program the hardware. This causes the programmer to have to map patterns in the algorithm onto patterns in the execution model (which have been inserted due to leakage of hardware into the abstraction). As a consequence, no one parallel programming language maps well to all computation problems. It is thus more convenient to use a base sequential language and insert API calls to parallel execution models, via a programming model. Such parallel programming models can be classified according to abstractions that reflect the hardware, such as shared memory, distributed memory with message passing, notions of place visible in the code, and so forth. These can be considered flavors of programming paradigm that apply to only parallel languages and programming models. Some programming language researchers criticise the notion of paradigms as a classification of programming languages, e.g. Krishnamurthi. They argue that many programming languages cannot be strictly classified into one paradigm, but rather include features from several paradigms. Different approaches to programming have developed over time, being identified as such either at the time or retrospectively. An early approach consciously identified as such is structured programming, advocated since the mid 1960s. The concept of a “programming paradigm” as such dates at least to 1978, in the Turing Award lecture of Robert W. Floyd, entitled The Paradigms of Programming, which cites the notion of paradigm as used by Thomas Kuhn in his The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962). The lowest level programming paradigms are machine code, which directly represents the instructions (the contents of program memory) as a sequence of numbers, and assembly language where the machine instructions are represented by mnemonics and memory addresses can be given symbolic labels. These are sometimes called first- and second-generation languages. In the 1960s, assembly languages were developed to support library COPY and quite sophisticated conditional macro generation and preprocessing abilities, CALL to (subroutines), external variables and common sections (globals), enabling significant code re-use and isolation from hardware specifics via use of logical operators such as READ/WRITE/GET/PUT. Assembly was, and still is, used for time critical systems and often in embedded systems as it gives the most direct control of what the machine does. The next advance was the development of procedural languages. These third-generation languages (the first described as high-level languages) use vocabulary related to the problem being solved. For example, - COmmon Business Oriented Language (COBOL) – uses terms like file, move and copy. - FORmula TRANslation (FORTRAN) – using mathematical language terminology, it was developed mainly for scientific and engineering problems. - ALGOrithmic Language (ALGOL) – focused on being an appropriate language to define algorithms, while using mathematical language terminology and targeting scientific and engineering problems just like FORTRAN. - Programming Language One (PL/I) – a hybrid commercial-scientific general purpose language supporting pointers. - Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC) – it was developed to enable more people to write programs. - C – a general-purpose programming language, initially developed by Dennis Ritchie between 1969 and 1973 at AT&T Bell Labs. All these languages follow the procedural paradigm. That is, they describe, step by step, exactly the procedure that should, according to the particular programmer at least, be followed to solve a specific problem. The efficacy and efficiency of any such solution are both therefore entirely subjective and highly dependent on that programmer’s experience, inventiveness, and ability. Following the widespread use of procedural languages, object-oriented programming (OOP) languages were created, such as Simula, Smalltalk, C++, C#, Eiffel, and Java. In these languages, data and methods to manipulate it are kept as one unit called an object. The only way that another object or user can access the data is via the object’s methods. Thus, the inner workings of an object may be changed without affecting any code that uses the object. There is still some controversy raised by Alexander Stepanov, Richard Stallman and other programmers, concerning the efficacy of the OOP paradigm versus the procedural paradigm. The need for every object to have associative methods leads some skeptics to associate OOP with software bloat; an attempt to resolve this dilemma came through polymorphism. Because object-oriented programming is considered a paradigm, not a language, it is possible to create even an object-oriented assembler language. High Level Assembly (HLA) is an example of this that fully supports advanced data types and object-oriented assembly language programming – despite its early origins. Thus, differing programming paradigms can be seen rather like motivational memes of their advocates, rather than necessarily representing progress from one level to the next. Precise comparisons of the efficacy of competing paradigms are frequently made more difficult because of new and differing terminology applied to similar entities and processes together with numerous implementation distinctions across languages. Literate programming, as a form of imperative programming, structures programs as a human-centered web, as in a hypertext essay: documentation is integral to the program, and the program is structured following the logic of prose exposition, rather than compiler convenience. Independent of the imperative branch, declarative programming paradigms were developed. In these languages, the computer is told what the problem is, not how to solve the problem – the program is structured as a set of properties to find in the expected result, not as a procedure to follow. Given a database or a set of rules, the computer tries to find a solution matching all the desired properties. An archetype of a declarative language is the fourth generation language SQL, and the family of functional languages and logic programming. Functional programming is a subset of declarative programming. Programs written using this paradigm use functions, blocks of code intended to behave like mathematical functions. Functional languages discourage changes in the value of variables through assignment, making a great deal of use of recursion instead. The logic programming paradigm views computation as automated reasoning over a body of knowledge. Facts about the problem domain are expressed as logic formulae, and programs are executed by applying inference rules over them until an answer to the problem is found, or the set of formulae is proved inconsistent. Symbolic programming is a paradigm that describes programs able to manipulate formulas and program components as data. Programs can thus effectively modify themselves, and appear to “learn”, making them suited for applications such as artificial intelligence, expert systems, natural language processing and computer games. Languages that support this paradigm include Lisp and Prolog. A multi-paradigm programming language is a programming language that supports more than one programming paradigm. The design goal of such languages is to allow programmers to use the most suitable programming style and associated language constructs for a given job, considering that no single paradigm solves all problems in the easiest or most efficient way. One example is C#, which includes imperative and object-oriented paradigms, together with a certain level of support for functional programming with features like delegates (allowing functions to be treated as first-order objects), type inference, anonymous functions and Language Integrated Query. Other examples are F# and Scala, which provide similar functionality to C# but also include full support for functional programming (including currying, pattern matching, algebraic data types, lazy evaluation, tail recursion, immutability, etc.). Perhaps the most extreme example is Oz, which has subsets that adhere to logic (Oz descends from logic programming), functional, object-oriented, dataflow concurrent, and other paradigms. Oz was designed over a ten-year period to combine in a harmonious way concepts that are traditionally associated with different programming paradigms. Lisp, while often taught as a functional language, is known for its malleability and thus its ability to engulf many paradigms. - Nørmark, Kurt. Overview of the four main programming paradigms. Aalborg University, 9 May 2011. Retrieved 22 September 2012. - Frans Coenen (1999-10-11). “Characteristics of declarative programming languages”. cgi.csc.liv.ac.uk. Retrieved 2014-02-20. - Michael A. Covington (2010-08-23). “CSCI/ARTI 4540/6540: First Lecture on Symbolic Programming and LISP” (PDF). University of Georgia. Retrieved 2013-11-20. - Peter Van Roy (2009-05-12). “Programming Paradigms for Dummies: What Every Programmer Should Know” (PDF). info.ucl.ac.be. Retrieved 2014-01-27. - Frank Rubin (March 1987). “‘GOTO Considered Harmful’ Considered Harmful” (PDF). Communications of the ACM. 30 (3): 195–196. doi:10.1145/214748.315722. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 20, 2009. - Krishnamurthi, Shriram (November 2008). “Teaching programming languages in a post-linnaean age”. SIGPLAN. ACM. pp. 81–83. Not. 43, 11. . - Floyd, R. W. (1979). “The paradigms of programming”. Communications of the ACM. 22 (8): 455. doi:10.1145/359138.359140. - “Mode inheritance, cloning, hooks & OOP (Google Groups Discussion)”. - “Business glossary: Symbolic programming definition”. allbusiness.com. Retrieved 2014-07-30. - “Multi-Paradigm Programming Language”. developer.mozilla.org. Retrieved 21 October 2013. 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Remote sensing, its principle, advantages and uses In this article I have tried to briefly highlight the principle of remote sensing, its applications and advantages. I have also briefly explained the two satellites used: geostationary and polar satellites. Remote sensing is a modern method of collecting information using various means. It uses principles of electromagnetic radiation. It is time saving, reliable, multi-disciplinary and provide easy access to remote areas. It helps in study of natural hazards, land use, resource mapping etc. Remote sensing may be defined as an art and science of collecting information about change to normal objects, area or phenomena from a distance without physical contact with it. In fact, eyesight, smelling, and hearing are also some of the forms of remote sensing. However, in surveying we use the term remote sensing for collecting information about objects ion the earth from aircraft and satellite stations using electromagnetic energy. When electromagnetic energy is made to fall on the object, it is partly 3. transmitted and Different objects have different properties of absorbing, scattering, transmitting and reflecting the electromagnetic energy. Hence, these properties can be used to identify objects. The reflected light is mixed with emissions from the earth. In remote sensing from satellites the electromagnetic waves are sent to earth surface. Depending upon the property of objects on Earth, the electromagnetic waves of different intensity and wavelengths are absorbed, scattered transmitted and reflected. The reflected waves in the bandwidth of infrared, thermal infrared and microwaves are picked up by sensors mounted on the satellite. Since each feature on the earth has different reflection property, it is possible to identify the features on the earth from satellite. The user has to identify the object and determine its extent from the earth by studying satellite data. This is called processing of data. For quantifying the objects, computers are used. In remote sensing from aircrafts, the reflected sunray is picked up by a camera and the features are hence studied. Remote sensing observation platforms: First remote sensing platform used was cameras on balloons. The aircraft was extensively used as platforms later on. Nowadays, satellites are being used as platforms. Since satellite platforms are convenient and economical in the long run, they have replaced all other platforms. There are two types of satellites used for remote sensing: 2. near earth Geostationary satellites rotate around the earth at the same speed as that of earth. Hence they appear stationary when observed from earth. These satellites are at an altitude of about 3600km from surface of the earth above the point on equator. As they are geostationary, they can be used for remote sensing a particular area on the earth. For example, Indian satellites are useful for remote sensing areas in or around India. Near earth satellites have speed different from that of earth. Hence they appear as if they are rotating about earth with some relative velocity. The path may close up on itself if the orbital parameters are suitably chosen. In such cases, the satellite revisits a given location at a regular interval of time. By adjusting the speed of these satellites, they can be set to revisit a given place at the desired time intervals. The near earth satellites trace a path in a sun synchronous orbit defines by its fixed inclination angle from the earth's north south axis. These satellites orbit at a distance of few hundred to a few thousand kilometers. Hence in biological and environmental studies, data are collected at specific intervals. This is useful for visible and infra red observation. IRS studies have this kind of orbit. Types of remote sensing: Based on the source of electromagnetic energy used, remote sensing is classified into passive remote sensing and active remote sensing. Passive remote sensing: All stars and planets emit electromagnetic energy. However for the earth, the energy emitted by the sun is more predominant than others and is used for remote sensing. Remote sensing using the sun is called passive remote sensing. Active remote sensing: In active remote sensing, artificially produced electromagnetic waves are used. The microwaves are produced by a klystron or a travelling wave tube. Radio detection and ranging is a commonly used technique to transmit electromagnetic wave to remote targets. The reflected signal is received by the sensors. The time delay and the level of reflected signal provides information about the distance of the target and its surface reflectivity. This gives precise information about the target. Since the microwaves are not influenced by atmosphere, they may be transferred back to the earth stations for the further analysis and studies. Advantages of remote sensing: The major advantages of remote sensing over other methods of ground investigation are: 1. Accessibility: some areas may not be accessible for ground survey where as by remote- sensing, all regions on the earth can be accessed. 2. Time saving: Remote sensing can produce very reliable information about land use, natural hazards, etc in a very short time. This is not possible by land survey. 3. Multi disciplinary: Remote sensing is used by workers in different departments like civil engineers, geologists, forest and revenue department etc. Hence, though the initial cost is more, overall benefit to cost ratio is higher and better. Applications of remote sensing: 1. Resource exploration: Geologists use remote sensing to study information about the formation of sedimentary rocks and identify deposits of various minerals, detect oil fields and identify under water resources. It is also used to identify potential fishing zone, coral reef mapping and to find other ocean wealth. 2. Environmental study: Remote sensing can be used to study cloud patterns and to predict rains. Water discharge from various industries can be studied for their dispersion and harmful effects, if any on the living animals. Oil spillage and oil slicks in the ocean can be studied for their dispersion and for their possible harmful effects. Soil erosion and sediment transportation are also studied by remote sensing. 3. Land use: By remote sensing mapping of a large area of land is possible in a short time. The changes taking place in the areas of the forest, agriculture, residential and industrial areas can be assessed regularly and monitored .It is eve possible to find out areas of different crops. 4. Site investigation: Remote sensing is used extensively in site investigations for dams, reservoir, bridge, pipeline etc. It is also used in locating ground water supplies to towns and industries and for locating construction materials like sand and other gravel for the new projects. 5. Archaeological investigations: Archaeological pattern of prehistoric land use may be recognized in remote sensing. Many structures in if old era are now buried underground and not known. But due to the change in moisture content and other characteristics of the buried objects and upper new layer, remote sensors are able to recognize the buried structures of archaeological importance. 6. Natural hazard study: Using remote sensing the following hazards can be assessed and managed: 5. hurricanes and cyclones The natural hazards can be predicted to some extent and their damage can be minimized. No responses found. Be the first to respond...
The latest news from academia, regulators research labs and other things of interest Posted: May 30, 2017 Tricking molecules into creating new nano-shapes (Nanowerk News) Making small structures, at the nanometer length scale, is extremely difficult. However, these structures are vital for faster, denser more energy-efficient computing devices. Scientists have devised materials that can create complex three-dimensional structures. They did it by exploiting how molecules self-assemble, spontaneously packing into nano-sized shapes. Also, they took advantage of how materials respond to the surfaces they are cast on. When correctly designed, materials can be coaxed into never-before-seen structures. Diverse, never-before seen nanostructures. Scientists developed a suite of methods that can coax simple nanomaterials (example shown in center) into spontaneously forming much more complex nanostructures. Three examples are shown, along with schematics of the three-dimensional order. (Image: Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory) This work greatly broadens the diversity and complexity of nanostructures that can be formed using self-assembling molecules. Today’s self-assembling materials make simple repeating patterns. The new method allows for complex structures. These structures mean forming different nano-patterns in different parts of a material. More complex structures will enable better microchips, water filter membranes and batteries. Self-assembly is a powerful concept for making nanoscale structures where molecules are designed to spontaneously pack themselves into the desired shape or pattern without lithographic patterning. However, conventional self-assembly yields a small library of very simple shapes. In this work, scientists at the Center for Functional Nanomaterials (CFN) devised responsive self-assembling systems, where the molecules reorganize in response to external influences. In particular, this enables simple molecules to form much more complex patterns—indeed they can form three-dimensional nanostructures that would never form using conventional self-assembling materials. Scientists at the CFN used thin films of block copolymers (BCP)—chains of two distinct molecules linked together. Through well-established techniques, the scientists spread BCP films across a substrate, applied heat, and watched the material self-assemble into a prescribed configuration. To make subsequent layers “talk to each other,” the team infused each layer with a vapor of inorganic molecules to seal the structure, which allowed each layer to act as a template for the one above it. This technique demonstrated the formation of a broad range of nanostructures never before observed. This fundamental breakthrough substantially broadens the diversity and complexity of structures that can be made with self-assembly, and correspondingly broadens the range of potential applications. For example, intricate three-dimensional nanostructures could yield transformative improvements in nano-porous membranes for water purification, bio-sensing, catalysis, or dense computer memories and microprocessors. A. Stein, G. Wright, K.G. Yager, G.S. Doerk, and C.T. Black "Selective directed self-assembly of coexisting morphologies using block copolymer blendsExternal link." Nature Communications 7, 12366 (2016). [DOI: 10.1038/ncomms12366] A. Rahman, P.W. Majewski, G. Doerk, C.T. Black, and K.G. Yager. “Non-native three-dimensional block copolymer morphologiesExternal link.” Nature Communications 7, 13988 (2016). [DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13988]
By age 2, typically a child weighs about ____ and measures ____. The typical two year old is almost ____ percent of his or her adult weight and ____ percent of their height. 30 lbs; between 32-36 in.; 15-20; 50 When nutrition is temporarily inadequite, the body stops growing but the brain does not. This is called ______-_____. A standard, or average, measurments that is calculated for a specific group or population is a ______. To compare a childs growth to that of other children, we determine a ______, a point on a ranking scale of ______ to ___. percentile; 0; 100 Throughout childhood, regular and ample ____ correlates with _____ maturation, ____, _____, regulation, and _______ adjustments in school and within the family. sleep; brain; learning, emotional, psychological Over the first months of life, the relative amount of time spent in the different _______ of sleep changes. The stage of sleep characterized by flickering eyes behind closed lids and _______ is called ______ ____. During the stage of sleep, brain waves are fairly _____ over the first months, as does the dozing stage called ____ ___. Slow wave sleep, also called ____ ____, increases markedly at about ____ months of age. stages; dreaming; REM sleep; rapid;decrease; traditional sleep; quiet sleep; quiet sleep; 3 or 4 In most western cultures children _______ sleep with their parents. In contrast parents in ____ ____ and ____ ____ traditionally practice ____ with their infants. This practice ____ seem to be harmful unless the adult is _________. do not; Asia; Africa; Latin America; co-sleeping; does not; drugged or drunk Two year old rafael weighs 30 lbs and is 34 inches tall. He is considered average because his height and weight are in the ____ percentile for 2 year olds. At birth the brain has attained about ____ percent of its adult weight , by age two the brain is about _____ percent of its adult weight. In comparison body weight at age two is about ______ percent of what it will be in adulthood. 25; 75; 20 The brains communication system consists primarily of nerve cells called __________ which are connected by intricate networks of nerve fibers called _______ and ______. Some nerve cells are in the area that controls autonomic responses called the ____________. About percent of these cells are in the brains outer layer calle the ______. This area takes up about _____ percent of human brain materials and is the site of ________ , ______, and __________. neurons; axons; dendrites; brain stem; 70; cortex; 80; thinking; feeling; sensing Neurons communicate with one another at sections called _____ that carry information across ______ _____ to the _____ of a recieving neuron which is speeded up by a process called _______ . Most of the nerve cells _____ present at birth, whereas there are ______ fiber networks. synapsas; axon; neurotransmitters;synoptic gap; dendrite; myelination; are; far fewer From birth until age 2, the density of dendrites in the cortex ______ by a factor of _____. The phenominal increases in neural connections over the first two years has been called ____ ____.Following this growth process, some neurons wither in this process called ______ because ____ does not activate those brain areas. The importance of early experience is seen in the brains production of stress hormones such as ____. increases; five; transiet exuberance; pruning; experience; cortisol Brain functions that require basic common experiences in order to develop normally are called _____-_____ brain functions; those that depend on particular, and variable experiences in order to develop are called ______-_____ brain functions. Between 6-24 months the _____ areas of the brain develop most rapidly. The last part of the brain to mature is ____ ___, which is the area for ___ ____ and ____ _____. experience -expectsnt; experience-dependent; language; prefrontal cortex; anticipation; planning impulse control A life threatening condition that occurs when an infant is held by the shoulders and quickly shaken back and forth is ___ ___ ___. Crying stops because of ruptured ______ _____ in the brain and broken _____ connections. shaken baby syndrome; blood vessels; neural An important implication of brain development for caregivers is that early brain growth is _____ and reflects ____. Another is that each part of the brain has its own _____ for _____ _____ and ______. The inborn drive to remedy any deficit that may occur in development is called _____. rapid; experience; sequence; growth; connecting;pruning; self-writing
Take the x-axis to be in the direction the man in the train is going, the y-axis in the direction the man in the boat is going, the z-axis up. Take the origin of the coordinate system to be the point where the man in the boat is as he passes under the bridge and take time t= 0, to be that moment. We are given their speed in miles per hour, but, since the bridge's height is given in feet and we are asked what happens 10 seconds later, it might be better to give them in feet per second. There are 5280 feet to a mile and (60)(60)= 3600 seconds per hour so 20 mph is (20)(5280)/3600)= 29 and 1/3 or 29.33 feet per second. 30 mph is 30(5280)/3600= 444 feet per second. At t= 0, the man in the boat is at (0, 0, 0) and the man in the train is at (0, 0, 200). Since the man in the boat is moving in the direction of the y-axis with speed 44 feet per second, in t seconds he will be at (0, 44t, 0). Since the man in the train is moving in the direction of the x-axis, with speed 29.33 feet per second, in t seconds he will be at (29.33t, 0, 200). Use the distance formula to determine the distance between them after t seconds, differentiate that to determine how fast it is changing, and evaluate at t= 10.
Using the acronym “DECIDE,” the six-step process DECIDE Model is another continuous loop process that provides the pilot with a logical way of making decisions. [Figure 17-11] DECIDE means to Detect, Estimate, Choose a course of action, Identify solutions, Do the necessary actions, and Evaluate the effects of the actions. First, consider a recent accident involving a Piper Apache (PA-23). The aircraft was substantially damaged during impact with terrain at a local airport in Alabama. The certificated airline transport pilot (ATP) received minor injuries and the certificated private pilot was not injured. The private pilot was receiving a checkride from the ATP (who was also a designated examiner) for a commercial pilot certificate with a multi-engine rating. After performing airwork at altitude, they returned to the airport and the private pilot performed a single-engine approach to a full stop landing. He then taxied back for takeoff, performed a short field takeoff, and then joined the traffic pattern to return for another landing. During the approach for the second landing, the ATP simulated a right engine failure by reducing power on the right engine to zero thrust. This caused the aircraft to yaw right. The procedure to identify the failed engine is a two-step process. First, bring power to maximum controllable on both engines. Because the left engine is the only engine delivering thrust, the yaw increases to the right, which necessitates application of additional left rudder application. The failed engine is the side that requires no rudder pressure, in this case the right engine. Second, having identified the failed right engine, the procedure is to feather the right engine and adjust power to maintain descent angle to a landing. However, in this case the pilot feathered the left engine because he assumed the engine failure was a left engine failure. During twin-engine training, the left engine out is emphasized more than the right engine because the left engine on most light twins is the critical engine. This is due to multiengine airplanes being subject to P-factor, as are single-engine airplanes. The descending propeller blade of each engine will produce greater thrust than the ascending blade when the airplane is operated under power and at positive angles of attack. The descending propeller blade of the right engine is also a greater distance from the center of gravity, and therefore has a longer moment arm than the descending propeller blade of the left engine. As a result, failure of the left engine will result in the most asymmetrical thrust (adverse yaw) because the right engine will be providing the remaining thrust. Many twins are designed with a counter-rotating right engine. With this design, the degree of asymmetrical thrust is the same with either engine inoperative. Neither engine is more critical than the other. Since the pilot never executed the first step of identifying which engine failed, he feathered the left engine and set the right engine at zero thrust. This essentially restricted the aircraft to a controlled glide. Upon realizing that he was not going to make the runway, the pilot increased power to both engines causing an enormous yaw to the left (the left propeller was feathered) whereupon the aircraft started to turn left. In desperation, the instructor closed both throttles and the aircraft hit the ground and was substantially damaged. This case is interesting because it highlights two particular issues. First, taking action without forethought can be just as dangerous as taking no action at all. In this case, the pilot’s actions were incorrect; yet, there was sufficient time to take the necessary steps to analyze the simulated emergency. The second and more subtle issue is that decisions made under pressure are sometimes executed based upon limited experience and the actions taken may be incorrect, incomplete, or insufficient to handle the situation. Detect (the Problem) Problem detection is the first step in the decision-making process. It begins with recognizing a change occurred or an expected change did not occur. A problem is perceived first by the senses and then it is distinguished through insight and experience. These same abilities, as well as an objective analysis of all available information, are used to determine the nature and severity of the problem. One critical error made during the decision-making process is incorrectly detecting the problem. In the example above, the change that occurred was a yaw. Estimate (the Need To React) In the engine-out example, the aircraft yawed right, the pilot was on final approach, and the problem warranted a prompt solution. In many cases, overreaction and fixation excludes a safe outcome. For example, what if the cabin door of a Mooney suddenly opened in flight while the aircraft climbed through 1,500 feet on a clear sunny day? The sudden opening would be alarming, but the perceived hazard the open door presents is quickly and effectively assessed as minor. In fact, the door’s opening would not impact safe flight and can almost be disregarded. Most likely, a pilot would return to the airport to secure the door after landing. The pilot flying on a clear day faced with this minor problem may rank the open cabin door as a low risk. What about the pilot on an IFR climb out in IMC conditions with light intermittent turbulence in rain who is receiving an amended clearance from air traffic control (ATC)? The open cabin door now becomes a higher risk factor. The problem has not changed, but the perception of risk a pilot assigns it changes because of the multitude of ongoing tasks and the environment. Experience, discipline, awareness, and knowledge will influence how a pilot ranks a problem. Choose (a Course of Action) After the problem has been identified and its impact estimated, the pilot must determine the desirable outcome and choose a course of action. In the case of the multiengine pilot given the simulated failed engine, the desired objective is to safely land the airplane. The pilot formulates a plan that will take him or her to the objective. Sometimes, there may be only one course of action available. In the case of the engine failure, already at 500 feet or below, the pilot solves the problem by identifying one or more solutions that lead to a successful outcome. It is important for the pilot not to become fixated on the process to the exclusion of making a decision. Do (the Necessary Actions) Once pathways to resolution are identified, the pilot selects the most suitable one for the situation. The multiengine pilot given the simulated failed engine must now safely land the aircraft. Evaluate (the Effect of the Action) Finally, after implementing a solution, evaluate the decision to see if it was correct. If the action taken does not provide the desired results, the process may have to be repeated.
The earliest mention of deafness and otology can be found in the Ebers Papyrus (1550 BC), a list of medical remedies and spells against common ailments. The Ancient Egyptians of the era treated various ear diseases, including the "Ear-that-Hears-Badly", by injecting olive oil, red lead, ant eggs, bat wings and goat urine into the ears1. In general, the Ancient Egyptians were tolerant of people with disabilities, a quote from the Instruction of Amenemopet stands out2: Beware of robbing a wretch or attacking a cripple. Do not laugh at a blind man, nor tease a dwarf, nor cause hardship for the lame. Don't tease a man who is in the hand of the god (i.e. ill or insane) In contrast, the Ancient Greeks aren't thought of as being particularly tolerant towards people with disabilities. They were a far more militaristic society than the generally peaceful Egyptians, and ascribed great importance to physical prowess. When it comes to deafness and muteness, matters were extremely complicated. The Greeks considered their language to be perfect and anyone who couldn't speak it, including deaf and mute people, barbarians. That said, the actual behaviour of the Greeks towards the deaf is a matter of debate. Most quotes, including Aristotle's, use the word "ἐνεος" (or various forms of) that translates to "speechless" to refer to the deaf. The prevalent opinion among historians is that "ἐνεος" had a double meaning and may have often been used pejoratively, thus most English translations favour "dumb" instead of "speechless" when translating "ἐνεος". Raymond Hull challenges that notion in Aural Rehabilitation: Serving Children & Adults, and posits3 that what eventually became the main interpretation of Aristotle's statements on the matter may very well be a misinterpretation stemming from the dual meaning of "ἐνεος". In any case, Aristotle's philosophy on deafness is summarized in the following quotes: Moving on, the earliest mention of sign language in history comes from Cratylus, one of the more interesting Socratic dialogues. The dialogue's main theme is the relation between language and reality and it's part of the Theory of Forms corpus. In it, Socrates poses the following question (Plat. Crat. 422d & Plat. Crat. 422e): Well, then, how can the earliest names, which are not as yet based upon any others, make clear to us the nature of things, so far as that is possible, which they must do if they are to be names at all? Answer me this question: If we had no voice or tongue, and wished to make things clear to one another, should we not try, as dumb people actually do, to make signs with our hands and head and person generally? Yes. What other method is there, Socrates? If we wished to designate that which is above and is light, we should, I fancy, raise our hand towards heaven in imitation of the nature of the thing in question; but if the things to be designated were below or heavy, we should extend our hands towards the ground; and if we wished to mention a galloping horse or any other animal, we should, of course, make our bodily attitudes as much like theirs as possible. I think you are quite right; there is no other way. A distinction between deafness and muteness can be found in Theaetetus, where while discussing the capacity to learn, Socrates tells us that anyone can show what they think, except if they are speechless or deaf from birth (Plat. Theaet. 206d & Plat. Theaet. 206e): The first would be making one's own thought clear through speech by means of verbs and nouns, imaging the opinion in the stream that flows through the lips, as in a mirror or water. Do you not think the rational explanation is something of that sort? Yes, I do. At any rate, we say that he who does that speaks or explains. Well, that is a thing that anyone can do sooner or later; he can show what he thinks about anything, unless he is deaf or dumb from the first; and so all who have any right opinion will be found to have it with the addition of rational explanation, and there will henceforth be no possibility of right opinion apart from knowledge. The original text uses "ἐνεὸς" and "κωφὸς" (=deaf), the same words Aristotle used in On Sense and the Sensible, suggesting both Plato and Aristotle distinguished between muteness and deafness. A more accurate translation of the above quote would be: unless he is speechless or deaf from birth The fact that Plato refers specifically to "deaf from birth" suggests that he considers muteness to be the more serious issue, which is consistent with the Greek belief for the perfection of their language. 1 You can find more details in Chapter XVII: Diseases of the Ear, Nose and Mouth (page 107) of Cyril P. Bryan's translation of the papyrus - pdf version. 2 Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, The University of California Press. 3 Page 6.
Standardization is one of the hallmarks of our times, and a people’s favourite, since we have so many standards. Just look at bicycle tires, which abound in so many different formulas to express their size that they aren’t anything short of a foreign language. You have millimeters, centimeters, inches, widths, lengths etc. Basically, all these are ingredients that can spoil the fun you can have on your bike, so in this article we explain what’s the deal with them. Initially, the tire size simply reflected the equivalent of its outer diameter, expressed in inches or millimeters (e.g. 26”, 27”, 700mm). Issues started appearing when rims having different widths were introduced on the market, because these rims required tires with a bigger baloon, that subsequently influenced their size. Even if the inner diameter remained unchanged and the tires fitted the wheels, not all of the tires were actually the same size as declared (for instance, in many cases, 26 inch mountain bike tires didn’t really have a 26-inch outer diameter). Then, like now, if we reffer to the size expressed in inches, this was written as the wheel’s size x tire’s width. This means that a tire designed for a 26-inch wheel that had a width of 1.75 inches had a size of 26×1.75. Very logical and simple up to here, but some manufacturers started coding the sizes using decimals (like in the earlier example), while others used fractions (like 1-¾ inches). Mathematically, the two sizes are equal, but in reality, the two tires are not the same size. What to do about that? Meet ISO (International Organization for Standardization) and ETRTO (European Tyre and Rim Technical Organisation) which (some would disagree) saved the day. These two organisms proposed another codification system which goes like this: the first number represents the tire’s width, while the second the rim’s diameter measured at the lowest point of its braking surface. Therefore, a 20-622 tire is a tire 20mm wide that fits on a rim with 622mm in diameter (typically a road bike rim or a 29er one). Also, the rim’s diameter expressed in this manner coincides with the inner diameter of the tire. There is also the French system that measures the sizes we’re talking about – 700x20C. The first number reffers to the tire’s outer diameter in millimeters, the second number the tire’s width in millimeters, while the letter stands for a certain rim width, A being the narrowest, and D the widest. Currently, this system is used less and less since it became possible to mount tires on rims of virtually any width. However, it was brought up with the arrival of the 27.5 inch mountain bike, which used „B”-width rims. Below we prepared a tabel with rim sizes of 4 different bicycle types and their equivalents in inch, ETRTO and French standards. Tips regarding bicycle tire and rim sizes: - Generally speaking, the width of the tire should remain within the interval obtained by multiplying the inner width of the rim with 1.45 and, respectively, 2. - If you squeeze a tire so that its lateral ends completely stretch apart, the distance between those 2 ends should be equal to the width of the tire expressed in the ETRTO standard multiplied by 2.5. - If the tire you mounted is too narrow for the rim, then you risk damaging the 2 components, as well as yourself. - If the tire you mounted is too wide for the rim, then you risk damaging the tire’s side walls if you have V-brakes, or you risk the tire simply coming off the wheel in stressful conditions. - For extreme mountainbiking, we recommend tires at least 2.25-inch wide, for XC 1.90-inch tire, while for road cycling, 23mm is the optimal size, since it reaches a great balance between comfort and low rolling resistance.
Once, great herds of this wonderful animal roamed from northern Mexico to Alaska. Today, wild Bison herds are found in national parks and refuges in only six US states (Montana, Wyoming, Iowa, Nebraska, South Dakota and North Dakota) and one Canadian province (Northwest Territory). The 19th century saw hunting of Bison on a scale that nearly brought the species to extinction. Threats now include habitat loss, genetic manipulation and culling to prevent the spread of bovine disease. Wild herds occupy less than 1% of their original range and the species is classed as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (on the IUCN red list). Meeting the Bison at Werribee Open Range Zoo is an important way to connect with this vulnerable species. Bison means ‘ox-like’ in Greek. They belong to the bovidae family just like cattle, buffalo, antelope, gazelles, sheep and goats. The American Bison, commonly known as the American Buffalo, is not to be confused with its African (Cape Buffalo) and Asian (Water Buffalo) cousins. A large shoulder hump and thick winter coat are two things that distinguish a Bison from a buffalo. Bisons are the largest land mammals in North America. Male Bison, called bulls, stand 1.8m and weigh 700-900kg. Cows, female Bison, weigh only half as much but they are hefty beasts all the same. American Bison live in grassland habitats such as plains, prairies and river valleys and are grazers, meaning they eat mainly grasses. Bison eat in the early morning and evening and chew their cud in between. In winter, Bison use their head and hooves to find food beneath the snow. American Bison live, feed and move in herds which include cows and calves. Adult bulls are solitary animals and only join a herd during the mating season called the rut.
Lake Mendota photgraphed from University Bay by Dale Robertson on December 12, 1985. It is clear that global warming is taking place. Global temperatures have increased by about 1 degree Fahrenheit during the last century, most likely the result of “greenhouse gases” such as carbon dioxide from burning of gasoline, oil, and coal. (How do these gases cause an increase in earth’s temperature?) One degree may not seem like a lot, but realize that this is an average change; in some places the increase is greater. For instance, in many locations in North America the hottest days on record happened in the late 1990s. There are many environmental consequences of warmer temperatures, some unexpected. In Alaska, for instance, warmer weather allows the spruce bark beetle to complete its normally two-year life cycle in just one year; the result is millions of acres of spruce forest killed by the beetle. As another example, mosquitoes carrying diseases have spread to areas where they have never before been recorded. One challenge to our understanding of environmental effects due to global warming is lack of data collected over long periods of time. The data from lakes in Wisconsin that you will work with is very unusual because it spans 150 years. Plotting the lake ice records for Lake Mendota The data you will work with are 1) the duration of ice cover, 2) dates of spring "ice-off" (the break-up of winter ice cover) and 3) dates of "ice-on" for Wisconsin's Lake Mendota, which is part of the North Temperate Lakes Long-Term Ecological Research site. Each of these measures may provide different types of evidence related to global change. In groups of 3-5 students, discuss the three measures from the data sets and brainstorm what evidence each of these may provide related to global change. For example, ice-off data are especially useful for assessing long-term trends since they integrate air temperature over many days. Therefore this single data point actually expresses the cumulative effects of local weather conditions over the winter season. - Examine the spreadsheet given to you. This spreadsheet includes the original ice data collected at lakes Mendota over a 150-year period. - Look at the headings at the top of the columns to make sure you understand each one. - Take a look at the first row of data, for the winter of 1855-56. In this winter, the ice froze on December 18 and melted on April 14. So the "Ice Duration" was from Dec. 18 to April 14, a total of 118 days. - Notice that, in addition to being expressed as dates, "Ice On" and "Ice Off" are also expressed as numerals, the number of days since January 1. For example, look in the sixth column. The "Ice Off (Day of Year)" for 1855 is 105 (January 1, 1856 to April 14, 1856). Finally, notice that the "Ice On" date for some years (e.g., 1931) is greater than 365. That's because the ice on the lake did not form until after the end of the year (e.g., January 31). - Your teacher will either tell you, or you will decide as a class, which data you will graph (ice-on, ice-off, or ice duration). Which do you think will give you the most useful information or the clearest evidence of a trend? What is your hypothesis for this data set – what do you expect to find? Make a sketch of the pattern you predict to see. - For each graph you create, use the x-axis to indicate years. - Before making your graphs, the entire class needs to agree on a labeling system and scale for the graphs. At the end of this activity, you will be merging your graphs with other groups' graphs. It is essential that you label the values on the axes in exactly the same way and have the same scale on all the graphs. - What should be the lowest value on the y-axis? What should be the highest value? What are the units? You will need to make a scale that can incorporate the highest and lowest values for the entire 150-year data set. - Each group will work with 20 years of data; your teacher will tell you which 20 years your group will graph. Graph your 20 years of data. For each graph, answer the following questions: Pair up with one other group and compare your results. Did you reach the same or different conclusions based on your data set? Now, combine the graphs from the entire class. Tape them together so they form a continuous graph. Answer the following question as well as questions you come up with on your own. Do you see a trend with the longer-term data set? If you graphed ice duration, answer the following questions. (You may want to adapt these questions for ice formation and ice-off data, using the numeric value for date.) - Is there much variability from year to year, or only a little? - Do you see a trend? As time elapses, does the value tend to increase, decrease, fluctuate, or stay the same? On your graph, draw a line to indicate average ice duration. Within your short-term data set, how many years have longer-than-average ice duration? How many years have shorter-than-average ice duration? Compare these values among all of the groups. Do you see a trend in years with longer or shorter than average ice duration over time? To conclude the activity, think about the implications of your data analysis. You should answer the following questions as well as any questions the class generates. - What is the average ice duration in your 20-year data set? - How does this compare to the average ice duration over 150 years? - What is the longest period of ice duration in your 20-year data set? - What is the shortest period of ice duration in your 20-year data set? - What are the longest and shortest periods of ice duration in the entire data set? - In what years do they occur? Questions for Discussion of Implications - To what extent do data on ice cover provide evidence for global change? - To what extent do data on ice cover not provide evidence for global change? - In regard to these two questions, which evidence for global change or lack of evidence for global change is stronger? Why? - What other kinds of data do you feel you need to make your arguments stronger? Provide specific examples. - How might the observed trends in ice cover influence the ecology of lakes? What changes might you predict in biological diversity, productivity, water quality, etc? Why?
- Mountain Lion - Behavior The following topics are covered in this section: - Reproduction and Longivity - Predatory behavior - Scavenging Behavior - Behavior with Kill Mountain Lions are shy, elusive and solitary animals. They are mostly active during dawn, dusk and at night time and avoid people and areas with human activities. Mountain Lions are solitary animals that establish territories which they mark and guard. - Males establish larger territories than females and a male’s territory may overlap that of several females. Territories range from 40 to 80 square miles (100 - 200 sq km) for males and 20 to 30 square miles (50 - 80 sq km) for females. - A male’s home range only rarely overlaps that of another male but female’s home range may overlap another female’s. In fact, it is common for females within an area to be related as daughters establish their home range adjacent to that of their mother’s and share portions of it. - Females will disperse based on Mountain Lion density. Female subadults will move long distances until finding an unoccupied area or will displace another female from her territory. - Females will decrease their territory size when they give birth and slowly increase it again as the cubs become old enough to accompany them. - When a Mountain Lion establishes a territory s/he is referred to as “resident”. When a Mountain Lion is killed, his/her territory is now open to any Mountain Lion in search of a new home and is known as a “transient”. Many times this causes an increase in the number of Mountain Lions in that area, as dispersing subadults – transients, are in search of their own territory. Reproduction and Longevity Mountain Lions are polygamous, males mating with several females and females with several males. Generally, a female will mate with the male whose territory overlaps hers although she may also mate with other males she encounters during her estrus period. Mountain Lions are solitary and males and females are seen together only during the 3 - 10 days of mating when the female becomes sexually receptive. The male will copulate with a female many times during that timeframe and then he will return to his solitary lifestyle. Male Mountain Lions reach sexual maturity between 1 and 2.5 years of age and females between 1.5 and 2 years of age. A female establishes a territory before becoming sexually receptive. Mating can occur any time of the year, however, most litters are produced from July through September. Mountain Lions give birth at 1.5 to 2-year intervals but if a female loses a litter she will enter estrus soon after. The gestation period (pregnancy) is approximately 90 days and a litter can range from 1 to 4 cubs however, litter sizes of 2 and 3 cubs are most common. Female Mountain Lions take care of their cubs by themselves from birth until dispersal of cubs at age 12 - 24 months. Mountain Lions can live up to 13 years in the wild and 19 years in captivity. The main diet of Mountain Lions in Texas is deer, specifically white-tailed deer in Southern Texas and mule deer in Western Texas. It is estimated that a Mountain Lion will consume between 19 and 40 deer per year. Other prey species included in the Mountain Lion’s diet in Texas are collared peccaries (javelinas), feral hogs, porcupines and jackrabbits. Prey such as these are important buffer species and their presence in the ecosystem decreases the number of deer (and other large prey species) a Mountain Lion kills. An important role of Mountain Lions is to regulate wild populations of deer and other prey species by not allowing the prey species to overpopulate. A direct result of Mountain Lion absence is the overpopulation of deer which causes overgrazing and habitat exploitation. If not addressed, overpopulation of deer may result in hundreds of deer dying of starvation due to unavailability of food (see "Top-down Regulation of Ecosystems by Large Carnivores".) A female Mountain Lion with dependent cubs will hunt and bring the hunted animal to feed her cubs. At 6 months of age the cubs will begin to accompany their mother to kill sites and later will accompany her on hunts, learning hunting skills and techniques and prey choice. Mountain Lions are ambush predators that require cover to stalk their prey. They are opportunistic hunters and will take advantage of circumstances. They approach their kill slowly while trying to remain unseen as they move quietly toward their prey. They usually rely on vegetation for cover and as a result they will hunt those species that use similar habitat. The Mountain Lion remains alert to any movement, odor or sound and, when at approximately 50 feet, runs or bounds forward attacking the prey from the back or side. The most common form of attack is to grasp the neck and shoulders with its front paws and claws followed by a deadly bite to the neck. Large prey such as deer will often fall to the ground during such a forceful attack. Mountain Lions are excellent jumpers and have been documented to leap horizontally 40 to 47 feet (12.2 - 14.3 m) and 10 to 18 feet (3 - 5.5 m) vertically. Source: © Corbis Mountain Lions are able to hunt a diversity of prey sizes from rabbits to moose. In Texas Mountain Lions are relatively smaller than those found in the northern and southern ranges (Canada and Argentina for example) and their main prey species are deer and smaller mammals. Mammals tend to increase in size as populations move farther from the equator and north and south latitudes increase (Bergmann's Rule). The larger the Mountain Lions, the more able s/he is to hunt bigger prey. Mountain Lions are also known to scavenge; therefore, signs of a Mountain Lion on a carcass do not automatically mean a Mountain Lion attack caused the animal's death. A more detailed examination (e.g., broken neck, punctured skull, etc.) is needed to determine the cause of the prey animal ’s death. Behavior with Kill After making a kill, the Mountain Lion will usually drag the kill to a protected area and feed on the shoulder and upper abdomen areas first. If cubs are present, they will feed on soft tissues before continuing to consume other body parts. After feeding, Mountain Lions separate the internal organs from the main carcass and hide them at a distance before covering both with branches, soil, and leaves. Mountain Lions do not dig holes in order to bury their kills. They will behave with carcasses they scavenge on in the same way they behave with a kill. Mountain Lions will return to the kill repeatedly until the meat is gone or, especially during the summer, until the meat has spoiled, at which time they will hunt again. As long as the meat is fresh, a Mountain Lion is taken out of the hunting cycle and will not kill. It is unclear how many and how often a Mountain Lion may kill large and small prey. Being opportunistic, Mountain Lions are able to switch their prey based on abundance and availability. More research is required regarding predator-prey relationship in Texas to better understand the influence Mountain Lions may have on deer populations as well as other prey species such as wild hogs.
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This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)(Learn how and when to remove this template message) Technology integration is the use of technology tools in general content areas in education in order to allow students to apply computer and technology skills to learning and problem-solving. Generally speaking, the curriculum drives the use of technology and not vice versa. Technology integration is defined as the use of technology to enhance and support the educational environment. Technology integration in the classroom can also support classroom instruction by creating opportunities for students to complete assignments on the computer rather than the normal pencil and paper. Technology integration in class would help students to explore more. The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) has established technology standards for students, teachers and administrators in K-12 classrooms. The ISTE, a leader in helping teachers become more effective users of technology, offers this definition of technology integration: "Curriculum integration with the use of technology involves the infusion of technology as a tool to enhance the learning in a content area or multidisciplinary setting... Effective integration of technology is achieved when students are able to select technology tools to help them obtain information in a timely manner, analyze and synthesize the information, and present it professionally. The technology should become an integral part of how the classroom functions—as accessible as all other classroom tools. The focus in each lesson or unit is the curriculum outcome, not the technology." Integrating technology with standard curriculum can not only give students a sense of power, but also allows for more advanced learning among broad topics. However, these technologies require infrastructure, continual maintenance and repair – one determining element, among many, in how these technologies can be used for curricula purposes and whether or not they will be successful. Examples of the infrastructure required to operate and support technology integration in schools include at the basic level electricity, Internet service providers, routers, modems, and personnel to maintain the network, beyond the initial cost of the hardware and software. Technology integration alongside standard education curriculum can provide tools for advanced learning among a broad range of topics. Integration of information and communication technology is often closely monitored and evaluated due to the current climate of accountability, outcome based education, and standardization in assessment. Technology integration can in some instances be problematic. A high ratio of students to technological device has been shown to impede or slow learning and task completion. In some, instances dyadic peer interaction centered on integrated technology has proven to develop a more cooperative sense of social relations. Success or failure of technology integration is largely dependent on factors beyond the technology. The availability of appropriate software for the technology being integrated is also problematic in terms of software accessibility to students and educators. Another issue identified with technology integration is the lack of long-range planning for these tools within the educative districts they are being used. Technology contributes to global development and diversity in classrooms and helps develop upon the fundamental building blocks needed for students to achieve more complex ideas. In order for technology to make an impact within the educational system, teachers and students must access to technology in a contextual matter that is culturally relevant, responsive and meaningful to their educational practice and that promotes quality teaching and active student learning. Following the moment when educators realize their students are capable, independent technology users who can create inspiring digital masterpieces. In the former mindset of teaching with technology, the teacher was the focal point of the classroom, creating (often time-consuming) interactive and multimedia presentations to add shock and awe to his or her lessons and capture the attention of the 21st century child. A new mindset of teaching through technology must emerge, which depends on a vital shift in teacher/student roles. This helps both student and teacher simultaneously. The four Cs are at the heart of the International Society for Technology in Education's National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) for Students, providing a substantial framework for defining the focus of technology objectives for K-12 students. For example, in implementing these standards we have found that even our youngest 21st century learners are capable of independently creating digital storybooks, artwork, presentations, and movies. - 1 History - 2 Technology education standards - 3 Pedagogy - 4 Tools - 5 Mobile learning - 6 Project-based activities - 7 Elements - 8 Examples of activities - 9 References The term 'educational technology' was used during the post World War II era in the United States for the integration of implements such as film strips, slide projectors, language laboratories, audio tapes, and television. Presently, the computers, tablets, and mobile devices integrated into classroom settings for educational purposes are most often referred to as 'current' educational technologies. It is important to note that educational technologies continually change, and once referred to slate chalkboards used by students in early schoolhouses in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The phrase 'educational technology', a composite meaning of technology + education, is used to refer to the most advanced technologies that are available for both teaching and learning in a particular era. In 1994 federal legislation for both the Educate America Act and the Improving America's School's Act (IASA) authorized funds for state and federal educational technology planning. One of the principal goals listed in the Educate America Act is to promote the research, consensus building, and systemic changes needed to ensure equitable educational opportunities and high levels of educational achievement for all students (Public Law 103-227). In 1996 the Telecommunications Act provided a systematic change necessary to ensure equitable educational opportunities of bringing new technology into the education sector. The Telecomm Act requires affordable access and service to advanced telecom services for public schools and libraries. Many of the computers, tablets, and mobile devices currently used in classrooms operate through Internet connectivity; particularly those that are application based such as tablets. Schools in high-cost areas and disadvantaged schools were to receive higher discounts in telecom services such as Internet, cable, satellite television, and the management component. A chart of "Technology Penetration in U.S. Public Schools" report states 98% percent of schools reported having computers in the 1995-1996 school year, with 64% Internet access, and 38% working via networked systems. The ratio of students to computers in the United States in 1984 stood at 15 students per 1 computer, it now stands at an average all-time low of 10 students to computer. From the 1980s on into the 2000s, the most substantial issue to examine in educational technology was school access to technologies according to the 1997 Policy Information Report for Computers and Classrooms: The Status of Technology in U.S. Schools. These technologies included computers, multimedia computers, the Internet, networks, cable TV, and satellite technology amongst other technology-based resources. Although there are many other ways to incorporate technology into every educators teaching style, this just goes to show that technology is not readily available to every student in order to sustain specific assignments as well as homework. Technology can greatly benefit the learning environment, but educators must keep in mind that each student learns differently and the average student may not necessarily have the devices needed for certain assignments accompanying the lesson plan. More recently ubiquitous computing devices, such as computers and tablets, are being used as networked collaborative technologies in the classroom. Computers, tablets and mobile devices may be used in educational settings within groups, between people and for collaborative tasks. These devices provide teachers and students access to the World Wide Web in addition to a variety of software applications. Technology education standards National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) served as a roadmap since 1998 for improved teaching and learning by educators. As stated above, these standards are used by teachers, students, and administrators to measure competency and set higher goals to be skillful. The Partnership for 21st Century Skills is a national organization that advocates for 21st century readiness for every student. Their most recent Technology plan was released in 2010, "Transforming American Education: Learning Powered by Technology". This plan outlines a vision "to leverage the learning sciences and modern technology to create engaging, relevant, and personalized learning experiences for all learners that mirror students' daily lives and the reality of their futures. In contrast to traditional classroom instruction, this requires that students be put at the center and encouraged to take control of their own learning by providing flexibility on several dimensions." Although tools have changed dramatically since the beginnings of educational technology, this vision of using technology for empowered, self-directed learning has remained consistent. The integration of electronic devices into classrooms has been cited as a possible solution to bridge access for students, to close achievement gaps, that are subject to the digital divide, based on social class, economic inequality, or gender where and a potential user does not have enough cultural capital required to have access to information and communication technologies. Several motivations or arguments have been cited for integrating high-tech hardware and software into school, such as (1) making schools more efficient and productive than they currently are, (2) if this goal is achieved, teaching and learning will be transformed into an engaging and active process connected to real life, and (3) is to prepare the current generation of young people for the future workplace. The computer has access to graphics and other functions students can use to express their creativity. Technology integration does not always have to do with the computer. It can be the use of the overhead projector, student response clickers, etc. Enhancing how the student learns is very important in technology integration. Technology will always help students to learn and explore more. Most research in technology integration has been criticized for being atheoretical and ad hoc, driven more by the affordances of the technology rather than the demands of pedagogy and subject matter. Armstrong (2012) argued that multimedia transmission turns to limit the learning into simple content, because it is difficult to deliver complicated content through multimedia. One approach that attempts to address this concern is a framework aimed at describing the nature of teacher knowledge for successful technology integration. The technological pedagogical content knowledge or TPACK framework has recently received some positive attention. Another model that has been used to analyze tech integration is the SAMR framework, developed by Ruben Puentedura. This model attempts to measure the level of tech integration with 4 the levels that go from Enhancement to Transformation: Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, Redefinition. Constructivism is a crucial component of technology integration. It is a learning theory that describes the process of students constructing their own knowledge through collaboration and inquiry-based learning. According to this theory, students learn more deeply and retain information longer when they have a say in what and how they will learn. Inquiry-based learning, thus, is researching a question that is personally relevant and purposeful because of its direct correlation to the one investigating the knowledge. As stated by Jean Piaget, constructivist learning is based on four stages of cognitive development. In these stages, children must take an active role in their own learning and produce meaningful works in order to develop a clear understanding. These works are a reflection of the knowledge that has been achieved through active self-guided learning. Students are active leaders in their learning and the learning is student-led rather than teacher–directed. Many teachers use a constructivist approach in their classrooms assuming one or more of the following roles: facilitator, collaborator, curriculum developer, team member, community builder, educational leader, or information producer. Counter argument to computers in the classroom Is technology in the classroom needed, or does it hinder students' social development? We've all seen a table of teenagers on their phones, all texting, not really socializing or talking to each other. How do they develop social and communication skills? Neil Postman (1993) concludes: The role of the school is to help students learn how to ignore and discard information so that they can achieve a sense of coherence in their lives; to help students cultivate a sense of social responsibility; to help students think critically, historically, and humanely; to help students understand the ways in which technology shapes their consciousness; to help students learn that their own needs sometimes are subordinate to the needs of the group. I could go on for another three pages in this vein without any reference to how machinery can give students access to information. Instead, let me summarize in two ways what I mean. First, I'll cite a remark made repeatedly by my friend Alan Kay, who is sometimes called "the father of the personal computer." Alan likes to remind us that any problems the schools cannot solve without machines, they cannot solve with them. Second, and with this I shall come to a close: If a nuclear holocaust should occur some place in the world, it will not happen because of insufficient information; if children are starving in Somalia, it's not because of insufficient information; if crime terrorizes our cities, marriages are breaking up, mental disorders are increasing, and children are being abused, none of this happens because of a lack of information. These things happen because we lack something else. It is the "something else" that is now the business of schools. Interactive whiteboards are used in many schools as replacements for standard whiteboards and provide a way to allow students to interact with material on the computer. In addition, some interactive whiteboards software allow teachers to record their instruction and post the material for review by students at a later time. - 3D virtual environments are also used with interactive whiteboards as a way for students to interact with 3D virtual learning objects employing kinetics and haptic touch the classroom. An example of the use of this technique is the open-source project Edusim. - Research has been carried out to track the worldwide Interactive Whiteboard market by Decision Tree Consulting (DTC), a worldwide research company. According to the results, interactive Whiteboards continue to be the biggest technology revolution in classrooms, across the world there are over 1.2 million boards installed, over 5 million classrooms are forecast to have Interactive Whiteboards installed by 2011, Americas are the biggest region closely followed by EMEA, and Mexico's Enciclomedia project to equip 145,000 classrooms is worth $1.8 billion and is the largest education technology project in the world. - Interactive whiteboards can accommodate different learning styles, such as visual, tactile, and audio. Interactive Whiteboards are another way that technology is expanding in schools. By assisting the teacher to helping students more kinestically as well as finding different ways to process there information throughout the entire classroom. Student response systems Student response systems consist of handheld remote control units, or response pads, which are operated by individual students. An infrared or radio frequency receiver attached to the teacher's computer collects the data submitted by students. The CPS (Classroom Performance System), once set, allows the teacher to pose a question to students in several formats. Students then use the response pad to send their answer to the infrared sensor. Data collected from these systems is available to the teacher in real time and can be presented to the students in a graph form on an LCD projector. The teacher can also access a variety of reports to collect and analyze student data. These systems have been used in higher education science courses since the 1970s and have become popular in K-12 classrooms beginning in the early 21st century. Audience response systems (ARS) can help teachers analyze, and act upon student feedback more efficiently. For example, with polleverywhere.com, students text in answers via mobile devices to warm-up or quiz questions. The class can quickly view collective responses to the multiple-choice questions electronically, allowing the teacher to differentiate instruction and learn where students need help most. Research supports that technology has the potential to improve quantitative assessment performance in core subjects, as well as overall GPA. However, there is also mounting evidence that technology not only has a quantitative advantage over traditional methods, but also leads to qualitative improvements; resulting in higher-quality student work. The Harvest Park Middle school found that "students who use computers when learning to write are not only more engaged and motivated in their writing, but also produce work that is of greater length and higher quality, especially at the secondary level" (Gulek, 2005, pg. 29). Combining ARS with peer learning via collaborative discussions has also been proven to be particularly effective. When students answer an in-class conceptual question individually, then discuss it with their neighbors, and then vote again on the same or a conceptually similar question, the percentage of correct student responses usually increases, even in groups where no student had given the correct answer previously. Mobile learning is defined as "learning across multiple contexts, through social and content interactions, using personal electronic devices". A mobile device is essentially any device that is portable and has internet access and includes tablets, smart phones, cell phones, e-book readers, and MP3 players. As mobile devices become increasingly common personal devices of K-12 students, some educators seek to utilize downloadable applications and interactive games to help facilitate learning. This practice can be controversial because many parents and educators are concerned that students would be off-task because teachers cannot monitor their activity. This is currently being troubleshooted by forms of mobile learning that require a log-in, acting as a way to track engagement of students. According to findings from four meta analyses, blending technology with face-to-face teacher time generally produces better outcomes than face-to-face or online learning alone. Research is currently limited on the specific features of technology integration that improve learning. Meanwhile, the marketplace of learning technologies continues to grow and vary widely in content, quality, implementation, and context of use. Research shows that adding technology to K-12 environments, alone, does not necessarily improve learning. What matters most to implementing mobile learning is how students and teachers use technology to develop knowledge and skills and that requires training. Successful technology integration for learning goes hand in hand with changes in teacher training, curricula, and assessment practices. Many research studies have found that most students prefer learning with technology, which in turn leads to a better attitude towards learning as well as giving them more At risk students are not the only ones that respond positively to the use of technology in confidence. In the cognitive tutor study, students were found to be more likely to say that mathematics is useful outside the academic context and to feel more confident in mathematics than students in traditional classes (Morgan, 2002). Students in the Freedom to Benefits of Technology in Education 6 Learn study were found to believe that education "made it easier to do school work, made them more interested in learning, and would help them get better jobs in the future" (Lowther, 2007). The students with special needs in the Fast ForWard study, similarly, felt that they did better on computer based tests and nearly all recommended the program for other students (Dolan, 2005). An example of teacher professional development is profiled in Edutopia's Schools That Work series on eMints, a program that offers teachers 200 hours of coaching and training in technology integration over a two-year span. In these workshops teachers are trained in practices such as using interactive whiteboards and the latest web tools to facilitate active learning. In a 2010 publication of Learning Point Associates, statistics showed that students of teachers who had participated in eMints had significantly higher standardized test scores than those attained by their peers. It can keep students focused for longer periods of time. The use of computers to look up information/ data is a tremendous time saver, especially when used to access a comprehensive resource like the Internet to conduct research. This time-saving aspect can keep students focused on a project much longer than they would with books and paper resources, and it helps them develop better learning through exploration and research. It is a part of the modern world, and is becoming more and more ubiquitous in our lives every year. It is also a proven method for improving learning. There is strong evidence pointing towards technology leading to better results on standardized tests; however the real emphasis should not be on how it improves test scores, but on how it benefits student learning; how it enables those who are not able to perform at their peak in traditional classrooms to do better; how it motivates students to learn and gives them a more positive attitude towards education; how it can individualize learning by giving feedback; how it can act as a catalyst for change towards more student centered learning; and how it better prepares the youth of today with technical, communicative, interpersonal and creative skills. The question we should be asking is not whether or not technology should be in education, but what can we do to remove barriers so as to further the integration of technology into our schools. Hence, one area in which more research must be done is on how to best move towards more student centered learning with technology and how to best overcome barriers to doing so. Another suggested area for research is on how to provide students with special needs and students who are at-risk with more access to technology since they in particular benefit from using technology. It is the method of teaching were the students gain knowledge and skills by involving themselves for the more period of time to research and respond to the engaging and complex questions, problems, or challenges. the students will work in groups to solve the problems which are challenging.The students will work in groups to solve the problems which are challenging, real, curriculum based and frequently relating to more than one branch of knowledge. Therefore, a well designed project based learning activity is one which addresses different student learning styles and which does not assume that all students can demonstrate their knowledge in a single standard way. The project based learning activities involves four basic elements. - An extended time frame. - Inquiry, investigation and research. - The construction of an artifact or performance of a consequential task. Examples of activities The term "hunt" refers to finding or searching for something. "CyberHunt" means an online activity which learners use the internet as tool to find answers to the question's based upon the topics which are assigned by someone else. Hence learners also can design the CyberHunt on some specific topics. a CyberHunt, or internet scavenger hunt, is a project-based activity which helps students gain experience in exploring and browsing the internet. A CyberHunt may ask students to interact with the site (i.e.: play a game or watch a video), record short answers to teacher questions, as well as read and write about a topic in depth. There are basically two types of CyberHunt: - A simple task, in which the teacher develops a series of questions and gives the students a hypertext link to the URL that will give them the answer. - A more complex task, intended for increasing and improving student internet search skills. Teachers ask questions for students to answer using a search engine. It is an inquiry oriented activity in which most or all of the information used by the learners which are drawn out by the internet/web. It is designed to use learner 'time well', to focus on using information rather than on looking for it and to support the learners to think at the level of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. It is the wonderful way of capturing student's imagination and allowing them to explore in a guided, meaningful manner. It allow the students to explore issues and find their own answers. There are six building blocks of webQuests: - The introduction – capturing the student's interest. - The task-describing the activities end product. - The resources-web sites, students will use to complete the task. - The evaluation-measuring the result of the activity. - The conclusion-summing up of the activity. WebQuests are student-centered, web-based curricular units that are interactive and use Internet resources. The purpose of a webQuest is to use information on the web to support the instruction taught in the classroom. A webQuest consists of an introduction, a task (or final project that students complete at the end of the webQuest), processes (or instructional activities), web-based resources, evaluation of learning, reflection about learning, and a conclusion. The Web-based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE) provides a platform for creating inquiry science projects for middle school and high school students using evidence and resources from the Web. Funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation, WISE has been developed at the University of California, Berkeley from 1996 until the present. WISE inquiry projects include diverse elements such as online discussions, data collection, drawing, argument creation, resource sharing, concept mapping and other built-in tools, as well as links to relevant web resources.It is the research-focused, open-source inquiry-based learning management system that includes the student- learning environment project authoring environment, grading tool, and tool and user/ course/ content management tools. Virtual field trip A virtual field trip is a website that allows the students to experience places, ideas, or objects beyond the constraints of the classroom[why?]. A virtual field trip is a great way to allow the students to explore and experience new information. This format is especially helpful and beneficial in allowing schools to keep the cost down. Virtual field trips may also be more practical for children in the younger grades, due to the fact that there is not a demand for chaperones and supervision. Although, a virtual field trip does not allow the children to have the hands on experiences and the social interactions that can and do take place on an actual field trip. An educator should incorporate the use of hands on material to further their understanding of the material that is presented and experienced in a virtual field trip.It is a guided exploration through the www that organizes a collection of pre- screened, its thematically based web pages into a structure online learning experience An ePortfolio is a collection of student work that exhibits the student's achievements in one or more areas over time. Components in a typical student ePortfolio might contain creative writings, paintings, photography, math explorations, music, and videos. And it is a collection of work developed across varied contexts over time. The portfolio can advance learning by providing students and/or faculty with a way to organize, archive and display pieces of work. - Jolene Dockstader (December 8, 2008). "Teachers of the 21st Century Know the What, Why, and How of Technology Integration". - "Why Do We Need Technology Integration?". Edutopia. November 5, 2007. - "Using technology to increase student participation". techparticipation.blogspot. September 1, 2009. - "Chapter 7: Technology Integration, U.S. Department of Education". National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). December 9, 2008. - Jackson, Steven; Pompe, Alex; Krieshok, Gabriel (8–11 September 2011), "Things Fall Apart: Maintenance, Repair, and Technology for Education Initiatives in Rural Namibia", Proceedings of the 2011 iConference, Seattle, Washington, pp. 283–90 - Grinter, Rebecca; Edwards, W. Keith (18–22 September 2005), "The Work to Make a Home Network Work", Proceedings of the Ninth European Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work, Paris, France, pp. 469–488 - Kervin, Lisa; Mantei, Jessica (2010). "Supporting educators with the inclusion of technology within literacy classrooms: A framework for "action"". Journal of Technology Integration in the Classroom. 2 (3): 43–54. - Yu, Chien (2013). "The Integration of Technology in the 21st Century Classroom: Teachers' Attitudes and Pedagogical Beliefs Toward Emerging Technologies". Journal of Technology Integration in the Classroom. 5 (1): 6. - Mehan, Hugh (March 1989). "Microcomputers in Classrooms: Educational Technology or Social Practice". Anthropology & Education Quarterly. 20 (1): 4–22. doi:10.1525/aeq.1989.20.1.05x1208l. JSTOR 3195700. - Anderson, L. S. (1996), K–12 technology planning at state, district, and local levels, National Center for Technology Planning, Mississippi State University - Song, Shin-Cheol; Owens, Emiel (2011). "Rethinking Technology Disparities and Instructional Practices within Urban Schools: Recommendations for School Leadership and Teacher Training". Journal of Technology Integration in the Classroom. 3 (2): 23–36. - Blair, Nancye (2012). "Technology Integration for the New 21st Century Learner". National Association of Elementary School Principals. - Coley, R. DJ.; Cradler, J.; Engel, P. K. (1997), Computers and Classrooms: The Status of Technology in U.S. Schools, Policy Information Repor., pp. 1–67 - Goals 2000: Educate America Act, House of Representatives 1804 Amendment U.S. Congress 103 (8 February 1994). - TELECOMMUNICATIONS ACT OF 1996 - 110 STAT. 56., House of Representatives 1804 Amendment U.S. Congress 104 (8 February 1996). - Dourish, Paul (2001), Where the action is (1st ed.), Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, p. 245, ISBN 9780262541787 - Boss, Suzie (8 September 2011). "Technology Integration: A Short History". - Buckingham, David (2007), Beyond technology, Cambridge, Mass: Polity, p. 209, ISBN 9780745638812 - Cuban, Larry (2003), Oversold and underused, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, p. 256, ISBN 9780674011090 - J. Scott Armstrong (2012). "Natural Learning in Higher Education". Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. - "TPACK.ORG". www.tpack.org. Retrieved 2015-11-03. - "Ruben R. Puentedura's Blog". hippasus.com. Retrieved 2015-11-03. - Wanda Y. Ginn. "JEAN PIAGET - INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT". - Kay C. Wood; Harlan Smith; Daurice Grossniklaus. "Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development". Department of Educational Psychology and Instructional Technology, University of Georgia. - Postman, N. (1993). Of Luddites, learning, and life. Technos Quarterly, 2(4) - Alfred N. Basilicato. "Interactive Whiteboards: Assistive Technology for Every Classroom" (PDF). - Ward, Darrel W. (April 30, 2003). "The Classroom Performance System: The Overwhelming Research Results Supporting This Teacher Tool and Methodology". eInstruction. Retrieved 20 September 2009. - Vega, Vanessa (5 February 2013). "Technology Integration Research Review: Additional Tools and Programs". - saba, anthony (2009). "Benefits of Technology Integration in Education" (PDF). - "Mobile learning". - "Mobile Devices for Learning: What You Need to Know". Edutopia. - Vega, Vanessa (February 5, 2013). "Technology Integration Research Review". Edutopia. - Zucker, A.; Light, D. (2009). "Laptop programs for students" (PDF). Science. 323 (5910): 82–85. doi:10.1126/science.1167705. - Markus, David (July 25, 2012). "High-Impact Professional Development for Rural Schools". Edutopia. - Huneycutt, Timothy. "Technology in the Classroom: the Benefits of Blended Learning". National Math + Science Initiative. Retrieved 10 March 2015. - "A Project-Based Learning Activity About Project-Based Learning". resources.sun-associates.com. June 28, 2013. - "What Is a Cyberhunt?". nmmu.ac.za.
So Long as Grass Shall Grow and Water Run: The Treaties Formed By the Confederate States of America and the Tribes in Indian Territory, 1861 Date of this Version The Confederate States of America created nine treaties with the tribes in Indian Territory in July, August, and October of 1861. The original documents no longer exist and the generally accepted source for these transactions today is The Statutes at Large of the Provisional Government of the Confederate States of America. These little known instruments reveal a series of provisions that reached far beyond those offered by the federal government in earlier treaties or in the stipulations found in an array of new punitive treaties enacted by the United States following the Civil War.
Flashcards in Chapter 8 - Acid and Alkalis Deck (44): What is neutralisation? A chemical reaction where an acid and a base produce a solution of neutral pH 7 What is the general word equation for an acid and base ? Acid + base = salt + water What pH do acids have? What about alkalines? Acid pH less than 7, <7 Alkalines pH more than 7, >7 What are bases? Substances that neutralise acids , they can be soluble bases, alkalines, and other insoluble bases What are metal oxides? Insoluble bases, not alkaline What are hydroxides? An alkaline base, soluble What are the main stages of making a soluble salt crystals from dilute sulfuric acid and copper oxide? Start with a measured volume of acid Gently heat the acid until almost boiling Slowly add copper oxide and stir with glass rod, keep adding this until there is excess oxide at the bottom Remove excess oxide with filter tunnel and paper Take copper sulfate solution into evaporating basin Place over Bunsen until half solution is evaporated Place on widow sill to slowly evaporate and form crystals What is the general word equation for metal and acid? Metal + acid = salt + hydrogen What is the general word equation for metal carbonate and acid? Metal carbonate + acid = salt + water + carbon dioxide What is the symbol for carbonate? What does diatomic mean? Chemicals that go around in pairs, e.g. H + Cl Name the 4 state symbols Solid (s), gas (g), liquid (l), and aqueous (aq) which means dissolved in water Alkali does what to the pH? What about acids? Alkaline increase the pH, acid decreases the Ph What is the sequence of events to produce a soluble salt from an acid and an alkaline using titration? Put the acid in the burette (measured amount) Measure known amount of alkaline in pipette then put this in a conical flask Add a suitable indicator to the alkali Slowly add acid from burette whilst stirring Once alkaline is neutralised (you can see from indicator) measure how much acid that took (from what’s left over) Repeat this with known amounts and no indicator then evaporate until half way then leave to form salt crystals What is the name of the method used to to make a salt from an acid and an alkaline? What is the acid ion? What about alkaline? What are precipitates? Solids suspended in a solution, they make the solution cloudy Solution + solution makes what? A soluble salt and a non-soluble salt (precipitate) What does silver nitrate + sodium chloride equal? Sliver chloride + sodium nitrate What is the symbol for nitrate? Name the 4 main hazard symbols Toxic, danger to environment, corrosive and flammable What dissociates in an acidic solution? What about in an alkaline solution? H+ ions dissociate in an acidic solution, OH- ions dissociate in an alkaline solution Name 3 alkaline chemicals and give their formulas Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH Calcium Hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 Potassium Hydroxide, KOH Name 3 acids and give their formula Hydrochloric acid, HCl Sulfuric acid, H2 SO4 Nitric acid, HNO3 Name some safety precautions you should take when handling acids and alkalines Where goggles, gloves if it is corrosive and cover skin To get to a pH of 1 from 3 what do you have to times the relative concentration by? 100 , 10 x 10 What is a strong acid? An acid where the H+ ions are fully ionised/ dissociated, such as in HCl where all the Hs are H+ and all the Cls are Cl-. The solution can also be concentrated so that there is a lot of solute relative to the space it’s in, but it can be a dilute strong acid as well What colour does litmus paper go in acids and alkalines? Red litmus paper goes blue in alkalines Blue litmus paper goes red in acids What colour do alkalines go in phenolphthalein indicator? What about acids? Alkalines go a pink colour Acids go colourless What is a weak acid? An acid that will partially dissociated in solution e.g. CH3 COOH = CH3 COO- + H+. They can also be dilute so have a relatively small amount of acid in an area, but you can also have concentrated weak acids Why does acid + metal carbonate = salt + water + carbon dioxide? Carbonate = CO3 This make carbon dioxide, CO2 and one extra oxygen joins with dissociated H2+ from acid to from H2 O What is thermal decomposition? The heating of a metal carbonate to form: Thermal decomposition = metal oxide + carbon dioxide What is the difference between indicators like litmus paper and universal indicator? Most indicators like litmus only show whether the substance is alkaline or acidic unlike universal which shows how strong it is as well and changes colour gradually What else can you use to give a ph reading which is quite accurate? What might you need to do before using it to make sure it’s accurate? A ph meter, you might need to calibrate it first Give some examples of solid acids Citric acids, tartaric acids Give some examples of liquid acids Nitric acid, ethanoic acid, sulfuric acid What salts are soluble? Include majorities and exceptions Those that contain sodium, potassium or ammonium (including carbonates and hydroxides) All that contain nitrates Most that contain chloride (except sliver and lead) All those containing sulfates (except lead, barium and calcium) What salts are insoluble? Include majorities and exceptions Most that contain carbonates and hydroxides (except those of sodium, potassium and ammonium) And silver and lead bromides, iodides and bromides And lead, barium and silver Sulfates Where is the important insoluble salt, barium sulfate, used? In medical imaging to diagnose intestinal problems, barium sulphate is opaque to X-rays, shows up on image What would the heating of solid calcium carbonate form? Calcium oxide and carbon dioxide What happens when you heat a carbonate with a hot flame? It produces (metal oxide and carbon dioxide) a brilliant white light that is used as the limelight in theatres What are the 2 ways metal carbonates react? They heat/ thermal composition to form a metal oxide and carbon dioxide OR they react with an acid to form a metal salt, water and carbon dioxide What does a bluish green copper carbonate give off/ leave when it is burned? A colourless gas of carbon dioxide and leaves behind black solid copper oxide, this is thermal decomposition
Last week, we focused on the skill of author's purpose and author's perspective. We discussed that most of the time, authors write to persuade, inform, or to entertain (P.I.E.). We started off by reading The Great Kapok Tree by Lynne Cherry, and pondered why the author would have written this entertaining fantasy. Many of my readers came to the conclusion that Lynne Cherry wrote the book to persuade people to take care of the environment and to avoid destroying the rainforest, as it is home to many animals. The next day, we took it a step further and analyzed author's purpose within a text, using an article about Bill and Melinda Gates. We were able to determine very quickly that the author's purpose was to inform us how the Gates Foundation helps people, but then we talked with our reading partners about why the author included specific information. The author chose to inform us of several things: who the Gates are and how they became so successful, what their foundation does, what their current goal is, and why they think it is so important to help others. Our next piece of text was an article called "Hooked!", which was about children who are hooked on video games. By reading the article headings and skimming through some of it, several readers made the prediction that the article was written by someone with the perspective that there should be limits to how much kids play video games. We were able to use evidence from the text to prove this point. When I assessed my readers' learning today, I was very pleased that the majority of my class not only understood and applied the information they learned about author's purpose and author's perspective, but more than half scored 100%! Wow! Next week, we will be exploring story elements of fiction, with an emphasis on character and character development. I'll be reporting back to fill you in on the details next weekend!
\|This article needs additional citations for verification. (August 2009)\| Hammered coinage is the most common form of coins produced since the invention of coins in the first millennium BC until the early modern period of ca. the 15th–17th centuries, contrasting to the very rare cast coinage and the later developed milled coinage. Hammered coins were produced by placing a blank piece of metal (a planchet or flan) of the correct weight between two dies, and then striking the upper die with a hammer to produce the required image on both sides. The planchet was usually cast from a mold. The bottom die (sometimes called the anvil die) was usually counter sunk in a log or other sturdy surface and was called a pile. One of the minters held the die for the other side (called the trussel), in his hand while it was struck either by himself or an assistant. In later history, in order to increase the production of coins, hammered coins were sometimes produced from strips of metal of the correct thickness, from which the coins were subsequently cut out. Both methods of producing hammered coins meant that it was difficult to produce coins of a regular diameter. Coins were liable to suffer from "clipping" where unscrupulous people would remove slivers of precious metal since it was difficult to determine the correct diameter of the coin. Coins were also vulnerable to "sweating," which is when silver coins would be placed in a bag that would be vigorously shaken. This would produce silver dust, which could later be removed from the bag. The ability to fashion coins from machines (milled coins) caused hammered coins to gradually become obsolete during the 17th century. Interestingly, they were still made in Venice until the 1770s. France became the first country to adopt a full machine-made coin in 1643. In England, the first non-hammered coins were produced in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I in the 1560s, but while machine-produced coins were experimentally produced at intervals over the next century, the production of hammered coins did not finally end until 1662. An alternative method of producing early coins, particularly found in Asia, especially in China, was to cast coins using molds. This method of coin production continued in China into the nineteenth century. Up to a couple of dozen coins could be produced at one time from a single mold, when a 'tree' of coins (which often contained features such as a square hole in the centre) would be produced and the individual coins (called cash) would then be broken off. - Cochran-Patrick, R. W. (1876), Records of the Coinage of Scotland. Pub. Edmonston and Douglas, Edinburgh.
Sericothrips variablilis Beach Appearance and Life History There are many species of thrips, some are serious pests of fruit, vegetables, flowers, and field crops. Thrips' mouthparts make them unique in that they rasp and puncture plant cells then suck up the exuding sap. Thrips are minute, slender-bodied insects ranging from 1/32 to 1/5 inch (0.8 to 5 mm) in length. Their wings, when present, are fringed with close-set long hairs. Although rarely noticed, thrips are probably the most numerous insects in soybean. The adult female inserts oblong eggs singly into the leaves of the plant upon which she feeds. Young thrips go through 4 wingless stages between hatching and adulthood. An entire life cycle requires only 2 to 4 weeks. Thrips are present throughout the summer. Many generations occur each year. Thrips make tiny, linear, pale-colored scars on soybean leaves where they penetrate individual leaf cells and feed on the contents. They usually feed on the undersides of leaves, much of which occurs along the veins. When leaves are heavily infested, the feeding scars may be so numerous that a mottling look appears along and between the leaf veins and leaves may become crinkled in appearance. Soybean is particularly susceptible to thrips damage early in the growing season from growth stages VE to V6. Dry, hot weather increases the threat of damage. If one finds or suspect thrips' damage during early field visits, sample in 5 areas of the field to ascertain the extent of the population and damage. In each area, randomly select the first plant to be sampled and remove the fifth trifoliolate down from the uppermost node from 10 consecutive plants. On younger plants, which have not reached at least the V5 stage, remove the lowest trifoliolate for inspection. As you pick the last trifoliolate in each sample area, use a hand lens to carefully examine the underside of the leaves and count the number of thrips present. Repeat this sampling pattern for each plant to be examined. Determine the average number of thrips per trifoliolate. Also estimate the percentage of foliar discoloration exhibited by each plant. Consider that drought-stressed plants may be exhibiting symptoms from other factors, eg., chemical injury, etc. Soybean Insect Control Recommendations: E-series 77-W (PDF) Thrips rarely cause economic damage. However, yields may be significantly reduced if soybean is under moisture stress early in the growing season and the thrips population is high. If over 75% of the sampled trifoliolates are damaged and there is an average of 8 thrips per leaf, treatment may be advisable. If control is necessary, contact your state Cooperative Extension Service or click here for control materials and rates.
Indigenous People of Interior FNSBSD Alaska Native Education Unit: Athabascan (Dene') Winter Family Activities Daily Life and Art Lesson: Host or attend an Athabascan Students will demonstrate what they have learned in the Dene' unit by hosting or attending an Athabascan Winter Gathering Collecting of materials and things made in the Dene' unit Invitation, passing the word along about the gathering, invite parents, another classroom or across grade levels (this may be a school-wide culmination project and not be done in consecutive order of days) Arrange for an appropriate space for guests and students -request parents to bring celebration goodies -commercially smoked fish, berries, or frybread Request a student's grandparent or speaker from ANE resource listing to attend Any games materials for the games students demonstrate Drum and beater Students will participate in a winter gathering/potlatch. Students will demonstrate activities associated with traditional winter camp and celebrations. Students will demonstrate general knowledge and respect of traditional and contemporary Athabascan winter activities. Select and practice song, dance, stories or other things you wish to perform (if more than one class, assign tasks to each You can make it like several houses in a village are preparing to host/attend a gathering) Coordinating with other building personnel involved Arrange for preparation of food, space for guests, etc. Display student work, fish, coloring books, etc. Brainstorm with the students about "who do they invite to parties and holiday celebrations today?" Responses will include: family members, friends, distant relatives, teachers, people from our church or girl/boy scout troops etc. If this is part of a school-wide or grade level potlatch, explain that they will be attending a celebration and demonstrate/perform some of the games, songs they learned these past two weeks. If they are the hosts explain that the class will be sending invitations to individuals to attend and see them demonstrate/perform some of the activities they have learned. Activity: (input/guided practice) Determine and assign demonstration or performance groups Select and practice grade level song and dance Prepare food for the winter gathering Prepare area to host the winter gathering Decorate with paper dolls, tent, language and coloring pages Recreate or tell one of the stories they have heard Invite the Elder/Artists or Parents back to share or lead group Review for students information related to: -What happens at winter camp -What foods are eaten -What activities children and adults participate in at winter camp, hunting, trapping, socializing, storytelling, foot races, visiting, etc. Students will work in a cooperative manner to make necessary preparations to attend or host a small winter gathering with an understanding that winter season activities lead into spring camp related activities. Activity: (independent practice) Perform their dance and song for guests at the winter Demonstrate their Dene' games and story for guests at the OCR SCANNED MATERIAL
An international team of scientists has provided new insights into the processes behind the evolution of the planet by demonstrating how salty water and gases transfer from the atmosphere into the Earth’s interior. The paper was published today in Nature Geoscience. Scientists have long argued about how the Earth evolved from a primitive state in which it was covered by an ocean of molten rock, into the planet we live on today with a solid crust made of moving tectonic plates, oceans and an atmosphere. Lead author Dr Mark Kendrick from the University of Melbourne’s School of Earth Sciences said inert gases trapped inside the Earth’s interior provide important clues into the processes responsible for the birth of our planet and the subsequent evolution of its oceans and atmosphere. “Our findings throw into uncertainty a recent conclusion that gases throughout the Earth were solely delivered by meteorites crashing into the planet,” he said. The study shows atmospheric gases are mixed into the mantle, inside the Earth’s interior, during the process called ‘subduction’, when tectonic plates collide and submerge beneath volcanoes in subduction zones. “This finding is important because it was previously believed that inert gases inside the Earth had primordial origins and were trapped during the formation of the solar system,” Dr Kendrick said. Because the composition of neon in the Earth’s mantle is very similar to that in meteorites, it was recently suggested by scientists that most of the Earth’s gases were delivered by meteorites during a late meteorite bombardment that also generated visible craters on the Earth’s moon. “Our study suggests a more complex history in which gases were also dissolved into the Earth while it was still covered by a molten layer, during the birth of the solar system,” he said. It was previously assumed that gases could not sink with plates in tectonic subduction zones but escaped during eruption of overlying volcanoes. “The new study shows this is not entirely true and the gases released from Earth’s interior have not faithfully preserved the fingerprint of solar system formation.” To undergo the study researchers collected serpentinite rocks from mountain belts in Italy and Spain. These rocks originally formed on the seafloor and were partially subducted into the Earth’s interior before they were uplifted into their present positions by collision of the European and African plates. “The serpentinite rocks are special because they trap large amounts of seawater in their crystal structure and can be transported to great depths in the Earth’s mantle by subduction,” he said. By analysing the inert gases and halogens trapped in these rocks, the team was able to show gases are incompletely removed by the mineral transformations that affect serpentinites during the subduction process and hence provide new insights into the role of these trapped gases in the evolution of the planet.
The world of automotive mechanics is filled with complex systems and components. One such unit that plays a crucial role in many vehicles today is the transaxle unit. But, what is a transaxle unit? A transaxle unit is an integrated mechanical system combining the functions of an automobile’s transmission, differential, and driveshaft into a single, coherent assembly. This integral unit is employed in many vehicles where the engine and drive wheels are at the same end. Table of Contents Introduction to Transaxle Units A transaxle is a single mechanical device which combines the functions of an automobile’s transmission, differential, and driveshaft into one integrated assembly. It is used in many vehicles where the engine and drive wheels are at the same end of the car. History of Transaxle Units The concept of combining transmission and differential into one assembly dates back to the early 20th century. However, it was not until the mid-20th century that transaxle units became more common, especially with the rise of front-wheel drive vehicles. Components of a Transaxle Unit The transmission is responsible for varying the speed and torque. The differential allows the wheels to spin at different speeds. Axles transfer power from the differential to the wheels. Functioning of Transaxle Units The transaxle unit’s primary function is power transmission from the engine to the wheels of a vehicle. It helps in the variation of speed and torque. Power is transferred from the engine to the transmission, then to the differential, and finally to the wheels through the axles. Speed and Torque Variation Depending on the driver’s input, the transmission within the transaxle changes the vehicle’s speed and torque by shifting gears. Types of Transaxle Units Transaxle units can be broadly categorized into three types, namely, manual, automatic, and semi-automatic transaxles. A manual transaxle requires the driver to manually shift the gears, often with the help of a clutch pedal. The driver’s input is needed to select the correct gear for the vehicle’s speed and power needs. In an automatic transaxle, the gear shifts are handled by the vehicle itself, freeing the driver from the need to manually shift. This is achieved by a complex arrangement of clutches, brakes, and gearsets. A semi-automatic transaxle represents a middle ground between manual and automatic systems. The driver can manually select gears, but there is no need for a clutch pedal. Instead, the gear shifts are assisted by an automated clutch. Transaxle units are most commonly found in front-wheel drive and rear-engine, rear-wheel drive vehicles. Front-Wheel Drive Vehicles In front-wheel drive vehicles, the engine and transaxle are usually mounted transversely. This makes for a compact and efficient design that saves space and weight. Rear-Engine, Rear-Wheel Drive Vehicles For rear-engine, rear-wheel drive vehicles, the transaxle unit is located at the rear, along with the engine. This layout is common in high-performance and sports cars due to its beneficial effect on weight distribution and handling. Advantages and Disadvantages of Transaxle Units Transaxle units have various advantages and disadvantages that can influence their selection in vehicle design. Better weight distribution More efficient packaging Can be more difficult to service Increased fuel efficiency Higher manufacturing costs These are general observations and can vary based on the specific design and application of the transaxle unit. Transaxle vs Traditional Transmission Systems Transaxle systems and traditional transmission systems differ mainly in their layout and applications. In a transaxle system, the transmission, differential, and axles are combined into a single unit, often used in front-wheel-drive or rear-engine vehicles. In contrast, traditional transmission systems usually have separate units for the transmission and differential, commonly used in rear-wheel-drive vehicles with front-mounted engines. Maintenance and Repair of Transaxle Units Maintaining and repairing transaxle units require specialized knowledge due to their complex design. Regular service includes fluid checks and changes, while repairs might involve component replacements. Detailed service information is often found in the vehicle’s service manual. Future Developments in Transaxle Units Looking ahead, we can expect advancements in transaxle units as part of the larger trend of automotive innovation. This might include greater efficiency, smoother operation, and integration with hybrid and electric vehicle technology. Transaxle units play a pivotal role in the automotive industry, particularly in vehicles where space and weight are at a premium. Despite their complexities, the benefits they bring in terms of packaging efficiency, weight distribution, and fuel economy make them a critical component in modern vehicle design. The future of transaxle units looks promising, with constant developments aimed at improving their performance and adaptability to new forms of propulsion like electric powertrains.
The Effects of Overcrowding and the Behavioral Sink Theory A high population density may, in some instances, lead to inconveniences. Some of these inconveniences, like traffic and crowded sidewalks, are frustrating while others, such as a lack of resources, may be dangerous. Ethologist John B. Calhoun studied the effects of increased population density on the behavior of mice and concluded his studies with the theory of the behavioral sink. The theory is still largely contested and influences studies of human behavior, and this article will seek to answer the questions: what is a behavioral sink and how valid is the theory? At the start of the study, Calhoun crafted a utopia where the mice could thrive in a secluded space and reproduce without a fear of predators or a lack of resources. The mice utopia quickly spiraled into chaos once overcrowding commenced. In the worst instances of overpopulation, pregnant female mice experienced a higher number of miscarriages and mothers were losing track of their children. Other mice resorted to fighting when in direct contact with other mice for prolonged periods. The strange actions of the group of mice are assumedly correlated with the heightened population; this relationship is then referred to as “behavioral sinks.” Calhoun reported the results of his mice experiment in the 1962 issue of Scientific American, and the concept of the behavioral sink soon garnered the attention of the public. The work eventually proved controversial for a few reasons: first, the behavior of mice cannot be used independently to understand the behavior of humans; second, when scientists tried to study the behavioral sink theory in humans, they had to decide which human behaviors they would consider similar to the unusual behavior of the mice. For instance, some mice exhibited different sexual behaviors ranging from asexuality to bisexuality; and third, in order to detect this behavior in human beings, some researchers used STDs and illegitimacy as equivalents, an obviously offensive comparison. The other controversy involved further experiments that proved the theory of behavioral sink did not hold up in human populations. Psychologist Jonathan Freedman conducted a similar, but significantly more humane, experiment with students to observe their behavior in situations of overcrowding in which he found no negative effects of overcrowding, but instead of over-socialization. “Rats may suffer from crowding; human beings can cope,” stated Freedman in regards to Calhoun’s findings. The theory played on the anxieties of those who disliked crowded areas, which were often people of low-income. Many felt that there was not only a higher rate of general crime in the low-income areas, but that there was also a higher chance that a crime would be committed against them. These classist conclusions led some to ask: what are the positive contributions of the behavioral sink theory? Calhoun began to explore the importance of “spiritual space” as well as physical space, a concept that aligned pretty directly with Freedman’s theory of coping strategies. Calhoun cited creativity and art as giving people the ability to create distance between others in order to cope with overcrowding. This concept of stress related to over-socialization was a part of Calhoun’s experiments that positively influenced thought and research well after the 1970s. – Danielle Poindexter
ADHD — or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder — is a fairly common mental health condition. People with ADHD may have a tough time paying attention, controlling impulsive behaviors, and be overactive. It’s caused by an imbalance of neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) in the brain, primarily dopamine ( The condition has a significant genetic component, though it can also be caused by environmental factors, premature delivery, low birth weight, brain injuries, and alcohol or tobacco use during pregnancy ( While ADHD is most often diagnosed in childhood, it’s also known to affect a certain percentage of adults. Traditional treatment methods include medications and behavior management, though more progressive approaches include dietary and exercise modifications. This article covers exercise’s effects on ADHD, including the effects of some specific exercises, and even my personal anecdote. Performing regular exercise plays a key role in promoting various areas of brain health, regardless of whether a person has ADHD. Let’s first review how exercise stimulates mental health. Can improve memory Memory has the potential to decline throughout the aging process, in part due to changes in blood flow to the brain ( As we age, our large arteries and veins stiffen slightly, resulting in less efficient blood circulation throughout the body, including the brain ( One of the most effective ways to counteract the stiffening of the vascular system and prevent related memory loss is to perform regular exercise ( Both aerobic (longer duration, lower intensity) and anaerobic (shorter duration, higher intensity) exercise can improve cardiovascular function ( Can enhance learning A key factor in the learning process is brain plasticity, or the ability of the nervous system to change its activity in response to internal or external stimuli (8). Research suggests that one of the ways to improve brain plasticity is through regular exercise ( More specifically, exercise plays a crucial role in allowing you to retain new mental and physical skills. Its associated learning improvements are accomplished by changing how our brain cells communicate with each other. Can improve mood Other important effects of exercise on the brain are improved mood and promoted feelings of well-being. You may be familiar with the euphoric feeling you get following a high intensity strength workout or good run, which is often referred to as a “runner’s high.” This is due to a release of feel-good chemicals in the brain — mainly endorphins and endocannabinoids ( These substances are partly responsible for improvements in mood following exercise ( What’s more, one large study including 611,583 adults found a close link between physical activity and a reduced risk of developing depression ( Therefore, regular exercise can help boost your mood and may help prevent depression. May help prevent or delay the onset of certain brain diseases Research suggests that performing regular exercise may help delay the onset of, prevent, or possibly even help treat certain brain diseases ( For example, physical activity is associated with a decrease in age-related cognitive decline and may help delay the onset of Alzheimer’s disease and other brain diseases ( While the current research isn’t specific on exercise type or duration, the general recommendation from the American Heart Association (AHA) is to get 150 minutes of moderate intensity aerobic exercise weekly, preferably spread throughout the week. ( It’s also recommended to perform moderate to high intensity strength training twice a week to maximize health benefits ( Performing regular physical activity has been shown to meaningfully affect brain health. Specifically, it can improve memory, enhance learning, and improve mood, as well as potentially help prevent certain brain diseases. Exercise is among the top treatments for children and adults with ADHD. While the benefits of regular exercise are numerous, when it comes to ADHD, in particular, it has several other notable positive effects. Here are the main benefits of exercising with ADHD, explained in detail. Promotes dopamine release Dopamine is a neurotransmitter responsible for feelings of pleasure and reward. In those with ADHD, dopamine levels in the brain tend to be slightly lower than those of the general population ( This is theorized to be due to how dopamine is processed in the brain in those with ADHD ( Many stimulant medications prescribed to those with ADHD seek to increase dopamine levels as a means to improve focus and reduce symptoms ( Another reliable way to increase dopamine levels in the brain is through regular exercise ( As such, staying physically active may be especially important for those with ADHD, as it can have effects similar to those of stimulant medications. In some cases, this may result in a decreased reliance on medications altogether, though it’s important to consult your doctor before making any changes to your medication regimen. Can improve executive function Executive functions are a group of skills controlled by the frontal lobe of the brain ( These include tasks such as: - paying attention - managing time - organizing and planning - recalling details In those with ADHD, executive functions are often impaired. In fact, a study in 115 adults, 61 of whom had been diagnosed with ADHD in childhood, observed significantly impaired executive functions among those with ADHD ( That said, there are several ways to help improve executive functions, including exercise. A recent study in 206 university students found a link between the total amount of daily exercise performed and their levels of executive function ( Therefore, in kids and adults with ADHD, regular exercise can be a promising treatment method for improving executive function, which is one of the main skill groups affected by the condition. Changes brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling BDNF is a key molecule in the brain that affects learning and memory ( Some studies suggest that BDNF may play a role in causing ADHD ( Some other potential complications of BDNF dysfunction include depression, Parkinson’s disease, and Huntington’s disease ( One potential method for helping normalize BDNF is engaging in regular exercise ( In fact, a 2016 review study found that aerobic exercise increased BDNF concentrations in the body ( Nevertheless, the data in this area is inconclusive, so more high quality studies are needed. Helps regulate behavior and improve attention in children Exercise is particularly important for children with ADHD. Many children with ADHD are hyperactive, and exercise can be a positive outlet to release pent-up energy. Research suggests that exercise offers several benefits for children with ADHD, including ( - less aggressive behaviors - improvements in anxiety and depression - fewer thought and social problems In addition, a 2015 study found that physical exercise improved attention span among a small group of children who had been diagnosed with ADHD ( From the current research, we can conclude that exercise offers tremendous benefits for children with ADHD, specifically in regards to improving attention span and reducing aggression. Exercise is a top nonpharmaceutical ADHD treatment, as it can promote dopamine release, improve executive function, and alter BDNF signaling. In children with ADHD, it has been shown to improve attention and decrease aggression and impulsiveness. During youth, purposeful exercise is less important than the overall amount of physical activity a kid gets each day. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that children ages 6 and older get at least 1 hour of physical activity each day to maintain a healthy weight and promote proper development (34). These guidelines apply to youth with ADHD as well. Some examples of how a child can get 60 minutes of physical activity per day include: - going for a bike ride with family - playing basketball, soccer, baseball, tennis, hockey, or other sports - playing a game of hide and seek with friends - jumping rope or playing hopscotch - going for a hike or scenic walk with family - following an exercise video or participating in group exercise for kids The 60 minutes of physical activity can comprise a combination of various activities throughout the day. For children, including those with ADHD, the overall daily time spent being active is more important than participating in purposeful exercise. The general recommendation is to get 60 minutes of daily physical activity for children over the age of 6. Just as physical activity is beneficial for children with ADHD, the same applies to adults with the condition. When it comes to exercising as an adult with ADHD, most studies utilize aerobic exercise in research interventions ( That said, it’s likely most beneficial to include a combination of aerobic and resistance training to maximize overall health benefits ( Some effective exercise methods for adults with ADHD include: - martial arts - spinning class - boxing class - HIIT (high intensity interval training), in a class or on your own - weightlifting (either with machines or free weights) Participating in a variety of activities will prevent you from getting mentally burned out, which is especially important for maintaining focus if you have ADHD. Lastly, considering that adults typically have a much more regimented schedule than kids, it’s usually most time-efficient to portion off a part of your day for exercise to promote consistency. Adults have a wide variety of exercise options to choose from, all of which can positively affect their ability to manage their ADHD symptoms. Focus on portioning out a part of your day for exercise to help promote consistency. The topic of ADHD and exercise is particularly personal for me. As a youth and throughout my teenage years, I suffered from ADHD. While I took medications to help manage symptoms, I believe sports and exercise were hugely beneficial in keeping me on track. From the beginning As a kid, I had trouble focusing and exhibited impulsive behaviors at times. After countless evaluations and tests, I was diagnosed with ADHD. As early as 6 years old, I can remember going to the school nurse’s office daily to get my medication. At the time, the most common medication for treating the condition was Ritalin. In the following years, I was switched to various others, including Adderall and Concerta. While I do remember the medications helping, I also remember the side effects — the main one being lack of appetite. There came a point in my teenage years that the side effects of medication outweighed its benefits. When I was taken off the meds, I began to rely more heavily on sports and exercise to help manage my symptoms. How exercise helped me Since I was a kid, I’ve always participated in some kind of sport — whether it be soccer, baseball, or basketball. In middle school, around 11–13 years old, I was introduced to the weight room and became intrigued by all of the different machines for working various body parts. From then on, I spent most of my extra time at school in either the gym or weight room. I found exercise to be an unmatched release for all of my pent-up emotions, and it helped relieve symptoms of ADHD and keep me focused. From then on I continued to hit the gym, performing a combination of resistance and aerobic exercise. Where I am today I continued to struggle with ADHD throughout my early teenage years, though later on I came to better manage my symptoms. Throughout my high school years, I was better able to focus, and the symptoms of ADHD that I struggled with as a child seemed to have subsided. While I no longer struggle with ADHD to the extent I did as a kid, at times I become unfocused and have to reel my thoughts back in. Yet, to this day, exercise continues to play a key role in managing my emotions and keeping me focused. During times when I exercise most consistently, at least 3 days per week, I feel I’m best able to focus on tasks throughout the day and think more rationally. On the other hand, if I’m unable to exercise for a given period of time, I experience a noticeable difference in my impulsivity and attention span. In my experience, regular exercise has served as an excellent alternative to the medications that I used to take, without any of the side effects. However, many children and adults may still require medication to help manage their symptoms. Therefore, it’s important to speak with your doctor before making any changes to your medication regimen. ADHD is a common mental condition caused by a neurotransmitter imbalance. It often results in difficulty paying attention and controlling impulses, as well as hyperactiveness. While prescription medications are the most common treatment method, other nonpharmaceutical interventions have also been found to be effective, a major one being exercise. Performing regular physical activity can improve various areas of brain health, such as memory, learning, and mood, as well as potentially help delay the onset of certain brain diseases. Specifically in those with ADHD, exercise can promote the release of dopamine (a key neurotransmitter), improve executive function, and alter BDNF (an important molecule for communication between brain cells). While most research utilizes aerobic exercise for individuals with ADHD, a variety of exercises can be effective in both children and adults. If you or someone you know has ADHD, it’s worth considering exercise as a complementary or standalone treatment method for managing your symptoms. Take it from me. Daniel Preiato is a registered dietitian and certified strength and conditioning specialist based out of Southampton, NY. He received his Bachelor of Science in nutrition and food studies from New York University. He is a registered dietitian working in the clinical setting, with a focus on renal nutrition. In addition, Daniel runs a private nutrition practice in which he serves athletes and the general population on Eastern Long Island and virtually. Daniel is an advocate for resistance training and an avid strength athlete, competing in powerlifting on occasion.
n 1804, Lewis and Clark set out on an extraordinary journey of exploration. Theirs was not merely a physical trek to the Pacific and back, but a journey of the mind set in motion by a president impatient to learn as much as he could about the North American continent. Two hundred years later, their expedition inspires new journeys of the mind. For teachers, students, and lifelong learners, the bicentennial of this historic event is an opportunity to become immersed in Jefferson's spirit of discovery and to learn more about the views of those who already lived in the West. Lewis & Clark The National Bicentennial Exhibition, organized by the Missouri Historical Society and presented by Emerson, will be open in St. Louis from January 2004 to September 2004, and during the course of the bicentennial years will travel to Philadelphia, Denver, Portland, and Washington, D.C. The exhibition takes a long look at the cultural landscape encountered by Lewis and Clark and not only examines what they saw and who they met, but also asks the question "what didn't they see?" as they passed through rich established cultures very different than their own. It also asks the question "what was the view from the riverbank?" What did the expedition look like to Indian eyes? The accompanying multi-disciplinary curriculum also asks these questions. Designed for grades four through twelve, it is divided into units that follow the major thematic sections of the exhibition. These themes tell the story of the expedition through an approach that encourages students to examine multiple perspectives and use a variety of historical sources, one that seeks to allow the voices of the past and present to speak for themselves. Most themes focus on the expedition's interaction with one particular Indian culture, though a variety of Indian cultures are represented throughout the materials. The units were designed by teachers for teachers. They follow a "backwards design" format that includes an enduring understanding, essential questions, lessons, and a culminating performance assessment. Units are linked to Missouri state standards and National Council for the Social Studies and National Science Teachers Association standards. The lessons are inquiry-based and use many of the most interesting documents, artifacts and Indian interviews featured in Lewis & Clark: The National Bicentennial Exhibition. What About York? Two essential books provide background information on the expedition's encounter with Indian cultures and are recommended reading for teachers who plan to use these materials. Carolyn Gilman, Lewis and Clark: Across the Divide. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 2003. James P. Ronda, Lewis and Clark among the Indians. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1998. Lewis and Clark used a range of instruments and skills in their journey of exploration, and today's learners also need to work nimbly with different types of evidence. The curriculum incorporates a variety of teaching formats and allows for a great deal of flexibility in the classroom. The units range in length from three to six lessons. Because lessons encourage analysis of historical sources, the following standards apply: Encounters with original documents are an exciting way for students to make contact with the past. In this curriculum, images of original documents are available with the lesson whenever possible, and a transcript is provided along with the image. In the case of entries from the Lewis and Clark journals, only transcripts are provided, but these have rarely been modified to fit the common language standardizations of today. Clark is especially notorious for his creative approach to the English language and any good historian must face the challenges of nonstandard syntax, spelling, and usage. It will be important to clarify for students that the language was not standardized until later in the nineteenth century and remains, to an extent, in flux. Past and present are joined in the fascinating oral traditions of American Indians. The lessons incorporate recollections and commentary from Indians themselves. In some cases these are previously published oral accounts. In other cases, contemporary people offer their perspectives. Many of these present-day interviews are presented in the form of short video clips. All have an accompanying transcript. Small or large, beautiful or homely, artifacts from the past have rich stories to tell that can be found in no other way. There are challenges in analyzing a three-dimensional object through a two-dimensional computer screen. However, in many cases the images can be enlarged for closer examination. Object-based lessons offer the teacher several options: printing the object image to a transparency for use on an overhead projector, projecting the computer screen onto a large screen, using a computer lab where individuals or pairs of students can examine the objects online, or printing out the image for classroom use. Lewis and Clark did not leave St. Louis without them, and today's explorers will need maps, too. All maps featured in the lessons can be enlarged for closer study. This CD-ROM includes a virtual exhibition component. The nine curriculum themes each have a corresponding virtual exhibit that provides important contextual material. In addition, a map-based virtual journey highlighting the expedition route is available online at www.lewisandclarkexhibit.org. Both virtual components allow for deeper exploration of the themes presented in the curriculum units. A Connections to Today page is linked to each curriculum unit and includes a short interview with a person who readily illustrates the unit's connection to contemporary events and issues. These pages are designed to help students connect the Lewis and Clark expedition with the present. For example, Dr. Marc Susser, historian of the U.S. Department of State, talks about the challenges of diplomacy in today's world an obvious connection to the Politics and Diplomacy curriculum unit. A dedicated Image Gallery appears with each lesson. Online, the Galleries include information on these primary sources to aid teachers in lesson preparation. By downloading an Image Gallery in either Windows or Macintosh format, teachers may use the material in the classroom. A password provides teacher-only control of images and their information, encouraging students to perform initial analysis free of identification and background material. This download option is only available on the website. To view some materials in the curriculum units, you will need to have the free Macromedia Flash and Adobe Acrobat plug-ins. Click here to read the copyright and reproduction policies for these materials. Do you have comments on these materials? Let us know. We can be reached at [email protected].
In this topic children will consider how everyday things are made and where they come from. Activity 3.1: Make your own Chealamy Beaker - pupils will understand how their ancestors used the natural resources around them to make their possession - Pupils understand coil technique in pottery making - Factsheet 3.1 Clay and peat - Modelling clay What to do: The Chealamy Beaker is made using a coiling technique as demonstrated in the above progression image. Ask the pupils to create their own Chealamy Beaker using the plasticine. Pupils should roll their plasticine into coils which they lay on top of one another. As the coils form the pot the material should be pinched to smooth out the coils and stabilise the structure. Activity 3.2 Make your own museum - Pupils will apply what they have learned about the importance of the natural environment to create their own portable museum. Items collected such as seashells, pine cones, pressed flowers etc What to do: Children can gather items from their daily walks, or the garden such as pressed flowers, seashells or pine cones and use these items to create a portable museum in a shoe box. This material was developed by Mackay Country Community Trust and Strathnaver Museum and used as part of the Alan Joyce Young Environmentalist Competition 2019 funded by the Royal Society. The material made up a School Loan Box distributed to each of the 6 primary schools in north west Sutherland during 2019.
Cardiology is the branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases and conditions related to the cardiovascular system, which includes the heart and blood vessels. Our treatments vary depending on the specific condition or disease being addressed. - Medications: Cardiologists often prescribe medications to manage and treat various cardiovascular conditions. These may include medications to control blood pressure (antihypertensives), lower cholesterol levels (statins), prevent blood clots (antiplatelet or anticoagulant drugs), regulate heart rhythms (antiarrhythmics), or improve heart function (heart failure medications). - Lifestyle modifications: Cardiologists emphasize the importance of lifestyle changes to improve heart health. These modifications may include adopting a heart-healthy diet (such as the Mediterranean diet), engaging in regular physical activity, maintaining a healthy weight, quitting smoking, managing stress, and limiting alcohol consumption. - Procedures and interventions: Cardiologists may perform or recommend various procedures and interventions to address specific cardiac conditions. Some examples include: - Angioplasty and stenting: This procedure is used to open narrowed or blocked blood vessels (usually coronary arteries) by inflating a balloon-like device and placing a stent to keep the vessel open. - Cardiac catheterization: It involves inserting a thin tube (catheter) into a blood vessel to visualize the heart’s arteries, chambers, and valves. It can aid in diagnosing and guiding further treatment. - Pacemaker implantation: A pacemaker is a small device implanted in the chest or abdomen to help regulate abnormal heart rhythms. It sends electrical impulses to the heart to maintain a steady rhythm. - Cardioversion: It is a procedure to restore normal heart rhythm using electrical shocks or medications. - Rehabilitation: Cardiac rehabilitation programs are often recommended for individuals who have experienced heart-related events or undergone cardiac procedures. These programs include exercise training, education on heart-healthy living, counselling, and support to help patients recover and improve their overall cardiovascular health. - Surgical interventions: In some cases, surgical procedures may be necessary. Cardiologists work closely with cardiothoracic surgeons to perform surgeries like coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) to bypass blocked coronary arteries or valve repair/replacement surgeries to address valvular heart disease. It’s important to note that the specific treatment options will vary based on the individual patient’s condition, severity, and overall health.
Target Age Group: Preschoolers (Ages 3-5) Grade Level: Pre-K By the end of this unit study, preschoolers will be able to: - Identify and name different farm animals and their young. - Understand basic farm concepts such as farming, planting, and harvesting. - Recognize the role of farms in providing food and resources. - Develop fine motor skills through arts and crafts activities related to the farm. - Gain a basic understanding of farm-related concepts in science and nature. Schedule: 5-Day Plan Day 1: Introduction to the Farm - Introduce the concept of a farm and its importance. - Discuss different farm animals and their sounds. - Read books about the farm. - Arts and Crafts: Create a farm animal collage. Day 2: Farm Animals - Explore various farm animals (cow, chicken, pig, sheep, etc.). - Learn about the young of different animals (calf, chick, piglet, lamb, etc.). - Read books about farm animals. - Arts and Crafts: Create a paper plate barn. Day 3: Farm Life and Chores - Focus on farm life and daily chores. - Discuss activities like milking cows, collecting eggs, and planting crops. - Read books about farm chores. - Arts and Crafts: Create a miniature farm scene. Day 4: Planting and Harvesting - Discover the process of planting and harvesting on a farm. - Learn about different crops grown on a farm. - Read books about planting and harvesting. - Arts and Crafts: Create a corn-on-the-cob craft. Day 5: Farm-to-Table - Introduce the concept of farm-to-table and where our food comes from. - Discuss the journey of food from the farm to our plates. - Read books about farm-to-table. - Arts and Crafts: Create a paper plate vegetable garden. - “Big Red Barn” by Margaret Wise Brown – Amazon Link - “The Very Busy Spider” by Eric Carle – Amazon Link - “From Seed to Plant” by Gail Gibbons – Amazon Link - “Farm Animals for Kids” by FreeSchool – YouTube Link - “The Farm Song” by Kids Learning Tube – YouTube Link - “The Farmers’ Market Song” by The Kiboomers – YouTube Link Arts and Crafts: - Farm Animal Collage – Create a collage with pictures of different farm animals. - Paper Plate Barn – Create a barn using a paper plate and art supplies. - Miniature Farm Scene – Create a small scene with toy farm animals and props. - Corn-on-the-Cob Craft – Create a craft representing a corn cob. - Paper Plate Vegetable Garden – Create a vegetable garden using paper plates and art materials.
Alan Turing was one of the most influential British figures of the 20th century. In 1936, Turing invented the computer as part of his attempt to solve a fiendish puzzle known as the Entscheidungsproblem. This mouthful was a big headache for mathematicians at the time, who were attempting to determine whether any given mathematical statement can be shown to be true or false through a step-by-step procedure – what we would call an algorithm today. Turing attacked the problem by imagining a machine with an infinitely long tape. The tape is covered with symbols that feed instructions to the machine, telling it how to manipulate other symbols. This universal Turing machine, as it is known, is a mathematical model of the modern computers we all use today. Using this model, Turing determined that there are some mathematical problems that cannot be solved by an algorithm, placing a fundamental limit on the power of computation. This is known as the Church–Turing thesis, after the work of US mathematician Alonzo Church, who Turing would go on to study his doctorate under at Princeton University in the United States. Turing’s wartime legacy Turing’s contributions to the modern world were not merely theoretical. During the second world war, he worked as a codebreaker for the UK government, attempting to decode the Enigma cipher machine encryption devices used by the German military. Enigma was a typewriter-like device that worked by mixing up the letters of the alphabet to encrypt a message. UK spies were able to intercept German transmissions, but with nearly 159 billion billion possible encryption schemes, they seemed impossible to decode. Building on work by Polish mathematicians, Turing and his colleagues at the codebreaking centre Bletchley Park developed a machine called the bombe capable of scanning through these possibilities. This allowed the UK and its allies to read German intelligence and led to a significant turning point in the war. Some estimates say that without Turing’s work, the war would have lasted years more and cost millions more lives. Beyond computer science After the war, Turing continued to develop his ideas about computer science. His work led to the construction of the first true computers, but his most famous work came in 1950 when he published a paper asking “can machines think?”. He detailed a procedure, later known as the Turing test, to determine whether a machine could imitate human conversation. It became a foundational part of the field of artificial intelligence, though many modern researchers question its usefulness. Understanding human intentions will be the next big breakthrough in AI With the recent news that the ChatGPT AI can pass a theory of mind test, how far away are we from an artificial intelligence that fully understands the goals and beliefs of others? Turing also became interested in biology, and in 1952 published a paper detailing the mathematics of how biological shapes and patterns develop. In the same year, he was convicted for having a sexual relationship with a man, which was illegal at the time. Turing was made to choose between going to jail or undergoing hormonal treatment intended to reduce his libido. He chose the latter. Turing was found dead on 8 June 1954, as a result of cyanide poisoning. His death was ruled a suicide. In 2013, Turing was posthumously pardoned for his conviction for “gross indecency” after a campaign to recognise him as a national hero. In 2017, legislation informally known as “Turing’s law” extended the pardon to all gay men convicted under such historical legislation. On 15 July 2019, he was announced as the face of the new £50 note, which will go into circulation in 2021 on 23 June, the date of his birth. Full name: Alan Mathison Turing Birth: 23 June 1912, Maida Vale, London Death: 7 June 1954, Wilmslow, Cheshire Often considered the father of modern computer science, Alan Turing was famous for his work developing the first modern computers, decoding the encryption of German Enigma machines during the second world war, and detailing a procedure known as the Turing Test, forming the basis for artificial intelligence.
This Article challenges the view of “prerogative” as a discretionary authority to act outside the law. For seventy years, political scientists, lawyers and judges have drawn on John Locke’s account of prerogative in the Second Treatise, using it to read foundational texts in American constitutional law. American writings on prerogative produced between 1760 and 1788 are rarely discussed (excepting The Federalist), though these materials exist in abundance. Based on a study of over 700 of these texts, including pamphlets, broadsides, letters, essays, newspaper items, state papers, and legislative debates, this Article argues that early Americans almost never used “prerogative” as Locke defined it. Instead, the early American understanding of “prerogative” appears to have been shaped predominantly by the imperial crisis, the series of escalating disputes with the British ministry over taxation which preceded the Revolutionary War; in this crisis, Americans based their claims to enjoy rights of self-taxation on their colonial charters, which were issued by the King’s prerogative. The primary connotations of “prerogative” for Americans were thus self-government and the benefits of government, principally the protection of property and liberty. Drawing on this view, the Article proffers several principles for constructing the powers of the President. It argues that the Article II Vesting Clause should be treated as a substantive grant of executive power, but conceived narrowly as the power to carry out the law and not as a grant of prerogative. It is the enumerated powers in Article II that establish presidential prerogatives. These powers should be treated as "defeasible” in the sense that they may be regulated by statute and judicial decision, within limits reflecting the independence of the presidential office. This framework is consistent with the series of modern statutes regulating presidential emergency powers, including the War Powers Resolution and the National Emergencies Act. Buffalo Law Review Matthew J. Steilen, How to Think Constitutionally About Prerogative: A Study of Early American Usage, Buff. L. Rev. Available at: https://digitalcommons.law.buffalo.edu/journal_articles/920
Video games have often been the target of criticism, being blamed for promoting violence and encouraging self-isolation. In some countries, even video games considered “violent” have been banned by law. However, research has not agreed on the existence of a link between violence and video games, and some conclusions have been reached about the positive effects of video games on the brain and cognitive abilities. Health benefits for playing video games Strengthen your memory: In a study published in the Journal of Experimental Psychology, the link between video games and functional memory was tested. Participants were assigned an action video game (such as Call of Duty) or a video game such as The Sims, and measured for 30 days. The researchers found that playing action video games appears to stimulate visual functional memory more than other activities, results that appear to be consistent with previous research. Other studies indicate that action video games are better for this purpose than “brain-training games” that are specifically designed to improve memory. Improve your social skills: Other studies have found that narrative aspects in video games can help improve children’s social and emotional skills, especially in those with forms of autism. This evolution, which can also be seen in people who consume fiction on a regular basis, tells us that narrative allows players to access other people’s mental states, thus helping children practice empathy and understanding skills towards others. Prevent brain aging: One of the aspects of videogames whose potential could be more ambitious and promising is linked to their ability to decrease the decline in mental abilities in adulthood. At the University of California, a group of researchers and game designers have created a game called Neuroracer, designed to help the elderly improve their cognitive abilities. The game requires individuals to drive a virtual car while performing other tasks. After 12 hours of using it, the researchers found that the elderly had improved their performance, functional memory and attention span. More importantly, it was demonstrated that the skills gained could be transferred and used in the real world. Improve your motor and visual skills: A game called Underground, where players must guide a child and his or her robot pet out of a mine, has been adapted to train surgeons in specific skills: players use adapted controllers that resemble the tools used in surgeries, and those who perform best in the game also perform best in assessing their surgical skills. Certain games, where accuracy is key, can become tools for fine motor skills training. (Source: TED Talks)
In drawing mathematical or scientific conclusions, there are two basic processes of reasoning that are commonly used. These are induction or deduction-induction is the process of reasoning from particular to general and deduction is the process of reasoning from general to particular. Induction begins by observations, and from observations we arrive at some tentative conclusions, conjectures. A conjecture may be true or false. The principle of mathematical induction helps us in proving some of these conjectures which are true. A statement involving mathematical relation or relations is called a mathematical statement. Consider the statements: - 6 is an even natural number. - is a factor of - Sum of first natural numbers is - Kolkata is the capital of West Bengal. Statement 1, 2 and 3 are mathematical statements. Notation for mathematical statements: Consider the mathematical statements: - is divisible by 2. - is divisible by 8. - is a prime integer. - If a set contains distinct objects, then the number of subsets of is . All these statements are concerned with the natural number ‘’, which takes values 1, 2, 3, …etc. Such statements are usually denoted by or etc. By giving particular values to , we get a particular statement. For example, if the statement “ is divisible by 7” is denoted by , then is the statement “ is divisible by 7”. Principle of Mathematical Induction: Let be a statement involving the natural number , then is true natural numbers if - is true. - is true whenever is true. In other words, to prove that a statement is true natural numbers n, we have to go through two steps: - Verify the result for . - Assume the result to be true for and prove the result for . Example 1: Let be the statement “ is divisible by 7”. Prove that if is true then is also true. Given statement is “ is divisible by 7”. Let be true is divisible by 7 , for some integer . , which is divisible by 7 So, is true. Example 2: Prove by mathematical induction that . Let be the statement Now means i.e. , which is true. Let be true i.e. For there are …upto terms Hence, by principle of mathematical induction, is true . Example 3: Use principle of mathematical induction to prove that Let be the statement “” Now means i.e. or, , which is true. Let be true. Hence, by principle of mathematical induction, is true Example 4: Prove that is divisible by 4 . Hence prove that is divisible by 24 To prove that is divisible by 4 Let P(n) be the statement is divisible by 4. Now P(1) means is divisible by 4 i.e. 0 is divisible by 4, which is true. Let be true i.e. is divisible by 4 , for some integer which is divisible by 4 Hence is true i.e. is divisible by 4 . To prove that is divisible by 24, let be the statement “ is divisible by 24”. Here means is divisible by 24 i.e. is divisible by 24 i.e. 24 is divisible by 24, which is true Let be true i.e. is divisible by 24 , for some integer ( is divisible by 4, for some integer ) , which is divisible by 24 ( are both integers is an integer, let ) Hence, is divisible by 24. Example 5: Prove by the method of induction that every even power of every odd integer greater than 1 when divided by 8 leaves 1 as remainder. As the first odd integer greater than 1 is 3, let any odd integer be chosen as where is a natural number. Then we have to prove that where i.e. is divisible by 8. Let be the statement “ is divisible by 8″. For , . being the product of two consecutive natural numbers, is always even. Let , where . is divisible by 8 Let P(m) be true i.e. is divisible by 8 , which is divisible by 8. Hence, by mathematical induction, the given statement is universally true. - If P(n) is the statement “n(n+1)(n+2) is divisible by 6”, then what is P(3)? - If P(n) is the statement “ is an odd integer”. Show that if P(m) is true then P(m+1) is also true. - Using the principle of mathematical induction prove that - … upto terms . - is divisible by 11. - is a multiple of 64. - is a factor of , where . - upto terms . - is divisible by 4. - Prove, by induction, that when divided by 20 leaves the remainder 9 .
Typically taken by middle school or first year high schools students, algebra teaches a variety of concepts that form the basis for advanced math classes. Students who wish to take Geometry, Trigonometry and other courses must first master Algebra. Algebra is also essential for a variety of career paths. It challenges students to learn about number relationships, problem solving and critical thinking. Everyone from rocket scientists and engineers to accountants and homemakers use algebra in everyday life. In Algebra 1, students learn: - Single Variable and Multi-Variable Equations - Word Problems - Factoring Polynomials - Real Numbers - Equations of Lines - Graphing Equations, Functions and Linear Inequalities - Wiring Linear Equations - Exponential Functions - Quadratic Equations and Functions - Rational Equations and Functions In Algebra 2, students study: - Equations and Inequalities - Fractional Expressions - Polynomials and Factoring - Power and Roots - Complex Numbers - Graphing Linear Functions - Quadratic Functions - Logarithmic Functions - Exponential Functions - Conic Section - Sequencing and Series - Data Analysis Students must master each algebra lesson as it’s taught in the classroom. The first lesson serves as the basis for the second lesson. The second lesson launches the third lesson. This pattern continues throughout the year. If a student fails to grasp each lesson, he or she quickly falls behind and risks failing the class. You may not realize your child is struggling until you receive a quarterly report card. By then, your child is weeks behind and feels like he or she is drowning. With his or her confidence shaken, your child may feel like a failure and be ready to give up. Consider the Louisville Algebra tutors at Kotey Tutoring. An experienced tutor can help your child succeed in algebra. The tutor works one on one with your child. If necessary, the tutor starts with the lessons at the beginning of the year and works on individual lessons until your child masters each one. Tutoring in Louisville provides your child with assistance mastering individual lessons, but your child may also need help completing homework assignments or passing quizzes and tests. A personalized tutor prepares your child to complete these essential classroom skills. Your child can successfully master algebra. By passing the class, students confidently move forward into more challenging math classes and find academic success in the future.
Earth’s first ecosystems were more complex than previously thought, study finds Press release issued: 27 November 2015 Computer simulations have allowed scientists to work out how a puzzling 555-million-year-old organism with no known modern relatives fed, revealing that some of the first large, complex organisms on Earth formed ecosystems that were much more complex than previously thought. The international team of researchers from Canada, the UK and the USA, including Dr Imran Rahman from the University of Bristol, studied fossils of an extinct organism called Tribrachidium, which lived in the oceans some 555 million years ago. Using a computer modelling approach called computational fluid dynamics, they were able to show that Tribrachidium fed by collecting particles suspended in water. This is called suspension feeding and it had not previously been documented in organisms from this period of time. Tribrachidium lived during a period of time called the Ediacaran, which ranged from 635 million to 541 million years ago. This period was characterised by a variety of large, complex organisms, most of which are difficult to link to any modern species. It was previously thought that these organisms formed simple ecosystems characterised by only a few feeding modes, but the new study suggests they were capable of more types of feeding than previously appreciated. Dr Simon Darroch, an Assistant Professor at Vanderbilt University, said: “For many years, scientists have assumed that Earth’s oldest complex organisms, which lived over half a billion years ago, fed in only one or two different ways. Our study has shown this to be untrue, Tribrachidium and perhaps other species were capable of suspension feeding. This demonstrates that, contrary to our expectations, some of the first ecosystems were actually quite complex.” Co-author Dr Marc Laflamme, an Assistant Professor at the University of Toronto Mississauga, added: “Tribrachidium doesn’t look like any modern species, and so it has been really hard to work out what it was like when it was alive. The application of cutting-edge techniques, such as CT scanning and computational fluid dynamics, allowed us to determine, for the first time, how this long-extinct organism fed.” Computational fluid dynamics is a method for simulating fluid flows that is commonly used in engineering, for example in aircraft design, but this is one of the first applications of the technique in palaeontology (following up previous research carried out at Bristol). Dr Rahman, a Research Fellow in Bristol’s School of Earth Sciences said: “The computer simulations we ran allowed us to test competing theories for feeding in Tribrachidium. This approach has great potential for improving our understanding of many extinct organisms.” Co-author Dr Rachel Racicot, a postdoctoral researcher at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County added: “Methods for digitally analysing fossils in 3D have become increasingly widespread and accessible over the last 20 years. We can now use these data to address any number of questions about the biology and ecology of ancient and modern organisms.” The research was funded by the UK’s Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851. The study is published today in the journal Science Advances. ‘Suspension feeding in the enigmatic Ediacaran organism Tribrachidium demonstrates complexity of Neoproterozoic ecosystems’ by Imran A. Rahman, Simon A. F. Darroch, Rachel A. Racicot and Marc Laflamme in Science Advances
UNDERSTANDING A BASIC HUMAN CONDITION MAY BETTER PREPARE YOU FOR HOT TOPIC DISCUSSIONS agriculture is full of scientific certainty and research-driven results. Decisions on how much fertilizer to apply, what crop protection product to use and when to sell a crop all require careful measurements. A science-based approach to farming is becoming more important every day as farmers perform their own strip trials, utilize variable rate technology and monitor their own weather systems. But despite all this science and measurement, agriculture is still rife with emotional discussion, debate and disagreement. People, both farmers and non-farmers alike, disagree on so many aspects of farming that it is sometimes hard to find common ground. Debates over production practices are gaining a stronger foothold in both urban and farm media. Discussions on the benefits of organic versus conventional, the pros and cons of biotechnology and concerns over animal welfare are commonplace in coffee shops. When engaging in discussion about these potentially volatile topics, many people retreat to the comfort of science-based arguments. As these topics tend to revolve around what’s best for the environment, yield and human health, a foundation in science is important. Comparatively, Jay Ingram, host of the Discovery Channel show Daily Planet, brought up an important consideration when entering any type of discussion at Grain Farmers of Ontario’s March Conference. In his presentation, Ingram talked about something called the ‘confirmation bias’. “When presented with evidence positive or minus of anything you strongly believe in, your natural tendency is to ignore the evidence against, or to think that the evidence for it is more important, or to criticize the evidence against more thoroughly,” explains Ingram. This bias has been studied by many scientists. In a very famous research experiment conducted at Stanford University, scientists presented proponents and opponents with studies on both sides of the debate over the effectiveness of capital punishment. The experiment found that research subjects described the study supporting their pre-existing view as superior to those that contradicted it and set higher standards of evidence for hypotheses that went against their current expectations. Although capital punishment has no place in an agricultural discussion, it is important to be aware of your own confirmation biases. Next time you are reading a newspaper article, listening to a radio show or having a discussion on one of these hot topic farm issues, try to take mental note of how a confirmation bias may be at play. Being more aware of your and others’ biases before entering into a discussion may help encourage better understanding and promote a common ground. •
Is Coal the real and only villain in our endeavor to create a safe planet? Does burning coal cause the very steep rise in CO2 concentration? Are the near infinite number of studies and news articles completely accurate? Chapter One, presented data showing Arctic Ice had not melted between 1952 and 1980 in spite of coal being a major source of energy and CO2 increasing for the100 years before 1980. Nor had air temperatures increased. Another source of heat, Magma, beneath the Arctic Ocean, became active in 1980. Earthquakes and magma became active when the ice began to melt. A chart on page 4 of Chapter one, shows the timelines connecting magma to melting ice, but not CO2. Further, rotation of the Arctic Ocean water flowing over the hot magma area north of Svalbard, then flowing along the Russian shore coincides with where the ice was melting. Ice has not melted north of Canada because the water would be cooled to ice temperature by melting ice along the Russian shore. A record of Arctic Ocean Ice for four different years challenges the CO2 theory. Each photo shows ice area in Square Kilometers after the summer melt period. Note the facts: YEAR CO2 Ice Area Change from previous September ppm % rise MM Sq. Km % Change Comment 1952 310 0 % 4.244* Base 1963 320 +3% 7.451* + 75 % increase (no quakes/magma) 1996 362 +13% 7.191 – 3.5% decrease (quakes/magma started) 2012 395 +10% 3.387 – 53 % decrease (quakes continued) 2017 413 +4.5% 4.638 + 37 % increase (quakes had stopped) * Measured on maps with a planimeter – error +/- 3.5%\ 1 52 to 63; CO2 increased 3%; Ice area increased 75%. How can increases in CO2 cause ice to freeze, we are told increased CO2 = high temperature & melting? 2 ’63 to ’96; Ice froze to the shore of Russia and Alaska, but melted along Western Greenland. How can a uniform blanket increase and reduce ice in the same general area at the same time? The Arctic ocean is supposed to be ice free. 3 ’96 to 2012; ice area decreased dramatically except along western Greenland. How does CO2 do that? There is an answer for the melting ice. 4 NOAA data for 2017; Ice increased 37% while CO2 shot up 4.5% to 412 ppm. While CO2 is increasing rapidly ice is supposed to decrease rapidly. Polar bears are supposed to starve and disappear, not increase as bears actually did. 1 After 1952 Ice area increased along Russia and Western Greenland. 2 Between 1963 and 1996, ice area increased all the way to the shore of Russia and to the shore of Alaska. However at the same time ice melted along the Western shore of Greenland. Earthquakes foretelling magma appeared off the Western shore of Greenland at a sea-ridge at this exact time. Neither Hawaii’s current volcano nor this record of earthquake activity can be ignored. This history is similar to the decrease in ice before 1922 as documented by Dr Hoel of Norway. His 1922 report is included at the end of this chapter. After his report, ice increased to full ice cover as shown in these maps of 1963 and 1996. How would it be possible for a uniform blanket of CO2 enhanced air to heat the volcanic island chain north of Iceland by 15 degrees between 1960 and 2015 but no other place on earth by that amount? Chapter Two introduced “thermals” and compared the warm air that rises as a “thermal” to low density stack gas generated by burning methane. Once in the upper atmosphere, stack gas is mixed with air increasing the CO2 concentration. It is removed only at earths surface and slower than it is added. Another concept is our atmosphere is ‘contained’ as in a large storage tank. Our ‘earth tank’ is very unique; the only one on earth. This ‘earth tank’ has a bottom that is not flat but is spherical; the earth itself. This ‘earth tank’ has no walls and no top. Air is “contained” above the earth. It is similar to a cylindrical tank in that a ‘light’ gas added at the top of a tank at 40,000 feet, does not rush to the bottom where plants and water would remove it. Instead it slowly mixes with air and thus is removed very slowly. When thinking of turbulence in the sky, remember that clouds remain for hours without change in size, shape, or elevation as they drift with the wind. Chapter Three explained the rise in CO2 concentration with basic chemistry and physical laws. CO2 did not increase as coal use increased until in 1780 the science of chemistry created the process of conversion of coal to the gaseous fuels; coal gas, water gas, etc. A gas can be delivered economically by pipes. Later, development of drilling for oil and gas created the enormous supply and low cost of gas and oil fuels and the immediate increase in CO2 concentration. Chemistry was also necessary for the production of steel for steel pipe and other steel products for boilers and steam engines which were necessary for increased use of gas and oil fuels. Chemistry actually created the industrial revolution. This Chapter compares liquid fuels to natural gas and to coal in their impact on CO2 concentration. These include, Jet fuel, diesel, kerosene, gasoline, and heavy fuel oil. In other words, Planes, Trains, Trucks, Automobiles and Ships. Early Trains burned coal – CO2 exhaust was dense, stayed close to the ground and did not mix into the higher atmosphere to any extent. CO2 continued to decrease as it had before the “industrial revolution”. Modern Trains – burning diesel fuel – generate a low density exhaust that rises and adds to the CO2 in the air. Cars – also on the ground – release CO2 close to the ground. – but car exhaust which is lighter than air, flows up into the sky. Ships – Marine cargo ships often burn a very heavy fuel oil but the exhaust is also lighter than air unless sulfur content is extremely high. Jet Planes – burning jet fuel – have exhaust that is also lighter than air and is released at 40,000 feet; it mixes with air and with exhaust from other liquid hydrocarbon sources. And CO2 ppm is increasing rapidly. Density of exhaust gas from burning any fuel gas is less dense than air; about 85 percent as dense as air. That means it rises almost as fast as the 0.80 density of the exhaust from burning of gas fuels. And that means the exhaust gas from gas or liquid fuels rise and accumulate in the upper atmosphere increasing CO2 concentration. Remember that stack gas from burning coal settles to the ground and does not accumulate. It is the only fuel that creates a dense exhaust. This table is provided to show calculations used to calculate density of exhaust gas from different fuels. All affect the atmosphere; the question is, how much? Jet planes according to calculations, are part of the abrupt spike in atmospheric CO2 which started in 1980 when jet engines changed air travel. At the same time, gas turbines started driving generators in power plants. Rising CO2 levels caused by burning hydrocarbons does not markedly increase temperature as was discussed in Chapter One. However, there are two serious problems from fuels that are not treated to remove sulfur and oxygen and curtail release of the extremely small particles. One serious problem is sulfur, which if not removed, causes acid rain and is very harmful. The second is the soot created when fuels are burned. Neither problem can be understood without understanding circulation of air around our earth. Diagrams are provided to help. The globe on the left, considers only surface wind and is incomplete, even misleading. The globe on the right includes air circulation at higher altitudes. It shows the location of the Hadley cell, the Ferrel cell and the Polar cell. Surface winds are also shown which is important to understanding our weather. Neither diagram shows air currents from the Hadley cell that flow above the Ferrel cell toward the poles. This is critical to understand facts that appear on the earth surface. Both show the surface winds. Note that the Westerlies flow toward the North Pole but also eastward. Hurricanes in the United States flow within the Ferrel Cell. They originate in the area between the Hadley and Ferrel Cells, make landfall on the southeast cost. Then they follow the Westerlies North and East over the New England states. The diagrams are very helpful but the next diagram is needed. The next diagram gives a clearer picture of the flow of air (and CO2 and soot). Starting with the trade winds which flow toward the equator, moist, warm air at the equator rises and returns toward the poles. A large portion circulates in a Hadley Cell, but some flows over the top of the circulating Farrel cell and joins the Polar Cell. Jet planes fly at 40,000 feet and their exhaust with sulfur acids and soot is carried northward to the Arctic Circle and to all areas in between. Embed this fact in your mind. It is critical to understand many environmental problems from burning fuels containing Sulfur and Nitrogen And as explained in Chapter Three, page 3, burning a fuel with sulfur and nitrogen creates oxide gases which are absorbed by water to make sulfuric and nitric acids. Sulfuric acid and Nitric acid once dissolved in water do not leave; it remains in the water forever if not neutralized with alkaline compounds. Concentrated CO2, as we know from carbonated drinks, does not last; the drinks go ‘flat’ as the CO2 is lost. The United States has a history with the damage of sulfur and nitrogen and also the solution. Coal plants need to always use alkaline scrubbers to remove the acid gases. Acid scrubbing been done effectively in the Eastern United States. There was a time in the 1960’s when lakes in the Northeast were turning acidic and dying. “Acid Rain” became a national concern. Legislation required power plants to install scrubbers. The lakes recovered surprisingly quickly. The scrubbers produce gypsum which supplies much of the drywall for construction. Sulfur is removed from the environment permanently. Remember, it is not the CO2 from the plants burning coal, it is the sulfur and nitrogen which can and is being removed. A further probable problem with sulfuric acid in lakes and oceans is it reacts with sodium chloride to create Chlorine gas. Chlorine gas is soluble in water and is a powerful bleach and may cause coral bleaching and dying. Our municipal drinking water is rendered free of infectious organic organisims with levels as low as 2 ppm. Industrial cooling towers prevent algae growth with 10 to 20 ppm. We would be wise to explore the impact of low levels of chlorine on both coral and the ocean food chain. Sulfur content has not been controlled in jet fuel and often the sulfur content exceeds 2500 ppm. The ASTM global guideline suggests a maximum of 3000 ppm. For contrast, diesel fuel in California must be below 15 ppm. All SO2 from burning sulfur winds up somewhere on earth, and since oceans comprise 71% of the surface, over 70 percent is likely absorbed in the oceans. Airlines can help reduce these problems without government help by simply refusing to buy any fuel with over 15 ppm sulfur. Refineries will charge more money per gallon but will quickly adapt. This would reduce sulfate particles, acid rain and possibly even the bleaching and death of coral and sea life. There is however another major problem that will be discussed in detail in chapter five. Carbon does not burn completely in any of these engines but very, very small particles of carbon as well as CO2 are formed. Turbine engines in jet planes eject an amazing number of carbon particles. One study on military jets found 2 to 3 million particles in each cubic centimeter of exhaust. A cubic centimeter is about the volume of the end of our little finger beneath the nail. Copy of Arctic Temperature Report; Confirmed by ‘Snopes’ IT HAPPENED 100 YEARS AGO AND IS HAPPENING NOW! MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW November, 1922 By George Nicholas Ifft The Arctic seems to be warming up. Reports from fisherman, seal hunters, and explorers who sail the seas about Spitzbergen and the eastern Arctic, all point to a radical change in climatic conditions, and hitherto unheard-of high temperatures in that part of the earth’s surface. In August, 1922, the Norwegian Department of Commerce sent an expedition to Spitzbergen and Bear Island under the leadership of Dr. A. Hoel, lecturer on geology at the University of Christiania. Its purpose was to survey and chart the lands adjacent to the Norwegian mines on those islands, take soundings of the adjacent waters, and make other oceanographic investigations. Ice conditions were exceptional. In fact, so little ice has never before been noted. The expedition all but established a record, sailing as far north as 81° 29′ in ice-free water. This is the farthest north ever reached with modern oceanographic apparatus. The character of the waters of the great polar basin has heretofore been practically unknown. Dr. Hoel reports that he made a section of the Gulf Stream at 81° north latitude and took soundings to a depth of 3,100 meters. These show the Gulf Stream very warm, and it could be traced as a surface current till beyond the 81st parallel. The warmth of the waters makes it probable that the favorable ice conditions will continue for some time. In connection with Dr. Hoel’s report, it is of interest to note the unusually warm summer in Arctic Norway and the observations of Capt. Martin Ingebrigsten, who has sailed the eastern Arctic for 54 years past. He says that he first noted warmer conditions in 1918, that since that time it has steadily gotten warmer, and that to-day the Arctic of that region is not recognizable as the same region of 1868 to 1917. Many old landmarks are so changed as to be unrecognizable. Where formerly great masses of ice were found, there are now often moraines, accumulations of earth and stones. At many points where glaciers formerly extended far into the sea they have entirely disappeared. The change in temperature, says Captain Ingebrigtsen, has also brought about great change in the flora and fauna of the Arctic. This summer he sought for white fish in Spitzbergen waters. Formerly great shoals of them were found there. This year he saw none, although he visited all the old fishing grounds. There were few seal in Spitzbergen waters this year, the catch being far under the average. This, however did not surprise the captain. He pointed out that formerly the waters about Spitzbergen held an even summer temperature of about 3° Celsius; this year recorded temperatures up to 15°, and last winter the ocean did not freeze over even on the north coast of Spitzbergen. With the disappearance of white fish and seal has come other life in these waters. This year herring in great shoals were found along the west coast of Spitzbergen, all the way from the fry to the veritable great herring. Shoals of smelt were also met with. End of Norwegian Report Carbon particles in the air are indeed a serious problem deserving a separate chapter in this book. The USA EPA agreed; their report, “Report to Congress on Black Carbon” in 2010 ran to 388 pages. This report discusses many sources and many areas impacted by black carbon but does not include jet engines in its summary. Jet planes had been flying for over 50 years from 1958 to 2010. Jet travel had been well established; carbon from turbine engines deserved greater recognition. There is still very little research on how to reduce the carbon. Chapter five will provide basic information. Chapter five will discuss formation of the carbon particles and their impact. – Carbon particles absorb sunlight, are heated and heat air. – Carbon particles settle on ice and absorb sunlight and melt ice . – Carbon particles settling on earth increase the absorption of sunlight. – Carbon particles settling on water will also increase sunlight absorption.
What is Guided Reading Guided Reading is an essential part of any early literacy program. In a guided reading session within the classroom, students are placed into small groups according to their level of reading ability. Of course, even in a small group there are differences in reading ability, as every student is different. These students, who are roughly at the same reading level then read a text that is specifically chosen for their particular group, so that the children are able to read the text independently, without too much difficulty (the aim is about 95% accuracy). The teacher may model reading the book to the kids, and then the students read the text independently and individually. The reason that children are encouraged to read individually is so there are no comparisons made between reading ability or style (as that was one of the downsides of the earlier style of small group reading, where students of different abilities had to sit together and read a book round-robin style, which of course, had the unfortunate side-effect of creating more opportunities for students to compare themselves with others, perhaps in an unhelpful way). The goal of any reading instruction is to build reading comprehension and fluency in a child’s reading. Teachers and parents, of course, want children to read well, and in so doing, understand what they read. There are five essential elements of any good reading program: • Phonemic awareness • Phonics skills • Fluency in reading • Vocabulary building • Text comprehension These five elements are essential to any effective means of reading instruction, and guided reading is an essential part of any good reading program. But, how does guided reading develop and use these five essential elements of reading instruction? And can they be achieved outside of the classroom using a reading program? Phonemic Awareness and Phonics Guided reading allows students to use and develop their phonemic awareness (their understanding that words are made up of smaller units of sound) and their knowledge of phonics (that small units of sound directly relate to individual or small groupings of letters) within the context of reading. Researchers are quick to state that phonics instruction and phonemic awareness are not terribly effective when isolated from reading texts. Reading texts that are at the student’s reading level, and related to recent phonics instruction and/or recently acquired phonemic awareness further instils this knowledge. The ABC Reading Eggs program allows students to participate in guided reading both in school and at home. ABC Reading Eggs uses a comprehensive phonics and phonemic awareness program that offers instruction within both of these key literacy areas, but also places these skills within the context of reading real texts. By Lesson 9, students are reading their first book. All the books in the first 60 lessons are easily decidable and pitched right at the early reader’s level, and provide students with on-level reading material where they can practice the skills learned in each lesson. All the words they encounter in the reading books have been introduced and reinforced within the Reading Eggs lessons. Guided reading allows for explicit instruction in fluency. The chosen text is matched to a child’s reading ability, so that the student can confidently read most of the text. Where there are unknown words, the student is able to use recently acquired, or current knowledge of phonics and phonemes to work out the sound of the word. By understanding the surrounding text, the student is then able to put the word in its context and gather meaning from its place within the larger text. In a classroom setting, the teacher is able to model fluent reading for the unfamiliar parts of a text, or praise the fluent reading that the student demonstrates. The markers of fluency are not just reading fast, on the contrary, it is more about the markers of reading that demonstrate understanding, such as pausing, phrasing, intonation, word stress, and rate. The ABC Reading Eggs online Story Books reinforce the skills learned in the previous lesson(s) with a story that makes sense and is created using matching high-quality, full-colour illustrations. These real books are read aloud by the narrator who models fluent reading to the child. The child can read along with the voice, and the audio can then be turned off for the child to reread the book independently. These books enhance the student’s experience, motivation, and above all, level of achievement, as the learning is placed in the context of reading a book that is at the child’s reading level and is interesting to look at and read. Guided reading provides daily opportunities to expand vocabulary through reading, conversation and explicit instruction. The ABC Reading Eggs program accommodates children with a wide range of abilities, including children with more limited vocabularies. The ABC Reading Eggs program assists with vocabulary development by ensuring that all content area words are introduced with visual support, such as a matching picture, which provides context and increases word knowledge and word retention. Much vocabulary is acquired by reading a wide variety of texts, and reading storybooks is one of the most powerful means to expand vocabulary. The ABC Reading Eggs lessons contain more than 100 e-books, offering students almost a limitless array of texts to read. In order to efficiently read and understand text, readers need exposure to a wide variety of texts. Text comprehension relates both to the understanding of the content of a text as well as understanding what kind of text they are reading. Readers must learn how to adjust to the different types of text they read, and the only way that they are going to learn how to accommodate a variety of texts, is by actually reading a wide variety of texts. ABC Reading Eggs offers students a suite of instructional materials in an engaging and rich learning environment. Each lesson is presented in the same structure: an introductory instructional animation, followed by a series of activities that build word knowledge and automaticity. The student then gets to progress to the reading of a new book, which could either be an alphabet book, a story or a nonfiction title. This structure highlights the importance of reading extended meaningful text. Thank you for providing a fantastic resource that ALL of my class love! They are able to access the learning experiences at their own instructional level and work independently, both at school and from home. Peta Bullen, Tewantin State School My 7-year-old has learning challenges in the area of reading and resists reading. He took to Reading Eggs immediately and has never complained about doing the program. He loves the variety of activities and especially earning the characters. He is making good progress with his skills. Today we sat down to read a new book and I was having him read all the words that didn’t overwhelm him in length. He protested that this was a Level 2 reader and was very pleased when I told him that he is now reading at that level. I am very pleased with this program and it is very affordable. Becky M.
In their daily search for food, blue-green orchid bees zip through increasingly scarce patches of tropical forest pollinating rare flowers. Now, for the first time ever, researchers at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute are able to track the routes of these creatures by gluing tiny transmitters to the backs of individual bees. The data they are collecting is yielding new insight into the role bees play in tropical forest ecosystems. “When people disturb and destroy tropical forest they disrupt pollination systems,” says entomologist David Roubik, senior staff scientist at the Tropical Research Institute. “Now we can track orchid bees to get at the distances and spatial patterns involved in pollination—vital details which have completely eluded us in the past.” The team trapped 17 iridescent blue-green orchid bees called Exaerete frontalis –a species common in the rainforest. “These bees easily carry a 300-milligram radio transmitter glued onto their backs,” says Martin Wikelski, director of the Max Planck Institute of Ornithology and a research associate at the Smithsonian. “By following the radio signals with a hand-held antenna, we have discovered that male orchid bees spend most of their time in small core areas, but will take off and visit areas farther away. One male even crossed over the shipping lanes in the Panama Canal, flew 5 kilometres, and returned to Barro Colorado Island a few days later. Such long distance flights, the researchers say, support the claim that bees are major agents of gene flow, connecting widely-dsipersed orchids or other plants which they alone pollinate, over fragmented landscapes and for an extended time. This study proves that “bees are key evolutionary players in allowing orchids and other tropical plants to evolve into diverse taxa that are each spatially rare and thus require long-distance pollination,” the researchers write. In the past, researchers have struggled to determine the distances that bees travel by following individuals marked with paint, or using radar, which doesn’t work well when trees are in the way. “Carrying a transmitter may reduce the distance that the bees travel. But even if the flight distances we record are the minimum distances that these orchid bees can fly, they are impressive, long-distance movements,” said Roland Kays, curator of mammals at the New York State Museum and a STRI research associate. “These data help to explain how the orchids these bees pollinate can be so rare.” The Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the New York State Museum and the National Geographic Society all provided support for this study. Its co-authors are affiliated with the University of Arizona, Tucson, Cornell University, EcolSciences, Inc. and the New York State Museum.
The twin Voyager spacecraft, NASA’s oldest, most venerable explorers, are still continuously transmitting data back to Earth. Launched in 1977 to study the large outer planets, Voyager 1 and 2 are now, respectively, more than 13 billion and 11 billion miles from Earth, exploring the outer boundary of the heliosphere—a vast magnetic sphere created by the sun that surrounds the solar system. The 42-year-old spacecraft also present immense challenges to those responsible for their care. The data stream from the Voyagers is continuous at a rate of 160 bits per second. (The one exception is that Voyager 1 has the ability to record data from the Plasma Wave Subsystem and transmit it at designated times.) NASA captures the data when one of the antennas in its Deep Space Network is pointed at the spacecraft, about six hours per day for each probe. The data is then transferred from the antenna site to JPL’s central mission control, and then to the project mission support office, which processes the data and makes it available to the science teams. That data also allows JPL engineers to regularly monitor the spacecrafts’ vital signs. Seeing the health or weakness of the instruments, the engineers improvise creative fixes, working with equipment built for planetary exploration that must now adapt to the needs of an interstellar mission. “It’s repurposing systems to do things they were not designed to do, but can do,” says Dodd. For instance, the magnetometer (MAG), which was originally designed to measure the magnetic fields of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, is now studying the interaction of the magnetic field of the sun with the magnetic field of interstellar space—and is a crucial instrument for researchers who want to learn more about the shape of the heliosphere. The MAG, though, was designed for planetary magnetic fields, which are much stronger than interstellar ones. “So it takes a lot of analysis and a lot of review to pull a weak signal out of the noise of the instrument,” says Dodd. In addition to powering the instruments, the generators keep the heaters running. Without heat, the temperature aboard the Voyagers would plummet. While some instruments can function at the subzero temperatures in deep space, the freezing point of the spacecrafts’ propellant is around 34.5 degrees Fahrenheit. If the propellant lines freeze, engineers would no longer be able to use the probes’ thrusters to keep their antennas oriented toward Earth to transmit data. “So for about the last five years, it’s actually been a balance between power and thermal,” says Dodd. Maintaining that balance plays out differently for each instrument. For instance, Voyagers’ cameras, the Imaging Science Subsystem, were the first to be shut down. Designed to take photos of the outer planets, “there wasn’t any more science you could get out of that instrument,” says Dodd, “and there’s a certain amount of memory space that was freed up that we could then repurpose for this longer Voyager interstellar mission.” But sometimes the location of an instrument surpasses other concerns. For instance, there’s a digital tape recorder still running on Voyager 1 that would reduce power consumption if it were turned off, says Dodd. Instead, NASA keeps it on because the instrument generates some heat in a particular area of the probe’s central bus that helps keep the propellant lines warm. Other instruments, such as the Cosmic Ray Subsystem (CRS)—which detects super-energetic particles—sit out on a boom away from the bus and have their own heating units. NASA shut down the CRS’ heater on Voyager 2 this past summer. Despite the extreme cold (minus 76 degrees Fahrenheit), the instrument is still functioning. “We gained two things by turning [the heater] off,” says Dodd. “We gained power...and that extra power also provided extra heat in the bus because it’s not going out to the boom now.” With the CRS still running, scientists continue to gain valuable data. Cosmic rays are a type of high-energy particles: fragments of atoms created by supernovae outside the solar system and accelerated to nearly the speed of light that bombard Earth from all directions. “The heliosphere is a shield against all those cosmic rays that have speeds less than about 50 percent the speed of light,” says Ed Stone, who has served as project scientist for the Voyager program since 1972. Despite its success in keeping the Voyagers going, NASA has reached the point where it is one anomaly away from losing the spacecraft. JPL engineers were very concerned when they discovered that the primary attitude thrusters on both spacecraft had degraded. “The way a thruster shows age is it starts to pulse many more times to get the same amount of thrust,” says Dodd. To keep the Voyagers oriented toward Earth to transmit data, the JPL engineers have instead fired up another set of thrusters that were used for trajectory correction maneuvers and haven’t been used since the planetary flybys early in the mission. “I always tell people, my personal goal is to have a spacecraft that celebrates its 50th anniversary from launch,” says Dodd. With more than a little luck, the Voyagers might make it.
This is lesson number 20,001 of English as a Second Language. Congratulations on your great achievement at having made it this far. Now that you have mastered the first 20,000 lessons, you are ready to begin to start dealing with some of the subtleties that make English so expressive. This lesson will deal with subtle, shifty differences between the words EFFECT and AFFECT, which cause no small amount of problems among those who were born to English. Our simple lesson, based on the soundest use of the language and words, as formulated by our master English scholars, will easily solve this seemingly complex use of these two simple-but-deceptive words. First, we will begin with the dictionary definition with credits to the website Dictionary.com. verb (uh-fekt) (used with object) to act on; produce an effect or change in: Cold weather affected the crops. to impress the mind or move the feelings of: The music affected him deeply. (of pain, disease, etc.) to attack or lay hold of. Psychology. feeling or emotion. Psychiatry. an expressed or observed emotional response: Restricted, flat, or blunted affect may be a symptom of mental illness, especially schizophrenia. Obsolete, affection; passion; sensation; inclination; inward disposition or feeling. something that is produced by an agency or cause; result; consequence: Exposure to the sun had the effect of toughening his skin. power to produce results; efficacy; force; validity; influence: His protest had no effect. the state of being operative or functional; operation or execution; accomplishment or fulfillment: to bring a plan into effect. a mental or emotional impression produced, as by a painting or a speech. meaning or sense; purpose or intention: She disapproved of the proposal and wrote to that effect. For the native English speaker, a study of the dictionary definition should be sufficient. Unfortunately, most native English speakers seldom refer to a dictionary and frequently get themselves into trouble with their improper use of words. These two subtle words will be far more difficult for the non-native speaker, though, and this lesson is designed to eliminate those difficulties by starting you on your path to discovering all the various uses of these two very important words. In other words, we will be effective in removing any doubts about your effective, correct use of these words, and will disabuse you of any affectations you may have previously had on their correct usage, removing your ineffectiveness and steering you towards an, if not intimate, then certainly a close affection for proper usage. We have found it effective to actually use the words in a way that will affect and produce the effect of real clarity towards their meaning, not an affectation of clarity, and not merely using words to describe their usage, or affect their usage; we find that approach contains a certain ineffectiveness, affecting nothing in your personal English skills. Thus, we use our exclusive approach to affect you in such a way to achieve the effects you are seeking in the improvement of your English skills. To affect something is to produce an effect. Sometimes the effects are desirable, other times not. Sometimes people try to produce effects by taking on affectations, for example: a misguided young man attempting to effect a romantic relationship with a young lady by taking upon himself certain affectations that he mistakenly thinks she will find attractive. Frequently, in the case of a romantic situation, misapplied affectations can produce effects of diminishing affections from the undesired affectations or effections, as it were, leading to rejection, and consequently, poignant circumspection, and affective, if not effective, reflection. False affectations frequently affect the effectiveness of amorous advances, resulting in effectively diminished affections. Were the young lady to like him based on initially effective affectations, what might her later opinion be when the affectations have become less effective, thus potentially affecting her negatively once she learns that to all effects, he is merely affectatious, not sincere? She might be affected to disastrous effect. The above paragraph should effectively clarify for the student the proper use of the words, and simultaneously affect desired effection of honest romantic affections (a beneficial side-effect, as it were, though not without risk), though one should not confuse effection with affection, since to do so would render one ineffective. It has been argued by some philologists that effection is not actually a word, electing the word efficacy, but the editors believe that effection is the result of affection, though the dictionary now renders the use of the word affection as pertaining to the production of an effect as obsolete, leaving the word affection to refer solely to one’s particular fondness for another entity. The editors have disagreed, citing that affection is also the result of having effectively affected something. Were the something not affected, there could have ultimately been no effection or affection. Efficacy is merely the effect of afficacy, but affection is not necessarily the same as afficacy, since afficacy is not even considered to be a word. Even the editors find this confusing, thus have effectively rejected this altogether. Efficacy is to afficacy as affection is to effection, but to introduce afficacy at this late stage is merely confusing, producing unwanted effects. The editors have chosen to resurrect the obsolete affection, use the (arguable) invention effection, deny the use of efficacy as ineffective, and avoid what would necessarily result in the invention of the word afficacy. The editors strive for a consistent clarity at all times, though are not always effective, and were we to regress, might say occasionally that our inafficacy yields a lack of efficacy; but we will not allow this, and it is shown here merely for illustrative purposes. A thing can be affected the point that the affectations yield an effective effectation, thus effectively effecting the affectations. The editors are sure this clears all this up immensely, and all to the proper effect. Next week: Lesson #20,002 – There, Their, and They’re: The Treachery of Homophones.

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