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CHORDS WITH FOUR NOTES Chords with four notes can be broken down into a three-note chord (triad) and one additional note. Let’s use Cmaj7 as an example for a chord with four notes. It would be played C, E, G, and B; this additional note is called a “seventh” because it is written as an interval (the distance between two notes) of a seventh from the root note “C”(counting C, go up seven notes and you land on B). By adding one more note to the chord you get a richer and more colorful sound. There are seven different types of four-note chords. Like triads, we can build four-note chords on any of the 12 different keys on the piano (from C to B), including the black keys. Four-Note chords are either a sixth or seventh chord. Here are some examples of what a sixth and a seventh chord look like in written form: C6, Cm6, Cmaj7, C7, Cm7, Cdim7. In the case of C6 you would play C, E, G, A; this additional note is called a “sixth” because it is written as an interval (the distance between two notes) of a 6th from the root note “C” (counting C, go up six notes and you land on A). In conclusion, there are many other types of chords not included in the above text. This is just a starting point to understand chord building. When you are playing four-note chords, keep the chord smaller than an octave. This helps smaller hands play these rich and vibrant sounding chords. JOKE FOR THE DAY: Did you hear about the female opera singer who had quite a range at the lower end of the scale. She was known as the deep C diva.
Net profit definition: what is net profit? Net profit is the measurement of a company's profit once operating costs, taxes, interest and depreciation have all been subtracted from its total revenues. The term is often referred to as a company's 'bottom line' and may also be described as 'net earnings' or 'net income'. Profit is simply the amount of a company’s revenue that remains after expenses. More specifically, however, is net profit which is a single number that represents a specific type of profit. Net profit, or net income, is the renowned famous bottom line on a company’s financial statement. Where have you heard about net profit? You'll often see the term crop up in newspaper reports regarding the financial performance of listed companies. Investors can use it to work out how well a particular company has performed over a certain period of time. Net profit is a calculation that is focused on the most by traders and investors when looking at a company’s profitability. It is also used to calculate publicly traded companies earnings per share. Net profit meaning: what you need to know about net profit. You can work out a company's net profit by reading its income statement and applying this very basic calculation: Total revenue - total expenses = net profit Once a company’s total revenue has been considered, across all income streams, the net profit is reached by subtracting all expenses within a given period. This simply calculation must consider all money that flows in and out of a company. If the charges and expenses racked up by a company are larger than its revenues, it's said to make a net loss rather than a net profit. A range of factors can have a bearing on a firm's net profit. For example, inadequate financial management, falling sales and poor customer service might all lead to weak profits or a loss. Net profit margin The net profit margin is a consideration or net profit (net income) as a percentage of the company’s revenue. In other words, net profit margin is the ratio of net income to revenues for a given company. The net profit margin is typically expressed as a percentage but can also take decimal form. Net profit margin calculation The net profit margin can be calculated by subtracting the cost of goods sold, operating expenses, interest paid and taxes from revenue to determine net profit. Then divide net profit by revenue to get the decimal form of the net profit margin. This can then be expressed as a percentage. The net profit margin considers the total revenue and outgoing cash flow including debt payments of a company.
All You Need to Know About 5th Grade Math Worksheets If you are teaching a bunch of 5th graders about math, then you certainly need some 5th grade math worksheets that will help you do it properly. Math is one of the most crucial subjects that you can teach to children, especially to 5th graders. This subject might not be the easiest, but it is one that will stimulate and challenge the brain. And we all know that is a very important process that will help your kids thrive. Sadly, a lot of children do not like math. Some even say that they hate the subject. Well, hate is a strong word to use. But in reality, a lot of children feel like that. This is exactly the reason why teachers have to step up their game when it comes to teaching math. But how are they supposed to do that? Is there a magical way to be able to overcome this challenging task? Teaching Math with the Help of Worksheets This might be your lucky day because we have the best answer for you. And that answer is the only math worksheets. If you are a teacher, then you are probably familiar with worksheets. They are perfect to use when it comes to testing your students’ abilities on a subject, including, yours truly, math. Think about it. Using length word problem worksheets to teach kids how to do math is way easier than trying to explain theories in math. It is like what they say, you will be able to learn something better if you are doing it. Also, practice makes perfect, which is exactly the purpose of using math worksheets. What Math Problems Do 5th Graders Have to Learn? There are so many types of math worksheets that you can use out there. There are exponent worksheets, price value worksheets, ordering numbers worksheets, and so many more. However, not all of these worksheets are appropriate for 5th graders. Do you want to give out simple addition worksheets to 5th graders? No way. That would be way too easy for them. That is why this next section is important for you to understand. Here are some math problems that 5th graders need to master. Multiple-Digit Whole Numbers The first problem that 5th graders have to know about is to add, subtract, multiply, and divide multi-digit whole numbers. That is why one of the best 5th grade math worksheets are some good old multiply numbers near 100 worksheets. 5th graders also have to be able to divide up to four-digit numbers by two-digit numbers, which follows the divisibility rules in math. Once they can master these math skills, then you can start giving them more advanced worksheets. The second math problem that you have to teach 5th graders is place value. They have to understand that in multiple digit numbers, a digit will represent one-tenth of what the digit on the left of that digit represents. Just like you can teach prime numbers using prime numbers worksheets, you can teach 5th graders to learn place value by using place value worksheets. Another math problem that your 5th-grade students need to be able to solve is various fraction problems. Your students have to be able to multiply and divide fractions effortlessly. Some simple completing whole numbers worksheets can be used for fractions as well. Trust us when we say your students will master fractions in no time with the help of some great worksheets. The next math problem that we would like to tell you all about is the conversion problems. Yes, teaching conversion problems to children is not a walk in the park. But you have to know how to do it properly if you want your students to thrive. 5th graders need to be able to solve multiple steps word problems by using conversions of measurement units. You can see an easy example of this type of worksheet by looking at some convert lengths worksheets that will help you immensely when you are teaching math to children. Solving conversion problems will be so easy with the help of these amazing worksheets. What Kind of Worksheets that are Appropriate for 5th Grade Students? Now that you know some of the many math problems that 5th graders have to master, let’s talk about some math worksheets that you can use for 5th graders. Here are a few examples of the helpful worksheets that make math feel like a breeze. Capacity Word Problem Worksheet Are you trying to help your 5th-grade students to solve capacity word problems? Then some useful capacity word problems worksheets are the thing for you. This worksheet will help your students to put their thinking caps on and challenge their abilities. Missing Factor Worksheet Although some missing factor problems worksheets sound like simple worksheets that are too easy for 5th graders, that is not always the case. You can spice up this kind of worksheet by adding using fractions, which is something that 5th graders have to master. Ask your 5th-grade students to either multiply or divide the fractions and fill in the missing factors on the worksheet. Solving math problems has never sounded so fun. Common Denominator Worksheet The last type of worksheet that we are going to tell you about is the common denominator worksheet. Finding a common denominator is one of the math problems that 5th-grade students have to be able to master. That is why you should leave the classify angles worksheets to lower grade students and give your 5th graders some challenging and fun common denominator worksheets. Teaching math to children is not an easy task to do. This is especially true if you do not even know what 5th graders are supposed to know when it comes to math. However, once you have gotten the idea of what they are supposed to master, all you need to do is to find some great math worksheets that can help them practice their skills. These 5th grade math worksheets will turn math into everyone’s favorite subject.
Marking up a document HTML is the language that web pages are created in. Rival technologies such as Flash and Shockwave have tried to challenge HTML but none has matched it for simplicity, flexibility and ubiquitousness. HTML is a markup language. An ordinary text document is "marked up" using special pairs of tags which tell a piece of software called a web browser how the text should be displayed. For example, a paragraph can be created in html by placing a special p tag at the start of the paragraph, and a matching end p tag at the end of the paragraph. We sometimes talk about "wrapping" text in p tags to create a paragraph. When text has been wrapped in paragraph tags, we describe that text as a paragraph element. We are then able to apply specific styling to that paragraph element using CSS which we will come to later. Tags come in pairs Tags generally come in pairs, a start tag and an end tag. A start tag looks like this: <p>. This tag means start a new paragraph. An end tag looks like this </p>. This tag means end your paragraph. <p>This is now a paragraph</p> Tags are placed before and after the text we want to wrap, so if you wanted to make a top level heading you might write <h1>Here is my heading</h1> Exercise - create a page - Create a file and save is as index.html. Type "Welcome to the Wonderful World of HTML" into it. - Open it in a web browser like Chrome and see what you have. Exercise - add some tags - Wrap the "Welcome" text in <h1> tags. - Add some paragraphs of text. Leave a double newline in between them. - Now wrap these paragraphs in <p> tags. See what you have?
A processor is an electronic circuit that carries out arithmetic and logic operations. The term microprocessor comes from the fact that the components are not distinct devices but are all incorporated in single integrated circuit. The processor can be imagined as the nerve centre of the computer. The main processors used in PCs are the Intel Pentium and the AMD Athlon. Derived terms: biprocessor, computer with two central processors, triprocessor, computer with three central processors; multiprocessor, computer with several central processors.
Artificial intelligence is poised to radically change education, according to Pearson’s 2016 report Intelligence Unleashed: An Argument for AI in Education. Though the report lists numerous ways in which recent advancements in educational AI programs are improving learning efficiency and outcomes, a section I found to be particularly thought-provoking highlights a few ways that artificial intelligence can provide intelligent support for collaborative learning. Collaborative learning involves assigning groups of students to work together to accomplish a single task or project. Much research has suggested that collaborative learning leads to improved learning outcomes when compared to individual work. A 2011 journal article titled Benefits of Collaborative Learning suggests that collaboration more actively involves students in the process of learning, leading to heightened effort and interest in completing schoolwork. The authors also describe how group work helps students develop higher level thinking skills, practice oral communication techniques, and reduce overall classroom anxiety. Effective collaboration among students rarely occurs automatically, though. As I’m sure many educators can attest to, facilitating group work can oftentimes be challenging, particularly in large classrooms with many groups of students working simultaneously. That’s where Pearson believes in the power of AI to facilitate this process – here’s how: Adaptive Group Formation – AI takes the guesswork out of forming groups. Adaptive group formation analyzes data on each student’s work style and past academic performance in order to divide students into groups that are well-balanced and properly equipped to accomplish the task at hand. In some situations, this could mean forming groups where all students are at a similar level of subject matter understanding. Alternatively, a teacher might decide the optimal group makeup consists of students of varying levels of academic performance, each bringing their own unique talents and interests to the group. Gone are the days of letting students form their own groups or leaving group formation up to chance – AI enables educators to effortlessly and intelligently divide students into optimally shaped groups. Expert Facilitation – AI facilitates better collaboration. AI systems can be trained to recognize effective collaboration strategies, then use that information to identify which groups are most frequently encountering difficulties in understanding certain concepts or ideas. This information can then be used by teachers to address lapses in effective collaboration, providing students with timely, targeted, on demand support. Intelligent Virtual Agents – AI can contribute to the conversation. One of the most exciting ways that artificial intelligence enhances collaborative learning is the integration of AI agents. By acting as either an expert participant (like a coach or teachers aide), a virtual peer, or someone for the student to teach, intelligent virtual agents can both mediate and meaningfully contribute to group work. This approach could be particularly useful in digital learning environments like games or online classes – the intelligent virtual agent working in conjunction with students, asking questions and providing new information when appropriate to help strengthen subject matter understanding among group participants. Intelligent Moderation – AI supports educators, too. It’s simply impossible for one teacher to listen in on the conversations of multiple collaborative groups at once. Intelligent moderation AI programs can monitor multiple discussions simultaneously, providing timely alerts to educators if a group’s conversation repeatedly goes off topic, or conversely if a group is progressing at a faster rate than their peers. Utilizing AI techniques like machine learning and shallow text processing, intelligent moderation empowers teachers in guiding their students towards fruitful collaboration. Intelligent support for collaborative learning is one of many ways in which artificial intelligence can benefit learners, educators, and administrators alike. For more on this topic I would highly recommend reading Pearson’s full Intelligence Unleashed report, which not only details more ways in which AI is impacting education today, but also dares to forecast how artificial intelligence will reshape the future of education. Want to read more about AI and machine learning? We’ve got you covered:
Billions of tiny bugs share our daily lives. They sample our food and drink, they experience the stresses we endure and they are affected by the illnesses we suffer. These bugs are the bacteria and their viruses that live in our guts. Their numbers are vast, topping 10 trillion; around 10 times greater than the number of cells that form our bodies. Although we’re making headway in understanding the impact of this microbial world on human health and disease, progress in farm animals and pets is more limited. This may be a reflection of research funding, but also perhaps due to the greater complexity of the intestinal environment especially in herbivores, such as cattle, sheep and horses. All horses and ponies are at risk of suffering from painful gut-associated conditions. The causes of these can be due to a number of reasons. The dependence on the microbes, the small core population and changes in the diet with resultant shifts in these microbes is often a large factor. Importantly, it is a cause that can be prevented through greater understanding and better management of the horses in our care. Horses eat different types of plant material. To maximise the access to the nutrients contained within, they are dependent on their microbial population. Alone, they are unable to produce the chemicals and enzymes needed to break down the fibrous plant cells. Therefore they have formed a partnership with the microscopic inhabitants of their gut. This allows the horse, as the host, to absorb the components that were previously inaccessible; locked in the cells. They even benefit from the by-products created when the bugs digest the plant material. If the horse failed to provide a constant environment for the microbes to live in, these specialised microorganisms wouldn’t survive. Without the microbes, the horse wouldn’t survive. The evolutionary value of this symbiotic relationship is seen in adaptations that have occurred in the digestive anatomy of horses. One of the major sites for microbes to ferment the food is in the caecum. This is part of the large intestine and has a volume of approximately 60 litres in a large horse. By contrast, in humans, the caecum is a small stretch of the large intestine measuring 3-8cm long. The remainder of the large intestine in the horse is also voluminous to maximise fermentation and nutrient absorption. Equids, like humans, are host to bacteria, archaea (single-celled organisms) and viruses, as well as protozoa and fungi. All of these play active roles in the fermentation of the food, but their exact contribution is still largely unknown. The proportions of these organisms differ between people and horses, but also between individual animals. Recent research has suggested that a “core” functional group of human gut bacteria can be found in healthy people despite geography or diet. But this group is disrupted when a person suffers from a metabolic disease. This raised the question as to whether this was also true in horses. A couple of equine studies found that although a core bacterial group could be found, the size and diversity was less than that reported for other species. The impact or reason for this is unknown. It may explain, however, why the equine large intestine is so vulnerable to dietary change, which rapidly effects the health of the host, such as through colic or laminitis. For many high-performance horses, the daily forage ration is complemented by starch-rich grains or energy dense plant-derived oils. Previous research has shown that starch-rich foods have a large impact on the composition of bacteria in the gut compared to a fibre based diet. A study funded by Waltham set about to compare a high fibre diet with two similar diets that were supplemented with grains or oil. The results showed that gut bacterial populations weren’t the same between the three diets. Overall the changes were greater with the starch-rich ration. This is because a bacterial population will change in response to the host eating different foods. This is true for horses and humans alike and is due to bacteria being specialised depending on their and the host’s food. For example, some bacteria are great at breaking down starch, whilst others rule when a diet is dominated by fibre. Whilst the presence of one type of microbial population rather than another may not affect the horse’s wellbeing, it is the potentially rapid change that can impact health. Colic, or gut pain, is one such example. Making gradual changes in the diet between high fibre forages as well as complementary feed can help to reduce the risk of such sudden changes in the microflora. Find out if you are feeding you horses enough hay here. Bacteria are the most numerous type of microbe in the equine gut. Scientists are beginning to understand their role and how diet can influence this population. But one of the first obstacles to overcome was sampling this specialised ecosystem. It wasn’t clear whether bacteria sampled from the faeces reflected those living within different parts of the digestive tract. Initial work from a collaboration between Aberystwyth University and Waltham compared digesta samples from the digestive tract of horses that had been euthanised for non-research purposes. They found that, as in humans, the last part of the small intestine (ileum) had a lower diversity of bacterial species compared to the large intestine. The microbial populations sampled from the caecum, a digestive cul-de-sac, were different to those from various locations in the colon, which has a unidirectional flow. The microbes found in the faeces were also not the same as the caecum. However, similarities were found between the bacterial population in the right ventral colon (another major site of fermentation) and the faeces. We can all see that one pony doesn’t look the same as the next. But this is also true of the microbes that live in their guts. In fact, even in the same pony on the same diet, these populations can change over time. Over a period of 12 to 72 hours, the bacteria found in an individual's faeces were very similar. However, after 6 to 12 weeks, the type of bacteria and their numbers had shifted, despite the horses being fed the same diet. Over much larger time scales, changes have been seen. As with humans, ageing in horses has also been shown to be associated with a reduction in the diversity of the bacteria present.
Ranging in color from snow white to turquoise, sea ice lined the shoreline in eastern Greenland in mid-June 2000. NASA’s Landsat 7 satellite acquired this image on June 16, 2000, shortly before the summer solstice when the Arctic enjoyed near round-the-clock sunshine. Although snow and ice abound in this image, both are in retreat for the summer. Snowcaps form dendritic patterns on the brown landscape, leaving south-facing slopes especially bare. Around the Hold with Hope promontory, fast ice clings to the shoreline. Common over shallow ocean waters along shorelines, fast ice holds fast to the shore and/or sea bottom, not moving with winds or currents. Off the coast, pieces of bright white sea ice float on the sea surface, able to move with forces that don’s affect the fast ice. Much of the fast ice in this image is blue, especially in the fjord north of Hold with Hope. Summer melt often lends ice a blue color due to water saturation. In addition, this ice could be what is known as blue ice, or ice composed of large crystals. Light that is visible to human eyes is composed of three basic components: red, green, and blue. Pure ice absorbs a miniscule amount of red light, reflecting slightly more green and blue light. This red-light absorption is lost in the noise of tiny snow crystals—the same way a piece of colored hard candy might appear white if it were pulverized. Large ice crystals make the red-light absorption visible to human eyes—just as sufficiently large pieces of glass would show a very subtle tint. The relentless action of wind can transform snow crystals to large ice crystals. Away from the coast, snakes of ice make their way through inland fjords, and some of this ice is also blue. NASA image created by Jesse Allen, using Landsat data provided by the United States Geological Survey. Caption by Michon Scott, based on image interpretation by Ted Scambos, National Snow and Ice Data Center.
Word journeys : assessment-guided phonics, spelling, and vocabulary instruction - Ganske, Kathy. - Second edition. - New York, NY : The Guilford Press, - Copyright notice - Physical description - xii, 420 pages : illustrations ; 27 cm LB1574.5 .G25 2014 - Unknown LB1574.5 .G25 2014 - Includes bibliographical references (pages 405-412) and index. - I. Understanding Word Study Contexts. 1. Word Study: Reading, Writing, and Language Connections. II. Understanding Children's Word Knowledge. 2. A Developmental Perspective. 3. Assessing Word Knowledge: The Developmental Spelling Analysis. III. Fostering Children's Word Knowledge. 4. Planning Appropriate and Engaging Instruction. 5. Letter Name Word Study. 6. Within Word Pattern Word Study. 7. Syllable Juncture Word Study. 8. Derivational Constancy Word Study. 9. Questions and Answers. Appendix 1. Supplemental Word Lists. Appendix 2. Reproducible Forms. Resources. Glossary. - (source: Nielsen Book Data) - Publisher's Summary - This trusted teacher resource and course text provides a comprehensive approach to assessing and building children's word knowledge (grades K-8) Kathy Ganske shows how carefully planned word study can improve students' reading and writing skills while fostering their appreciation of language. Complete instructions are provided for implementing the Developmental Spelling Analysis (DSA), an easy-to-use assessment tool, and for tailoring instruction to learners' strengths and weaknesses. Numerous word lists, student work samples, and "Literature Links" are included, along with 24 reproducible forms.The large-size format facilitates photocopying. Purchasers also get access to a Web page where they can download and print the reproducible materials. New to This Edition: Addresses the Common Core State Standards. Incorporates additional activities and technology tips, plus updated research findings. Chapter explaining the meaning of word study and its role in literacy instruction, including "Researcher Voices" perspectives from noted experts. Ideas for making the most of small-group instructional time. Expanded "Literature Links" book lists, now including informational texts. DSA answer sheets have been enhanced for easier scoring and several new reproducibles added See also the companion volumes from Ganske, Word Sorts and More: Sound, Pattern, and Meaning Explorations K-3 and Mindful of Words: Spelling and Vocabulary Explorations 4-8, which provide a wealth of ready-to-use word study activities. (source: Nielsen Book Data) - Publication date - Copyright date - Kathy Ganske.
Seafarers have always respected the power of wind and water. This is especially the case during storms at sea, where ships run the risk of damage or sinking from strong winds and high seas. Large and powerful storms, referred to as "closed cyclonic circulations," are especially dangerous and have caused massive destruction throughout all of recorded history. Cyclonic storms develop when an advancing cold front pushes into a region of lighter, warmer air. As the warm air is pushed away, the resulting low atmospheric pressure will sometimes create complex wind storms that spiral in toward the center of the disturbance. These storms primarily develop in low pressure areas over tropical or sub-tropical waters. The warm temperatures and the spiraling effects of the winds combine to create the huge storms that periodically sweep the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. They generally develop in different regions only at certain times of the year: in the northern hemisphere, tropical cyclones--with winds that spin counterclockwise--develop between May and November, while in the southern hemisphere-- where the winds spin clockwise--they are generally found between December and June. When wind speeds are below 34 knots (a knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile or approximately 1.15 statute miles per hour), these cyclonic circulations are called "tropical depressions." When sustained winds reach between 34 and 63 knots, the resulting wave, cloud, and wave conditions become more threatening and are called "tropical storms." If the atmospheric pressure at the center of these storms continues to drop, the cloud and rain patterns form into narrow bands, and wind speeds can increase to 64 knots or greater. This pattern often spawns pounding rain, violent thunder, and terrific lightning. These tremendously powerful storms, which develop within a small 50-mile radius, can mature into tropical cyclones with winds of 150 miles per hour and a diameter of 400 miles or more. In the Atlantic basin, large storms of this type are called "hurricanes," a term that echoes Spanish and Caribbean Indian words for evil spirits and huge winds. In the eastern Pacific off Central and South America the storms are often referred to as "cordonazos"--meaning to strike with a cord or rope. In Hawaii, they are called "tainos," in the Philippines they are "baguios," the Australians call them "willy-willy's," and in the Indian Ocean they are referred to as "cyclones." Their most famous name is found across the western Pacific, where these awesome storms are called "typhoons." The Navy's experience with these and similar storms is as old as the service itself. The Continental sloop Saratoga was probably the first ship lost to a storm, destroyed off the Bahamas with all her crew on 18 March 1781. The old adage, "Red sky at night, sailor's delight; Red sky in morning, sailors take warning;" was as common as it was true. Before the civil war, the Navy lost at least fourteen ships--usually with their entire crews--to weather disasters on the open ocean. Bad weather and rough seas could strike anywhere, with the fledgling Navy losing three gunboats in the Chesapeake Bay, and a schooner in Lake Ontario, between 1810 and 1813. As the Navy began sailing into the Pacific Ocean, warships began encountering dangerous typhoons. These storms were especially dangerous because, in the days before the telegraph, radio, or radar, sailors did not know a storm was nearby until it appeared on the horizon. It was often then too late, as when brig USS Porpoise, and at least 62 sailors, disappeared during a typhoon somewhere between Formosa and China in September 1854. Although the advent of steam power, by enabling the warship to head into the wind, helped reduce the danger these storms posed, losses still occurred. In addition to storm losses, such as the wrecking of three Navy ships at Apia, Samoa, during a powerful storm on 15-16 March 1889, huge destructive waves (called tsunamis) caused by storms or undersea earthquakes could also sink ships. Even with the advent of wireless (radio) communications, and the weather warning advantage this technology conferred, disasters could still strike without warning. Armored cruiser No. 10 USS Memphis (ex-USS Tennessee) was driven ashore and totally wrecked by a tidal wave at Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic on 29 August 1916, killing 41 and leaving 204 injured. The loss of the collier USS Cyclops, which vanished with all 306 on board after departing Barbados on 4 March 1918, remains a mystery to this day. Some have speculated that a storm might have sunk her. No specific proof for her loss has ever been found. Patrol vessel USS Eagle, while making passage up the Delaware River on 11 June 1920, was struck by a squall and capsized, drowning nine sailors. By the time of the Second World War, the Navy relied on a system of ground observers, aircraft patrols, and aereological reports to provide weather and storm warnings. Still, the conflict between military necessity and possible weather damage to ships trying to carry out operations, meant storm losses were unavoidable. In addition to storms that sank merchant ships, scattered convoys, and damaged service craft off ports and beaches, the Navy lost three ships to storms in the Atlantic--on 18 February 1942, destroyer USS Truxtun (DD-229) and stores issue ship USS Pollux (AKS-2) were driven ashore during a storm in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland--killing 204 sailors--and the destroyer USS Warrington (DD-383) sank off Florida--drowning 248--during a great Atlantic hurricane on 13 September 1944. Even more dramatic were the three great typhoons that struck the Pacific Fleet in December 1944, and June and October 1945. The first two typhoons illustrate the dangers inherent in trying to carry out military operations. On 18 December 1944, numerous ships of the Pacific Fleet were caught by a typhoon of extreme violence while operating in support of the invasion of the Philippines. Three destroyers capsized with the loss of almost all hands and nine other warships were seriously damaged. Approximately 790 officers and men were killed and 146 planes were smashed, burned, or swept overboard. On 5 June 1945, during operations against Japanese airfields on Kyushu, Task Groups 30.8 and 38.1 passed through a typhoon southeast of Okinawa. Seven ships suffered severe injury, including heavy cruiser USS Pittsburgh (CA-72) which lost her bow and major flight deck damage to four aircraft carriers. Remarkably, although 76 aircraft were lost, only six men were killed. Perhaps the most intriguing storm occurred on 9 October, when a typhoon veered north from Formosa and passed very near Okinawa and the major fleet anchorage at Buckner Bay [Nakagusuku Wan]. The sudden shift in the storm's direction caught the bay full of amphibious shipping, ranging in size from large cargo ships to very small landing craft. Heavy seas sank 12 ships and drove 222 others ashore, almost three dozen more were damaged by collisions. The hurricane force winds also savaged installations ashore, wiping out tent camps, blowing down Quonset huts, destroying food stocks and other supplies. By 18 October, casualty estimates put the toll at 36 dead and 47 missing. If the war in the Pacific had not ended the previous month, this storm would have had dramatic effects on the planned invasion of the Japanese Home Islands. Although cyclonic storms continue to effect Navy operations to this day, advances in satellite imagery, radar mapping, and communications have reduced the risks to ships at sea. A description of Navy readiness policies during severe storms is contained in OPNAV INSTRUCTION 3140.24E. (available in PDF format at the Navy's Instructions and Directives website) The instruction contains information on types of storms and the action required by commanders in response to storms in their area. As of 2000, the Navy relies on a series of eight Atlantic, Mediterranean, Indian and Pacific Ocean Meteorology and Oceanography Centers (METOC) to provide timely weather information to the fleet. Ships at sea can therefore be given ample warning to avoid severe weather while ships in port can put to sea if surge conditions become too dangerous. The Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command is also a good source on Navy-related weather information. 23 September 2005 Related Typhoons and Hurricanes Sources: Hurricanes and the War of 1812: Documents on Selected Storms Affecting Naval Operations Samoan Hurricane by Rear Admiral L. A. Kimberly, USN Typhoons and Hurricanes: Pacific Typhoon, 18 December 1944 Typhoons and Hurricanes : Pacific Typhoon June 1945 Typhoons and Hurricanes: Pacific Typhoon at Okinawa, October 1945 Typhoons and Hurricanes: The Storm at Apia, Samoa, 15-16 March 1889
Listen to today's episode of StarDate on the web the same day it airs in high-quality streaming audio without any extra ads or announcements. Choose a $8 one-month pass, or listen every day for a year for just $30. You are here Moon and Jupiter Jupiter is the giant of our solar system — 11 times wider than Earth, and more massive than all the other planets combined. And thanks to that great bulk, if astronomers in other star systems are looking for planets around the Sun, Jupiter is likely to be the first one they find. Astronomers here on Earth use two major techniques to find planets in other star systems. One looks for a planet to pass in front of its star, making the star just a tiny bit dimmer for a few hours. So if Jupiter happens to align in such a way that other star systems could see it cross the Sun, they’d see the Sun’s brightness drop by about one percent. The other technique looks for a tiny “wobble” in a star’s light as the result of a planet’s gravitational tug. This technique has yielded many planets, including quite a few that are bigger and heavier than Jupiter, and in much tighter orbits around their stars. Jupiter is heavy enough to cause a wobble in the Sun’s light that could be detected by instruments here on Earth. It might be difficult to actually see Jupiter, though. The planet is much fainter than the Sun, so it would be tough to see through the Sun’s glare. Jupiter is no problem to see from here, though. Tonight, it rises in the wee hours of the morning, and stands well above the Moon at first light. It’s the brightest object in the sky at that hour other than the Moon, so you can’t miss it. We’ll talk about the Moon and another planet tomorrow. Script by Damond Benningfield, Copyright 2013
Squirrels are found in many regions of the world, including Europe, Asia and the Americas. There are many varieties of squirrel, and some species have at times been considered endangered or threatened. Today the most common varieties are the grey squirrel, western grey squirrel, red squirrel and California ground squirrel. Squirrels are primarily diurnal, gathering food during the day and resting at night. They generally are less active during the winter but do not hibernate. Behavior and Feeding Squirrels are forest dwellers. They primarily eat nuts and seeds, but will also eat berries, fungus and insects. Squirrels horde food in small amounts in several locations when it's abundant. Some caches of seeds are never recovered and instead become seedlings. Squirrels construct their nests out of twigs and leaves, with grass and leaves lining the inside. They will place these nets, known as dreys, along branches or on buildings. Squirrels may have multiple dreys, and may also use holes in tree trunks and stumps as temporary shelters. There are two varieties of drey; one is an open platform just used for sleeping, and the other is a covered shelter used for birthing and raising young. Some varieties of squirrels, such as ground squirrels, may dig burrows or build dreys in low, concealed locations. Squirrels are highly territorial and vocal. They are especially noisy during mating season, and they generally breed twice a year. Some species of squirrels may claim as much as 10 hectares of territory. Because of the high density of squirrels in most habitats, there is sometimes significant territory overlap. Squirrels mark their territory with urine and tail-waving displays, and they may bark warning calls at passing intruders, including humans. Most squirrels live in colonies or groups, but some, like the grey squirrel, are solitary creatures. Squirrels have many predators, but their main threats are habitat loss and human competition. The western grey squirrel was considered a threatened species due to disease and road-kill, though its population has recovered. Habitats suffer from urbanization and wild fires, and the intrusion of foreign plants such as scotch broom prevents the regrowth of squirrels' natural habitats. - Ablestock.com/AbleStock.com/Getty Images
Ptolemy is the English name for Claudius Ptolemaeus. He was a Greek who probably lived and worked in Alexandria, in Egypt. He lived from about 85 to 165 A.D. He is famous for his work on astronomy and geography. Very little is known about his personal life. He was an astronomer, mathematician, and geographer. He described in his writing the Greek or geocentric view of the universe. The Greeks thought that the Earth was the center of the universe. He also thought out and described the apparent motions of the planets as they were known in his time. Ptolemy explained and extended Hipparchus's system of epicycles and eccentric circles to explain his geocentric (Earth-centered) theory of the solar system. Ptolemy's system involved at least 80 epicycles to explain the motions of the Sun, the Moon, and the five planets known in his time. He believed the planets and sun moved around the Earth in this order: Mercury, Venus,Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. This system became known as the Ptolemaic system. It predicts the positions of the planets accurately enough for naked-eye observations, so it seemed accurate at the time. This is described in his book Mathematical Syntaxis (widely called the Almagest), a thirteen-book mathematical treatment of the phenomena of astronomy. It contains a wide variety of information ranging from earth conceptions to sun, moon, and star movement as well as eclipses and an explanation of the length of months. The Almagest also included a star catalog containing 48 constellations, using the names we still use today. In addition to his well known works in astronomy, Claudius Ptolemy was very important in the history of geography and cartography (Making maps). He was influential up to the 16th century when his ideas were disproved by Nicolaus Copernicus. Ptolemy of course knew that the Earth is a sphere. Ptolemy's is the first known projection of the sphere onto a plane. His Geography remained the main work on the subject until the time of Christopher Columbus. But he had Asia extending much too far east, which may have been a factor in Columbus's decision to try to reach India by sailing west from Europe. The Ptolemaic explanation of the motions of the planets remained the accepted wisdom until the Polish scholar Copernicus proposed a heliocentric view, or sun-centered view in 1543. It should be noted, too, that Ptolemy's system is actually more accurate than Copernicus's. The heliocentric formulation does not improve on Ptolemy's until Kepler's Laws are also added. Ptolemy may not actually have believed in the reality of his system. He may have thought of it only as a method of calculating positions. Ptolemy's 150 CE World Map (redrawn in the 15th century). \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ptolemy\|
Tonging and tweezing transfer activities help to stregthen the fine motor muscles in the hand and the "pincher" grasp a child needs in order to hold a pencil properly for handwriting. This tweezing activity also allows children to sort beads by color and shape. The six compartment ceramic tray is just a tea light candle holder from the dollar store. In this activity children can use "practice chopsticks" to sort colored pasta into bowls. This activity uses small scissor tweezers to pull corn kernals from a dried cob of corn. We then grind the kernals for corn meal or use whole kernals for collage work in the art area. TIP: I always ask my friends to think of our classroom when they clean out thier kitchen drawers. Many people have utensils and containers they rarely use but are ideal for making work in the classroom.
A switch responds to an external force to mechanically change an electric signal. Switches are used to turn electric circuits ON and OFF and to switch electric circuits. 1. Circuit ON/OFF Operation - The contacts are separated while the switch is not pressed, so the circuit is not connected and the lamp is not lit. - When the switch is pressed, the contacts come into contact, closing the circuit and lighting the lamp. 2. Circuit Switching Operation - While the switch is not operated, the lamp on circuit L1 is lit. - When the switch is pressed, the circuit is switched so that the lamp on circuit L2 is lit.
Please read the pages on Background on Atoms We have seen that atoms are made of negatively charged electron clouds bound to the positively charged nucleus. In solids the atoms come relatively close to each other. These atoms tend to balance the repulsive forces of the electron clouds of different atoms with the attractive forces of electrons and nuclei of neighboring atoms. In some conducting solids, such as metals, certain atomic electrons called valance electrons become free to move from one atomic site to another. But even these orphan electrons are bound to the solid as a whole. However, when light falls on a metal it can remove valance electrons from its surface and lead to an electric current. This is called photoelectric effect. This phenomena was first discovered by Hertz in early 19th century, but its full explanation did not take place until Einstein applied Planck's photon picture of light to this problem. Experimentally observed aspects of this phenomena were: If the only effect of the light was to provide extra energy for the electron to eject from the metal, then one would expect that photocurrent would depend on the intensity of the light. The more light, the more energy it has to impart to the electron. But this was not at all what the experiment verified. Also, if the light was not intense enough, one would expect that it was a matter of time for the energy it provided that the electron would gain sufficient energy to leave the metal surface. But this also was not the case, as the process was almost instantaneous (occurred in 10 -9 s). Einstein's explanation was based on Planck's radiation theory with a slight twist: light is quantized. Light of frequency f is made of quantized photons each of energy Ephoton = h fphoton , where h has a value of 6.63x10-34 J.s = 4.136x10-15 eV.s independent of the light, and is therefore known as the Planck's constant. So red light is made of photons that are weaker than the photons that make up blue light. A stream of red light, albeit of high intensity, may not have enough per photon energy to get an electron free from the metal surface. This is indeed what quantization is all about! Another experimental evidence for quantization of energy is in the discrete nature of atomic spectra. When light emitted from a single species of atom is put through a diffraction grating or prism instead of all a continuum of colors only a few very discrete set of colors are observed. Because the emitted light (photon) carries energy away from the atom, then it seems that atoms can get excited not to any energy, but to discrete energy levels. Professor Dean Zollman and his Physics Education research group at Kansas State University have developed software that help visualize this concept. Try their web site on atomic emission spectra. See if you can reproduce the observed spectra of hydrogen atom by making transitions among quantized energy state of hydrogen. As we discussed earlier, waves carry energy and momentum through the propagation of a disturbance. Particles carry energy and momentum by traveling from one point to another themselves. But a very important difference between waves and particles is that, until early in the 20th century, only waves were observed to exhibited the phenomena of diffraction and interference. As we have already discussed diffraction is the phenomena of bending of the wave as it strikes an obstacle or an opening. Interference is when two waves interact to form a new wave form. Unlike two particles that bounce back from each other in a head-on collision, waves pass through each other. In the region that they overlap, they form a new disturbance pattern, i.e. a new wave form. It was observed that electrons, which were known to be particles also exhibited diffraction. So, it was suggested that perhaps all particles could also act as waves. It was deBroglie who suggested that any object can be represented as a wave with a wavelength given by: l=wavelength = (Planck's constant)/(object's momentum) where, as we've seen, Planck's constant = h = 6.63x10-34 J.s, and the objects momentum is a product of its mass with its speed. For example, a tennis ball that is traveling at a speed, v, of 30 m/s and has a mass, m, of about 0.2 kg has a momentum, p, that has a value of: ptennis ball = m v = (0.2) (30) = 6 kg.m/s So, the wavelength of the ball is: l= (6.63x10-34 )/6 = 1.105x10-34 m, this value is smaller than any distance that we can measure! However, an atomic particle, say an electron, can have a wavelength with a "meaningful" value! Try calculating the wavelength of an electron that is moving at 100 m/s. Use the fact that electrons have a mass of 9.11x10-31 kg. Last Modified: Wednesday, September 12, 2007 [email protected]
Holes that open up in the ice pack in Antarctica are nothing new. They’re called polynyas, and they can be caused near coastlines by warmer water or wind. Scientists have recently identified a polynya in Antarctica that is hundreds of kilometers inland, an unusual place for a polynya to form. It’s also roughly the size of the state of Maine (over 35,000 square miles). They also note that it is at the same location where a polynya formed in the 1970s, but at that time, they weren’t able to study it very well–due to its location, they wouldn’t have even realized it was there without satellite imagery. This same spot also opened up last year, for a few weeks. So there’s definitely something unusual at work here, though the recurrence of this polynya in the same location suggests that the explanation may simply be something that has not been well studied previously. Although Antarctica has undergone many changes as a result of the Earth’s changing climate, the scientists studying this phenomenon do not believe that this polynya can be blamed on climate change, but it may have its own effect on the nearby oceans. To read more about this polynya, check out this article!
Turtles are reptiles that are easy to recognize by their two-part shell: the carapace and plastron, and by a rigid corneal beak to help feeding. They do not have teeth, unlike most vertebrates. WCS-Brazil decided to focus on conservation of Amazonian river turtles, especially the five species of the Podocnemididae family (described below), because they are threatened species due to high demand for their eggs and meat. Turtles are a traditional source of protein for forest communities, but if unbridled consumption and environmental change resulting from human activities were to continue, the future of this group would be uncertain. WCS focal species in the Podocnemididae family: Giant South American River Turtle (Podocnemis expansa): this is considered the largest species of the genus Podocnemis, reaching up to 90 cm in length and a weight of 65 kg. They are omnivores,but prefer leaves, fruit and stems. They lay 100 – 150 eggs per year in high beaches of coarse sand. Yellow-spotted River Turtle (Podocnemis unifilis): this is considered the most common species of the genus. They reach 50 cm in length and a weight of 12 kg, and the juveniles and adult males have yellow markings on their heads. They are omnivores, but prefer fruit, seeds and stems. They lay on average 30 egg sin different places, such as beaches, clay banks and among fallen leaves. Six-tubercled Amazon River Turtle (Podocnemis sextuberculata): this is one of the smallest species in the Podocnemis genus, reaching 34 cm in length and a weight of 3.5 kg. The young can be distinguished from other species by the presence of six tubercles on the plastron, which disappear in adults. They are mainly herbivorous, eating grasses. They lay an average of 16 eggs on beaches. Red-headed Amazon River Turtle (Podocnemiserythrocephala): this is considered to be the smallest of the genus Podocnemis, reaching 34 cm in length and a weight of 2.8 kg. The young and adults have red markings on their heads. Their preferred food is fruit and seeds. They lay around eight eggs in sandy areas(campina) and beaches of clear water and, especially, black water. Big-headed Amazon River Turtle(Peltocephalus dumeriliana): unlike other members of the Podocnemididae family,the males are larger than the females, reaching 50 cm in length and a weight of 11 kg. They have a large head and mouths shaped like parrot beaks. They live in deep areas of rivers and creeks. They lay on average 16 large eggs in nests in the banks of forest creeks. Globally there are around 330 turtle species, of which between 48 and 54% of species are threatened by some sort of human activity. This means that the group is among the most threatened of vertebrates. In the Brazilian Amazon the level of threat is similar to the rest of the world, in that only five of the sixteen species are not considered threatened, probably because of a lack of information on them (Rinoclemys punctularia, Phrynopsraniceps, P. gibbus, Platemys platycephala and Rhinemys rufipes). Among the threatened species in the Brazilian Amazon, the Podocnemididae family stands out, due to the unbridled consumption of eggs and meat ever since Portuguese colonization of the nineteenth century,especially along the Amazon River, Madeira River and Rio Negro. Just in the region of the town of Tefé,around 58 million Giant South American River Turtle eggs were harvested every year for consumption and oil to light the town (Bates, 1979; Klemens &Thorbjarnarson, 1995). River turtles inhabit both aquatic and terrestrial areas. Where they occur they are responsible for various ecological processes such as seed dispersal. Their varied diet includes plants (leaves,fruits and seeds), insects, fish and dead matter, and they are part of complex food webs, both as predators and prey, as they are eaten by caiman, large fish,mammals, birds and other animals. Thus the group is important for nutrient cycling (transforming live and dead organic matter into animal protein) in the forest and aquatic environments. By consuming large amounts of dead material they act as ‘cleaners’ of the rivers.
Machines that are much smaller than the width of a human hair could one day help clean up carbon dioxide pollution in the oceans. Nanoengineers at the University of California, San Diego have designed enzyme-functionalized micromotors that rapidly zoom around in water, remove carbon dioxide and convert it into a usable solid form. The proof of concept study represents a promising route to mitigate the buildup of carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas in the environment, said researchers. The team, led by distinguished nanoengineering professor and chair Joseph Wang, published the work this month in the journal Angewandte Chemie. “We’re excited about the possibility of using these micromotors to combat ocean acidification and global warming,” said Virendra V. Singh, a postdoctoral scientist in Wang’s research group and a co-first author of this study. In their experiments, nanoengineers demonstrated that the micromotors rapidly decarbonated water solutions that were saturated with carbon dioxide. Within five minutes, the micromotors removed 90 percent of the carbon dioxide from a solution of deionized water. The micromotors were just as effective in a sea water solution and removed 88 percent of the carbon dioxide in the same timeframe. “In the future, we could potentially use these micromotors as part of a water treatment system, like a water decarbonation plant,” said Kevin Kaufmann, an undergraduate researcher in Wang’s lab and a co-author of the study. The micromotors are essentially six-micrometer-long tubes that help rapidly convert carbon dioxide into calcium carbonate, a solid mineral found in eggshells, the shells of various marine organisms, calcium supplements and cement. The micromotors have an outer polymer surface that holds the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which speeds up the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form bicarbonate. Calcium chloride, which is added to the water solutions, helps convert bicarbonate to calcium carbonate. The fast and continuous motion of the micromotors in solution makes the micromotors extremely efficient at removing carbon dioxide from water, said researchers. The team explained that the micromotors’ autonomous movement induces efficient solution mixing, leading to faster carbon dioxide conversion. To fuel the micromotors in water, researchers added hydrogen peroxide, which reacts with the inner platinum surface of the micromotors to generate a stream of oxygen gas bubbles that propel the micromotors around. When released in water solutions containing as little as two to four percent hydrogen peroxide, the micromotors reached speeds of more than 100 micrometers per second. However, the use of hydrogen peroxide as the micromotor fuel is a drawback because it is an extra additive and requires the use of expensive platinum materials to build the micromotors. As a next step, researchers are planning to make carbon-capturing micromotors that can be propelled by water. “If the micromotors can use the environment as fuel, they will be more scalable, environmentally friendly and less expensive,” said Kaufmann.
HOW DOES THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM WORK? Male Reproductive System Male fertility depends on the proper function of a complex system of organs and hormones: - The process begins in the area of the brain called the hypothalamus-pituitary axis , a system of glands, hormones, and chemical messengers called neurotransmitters, which are critical for reproduction. - The first step in fertility is the production of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in the hypothalamus, which prompts the pituitary gland to manufacture follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) . - FSH maintains sperm production and LH stimulates the production of the male hormone testosterone. - Both sperm and testosterone production occurs in the two testicles, or testes, which are contained in the scrotal sac (the scrotum). (This sac develops on the outside of the body because normal body temperature is too high to allow sperm production.) Sperm are manufactured in several hundred microscopic tubes, known as seminiferous tubules, which make-up most of the testicles. Surrounding these tubules are clumps of tissue containing so-called Leydig cells . Here, testosterone is manufactured. Sperm Development. The life cycle of sperm consists of a remarkable journey that depends on hormonal signals combined with a mechanical process. It takes about 74 days: - Sperm begin partially embedded in nurturing amoebae-like cells known as a Sertoli cell s, which are located in the lower parts of the seminiferous tubules. - As they mature and move along, they are stored in the upper part of the tubules. Young sperm cells are known as spermatids. - When the sperm has completed the development of its head and tail, they are released from the cell into the epididymis. This remarkable C-shaped tube is 1/300 of an inch in diameter and about 20 feet long. It loops back and forth on itself within a space of only about one and a half inches long. The sperm's journey through the epididymis takes about three weeks. - The fluid in which the sperm is transported contains sugar in the form of fructose, which provides energy as the sperm matures. In the early stages of its passage, the sperm cannot swim in a forward direction and can only vibrate its tail weakly. By the time the sperm reaches the end of the epididymis, however, it is mature and looks like a microscopic squirming tadpole. - At maturity, each healthy sperm consists of a head that contains the man's genetic material, his DNA, and a tail that lashes back and forth at great speed to propel the head forward at about four times its own length every second. The ability of a sperm to move forward rapidly and straight is probably the most significant determinant of male fertility. Ejaculation. When a man experiences sexual excitement, nerves stimulate the muscles in the epididymis to contract, which forces the sperm out through the penis: - The sperm first pass from the epididymis into one of two rigid and wire-like muscular channels, called the vasa deferentia. (A single channel is called a vas deferens .) - Muscle contractions in the vas deferens from sexual activity propel the sperm along past the seminal vesicles, which are clusters of tissue that contribute fluid, called seminal fluid, to the sperm. The vas deferens also collects fluid from the nearby prostate gland . This mixture of various fluids and sperm is the semen. - Each vas deferens then joins together to form the ejaculatory duct. This duct, which now contains the sperm-containing semen, passes down through the urethra. (The urethra is the same channel in the penis through which a man urinates, but during orgasm, the prostate closes off the bladder so urine cannot enter the urethra.) - The semen is forced through the urethra during ejaculation, the final stage of orgasm when the sperm is literally shot out of the penis. Semen. In addition to providing the fluid that transports the sperm, semen also has other benefits: - It provides a very short-lived alkaline environment to protect sperm from the harsh acidity of the female vagina. (If the sperm do not reach the woman's cervix within several hours, the semen itself becomes toxic to sperm and they die.) - It contains a gelatin-like substance that prevents it from draining from the vagina too quickly. - It contains sugar in the form of fructose to provide instant energy for sperm locomotion. The Path to the Egg. Usually about 100 to 300 million sperm are delivered into the ejaculate at any given time, but, even under normal conditions, only about 15% are healthy enough to fertilize an egg. In any case, after ejaculation only about 400 sperm survive the orgasm to complete the journey. - A mere 40 or so sperm survive the toxicity of the semen and the hostile environment of the vagina to reach the vicinity of the egg. - Sperm that manage to reach the mucous lining in the woman's cervix (the lower part of her uterus) must survive about four more days to reach the woman's fallopian tubes. (Here, the egg is positioned for fertilization for only 12-hours each month.) - Normally, the cervical mucus forms an impenetrable barrier to sperm. However, when a women ovulates (releases her egg , the oocyte ), the mucous lining thins to allow sperm penetration. - After the few remaining sperm finally penetrate the cervical mucus, they become capacitated. - Capacitation is a one time explosion of energy that signals a cascade of events, including boosting the motion of the sperm and triggering the actions of the acrosome, a membrane filled with enzymes, which covers the head of the sperm and resembles a warhead. - Dissolving the acrosome is a critical result of the capacitation process. Enzymes in the acrosome are then released that allow the sperm to drill a hole through the tough outer coating of the egg (the corona cells and zona pellucida ). - And, in the end, only one gets through to fertilize the egg.
A maser is a device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves through amplification due to stimulated emission. Historically the term came from the acronym "Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation", although modern masers emit over a broad portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. This has led some to replace "microwave" with "molecular" in the acronym, as suggested by Townes. When optical coherent oscillators were first developed, they were called optical masers, but it has become more common to refer to these as lasers. See the section on terminology below for more on this. Theoretically, reflecting principles previously discussed by Joseph Weber at the June 1952 conference of the Institute of Radio Engineers , the principle of the maser was described by Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov from Lebedev Institute of Physics at an All-Union Conference on Radio-Spectroscopy held by USSR Academy of Sciences in May 1952. They subsequently published their results in October 1954. Independently, Charles H. Townes , J. P. Gordon, and H. J. Zeiger built the first maser at Columbia University in 1953. The device used stimulated emission in a stream of energized ammonia molecules to produce amplification of microwaves at a frequency of 24 gigahertz . Townes later worked with Arthur L. Schawlow to describe the principle of the optical maser , or laser , which Theodore H. Maiman first demonstrated in 1960. For their research in this field Townes, Basov, and Prokhorov were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics The maser is based on the principle of stimulated emission proposed by Albert Einstein in 1917. When atoms have been put into an excited energy state, they can amplify radiation at the proper frequency. By putting such an amplifying medium in a resonant cavity , feedback is created that can produce coherent radiation Some common types of masers - Atomic beam masers - Gas masers - Solid State masers The dual noble gas maser is an example of a masing medium which is nonpolar. Masers serve as high precision frequency references. These "atomic frequency standards" are one form of atomic clock . They are also used as electronic amplifiers in radio telescopes Today, the most important type of maser is the hydrogen maser which is currently used as an atomic frequency standard. Together with other types of atomic clocks, they constitute the "Temps Atomique International" or TAI. This is the international time scale, which is coordinated by the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, or BIPM. It was Norman Ramsey and his colleagues who first realized this device. Today's masers are identical to the original design. The maser oscillation relies on stimulated emission between two hyperfine levels of atomic hydrogen. Here is a brief description of how it works: - First, a beam of atomic hydrogen is produced. This is done by submitting the gas at low pressure to an RF discharge (see the picture on this page). - The next step is "state selection"—in order to get some stimulated emission, it is necessary to create a population inversion of the atoms. This is done in a way that is very similar to the famous Stern-Gerlach experiment. After passing through an aperture and a magnetic field, many of the atoms in the beam are left in the upper energy level of the lasing transition. From this state, the atoms can decay to the lower state and emit some microwave radiation. - A high quality factor microwave cavity confines the microwaves and reinjects them repeatedly into the atom beam. The stimulated emission amplifies the microwaves on each pass through the beam. This combination of amplification and feedback is what defines all oscillators. The resonant frequency of the microwave cavity is exactly tuned to the hyperfine structure of hydrogen: 1420 405 751.768 Hz. - A small fraction of the signal in the microwave cavity is coupled into a coaxial cable and then sent to a coherent receiver. - The microwave signal coming out of the maser is very weak (a few pW). The frequency of the signal is fixed but extremely stable. The coherent receiver is used to amplify the signal and change the frequency. This is done using a series of phase-locked loops and a high performance quartz oscillator. Stimulated microwave and radio wave emission is observed in astronomy , and this is usually called "masing", even in the absence of the resonant feedback that would be required for a true maser. Technically this form of stimulated emission is called superradiant emission , and it is closely associated with lasing and masing. Such emission is observed from molecules such as water O), hydroxyl radicals O), and silicon monoxide Maser-like stimulated emission also occurs in nature in interstellar space. Water molecules in star-forming regions can undergo a population inversion and emit radiation at 22 GHz, creating the brightest spectral line in the radio universe. Some water masers also emit radiation from a vibrational mode at 96 GHz. The meaning of the term maser has changed slightly since its introduction. Initially the acronym was universally given as "microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation," which described devices which emitted in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum . The principle of stimulated emission has since been extended to more devices and frequencies, and so the original acronym is sometimes modified, as suggested by Charles H. Townes , to "molecular amplification by stimulated emission of radiation." Some have asserted that Townes's efforts to extend the acronym in this way were primarily motivated by the desire to increase the importance of his invention, and his reputation in the scientific community. When the laser was developed, Townes and Schawlow and their colleagues at Bell Labs pushed the use of the term optical maser, but this was largely abandoned in favor of laser, coined by their rival Gordon Gould. In modern usage, devices that emit in the X-ray through infrared portions of the spectrum are typically called lasers, and devices that emit in the microwave region and below are commonly called masers, regardless of whether they emit microwaves or other frequencies. Gould originally proposed distinct names for devices that emit in each portion of the spectrum, including grasers (gamma ray lasers), xasers (x-ray lasers), uvasers (ultraviolet lasers), lasers (visible lasers), irasers (infrared lasers), masers (microwave masers), and rasers (RF masers). Most of these terms never caught on, however, and all have now become (apart from in science fiction) obsolete except for maser and laser. Masers in science fiction Masers often appear as weapons in science fiction movies and novels. Their characteristics often differ from those of real masers, however, and it is doubtful whether a practical maser weapon such as these can actually be made. Some notable science fiction appearances of masers: - Masers are the most recognizable weapon in the Godzilla series and Toho's other monster movies. "Maser tanks" are often deployed against monsters. These fire a bolt of electricity, presumably created by amplified microwaves. Maser tanks have also appeared in various video games and in other science fiction movies. - Masers are common in anime and Japanese-inspired animated science fiction stories. They have appeared in the Transformers, Gundam SEED, GaoGaiGar, Code Geass and others. In Gundam SEED, Phonon Masers are weapons described as sound waves focused in laser-like fashion, rather than microwave devices. - Masers are used predominantly as weaponry, both from spaceships and by ground troops in Peter F. Hamilton's Night's Dawn universe, as well as appearing in his Commonwealth saga. - Masers are frequently used as the assault weapon-of-choice by military forces in William Shatner's fictional novel series "Quest for Tomorrow". - In the Star Wars Expanded Universe, masers (called "charrics") are the primary weapon for the Chiss race, on their fighters and for handheld rifles. - The DANGI Maser is a prominent and very lethal weapon in a popular (and free) scenario for Marathon called Marathon Rubicon - In Carl Sagan's novel Contact, the main character, Ellie Arroway, does her thesis project on developing a "ruby maser". - In the video game Ratchet and Clank: Size Matters, there is a weapon called the Laser Tracer. When fully upgraded to level 4, it becomes the Optical Maser Array. - In the Star Control series history, the Androsynth defeated the humans' defenses with the use of MASER technology. - The Monkeylord unit in Supreme Commander is armed with a "Microwave Laser." - In David Brin's Uplift Universe, masers are used not as weapons, but as communication devices. - In the ABC television program Alias (a member of the Spy-fi genre), the season 3 episode Prelude featured a maser attached to a Chinese satellite, able to pinpoint assassination targets from space. - In the Halo universe masers are used for communication on spacecraft. - In the MMORPG EVE Online, masers are a variation of Energy Turrets primarily used by the Amarrian race. - In the webcomic Starslip Crisis, masers are a common form of starship weaponry. - In the video game Phantasy Star Online, there is a weapon called a "Maser Beam." - In the TV series Lost In Space, "Maser Beams" are used for teleportation in several episodes. - In the Japanese anime Code Geass, some knightmare frames have this technology incorperated into swords to cut more efectively through things. - J.R. Singer, Masers, John Whiley and Sons Inc., 1959. - J. Vanier, C. Audoin, The Quantum Physics of Atomic Frequency Standards, Adam Hilger, Bristol, 1989. - Cartoon Megas XLR 2005
From Amoeba to Moral beings: The Evolutionary Emergence of Life, and of Free-Willed-beings created in the Image of God. The First Moral Beings on Earth According to the theory of evolution, the emergence of Man is approximately described by the following dates [ Y.A. denotes "years ago"]: YA = years ago 3,000,000 YA = Australopithecus 700,000 YA = Java Man 500,000 YA = Peking Man 120,000 YA = Neanderthal Man Homo Sapiens Sapiens 100,000 YA = Modern Man [Between 200,000 and 40,000 YA] The Evolution of Morality According to the scientific origin theory, we have been billions of years in developing: from big bang to home planet, from inorganic matter to life, from simple life to ape, and millions of years more from ape to man. However, it was only approximately 100,000 years ago that there appeared an ancestor we could identify as a member of our species: a truly sapient [thinking] creature, the first of Homo Sapiens Sapiens. Clearly, then, even if the universe is 15 billion years old, morality could only have emerged in the last 100,000 years. The essential human qualities we associate with a human, as opposed to an animal or a computer, are those of moral behaviour and the idea of moral accountability. These qualities, when they first arose among Homo Sapiens Sapiens would almost certainly result in the formulation of religion. Thus, the earliest religions would follow not too long after the first stirrings of moral consciousness. When one actually reviews the cultural history of Homo Sapiens Sapiens, one makes an interesting discovery - it becomes clear that religion as we know it developed only in the last 5,500 years. A Short History of Major Cultural Developments 10,000 YA Painting, burials 5000 YA 3000 Writing, farming 4000 YA 2000 Abraham: Monotheism formulated 3500 YA 1500 Moses . Hinduism formulated 3000 YA 1000 King Solomon: philosophy, ethicalwriting, poetry 2600 YA 600 Isaiah (Yeshayahu) 2500 YA 500 Ezekiel(Yeheskel),Buddha,Confucius,Lao-Tze 2400 YA 400 Greek Science/Culture/Philosophy: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle Etc.) 1900 YA = CE 100 R. Akiva; Christianity (spread of); 1400 YA 600 Islam 300 YA 1700 140 YA 1850 80 YA 1900 Einstein Thus, Man's brain had developed about 100,000 years ago. His cultural abilities - painting, pottery and so on - developed perhaps 15,000 years ago. The first glimmerings of thought about death and life - the first burials - took place about 10,000 years ago, and the first religions were developed about 4,000 years ago. The emergence of the first true moral being, with sufficient intelligence and understanding to make a free choice would presumably occur somewhere between the time that man began to think of death and a possible afterlife, and the time that religious thought and attitudes were first developed . According to the chronology of the Biblical geneologies, this occured roughly 6,000 years ago - 2,000 years before the first religion developed, and about 4,000 years after the Cro-Magnon culture's cave-wall paintings. We would then add one stage onto the chain of human development Early Hominid 3,000,000 YA = Australopithecus Homo Erectus 700,000 YA = Java Man, 500,000 YA = Peking Man Homo Sapiens 120,000 YA = Neanderthal Man Homo Sapiens Sapiens 100,000 YA = Modern Man [ 200,000 -60,000 YA] We can see that: 1. Man as a race achieved his modern type of intellectual capacity only 100,000 years ago, and prior to that many modern concepts - such as "morality" - were likely beyond the conceptual ability of man' evolutionary ancestors. 2. All the world's religions were founded in the last 4,000 years, so that 4,500 years ago there was no real conception of a Gd, of moral responsibility, of purpose to a human life, and so on . 3. The vast majority of our scientific knowledge was unknown only 500 years ago, and science had its rudimentary beginnings only 2,500 years ago. The great ideas which are the foundations of our society - ideas of religion, philosophy, culture and science - are relatively recent innovations. The Creation Account and Subsequent Chronologies However, of course the Adam of the chronology may not be the same Adam as the creation account, just as the creation and Eden account seem to speak of two separate Adams, "adam" being simply a generic term for "a man". Also, the chronologies speak of lifespans of many hundreds of years, and may well be allegorical, not historical. However, those who assumed that the creation account is a literal account of the actual creation of the physical universe and that the chronologies atre meant literally, concluded after adding up all the figures given in the various chronologies that Adam must have lived about 6,000 years ago. Adam and the Emergence of Moral Beings on Earth As indicated above, the first moral beings on Earth may well have emerged approximately 5,000 to 10,000 years ago, and the chronologies of Genesis place "Adam" as having lived about 6,000 years ago. Therefore, whether one interprets the "Adam" of Genesis as an individual named 'Man', or as the race 'Man', one can identify this "Adam" with the first moral beings who emerged on Earth - either the first such individual, or the race of moral man as a whole. The Creation and In the Biblical perspective which sees the purpose of the existence of the universe as tied up with the emergence of moral beings within it, it is appropriate that humanity should be considered as having begun with the emergence of the first moral being, and that the universe itself should be considered as having begun its relevant existence only with the emergence within it of moral beings, in Genesis symbolized by the enigmatic and ambiguous "Adam". Thus the creation account, reflecting this perspective, collapses into a very brief discussion the creation of the universe and its subsequent development until the emergence of Adam, and commences its recital of history with the emergence of the first moral being - symbolized by Adam - rather than with the big bang, or with the dinosaurs, or even with the pre-moral Homo Sapiens. The Evolution of Adam "Thus from the war of Nature, from famine and death, the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the production of the higher animals, directly follows. There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning, endless forms most beautiful and wonderful have been, and are being evolved." The closing paragraph of Charles Darwin's "Origin of the Species". It has long been recognized by many evolutionary biologists that all life emanates from a common source. The famous mathematical-physicist Hermann Weyl writes as follows: "Considerations of evolution in the large will of necessity lead to the question of the origin of life. The evidence of genetics makes one incline to see in life the chance success of a play of creative accidents. Not some predictable macrophysical or macrochemical process, that with a certain natural necessity came to pass at a certain stage of evolution - and would repeat itself wherever the appropriate conditions prevailed - seems responsible for the historic beginnings of life, but a molecular event of singular character, occurring once by accident, and then starting an avalanche by autocatalytic multiplication (P. Jordan). It is now becoming evident however, that there is yet more truth to the story of Adam and Eve: a specific gene has been traced in the various races of Man which indicates that it derives from a common ancestress who lived about 100,000 years ago. In this way comparative genetics indicates that all mankind existing today is descended from one genetic line, which mutated from the parent line about 100,000 years ago . Thus even according to evolutionary theory, all humankind is descended from one original progenitor just as in Genesis. Fittingly, evolutionary geneticists have dubbed her "Eve" . Genesis and scientific theory are therefore in agreement that the universe emerged out of nothing, and is not eternal; that all life is descended from a single original life form; and that all Mankind is descended from one unique ancestral human being. The Emergence of Moral Man Physical science does not generally recognize free will as a qualitatively unique physical phenomenon, but rather as a psychological phenomenon, and therefore evolutionary genetics can consider an intelligent conscious being with free will as genetically identical to one lacking free will. Therefore fossils and skulls may not be relevant as indicators of whether or not their owners were free-willed. It is also not clear if one can ascribe different types of behaviour to true moral beings and to non-moral beings who imagine themselves to have free will, and therefore it is not clear if archaeological evidence can ever be used to distinguish between the remains of a civilization of moral beings and those of non-free-willed beings. Therefore although there are various theories and pieces of evidence which help determine when humans of one type or another emerged, it is not clear when free-willed moral beings first emerged. One can suppose however that since moral beinghood requires intelligence and foresight in addition to free will, that the emergence of moral beings was somewhat after the emergence of ordinary Homo Sapiens. Indeed, as we saw in a previous chapter, it may perhaps have been relatively recently - about ten thousand years ago. One could consider Cro-Magnon Man as the first to have been capable of free will, and perhaps it was a genius from this stock who first formulated a moral code, and who taught morality to his contemporary latent moral beings. Alternatively, it may be that an additional mutation was responsible for the aquisition of free will, and the first such mutant descendant of Cro-Magnon Man was the first moral being and the father of a new race of moral beings. The emergence of the first moral being or society may be the event which is referred to in Genesis, in the allegory of the eating of the Tree of Knowledge and the consequent understanding of the concepts of good and evil. The date of the creation and of the emergence of Adam - the first moral being - is not given explicitly in the Bible and is not referred to anywhere else in the Bible. A putative date can be computed via the geneology given after the creation account, however in it we are told of life-spans of almost a thousand years, so that the geneology is apparently not refering to ordinary physical ages and dates, leaving the date of the emergence of Adam unspecified. Genetics does not deal in categories of purpose, and therefore the ability to exercize free will and become a moral being is not considered genetically significant. Genetically speaking, the first human may have lived long ago, however with respect to the category of purpose relevant in the Bible, the first true human was the first moral being, and we - who are moral beings - are its children. In the terms of reference of the purpose of the human race in the Biblical context, it was the emergence of Moral Man which allowed the onset of purpose. Biblical perspective classifies beings according to categories relating to purpose rather than to evolutionary-genetic development. From this perspective, the predecessors of the first moral man are classified with the animals since they lacked intelligent free willed consciousness. Only the moral being is a 'human' being, and can be classified as being 'in the image of Gd', so that the title of ëfirst human beingí is bestowed on the first of ëMoral Maní. The Bible essentially begins with the emergence and moral development of the first such beings since their prior evolutionary development is not of direct relevance from the perspective of the category of purpose. Genesis and the origin theories agree that the race of modern man 'began' at some point, that there was a 'first man'. However from the categories of science and of religion 'human' is defined differently, and therefore the date of emergence of the 'first human' is different. Although Cro-Magnon Man may have existed for about 90,000 years before Adam, we are told that it was Adam who was the first human, and the only human of his time, since he was the first Moral man, and for a while, the only one. Part II: Adamís Predecessors as Inhabitants of the ëPrior Worldsí There are statements in the Talmud and Midrash to the effect that "Gd created and destroyed worlds" prior to the creation detailed in Genesis. It is not clear however whether this implies the creation of worlds prior to the very creation of heaven and earth - that is, the creation of prior universes - or if it is referring to the creation of planets within the universe whose creation is described in Genesis. And, if it refers to the creation of planets within the universe of Genesis, it is not clear whether the reference is to planets other than earth, or to the planet earth prior to the creation of Adam. Indeed, another Talmudic statement declares that the destruction of an individual is considered as the destruction of a world. Thus, if God ëcreated and destroyed worldsí on planet earth prior to the emergence of Adam, this would mean that Adam was not necessarily the first human on our planet. Indeed, the Tifferet Yisrael stated that fossil remains may bear witness to such pre-Adamic man. Similarly, according to R. Shimon Schwab, Adam was not necessarily the first human-like being - there may have existed beings without free will, beings not created ëin the image of Godí. We can perhaps interpret the "creation of worlds" as taking place via a divinely instituted natural law - via an evolutionary process. One could then say that life - and man - originally arose on Earth via evolution. Then at some stage Gd "destroyed the world" which arose this way - that is, caused an evolutionary or climactic change such as for example caused the disappearance of the dinosaurs and later of Neanderthal Man, the ice ages and so on - and created Adam as described in Genesis - that is, caused the emergence of the first moral being. Part III: The origin of the soul, and its transmission According to religious philosophy, Man is connected to the spiritual realm and posseses a non-physical aspect - a 'soul'- as distinguished from the animals. Since the soul is by definition a spiritual entity, not a physical one, we encounter the age-old philosophical problems relating to the difficulty of a purely spiritual entity interacting with a purely physical entity - a form of the mind-body problem. In Genesis, the soul-body issue is referred to in the phrase “and the spirit of God hovered above the waters”, where it was from the waters that life emerged, and especially in the almost shocking statement that after causing man to emerge from the physical elements at hand, “God breathed into him the living spirit.... creating him in the image of God”. The genetics of soul In order to listen to the radio, one must have, as a necessary condition, a functioning, powered radio. However, this is not a sufficient condition. There must also be a transmitter which is broadcasting, and among other things, the radio must be tuned to the same frequency as the transmitter. Similarly, one can distinguish between the necessary and sufficient conditions to be fulfilled in order for a being to possess a soul. In order for the spiritual realm to interact with a physical being as a soul does, it is necessary that the being be of a highly developed type with a certain genetic structure. This however is not a sufficient condition, as it is also necessary that there be the transmitter, in this case the spiritual realm reaching out to the physical being. In addition, the being must 'tune' its consciousness to the proper channel. This genetic potential to tune in to the spiritual can be inherited genetically. The spiritual realm is constantly reaching out to man, and anyone with the potential can tune in if they choose to do so. Thus, a 'soul' is more of an interaction, a reception, than an entity by itself. It is not a 'thing' that can be inherited or given. Rather, it is 'a phenomenon' available to all beings with the requisite genetic structure. Thus physical birth can allow transmission of a transcendant 'soul' from a mother, and the origin of a transcendant soul can coincide with a particular physical genetic development, so that the first being to evolve with sufficiently 'advanced' genes would possess a soul , and pass it on genetically to its progeny. Genesis relates those points most relevant to the category of purpose: the universe is a purposive creation; God is involved in the universe, intervening in affairs in order to further a divine plan, including the evolution of moral man; humanity is imbued with a spiritual nature in addition to its physical, evolved, animal nature; and mankind possesses the ability to distinguish good from evil, and the moral responsibility to choose the good. After presenting these ideas in the metaphorical language of the creation and Garden of Eden accounts, the Bible goes on to relate the history of the first individuals to encounter the divine, and continues with the revelation achieved by their descendants, and the commandments to all humanity - all within the context provided by Genesis of a purposive universe directed towards moral activity. Ch 28: The Age of the Universe The determination of the age of the universe is in some sense straightforward in modern cosmology, with an answer somewhere in the neighborhood of 15 billion years. Yet, as we shall see below, in other more subtle senses it is perhaps impossible to actually determine the age of the universe,. The weight of scientific evidence points to the origin of the universe in a big bang billions of years ago. Nevertheless, as we have seen quantum metaphysics points to the possibility that the big bang and subsequent events occurred in a 'superposition of states', with the universe beginning its true physical existence only when there emerged within it the first free-willed consciousness, and so the emergence of the universe and the emergence of a moral being are juxtaposed. This result of quantum metaphysics also implies that the universe is essentially only as old as the first moral being, and since the earliest moral being we know of would be some version of modern humans, the age of the universe would be computed in the thousands of years (probably between five thousand and a hundred thousand years) rather than in billions of years. From the viewpoint of Genesis and of standard cosmology - and as opposed to the view of Aristotle and Spinoza - the universe began some finite time ago, rather than being eternal. How long ago? The answer depends on the perspective: if of standard cosmology then the universe began in a big bang fifteen or so billion years ago; if of quantum metaphysics combined with Genesis, it began with the emergence of moral man some thousands of years ago. Alternative Definitions of Time passage Even from the standpoint of standard cosmology, the question of the age of the universe is a difficult one for various subtle reasons. One such reason has to do with the idea of a clock. There can be only one universe, since by definition of the word universe we mean 'everything that exists'. But if there is nothing other than the universe, then the clock which tells us how old the universe is must be part of the universe itself. A clock can keep time, and we can use it to measure the amount of elapsed time since it was first put into operation - but we would need a second clock to determine how much time had elapsed from the time of the creation of the first clock until its initial operation, and so on and on...... Furthermore, no actual clock could have existed in the conditions obtaining in the early universe (extreme high temperatures etc.) and progressively more sophisticated clocks would be required the closer to the origin that one wished to probe. In any case, at the earliest time, when all was chaotic energy, matter as we know it did not exist, and certainly no known type of clock existed. In addition, since no clock can exist independent of the universe, then whichever type of 'clock' will be used to tell the age of the universe, it must necessarily be part of the universe itself. There is therefore a problem in defining the age of the universe. Scientific estimates place it at about fifteen billion years, but the closer one gets to the origin of the universe, about fifteen billion years ago, the fuzzier the definition of the elapsed time. Time, Consciousness, and Creation Even the definition of the elapsed time since the big bang is not necessarily an objective one. Color is a mental sensation, subjective, and would not exist in a universe without mind. So too the very idea of a flow of time may be subjective, a property of consciousness rather than of the universe in of itself. Take a film-movie of the universe from big bang to the end and then lay it out on a surface and view all the frames simultaneously. There is no time, all is simultaneous. Cut the film into separate frames and then shuffle them and number them in the new order, and then show the movie. Nothing in the history of the universe has changed, only the order in which the events are viewed by the viewer. The change is in the consciousness of the viewer not in the universe. The equations of physics are symmetric with respect to time reversal - they are the same whether we suppose time flows forwards or backwards. In fact, from the laws of nature themselves there is no reason to suppose that there is a flow of time at all - no past present and future - but rather all of space-time exists as a whole. Time is not a true parameter in physics - it is inserted by consciousness, which perceives the universe within the conceptual framework of time. As a result, in a real sense it can be said that when consciousness did not exist, time did not exist, so that the universe-clock can be said to have begun ticking only when consciousness arose within it. There was in this sense no time before there was conscious life in the universe, so that the the universe can be said to have 'begun' when it was first perceived by a conscious being. How old were you when you were born? If the universe indeed emerged into existence as postulated by Wheeler, how old is it? How old was it when it was born? One second after the initial observation of the moral being was it one second old or was it fifteen billion years old? If the universe emerged into existence with the first observation of the first moral being, does the ëtimeí that ëpassedí in the non-full-reality of the quantum superposed states count as real time? Do we count the age of the universe from the emergence of the moral being or do we add 15 billion years to this? If the flow of time, the division into past present and future, is a mode of perception of consciousness rather than an objective feature of the universe, then is there any meaning to assigning a flow of time prior to the emergence of consciousness? Metaphysical Definitions of "The Age of the Universe" From the perspective of scientific cause and effect and step by step development - the standard origin theory - the universe begins with the big bang even if this big bang can emerge into existence only with the emergence of moral man, especially as from this perspective moral man is an incidental development, not designed, and the universe is therefore 15 billion years old. However, from the perspective of the Bible, since the universe was created as a purposive one, and begins to have purpose and meaning with the emergence of the first moral being, the universe can be said to be only as old as moral man, as in Genesis - especially as moral man served as the template for the blueprint of the universe and the big bang. From the metaphysical perspective, the universe begins when non-simulatatable, non-extrapolatable history begins and so it is only as old as the amount of time elapsed since this primary stage. To determine the age of the universe from this metaphysical perspective, we must therefore determine at what point the universe began its real - non-extrapolatable - existence, and isolate the true primary stage of the universe. The Onset of Non-Extrapolatable Existence In a universe without free will, in theory the big bang can be extrapolated using the laws of nature to compute the paths of possible histories up to the end of the universe. However, in a universe in which free will emerges, the extrapolation can continue only up to the point of emergence of free will. Beyond that point, it is impossible to predict what paths the universe can take, or what probabilities to assign to these paths. A universe which is extrapolated past this point contains a history of events which may seem to have been free willed, and for which Man was morally responsible, but were actually neither real nor free. Thus the latest point at which an extrapolated universe would optimally begin to unfold in reality - rather than as an extrapolation - is that at which free will emerges, or when the first free-willed choice is executed. Furthermore, as we have seen, since purposive meaningful activity begins only with the emergence of a moral being, prior existence of the universe would be meaningless from the perspective of the creator, and therefore the point at which a moral being emerges is also the earliest point for a purposive extrapolated universe to begin its existence. From this perspective, the universe is only as old as the time elapsed since the emergence of moral beings within it, that is, thousands of years rather than billions. The Initial Stage of Existence: Four Perspectives · There is no objective meaning or purpose to existence other than that which life creates for itself, free-willed consciousness is a side effect of the development of the universe, and the universe begins with a random big bang fifteen billion years ago. · quantum metaphysics: the universe begins actual physical existence only upon the emergence of a moral being; therefore this emergence is the first stage of the existence of the universe and the universe is one or several hundred thousand years old. · the strong (religious) anthropic principle: The primary stage in the creation of the universe is that of the design of the moral being, which then serves as the template for the design of the universe as a whole; laws of nature, and initial conditions (big bang). This design did not occur 'in time' but is 'logically prior' to the creation; no 'date' can be set for it, and the 'age' of the universe has no quantitative meaning in this sense. Biblical perspective: there is objective purpose to existence and meaning to life, the big bang was designed to produce life, to produce moral beings. At the level of ideation, intention, and design, the moral stage of the universe - symbolized in Genesis by Adam in the Garden of Eden - precedes the big bang, and serves to specify the design of the big bang. The true initial stage in the creation of the universe is that of the design of the moral being, and the creation and Solipsism of the Moment We saw that the past exists only in our memory, and although the universe exists now as you read this it is possible that it did not exist any time in the past i.e. that the universe was created just now, or at any point in 'the past'. Indeed, according to quantum physics, there is a non-zero probability - non-zero but so close to it that it is virtually indistinguishable from zero to most intents and purposes - that a universe such as our own would pop into existence spontaneously without any prior cause, complete and developped as it is now, with all its artifacts, fossils, memories and so on, and then cease to exist spontaneously immediately thereafter. There is no way for us to know that we are not inhabiting such an ephemeral universe. The age of the universe is then indrterminate, since it can logically have begun its existence right now or at any time in the past. From the scientific perspecrive of course there is no particular eason to suppose that the universe originated other than in the big bang 15 billion years ago, while from the Biblical perspective it might be reasonable to suppose that the universe originated at the onset of meaning and purpose from the perspective of the creator - specifically at the moral stage, with the onset of free-willed moral choice. As there is no operational distinction between the two, there is effectively no conflict betweeen the two perspectives. From the scientific perspective it is irrelevant and scientifically meaningless to ask when the universe 'actually' began its existence, since all is exactly as though it arose in a big bang15 billion years ago - the universe is 'big-bang-emergent' - so that we must employ the big bang model to learn scientific facts about the universe. From the Biblical perspective on the other hand, the question of whether or not our universe is big-bang-emergent is not as relevant as the issues of moral choice and of moral responsibility, which are central to the issue of meaning and purpose of the existence of the universe - especially so as the big bang itself which science describes is in this perspective a derivative stage - the specifications of the big bang are teleoderived from the moral stage. For all intents and purposes, from the scientific perspactive the universe is 15 billion years old whereas from the Biblical perpspective it is only as old as the existence of free moral choice. The Scientific and Biblical Perspective [Merge this with previous section] As we saw in the discussion of solipsism and Occam's razor,the question of whether other minds exist is unanswerable as there are no observable consequences of either possibility, and therefore the issue is irrelevant to science. Similarly, whether or not there exists a creator is unanswerable as there are no observable consequences of either possibility - the universe could have been created in any manner at all, and then subsequently manipulated by a sufficiently advanced being into the universe as it is now, with this performed in such a manner as to have left no trace of these manipulations accessible to human scientific investigation. As a result, the question of when actually the universe emerged into existence in not truly a scientific question, as it is clear that the universe could have emerged into existence right now or at any previous time either spontaneously or via the action of a creator, without our being able to detect how it emerged or when. What is instead of relevance, what is a meaningful question, is what the evidence available to scientific inquiry implies as to the origin and development of the universe, and the elapsed time since this origin. Science has found that all the evidence available to scientific investigation - as opposed to evidence gained via other possible means such as revelation - reveals that the universe emerged from a big bang billions of years ago, and has evolved into the universe as we now know it in the intervening time. Accounts of the origin and development of the universe as related from the understandings of other perspectives, relying on knowledge obtained from other sources than scientific investigation - as for example is the case with the Biblical creation and Eden accounts - are of no relevance to science, and neither conflict nor support science, as they relate to a different realm of discourse. Summary and Conclusion The question of the age of the universe is therefore more one of metaphysics than of physics - indeed, there is no scientific means of distinguishing between a universe created this very instant, one which emerged from a big bang fifteen billion years ago, or one which emerged retroactively upon the observation of a moral being . From a perspective in which there is no objective meaning or purpose to existence other than that which life creates for itself, free-willed consciousness is a side effect of the development of the universe, and the universe begins with a big bang fifteen billion years ago. From the perspective of the anthropic principle, the universe is designed to produce moral beings, and therefore in a teleological sense the onset of its true existence is at the emergence of the first moral beings; the universe is said to exist telologically speaking only since the emergence of the first moral beings (perhaps a mutant form of Cro Magnon between 100,000 and 5,000 years ago) just as Genesis implies that the universe is only as old as the first moral beings to arise in it, Adam and Eve (who are implied to have lived about 6,000 years ago). Similarly, from the viewpoint of quantum metaphysics the universe begins its true physical existence, its actual history, only with the emergence of the first moral beings, just as Genesis implies. Finally, from a perspective such as that of the Bible in which there is objective purpose to existence and meaning to life and the universe was designed to produce life, to produce moral beings, the true history of the universe begins - as in Genesis - with the onset of moral history, with the emergence of the first moral beings. God as Quantum Observer Our exploration of quantum metaphysics familiarized us with the idea that it is conscious observation which brings into true physical reality that which was previously only existent as a quantum probability wave, and that in the cosmological context the universe can be said to have begun its true physical existence only upon the emergence within it of a conscious observer. This idea has other cosmological implications as well: since no human consciousness can observe the entire universe, the reality status of the large part of the universe not being humanly observed is cast into doubt. Inevitably, large parts of the universe will be left 'unrealized' unless there is some mind which can observe the entirety, and with this implication quantum metaphysics may seem to point in the direction of a mind 'outside' the physical universe. Is such an entity then within the purview of science? Science deals with that which can be tested, with phenomena which can be verified by scientists in various countries independently of their beliefs or their culture or language. This is not to say that scientists consider all else uninteresting or insignificant. Rather, science limits itself to certain types of phenomena, and makes no judgment or indeed reference to matters outside its purview. No unequivocal demonstration of the existence of a such a Mind has ever been presented that convinced scientists everywhere, no experiment has been devised which would point to its existence in a manner convincing to all laboratory workers, and therefore the subject of such a Mind is not considered generally to be of relevance to scientific endeavor. The topic therefore remains within the bounds of speculative quantum metaphysics rather than of physics itself. From the Biblical perspective however, there is a Mind which is creator of the universe and of all laws of nature, encompassing all of its creation, and sustaining its existence. Schroedinger's Cat and Wigner's Friend The eminent physicist Erwin Schroedinger, one of the founders of quantum physics, suggested an interesting mental exercise, of the type termed by scientists a 'thought experiment', designed to illustrate some of the interesting ramifications of quantum theory. In order not to alienate cat lovers, we stress that this is recommended only as a thought-experiment: put a cat into a closed box containing a poison and a triggering mechanism to release the poison. The trigger's activation depends on the outcome of a random quantum event in the box, so that poison is released or not released into the cat's body depending on the outcome of the inherently random quantum event. Since the state of the cat is dependent on a quantum event, its state can only be described by quantum physics. In terns of physics, the totality of information regarding the cat is contained in its quatum wavefunction. While in the box, this wavefunction is the sum of two other wavefunctions - the wavefunction for the state of being dead by injection of poison plus the wavefunction for the state of being alive. Of course when the box is opened, the cat will be seen to be either dead or alive - that is, the wavefunction has been collapsed to assume one of its possible components. The wavefunction of the cat is either one corresponding to 'dead already ten minutes', or 'alive but angry at being locked up in a box for ten minutes'. However, relative to those outside the box, the cat was in a combined state of 'dead plus alive' until the box was actually opened. Wigner then asked what would be if a person [later dubbed 'Wigner's friend'] were in the box. As we have seen, the wave function of a sysem is collapsed when the state of the system is measured, or observed by a conscious being. Of course the person in the box would know if he were alive, and he would not feel himself to be in a combination of states. However, for those outside the box, he is in a combination of states until they open the box. Similarly, for anyone who enters the room ten minutes after the box is opened. Until they are apprised of the result, relative to them the original observers are in the following combination of states: 'saw ten minutes ago that the person in the box was dead' plus 'saw ten minutes ago that he was alive'. The person who was in the box and the observers in the room, form a quantum state in regards to the observer waiting outside the room. Just before the one outside the room is apprised of the result, the people inside the room comprise the state: 'the person in the box has been dead twenty minutes with the others mourning him already for ten minutes' plus 'the person who was in the box is alive and joking for the last ten minutes with his friends who opened the box ten minutes ago'. However, as soon as those outside the room are told the result, the wavefunction is collapsed to only one of its components. Since all events are at their most fundamental level quantum events, all chains of events must be described by quantum wavefunctions. Until the result of a chain is known, the wavefunction is a combination of all the possible wavefunctions and as seen in the previous example, the chain can easily lead to large scale phenomena involving many people. As a result, all events are quantum events - not only microscopic events involving fundamental particles, but even events involving many people have to be described by the wavefunctions of quantum physics. all physical interactions extend out to all distances, everything in the universe interacts with every other part. As we have seen, Since the universe is one interconnected whole, the universe as a whole can possibly be considered as a quantum wave function. One could then ask what then collapses the wave function of the entire universe - what measurement can there be which can measure the state of the entire universe. Some scientists have speculated that it is a network of observations of conscious beings, and therefore that the universe can reach full physical reality only when there exists within it a society of conscious beings able to observe the entire universe - perhaps by being so numerous and thoroughly spread out that they can in the totality of their observations encompass the entire universe. Within the Biblical perspective, this is indeed part of the mission of humanity: as the blessing to humanity and the summation at the conclusion of the creation account states - in its midrashic and kabbalistic interpretation: "be fruitful and multiply and fill the physical universe....which God created for humanity to complete" Creation as the "Observation" of Gd We have seen previously that "the wave function" is collapsed only when a measurement is made and recorded. However, from the perspective of the Bible, prior to the emergence of man and his technology, only Gd could made such a 'measurement'. As a result, one could postulate that it is Gd's 'observation' of the universe which would cause it to emerge into reality. Indeed, according to Midrash : INSERT HEBREW TEXT: `nlr `xae `ziixe`a lkzqd. Gd "looked" into the creation blueprint - the Torah - and thereby created the universe. That is, the universe emerged into existence via an observation by Gd on the pseudo-real blueprint-universe. The Torah is the blueprint of creation, and it is the Torah which governs the functioning of the universe: by looking at the Torah - observing - Gd created the universe. Each act of observation maintains the universe's existence, so that the universe is constantly being created anew - as the Midrash states, "Gd renews the creation every passing moment". This idea was also proposed hundreds of years ago by the philosopher Berkeley, who considered all of reality to be existent only in that it was perceived by God, however now there is a motivation for this idea not only for philosophical reasons but also from quantum metaphysics. "And God Saw That it was Very Good" After creation of the big bang, the universe - as a quantum system - could be only in a "superposition of states". It would not emerge into true reality until Gd chose to 'observe' it. Thus the universe would develop simultaneously along all possible paths until God 'observed' it. This 'observational creation' can take place at the big bang or at a later stage, however there is a particular point at which the collapse into a unique history is most likely to occur: when the universe has developed to the point at which the desired moral being has evolved on the optimal path. God could then pick out this desired potential universe from among all its parallel paths, and cause only it to emerge into existence by observing it. This would be the genuine act of creation - creation of 'the best of all possible worlds'. As the end of the creation account states: "and God saw all that He had done, and it was very good". The emergence of the universe into existence would then have taken place with the emergence of the first moral being - as implied in the juxtaposition of the creation account referring to the emergence of the universe, and the Traditional Jewish Sources The idea of Gd bringing the universe into existence via the operation of an act of observation can alo be found in other traditional Jewish sources. According to the Zohar, the universe was created and is maintained via Gd "observing" Himself. Rambam states that Gd is the "ground of being' of the universe and "knowing Himself, Gd knows all" . According to Ramban, there are various levels of physical reality: the bringing forth into actual reality was accomplished via Gd's 'words', or 'verbal commands' ["let there be ..."] whereas the permanence of the things called into existence was granted by Gd's 'seeing' them ["and Gd saw that it was good..."]. The terminology also indicates, continues Ramban, that the coming into existence of all creation was via an act of Will, and the continuing existence of all creation is dependent on Gd's Will. Should there be a lack of the Divine will regarding the existence of some entity, it fortwith ceases to exist. The Universe of the Spiritual Forms and Man's Free Will Creation consists of two parts: the physical and the spiritual. There is a parallel between the two: the transcendental forces of the spiritual realm are the roots of all that is in the physical realm, and the two can interact via acts of man's free will. These spiritual Forces were created first; the existence of the physical universe emanates from them. Therefore, it was only after the creation of the spiritual 'forms', and after their methodology of interaction was set, that the corresponding physical universe and its physical law could be created. The Creation Accounts We can in fact interpret the first creation account as a description of the creation of these forces - that is, a description of the creation of the universe of spiritual forms. The second account then tells of the emergence of the active ingredient which can uniquely manipulate this realm - free will. Free will is that which connects the spiritual and the physical, and it is free will which allows and causes the emergence of the physical universe from its spiritual counterpart. The third account then states that the physical realm was created. The Universe of Spiritual Forms, Free Will, and Potentiality The universe of spiritual forms was the "blueprint" of the physical universe, and thus it was created first. The only process which can directly affect the spiritual forms, are acts of human free will: it is only a free willed being which can cause the potentially existing physical universe to emerge into existence from its blueprint universe of spiritual forms, just as is the case with the observer bringing the physical universe into reality from within the potential universe of quantum pseudo-reality. As stated above, the blueprint for the creation of the universe is the universe of the spiritual forms and their interactions. The physical entity corresponding to this blueprint is the Torah, which gives the rules of interaction between the physical and spiritual universes. Gd created a parallelism between the spiritual and physical universes: These 'Forces' are 'Potential Forces': concepts are conceived potentially among the Forces and are then translated into physical actuality. The universe of the Forces is therefore known as the universe of thought. The Forces are the ground of existence of the universe . Thus, the most basic level of reality is that of the universe of thought, of potentiality. The physical universe derives its reality from this thought-universe of potentia - and the connection between the two is man's free will. Indeed, only an act of free will by a moral being can bring the physical universe into existence. Man's Free Will as Catalyst of Creation: Traditional Jewish Sources Genesis tells us that Gd rested, after creation, from all His work "which he created to do". The midrash explains that the words "to do" [zeyrl] means "everything that Gd created, requires the 'doing' of man". Thus man is partner in creation and in our scenario his free will - and role as observer - brings into actuality the universe created by Gd. Another source relates to the Tree of Knowledge. According to our speculations here, the universe emerged into full existence when human free will emerged, symbolized by the partaking of the Tree of Knowledge. That eating of the Tree of Knowledge could enable man to bring an entire universe into existence is an idea actually found in the Midrash. There we are told of the Rabbinic opinion that the snake tempted Adam and Eve to eat of the Tree by telling them that "from this tree Gd ate and created the universe" and that "Gd does not want you to eat of the Tree because he does not want you to create other worlds". Since it is only free will which can bring forth the physical universe from the potentiality of the universe of the spiritual forms, the universe cannot emerge into physical reality until the emergence of a moral being. Both quantum metaphysics and the Kabballah therefore indicate that the universe would begin its existence at the emergence of the first true moral being - giving a creation scenario entirely parallel to that portrayed in Genesis. In addition to the physical universe, Gd created man, and did so "in the image of Gd" - i.e. possessing free will, which is the Gdly attribute of transcending causal necessity. Free will is thus the cause of the existence of the universe both in potential (Gd's Will) and in actuality (man's free will). Man is created in the image of GOd, and the physical universe is the image of the Spiritual Forms. (The mishkan is the image of the higher mishkan, and of the physical universe etc) Creation via the Will of Gd One can interepret the passage at the end of the first creation account as implying that the universe was created in one instant - after being created in thought - as an expression of Gd's (Free) Will: INSERT HEBREW TEXT z` dyr mini zyy ik mlerl `id ze` l`xyi ipa oiae ipia" :fi :`l zeny ."ytpie zay iriayd meiae ux`d z`e minyd that which He wished had come into existence = "ytpie" "Guide": very end of I:67: (`n) epx`a xake ,ytp on lrtp `id ytpie :fq :` lk ly lrtl d`ivie evtg znlyd epipr didie ,oevxde dxhnd epiprye ytp.oipr `id dlrzi eil` qgia dxn`py ytp oexkf lke" :`n :` epevx ivtga epipr ,dyri iytpae iaal xy`k exn`a (hl) epl miiwy itk oevxd Furthermore, as stated above Ramban teaches that Gd's word brought things into existence, while Gd's observation gave full reality of concrete existence to the entities created previously only in Mind - and all this was an expression of the Free Will of Gd. The Universe As Gd's Will The Divine Will is both the 'cause' of the existence of the universe, and also its 'ground of being'. If Gd actively Wills the universe to cease to exist, it of necessity automatically does so. Further, if it is not Gd's Will that the universe exist, the universe has no ground of being, and does not exist. We can speculate that there is a connection between the universe having been infused with free will and that as an emanation of Divine Will, the universe itself is, in its essence, Will. Man, although ostensibly a physical being, bears within him the 'breath' of Gd, and is created in the 'image' of Gd, in a universe created out of the Will of Gd; it is fitting that seemingly-physical man can possess free will. The universe emerged into existence as the actualization of Gd's Will. The purpose of the creation involved the activity of a being infused with the Divine ability to employ free will. Fittingly it would be the emergence of free will in this being which would provide concrete reality to the universe created from Gd's Will. Perhaps therefore, it is the purpose of man to return the cosmos to its former state: To restore the exclusivity of the Divine Will by developing one's own will to conform to the Divine Will - thus realizing fully one's status of a being 'in the image of Gd'; to restore the Divine unity by "cleaving unto Gd" "with all one's one's heart, with all one's soul, and with all one's might", by "walking in My ways"and by "being Holy as I [Gd] am Holy". The Evolution of Life: from Amoeba to Adam One of the most fascinating questions addressed by science is that of the origin of life, and more specifically, the origin of humanity. In addition to the interest of the question as part of a quest for theoretical understanding, there are practical dimensions as well. Certainly one would expect that the process whereby life and humankind arose left its traces in humanity, and that an understanding of this process would allow us greater understanding of self. Furthermore, an understanding of the process might allow us to simulate it and become creators on our own. The question of origins has indeed occupied great thinkers for millenia, and has culminated in the theory of origins presented by modern science, including genetics, radioactivity and its genetic effects, the idea of random mutations, selection of the fittest, paleontology, geology, anthropology etc. Origin Theory, Creation, and the Emergence of Humanity One can claim that if correctly presented, the scientific origin theory cannot be untrue. The scientific origin theory is based on assumptions, observations and logical reasoning. Indeed scientific knowledge in general is not a list of facts, but rather a compendium of assumptions, observations, and the conclusions reached on the basis of these assumptions and observations. If the assumptions are untrue, or the observations inaccurate, or the logic faulty, then of course the conclusions may well be untrue. A scientific statement should perhaps really be formulated as follows: 'if the following assumptions are valid, and the following observations accurately represent the reality, and the logic is valid, then the conclusion is that....(and if these are not valid, then the conclusion may be invalid.)". When completely and precisely formulated in such a manner, any such scientific statement should be incapable of being untrue. Astronomical observations, calculations, assumptions and extrapolations have revealed that there is a pattern to the motions of the stars - they are all receding from each other. This, together with other data and certain assumptions has led to the conclusion that the large scale structure of the physical universe is dynamic, and that it was different in the distant past than it is now. Similarly, geological and paleontological discoveries have led to the conclusion that long ago the earth and its inhabitants were quite different than they are now. These conclusions lead to the further conclusion that the earth did not always exist, and that it did not always contain humans. If one assumes that humans are purely natural beings rather than possesing a soul, or perhaps even without free will or even true consciousness, and one adds the assumption that all events follow patterns - 'natural law' - then the conclusion from all these observations and assumptions is that humans arose via the actions of natural law alone. Given this conclusion, one naturally begins to seek the mechanism whereby this can occur within the framework of the operation of the laws of nature. The answer was found in the laws of probability, physics, and genetics, and in logical reasoning. From probability, it is seen that given sufficient time and scope, almost anything physically possible can and will happen. In particular, given the conditions prevalent on earth long ago, atoms would eventually combine to form various types of combinations of atoms - molecules - and with enough time available self-replicating molecules will form. Common sense shows that non-viable molecules will produce fewer and less successful copies of themselves, and eventually the more viable will dominate. Due to the nature of quantum physics, and other mechanisms, some of these copies will be inexact. Most of these inexact copies will be nonviable, and will not produce copies, but a very few here and there will be even better than the original, more developed, more successful. If one cuts out all the letters on the page of a book, and throws them repeatedly into the air, each time a different combination will result, the vast majority of these combinations being meaningless. However, eventually the original order will reappear. It may require a few billion years of throws, but it will eventually occur. Similarly, given sufficient time, throwing scrabble letters together will eventually result in a meaningful combination. Analogously, under the appropriate conditions and with sufficient time available, it is almost inevitable that beings with the physical qualities of humans would eventually emerge. This is however not meant to imply that humans did necessarily emerge in this way, or that science even claims that they necessarily did. Rather, one can state that given the assumptions that humans did not always exist, that they arose according to the laws of nature, that self-replicating molecules arose naturally, that the laws of physics as we know them are accurate, that there was sufficient time, and so on, then humans would arise as a result of the operation of natural law. This formulation is then merely a matter of stating certain observations made on the universe about us, some assumptions about these and about the nature of reality, and certain conclusions based on these assumptions. It entirely sidesteps the question of whether or not some agency may have created the universe and perhaps designed natural law to achieve the result of human development, and the question of whether or not the assumptions are correct, and therefore whether the conclusions are in fact correct. Formulated in such a manner, the origin theory cannot be untrue, and therefore cannot conflict with anything. Even if it were the fact that the universe was created and designed by God, and that humans are the product of a special act of creation, it may nevertheless be the case that the universe was designed in such a way that even had such a special creation not taken place, nevertheless humans would eventually have arisen 'naturally'. If this is so, then one could say that although human origin was actually not via the mechanism of evolution, the theory of evolution is nevertheless in fact quite correct. Furthermore, even if one maintains that humans possess a non-physical component which could not possibly arise through the action of natural law - such as a soul or perhaps even a consciousness or free will - nevertheless the theory of evolution could still be a correct description of how the physical aspect of a human being could arise naturally - a theory of the evolution of the body and brain rather than of the mind and soul. Emergence of Existence: Purpose and Chance The Religionist view As we mentioned in an earlier chapter, according to the religionist the universe and the laws of nature were designed so as to develop living beings, and were invested with whatever inherent properties and qualities are requisite in order to guarantee that intelligent life develop from it at some stage. We drew the analogy between the growth of a tree and the emergence of consciousness. The combination of seed, earth, environment, and laws of nature together possess all the properties necessary for the development of a tree from the seed. Similarly the combination of singularity , space-time-energy-matter, big bang, and laws of nature would possess all the properties necessary for the development of free-willed consciousness from the initial singularity. Further, we pointed out that if it was desired to created not merely a universe with life but rather a moral universe, then there would be created a big bang and appropriate "natural law" containing the ingredients necessary to ensure the eventual emergence of moral beings . Purpose vs. Chance To the religionist, the origin theories could be studied as revelations of Gd's Will and manifestations of Gd's Design. The conflict between the religionist and the atheist would center not on the origin theory itself, but rather on its interpretation - the essential issue being that of purpose vs. chance. Atheists would claim that the universe and its life are products of chance; the fact that a singularity existed, that it developed into a big bang, that this evolved into a universe, that the universe evolved life in it, would not be accepted as being due to design - instead it would be considered as the result of chance. Religionists, on the other hand, would claim that both the universe and life are the products of careful design and deliberate creation: the system of big bang and its concomitant natural law being specifically designed and created so as to produce moral beings. Neither side would be able to refute the other since they agree on the observable facts and disagree only on the aspects which are not empirically confirmable. Thus, the religionist could maintain that man has a divine purpose in life, while the atheist would deny this. As illustrated by the anthropic principle, there are argument which can be put forward to butress support for the belief in a design to creation, and there are counterarguments employing opposite reasoning as applied to the identical data. The question of the underlying orign of life and existence in general does not seem answerable via the mechanism of publicly communicable unambiguous conclusions of rational thought. The conclusions reached - even the questions asked - will depend on opinions and beliefs which are formulated on evidence and sources of knowlege or understanding not accessible to scientific arbitration. From a perspective in which there is no objective meaning or purpose to existence other than that which life creates for itself, and which investigates only that which can be measured objectively, the answer to the question of the origin of life can be provided only by knowledge gained from the physical universe, by the evidence which can be measured and independently verified by others. From this perspective it is clear that the universe begins with a random big bang, and that life evolved by chance. From the perspective of quantum metaphysics, the existence of beings such as humans is indispensable to the existence of the universe itself, as the universe begins actual physical existence only upon the emergence of a moral being. From the perspective of the teleological anthropic principle and of the Bible, life is programmed into the universe - indeed the universe is designed to produce moral beings. From the perspective of a search for meaning and purpose, and an inquiry into the 'why' of existence, the questions addressed by science and the scientific method of obtaining answers may not be relevant. It is only relevant in that it is interesting to know what type of conclusions would be reached by different types of inquiry. However, the truly relevant questions and answers are those which address the fundamental questions of 'why' which science excludes from its purview, and which access sources of understanding which are outside the realm of acceptable sources which scientific inquiry has established for itself. Neither of these three perspectives can be proven by employing scientific means of analysis, inquiry, and proof, and the three are compatible in the sense that acceptance of all perspectives simultaneously leads to no physically measureable contradiction. Nevertheless, obviously accounts of the origin of life and of humanity which are written from the different perspectives will necessarily differ, and a comparison of these is meaningful only when the fundamental perspective underlying the various accounts is given appropriate consideration. The Biblical creation and Eden accounts are in this perspective not meant as substitutes for other approaches to the same subject - they instaed represent a particular perspaective on these issues - the perspactive of a document communicated to humanity by a creator of a purposive teleo-derived moral universe. The dates given below are rough approximations - new discoveries often cause significant revisions. They are only meant to give an idea of the progression - the exact timing is of no relevance here. The time-spans for geological and astronomical events are in the billions and millions of years and therefore because of the evolutionary theory and the theory of the big bang, many people tend to think in terms of billions of years. As a result it is surprising to them that our species, homo-sapiens-sapiens, evolved "only" 100,000 years ago, when life had begun already billions of years previously. Intended only as a sample - no intent is made to compare the value of any one development to any other. on cave walls in what are today of the ancient lawgiver Hammurabi can be related 'midrashically' to that of Abraham: HAM\|UR\|AB = AB\|RA\|HAM. Indeed according to the midrash Abraham's name is an acronym for AV HAMon Goyim ('father of many nations), leaving out an explanation for the 'r' part of his name. This 'r' in the name can perhaps be a reference to Abraham's birth place, The hypothesis that the emergence of moral man took place only 6,000 years ago is quite plausible. In fact, the development of homo sapiens sapiens to moral man in only 70,000 years (approximately) was a remarkably quick process compared to the development during the millions of years before then. It is almost miraculous that moral man is already 6,000 years old: one might have expected him to appear much later, not much earlier. The amount of time which has passed since creation is of no importance to Jewish law, and is not of crucial importance to Biblical interpretation. Nevertheless, since the traditional age of 6,000 years agrees so well with our tracing of the cultural and moral development of man, we will make no attempt to justify a different age. Paganism is not always conducive to the idea of morality. As far back as 6,000 years ago - 2,000 years before the introduction of the first monotheistic religion - mankind probably had only a potential for conceiving of the concept of "morality". The early pagan belief was essentially that many gods ruled the world and were themselves bound by their limited powers and by the constant strife between gods. These gods were believed to be dependent on man's gifts and sacrifices, which could occasionally persuade them to perform favors to individual men or groups of men. According to the early pagan conception of 5,500 years ago, the gods ruled arbitrarily and were not bound by any rules of fair conduct, justice, kindness, etc. to man. There were no rules given to man whereby he might achieve the immortality of life after death - no code of ethics to follow in his man-to-man dealings and no set code for man-to-god interaction. The idea that all men are equal, that one should love one's fellow man, that life has meaning, and that therefore the taking of life is bad, that there is some reason that man should be what we call "moral" - all these did not exist and thus neither did "moral" man. Man's body was formed millions of years ago, and his brain 100,000 years ago, but his "soul" is only 6,000 years old. 6,000 years does not seem like a long time for moral man to have been in existence. However, this is an illusion created by the overwhelming scientific and cultural stores of knowledge available today. It surprises us to see how much we have achieved in so short a time. Monogenesis: the doctrine that only one individual was created, and that the entire human race descends from this one individual. Weyl p299. [Such mutations are exceedingly rare and would not occur twice in exactly the same way and thus it is quite certain that there was only one such mutation, and we are all descended from that one mutant. See also Appendix: "All Men are Brothers".] See "In Search of Eve" by Rebecca L. Cann in "The Sciences": Sept/Oct. 1987 and "The Search for Adam and Eve" "Newsweek" Jan 11, 1988. See also Appendix at the end of this chapter. The creation and destruction is not necessarily total. 'Creation of worlds' may refer to major changes in existing entities, rather than creation where nothing was before, and 'destruction of worlds' may refer to major surgery rather than to total annihilation. See for example Rambam (“Guide”) regarding the hyperbolic language occaisionally employed by the prophets. [Rabbi I. Lifchitz] "Drush Or Ha'chaim", 3: about one third from the beginning: "mikol he'amur": found in "Yakhin U'boaz" mishnayot, after Sanhedrin. See discussion in next chapter. All mankind, and perhaps to a certain degree all living beings since they, as man, are called "ruakh" and "nefesh" in the Bible. This equation of the age of the universe with the amount of time that moral beings have existed is not only in line with the emphasis in Genesis on moral history, but also stands in analogy to the possible implication in Genesis that the first moral being, and the universe, emerged only a few thousand years ago: Calculations of the chronologies provided in Genesis, when interpreted literally, and in conjunction with certain interpretations of the connection between the creation and Eden accounts, and of the creation account itself, have led to a figure of approximately 6,000 years for the elapsed time since the emergence of the universe and of the first moral being. See Joe Rosen American Journal of Physics INSERT SOURCE, quote. There are actually a few different types of 'time' defined in this context. The whole point of free will is that there is no way for free willed decisions to be predicted or simulated (e.g. on a computer) since free will is beyond determinism or probability. As a result, there is an absolute significance to the decision made at each juncture. and so we call the design of the moral stage the 'primary' rather than the 'initial' stage of creation.. The first creation account can be e.g. related to the construction of the blueprint, the Eden account related to the emergence of moral beings, and the 'second creation account' [Gen. 5: x - x] related to the actual creation of the universe from the blueprint and the onset of full physical existence with the emergence of the first moral being. This is a type of 'uncertainty principle' which spreads the origin of the universe over all possible points of origin. The next 4 paragraphs were the "Conclusion" section of Ch:'Solipsism...Occam'. They were replaced by a different conclusion, to make the chapter fit in with the Mind/Body theme of that section rather than the inst un theme more appropriate in this section. According to our speculations, it is only free will which can bring forth the physical universe from the potentiality of the universe of the spiritual forms. Thus the universe cannot emerge into physical reality until the emergence of a moral being, just as is the case of quantum physics, as discussed earlier. metaphysics and the Kabballah therefore indicate that the universe would begin its true existence at the emergence of the first moral being - giving a creation scenario parallel to that portrayed in Genesis, and providing a thematic link between the creation and Technical caveat: Unless they were outside each other's light cone at creation. Whether or not one can define a universal wave-function is a matter of debate. Midrash Rabbah Gen. 1:2 these words appear fter the conclusion of creation, and before the story of the onset of free-willed consciousness. Zohar on "khokhma" See Rambam Yesodei Torah 2:10 [last line]. "rceid-ed" dxez iceqi zekld 'HU HAYODEA...'ETC. = THOUGHT = KNOWLEDGE = COLLAPSE OF WAVE PACKET]. Ramban on Gen. 1:3 In Ramban's words: ".. the bringing forth of things into actual existence is called 'amirah' [saying]. Thus: And Gd said 'let there be light'...The word 'saying' here indicates Will...And the permanence of things called forth is called 're'iyah'....The purport of the word "seeing" ["and Gd saw that it was good"] is thus to indicate that their continuing existence is at His Will .." The final act of bringing the universe into physical reality was the act of observation, and free willed choice of Gd. [Ramban: "it was good" - implying that otherwise, Gd would not have let it remain in existence. That is, Gd decided freely to have it continue to exist - with the concept of free willed choice related here to the concept of 'good'.] (that is why dkld (edut) can change ze`ivn(metziut)) INSERT HEBREW SOURCE `le mlerd `xapy mcew ze`xaidl ehnewy zexec rax`e miraye ze`n."e`xapmcew mlerd on xiardy zexec (974) c"rwzz lr :ehnew xy` lr :i"yx crl iphnwze" oeyl ,ze`xaidl exfbp ;ze`xaidl ehnew ;o`xa `le dxez ozn .(fh aei`) "did dn miiwl ,dxez ozn mcew zeidl ze`xaidl mdil` xfbp :mlerd `xapy mcew seql ozpdl dxez dzid diie`x ,(dw milidz) "xec sl`l dev xac" xn`py seql dpzpe ,ocxhe cnr ,dxez `la miiwzn mlerd oi`y d`xyke - xec sl` 1000-n 974 exqgy ixd) .epax dyn cr oey`xd mc`n = zexec e"k ([:gt zay i"yx]i"yx] A reference to the idea of an instant universe in classical Jewish sources is the idea that 974 generations of men preceded Adam (Gr 10:10) but that these generations were created only in thought [ (Chagiga 13B. Rashi's commentary). (see Note #3).R. Bakhya[Bekhayeh] on Gen I:3 (very end) says they were wiped out in thought ,which means they had been created in thought. self knowledge= self referential: knowledge = observing = collapse of wave packe:"Mekhadesh ha'briya.." = by constant observation, Gd collapses the universal wave packet [if such can be defined]. Zohar: Exodus 20a :#359: commentary on: "and Moses shepherded Yithro's sheep". See Ramkhal [Luzatto] "The Way of Gd" ["Derekh Hashem"]. In the word of R. Aryeh Kaplan: "Man's thoughts and the information in his mind are therefore considered part of the physical world, see Yad, T'shuvah 8:3. The universe ..... of the Forces is Beriyah (Creation). Besides meaning Force, the word Koach also means "potential".....Concepts are conceived potentially among the Forces, and then translated into action..... The Kabbalists therefore speak of the world of the Forces as the universe of thought....." Genesis Rabbah 19:6, Commentary on Genesis I:1. (?) "Guide" : II:26 Ramban on Gen. 1:3 Zohar: Bereisheet 29a [p.111 eng.], and 29b [p112 english]. And according to the Zohar, Gd created the universe from thought: "having decided to create the universe, Gd traced and built, but the aim was not attained until Gd enfolded Himself in a covering of a supernal radiance of thought and created therefrom a universe. "in the beginning Gd created" = "bereisheet Gd created", but "bereisheet " = "bekhokhma", that is, "in Wisdom". Therefore, one reads "In Wisdom Gd created.." Ohr and Shefa: 'Ohr' is the term used for the 'shefa' - sustaining abundance, plenitude - which comes down to the universe from Gd. It is the Will of Gd as it manifests itself in the physical universe. [therefore it is also Nature] Therefore "vayehi ohr" [according to Gra] = retroactive expression of Will of Gd. This is yet another connection between the creation, free will, consciousness, self-reference, and self-causation. [and reflexivity] [ "ve'dovak be'ishto' : 've'atem ha'dvekim b'hashem..' : 'vehayu lebasar ekhad'? It was Gd's will that a universe be created. The universe emerged into existence. As soon as the universe existed, there would probably not also exist the Divine Will to create the universe. Similarly, as long as it was the Divine Will to create a universe, it must have been that the universe was not existent. Thus, the Divine Will to create the universe does not coexist with the universe itself. One can then perhaps say that it was the Divine Will itself which was transformed into the existence of the universe: thus, the universe is an 'emanation' of Gd. One of the most difficult part in formulating such a statement is in recognizing all the assumptions that are inherent in the situation. For example it was clear to the ancient Greeks and later mathematicians that parallel lines never meet. However, two thousand years later it was realized that this assumed that space is flat rather than curved - the fact that space could be curved was not realized until then. For an explanation of how this can be possible, see a text on molecular biology. The belief that life could arise via natural processes in a created universe is not contrary to religious belief at all: for example, many religious leaders believed in spontaneous generation without this seeming to them to be counter to their religious beliefs. [See chapter 3]. Thus the religionist believes that Gd created the universe, and studies the laws of nature as reflections of how the Divine Will operates. The universe 'began' as a 'point' - a singularity - and exploded in a 'big bang' to form the universe as we know it. Even if free-willed consciousness is a holistic emergent phenomenon, science would still assume that such a phenomenon would arise only under very specific conditions, and that these conditions would themselves arise as a result of a chain of cuause-effect stretching from the the initial conditions of the universe. Problems raised by quantum indeterminacy are dealt with later. Ramban states that Gd gave the waters the power to bring forth "a living soul" - that is, life. See also Midrash Gen.R. 8:1 on Gen. 1:26 ['let us make man'] and see ref. to Midrash Thilim "and the spirit of Gd hovered" , this is the spirit of Adam. Also see Gen. R. 17:1 which states that 'the spirit of Gd hovered' represents onr of the ten ma'amarim (essential creative acts). We can thus understand the passage "and Gd breathed into man 'nishmas khayim' " as implying a potentiality placed in the creation [see e.g. the Midrash regarding the creations created at dusk on the sixth day] which would be activated when a potential moral being emerged, or we can understand it as meaning a special Divine intervention at the time of the emergence of such a being. Therefore for those who might insist that free willed consciouusness can be achieved only via Divine bestowal, in the text above read: "Gd could certainly ensure the emergence of a being capable of serving as a vessel for the Divine gift of free willed consciousness." According to Rambam ["Guide" II:6], any act of Gd - any means by which Gd's Will is carried out in the physical universe - is termed an 'angel'. Since the laws of nature were created by Gd, according to Rambam the category 'angel' includes natural forces such as the elements, and the formative power in a seed. Thus, when it is said that Gd Willed a certain event or process to take place, what is meant is that it occurred via an angel - for example by the action of 'the laws of nature'. Therefore, to say that Gd Willed that Man possess a consciousness, or a free-willed consciousness, is to say that Gd gave these properties to Man via an angel, or equivalently, via the workings of 'natural law'. Consciousness can be a property of all fundamental particles, since all is derived from God. It can be inherent in the universe to be activated by a compex brain, or it can evolve at a certain point, corresponding to "and God breathed into man the soul of life". The Genesis-Science Conflict for the Biblical Religionist The actual conflict between religion and the scientific origin theories actually arise only when the religious beliefs involve belief in specific mechanisms and dates for the creation of the universe and the emergence of life. The Biblical creation account describes creation as taking place in six days, in a specific manner, culminating in the special creation of man - and all this about 6,000 years ago. This of course seems to violently clash with the details and overall mechanism of both the theory of the big bang, and the theory of evolution. The Biblical religionist can - like the non-biblical religionist - legitimately reject the philosophical interpretation of the origin theory. He can also accept some of the basic scientific ideas of the origin theory as valid. However, it would seem that the Biblical religionist - unlike the non-biblical religionist - cannot accept the specifics and details, and must therefore reject the theory as a whole.
The gittern was a relatively small, quill-plucked, gut strung instrument that originated around the 13th century and came to Europe via Moorish Spain. It was also called the quinterne in Germany, the guitarra in Spain, and the chitarra in Italy. A popular instrument with the minstrels and amateur musicians of the 14th century, the gittern eventually out-competed its rival, the citole. Soon after, its popularity began to fade, giving rise to the larger and more evocative lute and guitar. It is also ancestral to the mandore. During the 14th century, the gittern's recognition constantly increased, eventually ousting the similarly popular citole. However, the lute eventually overshadowed even the gittern's popularity in the 15th century. Soon after, the vihuela-shaped guitar began to appear and may have existed alongside the gittern, although the latter was gradually losing ground to the newer instrument. In spite of the gittern's slow fall from favor, it was referred to as late as the 18th century as a small round backed instrument, illustrating its occasional use. Up until 2002, there were only two known surviving medieval gitterns, one in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (see external links), the other in the Wartburg Castle Museum. A third was discovered in a medieval outhouse in Elbląg, Poland. The gittern was usually carved from one piece of timber. Occurring less rarely later in the 15th century, the back was built up from a number of thin tapered ribs joined at the edges, as was characteristic of the lute. Unlike the sharp corner joining the body to the neck seen in the lute, the gittern's body and neck always joined in a smooth curve or straight line. The sickle, or occasional gentle arc pegbox, made an angle with the neck of between 30-90 degrees. Unlike the lute, most pegboxes on gitterns ended in a carving of a human or animal head. Most gitterns were depicted as having three or (more commonly) four courses of double strings played with a quill plectrum. Each course of strings was attached to an endpin, which was laterally inserted into the pegbox. Although there is not much direct information concerning gittern tuning, the later versions were quite possibly tuned in fourths and fifths like the mandore a few decades later. Frets were represented in a few depictions (mainly Italian), though absent in French and English depictions. Like nearly all early instruments, the gittern's sound hole was covered with a rosette (a delicate wood carving or parchment cutting). The construction and shape resemble folk fiddles, including the Calabrian lira, Byzantine lyra, gadulka, lijerica, rebec, classical kemençe, gudok and cobza. These have similar shape, a short neck, and like the gittern are carved out of a single block of wood. Relationship between Gittern, Citole, Lute family, and Guitar family The Gittern was a predecessor of the guitar. However, in its early form, it outwardly resembled the mandore, and was a relative of the lute inasmuch as its back was similarly rounded. In fact the gittern is considered ancestral to the mandore. The instrument developed into both lute forms and guitar forms, or the name was applied to both. In its lute family form, it survived into the 18th century as the mandore in France, and into the 21st century as the mandolin. In its guitar family form, it survived into the 21st century. Some have pointed out that there have been errors in scholarship (starting in the 19th century) which led to the mandore being called gittern and vice versa. This does not deny that the instruments are related, just that they are not the same instrument. Among the differences, gitterns and mandores were tuned differently. Also, the gittern was much smaller, and had no clear division between the body and neck. Generally its body and neck were constructed from a single piece of wood, where lutes/mandores were constructed from staves glued together. There was similar confusion with the citole. As a result of this uncertainty, many modern sources refer to gitterns as mandoras, and to citoles as gitterns. - Names in English: gittern, giterninge, giterne, cittern, cittarn. - Names in French: gviterre, guisterne, guitarre, guiterne, guyterne, guiterre, quinterne, quitaire, quitarre, citterna - Names in Italian: chitarino, chitarra, cythara - Name in German: Quinterne, Toppel Cytar - Name in Spanish: guitarra The English and the Germans borrowed their names from the French. "Guiterne" was the standard usage in English until the 16th century. The occurrence of the use of the word "guita(r)e" remained rare. The French "quitaire", became "qui(n)terne" as a result of confusion with the unrelated Latin word "quinterna", meaning fivefold. Although the common use of the lute shape was displaced by the vihuela (similar to a guitar), the immediate change of name did not follow. Both "guiterne" and "guiterre" fell out of use in the 17th century. Role in literature The gittern entered Europe in the 13th century from Arab countries. It is referred to originally in French literature. From around 1270 onwards, it was continually mentioned, although it was only commonly depicted after 1300. It was mentioned by French poet Guillaume de Machaut in his 14th-Century poem La prize d'Alexandrie: "Lutes, moraches and guiterne / were played in taverns". The gittern was often referenced from the 14th to early 15th century, including the inventory of several courts. Charles V of France's court recorded four, including one of ivory, while the courts of Este and Ferrara recorded the hiring of gittern masters. However, the gittern was also popular with amateur musicians of every class, owing to its portability and ease of playing. Dante, referring to the structure of the gittern, said, "just as it would be blameworthy operation to make a spade of a fine sword or a goblet of a fine gittern." It was frequently recorded as being used in taverns, often for serenading. Another 14th-Century author, Geoffrey Chaucer, mentioned the gittern in the Canterbury Tales as being played by people who frequent taverns. In The Miller's Tale, Absalom serenades a woman outside her window: "Now was ther of that chirche a parish clerk, the which that was ycleped [called] Absalon... and as wel coud he play on a giterne. In all the town n'as [there never was] brewhous ne [nor] taverne, that he ne visited with his solas [solos]." Chaucer also mentioned the giterne's use in The Cooks Tale., linking together the gittern and rebab as being similar instruments, used for similar purposes. Al konne he pleye on gyterne or ribible (all can he play on gittern or rebab). During its heyday of popularity, the instrument was included in religious literature. Theologian Jean Gerson, in a French sermon, compared the four cardinal virtues to "la guiterne de quatre cordes" (the gittern of four chords). - Google Books. A Performer's Guide to Medieval Music. Retrieved 2010-12-03. - Nairolf der Minnebolt. "Die "Quinterne"". Retrieved 2010-12-03. - Lute Society of America. "[Lute ID 158]". Retrieved 2010-12-04. - P. 118. The Encyclopedia of Music. New York: Hermes House, 2002. - Music Encyclopedia. "Quinterne [quintern]". Retrieved 2012-03-13. - James Tyler, The Mandore in the 16th and 17th Centuries - Tyler, James; Sparks, Paul (1992). The Early Mandolin. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 1–7. ISBN 0-19-816302-9. - Dr. Martin Kirnbauer, Musikwissenschaftl. Institut, Uni Basel. "Mittelalterliche Musikzeugnisse". Archived from the original on 2004-12-25. Retrieved 2010-12-06. - "Unprofitable Instruments". Retrieved 2010-12-06. - Music Encyclopedia. "Mandore [Mandorre].". Retrieved 2010-11-20. - Music Encyclopedia. "Gittern [gyterne]". Retrieved 2012-03-13. - Music in the age of Chaucer By Nigel Wilkins. Page 114. Published by DS Brewer, 1999 - The Canterbury tales By Geoffrey Chaucer, Thomas Tyrwhit. Page 93-94. Published by D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1870. - Robert Boenig and Andrewy Tayler, editors, The Canterbury Tales, Second Edition, Broadview Press, Broadview Editions 2nd Edition, page 118, line 4396, ISBn 9781554811069. Elbing (Elbląg) gittern - Article with several pictures of Elbing gittern. Article is for flutes found in the same dig as the gitterns, but the photos are of the gitterns. - The text article that goes with the photos from the above link. Polish language, but Google translate does a good job. - Large closeup of Elbing gittern. - Closeup of Elbalg or Elbing gittern. - Article in German about Elbing gittern with good picture. - Page with a good side view photo of the Elbing gittern. - Guide to Early Instruments - The Gittern and Citole discussed. Author writes strongly as to why there is historical confusion over instrument names. - Guide to Early Instruments - The Guitar and Vihuela. - The Guitar in England - Plucked, fretted instruments in Medieval, Renaissance and Baroque Scotland - Gittern Businesses - Early MusiChicago - The History of the Guitar in Spain Video examples of sound Playbooks of tunes - Cover of John Playford's A Booke of New Lessons for the Cithern & Gittern, 1652, with table of contents. - 1450s Gittern in the Metropolitan Museum of Arts. Cited by James Tyler in "The Early Mandolin", pages 3 and 4. The museum has labeled this a "mandora."
from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition - n. A theoretical line in a field of force, such that a tangent at any point gives the direction of the field at that point. from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License - n. an imaginary line in a field of force, whose tangent at any point gives the direction of the field at that point and whose number through unit area perpendicular to the field represents its intensity from the GNU version of the Collaborative International Dictionary of English - n. any line in a space in which forces are acting, so drawn that at every point of the line its tangent is the direction of the resultant of all the forces. It cuts at right angles every equipotential surface which it meets. Specifically (Magnetism), a line in proximity to a magnet so drawn that any point in it is tangential with the direction of a short compass needle held at that point. from WordNet 3.0 Copyright 2006 by Princeton University. All rights reserved. - n. an imaginary line in a field of force; direction of the line at any point is the direction of the force at that point Sorry, no etymologies found. Sorry, no example sentences found.
NATURE OF LIGHT Newtons corpuscular theory of light \|Newtons corpuscular theory of light is based on the following points 1. Light consists of very tiny particles known as corpuscular. 2. These corpuscles on emission from the source of light travel in straight line with high velocity 3. When these particles enter the eyes, they produce image of the object or sensation of vision. 4. Corpuscles of different colours have different sizes. Huygens wave theory of light \|In 1679, Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of light. According to huygens wave theory: 1. Each point in a source of light sends out waves in all directions in hypothetical medium called "ETHER". 2. Light is a form of energy 3. Light travels in the form of waves. 4. A medium is necessary for the propagation of waves & the whole space is filled with an imaginary medium called Ether 5. Light waves have very short wave length For latest information , free computer courses and high impact notes visit : www.citycollegiate.com Quantum theory of light \|Quantum theory was put forward by MAX-PLANCK According to quantum theory Energy radiated or absorbed can not have any fractional value. This energy must be an integral multiple of a fixed quantity of energy. This quantity is called QUANTUM Energy released or absorbed is always in the form of packets of energy or bundles of energy. These packets of energy are known as QUANTA or PHOTONS \|For latest information , free computer courses and high impact notes visit : www.citycollegiate.com\|
The environmental footprints of agriculture in prehistoric Europe: Cultural groups and subsistence variability in time and space. As agricultural societies advanced from southwest Asia towards Europe, they met a variety of environmental conditions and developed various subsistence strategies that changed as societies and agricultural technologies evolved, and growing population increased pressure on the land. Early Neolithic farmers settled on fertile loess soils and practiced intensive agriculture, planting fields annually while keeping livestock and applying manure on fields. As human populations grew, people spread out onto more marginal lands and developed specialized subsistence strategies in a variety of environments. The aim of this research is to classify the major subsistence strategies used in Europe from the beginning of the Neolithic to the onset of the Roman Empire. Using our historical population database we will distribute people on the landscape and estimate human impact on vegetation and soils. This work will help to evaluate the Ruddiman’s Early Anthropogenic Hypothesis that humans practicing early agriculture emitted significant amounts of carbon to the atmosphere through deforestation and keeping livestock.
Pesticides in Perspective - Farming cannot stand still An animation showing how modern farming relies on the innovations plant science provides to maintain biodiversity and wildlife. Each day there are 200,000 new mouths to feed across the world, and by 2050 the global population will have reached 9 billion. This places an ever increasing strain on food production and supply. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation the world must produce 60% more food to meet this demand. Farming cannot stand still. Modern methods are critical to providing a safe, affordable and sustainable supply of food. But it’s important that we minimise the impact of food production on the environment and on wildlife. The use of modern crop protection technologies such as pesticides allows us to maximise the productivity of existing agricultural land, so leaving uncropped land as habitats for wildlife. To look at it another way, traditional and lower-input approaches to farming such as organic produce significantly lower yields than modern methods. So, to produce the same amount of food, we would need to use more of the land that currently supports biodiversity. UK farmers are amongst the best in the world at producing food while protecting habitats and wildlife – and that’s no surprise. It’s in their interests to ensure the long-term future of the land on which they rely for their and their families’ livelihoods. In recent years, UK farmers have, for instance, planted or restored approximately 30,000km of hedgerows to provide food and shelter for wildlife. And innovation in crop protection has meant they continue to be able to protect their crops from pests, weeds and diseases while the amount of pesticides applied has decreased by 71% from 1990. Farmers are even using modern technologies to boost the biodiversity and wildlife of uncropped land. Precision mapping allows farmers to identify less productive areas which can be set aside for biodiversity. Targeted use of herbicides can then help establish strips of pollen-rich flowers to produce a habitat more attractive to bees and other insects. So, far from being detrimental to the environment, the ever increasing demand for food means modern farming is critical to our ability to maintain biodiversity and wildlife. Let’s make the land we use as productive as possible so we can protect, as well as feed, our planet. Let’s keep pesticides in perspective.
An inductor is a small electronic element that resists changes in an alternating current, or AC. It consists of a series of wire loops around a core that store energy in the form of a magnetic field, related to the current that passes through it. This effect, or inductance, is dependent on the material makeup and structure of the inductor. Reactance is a measure in ohms of the relationship between the inductance and frequency of the AC. Acquire the necessary data. You will need the inductance, measured in Henries, and the AC frequency, measured in Hertz. The inductance is usually written on the inductor itself or may be referenced in a schematic. The frequency is usually notated in an electronic schematic. Convert inductance as needed. Inductance is frequently expressed as micro-Henries, which represents 1,000,000 Henries. To convert to Henries, you would divide the number of micro-Henries by 1,000,000. Calculate reactance, in ohms, by using the formula: Reactance = 2 * pi * Frequency * Inductance. Pi is simply a constant, measured as 3.14.
Vocabulary - Definitions and Context - a scientist who studies outer space Context: Wouldn’t it be awesome to be an astronomer and work at McDonald Observatory in west-Texas? - the science of studying outer space Context: George Observatory at Brazos Bend State Park has great programs for kids who want to learn about astronomy! - Big Dipper: - this group of stars is part of the constellation Ursa Major, or Big Bear Context: In Texas, you can see the Big Dipper all year round. - a group of stars visible within an area of the night sky Context: Look for the constellation Leo in our Texas skies during springtime. - a group of stars, planets, and dust held together by gravity Context: We live in a galaxy called the Milky Way. - Leonid meteor shower: - a meteor shower that happens each November Context: Early morning, before the sun rises, is often the best time to watch the Leonid meteor shower. - Light pollution: - Misdirected, misused, or just too much light that creates a glow in the sky Context: The glow from light pollution keeps our night skies from being as black as they used to be. - the unit used to measure how far apart things are in outer space Context: A single light-year equals a distance of 5,865,696,000,000 miles! Whoa! That’s a loooong way! - Little Dipper: - this group of stars is part of the constellation Ursa Minor, or Little Bear Context: The North Star, or Polaris, sits on the very tip of the handle of the Little Dipper. - Meteor shower: - a display of lots of meteors streaking through the sky per hour Context: Watch the Perseid meteor shower and you might see 80 meteors in one hour! - created when space dust enters our atmosphere at super speed Context: When you see a shooting star you're really seeing a meteor! - a piece of a meteor that survives its journey through our atmosphere Context: A meteorite looks like a rock, but will be extra heavy because it'll likely contain lots of metal. - Milky Way: - the name of the galaxy that Earth is in Context: The Milky Way contains 200 to 400 billion stars! - Perseid meteor shower: - a meteor shower that happens each August Context: Watch the Perseid meteor shower and you might see up to 80 meteors in one hour! Back to Top
International Space Station The International Space Station (ISS) is a huge manned construction located about 400 km above the Earth. While it circles around the Earth at a speed of 17,700 mph (or 90 minutes per orbit), Earth and star observation, or experiments and research are being conducted. ISS is intended to be utilized for more than 10 years after its completion. Japasese Experimental Module, "Kibo" The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), known as "Kibo" (pronounced key-bow) which means hope in Japanese, is Japan's first human-rated space facility and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's (JAXA's) first contribution to the International Space Station (ISS) program. Tsukuba Space Center JAXA's Tsukuba Space Center (TKSC), located in Tsukuba Science City, opened its doors in 1972. The TKSC, which sits on a 530,000 square-meter site, with beautiful natural surroundings, is a consolidated operations facility with world-class equipment and testing facilities. Baikonur Cosmodrome is a Russian space launch facility located in Kazakhstan, managed by the Russian Space Agency (Roscosmos State Corporation). The Soyuz is a Russian spacecraft. The Soyuz carries people and supplies to and from the space station. The Soyuz can also bring people back to Earth. Deoxyribonucleic acid. The molecules inside cells that carry genetic information and pass it from one generation to the next. The sequence of purines and pyrimidines in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence. Ribonucleic acid. One of the two types of nucleic acids found in all cells. The other is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). RNA transmits genetic information from DNA to proteins produced by the cell. A ribosome is a cellular particle made of RNA and protein that serves as the site for protein synthesis in the cell. The ribosome reads the sequence of the messenger RNA and, using the genetic code, translates the sequence of RNA bases into a sequence of amino acids. A fundamental physical attribute of a particle, which characterises the particles electromagnetic interaction with other particles and with electric and magnetic fields. An enzyme is a biological catalyst and is almost always a protein. It speeds up the rate of a specific chemical reaction in the cell. The enzyme is not destroyed during the reaction and is used over and over. A cell contains thousands of different types of enzyme molecules, each specific to a particular chemical reaction. Solvents are substances that are capable of dissolving or dispersing one or more other substances. Organic solvents are carbon-based solvents. Specificity is the ability of an enzyme to choose exact substrate from a group of similar chemical molecules. A substance capable of initiating or speeding up a chemical reaction. A piece of a homogeneous solid substance having a natural geometrically regular form with symmetrically arranged plane faces. An electromagnetic wave of high energy and very short wavelength, which is able to pass through many materials opaque to light. The Photon Factory is an accelerator-based light source facility, as a part of the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) Japan. SPring-8 is a large synchrotron radiation facility which delivers the most powerful synchrotron radiation currently available. The movement caused within a fluid by the tendency of hotter and therefore less dense material to rise, and colder, denser material to sink under the influence of gravity, which consequently results in transfer of heat. Cells of the higher organisms, containing a true nucleus bounded by a nuclear membrane. An organelle is a subcellular structure that has one or more specific jobs to perform in the cell, much like an organ does in the body. Among the more important cell organelles are the nuclei, which store genetic information; mitochondria, which produce chemical energy; and ribosomes, which assemble proteins. Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular) that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions. Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Mitochondria contain their own small chromosomes. Generally, mitochondria, and therefore mitochondrial DNA, are inherited only from the mother. Biochemical changes in the cells, digestive system, and body tissues by which energy is provided, new material is incorporated, and substances, such as drugs, are disposed.
by James Scott Conscious only of the immediate, grim drama being played out above their heads, it was left to those with prescient wisdom, like Sir Winston Churchill, to realize that Western civilisation was being threatened as never before and that England alone barred the way. To lose was unthinkable. To win, considering the circumstances, unimaginable. Yet , victory was attained that summer - the 'Battle of Britain', unnamed as such at the time - was won. It turned Hitler away from the West and caused him to make the fatal mistake of leaving an 'unfinished' front to his rear; it gave hope to millions of people living under Nazi oppression; it showed that courage and tough mettle would triumph eventually and it provided the platform for the long haul back to Europe and Berlin. It is time now to remember the sacrifices that were made. Sir Winston embodied it in his 'The Few' speech in the House of Commons on 20 August 1940, immortalising the men of the Royal Air Force who flew and did the execution, and who were the standard-bearers of the Empire at that moment in history. The great man would take no umbrage if it were to be suggested here that he also meant the thousands who contributed to the fight in a myriad different ways. Most remained behind the scenes, and some played their parts years before the battle occurred. If one were to build an imaginary Cenotaph of Remembrance in one's mind and emboss it with plaques dedicated to all the personalities, people and servicemen and women that contributed to the story - and in so many cases, gave their lives for it - they would depict the following: - Lord Hugh Trenchard, who in the early twenties, defended his fledgling air force against all attempts by bickering politicians and Army - Navy rivals to relegate it to a secondary role. Dare anybody now infer that he did not 'know' the Germans would have to be fought again and that this time, England would lose without an independently strong air arm? - Sir Henry Tizard, scientific genius, whose providential support (with others in key positions) of the radar project resulted in the early-warning detection system. Its effect, in simple terms, was to cost the Germans the battle. - Robert Watson-Watt, Tizard's brilliant team leader, who developed the apparatus. - Aircraft designers R Mitchell and S Camm, who, in the mid-Thirties, turned the Air Ministry's specification F.7.30 into the fantastic Spiffire and Hurricane fighters respectively. - Each of the aircraft showing, in metal-etched form, their classic lines. - Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding, for his obdurate refusal to permit Winston Churchill to fritter away Fighter Command in the hopeless defence of France in 1940 and his strategic perception in ensuring that the work of Tizard's team was translated into the radar-station chain in time for the onslaught. - Dowding's No.2, Air Vice Marshal Sir Keith Park, tactical architect of the RAF, who daily conducted the fight from the Ops Room of No 11 Fighter Group. (He did it again two years later at Malta and sent the Germans packing then.) - Lord Beaverbrook, whose production-planning wizardry ensured that there was never a shortage of aircraft. - The men and women in the factories who built the aircraft, and kept them coming. - The Air Observer Corps, who filled the gaps when the radar stations went down from bombing, and who were expected to be the first to sight the invasion barges. - The anti-aircraft and searchlight batteries, who did their share with equipment from the First World War. - The policemen, air raid and fire wardens, firemen, nursing staff, city engineers and other auxiliary services, who kept their cities alive while the bombs crashed down. - The Army's bomb disposal teams, to whom fell the ghastly task of defusing the aerial mines and unexploded ordnance, much of which was designed to trap them. - The people of each metropolis, town, village and hamlet who suffered during the Blitz, 'took it on the chin' and turned the daily air battle casualty into into a cricket score. - The Air Sea Rescue Service, whose ceaseless and uncomfortable vigil saved dozens of airmen from the maw of the icy Channel, and in the case of the RAF, got their pilots back to fly again. - The women of the WAAF. They manned the radar stations, often under bombardment, they did inestimable duty in the Control Rooms, they ran the canteens, covered the 'admin' side, drove the trucks, served the tea, and did morale a power of good by just being around. - One of the most vital and least-remembered corps of men, the post office engineers and technicians, who through incredible difficulties, kept Dowding's communications network operative throughout. - Each branch of the RAF Services that kept their aircraft flying; the artificers and armourers, engine and airframe mechanics, radio and instrument technicians, signallers, airfield maintenance staff, and all the others; thanks to them, the Air Weapon continued to function. - The many steady, faceless persons who indirectly or otherwise, played a part and, because of the nature of things, are not specifically remembered. Anonymous but not forgotten. - Finally, to complete the pantheon, the 650 pilots of Fighter Command, the men who formed the spike in the cudgel. They came from throughout the United Kingdom, her Dominions, and the occupied territories. For eight torrid weeks of fear, heroism, mutilation and death, they fought the enemy and saw him off, 4 to 1 against, contributing to England's 'finest hour'. A grateful realm paid tribute to them in 1990 as it has every year since the battle, in England and in the capitals of Christendom around the world. The Victory and the Deliverance were recalled when congregations assembled with bowed heads beneath the laurels and banners. Survivors of those dark days - a dwindling band now - must have looked back over their own personal recollections, and counted the cost. For the rest of their countrymen, in whatever land, there is the duty to honour the Fallen and through them, to resolve that if they in turn are ever faced with a similar peril, they will prove equal to the task, as others were a lifetime ago. A salute then, to the Royal Air Force, a Nation, and unsung heroes. Return to Journal Index OR Society's Home pageSouth African Military History Society / [email protected]
\|\|Moniz develops lobotomy for mental illness Photo: Lobotomy operation Antônio Egas Moniz (1874-1955) of Portugal was an ambitious and multitalented person -- a neurologist, political figure, and man of letters. By the 1930s he was already known for his successful refinement of techniques enabling doctors to visualize blood vessels in the brain by using radioactive tracers. He had hoped and perhaps expected to receive the Nobel Prize for this work, and was disappointed when he realized he would not. In 1935 at an international neurology conference he saw a presentation on the frontal lobes of the brain and the effects of removing them from chimpanzees. Moniz later claimed he had been thinking about similar methods before the conference, but it went into scientific mythology that the calm behavior of the presenter's formerly temperamental chimp had inspired him to develop the lobotomy to treat mental illness. Moniz had an idea that some forms of mental illness were caused by an abnormal sort of stickiness in nerve cells, causing neural impulses to get stuck and the patient to repeatedly experience the same pathological ideas. There was no empiric evidence for his theory, but Moniz pressed on. If the nerve fibers causing these morbidly fixed ideas could be destroyed, the patient might improve. In November 1935, he and his assistants made the first attempts at this type of psychosurgery. First they gave a series of alcohol injections to the frontal lobe (through holes drilled in the skull). After seven patients, they switched to cutting the lobe with a wire. Nothing was removed; connections were just severed. In 1936 Moniz published the very positive results of his first 20 operations on patients who had suffered from anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia. Though his follow-up was mainly within the first few days of surgery and his determination of "improvement" rather subjective, his publication was well received. It seemed to offer evidence of the benefits of psychosurgery. For example, Moniz's first patient was less agitated and less overtly paranoid than she had been before, although she was also more apathetic and in fact duller than Moniz had hoped. She had a few physical side effects such as nausea and disorientation, but overall struck Moniz as much improved. In the 1930s diagnoses of serious mental illness were increasing, and yet knowledge of its causes or how to treat it was not. Doctors were sometimes willing to try anything to help their most desperately ill patients. This terrible need for treatment cleared the path for widespread acceptance of such radical treatments as shock therapy and lobotomy. In the United States, neurology professor Walter Freeman threw himself into lobotomy practice and promotion with an unmatched fervor. Within a year of reading Moniz's publication, he and an assistant had performed 20 lobotomies. They wrote, "In all our patients there was a . . . common denominator of worry, apprehension, anxiety, insomnia and nervous tension, and in all of them these particular symptoms have been relieved to a greater or lesser extent." They also claimed that disorientation, confusion, phobias, hallucinations and delusions had been relieved or erased entirely in some patients. But they also noted, "Every patient probably loses something by this operation, some spontaneity, some sparkle, some flavor of the personality." In 1942 they published an influential book promoting the practice. In the United States the number of lobotomies performed per year went from 100 in 1946 to 5,000 in 1949. That year Moniz won the Nobel Prize in physiology/medicine for his contribution. The popularity of the procedure declined drastically in the 1950s and beyond. Evidence of serious side effects mounted with long-term studies. The use of newly developed Thorazine, the first nonsedating tranquilizer, reduced the perceived need for most lobotomies.
Eight year-old Britan and her 10-year-old brother, Carson, have been going to the same summer camp for the past two years. For an entire day, they laugh, play games, eat pizza - and then chat with scientists who literally hang on every word they say. That’s because Britan, who can hear normally, and Carson, who hears through cochlear implants – artificial ears for deaf people - are part of a study in the speech development laboratory at The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center looking at the relationship between hearing and language skills. Even though cochlear implants have significantly improved the communication abilities of children with hearing loss, many of these children still lag behind their peers in language and literacy development. For nearly ten years, researchers at Ohio State have been following more than 100 children with normal hearing or hearing loss, some since birth, in order to help find answers that may lead to better implant designs and educational interventions. Now, researchers say that a surprising picture is beginning to emerge from their studies that could change the way learning problems like dyslexia are detected and treated. Measuring what matters: Effectively predicting language and literacy in children with cochlear implants," published in International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, the goal of Susan Nittrouer, director of Ohio State’s Speech Development Lab, was to evaluate how well various language measures typically used with very young children after they receive cochlear implants predict language and literacy skills as they enter school. “We’re beginning to see similarities between the language problems of some children with cochlear implants and the language problems of some children with normal hearing who encounter barriers to language learning,” explained Susan Nittrouer. “That’s enormously useful information because we know that the actual signal that children with cochlear implants get isn’t nearly as clear as the signal that normal hearing listeners get. So if language and literacy problems in children with normal hearing are similar to those of deaf children with cochlear implants, maybe the difficulty rests with how they are processing the signal perceptually, even though they have normal sensitivity to sound. That would make sense since language was built on our perceptual capacities.” With language development, timing is crucial. Most children with dyslexia, a language processing disorder that impacts somewhere between 5 to 20 percent of U.S. children, aren’t usually diagnosed until the third grade. By then, an important window of intervention opportunity has passed. Ohio State has conducted multiple studies to pinpoint this critical window. Nittrouer’s team has been able to identify some accurate predictors of future language and literacy problems in children with hearing loss by the age of three. “For example, a deficit in the early comprehension of spoken language is a strong predictor of later reading and writing problems,” said Nittrouer. “Perhaps we’ll find that the measures of early language skill that we use with toddlers and preschoolers with hearing loss may actually identify children whose learning problems simply haven’t emerged yet. It would be ideal if we could step in earlier, and change the downstream impact.” In an upcoming publication, Perspectives on Language Learning and Education, by the American Speech, Learning and Hearing Association, an article by Nittrouer suggests that some current theories of language development might need to be reconsidered, noting that the similarity of literacy problems in children with hearing loss and those with language deficits mandates taking a closer look at the role of perception in language development and new intervention approaches. Read the full article here: HealthNewsDigest.com In a second article published in Ear and Hearing, "Emergent Literacy in Kindergartners with Cochlear Implants" examined the early or emergent literacy of young cochlear implant recipients.
- Access Genealogy - http://www.accessgenealogy.com - History of the Choctaw and Chickasaw in Indian Territory Posted By Dennis Partridge On In Native American \| No Comments R. W. McAdam, treating of the traditions, early history, and progress of the Choctaws and Chickasaws, writes: If credence is to be given tradition the Choctaws, Chickasaws, Muskhogees (Creeks), and Seminoles were many centuries ago one tribe, occupying the southeastern portion of the United States from the Mississippi to the Savannah River. Internecine rebellions, engendered by factional quarrels and the jealousies of ambitious chiefs, ultimately divided the great nation into 4 tribes, which, in the course of time, learned different dialects, customs, and laws, The Seminoles claimed as their domain the peninsula country, now Florida; the Creeks, the region north of the Seminoles, comprising a part of eastern Alabama, Georgia, and perhaps part of South Carolina; the Choctaws a large portion of Alabama and the southern half of Mississippi; the Chickasaws, the lands to the north of the Choctaws, comprising northern Mississippi and a portion of west Tennessee. When De Soto explored this region (1540) these tribes occupied the territory in the manner described. The Choctaws and the Chickasaws had their traditions, many of which have been preserved to this day. In the old Choctaw country is a cave in a hill which the Choctaws held as sacred, claiming that the time parents of their people came from this cave by magic. The Chickasaws have another tradition. Long centuries ago, when the Choctaws and Chickasaws were one people, they dwelt far to the west of the Mississippi. Driven by ferocious northern Indians from their country, they journeyed toward the sunrise many moons, under the guardianship of a sacred dog, led onward by a magic pole, which they planted in the ground every night, and in the morning traveled toward the direction the pole leaned. At last, after crossing vast deserts, boundless forests, and dismal swamps, leaving thousands of their dead along the way, they reached the great Father of Waters. While crossing the Mississippi the sacred dog was drowned. Following the direction indicated by the magic pole they continued eastward to the banks of the Alabama River, where the pole, after being unsettled for several days, pointed distinctly southwest. They proceeded in that direction to the southern portion of Mississippi, where the pole planted itself firmly in a perpendicular line. This was the omen for permanent settlement, and here the tribe dwelt. Tradition concerning the rebellion and formation of an independent tribe by the Chickasaws is very vague. The word Chikasha, (Chickasaw) in the Choctaw tongue signifies rebel, the latter tribe giving its rebellious offshoot that name, which the Chickasaws evidently accepted as their distinctive tribal name.” When the early navigators touched upon the unknown shores of the Gulf of Mexico, the red men who greeted them were not savages, living exclusively by the chase and the spoils of war. In a measure these Indians were civilized. They had their rude arts, laws, customs, and religion, inferior but somewhat similar to those of the Aztecs and Incas, which leads to the belief that the magic pole tradition had its origin in an exodus of these tribes from Mexico. The theory that the Chickasaws and Choctaws were an offshoot of the civilized Aztecs has some foundation. They were not primarily a warlike race. Their disposition was not ferocious, although they were capable of waging long and bloody wars when driven to such an extremity by perfidy and wrong. The ancient government of the Choctaws and Chickasaws was democratic and simple. Their ruler was called king, but his authority was abridged by the powers of the council, which was made and unmade at will by the people. Their ideas of justice were based on principles of equity. Virtue, truth, and honesty were; it is said, a striking characteristic. Their methods of agriculture were crude, but it is certain that they cultivated the great Indian cereal and prepared it for food by crushing, the meal being baked as bread, or the grain parched or boiled whole. Their theology was beautifully poetic and largely a worship of the heart, without the elaborate and barbarous rites of the sun worshipers farther south. To their simple imagining the manifestations of the Great Spirit were constantly heard and seen in the works of nature. Their daily life was one of devotion to quaint and pretty superstitions and spirit worship. When De Soto, Deluna, and other white explorers first penetrated their country they found a race hospitable, virtuous, peaceable, and happy. They were met as gods, and lavished with gifts and kindness. They requited this generous treatment by treachery, rapine, and conquest. After the white man had come among these Indians with the innovations which we proudly term civilization, the history of the Choctaws and Chickasaws is the history of the subjugation of the red race. Contact with the white man’s civilization began the work of extermination and implanted in hitherto trustful breasts the seeds of hatred and revenge. The Chickasaws and Choctaws were fearfully decimated by wars with the Europeans and other tribes. During the early explorations it is said they had 15,000 warriors, while in 1720 the two tribes could muster less than 1,000 fighting men. The Choctaws allied themselves to the French in the war against the Natchez, whom the Chickasaws aided. The two latter tribes were badly beaten. From 1540 to the establishment of the American republic the Chickasaws and Choctaws were almost constantly at war. As progress followed the star of empire westward the rights of these Indians as they understood them were more and more circumscribed. In 1765 the Chickasaws made their first general treaty with General Oglethorpe, of Georgia, and in 1786, after the colonies had gained their independence, both the Chickasaws and Choctaws made a treaty at Hopewell and were guaranteed peaceable possession of their lands. From the date of this treaty the Choctaws and Chickasaws have kept faith with the federal government. The Chickasaws, in the treaty of 1834, boast “that they have ever been faithful and friendly to the people of this country; that they have never raised the tomahawk to shed the blood of an American”. As early as 1800 the encroachment of the whites filled these people with a desire to emigrate beyond the Mississippi, and many families did so. In 1803 it was estimated that 500 families had departed, mostly Choctaws. The whole nation would have gone but for the opposition of the Spaniards and the western tribes. In the war of 1812 and the Creek war the Choctaws and Chickasaws did valiant service for the United. States. In 18’20 the Choctaws ceded to the government a part of their territory for lands west of Arkansas. The establishment of state governments over their country, to whose laws they were subject, still further dissatisfied the Choctaws and Chickasaws, who, as their treaty put it, “being ignorant of the language and laws of the white men, can not understand nor obey them”. The Choctaws were first to emigrate. By the treaty of Dancing. Rabbit Creek in 1830 they ceded the remainder of their lands, 19,000,000 acres in all, and received 20,000,000 acres in the country west of Arkansas, with $2,225,000 in money and goods. After the ratification of this treaty nearly the entire Choctaw tribe emigrated to the new lands. Those who chose to remain behind were given allotments by the government and the residue lands were sold to white settlers. In 1805, 1816, and 1818 the Chickasaws ceded, all their lands north of Mississippi on liberal terms. Many of the tribe joined the Choctaw exodus to the west. In 1822 there were 3,625 Chickasaws remaining in Mississippi. In 1832 the Chickasaw Nation began negotiations with the United. States for the sale of their reservation, consisting of 6,412,400 acres, and the treaty was ratified the following year. The conditions of the sale were that the government should sell the land to the highest bidder, the Chickasaws to receive the sum so derived, after the expense of the survey and sale had been deducted. It was the purpose of the Chickasaws to seek a new home in the west, whither their neighbors, the Choctaws, had gone; but in case a desirable location could not be procured, or certain members of the tribe should prefer to remain behind, the Chickasaws were allowed to take allotments pending, their emigration. The government agreed to furnish funds sufficient to defray the expenses of the journey and for one year’s provisions after their arrival at their now home, the amount thus appropriated to be refunded from the receipts of the sale. The amount received by the Chickasaws from the sale of these lands was $3,646,000. The Chickasaws determined to create a perpetual fund from the sale of their lands, the money to be invested by the United States, the interest derived there from to be used for national purposes. In 183.1 the final treaty in reference to the cession of the Chickasaw lands and the removal of the tribe was made at Washington. The commissioners sent by the Chickasaw Nation to seek out a new home in the west entered successfully into negotiations with the Choctaws for an interest in their lately acquired lands beyond the Mississippi. In 1837 a treaty between the two tribes was ratified near Fort Towson, in the Choctaw Nation, by which the Chickasaws; for the consideration of $530,000 were ceded a district in the Choctaw country west of the Choctaw Nation proper. The conditions of this sale were that the Chickasaws should participate jointly with the Choctaws in the tribal government, with equal rights and privileges, the land to beheld in common by both, neither tribe having a right to dispose of its interest without the consent of the other. Each tribe reserved to itself the right to control and manage its own funds, invested in Washington. The lands set apart for the Chickasaws were known as the Chickasaw district of the Choctaw Nation, and members of either tribe were given the privilege of locating in either the Choctaw or the Chickasaw country proper. During the emigration of the Chickasaws to their new home, smallpox broke out, carrying off nearly 700 of the movers. They did not settle in the Chickasaw district, but many scattered through the Choctaw country. As a body, the Chickasaws did not advance as rapidly as the Choctaws, their large annuities encouraging idleness and improvidence. Their efforts at agriculture were insignificant; such work as there was being performed by slaves. Their first school was not established until 1851. The political relations between the two tribes, under the provisions of the treaty of 1837, were far from amicable, as instead of equal representation, as they expected, they were allowed only in proportion to population, and were therefore a powerless minority, the Choctaws outnumbering and hence outvoting the Chickasaws, thereby controlling the national offices and affairs of government. The Chickasaws feeling themselves aggrieved, appealed to the President of the United States and on paying $250,009 to the Choctaws obtained by treaty of 1855 a political separation from the Choctaws and a complete title to time Chickasaw district. The Chickasaws then established their own government, and though closely allied by treaty and other relations to the Choctaws, they have maintained au independent government and distinct geographical boundaries. By a liberal policy extended toward intermarried whites and stock raisers within their boundaries, and through their efforts in the direction of education, the progress of the Chickasaws and Choctaws was gradual until the great civil war. The agents of these nations took sides with the seceding states, and the sympathies’ of the Indians were naturally with the Confederate states. The Choctaw’s and Chickasaws furnished several thousand men for the cause and negotiated treaties with the Confederate government. The nations suffered considerably by the war, losing nearly one-fourth of their population, much stock, and of course their slaves. The United States -held that by the part taken by the tribal government in -the war they had forfeited all their rights, which, however, were restored under certain conditions, and the treaty of 1866 was made; This treaty, the provisions of which supersede all conflicting provisions of former treaties, is the basis of all laws pertaining to the intercourse of the Choctaws and Chickasaws with the federal government. The allotment and governmental provisions of the treaty of 1866 have never been complied with, and vexed. questions have resulted there from. Article printed from Access Genealogy: http://www.accessgenealogy.com URL to article: http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/history-of-the-choctaw-and-chickasaw-in-indian-territory.htm Copyright © 2013 Access Genealogy (http://www.accessgenealogy.com/). All rights reserved.
Individual differences \| Methods \| Statistics \| Clinical \| Educational \| Industrial \| Professional items \| World psychology \| - Noninteractive, when a message is not related to previous messages; - Reactive, when a message is related only to one immediately previous message; and - Interactive, when a message is related to a number of previous messages and to the relationship between them. Human to human communicationEdit Human communication is the basic example of interactive communication which involves two different processes; human to human interactivity and human to computer interactivity. Human-Human interactivity is the communication between people. On the other hand, human to computer communication is the way that people communicate with new media. According to Rada Roy, the "Human Computer interaction model might consists of 4 main components which consist of HUMAN, COMPUTER, TASK ENVIRONMENT and MACHINE ENVIRONMENT. The two basic flows of information and control are assumed. The communication between people and computers; one must understand something about both and about the tasks which people perform with computers. A general model of human - computer interface emphasizes the flow of information and control at the human computer interface." Human to Human interactivity consists of many conceptualizations which are based on anthropomorphic definitions. For example, complex systems that detect and react to human behavior are sometimes called interactive. Under this perspective, interaction includes responses to human physical manipulation like movement, body language, and/or changes in mental states. Human to artifact communicationEdit In the context of communication between a human and an artifact, interactivity refers to the artifact’s interactive behaviour as experienced by the human user. This is different from other aspects of the artifact such as its visual appearance, its internal working, and the meaning of the signs it might mediate. For example, the interactivity of an iPod is not its physical shape and colour (its so-called "design"), its ability to play music, or its storage capacity—it is the behaviour of its user interface as experienced by its user. This includes the way you move your finger on its input wheel, the way this allows you to select a tune in the playlist, and the way you control the volume. An artifact’s interactivity is best perceived through use. A bystander can imagine how it would be like to use an artifact by watching others use it, but it is only through actual use that its interactivity is fully experienced and "felt". This is due to the kinesthetic nature of the interactive experience. It is similar to the difference between watching someone drive a car and actually driving it. It is only through the driving that you can experience and "feel" how this car differs from others. Computing science Edit The term "look and feel" is often used to refer to the specifics of a computer system's user interface. Using this metaphor, the "look" refers to its visual design, while the "feel" refers to its interactivity. Indirectly this can be regarded as an informal definition of interactivity. A more detailed discussion of how interactivity has been conceptualized in the human-computer interaction literature, and how the phenomenology of the French philosopher Merleau-Ponty can shed light on the user experience, see (Svanaes 2000). In computer science, interactive refers to software which accepts and responds to input from humans—for example, data or commands. Interactive software includes most popular programs, such as word processors or spreadsheet applications. By comparison, noninteractive programs operate without human contact; examples of these include compilers and batch processing applications. If the response is complex enough it is said that the system is conducting social interaction and some systems try to achieve this through the implementation of social interfaces. Also, there is the notion of kinds of user interaction, like the Rich UI. Various authoring tools are available for creating various kinds of interactivities. Some of the most common platforms for creating interactivities include Adobe Flash and the recently released Microsoft Silverlight. The most commonly used authoring tools for creating interactivities include Harbinger's Elicitus and Articulate's Engage. eLearning makes use of a concept called an interaction model. Using an interaction model, any person can create interactivities in a very short period of time. Some tools like Harbinger's Raptivity come with readymade interaction models that can be customized easily without any programming. Some of the interaction models presented with authoring tools fall under various categories like games, puzzles, simulation tools, presentation tools, etc., which can be completely customized. - Haptic (disambiguation) - Human factors - Interactive art - Interactive media - Interaction design - Sonic interaction design - Interaction Model - Virtual reality - ↑ Sheizaf Rafaeli defined Interactivity as "an expression of the extent that in a given series of communication exchanges, any third (or later) transmission (or message) is related to the degree to which previous exchanges referred to even earlier transmissions. Rafaeli, 1988 - ↑ (1995) Interactive media, New York: Springer-Verlag. - ↑ Vincent Maher - Media in Transition » Towards a definition of interactivity suitable for Critical Theory - Liu, Yuping and L. J. Shrum (2002), "What is Interactivity and is it Always Such a Good Thing? Implications of Definition, Person, and Situation for the Influence of Interactivity on Advertising Effectiveness," Journal of Advertising, 31 (4), p. 53-64. Available at Yupingliu.com - Manovich, L. 2006. Image Future, Manovich.net - Rafaeli, S. (1988). Interactivity: From new media to communication. In R. P. Hawkins, J. M. Wiemann, & S. Pingree (Eds.), Sage Annual Review of Communication Research: Advancing Communication Science: Merging Mass and Interpersonal Processes, 16, 110-134. Beverly Hills: Sage. Haifa.ac.il. - Svanaes, D. (2000). Understanding Interactivity: Steps to a Phenomenology of Human-Computer Interaction. NTNU, Trondheim, Norway. PhD, NTNU.no - Frank Popper, Art—Action and Participation, New York University Press, 1975
Basic 2 Mathematics B184.108.40.206: Demonstrate that the length of an object does not change with its placement or direction. B220.127.116.11.1: Prove that the placement or direction of a shape or object does not change its length. E.g. 1. Put sticks of equal length in different places and directions and ask learners to identify the longest. Then ask them to pick the sticks and put them side by side to see if they have equal length. Object properties: a simple tool to demonstrate that the length of an object does not change when it is positioned differently. - cardboard; this can be from a box or white/coloured cardboard from a stationery shop. If you use part of a box, preferably find a plain piece (without print), as colours or text can easily distract pupils. - if you decide to use objects: a set of similar empty water bottles, or a set of equal-length pencils, or any set of similar objects that have the same length. Steps to make equal-length sticks: 1. Determine how long your sticks need to be. If you will use them to demonstrate for the entire class, make sure they are big enough for all pupils to see, including those at the back of the class. 2. Measure out the length and width of your sticks on the cardboard, and use a knife or scissors to cut them out: Steps in teaching: 1. Introduce the topic. 2. Place the sticks (or set of objects) in a pattern like this: 3. Ask pupils to walk past and identify the longest stick. 4. Ask pupils to walk past and identify the shortest stick. 5. When they are done, let one pupil gather all the sticks and arrange them in line next to each other. 6. Ask whether any of them is longer or shorter than the others. 7. Explain that the length of an object does not change when the position changes. Have you made a TLM that makes you real proud? Snap a picture and send it to us on: When we publish it here we will acknowledge you as the maker and send you an exciting educational resource as reward! Check out other posts on this blog to see TLMs made by other teachers. Teacher Community is a joint initiative by:
Product availability may vary by country, associated claims do not constitute medical claims and may differ based on government requirements. In poultry production, water is considered the most important nutrient by far, yet water quality is often overlooked. Broilers typically consume at least 1.5 pounds more water than they eat in feed, so it’s important to have water that is low in microbial contamination with acceptable mineral levels. Monitoring water quality is particularly important in antibiotic-free (ABF) production systems to keep birds as healthy and profitable as possible. Here, we take a closer look at what our industry experts consider water quality best practices for ABF poultry producers, as part of our series on strategies for producing antibiotic-free poultry. Testing Water Quality Samples should be collected regularly to assess water quality, as the status can often change. Our industry experts recommend testing water at least annually to determine if is safe for birds to drink and if there are any issues that need correcting. Water quality should be assessed regardless of the source (i.e., municipal, well, pond), as even city water could have issues that can affect bird performance. Both the microbial contamination (e.g., E. coli) and mineral content (e.g., iron and sodium) of the water sample should be tested. Water can be a vector for bacteria and other pathogens, leading to significant health issues and production losses. A poultry house water line provides ideal growing conditions for pathogens as the water is often nutrient rich and in a warm environment. The risk of microbial contamination can also increase if flood water enters ponds or wells. Wild geese and ducks could also be a source of pathogens, if the water supply is from surface water (a pond). Microbial contamination can lead to the formation of biofilm (slime) on the surface. Biofilm is an aggregate of microorganisms connected by an extracellular matrix that is attached to a surface (e.g., pipes and storage containers). As well as a health issue, biofilm can also block nipples and reduce water flow. Excessive mineral content, particularly sodium and iron, can be an issue with some water sources. Too much sodium can cause flushing in the birds and iron can form deposits and clog the water lines. Hardness of the water (calcium and magnesium concentration) can also cause scale to build up in the lines and cause issues such as leaking nipples. Water leaking onto the litter can create further problems such as increased ammonia production. If minerals levels are high, nutritionists may be able to formulate for mineral imbalances. However, this is usually more expensive than treating the water, particularly for large production companies where producing a specialty diet for a single location is not economically feasible. Sand filters could be used to remove some of the iron, however reverse osmosis or a larger filtration system may be needed for removing other minerals. Cleaning Water Lines Water lines should be flushed regularly, particularly after using water-based supplements. The lines should also be thoroughly cleaned between flocks to remove biofilm and scale buildup. Typically, hydrogen peroxide or chlorine-based products are used. The selected products should be appropriate for the application and the manufacturer’s directions followed to ensure adequate cleaning and to prevent damage to the water lines. After cleaning, the lines should be flushed well. Water storage tanks should also be cleaned regularly to prevent mold and other pathogens growing in them. Water consumption should be monitored carefully as the amount of water consumed directly affects weight gain and feed conversion. If water intake decreases, feed intake also decreases, and productivity declines. A decrease in water consumption may indicate an issue with water quality. Other Water Usage Availability of good quality water is also important for non-drinking purposes, such as cool cells used for evaporative cooling. The water lines supplying the cooling cells need to be clear and flow fully to allow the cells to work correctly. Evaporative cooling is addressed further in our next post on best practices for ventilation in ABF poultry houses. Protect Birds From Pathogens and Biotoxins To defend against waterborne pathogens, birds need a healthy intestinal environment that can mount an effective immune response and prevent pathogens and their biotoxins entering the circulatory system, causing disease. As well as health issues, pathogens can also cause morphological changes to the intestinal lining, decreasing the surface area available for nutrient absorption. Fortunately, natural alternatives to AGP are available to support a competent immune system, maintain intestinal integrity and promote performance. Using high-quality water in poultry production systems is essential to keep equipment running smoothly and maintain bird health and performance. Amlan is dedicated to developing next-generation technology to help poultry producers keep birds healthy and maintain productivity for life. Download a helpful, printable guide that summarizes the above best practices here and keep checking our Education Center for other posts on our ABF production best practices series.
Earthquakes and Tsunamis Earthquakes and Tsunamis Chile. New Zealand. Japan. All of these countries have recently experience major earthquakes. Like Oregon, these countries are located along the “Ring of Fire”, a geologically active area along the edges and throughout the interior of the Pacific Ocean. As we have seen from the latest earthquake in Japan, the effects of a large earthquake in any of these areas will affect not only the area directly surrounding the earthquake. The resulting tsunami was experienced from the coast of Japan, many Pacific islands, and North and South America. Before an Earthquake - Put together home emergency and evacuation kits. These should be stored in a safe and accessible area in your home. - Make sure you know your family emergency plan. If you do not have a plan, you can visit Ready.Gov and use their Family Emergency Plan tool to create a quick and easy print-ready plan. - Make sure your family members know how to shut off utilities in your home. - Check your home for possible earthquake hazards. Brace heavy objects that could fall such as bookshelves, ceiling lamps and fans, large pictures and appliances. View or download and print the Earthquake Home Hazard Hunt to find out more you can do to prepare your home. - Sign up to receive emergency communications from local authorities during an emergency. During an Earthquake - DROP, COVER, and HOLD ON. Try to stay clear of windows, heavy furniture, fireplaces and anything that could fall, such as light fixtures or wall hangings - if you are indoors, STAY INSIDE until the shaking until the shaking stops and it is safe to go outside - if you are outdoors, STAY OUTSIDE and stay away from buildings, streetlights and utility wires - if you are in a vehicle, stop as quickly as safety permits and stay in your vehicle - once the shaking stops, evacuate and proceed cautiously to a safe area - refer to this Earthquake Emergency Response Guide for more information After an Earthquake - Expect aftershocks. These secondary earthquakes are usually not as violent as the main earthquake but can be strong enough to do more damage to already weakened buildings. - Listen to a battery-operated radio for instructions and information from authorities. - Use your phone only for emergency calls. During an emergency, phone lines may be overloaded and you may not be able to make a phone call. Consider sending text messages or email as they may get through even when phone lines are busy. - Stay away from damaged areas. - Be aware of possible tsunamis if you live in coastal areas. For more information read Cascadia Subduction Zone. “Living on Shaky Ground: How to Survive Earthquakes and Tsunamis in Oregon” gives more detailed information on how to prepare for an earthquake. People with disabilities or access and functional needs have special planning considerations for earthquake preparedness. The following resources address some of those needs. · - Know your emergency evacuation route. - If you have to evacuate, follow evacuation routes or, if none are apparent, proceed to higher ground as soon as possible. - Stay away from the coast until officials reopen the area for you to return. The first surge is not usually the largest and additional, and larger, surges can occur after the initial one. For more information about tsunamis on the Oregon Coast, check out the Oregon Tsunami Clearinghouse and read this Earthquake and Tsunami Emergency Guide.
Numerals and punctuation In this lesson, we will learn how to write numbers and various punctuation marks in Devanagari. The numerals that we use in English originate in India. As a result, the numerals we use in Devanagari are quite similar to the ones we use in English: And they are used just like English numerals: Modern Sanskrit texts make use of various English punctuation marks, including exclamation points (!), commas (,), and quotation marks (“”). But traditionally, Devanagari uses only a small set of punctuation marks. You can see all of them below: The first is called the daṇḍa (“stick”), which marks the end of a sentence or the middle point of a verse: The second is sometimes called a double daṇḍa, and it marks the end of a paragraph or verse: रामो लङ्कां गच्छति। रामो रावणं हन्ति॥ rāmo laṅkāṃ gacchati. rāmo rāvaṇaṃ hanti. Rama goes to Lanka. Rama kills Ravana. The last is called the avagraha, and it is sometimes used to show that a vowel was removed due to a sound change rule: श्वेतः अश्वः → श्वेतो ऽश्वः śvetaḥ aśvaḥ → śveto 'śvaḥ ते अश्वाः → ते ऽश्वाः te aśvāḥ → te 'śvāḥ They are horses. An avagraha may even be repeated if the vowel removed was long: सा आस्ते → सा ऽऽस्ते sā āste → sā ''ste
Gender in English A system of grammatical gender, whereby every noun was treated as either masculine, feminine or neuter, existed in Old English, but fell out of use during the Middle English period. Modern English retains features relating to natural gender, namely the use of certain nouns and pronouns (such as he and she) to refer specifically to persons or animals of one or other genders and certain others (such as it) for sexless objects – although feminine pronouns are sometimes used when referring to ships (and more uncommonly some airplanes and analogous machinery) and nation states. Some aspects of gender usage in English have been influenced by the movement towards a preference for gender-neutral language. This applies in particular to avoidance of the default use of the masculine he when referring to a person of unspecified genders, usually using the neuter they as a third-person singular, and avoidance of the use of certain feminine forms of nouns (such as authoress and poetess). Increasingly, the "male" form of such nouns is used for both genders. Gender in Old English Old English had a system of grammatical gender similar to that of modern German, with three genders: masculine, feminine, neuter. Determiners and attributive adjectives showed gender inflection in agreement with the noun they modified. Also the nouns themselves followed different declension patterns depending on their gender. Moreover, the third-person personal pronouns, as well as interrogative and relative pronouns, were chosen according to the grammatical gender of their antecedent. For details of the declension patterns and pronoun systems, see Old English grammar. Decline of grammatical gender By the 11th century, the role of grammatical gender in Old English was beginning to decline. The Middle English of the 13th century was in transition to the loss of a gender system. One element of this process was the change in the functions of the words the and that (then spelt þe and þat; see also Old English determiners): previously these had been non-neuter and neuter forms respectively of a single determiner, but in this period the came to be used generally as a definite article and that as a demonstrative; both thus ceased to manifest any gender differentiation. The loss of gender classes was part of a general decay of inflectional endings and declensional classes by the end of the 14th century. While inflectional reduction seems to have been incipient in the English language itself, some theories suggest that it was accelerated by contact with Old Norse, especially in midland and northern dialects. Gender loss began in the north of England; the south-east and the south-west Midlands were the most linguistically conservative regions, and Kent retained traces of gender in the 1340s. Late 14th-century London English had almost completed the shift away from grammatical gender, and Modern English retains no morphological agreement of words with grammatical gender. Gender is no longer an inflectional category in Modern English. The only traces of the Old English gender system are found in the system of pronoun–antecedent agreement, although this is now based on natural gender – the sex, gender identity, or perceived sexual characteristics, of the pronoun's referent. Another manifestation of natural gender that continues to function in English is the use of certain nouns to refer specifically to persons or animals of a particular sex: widow/widower, actor/actress, etc. Benjamin Whorf described grammatical gender in English as a covert grammatical category. He noted that gender as a property inherent in nouns (rather than in their referents) is not entirely absent from modern English: different pronouns may be appropriate for the same referent depending on what noun has been used. - he (and its related forms him, himself, his) is used when the referent is male, or something to which male characteristics are attributed); - she (and her, herself, hers) is used when the referent is female, or something to which female characteristics are attributed – this is common especially with vessels such as ships and airplanes, and sometimes with countries. An example is in God Bless America: "Stand beside her, and guide her through the night with a light from above." - it (and itself, its) is used when the referent is something inanimate or intangible, a non-animal life-form such as a plant, or, less often, a child when the sex is unspecified or deemed unimportant. Pronoun agreement is often with the natural gender of the referent (the person or thing denoted) rather than simply the antecedent (a noun or noun phrase which the pronoun replaces). For example, one might say either the doctor and his patients or the doctor and her patients, depending on one's knowledge or assumptions about the sex of the doctor in question, as the phrase the doctor (the antecedent) does not itself have any specific natural gender. Also, pronouns are sometimes used without any explicit antecedent. However, as noted above (the example with child and daughter), the choice of pronoun may also be affected by the particular noun used in the antecedent. (When the antecedent is a collective noun, such as family or team, and the pronoun refers to the members of the group denoted rather than the group as a single entity, a plural pronoun may be chosen: compare the family and its origins; the family and their breakfast-time arguments. See also synesis.) Because there is no gender-neutral pronoun, problems arise when the referent is a person of unknown or unspecified sex. Traditionally the male forms he etc. or the singular they have been used in such situations, but in contemporary English (partly because of the movement towards gender-neutral language) this is often avoided. Possible alternatives include: - use of he or she, he/she, s/he, etc. - alternation or random mixture of use of she and he - use of singular they (common especially in informal language) - use of it (normally only considered when the antecedent is a word like child, baby, infant) Although the use of she and he for inanimate objects is not very frequent in Standard Modern English, it is in fact fairly widespread in some varieties of English. Gender assignment to inanimate nouns in these dialects is sometimes fairly systematic. For example, in some dialects of southwest England, masculine pronouns are used for individuated or countable matter, such as iron tools, while the neuter form is used for non-individuated matter, such as liquids, fire and other substances. In principle, animals are triple-gender nouns, being able to take masculine, feminine and neuter pronouns. However, animals viewed as less important to humans, also known as ‘lower animals’, are generally referred to using it; higher (domestic) animals may more often be referred to using he and she, when their sex is known. If the sex of the animal is not known, the masculine pronoun is often used with a sex-neutral meaning. For example, Person A: Ah there’s an ant Person B: Well put him outside Animate pronouns he and she are usually applied to animals when personification and/or individuation occurs. Personification occurs whenever human attributes are applied to the noun. For example: A widow bird sat mourning for her love. Specifically named animals are an example of individuation, such as Peter Rabbit or Blob the Whale. In these instances, it is more likely that animate pronouns he or she will be used to represent them. These rules also apply to other triple-gender nouns, including ideas, inanimate objects, and words like infant and child. Traditionally, oceans, countries, and ships, even those named after men such as USS Barry, have been referred to using the feminine pronouns. It is currently in decline (though still more common for ships, particularly in nautical usage, than for countries), and in Modern English, calling objects "she" is an optional figure of speech, while in American English it is advised against by The Chicago Manual of Style. In general, transgender individuals prefer to be referred to by the gender third-person pronoun appropriate to the gender with which they identify. Some genderqueer or similarly-identified people prefer not to use either he or she, but a different pronoun such as they, zie, or so forth. Other English pronouns are not subject to male/female distinctions, although in some cases a distinction between animate (or rather human) and inanimate (non-human) referents is made. For example, the word who (as an interrogative or relative pronoun) refers to a person or persons, and rarely to animals (although the possessive form whose can be used as a relative pronoun even when the antecedent is inanimate), while which and what refer to inanimate things (and non-human animals). Since these pronouns function on a binary gender system, distinguishing only between animate and inanimate entities, this suggests that English has a second gender system which contrasts with the primary gender system. It should also be noted that relative and interrogative pronouns do not encode number. This is shown in the following example: The man who lost his head vs. the men who lost their heads Other pronouns which show a similar distinction include everyone/everybody vs. everything, no one/nobody vs. nothing, etc. Many words in modern English refer specifically to people or animals of a particular sex, although sometimes the specificity is being lost (for example, duck need not refer exclusively to a female bird; cf. Donald Duck). As part of the movement towards gender-neutral language, the use of many specifically female forms, such as poetess, authoress, is increasingly discouraged. An example of an English word that has retained gender-specific spellings is the noun-form of blond/blonde, with the former being masculine and the latter being feminine. Gender neutrality in English Gender neutrality in English became a growing area of interest among academics during Second Wave Feminism, when the work of structuralist linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, and his theories on semiotics, became more well known in academic circles. By the 1960s and 1970s, post-structuralist theorists, particularly in France, brought wider attention to gender-neutrality theory, and the concept of supporting gender equality through conscious changes to language. Feminists analyzing the English language put forward their own theories about the power of language to create and enforce gender determinism and the marginalization of the feminine. Debates touched on such issues as changing the term "stewardess" to the gender-neutral "flight attendant", "fireman" to "fire fighter", "mailman" to "mail carrier", and so on. At the root of this contentiousness may have been feminists' backlash against the English language's shift from "grammatical gender" to "natural gender" during the early Modern era coinciding with the spread of institutional prescriptive grammar rules in English schools. These theories have been challenged by some researchers, with attention given to additional possible social, ethnic, economic, and cultural influences on language and gender. The impact on mainstream language has been limited, yet has led to lasting changes in practice. Features of gender-neutral language in English may include: - Avoidance of gender-specific job titles, or caution in their use; - Avoidance of the use of man and mankind to refer to humans in general; - Avoidance of the use of he, him and his when referring to a person of unspecified sex (see under Personal pronouns above). Certain naming practices (such as the use of Mrs and Miss to distinguish married and unmarried women) may also be discouraged on similar grounds. For more details and examples, see Gender neutrality in English. - Stevenson, Angus (ed.) (2010). Oxford Dictionary of English, 3rd Ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York, p. 598. ISBN 978-0-19-957112-3. - Curzan 2003, pp. 84, 86: "[T]he major gender shift for inanimate nouns in written texts occurs in late Old English/early Middle English, but [. . .] the seeds of change are already present in Old English before 1000 AD." - Lass, Roger (2006). "Phonology and morphology". In Richard M. Hogg, David Denison (ed.). A history of the English language. Cambridge University Press. p. 70. ISBN 0-521-66227-3.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Curzan 2003, p. 86: "[G]rammatical gender remained healthy in the personal pronouns through late Old English; it is not until early Middle English that the balance of gender concord in the pronouns tips towards natural gender, at least in the written language." - Shinkawa, Seiji (2012). Unhistorical Gender Assignment in Laʒamon's Brut. Switzerland: Peter Lang.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Hellinger, Marlis; Bussmann, Hadumod (2001). "English — Gender in a global language". Gender across languages: the linguistic representation of women and men. 1. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 107. ISBN 90-272-1841-2.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Curzan 2003, p. 53. - Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (2002). - 'English Language', Encarta, (Microsoft Corporation, 2007). "The distinctions of grammatical gender in English were replaced by those of natural gender.". Archived 2009-10-31. - Benjamin Lee Whorf, 'Grammatical Categories', Language 21 (1945): 1–11. See also Robert A. Hall Jr, 'Sex Reference and Grammatical Gender in English', American Speech 26 (1951): 170–172. - Siemund, Peter (2008). Pronominal Gender in English: A Study of English Varieties form a Cross-Linguistic Perspective. New York: Routledge.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Compare the similar Early Modern English formation which is typified in the prose of the King James Bible (or Authorized Version), here shewed in the Gospel of St Matthew, v,13: Ye are the salt of the earth: but if the salt have lost his savour, wherewith shall it be salted? it is thenceforth good for nothing, but to be cast out, and to be trodden under foot of men. - Grossman, John, ed. (2003). The Chicago Manual of Style (15th ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-226-10403-4. LCCN 2003001860. OCLC 51553085. OL 15979229W. When a pronoun is used to refer to a vessel, the neuter it (rather than she or her) is generally preferred.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Binkley, Collin (19 September 2015). "Pick your own pronoun at university". Toronto Star. Toronto Star. Associated Press. Retrieved 24 April 2016.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Meyer, Charles F. (2010). Introducing English Linguistics International Student Edition. Cambridge University Press. p. 14. ISBN 9780521152211.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Curzan 2003, pp. 39, 151, 156. - Cameron 1992, p. 29. - Cameron, Deborah (1992). Feminism and Linguistic Theory (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-08376-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Curzan, Anne (2003). Gender Shifts in the History of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82007-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> \|Look up gender in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\|
Use PhonicsPlay.co.uk - to practise the sound cards using 'Flashcards Time Trials'. Hopefully you are familiar with the clip, so play the clip one last time. Today you are going to write a short story of what happens next. You are going to use your creative imagination to write what happens on the next day. When the two foxes wake up, what do they do with their day? Do they spend the day teaching each other their skills? Do they travel somewhere? Does something bad happen to their home? Think of stories you know already to help you with this. You could start with: Bright, one early morning..... On a sunny, warm Saturday morning.... Far, far away in the village of ..... We've been working on fractions of amount all week. Splitting numbers into equal groups - just like division. There are 10 questions for you to answer which have a mixture of halves, thirds and quarters. 1. What is 1/2 of 26? 2. What is 2/3 of 15? 3. What is 1/2 of 12? 4. What is 1/4 of 32? 5. What is 1/3 of 18? 6. What is 2/3 of 30? 7. What is 1/2 of 18? 8. What is 2/4 of 16? 9. What is 1/3 of 27? 10. What is 3/4 of 16? Extra challenge - Make 3 of your own and work them out! Today we will be discussing change. Make a list of things that change (e.g. eggs when you cook them) Watch the 2 videos below, showing how nature changes. Do you think change is good? Discuss this with somebody. For your activity can you make a poster about change, you can choose the 4 seasons or you can choose a seed growing into a flower.
For earth observation spacecraft an earth observation satellite or earth remote sensing satellite is a satellite specifically designed for earth observation from orbit similar to spy satellites but intended for non military uses such as environmental monitoring meteorology map. What is satellite station keeping. An example of this is the international space station iss which has an operational altitude above earth s surface of between 330 and 410 km. In astrodynamics the orbital maneuvers made by thruster burns that are needed to keep a spacecraft in a particular assigned orbit are called orbital station keeping. We know that communication refers to the exchange sharing of information between two or more entities through any medium or channel. In other words it is nothing but sending receiving and processing of. The purpose of geo station keeping is to keep the geo satellite longitude and latitude point inside the rectangular deadband box 4. Let λ d b be the e w maximum allowed. An east west station keeping ewsk maneuver controls the satellite longitude drift rate and eccentricity to maintain the satellite in the pre defined longitude box. Once the satellite accumulation drum was full or the 1 year limit reached then business has 3 days to move the waste to the hazardous waste accumulation area and dispose of this waste within the time frame that the. Station keeping in low earth orbit. It may be used like visualization for educational classes. The main source of perturbation for a satellite in gso is the combined gravitational attractions of the sun and moon which causes the orbital inclination to increase by nearly one degree per year. In other words the control routine necessary to keep the satellite in positionis known as station keeping. 11 24 2015 at 1 27 pm reply. In general terms a satellite is a smaller object that revolves around a larger object in space. Satellite communication introduction. For example moon is a natural satellite of earth. Station keeping is minor maneuvers that a satellite in geostationary orbit gso or low earth orbit leo must make over its mission life to compensate for orbital perturbations. It use to overlapping of coverage area of individual satellite. Geosatellite nssk gmat inclination maneuver orbit маневр орбита. Simultaneous control of the eccentricity and longitude of geostationary satellites have been studied by biasing mean eccentricity vector relative to the sun kamel and wagner.
The era from the 1930s and 1940s America was a time of development for the United States. During this ten year period America experienced the Great Depression, The Dust Bowl and World War II. The Great Depression began in 1929 and lasted to 1939 and was caused by a stock market crash. Many Americans lost their jobs, and homes changing the family dynamic forever as women had transitioned from the traditional housewife role to working to help provide for their families. For Black people the Great Depression worsend their conditions as they faced racial inequality. Black people were the first people laid off and received little to no government aid. The Dust Bowl began in 1930 in the Midwest and Southern Plains. The Dust Bowl caused an agriculture drought that killed people and livestock. The effects of the Dust Bowl caused the biggest migration in America with about 2.5 million people who fled to the west coast. At the end of this era in 1939 was the start of World War II. World War II was caused by the German invasion of Poland. The war did increase the employment rate at the time but did cause hardships for families as many men had to leave home to fight in the war. Despite the hardships that many faced during the 1930’s and 1940’s black people were able to develop the sound of Jazz. Traditional Jazz and Swing Jazz became a popular sound of music during this time in African American communities. During the Great Depression African American had to work low paying jobs in hopes of survival. In this picture workers can be seen picking through peas. The Dust Bowl caused many families to migrate. This family is securing all of their belongings onto their car as they are preparing to move west. Africans Americans were allowed to fight in World War II. This African American troop appears to be briefing. Traditional Jazz or known as Trad Jazz or New Orleans Jazz reached a level of popularity in the 1930s and 1940s. Traditional Jazz developed in New Orleans due the presence of Carribean influence. Bass instruments like the Trumpet and Saxophone are used to create the sound of Jazz. Jazz music is typically upbeat and downbeat and is the first music that is representative of world culture. Buddy Bolden was the first known Jazz musician. Louis Armstrong was also an early Jazz musician and carries the title as the father of Jazz, because he consolidated all of the aspects of Jazz before he came. Although Jazz gained its originality in New Orleans it was not restricted there. Jazz migrated to areas of Detroit and Chicago and later Harlem. People used Jazz as a form of entertainment especially in the night life of Harlem. Jazz had an influence on the entire world as artists like Sam Wooding had taken his music to Berlin and later Barcelona & South America. In this video Louis Armstrong performing his song “What a Wonderful World.” In this performance you can hear the sounds of the piano and the trumpet. Swing Jazz is a form of Jazz that developed in the mid to late 1930s. Swing music can best be described as a fixed upbeat sound. The swing era introduced Jazz to the dance floor as the swing sound influenced dancing. Swing Jazz used more string instruments rather than bass instruments like Trad Jazz. Unlike Trad Jazz, Swing Jazz was usually performed by large bands. This video is mix of Ella Fitzgerald and Duke Ellington performing “It Dont Mean a Thing.” In the video one can see a large group performing and hear the upbeat tempo of the piano being played. Login to your account
What is Parkinson's? SummaryParkinson's is a progressive neurological condition affecting movements such as walking, talking, and writing. It is named after Dr. James Parkinson (1755-1824), the London doctor who first identified Parkinson's as a specific condition. Parkinson's occurs as result of a loss of nerve cells in the part of the brain known as the substantia nigra. These cells are responsible for producing a chemical known as dopamine, which allows messages to be sent to the parts of the brain that co-ordinate movement. With the depletion of dopamine-producing cells, these parts of the brain are unable to function normally. The main symptoms of Parkinson's can also be symptoms of other disorders. Conditions that produce these symptoms are known collectively as parkinsonism. Parkinson's is the most common form of parkinsonism and is often referred to as "idiopathic Parkinson's disease" (this means of unknown cause). Other, less common, forms of parkinsonism include: - multiple system atrophy (MSA) - progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) If you have one of these rarer conditions, the Parkinson's Disease Society can provide you with support and may be able to put you in touch with specific organisations that support people with these conditions. For More Information: www.parkinsons.org.uk
Mars is believed to have had rivers and lakes of liquid water that disappeared about 3.5 million years ago. NASA researchers have now figured that the culprit behind disappearance of water on the red planet. They think an unusual dust elevator that carried all the water to space. Scientists analyzed data collected by NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) during the 2018 global dust storm that ended the Opportunity rover’s mission. Dust storms are common on the Martian surface but sometimes the whole planet is enveloped in dusty storm systems dubbed as Global Dust Storm. Within the storms, a phenomenon known as dust towers has been observed. Dust towers are concentrated clouds of dust that rise from the surface into the thin Martian atmosphere when heated by sunlight. NASA says on subsiding, the phenomenon leaves behind a 56 kilometers thick layer of dust that is as wide as the continental United States. Using the heat-sensing Mars Climate Sounder instrument and Mars Context Imager (MARCI) aboard the MRO researchers detected multiple dust towers. The researchers published two papers from their study. They observed that towers would last for over three weeks in global dust storms, much longer than normal dust storms. The researchers think that these dust towers can act like ‘space elevator’ that carries materials from the surface to the atmosphere. The dust in the atmosphere creates an updraft on heating up carrying gas and small quantity of water vapor. In a previous paper, researchers described how water molecules could be carried by dust storms to upper atmosphere where solar radiation breaks them down. The researchers think this explains how the red planet became a freezing desert and hope to figure out more with more data as they have only studied a dozen dust storms. Mars Climate Sounder scientist David Kass of JPL explained: “We really don’t have anything like this on the Earth, “Global dust storms are really unusual, where the entire planet’s weather changes for several months.”
Factors influencing a child’s taste palate and how to improve it Are you struggling to expand your child’s food choices? If your little one is a picky eater, read more to understand how to expand his taste palate and go beyond his limited taste preferences. Development of taste and sensory perception in children By 12 months of age, children are no longer dependent on milk, and consume a wide variety of food. From 12 to 18 months, they will be able to establish a preference for certain foods and will be able to recognise a combination of tastes and textures. Based on the way the food looks, the child categorises it as known or unknown. That is why new food is rejected by babies and toddlers since it's unknown. Even small changes in food can make them reject the food plate. The child will need an exposure of one or two tastes in the first 6 months to induce a preference, compared to 14 or more during the later stages. This is why it is crucial to develop tastes and preferences in the early stages of growth. Factors that shape a child’s taste palate Here are a few factors that help in expanding your child’s palate: - Children develop their taste palate through repetition. They prefer food that is familiar to them especially, if that makes them feel good after consumption. - It is recommended that children should be exposed to food with nutritional value to help them develop a taste for healthy foods over time. - Smell, appearance, and perception also contribute to shaping the taste palate. Developing positive experiences around healthy food with stories, songs, and art can also help in improving the child’s taste palate. - Children like fun and adventure and hence, adding fun while dining can improve your child’s willingness to try new food. - You should try to involve kids in the meal decisions in the kitchen, at the market and the dinner table. A good example is to make them add items to the cart while shopping. This improves their ownership of the items. While all kids may not like to be in the kitchen, sometimes it helps to make them a part of the meal preparation process. - A child’s palate can also be improved by understanding the reasons behind the refusal of food. Children might refuse food due to many reasons. Parental anxiety about health and growth is considered as one of the main reasons. The following are some of the ways by which parents or caregivers may contribute to food refusal: - They might continue to provide milk feeds for a longer period than necessary - They may delay solid or semi-solid food as they are worried about choking hazards - They may provide certain foods forcefully to avoid dietary imbalance - Parents or caregivers may force-feed certain foods regularly Improving your child’s food and taste preferences Taste and food preferences can be improved in children by following these recommendations. - Provide exposure to food with nutritional value early in life and increase the exposure - Children may not like new foods initially but with some perseverance, they might develop a taste for them. However, parents should be careful not to distress the child. - Parents should be focused on the experience and not on the amount of food. - Provide homemade food regularly. - Your child should be encouraged to enjoy food. - You should consume food that you want your child to have. - Avoid feeding your child forcefully. - Avoid placing disliked food on the plate with the food they like. - Don’t label your child as a picky eater as it can make them stubborn. - Provide choices to your child of the same food and try to involve them in the decisions. - Avoid substituting food as it may result in delaying the process of developing the taste. Children become picky eaters around 18 months of age which can last beyond their childhood. There are many types of pickiness and hence, it is important to understand what works for your child. Also remember that parental anxiety is often an important reason behind the child’s refusal of food and hence you need to relax while feeding your child. Make sure that you expose your child to foods with high nutritional value in the early stages of his growth. This can definitely help in developing tastes and preferences towards healthy food and have a positive impact on his health. To learn more about growth and possibilities for your child www.nangrow.in To learn more about nutrition dense meal options to include in your child’s diet visit www.Ceregrow.in
Approximately 40% of Americans have the genetic potential to become gluten intolerant. More than 1% of Americans have celiac disease. In fact, this percentage may be a low estimate because most physicians are unfamiliar with the signs and symptoms of celiac disease, which can be a "great masquerader". Gluten intolerance and celiac disease are closely related. After repeated exposure to gluten, a person who is gluten intolerant may develop celiac disease. Gluten is a complex of proteins found in wheat, rye, and barley. The human digestive tract cannot break down gluten into its component amino acids, so gluten proteins persist in the gastrointestinal tract until they are excreted. In susceptible individuals, the gluten proteins may be identified as "foreign" and their immune systems may launch a reaction against these non-self proteins. In such persons, including infants, children, teenagers, and adults, continued exposure to gluten may cause development of signs and symptoms of celiac disease.1-2 Wheat, rye, and barley comprise significant components of the Western diet. Almost all breads are made from one or more of these three grains. Cookies, cakes, bagels, muffins, pizza, and pasta are all gluten-containing foods. Additionally, gluten is found in vitamin pills, shampoo, toothpaste, household cleansers, and even prescription drugs. Wheat-based binders are often used in the manufacturing process of these articles. So gluten is literally everywhere. A susceptible person's initial immune reaction to gluten persists with continued exposure. Eventually the immune reaction may damage the lining of the person's small intestine, leading to the classic symptoms of celiac disease - abdominal pain, constipation and/or diarrhea, and abdominal bloating. Intestinal damage causes these very unpleasant and debilitating symptoms and may also lead to additional serious diseases. Malnutrition is one of the major consequences of celiac disease. Importantly, gluten intolerance may be related to a variety of serious disorders. Neuropsychiatric conditions such as autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and schizophrenia may be associated with underlying gluten intolerance and celiac disease. Arthritic conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus), and psoriatic arthritis may be related to gluten intolerance. Endocrine conditions including diabetes, hyper- and hypothryroidism, and Addison's disease are often related to gluten intolerance and celiac disease. Infertility and frequent miscarriages may also be related to an underlying condition of gluten intolerance. The takeaway is this. Gluten intolerance and celiac disease may be an underlying cause of serious medical conditions that have not been treated successfully. The key is considering gluten intolerance as an underlying cause and taking appropriate action. Patient knowledge and increased physician knowledge and awareness are crucial to correctly identifying a hidden problem.3 Your family chiropractor is an expert in nutrition and is trained to identify underlying causes of health problems. In addition, chiropractic treatment may help restore more normal and more effective immune system functioning. In cases requiring a holistic, multidisciplinary approach, chiropractic treatment is a crucial component. 1Selimolu MA, Karabiber H: Celiac disease. Prevention and treatment. J Clin Gastroenterol 44(1):4-8, 2010 2Setty M, et al: Celiac disease: risk assessment, diagnosis, and monitoring. Mol Diagn Ther 12(5):289-298, 2008 3Schuppan D, et al: Celiac disease: from pathogenesis to novel therapies. Gastroenterology 137(6):1912-1933, 2009
Before there was Juneteenth, there was August 1st. The first of August is Emancipation Day in the West Indies, commemorating the day (in 1834) when the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 went into full effect across the former British Empire. Caribbean nations from Antigua and Barbados to Trinidad & Tobago continue to celebrate some form of Emancipation Day, but there was a time in the 19th century when it was a thing in the United States. American abolitionists seized on August 1st in solidarity with an anti-slavery movement that succeeded decades before the Emancipation Proclamation. And what did those abolitionists do on August 1st? That’s right: they had picnics. As the movement gained momentum in the 1830s, one of the ways they promoted the cause to attract supporters was to hold large community picnics. The painting above, by Susan Torrey Merritt, documents one such picnic in Weymouth, Massachusetts, in 1845. But the most famous abolitionist picnic happened a year earlier, in nearby Hingham, Massachusetts, to mark the 10th anniversary of Emancipation Day. Planned for months in advance, it drew a crowd of nearly 10,000 people who came to hear A-list speakers like Frederick Douglass, William Lloyd Garrison, and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Delegations were sent from around the northeast, and the day began with a processional parade. There were speeches, poems, and song, along with a performance by the super-famous Hutchinson Family Singers, which makes it sound kind of like a teetotaling Quaker Woodstock. As it happens, a recently published local history by Martha Reardon Bewick, entitled Tranquility Grove: The Great Abolitionist Picnic of 1844, recounts the details of the event—starting with the fact that the picnic was rained out on August 1st and so was held the following day. The book gathers primary source material, including broadsides advertising the picnic, lists of attendees, and the speeches, letters, and songs that were shared throughout the day. Beyond noting that provisions were sent from Boston, the book doesn’t concern itself with the menu. If you’re curious about what they might have fed some 10,000 hungry abolitionists, you can consult Mrs. Beeton’s Book of Household Management (like a Victorian Martha Stewart Living). Far more interesting than the food, of course, is the democratic spirit at the heart of the whole thing—the idea that picnics could be purposeful gatherings in pursuit of justice and equality. That’s a tradition worth preserving.
The civil rights movement photographed The American photographer Gordon Parks (1912 – 2006) used his camera as a weapon. In a time of division, Parks introduced photography as a counterweight to combat racism, oppression and inequality. As a proponent of the civil rights movement, Parks exposed injustice and poverty. He portrayed key figures in the fight against injustice and made reports about the marginalization of African Americans for Life Magazine. The exhibition consists of 120 works, including vintage prints, contact sheets, magazines and fragments from the films The Learning Tree and Shaft, both directed by Parks.
The Madeira archipelago has a humid subtropical climate. To put it simply: the weather is fine almost all year round: temperatures rarely drop below 10°C (except in the high mountains) with an average of 18°C: 15°C in winter and 23°C in summer. The rainfall allows nature to be particularly green, which is why Madeira is called the island of flowers, the garden of the Atlantic, or Madeira: eternal spring. In order to understand how the climate works in Madeira, it is necessary to situate the island of Madeira. In the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, the gulf stream has a great influence on the climate. It is also just north of the Tropic of Cancer, which has a great influence on the winds, more precisely the trade winds. What is a subtropical climate? A humid subtropical climate is a temperate climate zone characterized by hot, humid summers and short, mild winters. Several classifications exist and differ somewhat according to climatologists (among them: Köppen - Leslie Holdridge...). A subtropical climate could be defined with an average annual temperature between 16 and 24°C, with at least 8 months above 10 degrees. This climate is halfway between continental and tropical. The gulf stream Madeira is directly impacted by the gulf stream: this warm water current that starts in the West Indies and transfers its heat to part of Europe, but above all to the entire north-western coast of Africa through the Canary Current, which therefore includes the Madeira archipelago, the Azores and the Canary Islands. The current thus forms a loop and leaves again on the Florida side, pushed by the equatorial current. It almost "keeps" the warm temperatures, unlike the North Atlantic drifting currents which are lost along Europe and become cold currents. It is therefore thanks to the gulf stream current, which crosses the island from north to south as shown in the diagram above, that the ocean temperatures oscillate between 17 and 23° all year round. Ideal for swimming despite the waves. The currents are quite strong and this is what makes Madeira an excellent surfing spot! The predominant wind in Madeira is the North-East wind. This is the North-East trade wind: The phenomenon of air masses carries the warm winds from the Tropic of Cancer northwards towards the equator. They then rise to more than 10 km in altitude and return northwards to cool, forming a North-South loop. From October to March, it is more of a westerly wind: it is the Azores anticyclone, which brings precipitation to the island (which also explains why the eastern part of the island, the tip of São Lourenço, is more deserted). Meteorology is a complex science and there are many phenomena that can affect Madeira. For example, in summer the wind can come from the North West, more precisely from the Sahara, and bring heat to Madeira Island. Generally speaking, the wind is stronger in the north of the island: the mountains rising above 1400 metres block the gusts and clouds. They protect the south from precipitation, humidity and wind in general. This can be seen on the aerial image of the islands of Madeira (top of the image) and the Canaries (bottom): the wind pushes the clouds in a south-westerly direction, and the impact of the islands is to block and literally swirl the clouds. It is therefore particularly common to find certain areas of Madeira in fog, such as the Fanal forest, famous for its "enchanting" photos. It is also common to find yourself above the "sea of clouds" when climbing the picos at an altitude of over 1500 metres. A large part of the south of the island, as well as the extreme east (São Lourenço point), are low rainfall areas: between 600 and 1000 mm per year. The weather in Funchal and in villages such as Ribeira Brava, Calheta, or Ponta do Sol (which means Point of the Sun ;)) is almost year-round. On the other hand, the mountainous regions in the heart of the island are particularly subject to rainfall: nearly 2,500 to 3,000 mm per year around the picos do Ariero in the central east, and Encumeada in the central west. This makes it easier to understand the importance of the levadas which allow water to be transported to the coasts and crops. The north of the island as a whole is also more subject to rainfall, between 1400 and 2000 mm per year. The average temperature is a little lower than in the south, with the exception of Ponta Delgada which also has its own microclimate. The northern regions of the island are greener, lush and wilder. When to go to Madeira? Once you understand how Madeira's climate works, you also understand that you can actually go to the island all year round. Depending on the weather conditions, you can choose a different activity or place to visit. Madeira is sometimes the 4 seasons in the same day. Winter in the picos and the summer sun by the sea. If it's raining in the north, just get in your car and visit the south or east of the island! It's up to you to find your ideal time to go to Madeira!
Using CSIRO’s Parkes Radio Telescope equipped with an innovative receiver, a team of astronomers were able to see through the stars and dust of the Milky Way, into a previously unexplored region of space. The discovery may help to explain the Great Attractor region, which appears to be drawing the Milky Way and hundreds of thousands of other galaxies towards it with a gravitational force equivalent to a million billion Suns. In a newly published study hundreds of hidden nearby galaxies have been studied for the first time, shedding light on a mysterious gravitational anomaly dubbed the Great Attractor. Despite being just 250 million light years from Earth—very close in astronomical terms—the new galaxies had been hidden from view until now by our own galaxy, the Milky Way. Lead author Professor Lister Staveley-Smith, from The University of Western Australia node of the International Center for Radio Astronomy Research (ICRAR), said the team found 883 galaxies, a third of which had never been seen before. “The Milky Way is very beautiful of course and it’s very interesting to study our own galaxy but it completely blocks out the view of the more distant galaxies behind it,” he said. Professor Staveley-Smith said scientists have been trying to get to the bottom of the mysterious Great Attractor since major deviations from universal expansion were first discovered in the 1970s and 1980s. “We don’t actually understand what’s causing this gravitational acceleration on the Milky Way or where it’s coming from,” he said. “We know that in this region there are a few very large collections of galaxies we call clusters or superclusters, and our whole Milky Way is moving towards them at more than two million kilometers per hour.” The research identified several new structures that could help to explain the movement of the Milky Way, including three galaxy concentrations (named NW1, NW2 and NW3) and two new clusters (named CW1 and CW2). University of Cape Town astronomer Professor Renée Kraan-Korteweg said astronomers have been trying to map the galaxy distribution hidden behind the Milky Way for decades. “We’ve used a range of techniques but only radio observations have really succeeded in allowing us to see through the thickest foreground layer of dust and stars,” she said. “An average galaxy contains 100 billion stars, so finding hundreds of new galaxies hidden behind the Milky Way points to a lot of mass we didn’t know about until now.” Dr. Bärbel Koribalski from CSIRO Astronomy and Space Science said innovative technologies on the Parkes Radio telescope had made it possible to survey large areas of the sky very quickly. “With the 21-cm multibeam receiver on Parkes we’re able to map the sky 13 times faster than we could before and make new discoveries at a much greater rate,” she said. An animation showing the location of the galaxies discovered in the ‘Zone of Avoidance’. Until now this region of space has remained hidden from view because of the gas and dust of the Milky Way which blocks light at optical wavelengths from reaching telescopes on Earth. By using CSIRO’s Parkes radio telescope to detect radio waves that can travel through our galaxy’s gas and dust, hundreds of new galaxies have been found in the region of space known to astronomers as the ‘Zone of Avoidance’. This animation has been created using the actual positional data of the new galaxies and randomly populating the region with galaxies of different sizes, types and colours. The study involved researchers from Australia, South Africa, the US and the Netherlands, and was published today in the Astronomical Journal. PDF Copy of the Study: The Parkes HI Zone of Avoidance Survey
Indiana University School of Medicine It's been more than 65 years since James Watson and Francis Crick collaborated With Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins discovered that DNA ̵ Since then, astrobiologists have attempted to conjure up the countless shapes and forms in which life is found on other planets. And an important part of this imagination requires the determination of the permutations and combinations in which DNA could be assembled in such extraterrestrial organisms, as opposed to those found in living beings on Earth . In a monumental achievement on this journey, scientists funded by NASA and directed by the Foundation for Applied Molecular Evolution in the US have synthesized a new stable version of DNA with eight base molecules compared to the Form that four were found on earth. Traditionally, the stable molecular structure of DNA is maintained by the chemical bonding between its base molecules. Adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine. And between these bases, represented by the letters A, G, T, and C, respectively, a chemical bond occurs only between A and T and G and C, leading to the complex double-helix structure of DNA. Scientists have discovered over the years that these bases can form double-helical structures in one of the three forms – A, B or Z . While the B-form is most common, occasionally A and Z types were also found, with the Z-form helices being left-handed. Even with these forms, the bases and their mating configuration remained the same. The exclusivity of this binding plays an important role in the stability of the DNA molecule and is therefore one of the main reasons why today all life forms on Earth exist. According to project leader Steven Benner however, the building block of our genetic code could have had more forms. The bases not only play a structural role but also encode information about what molecules an organism can produce in its body. In each cell, there are mechanisms to read the DNA bases and, correspondingly, to produce molecules that are assembled into different structures. It's like workers in a factory reading the source file for a car's design – which resembles DNA – to put together the different parts of a car. The version synthesized by Benner's team is called Hachimoji DNA . 19659014]; Hachi means eight in Japan and moji translates to "letter". The synthetic DNA has the four traditional bases and four unnatural bases, including a pair named S and B. This means that it is possible to encode more defined information with the eight bases than has traditionally been possible only with A, T, G and C is possible. This study is remarkable for me because it has proven that there is nothing special about the DNA found on Earth, and that there could be other stable forms in the universe that have other combinations of other molecules. Benner's creation also raises the question of whether life here on Earth could have taken a different path with an eight-base DNA. This article examines how the study was conducted. If you want to examine the properties of the newly synthesized bases, Zimmer's contribution is worth reading. TNW Conference 2019 is coming! Click here to see our glorious new location, the inspiring range of speakers and activities, and part of this annual tech bonanza.
Throwing up is a complex bodily reaction that forces the contents of your stomach to leave the body. You might vomit because your digestive system detects something bad in your food. Or you might throw up in response to signals from your brain, balancing systems in your ears or bloodstream, which can contain medicines or infections that spur nausea. In your stomach, gastric juices break down food so your body can absorb nutrients. When you vomit, a mixture of half-digested food and gastric juices leaves your stomach and pushes through your esophagus. The gastric juices can irritate and burn the lining of your throat, leading to inflammation. The more you throw up, the more inflammation and burning you will feel. It might become difficult to swallow or speak clearly. Drinking a soothing liquid, such as warm tea or water, might help lessen the burning sensation, but a better solution is to determine the cause of the nausea and vomiting. Talk to your doctor if you can't stop throwing up. People who vomit often might experience significant esophageal damage. For example, bulimics attempt to lose or maintain their weight by forcing themselves to throw up after large meals. The continual burning and pressure from vomiting can cause tears in the esophageal lining. Over time, repeated vomiting might even lead to esophageal rupture. Prolonged inflammation in your throat is called esophagitis. Symptoms include painful swallowing, difficulty swallowing, hoarseness, sore throat and heartburn, also known as gastroesophageal reflux disease. Heartburn, like vomiting, is a condition that exposes your esophagus to caustic gastric juices. The cause of heartburn is a malfunctioning band of muscle, called the esophageal sphincter, that allows the digestive juices to escape. It's called heartburn because you might experience a burning sensation in your throat and upper chest due to repeated inflammation of the esophageal lining. Barrett's esophagus is the result of continual inflammation from stomach acids. It's commonly caused by chronic heartburn. The repetitive burning changes the color and composition of the cells in the esophageal lining. While you might not experience symptoms, Barrett's esophagus is a serious condition because it increases your risk of esophageal cancer. If you vomit often or have chronic heartburn, ask your doctor to inspect your esophagus to determine if there are any precancerous lesions due to the continual presence of corrosive stomach acids.
kidzsearch.com > wiki Explore:images videos games The lowest note of an oboe is B flat (just below Middle C). The lowest note of a cor anglais is an E natural, a diminshed fifth (five notes of a scale, minus a semitone) lower than the oboe's lowest note. The cor anglais is a transposing instrument pitched in F. This means that the music sounds a fifth lower than written. This has the advantage that the cor anglais player uses fingering as if he were playing an oboe, but it will sound a fifth lower. The bell (the bit at the end of the instrument) is shaped like a pear. This gives it a less nasal sound (the sound of the cor anglais is less as if played through the nose). The reed is not fixed to a piece of cork like the oboe reed but it is put straight onto the short piece of metal (called a "bocal") at the top of the instrument. The word "cor anglais" is a French word which literally means "English horn", but the cor anglais is neither English nor a horn. No one is sure how it got its name, but many people think it is because the bocal at the top is curved (the French word for curved, "anglé" is pronounced like the word for English "anglais"). There are few solo pieces for the instrument, but mostly it is used for solo melodies in slow pieces for orchestra because it can sound very expressive. Some famous examples of cor anglais solos can be found in:
The injection molding process creates products by injecting a heated liquid into a mold and allowing it to solidify forming that shape. The most common materials utilized in this manufacturing process are plastic, glass, and metal. This manufacturing method is the most common form of mass production. Some examples are buttons, car panels, and toy soldiers. Injection refers to the corkscrew style injector that presses the heated liquefied material into the mold. The material is allowed to cool and harden in the mold. The finished product is then removed and ready for use. The molded material is typically a polymer resin such as thermoplastic, thermosets, and elastomers. There are five specific injection molding processes listed and defined below. Air Injection Molding: Gas is injected with the liquid material to provide a specific characteristic. Insert Injection Molding: This process allows plastic material to flow around metal placed inside the mold creating a single part. Outsert Injection Molding: This process creates a metal covering around molded plastic parts. Push-Pull Injection Molding: While the material is injected at one end the other is being stretched creating a long thin product. Sandwich Injection Molding: Two similar polymers are injected sequentially forming reinforcing layers.
Anthropology and Archaeology Overviews of humans in YellowstoneResources describing anthropology and archaeology in Yellowstone. - Archeology Around Yellowstone Lake. This 9-page PDF examines the importance of Yellowstone Lake to humans in prehistoric times. The shorelines around the lake have been eroding and exposing artifacts that remain hidden elsewhere in the Park. The archeological sites expose artifacts, mostly rock chips, which point to seasonal occupations such as stone procurement, tool manufacture and repair. (more info) - Pre-historic Land Use Patterns within the Yellowstone Lake Basin and Hayden Valley Region, Yellowstone National Park . This 19-page PDF discusses human use of the Yellowstone Lake area for the last 10,000 years through a summary of recent archeological studies. The article features a summary of lithic raw material usage, stone tool utilization, and food procurement practices during prehistoric times .The article also describes the importance of obsidian from the Obsidian Cliffs in Yellowstone National Park. (more info) - X-Ray Flourescence Analysis of an Obsidian Biface from the Fort Hill Site, Highland County, Ohio . This 15-page PDF describes the trace element abundance method used to analyze an obsidian artifact found at the Hopewell site in Ohio. The article also details the geochemical signature of the sample, and concludes that the origin of the fragment was the Obsidian Cliffs in Yellowstone National Park. (more info) - Yellowstone Archeology. This Yellowstone National Park website highlights the archeological resources of the park. Evidence suggests Native Americans have called the area of Yellowstone National Park their home for over 10,000 years. Information is organized by topic: past climates, Paleoindian Period, Archaic Period, Late Prehistoric, and site protection. (more info) - Yellowstone National Park Facts. This Yellowstone National Park website provides a fact sheet with a wide range of physical and cultural information. Key topics include general park facts, wildlife, flora, geology, Yellowstone Lake, cultural resources, visitation, facilities, roads, trails, and the latitude/longitude of several significant features. (more info) - Yellowstone National Park Online Slide File. This Yellowstone National Park website contains thousands of photographs of the Park. Images are organized by category including fire, thermal features, mammals, park structures, petrified trees, water, weather, scenics, and more. The photographs may be freely downloaded and more are being added through time. (more info) Additional LiteratureAdditional useful literature about Yellowstone. - Greater Yellowstone Bibliography. The Greater Yellowstone Bibliography is a database with over 28,900 bibliographic citations to scholarly, popular, professional, and creative literature about the greater Yellowstone region. It includes citations for journal, magazine, and newspaper articles, as well as books, book chapters, conference papers, government documents, theses, maps, CDs, and other materials. Citations can be searched by author, subject keyword, and geographic location. (more info) - Yellowstone Resources and Issues. This Yellowstone National Park online book is a compendium of concise information about the park's history, natural and cultural resources, issues, and major areas. Chapters, which are downloadable as PDF files, focus on the history of the park, the yellowstone ecosystem, geology, life in extreme heat (as in the hot springs), vegetation, fire in yellowstone, wildlife, and park issues. (more info) - Yellowstone Science. Yellowstone Science is a quarterly publication devoted to Yellowstone National Park's natural and cultural resources. It features articles about research in the park, provides a colloquium for scientists, and offers an opportunity for the public to view this research. Articles can be searched by topic, author, or volume and may be downloaded in PDF format. (more info) For ideas on how to use these webpages in a classroom, a Study Guide is provided.
Physicists have discovered a mechanism that forces sharp edges on the surface of a silicon crystal to become rounded, and have described this rounding in detail for the first time. The new finding holds implications for the shape of other crystals used in the semiconductor industry, and might one day lead to templates for manufacturing tiny electronic parts, said William F. Saam, professor and chair of the Department of Physics at Ohio State University. For instance, scientists could use this information to make patterns for wires that measure only a few nanometers (billionths of a meter) across, or even smaller semiconductors called quantum dots. Saam and Vivek B. Shenoy, a former Ohio State graduate student and now an assistant professor at Brown University, derived equations which revealed a previously unknown series of phase transitions - lines and points along the crystal surface that signal how atoms were forced to rearrange themselves to maintain stability. The kind of stability in question is called thermal equilibrium, Saam explained, and most solid objects can only reach complete equilibrium after they’ve been held at a fixed temperature for a very long time. The results suggest that any crystal - even a cut diamond - would eventually lose its sharp edges given enough time. Saam said that he was surprised by the findings, which He and Shenoy recently reported in the journal Surface Science. “Our results clearly illustrate that you cannot have sharp edges in any crystals that are at thermal equilibrium,” he said. “The edges have to be round, and round in very special ways.” The Ohio State physicists examined data from experiments conducted in the mid-1990s, when scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) heated silicon crystals to temperatures higher than 1000 Kelvin (approximately 725 degrees C or 1340 degrees F). As the silicon cooled, particular surfaces organized themselves into series of parallel ridges, each smaller than a micron (one millionth of a meter) in size Saam was intrigued by the behavior of the silicon crystals, because the material had obviously undergone some kind of phase transition that rearranged atoms on the surface, he said. To explain what a phase transition is, Saam offered an example. When water freezes into ice, it changes from a liquid phase into a solid phase. Materials such as silicon can undergo phase transitions, too, when the atoms adjust in order to maintain equilibrium with some internal or external force. The MIT scientists concluded that their silicon crystals had changed shape because different surface phases existed together simultaneously along edges, but Saam disagreed. “While it's true that different phases can co-exist -- a glass of ice water is a good example -- I just didn't think that's what was happening in this case,” Saam said. In a far-reaching extension of earlier work by a Russian scientist, he and Shenoy discovered a series of phase transitions associated with edge rounding. They derived equations to describe the physical forces at play on the surface of the crystal, noting that at any time, the steps on a silicon surface may attract or repel each other, depending on which forces are dominant. “It looks like the process of reaching thermal equilibrium causes silicon to undergo not one transition, but a series of transitions from one facet to another as ridges organize and reorganize.” Saam said. The findings should hold true for any crystal structure that has reached thermal equilibrium. For a diamond left untouched at room temperature, the process would take centuries. Some such changes can still be seen in everyday life, however: a pane of glass in a very old window will thicken towards the bottom, because gravity pulls the atoms in the glass downward over time. The glass flows like a liquid, but because it flows very slowly, the change isn't visible to the naked eye. The MIT scientists fast-forwarded the process for silicon by heating the material and cooling it, Saam said. In particular, he feels that scientists can apply his theories to materials other than silicon, for example gallium arsenide, platinum, and gold -- all elements that can play a significant role in the manufacturing of electrical components. By controlling certain forces, scientists could control the size of the ridges on the crystal, he said. Next, Saam wants to extend these ideas to study another unusual silicon surface produced by the MIT scientists -- a surface of tiny, interlocking pyramids. While simple ridges could make good templates for nanowires, the valleys between pyramids could serve as cradles for quantum dots. In the meantime, he hopes the MIT group and other experimental physicists will test the new phase transitions he and Shenoy identified.
- Lepidium latifolium Perennial Pepperweed (Lepidium latifolium) is an invader of irrigated pastures, grasslands, rangelands and native meadows, causing the most concern in the Kootenay and Thompson agricultural regions. Plants can grow to 2 m high, with large infestations that can eliminate competing vegetation and damage riverbank habitats. Perennial pepperweed has a deep, extensively creeping root system, with broken pieces that can travel and lead to more monocultures along roadsides, in fields, and in disturbed habitats. It is common on riverbanks, beaches, marshy floodplains, and seasonally wet areas. It is also a prolific seed producer; one plant can spread over 6 billion seeds per acre, dropping from the plant or travelling short distances by wind and water. Considered regionally noxious under the BC Weed Control Act, perennial pepperweed is identified by waxy foliage and rounded clusters of white flowers at the end of branches. Leaves are green or greyish-green, with distinctive white veins at their centre. Perennial pepperweed seeds were likely brought to North America mixed with a shipment of sugar beet seeds in the 1930s.
Are you looking for some creative ways to teach third grade reading? You will probably want to add some of our creative third grade reading games to your tool box! Skill: Antonyms (opposites) Grade level: 3-4 Objective: Cover 4 words in a row Supplies: pdf game cards, word cards, small colored squares of paper in different colors (one color per player) If you like kids' reading games like this one, you might also enjoy... You can find lots of fun, educational games for spelling practice at Spelling Words Well which can also help build reading skills. Here are two examples: Compound Word Wizards - Whole class or large-group activity for practicing compound word. Double the Fun - To double or not to double the final consonant when adding a suffix? Another great game for spelling fun! 50 FUN Spelling Worksheets for Grades 1 and 2 Make Spelling FUN! 50 FUN new spelling worksheets! AnyWord(TM) Spelling Practice Series! Worksheets and activities for any spelling words. Learn more! The Spelling Bee Toolboxes Everything you need for a successful spelling bee! Word lists, sentences, rules, and more. Two levels: Grades 3-5 or Grades 6-8 This book is from our affiliate. Teach your child to read! Even a young child can read well in weeks. Learn more!
African Christians put emphasis on creation and deliverance from hardship, while European Christians put emphasis on sin and salvation. These differences show up in death rituals and funerals. The early Church suffered political persecution. Freedom from slavery saw redemption as the main form of freedom. The early Medieval Church (4th-11th centuries) was more concerned about freedom from the power of the devil after Augustine had emphasized the concept of original sin. The early Scholastic theologians like Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) put less emphasis on the ransom from the devil. Adam had disobeyed and dishonored God. Christ has saved us by being the second Adam, the so-called satisfaction theory. Order and honor were more important. The Third world today sees redemption as something else. Christian redemption is the same reality, but there are different interpretations of what it means to be redeemed.
little math trick for classroom setting Ok This is a good one for the classroom. Write on the board 1011010 and tell the students/audience that you need to somehow get nine-fifty out of those numbers and you are allowed to moved one of the numbers, only once, but you can move them anywhere (turn them sideways and upside down if you want) Ok, now once nobody had gotten it which is most likely; take the second 1 and turn it sideways to make the letter TO so it will now be 10t010 (in other words- nine-fifty is the same as ten to ten) Applying a Fibonacci series Here's one that uses a sort of Fibonacci series to determine the result of a sum rather quickly. The setup and explanation seems quite long, but it is easy to accomplish. I didn't want to spare any detail. Try it. 1. On a worksheet (blackboard) put a column of numbers from 1 to 10 with a dash after each number. This has a dual purpose. It makes sure we have exactly 10 numbers to add, and that we can pick out the 7th number at a glance. 2. Have someone choose a number between 5 and 15 (actually, you could have them choose any number at all, any size and the trick will work). Jot that number after 1- 3. Have another person choose another number between 10 and 20 (Here again, you could have them choose any number they want). Jot that number after 2- 4. Have either person add these two numbers together to get the 3- number and so on, adding each sum to the previous sum to arrive at the next sum just like the Fibonacci sum. Stop at the 10- number. 5. Immediately produce the sum and say "Ta da!" How it's done Each term in a Fibonacci series containing 10 numbers is a fraction of the total. It happens that the 7th number is always precisely 1/11 of the final total. No other number in the series provides a consistent result. So you just multiply the 7th number by 11. How do you multiply a number by 11 mentally? In this example, easy. But if you use larger numbers to start with, maybe a little tougher. If you use the restriction placed upon choosing the initial 2 numbers, then the 7th number will be a 3-digit number. Here' s how you multiply a 3-digit number by 11 mentally. I know most of your probably already know how, but indulge me. If you don't know how, you might look here: Math shortcut trick 11 times tables or study these examples. Suppose the 7th number was 227. 1) First, bring down the 7 as the ones digit 2) Second, add the 2nd and 3rd digit to get 9 as your tens digit. 3) Third, add the 1st and 2nd digit to get 4 as your hundreds digit. 4) Fourth, bring down the 1st digit 2 to finish. 5) Result: 2,497 Sometimes you have to carry digits as you would in normal addition. For example. Suppost the 7th number was 168. 1) First, bring down the 8 as the ones digit 2) Second, add the 2nd and 3rd digit to get 14, but just place the 4 as your tens digit and carry the 1. 3) Third, add the 1st and 2nd digit to get 7, and then add the 1 that you are carrying to get 8 as your hundreds digit. 4) Fourth, bring down the 1st digit 1 to finish. 5) Result: 1,848 Here's a complete setup and finish: 1- 15 <===== first number chosen 2- 10 <===== second number chosen 3- 25 <===== Fibonacci sums continue to 10 numbers 7- 155 <===== this is the number you multiply by 11 to get final total 1,705 <=====155 X 11 Bring down 5 5+5=10, jot down 0 and carry 1 1+5=6 and carry 1 to get 7 Bring down 1
T is for…Times Tables. Your times tables are one of the most important things you will ever learn in your life! No matter what job you decide to do when you leave school, you will find that you use your times tables. When you know all your tables up to 10 x 10, you can use them to multiply much bigger numbers. For example if you know that 3 x 3 = 9, you can work out that 3 x 30 = 90 and 3 x 300 = 900. You can then use this knowledge to work out 3 x 37, which is the same as 3 x 30 (90) plus 3 x 7 (21) which is 90 + 21 = 111. Why is this important? Imagine if you want to buy 7 stamps at 49p each: 7 x 4 = 28 so 7 x 40 = 280 7 x 9 = 63 280 + 63 = 343 So you would need 343p or £3.43 Simple if you know your tables. For some help and ideas for learning them, get an adult to read Teaching the Times Tables with you. Related post: S is for…
Outdoor pollutants are well documented and monitored due to existing air quality regulations in many parts of the world. However, as information regarding indoor air quality is still limited, there are not enough information for indoor air pollutants. Indoor air quality pollutants are harmful to human health and are especially dangerous to vulnerable populations, such as elderly people and children. The effects of indoor environment and indoor air pollutants on children and the elderly are being studied worldwide. Ultimately, this paper highlights the prospect of remodeling wood interior, an indoor air pollutants reduction strategy that will help improve indoor air quality and public health. Wood is an environmentally friendly building material with low thermal conductivity and humidity control, and wood interior remodeling can protect people's health from indoor air pollutants. In this paper, twelve indoor air quality factors were measured: comfort factor (temperature and relative humidity), particulate matter, biological pollutants (total airborne bacteria), Airborne asbestos fibers, and chemical pollutants (carbon monoxide and dioxide, formaldehyde, volatile organic compounds, radon, ozone and nitrogen oxides). The average value of the indoor air quality factors for 12 welfare facilities is as follows. The average particulate matter was less than 12μg/㎥, the average of carbon dioxidewas 754.2 ppm, the formaldehyde was 46.6μg/㎥, the volatile organic compounds was 335.0μg/㎥, the total airborne bacteria was 37.8 CFU/㎥and the radon was 59.5Bq/㎥. As a result, almost all of the measurement locations were found to satisfy the international indoor air quality guidelines. It is thus judged that interior remodeling using wood can improve the indoor air quality of welfare facilities, and that it is necessary to constantly measure indoor air quality for accurate indoor air quality analysis. Bibliographical noteFunding Information: This research was supported by the Yonsei University Research Fund of 2018 ( 2018-22-0193 ). This work was supported by Korea Association of Wood Culture . © 2019 Elsevier Ltd All Science Journal Classification (ASJC) codes - Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment - Environmental Science(all) - Strategy and Management - Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering
The Ongoing Drought and Soil Moisture The majority of the U.S. is in the worst drought that the country has experienced since the 1950’s. Even after the heat of this last summer subsided, the dryness continued and is now pushing into winter. The same concern that languished on corn crops over the summer now dwells on winter wheat, which in many areas is whither in the fields. In the West, forest fires are not of immediate concern because winter temperatures do not create the ideal conditions for a wildfire. However, the dryness that prevails from the Mississippi River to California affects the ever important moisture level that forests maintain for the upcoming fire season. During these times of drought, sub-soil moisture can be utilized by crops and forest to sustain and grow when the lack of rain dries the upper layers of the soil column. With historically low soil moisture levels and continued drought in the West and Midwest, the deeper reserves of soil moisture that plants tap into during arid times are literally drying up. NOAA’s Calculated Soil Moisture Anomaly map (below) for November illustrates this lack of soil moisture across the continental US. The shading of the map indicates a comparison of current soil moisture holding capacity (mm) to the historic averages. The broad areas of dark red in central and western Nebraska along with the orange that spreads from Utah to the Lake Michigan shows that soil moisture is significantly below historic levels for this time of year. Soil moisture and the ongoing drought is not only a valid concern for the bioenergy industry in the production of feedstock, but also for power production in general and the transportation of goods on the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. More information on current drought conditions and forecasts can be found at US Drought Monitor.
First-order logic is symbolized reasoning in which each sentence, or statement, is broken down into a subject and a predicate. The predicate modifies or defines the properties of the subject. In first-order logic, a predicate can only refer to a single subject. First-order logic is also known as first-order predicate calculus or first-order functional calculus. A sentence in first-order logic is written in the form Px or P(x), where P is the predicate and x is the subject, represented as a variable. Complete sentences are logically combined and manipulated according to the same rules as those used in Boolean algebra. In first-order logic, a sentence can be structured using the universal quantifier (symbolized ) or the existential quantifier ( ). Consider a subject that is a variable represented by x. Let A be a predicate "is an apple," F be a predicate "is a fruit," S be a predicate "is sour"', and M be a predicate "is mushy." Then we can say x : Ax Fx which translates to "For all x, if x is an apple, then x is a fruit." We can also say such things as x : Fx Ax x : Ax Sx x : Ax Mx where the existential quantifier translates as "For some." First-order logic can be useful in the creation of computer programs. It is also of interest to researchers in artificial intelligence ( AI ). There are more powerful forms of logic, but first-order logic is adequate for most everyday reasoning. The Incompleteness Theorem , proven in 1930, demonstrates that first-order logic is in general undecidable. That means there exist statements in this logic form that, under certain conditions, cannot be proven either true or false. Also see Mathematical Symbols .
Skin cancer can develop anywhere on the body, including in the lower extremities. Skin cancers of the feet have several features in common. Most are painless, and often there is a history of recurrent cracking, bleeding, or ulceration. Frequently, individuals discover their skin cancer after unrelated ailments near the affected site. We often view the sun's harmful rays as the primary cause of skin cancer; the condition is often found on parts of the body that receive the most sun exposure. Skin cancers of the feet, however, are more often related to viruses, exposure to chemicals, chronic inflammation or irritation, or inherited traits. Unfortunately, the skin of the feet is often overlooked during routine medical examinations, and for this reason, it important that the feet are checked regularly for abnormalities that might indicate evolving skin cancer. Some of the most common cancers of the feet are: Basal Cell Carcinoma: Basal cell carcinoma frequently is seen on sun-exposed skin surfaces. With feet being significantly less exposed to the sun, it occurs there less often. This form of skin cancer is one of the least aggressive cancers in the body. It will cause local damage but only rarely spreads beyond the skin. Basal cell cancers may appear as pearly white bumps or patches that may ooze or crust and look like an open sore. On the skin of the lower legs and feet, basal cell cancers often resemble non-cancerous skin tumors or benign ulcers. Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common form of cancer on the skin of the feet. Most types of early squamous cell carcinoma are confined to the skin and do not spread. However, when advanced, some can become more aggressive and spread throughout the body. This form of cancer often begins as a small scaly bump or plaque, which may appear inflamed. Sometimes there is a history of recurrent cracking or bleeding. Occasionally it begins as a hard projecting callus-like lesion. Though squamous cell cancer is painless, it may be itchy. Squamous cell cancer may resemble a plantar wart, a fungal infection, eczema, an ulcer, or other common skin conditions of the foot. Malignant Melanoma: Malignant melanoma is one of the deadliest skin cancers known. Non-surgical treatments are rarely effective, and many remain experimental. This type of skin cancer must be detected very early to ensure patient survival. Melanomas may occur on the skin of the feet and on occasion beneath a toenail. They are found both on the soles and on the top of the feet. As a melanoma grows and extends deeper into the skin, it becomes more serious and may spread through the body through the lymphatics and blood vessels. Malignant melanoma has many potential appearances, leading to its nickname, “The Great Masquerader.” This skin cancer commonly begins as a small brown-black spot or bump; however, roughly one third of cases lack brown pigment and thus appear pink or red. These tumors may resemble common moles; however, close inspection will usually demonstrate asymmetry, irregular borders, alterations in color, and/or a diameter greater than 6 mm. Melanomas may resemble benign moles, blood blisters, ingrown nails, plantar warts, ulcers caused by poor circulation, foreign bodies, or bruises. Podiatrists are uniquely trained as lower extremity specialists to recognize and treat abnormal conditions on the skin of the lower legs and feet. Skin cancers affecting the feet may have a very different appearance from those arising on the rest of the body. For this reason, a podiatrist's knowledge and clinical training is of extreme importance for patients for the early detection of both benign and malignant skin tumors. Learn the ABCDs of melanoma. If you notice a mole, bump, or patch on the skin that meets any of the following criteria, see a podiatrist immediately: To detect other types of skin cancer, look for spontaneous ulcers and non-healing sores, bumps that crack or bleed, nodules with rolled or “donut-shaped” edges, or scaly areas. Your podiatrist will investigate the possibility of skin cancer both through a clinical examination and with the use of a skin biopsy. A skin biopsy is a simple procedure in which a small sample of the skin lesion is obtained and sent to a specialized laboratory where a skin pathologist will examine the tissue in greater detail. If a lesion is determined to be cancerous, your podiatrist will recommend the best course of treatment for your condition. Prevention of skin cancer on the feet and ankles is similar to any other body part. Limit sun exposure, and make sure to apply appropriate sunscreen when you are outdoors and your feet and ankles are exposed.
Juneteenth is a uniquely American celebration with roots back to ancient Rome. In Ancient Rome, slaves were counted as two-fifths of a person, toward the vote. In the New World-Americas, they didn't want church controlled government over the population and the census, among other things. Always remember a democracy is always about the vote. When the constitution was written, American slaves were counted as four-fifths a person. A nod to the past, these counts gave some individuals more power and more votes politically. The South had fewer qualified voters than the North, so they enlisted in a compromise, in order to agree to the signing of the constitution. Many felt it was in direct opposition to the ideals of freedom, equality, liberty and other humanitarian goals of the new nation. They hoped in time to address and repeal it, but they willingly wanted to move forward and signed. Take a minute and research what Sojourner Truth commented on this politically diverse addition to the constitution. President Lincoln gave freedom to the American slave and ultimately an amendment gave the vote. The birth of freedom and liberty strikes fear in those who don't want to share the vote. However, a word of caution from our founders, they insisted an informed (educated) population was essential to those dedicated to be that new nation. They even suggested that young students know the meaning of gerrymandering, because it's all about the vote.
Considering the negative charge at a point x, the distance between the positive charge +2q and the point is 3 - x. This is where the electric potential is zero. A positive and negative charge are shown in (Figure 1) . At which numbered position (or positions) is the electric potential zero? Frequently Asked Questions What scientific concept do you need to know in order to solve this problem? Our tutors have indicated that to solve this problem you will need to apply the Electric Potential concept. You can view video lessons to learn Electric Potential. Or if you need more Electric Potential practice, you can also practice Electric Potential practice problems.
Language Simplified: Lunch Using simple language during meal time is easy to do and very functional. Therefore, this is my first activity. Below are examples of what to do and what not to do. Language Milestones Targeted - Uses 30-50 words consistently - 60% intelligible to unfamiliar listeners - Imitates words easily - Vocabulary increases each month - Speaks with 2 word phrases - Asks simple questions - Points to body parts - Follows simple directions - Understands "no" - Points to pictures in books - Understands about 300 words What you need: Nothing special! Whatever foods your family likes to eat. How to Play: To really utilize meal time, I try to have finger foods or bites of food visible but out of reach such as orange slices, apple slices, raisins, or pieces of chicken. Therefore, my son has many opportunities to request more food while eating (aka, more expressive language practice)! For this example, there are a lot of questions. This example demonstrates how to ask questions using simple, direct language. There are examples of what to do and what not to do! - Using simple language at this age does not mean baby talk. Your speech should be slower with a little more animation but closer to adult-like speech. - Match your child's length of speech and then add one more word. If your child speaks using 1 word, use 2 words. If your child does not speak yet, use 1 word phrases, etc... Lunch Script: What NOT to do! Example Script (what NOT to do!): Lunch with a child who is 20 months old and says about 15 words - Parent: Do you want turkey and cheese sandwich or chicken barley soup? - Child: Only points to sandwich - Parent: You want turkey and cheese sandwich? - Child: Again, only points to sandwich This child only speaks using single words; therefore, an object with three names “turkey, cheese, sandwich” can be a bit overwhelming. While this parent and child did communicate effectively, the child did not have the opportunity to repeat words and/or learn a new word. Lunch Script: What TO DO! Example Script (what TO DO!): Lunch with a child who is 20 months old and says about 15 words - Parent: Do you want sandwich or soup? (parent shows each object as it is being named) - Child: Sanis (approximation of sandwich!) - Parent: Sandwich, turkey sandwich? Yummy sandwich (parent repeated word and modeled a 2 word phrase. - Child: mmm….sanis! Lunch Script: What TO DO! Example Script (what TO DO!): Lunch with a child who is 2 years old and speaks in 2 word phrases - Parent: Do you want turkey sandwich or chicken soup? (parent shows each object as it is being named) - Child: Titen soup (approximation of chicken soup!) - Parent: Chicken soup? Eat chicken soup? (parent repeats the 2 word phrase and added a third word, verb to model the next language milestone) - Child: Eat titen soup!
Sponges don't ponder about the meaning or origin of life. But in some ways they are better at the whole life thing than we are. They have lived for millions more years, surviving on the sea floor by taking in nutrients through their porous bodies. To our eyes, they look almost laughably simple. They have no brain, and indeed no nerve cells. But they get along just fine without either. Sponges' brainlessness might even be a positive thing, something that evolution has favoured. Some scientists now believe that they once had a brain, or at least something much like it, but then got rid of it. And they are not the only ones. To us the brain seems like a necessity, but it may be that some animals actually do better without them. A brain is what you get when many nerve cells, known as neurons, cluster together into one big lump. Many organisms do not have true brains, but rather a "nerve net" of neurons scattered through their bodies. However, sponges do not even have that. Complex brains were in place as early as 520 million years ago The origin of our brain starts almost four billion years ago, when life first sprang into being. Our earliest ancestors were single-celled organisms, and it would be another few billion years later before more complex organisms appeared. It's not clear whether they had any nerve cells. The oldest known fossil with a complex brain is about 520 million years old. This was a time when life became much more abundant and diverse, often referred to as the Cambrian explosion. Discovered in China, the animal looked like a woodlouse with claws. It seems to have had an elaborate brain-like structure consisting of a fore-, mid- and hind-brain, all of which had specialised neural circuits. This suggests that complex brains were in place as early as 520 million years ago. But they may not have stayed. In their ancient evolutionary past, sea sponges did have neurons, according to Frank Hirth of Kings College London in the UK. He says the sponges have experienced "evolved loss" of these structures, an argument he laid out in a paper in the journal Brain, Behaviour and Evolution in 2010. There is plenty of precedent for this. Many species have lost seemingly vital organs. For instance, crustaceans living in dark caves are losing their eyes. The key piece of evidence that sponges have lost their brains comes from phylogenetics: the attempt to figure out how all the different animal groups are related to each other. Researchers have drawn up a "tree of life", just like a family tree, showing the relationships. Sponges were long thought to be the sister group to all other living animals, having branched off early on. This would imply that, of all the living animals, sponges are the most similar to the ancestral animals. The strange thing is that comb jellies have an intricate nervous system This was thrown into disarray by research published in the journal Nature in 2008. Researchers analysed snippets of genes from many organisms, including a second group of marine animals called comb jellies or sea gooseberries. These have now taken the sponges' place as the sister group to all other animals, and our best representation of the ancestral animals. The strange thing is that comb jellies have an intricate nervous system. This means that their ancestors, which must also have been the ancestor of sponges, probably did too. If that's true, somewhere along the way sponges lost their nerves. There is some genetic evidence to support that. Sponges have many of the genes needed to build a nervous system, says Joseph Ryan of the University of Florida in St. Augustine. But they do not do so. Sponges are clearly masters at what they do Getting rid of your brain sounds like a bad idea. So why would sponges ditch theirs? First of all, the brain eats up an enormous amount of energy. In humans, up to 20% of our energy is spent feeding our brain. Meanwhile sponges are clearly masters at what they do: filtering water and picking out only the useful, nutritious particles. Adding a nervous system might not help with that. "If you are sitting on the sea bed and just filtering food that comes along, you don't need a brain," says Hirth. "It would be a waste of energy and you wouldn't be able to maintain this energy demand." "For a long time we thought that sponges are primitively simple, that they never had a nervous system at all," says Ryan. "It may take a while to see that [idea] shifting." Sea squirts simplify their brains during their lifetimes Sponges may not be the only creatures that have lost, or at least simplified, their nervous systems. Some parasites, such as fluke worms that have only very basic neural cells, also seem to have lost complexity compared to close relatives, says Hirth. "One would assume that their parasitic lifestyle does not require a complex brain." Another group called the placozoa, simple animals that are close relatives of sponges, have also lost their nervous systems according to Ryan and Hirth. Meanwhile, sea squirts simplify their brains during their lifetimes. The larvae have well-developed brains, but once they settle on the sea ground and metamorphose into adults, these structures are reduced. Still, not everyone believes that these animals have lost their neurons and brains. Neuroscientist Leonid Moroz, who is also at the University of Florida in St. Augustine, believes that sponges never had neurons to start with. There are no fossils to indicate they ever had neurons They simply do not need any, he says, and nor did their ancestors. "We have 500 million years of the same ecology, the same filtering behaviour, with limited types of movement." Neither the sponges nor the placozoa have any genes that Moroz would categorise as neuronal. And there are no fossils to indicate they ever had neurons, he points out. The question then becomes how the comb jelly could have evolved such an intricate nervous system when their ancestors, and the ancestors of sponges, did not have one. The answer, Moroz believes, is that the brain evolved more than once. When the comb jelly genome was fully sequenced in 2013, researchers found that genetically they are unique. Moroz calls them "aliens". "They have a completely different molecular make-up from any other animal on our planet," he says. Yet somehow, they had also created a nervous system. "Nature shows us that there is more than one way to make neurons," says Moroz. "We can design neurons using completely different principles. Nature is much more innovative than we think." There is precedent for organs evolving more than once. Some organs, such as eyes, are known to have evolved many times over in different species. For instance, the eyes of octopuses are quite different from ours. This shows, says Moroz, that it's clearly possible to make a complex structure more than once. This argument came to a head at a meeting at the Royal Society in London, UK in March 2015. Moroz and Hirth presented their differing viewpoints, each backed up by published research. Each remains adamant that they are correct. Right now we don't know either way, says Angelika Stollewerk of Queen Mary University of London in the UK. With the evidence we have, either story is possible: maybe the nervous system has evolved twice, or maybe it was reduced in sponges. It won't be easy to settle this disagreement. Quite possibly it will take high-quality fossils of early sponges and comb jellies to settle whether or not their ancestors had brains. Either way, the tale of the sponges' brains is a reminder that one of the standard myths about evolution is wrong. Many of us have the idea that evolution takes simple organisms and makes them more complex. It does sometimes do that, but it can also do the exact opposite and simplify things – and sometimes it keeps animals virtually unchanged for millions of years. Sponges are a case in point. They have survived, without a thought or even a brain to think with, for hundreds of millions of years. They have never needed to get any more complicated, and intelligence wouldn't have helped them. Follow Melissa on twitter
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a somewhat new technology that is used for automatic identification. Using this technology, data can be remotely retrieved through remote devices called RFID tags. Also known as transponders, RFID tags are chips which are attached or may be inserted into products, animals and even people. Radio waves are used to easily identify these chips and the information contained within. The transponders are normally made of silicone and are attached with antennas. RFID tags are sometimes called transducers and are also known as proximity cards. They are available in three varieties: active tags, passive tags and semi-passive tags. Power is required for an active RFID system but no source is necessary for the passive type. Radio waves read information and instructions that are stored on RFID tag chips. These radio waves can read such information from up to 90 feet from where the chip is installed. In the beginning RFID was used to identify dogs, cats and other pets as a means of permanent identification. It was said to be used in case the animal was lost or stolen. In today’s world, RFID systems are used in almost every industry including but not limited to medicine, shipping and receiving, the automobile industry and libraries as well as being used in electronic devices and musical instruments. The main purpose of RFID tags is to transfer data or any other information through particular mobile devices. These mobile devices are called chips and the RFID reader can read and process information according to the application. RFID systems use an embedded in inexpensive tag that consists of a transponder containing a digital memory chip. Each tag has its own unique product code. The RFID transceiver will consist of an antenna, an interrogator as well as a decoder. When the transceiver remits a signal, better known as radio waves it activates the RFID tag. At this point information can be read or written into the memory chip. When a RFID tag makes its way through the electromagnetic field of its transceiver, it will detect the reader’s activation signal. The point after the data has been read; the decoder can decode the data and pass it on to the host computer. The host computer will then process the data using Physical Markup Language (PML).
Predicting Reaction Products In this chemical equation and reaction worksheet, students balance 12 inorganic equations after predicting the products from the reactions. 6 Views 44 Downloads Fun with Predicting Reaction Products Predict the product of these chemical reactions! Using hints on one page, chemists analyze 8 sample chemical reactions, predicting the products of the given reactants. If a reaction will not occur, learners explain why. Answers are not... 9th - Higher Ed Science Controlling the Amount of Products in a Chemical Reaction Everyone enjoys combining baking soda and water. Here is a lesson that challenges scholars to analyze the reaction three different ways — the real substances, the chemical equation, and the molecular models. Class members experiment to... 6th - 8th Science CCSS: Designed Reactants, Products and Leftovers Did you know when you mix the reactants sulfur, tungsten, and silver, you get the products SWAg? The simulation begins with making sandwiches, to show pupils reactants and products of something familiar. They then can make water,... 6th - Higher Ed Science CCSS: Adaptable Lights, Camera, Reaction! Excite classes with a STEM project-based learning lesson covering chemical reactions. Groups study the different types through simulations and hands-on activities. They pick one type (synthesis, decomposition, single displacement, double... 9th - 10th Science CCSS: Adaptable
William Shakespeare’s Sonnet 19 is a traditional English sonnet (traditional because Shakespeare made it so), consisting of a single stanza of fourteen lines, rhymed according to a standard format. Like the other 153 sonnets by Shakespeare, Sonnet 19 has no title. In the first quatrain, the poet addresses time as a devourer, handing out a series of defiant invitations to time to perform its most destructive acts. First, time is instructed to “blunt” the “lion’s paws,” which gives the reader an image of enormous strength reduced to impotence. In line 2, the poet moves from the particular to the general, invoking time as a bully who forces the earth, seen as the universal mother, to consume all her beloved offspring. Line 3 echoes line 1. It gives another image of the strongest of nature’s creatures, this time the tiger, reduced to weakness. Time, seen as a fierce aggressor, will pluck out its teeth. No gentle decline into age here. In line 4, the poet moves to the mythological realm. He tells time to wreak its havoc by burning the “long-lived phoenix.” The phoenix was a mythical bird that supposedly lived for five hundred years (or a thousand years, according to some versions) before being consumed in fire. The phoenix was also said to rise from its own ashes, but that is not a meaning that the poet chooses to develop here. The final phrase in the line, “in her blood,” is a hunting term that refers to an animal in the full vigor of... (The entire section is 525 words.)
In military terms, earthworks refer to fortifications constructed from dirt. Dirt is a very inexpensive resource and when used in massive amounts it is the basis for a very strong and intimidating structure. Although many cultures used earthen fortifications, the Civil War fortifications were based on the European model of the 17th and 18th centuries. Professor Dennis Hart Mahan of the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York was the leading authority of fortification engineering. He based his book, A Treatise of Field Fortifications (published in 1836 and revised in 1852 and 1860) on the European prototypes. Maj. Gen. John G. Barnard, the chief engineer in charge of the Defenses of Washington, built the field fortifications using Mahan’s principles. Each of the forts built to protect the nation’s capital was unique while following a standard procedure for construction. By the time a fort was completed it was composed of walls that were made of dirt shoveled into berms. The rampart, was lined with fallen trees. Inside the fort, the bombproofs, were lined with wood. Guns peeked through embrasures* cutting the top of the parapet.* A steep slope led down to a dry moat. Beyond the ditch was an abatis that pointed outward. The abatis, which lay around the perimeter of the forts and batteries, formed a barricade much like modern barbed wire today. Rampart- interior slope Did You Know? Fort Reno was the largest of the Defenses of Washington fortifications and supported a dozen heavy guns and a contingent of 3,000 men.
Time to Rhyme If you've ever recited a nursery rhyme, played "Itsy-Bitsy Spider" or sung "If You're Happy and You Know It," you've been preparing your child for learning to read. Familiar songs and poems can strengthen his ability to hear the sounds of our language — a skill that will serve him well when he learns to connect sounds with letters (phonics) in kindergarten and 1st grade. Nursery rhymes are especially powerful, because they are so memorable. Research has found that children who are familiar with nursery rhymes when they enter kindergarten often have an easier time learning to read. This is probably because rhyming helps them discover many common word patterns (such as those in quick/stick or down/crown). And the more familiar these patterns become in oral language, the more easily children will recognize them when they begin to encounter them in print. The ability to hear rhymes — knowing that cat rhymes with hat, but not with bag — is an essential skill for learning to read because it means that your child can discern the differences among individual sounds (or phonemes). Playing with rhymes trains her ear to hear the differences and similarities in how words sound. Songs with rhyming lyrics are also terrific devices for teaching your child about the patterns of sounds. You might remember the Schoolhouse Rock television segments from your childhood ("Conjunction junction, what's your function?") as some of your first lessons in grammar. The phrases were memorable because they were fun to say and sing. Here are some more fun ways to use rhymes to further strengthen your child's language and reading skills: - Find many opportunities to sing to and with your child. Create songs on the spur of the moment about whatever you are doing. Try "This is the way we wash our hands . . . " Remember that you don't need to have a good singing voice; your child will love it because it's yours. - Combine rhyming with rhythmic clapping or movements. For example, try the rhyme "Ten Little Monkeys Jumping on the Bed" to reinforce sound patterns. Rhymes like these are especially helpful for an active child who needs to involve his entire body in the activity. Songs like "Do Your Ears Hang Low?" or "The Hokey Pokey" can help your child follow directions as you sing the words. This kind of play involves your child's whole body in absorbing the sounds of speech, which may make it easier for him to connect the motion with the words you say. - Encourage wordplay using poems, rhymes, or songs. You might begin by saying, "What rhymes with Matt [his name]?" Make up silly rhymes, such as, "Did Matt sit on the cat?" Or try working together to tell a little story about a cat chasing a fat rat. Write down the sentence you've thought up, and have him illustrate the idea. Together, make your own rhyming book. As your child gets more adept at rhyming, you might try to play a riddle game. Try something like, "I'm thinking of a word that rhymes with fish. And it's something in the kitchen that you put your sandwich on." "Fish rhymes with ... dish." - Seek out high-quality rhyming books. Most children love silly songbooks, such as Paul O. Zelinsky's The Wheels on the Bus; storybooks such as The Cat in the Hat by Dr. Seuss; or stories that encourage rhythm, such as Helen Oxenbury's We're Going on a Bear Hunt. These books and others like them will bring laughter and still more language play. The best part? They will help your child associate the joy of spending time with you with the awesome task of learning to read.
Karl and Carolina love to learn. In Karl and Carolina Uncover the Parts of a Book (In the Library), children will learn about the parts of a book right beside the characters. Text Features: Read aloud Karl and Carolina Uncover the Parts of a Book (In the Library) and discuss the parts of a book. Discuss how the author combined elements of fiction and nonfiction to tell the story. Read aloud this book at the beginning of a unit on nonfiction text features to introduce a few text features. Or read it aloud to review a few features. The author does a great job defining the features and the illustrations are colorful and lively. After reading aloud this book as an introduction, create a class checklist of features that can be displayed permanently. As students locate new features in their reading, they can add to the list. ©2011 by Dawn Little for Picture This! Teaching with Picture Books. All Amazon links are affiliate links and may result in my receiving a small commission. This is at no additional cost to you.
What is a star's "spectrum"? A spectrum is just a fancy term for the different colors of light that are coming from a star. If you've ever shined light through a prism and seen the rainbow of colors that comes out the other end, then you've seen a spectrum. The light that comes to us from stars is very similar - although it looks to our eyes like it is just one color, it is actually made up of many different colors. Astronomers can break up the light coming from a star (by using a technique similar to shining it through a prism) and measure how much light is coming at each color, and they can use this information to figure out information about the star, like its temperature. Also, the spectra that we see coming from stars often contain what look like dark lines at particular colors, which means there is much less light coming from the star at that color than at the nearby colors. This usually means that the star's atmosphere contains certain types of molecules which absorb light of that color, so we don't see as much of it coming from the star. Astronomers can use the information from these "spectral lines" to figure out what a star is made of. Here is a nice example of a spectrum of the sun. Note that in the above I've been talking about visible light - light that we can see with our eyes. But a lot of the light in the universe has a "color" that our eyes aren't able to detect - examples of this light are radio waves, ultraviolet light, x-rays, etc. Even though we can't see this light, it is still being emitted by stars, and astronomers can build instruments which are able to detect it and look at its spectrum as well. Get More 'Curious?' with Our New PODCAST: - Podcast? Subscribe? Tell me about the Ask an Astronomer Podcast - Subscribe to our Podcast \| Listen to our current Episode - Cool! But I can't now. Send me a quick reminder now for later. - What can we learn from the color of a star? - How can we distinguish a star's "real" color from the change in color that we observe due to the star's motion? How to ask a question: If you have a follow-up question concerning the above subject, submit it here. If you have a question about another area of astronomy, find the topic you're interested in from the archive on our site menu, or go here for help.Table 'curious.Referrers' doesn't existTable 'curious.Referrers' doesn't exist This page has been accessed 54659 times since October 8, 2002. Last modified: December 3, 2002 3:41:44 PM Ask an Astronomer is hosted by the Astronomy Department at Cornell University and is produced with PHP and MySQL. Warning: Your browser is misbehaving! This page might look ugly. (Details)
Have your kids try mixing lights together to create numerous different colors. What You'll Need: - 12-inch square box - Cord with a plug at one end and a socket at the other - Black paper - Red, blue, and green cellophane - White paper How to Create Mixing Lights: Step 1: Have your children cut a few holes in the top of a 12-inch square box to let out heat. They should cut a square three inches wide and five inches high in one side of the box; the bottom of the square should be one inch above the bottom of the box. Step 2: Your kids can then cut a hole in the other end of the box big enough for a lightbulb to go through. Have them put the socket through the hole and into the box, and screw the lightbulb into the socket. Step 3: Have your kids cut out a 4x6-inch piece of black paper; they should cut three vertical rectangles that are each two inches tall and 3/4 inches wide in the black paper. Step 4: Ask them to tape a strip of red cellophane over the left-most hole; then have them tape a strip of blue cellophane over the center hole; they should tape a strip of green cellophane over the right-most hole. Step 5: Have your kids tape the black paper with the color filters over the square they cut in the side of the box. They should put a sheet of white paper on the table in front of the filters. Step 6: Have your children plug in the light cord, and then turn out the lights in the room. The light from their box will shine through the filters onto the white paper, showing red, blue, and green light. Step 7: Have them use a mirror to reflect the red light onto the green light. What color did they create? Now have them reflect the blue light onto the green light. What color did they create? What other colors can they mix to form new colors? Keep reading to have your kids learn that plants will grow around obstacles to reach light.
The storage of spent fuel in dry casks has the same three primary objectives as pool storage (Chapter 3): Cool the fuel to prevent heat-up to high temperatures from radioactive decay. Shield workers and the public from the radiation emitted by radioactive decay in the spent fuel and provide a barrier for any releases of radioactivity. Prevent criticality accidents. Dry casks are designed to achieve the first two of these objectives without the use of water or mechanical systems. Fuel cooling is passive: that is, it relies upon a combination of heat conduction through solid materials and natural convection or thermal radiation through air to move decay heat from the spent fuel into the ambient environment. Radiation shielding is provided by the cask materials: Typically, concrete, lead, and steel are used to shield gamma radiation, and polyethylene, concrete, and boron-impregnated metals or resins are used to shield neutrons. Criticality control is provided by a lattice structure, referred to as a basket, which holds the spent fuel assemblies within individual compartments in the cask (FIGURE 4.1). These maintain the fuel in a fixed geometry, and the basket may contain boron-doped metals to absorb neutrons.3 Passive cooling and radiation shielding are possible because these casks are designed to store only older spent fuel. This fuel has much lower decay heat than freshly discharged spent fuel as well as smaller inventories of radionuclides. The industry sometimes refers to these casks using the following terms: Single-, dual-, and multi-purpose casks. Bare-fuel and canister-based casks. The terms in the first bullet indicate the application for which the casks are intended to be used. Single-purpose cask systems are licensed4 only to store spent fuel. Dual-purpose casks are licensed for both storage and transportation. Multi-purpose casks are intended for storage, transportation, and disposal in a geologic repository. No true multi-purpose casks exist in the United States (or in any other country for that matter) because specifications for acceptable containers for geologic disposal have yet to be finalized by the Department of Energy. Current plans for Yucca Mountain do not contemplate the use of multi-purpose casks. Nevertheless, some cask vendors still refer to their casks as “multi-purpose.” These are at best dual-purpose casks, however, because they have been licensed only for storage and transport. Because true multi-purpose casks do not now exist and are not likely to exist in the future, the committee did not consider them further in this study.
From some perspectives, we humans aren't really so much individuals as we are walking ecosystems—our bodies carry more bacterial cells—with their own genomes and agendas—than the total count of human cells we're composed of. Bacteria cover our skin, get to our food before we have the chance to absorb it, and in many cases stay helpfully out of the way of the immune system. Given all that, it shouldn't be a surprise that we're finding that bacteria can have significant effects on the human body in ways that go well beyond causing an infection. Two articles that appeared this week drive that home. In one, doctors cured a recurring, diarrhea-causing infection simply by transplanting gut bacteria from a healthy individual. And in the second, the bacterial transplants altered the progression of type 1 (autoimmune) diabetes in mice—by altering the animal's testosterone levels. Fighting bacteria with bacteria Clostridium difficile, or C. diff, is a bacteria that tends to cause extended bouts of diarrhea. In about 20 percent of the cases that end up under a doctor's care, it will get into the digestive system and refuse to come back out, creating recurring bouts of illness that don't respond to most antibiotics. At that point, the standard of care is an intensive course of vancomycin, which only works in about 60 percent of patients. With each further recurrence, the rate of success goes down even further. Anecdotal evidence and case reports had suggested that the problem wasn't so much the presence of C. diff as the fact that it had grown out of balance with the rest of the gut's bacterial ecosystem. To get the gut back into balance, fecal transplants had been tried and, anecdotally at least, they worked. So some doctors in the Netherlands decided to do a clinical trial, comparing a fecal transplant to standard care with vancomycin. The trial was what the researchers called "open label," meaning that people were aware they were having a feeding tube stuffed down their nose to deliver someone else's poop into their body. (A Twitter pundit suggested a Nutella infusion might make for a good placebo control.) A few dozen healthy volunteers were screened for a huge panel of infectious diseases, and those who came through clean were asked to rush their bodies' first deliveries of the day to the hospital, where it was mixed with saline and had the particulates removed. The results then went into the gastro-nasal tube, given to patients after their original gut flora had been cleared out by a "bowel lavage." The authors had originally planned to get 40 patients for each group, but the fecal transplants were so successful, they stopped the trial after only 16 patients had received a transplant. Of these, 13 (80 percent) were cured after a single transplant. Two of the remaining three were cured after their second, bringing the success rate up to over 90 percent. In contrast, the success rate of vancomycin treatments was down around 30 percent. The biggest problem? Enrolling patients. Most people who agreed to participate in the trial only did so after conventional treatments failed several times, "reflecting the reluctance of patients and physicians to choose donor-feces infusion at an early stage." Bacteria, sex, and immunity It's easy to view this as a demonstration of the hygiene hypothesis, which posits that all sorts of health issues are linked to exposure to a variety of infectious agents, which the immune system then learns to live in harmony with. But a second paper appeared this week that cautioned against viewing things as being quite that simple. The paper focused on the progression of type 1 diabetes, which is the product of an autoimmune attack on the insulin-producing cells. There's a special strain of mice, called NOD (for non-obese diabetic) that are prone to developing this disorder. The mice show properties that are very much like the human version of the disease: it's genetically complex, the progression is influenced by environmental factors, and it strikes females more severely than males. And, unexpectedly, it's influenced by gut bacteria. There was some hint of this, given that other researchers had shown that a systematic exposure to bacterial proteins was able to suppress the development of the disease. But the authors found an unexpected effect when they tested how the disorder progressed in mice raised in germ-free conditions. Rather than accelerating the development of symptoms in all mice, the germ-free conditions accelerated the progression in males, making them (at least in this assay) indistinguishable from females. So the researchers tried an experiment: they took germ-free NOD mice and did a fecal transplant from adult male animals (mice are naturally coprophagic, so the mice took a lot less convincing than did the humans). When female NOD mice received gut bacteria from males, it actually slowed the disease progression down. The apparent sex difference in autoimmune function was mediated in part by gut bacteria. Your first thought might be that testosterone in males could create a different environment in the gut, causing it to host a different diversity of species. It's a reasonable guess, but it's wrong. Instead, the researchers found that the transplant of gut bacteria caused a surge in testosterone production by females that lasted for up to 14 weeks. This had no effect on the female's fertility, but it did clearly alter immune function. If the authors injected these mice with a testosterone inhibitor, the diabetes protection went away. All of which indicates that the other intuitive idea—that gut bacteria influence immune function by interacting directly with immune cells—also can't be right, or at least can't be everything. Clearly, the production of testosterone, by whatever cells may be producing it, plays a key role. Although the papers argue against some of the simpler views of human health—bacteria are all bad, or not having exposure to pathogens means an overactive immune system—they both argue that viewing our bodies as a complex ecosystem can help provide insight into human health.
Healthy Environment For Self Esteem Healthy self esteem originates in the environment found in the: family, school, peer group, work place, and community. There are certain characteristics of your environment that need to be present in order for self esteem to be fostered and grow. The main component of a healthy environment for self esteem is that it needs to be nurturing. It should provide unconditional warmth, love, and caring. It needs to provide the realization that other people are recognized as deserving to be nurtured, reinforced, rewarded, and bonded to. Healthy environment for self esteem transmits messages of warmth, loving, and caring by physical touch, meeting the survival needs of food, clothing and shelter, and providing a sense of stability and order in life. A healthy environment for self esteem should provide acceptance. It will recognize that other people see each other as worthy individuals who have a unique set of personality characteristics, skills, abilities, and competencies making them special. Acceptance enables people to develop relationships with others, yet maintain healthy boundaries of individuality within themselves. In the healthy environment for self esteem should be good communication, everyone should be heard and responded to in a healthy way so that healthy problem solving is possible. Appropriate giving and receiving of feedback is encouraged and rewarded. Communicating at a "feelings" level is a mode of operation for these people, allowing them to be in touch with their emotions in a productive manner. The healthy environment for self esteem must contain recognition and acceptance of people for who they are. That recognition and acceptance should not be based on the condition that they must first conform to a prescribed standard of behavior or conduct. This is unhealthy. Unconditional recognition and acceptance given in the form of support allows individuals to reach their ultimate potential. The healthy environment for self esteem should be clearly defined and enforced limits known to individuals with no hidden tricks or manipulation. Limits set the structure for the lives of individuals, allowing clear benchmarks of appropriate and inappropriate behavior. Limits enable individuals to recognize their responsibilities and to chart their course of behavior in a rational way. Respect and latitude for individual action within the defined limits of the healthy environment for self esteem should be present as well. This encourages individuals to use their creativity, ingenuity, and imagination to be productive within the established structure. Restrictions that suppress individuality can lead to a narrow focus, with people becoming stunted and handicapped in the use of their personal skills, abilities, and resources. Finally, healthy environment for self esteem should be bonding, which is the physical/emotional phenomenon between individuals and the others in their environment. This is necessary for the development of healthy self esteem. Bonding is forming a mutual emotional attachment between an individual and a "significant other" (parent, child, friend, lover, etc. This involves the significant other giving unconditional love and support as well as developing an emotional link between each other. Perpetual Water Articles Perpetual Water Books
Adolescent Oral Health It is very important for children and adolescents to take care of their teeth. Good adolescent oral health (including sealants) can prevent a variety of dental issues. Because of their many bumps and grooves, the chewing surfaces of children and adolescents' teeth are highly susceptible to cavities. Debris and the bacteria resulting from it may become lodged between the grooves of a teenager's tooth. These grooves (called pits and fissures) may be more problematic for some teenagers than for others. Adolescents up to age 17 are considered more "cavity prone." Premolars and molars have the most pits and fissures, and are difficult for adolescents to reach with a toothbrush or dental floss. However, the application of sealants on the appropriate teeth can help prevent tooth decay. Dental sealants are usually applied on baby teeth soon after they erupt, and repeated at regular intervals over the years. Since the sealant is gradually lost through natural wear and tear of the teeth, the application must be repeated to remain effective. The Dental Depot commonly performs sealant procedures on patients ranging from children to adolescents. Chronic gingivitis is common in children and teenagers. It usually causes gum tissue to become swollen and red; gums might also bleed easily. Gingivitis can be prevented and treated with a regular routine of brushing, flossing and professional dental care. However, if it is left untreated, gingivitis can eventually advance to more serious forms of periodontal disease. Four basic signs might indicate periodontal disease in adolescents: Bleeding gums during tooth brushing, flossing or any other time; swollen or bright red gums; gums that have receded away from the teeth; and perpetual bad breath (halitosis) that does not improve with brushing and flossing. Please ask Dr. Ghering if you are concerned that you might have some signs of periodontal disease. Periodontal disease may increase during adolescence due to lack of motivation to practice oral hygiene. Children who maintain good oral health habits until they reach adolescence are more likely to continue brushing and flossing than children who were not taught proper oral care. In addition to improper adolescent oral health, hormonal changes related to puberty can put teens at greater risk for getting periodontal disease. During puberty, an increased level of hormones cause increased blood circulation to the gums. This may cause an increase in sensitivity of the gums and lead to a greater reaction to any irritation, including food particles and plaque. During this time, the gums may become swollen, turn red and feel tender. As a teen progresses through puberty, the tendency for the gums to swell in response to irritants will lessen. However, during puberty, it is very important to follow a good at-home oral hygiene regimen, including regular brushing and flossing, and regular appointments at the Dental Depot. In some cases, Dr. Ghering may recommend periodontal therapy to help prevent damage to the tissues and bone surrounding the teeth. Return from Adolescent Oral Health to Dental Depot Homepage
Chromatically speaking, Mars is a one-trick pony. Known as the "Red Planet," the ruddy world is, unsurprisingly, red. But in recent observations from NASA's Curiosity rover, you'd be forgiven in thinking your computer monitor needs a refresh. Seen here from the slopes of Mount Sharp in the center of Gale Crater is a typically rocky scene from our planetary neighbor. However, the fact that the slabs in the foreground seem to have a purple hue will likely come as a visual shock to anyone who has spent any time surveying the rusty landscapes surrounding the tenacious Mars rover since landing in 2012. Though visually stunning, these rocks' purple hue isn't down to some alien residue, it's the minerals in these rocks that are showing their true colors. RELATED: Curiosity Has Hit a Martian Mineral Jackpot "The purple tone of the foreground rocks has been seen in other rocks where Curiosity's Chemical and Mineralogy (CheMin) instrument has detected hematite," NASA wrote in a statement. "Winds and windblown sand in this part of Curiosity's traverse and in this season tend to keep rocks relatively free of dust, which otherwise can cloak rocks' color." This scene was captured in three separate photographs taken by the rover's Mastcam instrument on Nov. 10, 2016, on the 1,516th Martian day (or sol) of Curiosity's mission. The image was color-adjusted for how the landscape would look in daytime light conditions on Earth. This adjustment helps scientists distinguish the different colors of rocks without the red tinge created by sunlight filtering through the Martian atmosphere. Mars' general redness is caused by iron oxide-rich (think rust) dust that blankets the planet. Iron oxide has been forming on Mars for billions of years - the weathering of abundant iron on the surface with atmospheric oxygen (and atmospheric water in the planet's more habitable years) created a ruddy regolith. Regolith, often referred to as "Martian soil", is fine powdered rock produced after eons of meteorite impacts on the red planet. Though it's not "soil" in the terrestrial sense, it is hoped that future Mars colonists will be able to remediate the regolith of toxic chemicals and enrich it with organic compounds so it can be used as the raw ingredients for agriculture. RELATED: Here's How Extraterrestrial Farming Will Work on Mars Mars is awash with a variety of minerals that reveal a complex and interesting geological history of Mars' evolution. One of those minerals, hematite (another iron oxide compound), is possibly responsible for the purple hue of the rocks in this latest view of the Martian landscape. Hematite can be formed through liquid water processes, so its presence on the Martian surface has been a key piece of evidence that points to the Red Planet was once a warmer, wetter and therefore more habitable place than it is now. The mineral has been found in several locations by orbiting missions since 2001, which helped NASA determine where to land Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity in 2004. Opportunity continues to explore Meridiani Planum to this day, and has found the area rich in hematite deposits. Curiosity, too, has sampled samples at Gale Crater and confirmed the presence of the mineral. What minerals these purple rocks actually contain remains to be seen, but their color tells us a lot about Mars' fascinating geological history. WATCH VIDEO: Here's Why We Can't Live-Stream From Mars
Kazembe, also spelled Cazembe, the largest and most highly organized of the Lunda kingdoms (see Luba-Lunda states) in central Africa, and the title of all its rulers. At the height of its power (c. 1800), Kazembe occupied almost all of the territory now included in the Katanga region of Congo (Kinshasa) and in northern Zambia. Apparently created about 1740 by an exploring party from western Lunda, the kingdom rapidly increased in size and influence through the conquest and annexation of neighbouring states. After 1850, however, disputed succession led to civil war, and the kingdom was finally destroyed about 1890 by attacks from eastern tribes. During the existence of Kazembe there were nine kings with the name Kazembe. The greatest of these was Kazembe II, known as Kaniembo (reigned c. 1740–60), who conquered most of the territory that the kingdom eventually occupied, extending citizenship to those he conquered and establishing the complicated network of tribute and trade that held the vast kingdom together. His grandson, Kazembe IV, known as Kibangu Keleka (reigned 1805–50), encouraged contacts with Portuguese traders from Angola, and Kazembe became an important centre of trade between the peoples in the central African interior and the Portuguese and Arabs on the eastern coast.
March 27, 1998: The Hubble telescope has probed the inner regions of Comet Hyakutake. This picture captures sunlight scattered by dust particles in the comet's inner coma. The coma is the head or dusty-gas atmosphere surrounding a comet's icy nucleus. This image will help astronomers understand the effects of sunlight on the comet's icy central region.See the rest: Credit: M. Combi (University of Michigan)
According to recent reports, an international team of researchers from the University of California, Berkeley have uncovered the skulls of two adults and a child dating from 160,000 years ago—40,000 years earlier than the previous oldest remains of Homo Sapiens. This has major implications for the “Out of Africa” theory that modern humans evolved only in Africa and not in several places around the world. The fossils are also “unmistakably non-Neanderthal and show that (modern) humans had evolved in Africa long before the European Neanderthals disappeared,” Clark Howell of UC Berkeley says. If that’s true, it means that there was never a Neanderthal stage in human evolution. The fossils were discovered in Herto village in the middle Awash area of Ethiopia, about 140 miles northeast of Addis Ababa. The area has been one of the richest discovery grounds for paleontologists. The Berkeley team and its Ethiopians colleagues had previously found pre-human remains there from about 5.5 million years ago—some of the earliest hominids ever discovered. Chris Stringer of London’s Natural History Museum calls the new finds, “complete enough to be identified as early modern humans since they show the characteristic globular shape of the braincase and the facial features of our species. But both the adult skulls are huge and robust, and also show resemblances to more primitive African fossils.” The bones have been allocated to a subspecies, Homo sapiens idaltu. All three of the skulls discovered show evidence of human modification, such as cut marks. These likely represent mortuary practices rather than cannibalism. Volcanic sediments associated with the fossils were dated to 160,000 using the isotope method. Archaeological layers also revealed evidence that these beings were big game hunters, such as a hippopotamus and a range of stone axes and tools. At this time, it is unclear whether the evolution of Homo sapiens occurred rapidly in only one region of Africa or was a more widespread process across the continent. One thing is certain: African now has the oldest clear evidence of modern human origins. It likely played an important part in the development of human behavior. “So we will need further evidence from the whole continent to build up a complete picture of how our species began,” Stringer concludes. “Nevertheless, the Herto fossils are landmark finds in unraveling our origins.” Sources: Smithsonian Magazine, Bradshaw Foundation
Magnetic levitation was developed with the goal of revolutionizing high-speed rail, creating a fossil-free train. But the high cost and lack of existing infrastructure has made the new trains too expensive to commercialize in North America. Now, a group of Harvard scientists is putting that same technology to work analyzing the density of food and beverages. The resulting study appeared in the June issue of the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, written by Katherine Mirica, Scott Phillips, Charles Mace and George Whitesides. Using the same magnetic levitation principle, the study involved an ice-cube sized sensor filled with fluid and with magnets at each end. Tiny samples of food or beverages were placed in the sensor. By tracking the distance the samples migrated through the fluid scientists could measure their relative density – the higher the fat content, the higher the materials levitated toward the top magnet. So far, the group accurately measured and compared the fat content of milk, cheese and peanut butter, and compared the ratios of polyunsaturated fat to monounsaturated fat in a variety of vegetable oils. Other technology currently being used to measure food density can be large and expensive, and often requires highly specialized technicians to interpret the results. According to the results of this new study, magnetic levitation could one day offer a cheaper, more practical alternative.
Carbon Nanotube 'Light Funnel' Could Make Solar Panels More Efficient Photo: Patrick Gillooly, MIT What Can't We Do With Carbon Nanotubes? MIT researchers have found a way to use carbon nanotubes to concentrate light by about 100x and funnel photons into smaller (thus less expensive) solar panels. "Instead of having your whole roof be a photovoltaic cell, you could have little spots that were tiny photovoltaic cells, with antennas that would drive photons into them," says Michael Strano, the Charles and Hilda Roddey Associate Professor of Chemical Engineering and leader of the research team. Photo: Geraldine Paulus, MIT The nanotube funnels/antennas are made of "fibrous rope" about 10 micrometers (millionths of a meter) long and four micrometers thick, containing about 30 million carbon nanotubes. The MIT team built a fiber made of two layers of nanotubes with different electrical properties. The inner layer of the antenna contains nanotubes with a small bandgap, and nanotubes in the outer layer have a higher bandgap. That's important because excitons like to flow from high to low energy. In this case, that means the excitons in the outer layer flow to the inner layer, where they can exist in a lower (but still excited) energy state. Therefore, when light energy strikes the material, all of the excitons flow to the center of the fiber, where they are concentrated. At the rate at which carbon nanotubes are dropping in price (it is forecast that they will soon cost pennies per pound), using them in solar arrays could help drive down the cost of solar power (ie. it will be less expensive to have small solar panels and big carbon nanotube concentrators than just big silicon panels to cover the same surface. Of course, other types of solar concentrators will compete with this one, so it will remain to be seen if maybe cheaper alternatives can work as well. Via MIT, Science Daily More on Solar Power 'Dallas' Soap Opera Oil Baron Ditches Oil for Solar Power (Videos) Self-Cleaning Solar Panels From Mars Find Their Way to Earth Illinois Mandates Utilities to Buy More Solar Power
Dissolved oxygen and the temperature of water Marine life in the extreme depths of the ocean is less abundant than waters closer to the surface. Yet, dissolved oxygen is more abundant in cooler waters, which is characteristic of deep sea waters. You would therefore typically expect to find a greater concentration of marine life in what should be oxygen-rich deep sea waters. How would you explain this apparent contradiction? What is dissolved oxygen? The amount of oxygen dissolved in water. Under average conditions, the concentration of oxygen in water is at less than one percent. Conduct an experiment to find when water contains a peak concentration of oxygen. This science fair project involves an electric aquarium heater and water as well as chemicals contained in the water quality kit. Appropriate care should be taken to avoid injuries.
Essay Topic 1 Analyze the subject of "Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources." What major events shaped his life? What was his primary goal in life? What struggles did he face? What were his defining character traits? Why is he revered today? Essay Topic 2 Analyze the importance of the angel Gabriel. What role did Gabriel play in Muhammad's life? Why is Gabriel a significant figure in Islam? How did Gabriel help Muhammad? Essay Topic 3 Describe the city of Medina. Why did Muhammad move to Medina? How did he spend his time there? What major events and struggles did Muhammad face while in Medina? Did the people of Medina support and welcome him? How is Muhammad remembered in Medina today? Essay Topic 4 Describe the city of Mecca and its significance in the story of Muhammad. Where is Mecca? How much of Muhammad's life was spent in Mecca? Why... This section contains 746 words (approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page)
In the previous post, I have promised that we will take our discussion about mathematical proofs to the next level. We will start this journey by learning about propositions. In our daily lives, we often encounter statements that are either true or false. Some examples are shown below. 1.) Australia is an island continent. 2.) The Earth revolves around the sun. 3.) Asia is the largest continent. 4.) The sum of 3 and 5 is 9. 5.) The Earth has two moons. As we can see, the first three statements above are true while the last two statements are false. Statements that are either true or false, but not both are called propositions. If a proposition is true, then its truth value is True (usually denoted by T) and if it is false, its truth value is False (usually denoted by F). Another characteristic of a proposition is it is a declarative sentence. Therefore, to check if a statement is a proposition or not, you have to check if (1) it is a declarative sentence and (2) it is either true or false. Exercise: Determine of the statement is a proposition or not. If a statement is a proposition, determine its truth value. You can read the answer key below. 1.) Welcome to Jamaica! 2.) 2 is a prime number. 3.) Neil Armstrong was the first human to step on the moon. 4.) A square has four vertices. 5.) There are 1000 prime numbers in all. Propositions are usually represented by letters, sometimes capital and sometimes small. In this series, we will use small letters to represent propositions. Hence, if we let p be the fourth proposition above, we can write this proposition as follows. p: A square has four vertices. The advantage of using letters is that we can refer to them in discussions rather than repeating the entire statement. In the following posts, you will see why this representation is convenient. In the next post, we will be discussing compound propositions. Answer to the Exercise above. 1.) Not a proposition 2.) Proposition, true 3.) Proposition, true 4.) Proposition, true 5.) Proposition, false
We have begun to unravel the remarkable prehistory of Mesoamerica. The diversity of the geography and the common themes of the region demonstrate its importance in the history of civilization. Early interpretations about the ancient Mesoamericans are constantly being challenged and refined with new data and perspectives. Once it was thought the Maya were peaceful while the central Mexicans were bellicose. The discovery of the graphic murals of Bonampak in 1945 squelched that idea forever. Teotihuacan was thought to have no writing systems, yet recent research has proposed that the large murals revealed on pyramid and platform facades are actually iconic glyphs. Writing systems were thought to have been confined to the Maya; however, now earlier systems are known. Once the Mesoamerican environment, and especially the tropical Maya lowlands, were thought to have been stable so that any changes would have necessarily been caused by humans. Today, with new palaeoclimatic studies, it is clear that there has been significant climatic change and that the prehistoric cultural innovations and adaptations were more likely a response to, not the cause of, these changes. In addition, ever more precise laboratory methods have provided greater access to radiocarbon dating for settings that initially were thought to be impossible. These are but a few of the new developments that promise to challenge our current interpretations and bring more interdisciplinary thinking to the understanding of Mesoamerican prehistory. See also: Americas, Central: Postclassic Cultures of Mesoamerica; The Olmec and their Contemporaries; Civilization and Urbanism, Rise of; Political Complexity, Rise of; Social Inequality, Development of.
Sleep normally occurs in several stages. The sleep cycle includes: - Dreamless periods of light and deep sleep - Some periods of active dreaming (REM sleep) The sleep cycle is repeated several times during the night. With aging, sleep patterns tend to change. Most people find that aging causes them to have a harder time falling asleep, and that they awaken more often. Total sleep time remains the same or is slightly decreased (6.5 to 7 hours per night). It may be harder to fall asleep and you may spend more total time in bed. The transition between being asleep and awake is often abrupt, giving older people the feeling of being more of a “light sleeper” than when they were younger. Less time is spent in deep, dreamless sleep. Older people average three or four awakenings each night, and are more aware of being awake. Awakenings are related to less time spent in deep sleep, and to factors such as the need to get up to urinate ( EFFECT OF CHANGES Sleeping difficulty is an annoying problem, but it is seldom dangerous. Because they sleep more lightly and wake up more often, older people may feel deprived of sleep even when their total sleep time has not changed. Sleep deprivation can eventually cause confusion and other - Insomnia is one of the more common sleep problems in the elderly. sleep disorders, such as narcolepsyor hypersomnia, can also occur. Sleep apnea, where the breathing stops for a time during sleep, can cause severe problems. The elderly respond differently to medications than do younger adults. It is very important to talk with a health care provider before taking sleep medications. Avoid sleep medications, if possible. However, antidepressant medications can be very helpful if depression affects your sleeping. Some antidepressants do not cause the same side effects that occur with sleep medications. Sometimes, a mild antihistamine works better than an actual sleeping pill for relieving short-term insomnia. However, most health experts do not recommend these types of medicines for the elderly. Sleeping medications (such as benzodiazepines) should be used only as recommended, and only for a short time. Some can lead to dependence (needing to take the drug to function) or addiction (compulsive use despite adverse consequences). Some of these drugs build up in your body, and toxic effects can develop if you take them for a long time. Confusion, You can take measures to help you sleep: - A light bedtime snack may be helpful. Many people find that warm milk increases sleepiness, because it contains a natural, sedative-like amino acid. stimulantssuch as caffeine(found in coffee, tea, cola drinks, and chocolate) for at least 3 or 4 hours before bed. - Do not take naps during the day. - Exercise (moderately) in the afternoon. - Try to go to bed at the same time every night and wake at the same time each morning. - Use the bed only for sleep or sexual activity. If you can’t fall asleep after 20 minutes, get out of bed and do a quiet activity, such as reading or listening to music. When you feel sleepy, get back in bed and try again. If you still can’t fall asleep in 20 minutes, repeat the process. Drinking alcohol at bedtime may make you sleepy. However, it is best to avoid alcohol, because it can make you wake up later in the night. Aging changes in the nervous system Insomnia
Lilium occidentale is a rare North American species of lily known by the common name western lily. Its species name 'Occidentale' means 'western most' and refers to its location along the West Coast. It is native to northwestern California and southwestern Oregon. It grows in coastal prairie habitat, swamps and stagnant bogs with Drosera species, bluffs and sandy cliffs, and seaside spruce forests. This rare wildflower is limited in distribution and directly endangered by a number of environmental factors. It is a federally listed endangered species and it is listed as endangered by the states of California and Oregon. It is found growing along a narrow 200 mile stretch of coast between Southern Oregon and Northern California usually within site of the ocean. Its furthest northern distribution is Florence, Oregon to as far south as Eureka, California. Lilium occidentale is a perennial herb sometimes exceeding two meters in height. It grows from a scaly, elongated bulb which may be nearly 10 centimeters long. The leaves grow in a series of whorls around the stem. They may be linear to oval in shape and over 20 centimeters long. The inflorescence bears up to 35 showy nodding lily flowers. The flower has 6 recurved tepals each up to 8 centimeters long, sometimes curled back into complete rings. The tepals are usually red to orange to yellow-green, generally bicolored with more red on the inside and more greenish yellow on the outer surfaces. They are often spotted. There are six stamens with large red anthers up to 1.4 centimeters long, and a pistil which may be more than 5 centimeters in length. The flower is pollinated chiefly by hummingbirds, including Allen's hummingbird (Selasphorus sasin). Threats to this species have included grazing and trampling by livestock, development and ranching, cranberry farming, genetic drift, vehicles and road maintenance, and horticultural collecting of the bulbs and flowers. New sprouts and shoots dry out quickly and are easily crushed. The invasion of trees into the plant's habitat, either by natural succession or deliberate planting and fire suppression, can alter the hydrology and soil structure enough to eliminate it. When the plant was listed as an endangered species in 1994, there were 2000 to 3000 individuals remaining. Lilium occidental grows easily from seed with stratification. It can be easily grown in an artificial type bog or other wetland setting providing its need for constant moisture during the growing season is met. (McRae). There is considerable hybridization with other native lilies, in particular L. columbianum, in areas where the two species grow in close proximity. At some locations the two species grow side-by-side, with Occidentale growing in low depressions (drainage ditches) that are clearly flooded during wet periods or periods of heavy rain, and columbianum growing just feet away on the steeper slope.(McRae). This leads to confusion with regards to "true" phenotype. One home owner near Eureka, California had literally hundreds growing in his garden. Regardless of its realitive easy of culture, Lilium occIdentale is a federally protected species under the Endangered Species Act and C.I.T.E.S (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) and therefore it is illegal to own or process any plant material (seed, bulbs, leaves, ETC), or sell seed or bulbs without proper documentation and approval of U.S. Fish & Wildlife. Violators face prosecution and a possible felony conviction for possession of undocumented plant material. Occidentale produces more nectar than any other American lily, which is not surprising given that hummingbirds are the primary pollinator. Cats are extremely sensitive to lilly toxicity and ingenstion is often fatal; households and gardens which are visited by cats are strongly advised against keeping this plant or placing dried flowers where a cat may brush against them and become dusted with pollen which they then consume while cleaning. Suspected cases require urgent veterinary attention. Rapid treatment with activated charcoal and/or induced vomiting can reduce the amount of toxin absorbed (this is time-sensitive so in some cases vets may advise doing it at home), and large amounts of fluid by IV can reduce damage to kidneys to increase the chances of survival. - Center for Plant Conservation Archived 2009-08-08 at the Wayback Machine. - Biota of North America Program 2014 county distribution map - Calflora taxon report, Lilium occidentale Purdy western lily - Flora of North America - FWS. Determination of Endangered Status for Lilium occidentale. Federal Register August 17, 1994. - Frequently Asked Questions No Lillies For Cats. - Lily toxicity in the cat. Kevin T. Fitzgerald, PhD, DVM, DABVP. - Lilies Pet Poison Helpline. - The Valentine bouquet that killed my cats: Mother's Day warning on lethal lilies Daily Mail. - Lily Poisoning in Cats. Pet MD.
Skip to Navigation ↓ This method uses the fact that if a star has a planet (or planets) around it, it is not strictly correct to say that the planet orbits the star. Instead, the planet and the star orbit their common center of mass. Because the star is so much more massive than the planets, the center of mass is within the star and the star appears to wobble slightly as the planet travels around it. Astronomers can measure this wobble by using spectroscopy. If a star is traveling towards us, its light will appear blueshifted, and if it is traveling away the light will be redshifted. Spectroscopy can show this change in color from a star as it moves towards and away from us, orbiting the center of mass of the star-planet system. Many of the planets that have been discovered by this method are very large and very close to their stars. These planets, called super-Jupiters, are much larger than Jupiter, and orbit their stars in a matter of days. Such a large planet causes a large wobble, and this, as well as the short orbit time, makes these planets easier to detect than ones that are smaller or farther from their stars. Over 490 planets have been discovered (as of October 2012) by this method.
Parts of the Ear Worksheet - My Schoolhouse - Online Learning Sound waves enter the outer ear. They travel down the ear canal and make the eardrum vibrate. (The eardrum is a thin skin that stretches across the inner end of the ear canal.) The vibrations of the eardrum cause vibrations in the three little bones in the inner ear. These little bones vibrate a spiral-shaped organ called the "cochlea." The cochlea is filled with liquid and tiny hairs. Each hair has its own connection with a nerve that goes to the auditory nerve. Auditory means hearing. The auditory nerve sends a signal to the brain. Directions: Answer the questions below about the ear and how it works. As sound waves reach the ear they travel down the ear canal and make the The eardrum is a thin skin that stretches across the inner end of the ear What do sound waves cause the eardrum to do? What is located inside the cochlea? liquid and tiny bones liquid and tiny hairs bones are located in the inner ear. The auditory nerve sends messages to the Elementary & Middle School Lessons & Self-Correcting Worksheets for Children in all Subject Areas. Lessons & Worksheets in Math, Reading, Spelling, Science, Language, and Social Studies. Copyright 1999-2014 by Educational Designers, LLC. All rights reserved.
Can you match the vocabulary word to the correct definition? - a meteoroid that reaches Earth’s surface without burning up completely - when the comet gets close enough to the sun, solar radiation heats the ice so that the comet gives off gas and dust to form a tail - the region of the solar system that is between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter and in which most asteroids orbit - circles that are somewhat stretched out in shape - a bright streak of light that results when a meteoroid burns up in the Earth’s atmosphere - electrically charged particles - a small, rocky object that orbits the sun, usually in a band between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter - A small body of ice, rock, and cosmic dust that follows an elliptical orbit around the sun and gives off gas and dust in the form of a tail as it passes close to the sun - A relatively small rocky body that travels through space - A comet is a relatively small solar system body that orbits the Sun. When close enough to the Sun they display a visible coma (a fuzzy outline or atmosphere due to solar radiation) and sometimes a tail. - Asteroids are small solar system bodies that orbit the Sun. Made of rock and metal, they can also contain organic compounds. Asteroids are similar to comets but do not have a visible coma (fuzzy outline and tail) like comets do. - A meteoroid is a small rock or particle of debris in our solar system. They range in size from dust to around 10 metres in diameter (larger objects are usually referred to as asteroids). A meteoroid that burns up as it passes through the Earth’s atmosphere is known as a meteor. If you’ve ever looked up at the sky at night and seen a streak of light or ‘shooting star’ what you are actually seeing is a meteor. - A meteoroid that survives falling through the Earth’s atmosphere and colliding with the Earth’s surface is known as a meteorite.
from Milwaukee, 1854 A version of this lesson plan was developed by the Office of School Services as part of the Wisconsin Stories online activity guide for the secondary-level classroom. Please adapt it to fit your students' needs. As explained in the television program "Laboratory of Democracy," in the 1850s abolitionists from southeastern Wisconsin directly challenged the controversial Fugitive Slave Act. This broadside from the State Historical Society of Wisconsin's research collections offers some valuable insights into the views of Wisconsin's abolitionists. Abolitionists distributed the document in Milwaukee only three weeks after the dramatic capture and rescue of Joshua Glover, an escaped slave from Missouri. Like television commercials in our time, broadsides were usually produced for some passing commercial or political purpose. Unfortunately both for researchers seeking valuable documentation and for teachers desiring visual materials for students, earlier generations rarely saved broadsides for research libraries and archives. Due to the technological limitations of print shops in western America, broadsides remained a standard form of communication in the 1850s. Unlike their rapidly maturing offspring, posters, broadsides had limited artwork and color. The basis of an effective broadside was powerful and persuasive text. Designers had to catch the attention of potential readers with large print and then convince them to act with a brief text. At first glance today's visually savvy students may consider a broadside just another text-based document. Yet a thoughtful, methodical evaluation of a broadside can demonstrate how a low-cost and low-tech medium could influence people. Mass Convention, broadside from Milwaukee, 1854 Source: Library, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Introducing the Document Direct the students to read the document silently. Then explain to the class that broadsides were often read aloud in public. Request that one or two students with a flare for drama read the document to the class. Then consider the following questions: Who created this document? To whom is the document addressed? Review the following concepts and vocabulary, described in any secondary-level U. S. history text: Writ of habeas corpus Right of trial by jury The following questions can be adapted for classroom discussion or used as part of a written assignment. For discussion purposes, consider making an overhead transparency of the broadside. Each student should receive a photocopy of the document. How does the information in the document connect with the historical context of the mid-1850s? Ask students to identify the central argument made in the text. Specifically, identify two points the author makes to support this argument. How does the author refer to the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850? What political party do you think the author of the document supported? Explain. Direct students to study the design and layout of the document. Visually, what words and phrases are emphasized? Your U.S. history text probably has other examples of broadsides and posters. Have students compare the two media, evaluating the communication techniques of both. Broadsides like this document served to inform and to persuade people in an age before mass-circulation newspapers. Direct students to design a broadside about a contemporary injustice or social issue. See if they can find evidence of "broadsides" today in the form of bumper stickers, T-shirts, billboards, etc. Encourage students to include all the elements that make up a broadside, including a logical written argument, patriotic slogans, religious references, and visual design.
Okay, let's start with what it's not: classical conditioning. Basically, classical conditioning is a form of learning where two stimuli become associated so strongly that the presence of only one of the stimuli will elicit the same response as if both were present. (If you need to know more, go read that node). Operant conditioning is when you do one thing, another thing happens, and you therefore learn to do the first thing in order to cause the second thing to happen. This is stimulus-response connection. (classical conditioning is a stimulus-stimulus connection). About the time Ivan Pavlov was working with his dogs, Edward L. Thorndike was messing about with cats; he put them into cages ('puzzle boxes') which had some trigger that needed to be pressed or pulled in order to open the door. The cats would struggle to escape, and by chance would hit or pull the right doodad; after a couple times the cats would learn to just hit the button or pull the string straight off. This response would be reinforced by repeated successes, and weakened by failure. This is called Thorndike's Law of Effect. B.F. Skinner liked the general idea, and because of his work operant conditioning is largely associated with his name today. But Skinner was a Behaviorist, and so dropped all talk of intentions and desires on the part of the animal. He focused on the operant, which he defined as an observable, voluntary behavior that an organism emits to 'operate' (have an effect) on the environment. The Skinner-Box is a common apparatus used to experiment with operant conditioning. Reinforcement (which makes a response more common). Reinforcers (the things that reinforce a response). Conditioned reinforcers (A neutral reinforcer that works because it has been paired (by way of classical conditioning) with a primary reinforcer). Reinforcement contingency (a consistent relationship of action/consequence). Partial reinforcement (the desired response doesn't happen every time). Partial reinforcement effect (extinction is delayed because the subject is used to partial reinforcement). Intermittent reinforcement (the number of times reinforcement takes place has been predetermined, but reinforcement events are randomized). Positive reinforcement: Giving a good thing (increases behavior). Negative reinforcement: Taking away a bad thing (increases behavior). Positive punishment: Giving a bad thing (decreases behavior). Negative punishment: Taking away a good thing (decreases behavior). Extinction: The desired response doesn't happen (decreases behavior). The Premack Principle: A more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred one. Shaping: Approaching the desired behavior by reinforcing successive small steps approaching that behavior. Autoshaping: Shaping without formal training by the experimenter.
Once a number of years ago at the beginning of a pronunciation skills class, a young man came up to my desk and introduced himself as “Asher.” I shook his hand, at the same time wondering about his name choice—it’s not uncommon for ESL students to Westernize their names, but Asher? Why this name of a relatively obscure Jewish prophet? The student was writing his name out for me at the same time, on his student profile, and I felt silly when I saw it was “Arthur,” a much more reasonable choice for an ESL student’s Americanized name. And I was glad that he was in the ESL pronunciation class as he had chosen the Western name he could not pronounce—well, there was a lot of work to be done, clearly. And I knew that the pronunciation of the “th” sound would be featured early. However, most ESL students will not so obligingly provide an informal diagnostic like this in the first moments of class. So this leaves the ESL pronunciation teacher wondering where to begin. The answer is on face value easy: begin with the students and their needs. How then do you know student needs? A good informal ESL pronunciation assessment will lead you to student needs and the course curriculum. Elements to Assess in ESL Pronunciation “Suprasegmentals”: the More “Global” Issues of Stress and Intonation. These issues of stress and intonation are not the most important pronunciation issue, necessarily—pronunciation of individual speech sounds also matter—but these concerns affect pronunciation across words, phrases, and sentences. Often words are unintelligible if the stress is on the wrong syllable, so it is important to learn some general principles of word stress: many “everyday” or “conversational” nouns receive their stress on the first syllable, for example, while related verbs do on the second syllable (e.g., the “effect” and to “affect”, related noun and verb pronounced the same except for the stress). Also, a big difference in meaning between two different words is often in the word stress (“Give the teacher a message” versus “Give the teacher a massage”). Assessing student understanding of word stress to find areas to focus on for instruction is therefore important. Declarative sentence stress. A good understanding of spoken English requires control of the stress of declarative sentences (i.e., sentences that are not questions). A sentence in spoken English has a definite pattern of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables, with the major content words, the words that carry meaning, receiving the most stress, while “grammar words” without much individual meaning (e.g., “the”, “a”, “and”) are unstressed and reduced. Because students typically have a lot of questions, they should also learn correct intonation patterns for English questions. - Yes/no questions. “Yes/no questions” (questions that may be answered simply “yes” or “no”) have a rising intonation: e.g., “Do you want coffee?” The intonation starts low with “Do” and proceeds up the scale to finish with “coffee” on the highest note. The intonation pattern is so distinct that I could just say “Coffee?” with rising intonation, and my listener will correctly interpret this as a question: “Do you want coffee?” - Information questions. Information questions are those questions that cannot be answered “yes” or “no” but rather with some information: e.g., “How do you take your coffee?” The intonation in this kind of question rises and then falls at the end, with the highest pitch typically on the next-to-last syllable: “How do you take your COFfee?” - Yes/no questions. Liaison involves connecting words in a predictable pattern: e.g., “Do you want coffee?” comes out in conversation more like “Duhyuhwan coffee?” It is a mark of a native-speaker to use liaison effortlessly. However, with practice, ESL students can achieve the much the same kind of control. Also Assess Discrete Speech Sounds: In addition to the suprasegmental elements of stress and intonation, individual speech sounds, like the “th” sound in English, are important to being understood. Common problem areas for ESL students should be focused on. Many students will have trouble with the use of the “schwa, “the “uh” sound, in unstressed syllables: e.g., “American” is really pronounced something like “uhMERuhcun”, with only the second vowel in the stressed syllable a full vowel; the rest of the vowels in unstressed syllables are reduced and pronounced as schwas. Because most unstressed vowels are pronounced as shwa, it is an important individual speech sound to learn. Other speech sounds for probable focus are the “ee/eh” distinction as well as the “t/th” distinction. Methods to Assess ESL Student Pronunciation Tape students individually. This is good for initial assessment, getting a taped speech sample of each student in such tasks as reading aloud from a book and having a short dialogue with the teacher, as well as giving an impromptu speech on an everyday topic such as “My First Day at College.” Such an assessment will provide a permanent record of student performance in such areas of stress of content words, reduction of grammar words, question intonation, concerns with discrete speech sounds, and so forth. The teacher then can use these assessments not only to track individual student progress over the course of the semester, if he tapes students periodically, but it also gives a starting point to the term if many students show similar pronunciation concerns. Listen to students in conversation and take notes. This is good for ongoing assessment, to see if students are learning the curriculum. Just walking around and noting student performance in simple dialogues with each other can yield a wealth of information of how much more focus needs to be given to stressing content words and reducing grammar words, or the “s/sh” distinction, for example. Another good way to assess student pronunciation is the interview. Interviews should be individual and ongoing, perhaps at entry, midterm, and exit, during which time the instructor can ask informal questions about students’ lives, educational progress, work experiences, and so forth. Interviews are not only a good way to note student progress but also to check in when each student and get to know him or her. Frequent small quizzes are often more valuable that the one big midterm or final: they keep students and teachers updated about progress and what needs to be reviewed and what has been mastered. In addition, frequent small tests are not as anxiety-provoking to students as they know their grade is not dependent on a single quiz, allowing them to focus their energy on learning rather than on worrying about the test. Occasional big tests. This is not to say, however, that occasional big tests — the midterm, the unit final — are without value. Big tests carry psychological importance: passing the midterm is a kind of milestone, signaling some mastery to the student and teacher. A well-constructed midterm or other large test that covers a number of skills learned in class also reveals a more complete picture of an individual student, his strengths and weaknesses, as well as general trends in the class and what has been learned well and what needs to be revisited. Teaching ESL pronunciation is not easy; even more difficult may be assessing pronunciation. However, by using multiple methods of assessment, and assessing frequently throughout the term, the instructor can get a clear picture of student instructional needs and progress. How do you assess pronunciation? P.S. If you enjoyed this article, please help spread it by clicking one of those sharing buttons below. And if you are interested in more, you should follow our Facebook page where we share more about creative, non-boring ways to teach English.

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