Split (1)

train · 64k rows

content stringlengths 275 370k
Kaifukuryoku (回復力) is the Japanese word for resilience. For many in Japan, resilience has become a a way of life, a goal that has driven one of the most advanced efforts at planning for disasters in the world. The word tsunami is also Japanese, originating in their long familiarity of living on the knife edge of disaster, wedged between volcanoes, faultlines, typhoons, and the vastness of the Pacific ocean. Yet, the three disasters Japan is grappling with today are showing the limits of resilience and industrial societies. Buildings in Japan are subject to incredible standards for flexibility and strength, to survive the earthquakes that threaten cities. Mt. Fuji has incredible lava channels and barriers built to protect Tokyo from an eruption. Volcano, typhoon, and earthquake monitoring systems are linked to alarms that can be activated to warn citizens to seek shelter and/or higher ground. These all saved lives. Yet, now as Japan should be mobilizing all its resources to feed, house, and evacuate citizens who have been impacted by this terrible disaster, it is mobilizing to prevent and third and possibly worst disaster, a nuclear catastrophe. Numerous nuclear reactors have suffered explosions or loss of cooling systems, and three are at risk of melt downs. Radiation has already been released and much more is likely to contaminate the area and population. The resources that could be going into helping those struggling to survive post-tsunami are needed to evacuate citizens from around nuclear plants that are on the verge of total disaster. Of the three disasters that Japan faces, while they planned and prepared for resilience to natural disasters, their reliance on nuclear energy is threatening the lives and safety of their citizens. As a former resident of Japan, I can only imagine what is happening there as these disasters unfold but every update seems almost unreal. Yet, it is real, and as the plants have exploded, commentators have focused on how plants may be vulnerable because they are older, that new plants may be safer, or that this is only a risk due to the tsunami. These concerns are almost besides the point, because fundamentally, reliance on centralized, dangerous power sources is something we cannot afford in a modern and more disaster-prone world. The United State rebuilt its infrastructure in two dramatic examples to defend against the catastrophic threat of nuclear war. The Interstate Highway system and the Internet were originally designed as distributed systems, where resources, people, or information could move regardless of if individual elements went down. Railroads were seen as a risk, as one interruption meant that the entire system would breakdown and the internet could move data even if one part was damaged. However, we never designed our power system for resilience and we are still relying on outmoded and dangerous power plants that threaten communities around them with either radiation or air toxics. These plants are top targets for terrorists, they are vulnerable to natural disasters like earthquakes, flooding, and their power lines are go down after hurricanes, sleet, or even just a bad storm. Fundamentally, for all the talk of homeland security, we never seem to actually try and make things safe. One of the biggest advantages of clean energy is that it is disaster insurance. Investing in clean energy is not just a preventative measure against threats like global warming, oil spills, nuclear meltdowns, or oil price shocks, it also is infrastructure that can increase our resilience. When the power goes down, people struggle to heat their homes in the winter or cool them in summer, hospitals fire up generators to keep their patients alive, communications to coordinate search and rescue becomes more difficult. Distributed clean energy technologies, such as solar power, community co-generation, windpower, combined with high performance buildings can transform a society to be a model of resilience, one able to protect their population. Clean energy has been advocated for its environmental benefits, the creation of green jobs, and the foreign policy benefits. The greatest value of a clean energy powered economy might be its contribution to resilience, safety, and human security.
Outline and evaluate one or more biological rhythms One biological rhythm is the Circadian rhythm. This takes that there is a biological predisposition with duration of 24 that regulates our core levels. They include temperature, heart rates etc. The rhythm explains why we sleep once every 24 hours. Our underlying circadian rhythm regulates our sleep/wake patterns. As a result, the average adult human sleeps for 7/8 hours per 24 hour cycle. There is evidence to support the propositions of the Circadian rhythm. For example, the case study of Siffre supports this claim. He spent 172 days isolated from the outside world. He lived on his own schedule; as a result there were no external cues to regulate his sleep wake pattern. He slept when he wanted. At the end of the experiment, his body was on a 26 hour cycle. This supports the idea of an internal biological rhythm that regulates our sleep wake cycle. There must be an endogenous pacemaker that regulates our sleep. However the fact that he was on a 26 hour cycle instead of a 24 hour cycle suggests that our biological rhythm may be slightly longer and our external cues regulate us to a 24 hour in real life. The problem with the results from Siffre is that it is a case study, therefore we can’t generalise the results and come to the conclusion that we all possess 26 hour cycles because of the large individual differences in biological rhythms. Irrespective of this, the study still supports the idea of an internal rhythm that regulates our sleep/wake cycle. This idea is also supported by Luce and Segal, who studied those who lived near the Arctic Circle when the sun doesn't set. They found that the participants still lived on a 7-8 hour sleep/wake cycle. Therefore, they concluded that irrespective of light, there is an innate internal rhythm inbuilt in us. Although there is supporting evidence for the existence of an internal circadian rhythm, there is also large evidence to support the…
Properties of Real Numbers - Yay Math Description of the types of Real numbers -- Natural, Whole, Integer, Rational, and Irrational. White board in a class setting, some interaction, engaging. The discussion is clear and understandable. Preview - full version at http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2570309009443666446&q=source:012956945238798337823&hl=en Produced by Robert Ahdoot, yaymath.org In this lesson, the lesson explains what polynomial functions are and provides examples. Then, he explains some relevant terminology such as "leading coefficient" and "constant term". The instructor shows and explains a chart with the standard form for five different types of polynomials (constant, linear, quadratic, cubic, and quartic). The lesson finishes with a variety of examples. Introduction to Angles and Angle Types In this video a math instructor introduces angles that are used a lot in math. He explains what angles are, how they are created, and the main types of angles we used in math. Solving Systems of Equations by Substitution This lesson is for ntermediate Algebra Level. In the lesson, Professor Burger shows how to solve systems of equations using a technique known as substitution. In this approach, students solve one equation for one of the variables (eg y) and then plug the value (what y is equal to) into into the other equation (anywhere a y appears). This substitution will allow you to solve for x and then in turn solve for y. Professor Burger walks the viewer through several different types of Simile, Metaphor, and Personification The instructor uses a whiteboard and clip-art cut-outs to demonstate three types of figurative language. This video is suitable for third-grade students and older. (Note: The instructor dellberately has the first few seconds blurred.) What is Psychology Part 2 of 2 In this video, the professor discusses how to become a psychologist in one of the varying types. It also shows the four major goals of psychologists. The video is changing texts with narration. Run time 09:03. Why do leaves change color in the fall? As autumn approaches, the countryside puts on a spactacular show. This short, computer animated video covers the following key concepts: autumn leaves and their colors, factors that affect leaf color, chlorophyll, carotenoids, anthocyanins, chlorophyll production and decline, tree types and their varying colors, leaves falling, and leaf decay. The video ends with a 10 question, fill in the blank quiz. Telling Time to the Hour With the CooCoo Bird This live action movie and cartoon characters help children learn to tell time. First children are asked why it is important to tell time; know what time to wake up, know when to get the bus, when to play, when to take a nap, and many more reasons. Then video goes into the different types of clocks. (5:42) This live action movie and cartoon characters help children learn to tell time. First children are asked why it is important to tell time; know what time to wake up, know when to get the bus, when to play, when to take a nap, and many more reasons. Then video goes into the different types of clocks. (5:42) The Driving Forces There are many types of chemical reactions. Endothermic and exothermic reactions are investigated and the role of entropy is revealed. The video demonstrates typical end products of chemical reactions and what happens as energy is released. There are many types of chemical reactions. Endothermic and exothermic reactions are investigated and the role of entropy is revealed. The video demonstrates typical end products of chemical reactions and what happens as energy is released. How Is Nuclear Energy Harmful? Nuclear energy can be harmful when radioactivity is absorbed by cells of the body. Discover how radioactivity can damage bone marrow and red blood cells with information from a science teacher in this video. Weather : What Causes Wind-Driven Currents? Wind-driven currents are caused by the return of large circulation cells, of which there are three between the equator and the poles. Find out how circulation cells also move heat over the planet with help from the chair of a department of environmental studies in this video (02:29) on wind-driven currents. Expert: Jack Hall Bio: Dr. Jack Hall is the department chair in the department of environmental studies at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington. Video shows how warm fronts are shown on weather maps and what warm fronts are. The video also includes the cloud types that are seen before a warm front occurs, the temperature changes, the wind changes, and the air pressure changes. Video gives all basic information needed to understand warm fronts. Video is of good quality and appropriate for elementary age students, especially for students who are studying weather in science. Living Band-Aid Beats Like a Heart Video shows current research in heart tissue structure and repair. Jordan Lancaster and Steven Goldman, researchers from the Southern Arizona Veterans Administration and the University of Arizona, put rat heart cells on a piece of synthetic mesh and within a few days, it started beating. The hope is that down the road the patch of cells could be used to treat damaged hearts. This video is accompanied by text. "In the late eighteenth century, primitive methods of travel were still in use in America. Waterborne travel was uncertain and often dangerous, covered-wagon and stagecoach travel over rutted trails was uncomfortable, and all types of travel were very slow. Americans were aware that a transportation network would increase land values, stimulate domestic and foreign trade, and strengthen the American economy. In 1794, a private company completed the Phila Transformations - Translations and Reflections This lesson focuses on explaining two types of geometric transformations: translations and reflections. The instructor uses a virtual white board to give examples and chances to select the correct answers. Tessellation Slideshow of Students Projects A musical slide show of 7th grade students tessellation projects. There is a definition at the beginning of the video of tessellation and where you can find tessellation. The video then shows how the students took a square and moved it into action using three types of tesselations-translation, rotation, and reflection. Introduction to Scatter Plots Brief description about scatter plots and lines of best fit. Various types of scatter plots are briefly described. The video goes over how to analyze data or recognize patters using examples. Some multiple choice problems are presented with answers given. Learn a Trick to Making Box and Whisker Plots in Excel See how to create a Box Plot or Box & Whisker Statistics chart using a Stacked Bar Chart and a Open-High-Low-Close Stock Chart. The video show how to use the QUARTILE function and how to link Chart Labels to cells. The demonstration is done using the software program and the data sometimes is a little difficult on the screen. Crohns Disease Module 6: Nutrition Questions addressed in this module include: How important is diet? How can we optimize nutritional intake? Are there foods we should avoid? What types of nutrient supplements should we discuss implementing into our diet? Solving Rational Equations In this video, the instructor goes through two examples of solving rational equations. He works through the problems step by step and writes out each step as he explains it. The instruction is quite clear and thorough, making this good practice for these types of equations.
Unconscious bias refers to the biases we have of which we are not in conscious control. These biases occur automatically, triggered by our brain making quick judgments and assessments of people and situations based on our background, cultural environment and our experiences. There is a growing body of research which suggests unconscious biases influence key decisions in the workplace and are responsible for some of the enduring inequalities that are evident today. One example is a study by Moss-Racusin et al (2012) which examined the assessment of applications to science faculties from students applying for the position of laboratory manager. The same application was used 127 times and randomly assigned either a female (64 times) or male (63 times) name. Selectors rated the male applicant as significantly more hireable than the female applicant. They also chose a higher starting salary and offered more career mentoring to the male applicant. The gender of the selector did not affect responses. Below you will find a range of resources on unconscious bias which you may find of interest: - Implicit Association Tests – Psychologists at Harvard, the University of Virgina and the University of Washington have created a range of Implicit Association Tests (IATs), to measure unconscious bias. The tests investigate thoughts and feelings that exist outside of our conscious awareness and control.
Scientists recently discovered a virus in Siberia called Pithovirus sibericum. It was discovered frozen and underground in the permafrost and was found to be frozen for the past 30,000 years. This means that this virus existed around the time of the Neanderthal man extinction. Don't worry, this virus is not harmful to humans or animals (only amoeba), but it has scientists concerned with what other viruses could potentially arise again from the melting permafrost. This virus is very large and resembles the Pandoravirus; however, there is no evidence in their genetic makeup that proves any relation. Pithovirus is the first of its kind, making it the first member of a new family of viruses and bringing the number of distinct families of giant viruses to 3: Pithovirus, Pandoravirus, and Mimivirus. If you want to read more about this virus and what measures scientists are taking next, click here!
By consciousness I mean perception, which is the only kind of consciousness we or any creature has. Physical existence is that existence we are directly conscious of, the world we see, hear, feel, smell, and taste. By perception, I mean the seeing, hearing, feeling, smelling, and tasting as well as interoception (the direct perception of internal states). Perception, as we experience it, is taken for granted. It is very much like looking at the garden through a window. While we are seeing the flowers and birds, we do not notice there is a window at all. We have a tendency to ignore consciousness in the same way, and its nature is often never explicitly recognized. This chapter specifically addresses the nature of consciousness from an ontological point of view: what consciousness is and where it fits into the realm of objective existence. In particular, this chapter addresses two wrong views of consciousness, the most important of which is the view that consciousness is a physical attribute, or at least one that can be explained in terms of the physical. The second wrong view is that which Dr. Binswanger proposes which is that consciousness is biological in nature. [NOTE: The chapter, "Perception," addresses the functional nature of consciousness and its totally reliable nature.] The Characteristics of Consciousness There are at least eight specific characteristics of conscious perception that demonstrate that consciousness is neither physical or biological in nature. - Consciousness of Physical not Physical - Tasting is the Only Test - No Physical Description - TV in an Empty Room The subjectiveness of consciousness Consciousness in all other creatures except ourselves is implied, because consciousness is a subjective experience. There is no doubt that the implication is correct, but consciousness, itself, cannot be directly observed, even in other people, much less the animals. The fact that consciousness is experienced subjectively, and cannot be directly perceived, and is therefore not itself a physical existent (though dependent on the physical for its existence), does not mean it cannot be objectively identified. It exists as an attribute of living organisms, and is therefore material (though not physical), because it is independent of our consciousness or knowledge of it. While the subjectivity of consciousness is generally understood, it's significance to philosophy is not always apparent. It is because consciousness is experienced subjectively that its nature is frequently neglected. What we mean by "being conscious," the actual subjective experience itself, can only be known individually. Anything in the physical world that can be perceived, can be perceived by anyone. No one can perceive your consciousness or my consciousness, as we experience it. Technically, we cannot even "perceive" our own consciousness. We do not know we are conscious by perceiving it, (seeing it, hearing it, feeling it, or in any other way perceiving it), we know it, because we are conscious. We do not know we can see by seeing our seeing, we know we can see because we do. An organism has only one consciousness and it is the same consciousness from moment to moment, day to day, and year to year. It is the same consciousness from the moment it becomes consciousness until the organisms dies. It is because consciousness is a characteristic of life, not the physical aspects of the organism, this is true. Notice, that the physical characteristics of an organism can change. Hypothetically, all of the physical parts could be changed, but it would still be the same organism, because it would still be the same life process and the same consciousness. It is the life process that is the independent existence that identifies the organism as a particular organism, not the physical components, and consciousness is an attribute of life. My consciousness does not cease to exist when I sleep, or when under an anesthetic, or when knocked "out" by a blow to the head. By analogy, in those cases, consciousness is like the life of a seed. A seed is a living thing, although it does not exhibit any of the usual characteristics of life externally; we say it is "dormant" because under proper conditions it will germinate and grow. If irradiated, or exposed to certain temperatures it "dies" and cannot be germinated. Consciousness, during sleep or when anesthetized, is like the life of a seed, dormant, because when the anesthesia wears off or the hypothalamus is stimulated, consciousness revives. If consciousness truly ceases, however, nothing can revive it, and the individual who was that consciousness ceases to exist. I Am My Consciousness The "I," which is my consciousness, remains the same thing no matter what other things change. However little I know or how much I learn, no matter what changes there are to the physical aspects of my body, no matter what I do or how long I live, from moment to moment, day to day, and year to year, I am the same person, because I am the same consciousness. There is no physical aspect of my being that cannot be changed that can change my conscious identity, because my conscious identity is my consciousness—my consciousness, is my "self;" it is "I." [NOTE: I say, "conscious identity," to differentiate it from metaphysical identity as an individual organism which at any moment includes all my qualities and characteristics, including the possible qualities that can change.] From the moment I open my eyes for the first time to the moment I close them for the last time, I have only one consciousness, and what I mean by "I" is that consciousness. My existence as a person is my consciousness. If my consciousness should cease, whatever happens to my body, I cease to exist. That identity which is my consciousness, cannot be discovered or described by any physical attribute or any physical action of my body or biology, and no physical attribute of my body or any physical action of my body can account for it or it's nature. It is not biological. The Unity of Consciousness For any organism, there is only one consciousness and it is the same consciousness that perceives what is seen, what is tasted, what is heard, smelled, and felt. It is the same consciousness that feels the wheel of the car with the hands, the accelerator pedal with the foot, sees the light change from red to green, and hears the music on the radio all simultaneously. This aspect of consciousness is almost never recognized. It is one reason, for example, no computer or computer program will ever create consciousness. It would be impossible, at the physical level, to make all the discrete physical events required for detection of separate phenomena be a single event. Because consciousness is an aspect of life, however, which is not physical and not limited by physical attributes, such as discreteness, the same consciousness can be conscious of an indefinite number of things at the same time. Furthermore, every individual is only one consciousness, one person, conscious of what one is thinking, seeing and hearing, and what one is feeling, emotionally; and one is conscious of these, and all the other things one is aware of, simultaneously and continuously. To some extent one can determine what one will be conscious of by where they look and what they do, such as turning on or off a radio, or opening a book. In those cases, one is merely changing what there is available for one to be conscious of. But one can also focus the attention on some things one is conscious of and ignore some others, even though one never ceases to be conscious of everything available to consciousness at any time. It would be impossible, at the physical level, to make all the discrete physical events required for detection of separate phenomena be a single event. What that means, is, there is no physical system which is able to detect sounds (microphones, for example) images (a video camera, for example), pressure and weight (a transponder system, for example) temperature (an electronic thermometer for example), movement (an electro-gyroscope for example) which can all be recognized in all its detail as a single event or process. The information that all these detection systems provide, at the physical level, must forever remain discrete. The laws of physics and information theory, both determined by the principles that govern physical existence, exclude the possibility that this information can be integrated into a single thing or phenomenon, like my consciousness. If my consciousness were a phenomenon of the physical, it would not be a single thing, but a collection of separate and discrete things. At the physical level, the unity of consciousness is an impossibility. [NOTE: There is a way to convert a number of different data sources into a single data representation. It works only if all the information is converted to an analog state, that is, a signal that can be modulated by or added to with each different data stream. Such a continuous stream can be analyzed digitally, but that analysis succeeds only by separating the original streams. Our ability to hear is an example of this merging of separate data streams into a single one. When hearing an orchestra play, the sound reaching the ear has many different sources, but they are all merged together into a single very complex analog sound wave. Nevertheless we can distinguish all the separate instruments even while hearing them all simultaneously. A computer can also discriminate between different sound sources but to do so it requires separate detectors (or processes) for each detected sound. The process is called signal analysis. The trick would be to have all the separate sounds detected simultaneously with the merged signal by the same process (or detector), an impossibility for any kind of processor, analog or digital.] Which Cell is Conscious But we do not have to depend on physics or information theory to see the problem the unity of conscious is to the physicalist view. Even if we only consider vision, the optic nerve is actually a bundle of nerves, each carrying separate signals to the brain. They all terminate close to one another but at slightly different places at different cells. Many cells in the brain respond to these signals, at the physical level, "sight" consists of many interrelated but discrete events. If many different cells are involved in "seeing" how do the separate behaviors of each of those cells become integrated into a single phenomenon called "seeing." Unless there is one "master consciousness cell" that is somehow fed perceptual information by all the other cells of the brain, there is not "one event" at the physical level, but a collection of many separate events that cannot be anything but separate physical events. Ours is not only a single consciousness awareness of everything in the visual field, but simultaneously every thing that can be heard, or felt, or tasted, or smelled. At the physical level, all the discrete neurological events related to consciousness are discrete and separate and no physical method is possible that could integrate all these separate physical events into the single phenomena which is our single consciousness. [Note: Continuity and unity are attributes of life, as well as consciousness, which will be apparent from the explanation, but it is consciousness that makes those attributes significant as attributes unique to life and impossible to the merely physical.] Consciousness of the Physical not itself Physical It is the subjective nature of consciousness that has been the source of many of philosophy's greatest difficulties. It is the source of all mystic ideas of the "soul" for example. It is very difficult to describe the nature of consciousness as it is subjectively experienced and those philosophers who have recognized its significance have gone to great lengths to do so. Consciousness, the actual subjective experience, cannot be described in terms of any physical quality or attribute, because consciousness is not physical and cannot be attributed to any physical events or actions. Consciousness is an attribute of life, the process. It is to the life process itself that the physiological aspects of the neurological system of an organism presents those qualities of existents that can be detected by the nervous system to be perceived. The ontological significance is this: Consciousness and that which we are conscious of cannot be the same thing. The physical is that which we are conscious of (directly perceive), consciousness is directly perceiving (being conscious of) the physical. It is this fact that has led so many philosophers to posit some kind of dualism. This ontology solves that problem by observing that both consciousness and physical existence are aspects of the same real material existence, which may rightly be called, "nature," and the physical is a subset of that material natural existence. Tasting is the Only Test This impossibility of physical description or explanation is true for all percepts. There is no way to determine from the physical characteristics of anything how it will taste, for example, or what any particular chemical will smell like. The only way to know what anything will taste or smell like is to actually taste or smell it. This, of course, is the reason why it is so difficult to explain what something tastes like to someone who has never tasted it. Unless it has ingredients that one has tasted before, it is, in fact, impossible to describe the taste of a thing. This is true of all the perceptual qualities. It is the reason why no description of sound can make a deaf person know what sound "sounds" like, and why no explanation can make a blind person know what anything "looks" like. Yet, it is quite possible to explain all the physical and technical aspects of sound to a deaf person and of light to a blind person. What is particularly interesting about pain is the fact it is not a quality of anything physical. Unlike color, for example, for which there is a corresponding physical attribute (the transmission, reflection, or emission of light at a specific wave length) there is no corresponding physical attribute of any physical existent that is pain. All human consciousness is comprised of percepts, and pain is a percept. All perception is consciousness of the physical, and pain is consciousness of the physical. However, it is not consciousness of any physical attributes of any physical existent—it is consciousness of a particular physical state of some aspect of a living organism. A broken bone is, to consciousness, extremely painful, but a broken bone, as a physical phenomenon, in terms of physics, has no attribute which can be called pain. No Xray, physical examination, or analysis of any kind will find any attribute about a broken bone which can be called pain. The pain associated with a broken bone exists only in the context of a living organism and only to consciousness. Pain exists and is real, it is an indication of a real physical state in a biological context, but does not itself exist physically, and has no physical attributes or explanation. There is another aspect of pain that helps illustrate what consciousness is. When I feel pain, I generally react to that feeling, like holding the finger I just hit with the hammer and yelling "ouch!" or something stronger. But I do not have to react at all. I can "ignore" the pain, if I really have to. Nevertheless, I feel the pain just as much—it is the pain I feel that is the conscious experience, not my reaction to it. (So much for behaviorism.) No Physical Description of Consciousness No description of any physical aspect or physical process related to perception explains or describes any perceptual quality or aspect of consciousness. The short of it is, no matter what physical (mechanical-electrical-chemical) actions are described, that is all they can describe. When the biologist and physiologist have described all that the nervous system and brain have done, they still have not described consciousness—they have only described a complex of physical events, which no matter how complex will never be a description of consciousness or any aspect of it. [NOTE: This is exactly what Dr. Binswanger describes as the impossibility of reducing consciousness to anything else, particularly to the physical, on pages 42-48. His explanation is quite good and worth examining. It does, however, contradict his own view that consciousness is biological; biology is physical.] The TV in the Empty Room It has been suggested that given sufficient complexity in the proper configuration, it is possible for a physical process to produce "consciousness." It is supposed, for example, that a complex nervous system like that of the higher animals and human beings in some way "produces" consciousness. [The argument uses the pseudo-concept "emergence" which supposedly means new attributes just "emerge" from the operation of other things that did not otherwise exist.] Conscious vision, for example, is produced by the nervous system providing information from the eyes that are processed in some way by the brain, which process is "seeing." In fact, no physical process can be vision—even if in some way information reaching the brain from the eye through the optic nerves could be processed into an image, it would be like an image on a TV—but an image on a TV is not vision and can only be consciously seen if someone is watching the TV. The physicalist's description of consciousness is the description of a TV in an empty room. It is not an "image" that is consciousness; it is the "seeing," not of an image, but existence itself. Whatever the physical brain does, it cannot itself be consciousness. The behavior of the brain is only more physical action; it only makes available to consciousness what is seen, heard, felt, smelled and tasted—the brain itself cannot see, hear, feel, smell or taste anything. Consciousness and Sentience Conscious organisms are uniquely different from merely living organisms (for example, plants). Consciousness is a level of differentiation above life, and is a differentiation of life. Like life, it exists materially, that is, independent of anyone's knowledge or consciousness of it (except of course the consciousness of the one who's consciousness is being considered). Where simple sentience ends and consciousness begins may be impossible to resolve, but has no significance philosophically. It is possible that consciousness, in some sense, is true even for the simplest forms of life, and that what we have called sentience is actually a rudimentary form of conscious perception. We attribute life, sentience, and perception to all animals, but, philosophically, the only creatures we must, and can, know these things about are human beings. Consciousness Not Action All we do as human beings we do consciously, that is, we are totally aware of what we think, know, and choose. We are conscious of every choice we make both in what we think and what we do overtly. It is very important to understand it is not consciousness itself that does our choosing or acting. It is consciousness that makes it possible for us to consciously choose, think, and learn, but consciousness is only our awareness of these actions, not the actions themselves and not the cause or initiator of them. Our consciousness, if it is to be totally valid, must be consciousness of reality exactly as it is. If consciousness itself were "active" in any way, other than just being validly aware of existence, it would have attributes of its own, in addition to awareness. Since we are conscious of our thinking and our choices, it is very easy to have the sense that it is consciousness itself that is doing the thinking and choosing. But consciousness is only direct awareness and what it is aware of as determined by whatever there is to perceive and it is perceived exactly as it is. There cannot be any choice about what is perceived, (which would make it impossible to know if what is being perceived is correct or not) and there cannot be any required action on the part of consciousness to perceive, (which would make it impossible to know if consciousness was doing all that would be required to perceive correctly). Consciousness must be passive and automatic to be totally valid and reliable. [NOTE: There is an exception to the passivity of consciousness which is all percepts derived from memory. See the section, "The Mind, Consciousness, and Choice," in the chapter, "Mind."] In every day language it is acceptable to speak of consciousness, "doing things," (like thinking, imagining, and choosing), because we do them consciously, but it must be understood that consciousness itself is direct awareness of reality, and nothing else. Philosophically, no action or motivation or reason must ever be attributed to consciousness itself.
Plato, the Greek philosopher, lived from 428 to 348. One of his principle concepts was that the soul is the essence of a person, being, that which decides how we behave. He considered this essence as an incorporeal, eternal occupant of our respective individual mortal physical presences. As bodies die the soul is continually reborn in subsequent bodies. In Plato's time, human understanding was limited to what could be perceived by the naked eye, and much of philosophy was preoccupied with imagining the structure and meaning of the universe, without the help of higher mathematics, empirical research, or any enhancements to perception (such as telescopes or microscopes). People in Plato's time, undoubtedly understood that sexual intercourse, for instance, leads to pregnancy, and that human reproduction proceeded by this process. However, the manner by which this actually occurs was unknown to them, since they had no conception of microscopic phenomena, the cell as the building block of animal or plant animus, or how sexual fertilization takes place. This enormous hole in their knowledge led them to posit all kinds of esoteric theories about how children are "created" in the womb, and how children inherit characteristics from their parents. These concepts were mystical in origin, and were often included as a part of the metaphysics or theological systems of the time. Since Plato lacked the crucial information about how sexual reproduction actually works, in detail, he was obliged to supply a replacement description, for which there was no verification or proof whatsoever. Identity, for Plato, could only be "passed" through the medium of a soul, an incorporeal essence which entered the body at birth, and passed out at death. This soul was eternal, and passed through time, from body to body--in effect, the process of reincarnation. It wasn't until the work of Gregor Mendel [1822-1884], and Darwin [1809-1882], that science finally began to understand how inheritance actually works, how the descent of species occurs at the level of sexual fertilization, creating a unique, hybrid individual from the DNA of separate parents, combined at conception. The mechanistic nature of this process would probably have astonished Plato, since, for him, the supernatural quality of the mysteries of life tended to be regarded as only possible through some kind of divine intervention, through means beyond human comprehension or description. The idea that human evolution could proceed according to elementary combinations of strands of living DNA, according to laws of probability and chance, without apparent control from any external influence, would certainly have made Plato nervous. Human form and character the result of the gradual adaptation through the "accidental" occurrence of opportunistic mutations? Heresy! But Plato's theory, as fundamentally naive as it now seems to us, was probably about as logical an explanation for genetic variation and "identity" as one could have made. Without the knowledge we now possess about genetics and natural selection, our hands would really be tied. Things which we can't explain, because we don't have the information and data to analyze them, often lead us to make absurd speculations about how things work. The inception of the concept of the "soul" dates back well before the revolutions of knowledge which have explained vitality, aging, death, inheritance, and descent and selection. We continue to use the word "soul" to describe a host of qualities and conditions, because it's a handy term, a place-holder really, for things which we either can't explain, or for which we already have commonplace rational explanations, but which we'd prefer not to think of. When people die, there is "nothing left" of their essence, their livelihood. The only part of them which may be said to extend beyond death is that itzy bit of DNA they passed on through their fortuitous encounter with the opposite sex. Unless, of course, you count their thoughts, or writings, or other artifacts (such as art). I have no descendants, my only child having died without issue. I am the end of my "line." For some people, this is a depressing thought; but I'm not bothered by it. Each individual lives and dies, and we all die eventually. Nothing that any of us "carries" in our memories or sensibilities will outlive us. It's all temporary. But we also give some thought to posterity. We would rather the human race move towards something better, a perfected state of life. That's unselfish, and noble, and worthy.
What is Hemophilla Hemophilia is not one disease but rather one of a group of inherited bleeding disorders that cause abnormal or exaggerated bleeding and poor blood clotting. About one in 10,000 people are born with this disease. It happens because of a defect in one of the clotting factor genes on the X chromosome. The three forms of hemophilia are hemophilia A, B, and C. - Hemophilia A is the most common type of hemophilia, and it’s caused by a deficiency in clotting factor VIII. Eight out of 10 people with hemophilia have hemophilia A. - Hemophilia B, which is also called Christmas disease, is caused by a deficiency of clotting factor IX. - Hemophilia C is a mild form of the disease that’s caused by a deficiency of clotting factor XI. People with this rare type of hemophilia often don’t experience spontaneous bleeding. Hemorrhaging typically occurs after trauma or surgery. - Blood in the urine or stool - Large, unexplained bruises - Excessive bleeding - Bleeding gums - Frequent nosebleeds - Pain in the joints or tight joints - A severe headache - Vomiting repeatedly - Neck pain - Blurred or doubled vision - Extreme sleepiness Blood tests can provide information about how long it takes for blood to clot, the levels of clotting factors, and which clotting factors, if any, are missing. Hemophilia A can be treated with a prescription hormone. This hormone is called desmopressin, which they can give as an injection into your vein. This medication works by stimulating the factors responsible for the process of blood clotting. Hemophilia B can be treated by infusing your blood with donor clotting factors. Sometimes, the factors may be given in the synthetic form. These are called “recombinant clotting factors.” Hemophilia C can be treated by using plasma infusion. The infusion works to stop profuse bleeding. Living with hemophilia This condition isn’t curable, but it can be treated to minimize symptoms and prevent future health complications. - Regular exercise. - Avoiding certain medications, such as aspirin, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and heparin, which are blood thinners. - Practicing good dental hygiene. Every year, April 17 is celebrated as World Hemophilia Day. This year’s theme is “SHARING KNOWLEDGE MAKES US STRONGER”.
Welcome to The Order of Operations with Negative and Positive Decimals (Three Steps; Comma Decimal Format) (A) Math Worksheet from the Decimals Worksheets Page at Math-Drills.com. This math worksheet was created on 2021-10-24 and has been viewed 1 times this week and 7 times this month. It may be printed, downloaded or saved and used in your classroom, home school, or other educational environment to help someone learn math. Teachers can use math worksheets as tests, practice assignments or teaching tools (for example in group work, for scaffolding or in a learning center). Parents can work with their children to give them extra practice, to help them learn a new math skill or to keep their skills fresh over school breaks. Students can use math worksheets to master a math skill through practice, in a study group or for peer tutoring. Use the buttons below to print, open, or download the PDF version of the Order of Operations with Negative and Positive Decimals (Three Steps; Comma Decimal Format) (A) math worksheet. The size of the PDF file is 14283 bytes. Preview images of the first and second (if there is one) pages are shown. If there are more versions of this worksheet, the other versions will be available below the preview images. For more like this, use the search bar to look for some or all of these keywords: math, order, operations, negative, positive, decimals, PEMDAS, BEDMAS. The Print button initiates your browser's print dialog. The Open button opens the complete PDF file in a new browser tab. The Download button initiates a download of the PDF math worksheet. Teacher versions include both the question page and the answer key. Student versions, if present, include only the question page.
A Thinking School Learning how to learn A Thinking School is one in which teachers and pupils have a deep understanding of how to learn and think effectively. This approach lies at the heart of all teaching and learning at NHP. Questioning and knowledge Build both knowledge and application of knowledge The process of learning Learn and develop by failing and trying again In the classroom Ideas and strategies to ensure a dynamic and inspiring atmosphere Our pupils develop an awareness of themselves as learners from as early as Reception through a variety of strategies which will become second nature to them during their time with us. Their Thinking School toolbox includes such things as Thinking Maps, De Bono’s Thinking Hats, Philosophy for Children (P4C) and our NHP Habits and Values. For more information about Thinking Schools, please see www.thinkingmatters.com
- Understand the concepts of factor, multiple, prime - Understand numbers in terms of relations to other numbers. - I can identify the factors of a number. - I can express a number as the product of primes. - I can identify prime numbers - Multiple, Product - Prime, Composite - Multiplicative identity. - Organising data - Knowing when we have finished - Mathematical wondering Modelling or demonstrating Display the chart on the screen. https://drive.google.com/a/maths4eal.net/file/d/1Q6QsznGi9zIdViqrEZ7CO2T6IOZo3U8M/view?usp=drivesdk What do I notice about this chart? There’s a line connecting 15 and 32. There’s a line connecting 5, 2, 16 and 3. I wonder what they have in common? (Try adding them… Ah! They both have a product of 480! I wonder if I can find any other strings with a product of 480. Teacher: answering questions, prompts, cues and direct explanations Conducted in small, purposeful, groups. Ideal time for differentiated engagement between teacher and student. Use “Enabling prompts” from “Participating in the Inquiry” here: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1BgqPMiuACNxicbFTVFf67mt_v_e4Iona (Meaningful collaborative group work) Students to work in groups of 3 finding factor strings. Once all groups have found at least two strings, begin asking students to record ones found on the whiteboard. - When this gets messy and hard to find, pause the class. - Discuss how we can structure our data better: - perhaps by length, and ascending order of factor. - Model good mathematical thinking with “I wonder…” statements: - I wonder what the shortest string is? - I wonder what the longest string is? - How will we know? - I wonder how many strings there are? (Teacher’s role: feedback) Students move on to individual work. Students can be extended with the prompts: - What are all the factor pairs for 480? What are all the factors strings that have 3 factors? How do you know you have found them all? What about factor strings that are 4, 5 or 6 numbers long? When we have found the longest string, how do we know? What’s true about these factors. Introduce the idea of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic (in appropriate language): Any positive integer can be uniquely expressed as the product of primes. Watch the video Create Frayer Models of the vocabulary.
Investigating what characteristics of a building would help to make it earthquake resistant, using an earthquake simulator constructed from LEGO® bricks. • Read about general preparation in the 'Classroom Management' chapter. • Read about the project so you have a good idea of what to do. • Define how you want to introduce this project: Use the video provided for the project in the WeDo 2.0 Software, or use material of your own choice. • Determine the end result of this project: the parameters to present and produce the document. • Make sure that timing allows for expectations to be meet. 2. Explore phase The introductory video may set the stage for the following ideas to be reviewed and discussed with pupils. Here are some suggested talking points for the video: - Since it was formed, the earth has been changing shape. Like pieces of biscuit being pushed around on top of a layer of honey, the tectonic plates that compose the earth slide, rub together, and collide. - When doing so, the friction creates vibrations on the surface of the earth. - During an earthquake, depending on the strength of the vibrations and a variety of other factors, buildings and other structures may be damaged or destroyed. - Today buildings are more resistant to earthquakes, thanks to recent scientific discoveries that have led to improvements in design. Questions for discussion During the Explore phase, these questions are intended to elicit pupils’ initial ideas and/or summarise prior learning to evaluate the performance expectation for this project. Ask the pupils to document their comprehension, and refer back to these questions again during and after the Create phase. - What causes earthquakes and what are the hazards they create? Earthquakes are vibrations of the earth’s crust caused by the movement of the tectonic plates. - How do scientists rate the strength of an earthquake? Scientists rate earthquakes on a scale they call the Richter scale. The higher the number, on a scale of 1 to 10, the stronger the earthquake. - What elements can influence the resistance of buildings during earthquakes? This answer should serve as the pupils’ hypothesis. This means that at this point, your pupils’ answer may be incorrect. - What did you notice about the relationship between the size of a building’s footprint and height, and its ability to withstand the impact of an earthquake? Structures that are tall or slim are generally less stable and are more likely to fall when submitted to lateral forces. - How did you ensure that the tests were kept fair? Changing only one parameter at a time. - What other factors would be important to investigate? Structural design and materials also have to be considered when testing a building’s resistance to earthquakes. - How are modern buildings designed to withstand earthquakes? Architects and engineers use structures, principles, and simulations to test prototypes for weaknesses. - Does “resistant” mean the same thing as “strong”? It depends on a variety of factors. Sometimes flexible structures or materials are more resistant than rigid or strong structures. Ask your pupils to answer with text or pictures using the Documentation tool. 3. Create phase Build and program an earthquake simulator and model buildings Pupils will follow the building instructions to create an earthquake simulator. With this device, they will gather evidence to decide which building would pass the earthquake test. 1. Build an earthquake simulator. The shake model used in this project uses a piston to push and pull the test plate. The motor power level of the program determines the amplitude of the generated earthquake. 2. Program the simulator. This program will start by displaying No. 0 on the screen. It will then repeat a series of actions, five times. It will add No. 1 to the display, representing the shake magnitude, turn the motor on to that magnitude for two seconds, and then wait for one second. With this program, if pupils want to test a stronger or weaker earthquake, they will need to change the number of loops. Allow them to use a program of their own. Investigate your building design Now that pupils understand the way the earthquake simulator works, let them investigate different factors by isolating one variable at a time. 1. Change the height. Pupils should use the short and the tall buildings, both with narrow bases (buildings A and B). With the tall building on the shaking base, pupils should find the minimum magnitude that causes the structure to fall. Then, with that same program, they should test if the narrow or short building is more resistant. Pupils should be able to discover that with the same base area, the short building is more resistant than the tall building. Because not all of the motors react exactly the same, it is possible that magnitudes vary, giving different results for each team. 2. Change the width of the base. With the same program, ask the pupils to test if the tall building with the narrow base (building B) can resist better than the narrow, tall building with the wide base (building C). Pupils should be able to discover that with a larger base area, a tall building is more resistant. Investigate more (optional) Use the “Investigate more” section of the pupil project as an optional extension. Keep in mind that these tasks are an extension of the “Investigate” section and are designed for older or more advanced pupils. Ask your pupils to explore other elements that affect the buildings’ resistance to vibration. 1. Change the magnitude. Ask the pupils to predict what would happen to buildings A, B, and C if the magnitude of the earthquake was increased, for example, up to level 8. Ask them to record their predictions and test each case. 2. Change buildings. Applying the fact that a larger base will enable a building to withstand stronger vibrations, challenge your pupils to build the tallest possible, level-8 earthquake resistant, structure. Ask the pupils to explore different building compositions: • Explore different structural shapes. • Introduce new materials. Allow teams to compare their building designs. Ask one team to describe and test the work of another team: • What are the structure’s strengths? • What are the structure’s weaknesses? • Will the building withstand the earthquake test? 4. Share phase Complete the document Ask the pupils to document their projects in different ways: • Ask the pupils to take a video of each test they conduct in order to prove • Ask your pupils to compare these conclusions with real-life cases. Pupils may collect data in a chart format or on a spreadsheet. Pupils may also graph the results of their tests. At the end of this project, pupils should present the results of their investigations. To enhance your pupils’ presentation: • Ask them to describe the factors that influence a building’s stability. • Ask them to compare these thoughts with their findings. • Ask them to put their explanations into context: • Ask them to reflect on their conclusions. • Discuss whether their results reflect reality. To ensure success, consider giving more guidance on building and programming, such as: • Explain how to conduct an investigation. • Utilise evidence to construct explanations. • Offer them additional experiences with isolated variables to test Also, be specific in establishing expectations for pupils to present and document their findings. For more experienced pupils, allow extra time for building and programming so they can use their own inquiries to design their own investigations. Pupils could change parameters, such as the level of the earthquake simulator, the materials used to construct the buildings, or the surface on which they test their buildings. Pupils will design the tallest building, resisting a grade 8 earthquake. They will apply what they have learned from the previous investigation. Possible pupil misconceptions Pupils may believe that earthquakes happen in random locations across the earth. Most of the world’s seismic activity is associated with tectonic plate boundaries. While shallow crevasses may form during an earthquake, due to landslides or ground failures, the ground does not “open up” along a fault line. Explore the origin and nature of earthquakes. Create and program a device that will allow them to test building designs. Document evidence and present their findings about which structure design(s) are best for withstanding earthquakes. Download, view or share as an online HTML page or a printable PDF.
Learn About How Bees Feed the World Because bees spend their days collecting pollen, they help all flowering plans to produce fruit and seed. Pollination is essential to a plant reproduction. Pollen from a flower's anthers (the male part of the plant) rubs or drops onto a pollinator. The pollinator then take this pollen to another flower, where the pollen sticks to the stigma (the female part). Now fertilized the plant later yields fruit and seeds. A bees’ body attract pollen grains through electrostatic forces. Stiff hairs on their legs enable them to groom the pollen into specialized brushes or pockets on their legs or body, and then carry it from flower to flower and later back to their bee hive. Some of this content was from an article by Action News 5 Threats to the Bee Monoculture farming the practice of cultivation or growing a single crop. Sac-brood disease is perhaps the most common viral disease of honey bees. Herbicides & Pesticides Glyphosate, appears to make bees more vulnerable to infection.
Across the country, we’re soon to experience a lessening in daylight hours that will continue throughout the winter and into the spring. SAD (Seasonal Affective Disorder) affects numerous people of all ages, including the elderly. What is SAD, how do we differentiate it from “the blues” and how does it affect our elderly community? What is SAD? According to the Mayo Clinic, “Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a type of depression that’s related to changes in seasons — SAD begins and ends at about the same times every year. If you’re like most people with SAD, your symptoms start in the fall and continue into the winter months, sapping your energy and making you feel moody. Less often, SAD causes depression in the spring or early summer.” Symptoms generally appear in the late fall and can include: - Trouble sleeping or over sleeping - Weight gain or drastic changes in appetite - Feeling sluggish, exhausted - Feeling of depression that doesn’t go away, but isn’t present during the summer - Having a higher level of anxiety than normal How it is different from moodiness or “the blues”? Everyone has periods of bad moods, being “down” or what we might call being depressed. But how do we know if it’s a bad mood or if it is indeed depression or Seasonal Affective Disorder? Depression, including SAD is diagnosed when the person experience it for more than 2 weeks. All forms of depression are ongoing and should be brought to a doctor’s attention is the symptoms last more than a couple of weeks, regardless of season. How does SAD affect the elderly? Most symptoms will be very similar in all patients, including those over the age of 65. Because of pre-existing risks for isolation, the elderly population might be more affected as all forms of depression worsen with isolation. LifeExtension.com also states, “Startling research reveals that serotonin levels decline as we age! These findings provide a biochemical rationale to explain common age-related disorders such as depressed mood and sleep difficulties.” This may also explain why we see a higher level of depression in older adults. As with other types of depression, SAD is usually treated with anti depressants. Because it can take a few weeks for medication to work, the patient usually begins treatment a few weeks before symptoms start. Light therapy can also be beneficial. Light therapy boxes such as these can be brought into the home and used daily to increase the amount of sunlight the patient receives. Light therapy is often also used in the treatment of Sundowner’s Syndrome in the elderly. Other things that may be beneficial in helping the symptoms: - At least 30 minutes of exercise daily - Spend time with friend and family. Isolation aggravates all forms of depression. - Limit the amount of sugar in diet - Abstain or greatly decrease alcohol limit to no more than 1-2 weekly Learn More Here If you feel yourself or a loved one is affected by SAD or depression of any kind, please speak with a physician to determine the best course of action. ~ ~ ~ Do you have questions about how you can better support your loved one while they age in place in South Florida or regarding homecare in general? Please contact CareGivers of America here: Contact or call us toll free: 800-342-4197 *No information in this article is to be taken as advice, medical or otherwise. This post is not sponsored, but may contain external links to websites, articles or product examples. External links are used for example or refence purposes only and these links do not indicate specific product or website endorsement by CareGivers of America.
Fear is a normal and inescapable part of being human. We all have things we’re afraid of, whether that's a real threat or something we know is irrational. Children and young people are at a stage of life where they’re forming and developing fears, perhaps for the first time. As parents we want to comfort our children, protect them from negative experiences and help them. Here are some ways you can support your child in managing their fears: 1) Help your child to understand their fear Before trying to manage their fears, it’s important to really understand what’s making your child feel afraid. Is it something rational or irrational? Is it something that occurs every day or only in occasional circumstances? Is it really fear, or are they struggling to express their dislike for something? By asking questions, observing their behaviour and monitoring their mood, you will gain a better insight into their fear and what might be driving it. It’s important to also reflect on whether your child may be more susceptible to fear, for example, those who are highly sensitive or emotional or have experienced particularly stressful or traumatic events in their lives. 2) Provide calm and reassurance After taking a bit of time to reflect and seek to understand your child’s specific fears it’s also important to offer them calm and reassurance. Sometimes in the moment fear can cause panic and upset for a child and what they need is the comfort and reassurance of someone they love. If your child appreciates physical reassurance, give them a hug, remind them of your presence and of your protection. Knowing your presence with them in the midst of fear can help them to feel safe and better equipped to cope with their feelings. You can also provide reassurance by sharing the things that scare you. Sometimes all the comfort a child needs is to know they are not on their own. 3) Have an open conversation If your child is happy to talk about it, try to ask questions which help them to explore what’s frightening them. Fear is usually more complex that what you see on the surface and so asking questions can help to uncover the different layers. For example a child who has a fear of the dark may be afraid of monsters, intruders, death or being alone. Once they’ve shared with you, validate their feelings and take them seriously. Don’t belittle their experience or patronise them even if their fear is something that seems irrational. Acknowledging what they’ve said will help them to feel heard and understood. As you talk you can then help them to think through what’s true and untrue about their fear. Help them to distinguish between facts and feelings. Is this something that could really happen or is it just something I’m feeling? Keep this conversation open so they can bring their questions and concerns to you. 4) Help them to think about consequences Often children are scared because of uncertainty. You can help them in their fear by talking to them about consequences. For example, if your house was broken into, what would happen, who could you call, how would you be kept safe? It’s helpful for your child to think through how they might cope if their fear came true and what things are in place to protect them. You can also teach them about the things they are afraid of so that they better understand their importance. For example a child who’s afraid of needles might feel better if they understood why they were having it and what it was protecting them from. As you think about the consequences of their fears, ask them if there are things they would like to put in place to make them feel safer. 5) Set realistic goals with your child If your child’s fear is something they’d like to manage and has begun to impact their life, work with them on a plan to help them overcome it. Sometimes as parents we can go to one of two extremes: throwing our child into the deep end to face their fear head on, or avoiding all places, situations or people who are provoking this fear. Instead try to split their goal into smaller more achievable steps where your child is gradually exposed to their fear at each stage. Encourage them in their efforts even if it takes longer than they’d like or there’s days where they don’t quite achieve their goal. Encouragement will help them to keep going and not give up. 6) Teach them about self-regulation As your child gradually becomes more exposed to their fears, teaching them about self regulation can be a really important way to help them. Developing self regulation means allowing children to feel fear without always jumping in to rescue them. Giving your child space to sit with their fear helps them to not only assess risk but also gives them a chance to see how they might respond to it themselves. Children can self regulate by finding things that are calming or relaxing for them. They can also do this by challenging their irrational fears. Work with them to compile a collection of these tools to equip them in moments of fear. You can also model this to them as they see you manage your own fears. 7) Monitor the material they're engaging with So often, children are fearful because of frightening content they’ve been exposed to whether that’s a film they’ve watched, a game they’ve played or something they’ve seen on social media. Material like this can be scary for children but it can also be difficult as a parent to know how to protect them. As hard as it is, it’s so important to make sure you monitor what your children are engaging with, especially if they are becoming more and more fearful. This might mean setting up parental controls, limiting their screen time or talking to them about how to protect themselves online. Through this you can also talk to them about monitoring themselves. Help them to acknowledge when something is frightening them and teach them how to say no when they’re uncomfortable. 8) Look out for signs that their fear is overwhelming them It’s important to look out for signs that your child’s fear has become too overwhelming for them. Signs of this would be if their fear begins to persist, causes them distress and impacts their daily life. It might be that they begin having panic attacks, develop obsessive behaviour or withdraw from activities they would usually love. If your child begins consistently worrying or showing these kinds of signs, it might be that they would benefit from some more support. If you are concerned your child may be experiencing anxiety here’s some more information for you and how to support your child through it. (link) We can’t always protect our children but we can help them to manage their fears and reduce their worries through reassurance, modelling and open communication. Working with your child to understand their fear and find small, achievable ways of coping with it will equip them to deal with fear later in life.
Technology: friend or foe for learning? With the rise of digital alternatives, the use of paper textbooks has all but disappeared. So, is reading electronically different to reading print? Some experiments have found no difference in comprehension. But in one study, when reading time was self-regulated rather than fixed, participants performed better after reading print. A 2013 US study of university students also found that reading on paper was less likely to encourage multitasking, and that has already been established as a clear advantage when it comes to learning. But digital technology has also revolutionised education in positive ways. The internet has brought free access to virtually unlimited troves of information. With the rise of video tutorials and free massive online open courses (MOOCs), education barriers are lower than ever. Multimedia in the form of images, videos and audio resources enrich and reinforce learning. They make experiences such as a virtual tour of China’s Great Wall or a video of Martin Luther King’s I Have a Dream speech just a few keyboard strokes away. Interactive game-based learning programs have been found to be effective for teaching. “The gaming approach was both more effective in promoting students’ knowledge of computer memory concepts and more motivational than the non-gaming approach,” wrote the author of one University of Thessaly study of high-school computer science students. Assistive technologies have also improved education for students with learning disorders or sensory impairments such as deafness or blindness. Many visual and audio aids, such as speech recognition and text-to-speech software, now exist to help students with specific impairments. The bottom line is that technology in the classroom is here to stay, and when distractions are minimised, it can improve and enrich learning. How devices affect sleep A large body of evidence now shows that the blue light emitted by smartphones, tablets and computers suppresses melatonin production, meaning that using these devices at night can interfere with the body’s natural sleep cycles. Sleep is known to be important for learning – it’s crucial for consolidating long-term memories. Missing out on sleep can also impair attention and short-term memory. The teenage brain is particularly sensitive to the effects of blue light. That’s why experts now recommend that teenagers should avoid late-night use of devices that emit blue light if they want to get enough sleep. Is cramming worth it? Overstretched students often rely on the time-saving strategy of cramming for exams, but the science says this study technique is highly flawed. Many experiments have shown that ‘spacing’, which involves spreading study sessions apart, leads to far superior results when it comes to long-term retention. In fact, one 2009 study found that spaced learning was more effective than cramming for 90 per cent of participants. Memories fluctuate according to changes in the strength of connections – synapses – between neurons. These can be made stronger or weaker depending on when and how often they are activated, meaning that a memory can be reinforced or forgotten. The more these synapses are activated, the more likely the information will be retained, which explains why revision of previously studied material is preferable to learning it for the first time en masse before an exam. Last-minute cramming usually goes hand-in-hand with stress and a lack of sleep, both of which can hinder learning retention. Sleep is thought to be involved in creating long-term memories by consolidation; deprivation leads to decreased activity in the hippocampus and poorer recall of ‘declarative’ memories, which are about facts and events. In a study of high-school students, UCLA researchers found that sacrificing sleep for extra study time was counterproductive and resulted in increased academic problems the following day. The effects of stress You’re more likely to remember something you’ve learned if you have an emotional attachment to it. This happens because the amygdala boosts memory by enhancing attention and perception. It can also help memory retention by triggering the release of stress hormones. QBI researchers have discovered that bad experiences automatically enhance memory formation about places and may serve as a cue to avoiding potential threats. Conversely, too much stress can overwhelm, cause anxiety and impair memory – but research has found that the right amount can optimise alertness and cognitive performance. Surprisingly, even confusion can be beneficial to learning. Research has shown that being confused about new ideas or a situation can spur us to work harder to understand, leading to a deeper grasp and better retention of what we have learned. This piece is reproduced with permission from the Queensland Brain Institute at The University of Queensland's Learning and Memory magazine, now available for free download at qbi.uq.edu.au/learning. Banner image: iStock.
FUNDAMENTAL TO LIFE, clean water is perhaps the most important natural resource on the planet. Unfortunately, with the increasing recurrence of droughts, poor management of resources, and climate change, a scarcity of clean water is reaching crisis status. Four billion people — almost two-thirds of the world’s population — experience severe water shortages for at least one month each year. (1) Even in countries with adequate water resources, water scarcity is not uncommon. Water scarcity has made the operational reliability of wastewater treatment plants all the more urgent. Wastewater treatment ensures that contaminated water can be safely reused or returned to the water cycle, but never discarded. Wastewater (“sewage”) contains many harmful substances and cannot be discharged into the environment until it is treated. Therefore, the importance of wastewater treatment is twofold: to restore our water supply and to protect us from toxins. Since the Clean Water Act was issued in 1972, more than 15,000 publicly owned wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) have been brought online in the United States, furnishing primary, secondary and tertiary levels of treatment to 34 billion gallons of wastewater each day. (2) In this article, we address the serious challenges posed to WWTP by cold weather, specifically how freezing temperatures can jeopardize the piping infrastructures that enable plants to convert sewage into clean water. Piping systems are like the veins of a wastewater treatment plant, carrying water, sewage, chemicals, and mixtures from one location to another. Damage to one pipe can lead to a cascading effect onto the entire infrastructure. Unfortunately, the complexity of wastewater treatment systems often means that isolating, repairing, or replacing a single damaged or cracked pipe requires an expensive, time-consuming shutdown of machinery. Thanks to modern-day freeze protection technologies, specifically heat trace cables, WWTP have access to a solution, safeguarding mission-critical pipelines against severe cold weather events. Winter Weather Challenges As if the many variables of wastewater treatment aren’t enough to keep a supervising technician busy, winter weather makes the task even more demanding. Snow, ice, and freezing rain can easily create obstacles that will prevent a plant from running at peak performance. Cold temperatures not only slow down the activity of the system’s microorganisms, which do the important work of breaking down contaminants; but it also leads to frozen and cracked pipes, hoses, valves, pumps and process components, as well as ice formation on outside tanks and reservoirs, among other issues. If left unprotected, just about any machine or component within a WWTP can freeze. Once they do, the plant may need to be partially or completely shut down for repairs. Meanwhile, wastewater will continue building up until the facility restarts, or it may need to be released untreated into a nearby body of water leading to environmental contamination, hefty EPA fines, and bad publicity. A major cause of delays that extend downtime is waiting for vital replacement parts. Generally, these parts are ordered beforehand, however, emergencies like a frozen pipe or valve are rarely anticipated. Besides cracks and flooding, limited freezing of water or vapors in pipes can lead to changes in system conditions that can throw off the ratios of treatment products, rendering them less effective. Not only does this affect system health, but it also greatly reduces efficiency. The Need for Freeze Protection An overwhelming two-thirds of capital expenditures for conventional wastewater treatment plants can go toward pipelines and pumping stations to maintain flow. (3) Given this investment, extra measures need to be taken to keep this infrastructure performing at optimal efficiency during the cold weather months When pipelines freeze in WWTP, the consequences are severe. Leaks and bursts pose a danger to employee health, the environment, and the plant’s financial and reputational status. A recent example is the historic 2021 winter storm in Texas. The brutal cold engulfed vast swaths of the Southwest, shuttering water treatment centers and hindering repairs. Some of the winter storm damages at Texas plants included broken pipes, valves, basins, and impacts to chemical feed systems. This led to service disruptions for water systems in more than 140 counties across Texas, affecting some 14.9 million people at its peak. Heat Trace Cable To ensure that wastewater treatment pipelines can operate during the winter, freeze protection needs to be applied. Electric heat trace cables play a major role, offering reliable, safe, and energy-efficient performance. Heat tracing cables are designed to prevent pipes from freezing by use of a resistive element that heats up when electricity passes through it. Replacing lost heat allows the pipe and water/liquids inside to be kept at a constant temperature. If self-regulating, heat output is managed by the ambient temperature. This means that the heater cable will automatically alter the heat output in response to temperature changes across the pipe; it will increase the heat output as areas of the pipe cool, a decrease heat output in areas where the temperature is rising. Areas of a WWTP requiring heat tracing include the headworks, supply pump stations, influent lift stations, filtration systems, and chemical feed systems (if located outside). Additional areas that should be considered are stairs/walkways, loading docks, and platforms to ensure employee safety. Faucets and washdown areas may also require heat tracing if exposed to the cold temperatures. However, areas such as reactors and digestor systems have enough mass to prevent freezing without additional protection. When you are specifying a heat trace cable, it is important to establish parameters. These parameters are determined by pipe sizes, lengths, material, number of valves and pumps attached to the pipes, and the type of pipe supports. Other factors are the supply voltage (110/120 Vac or 208/240 Vac), weather data for the area, and the minimum start-up temperature. WWTP produce flammable gases and vapors. These emissions come mainly from substances that the wastewater could be carrying, such as oils, solvents, or gasoline from accidental spills, and from anaerobic digestion of organic matter. In confined spaces, a high concentration of these gases can build up making the area particularly suspectable to an explosion from an electrical arc. NFPA 820-2020 (Standard for Fire Protection in Wastewater Treatment and Collection Facilities) determined that most pumping stations, spaces, and buildings that make up a WWTP must be considered hazardous locations. In North America, the heat trace cable you specify should be rated for hazardous locations as defined by the National Electrical Code (Article 500), which is broken down into Class, Division, Group, and Zone based on their explosive concentration probabilities. When choosing a heat tracing cable solution for wastewater applications in Europe, ensure it is certified to ATEX, IECEx, CENELEC, EU or other regional hazardous location standards for both metal and non-metal pipes, tanks, and vessels.
Natural resources are aspects of the natural environment from which goods and services can be obtained and produced. They include air, sunlight, water, land, vegetation, animal life and geological resources. People can also value natural resources for their own sake or for their aesthetic qualities. Humans must manage natural resources to sustain the benefits they offer. Canada is among the most resource-rich countries in the world. Its large and varied natural resources are essential to its economies and cultures. But there are ongoing debates about how to use, share and manage natural resources. Click here for definitions of key terms used in this article. This is the full-length entry about natural resources in Canada. For a plain-language summary, please see Natural Resources in Canada (Plain-Language Summary). Types of Natural Resources When a resource takes longer than a human lifetime to renew (or doesn’t renew at all once used up) it is called “non-renewable.” One example is minerals, which can take millions of years to form. Additionally, once minerals are removed from the Earth and changed by industrial processes, they can’t be re-used. This is called “consumptive” use. Soil is also non-renewable: a thin layer of soil can take hundreds of years to form. When managed well, soil can sustain the production of biomass — plant materials and animal waste with energy potential — for long periods (see Biomass Energy). Because it is very expensive to extract non-renewable resources, people tend only to use them when the benefits outweigh the costs. For example, the benefits of oil (fuelling cars, heating homes and building materials) have long driven oil exploration and production in Canada. Did you know? Governments can encourage or discourage the use of resources by influencing their cost. For example, in 2019, the federal government launched a national carbon pricing plan. It aimed to reduce Canadians’ use of fossil fuels by making products like gasoline more expensive. The ultimate goal was to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. Using non-renewable resources involves long processes to locate, extract and sell products. Many geological and geophysical surveys may be needed to gather enough information about a resource. Companies also need suitable technology to produce and process the resource in marketable form. They must typically also perform an environmental impact assessment to decide whether benefits outweigh costs and negative impacts. In recent years, many non-renewable resource projects have been controversial. Many Canadians are concerned about environmental damage, climate change, health and social hazards, and low financial returns to society (see Social Impact Assessment). Certain natural resource projects (e.g., the expansion of the Trans Mountain Pipeline that runs from Alberta to British Columbia) have produced tensions and legal battles between the Government of Canada and some Indigenous peoples, municipalities and environmental groups. Controversies also surround Canadian activities abroad. For example, gold mining in Guatemala by Canadian companies has led to violence and unrest for local and Indigenous people. See also: Petroleum Industries. Renewable resources are those that regenerate in months, years and decades or occur repeatedly (e.g., solar and wind energy). Water, plants and animals are generally considered renewable resources. But the renewability of some of these resources can be lost through changes in habitat (e.g., due to pollution or poor harvesting techniques). Additionally, plant and animal species can be harvested or hunted to the point of extinction. Most renewable energy resources rely on atmospheric processes. Because temperature, wind, precipitation and cloud cover vary, energy resources do not always renew to their full potential. For example, solar energy (from the sun’s radiation) is renewable because the sun rises and sets daily in most places on Earth. But direct solar radiation is available only intermittently between night and day, clouds and clear sky. There is a similar challenge to harvesting wind energy, as wind blows only intermittently. The great advantage of renewable resources is that they can yield continual benefits: - aesthetic qualities and ecosystem services (e.g., fresh forest air and water purification); - economic benefits (e.g., supplying the timber trade); - recreational activities (e.g., camping); - medicinal benefits (e.g., the production of spruce balm and Labrador tea among some Dene people); - socio-cultural practices (e.g., the role of hunting, trapping and gathering in Indigenous food systems). See also: Forest Harvesting; Biomass Energy; Geothermal Energy; Hydroelectricity; Ocean Wave Energy; Tidal Energy; Use of Plants among Indigenous Peoples in Canada; Indigenous Peoples’ Medicine in Canada. Human Relationship to Natural Resources Humans have many uses for natural resources, including the production of commodities (e.g., fuel, timber and metals). Our use of natural resources can speed up changes in the environment, but we can also adapt our activities to address environmental changes. Our decisions can cause natural resources to change, increase and decrease over time (see also Biogeography). For example, the decision to protect a forest with a national park removes that forest from the supply of available timber while maintaining the forest for other uses. The economies of some human societies depend very heavily on non-renewable natural resources, while others (e.g., subsistence economies) are more focused on renewable resources. Our use of a resource depends on what we know about its potential (i.e., how we could use it) and its availability (how much of it exists and how accessible it is). Some resources, such as farmland, are privately owned by individuals or companies. Others, such as forests, minerals and water, are owned by governments, who grant licences and permits for their use. “Common property resources” are those shared by many and not owned at all (e.g., fish, wildlife and atmospheric elements). Some people think that common property resources will quickly degrade or deplete as each user tries to benefit as much as possible from them. But others, including many Indigenous peoples, argue that common property resources are sustainable as long as everyone responsibly looks after them. Relationships to natural resources often differ between political, religious, geographical and cultural groups. This can lead to conflicts. In Canada, as in many other countries, debates between economic and environmental concerns have led to protests, political movements and legal cases. For example, coal mining may create job opportunities, but the emissions from burning coal have been linked to climate change and health problems. Such debates also emerge when Indigenous peoples claim rights to natural resources and title to land that corporations, governments or individuals want to use, too (see Indigenous Territory). Management of Renewable Resources To remain sustainable, renewable resources must be managed. This process requires knowledge of life cycles, controlled harvesting, responsible use and habitat protection. For example, scientists must research the size, life cycle and movement of fish in the ocean. Because fish are mobile and regarded as common property, catch limits and conservation measures help the stock restore itself. Poor management can make a renewable resource non-renewable or create the need for rehabilitation. For example, in British Columbia, First Nations people and the fishing industry depend on salmon. But salmon are currently endangered in the province because of overfishing and other environmental factors. Scientists, activists and resource users are taking measures to restore salmon populations. Controlling the use and management of mobile resources such as fish, wildlife and air is complicated. These resources may cross national and provincial borders or move into grey zones such as oceans. Additionally, conflicts result from differences in management and conservation practices based on whether people view a resource’s status as safe or endangered. Resource Management Practices in Canada Resource management is the act of caring for a resource effectively. It consists of the philosophies, sciences, laws and regulations by which people and the natural environment interact. While many different resource management practices exist, all recognize the responsibility of human beings to maintain natural resources. Natural resource management generally refers to a continually changing process rather than a fixed system. It often involves many parties and is tied to constantly changing factors like laws and environmental conditions. Adaptive strategies are therefore an important part of management. Under the Canadian Constitution, provinces and territories are mostly responsible for natural resource management (see Natural Resource Transfer Acts 1930). While each jurisdiction has slightly different laws, many common principles of resource management apply, including: - conservation through parks and protected areas; - provincial hunting and trapping programs; - banning the sale of wildlife species. Indigenous Resource Management Practices Principles of use, equal access, preservation and sustainability have existed in Indigenous societies from time immemorial. Indigenous peoples’ stewardship practices are numerous and diverse, reflecting the particular resources of a given landscape as well as the culture on that landscape (see Indigenous Cultural Landscape). For example, the Anishinaabeg in Manitoba have practised sustainable resource management for thousands of years. From generation to generation, they have passed down principles orally or through practical training. The Anishinaabeg continue to maintain them today, but many of these principles are now written down in land-use plans and laws. They’re also used in combination with technologies such as satellite imaging, drones and scientific evidence. (See also Pimachiowin Aki.) Indigenous peoples’ sustainable practices have influenced resource management in Canada. In some places, Indigenous communities work with governments to maintain the health and productivity of natural resources. This is because many Indigenous communities continue to rely on their local ecosystems for hunting, trapping, fishing, gathering and craft-making. In British Columbia, for example, the Lheidli T’enneh, a Dakelh First Nation, co-manage the Ancient Forest/Chun T’oh Whudujut Park and Protected Area with university researchers and BC Parks scientists. Some communities also partner with industry to make a living off natural resources. For example, four Cree First Nations in northern Manitoba have partnered with Manitoba Hydro on electricity-generating dams on the lower Nelson River. The Keeyask Generating Station project uses Cree traditional knowledge to minimize its impact on lake sturgeon and other species. Canada is among the most resource-rich countries in the world. This is a major national advantage economically and culturally. But Canadians face several challenges if they are to continue to benefit from their large and varied resource base. The most accessible and highest-quality resources have been heavily used. The best agricultural lands have been cultivated for many decades. The most accessible oil fields have passed their peak output. Consequently, maintaining the productivity of the land and finding new supplies of oil have become priorities. Maintaining the productivity of renewable resources requires sustainable management practices focused on regeneration. A positive example of this is Canada’s forest harvesting industry, which now operates sustainably. Forest stocks that were depleted in the first half of the 20th century have been restored. Maintaining non-renewable resources requires ongoing exploration and new technologies to increase the efficiency of resource extraction and use. New technologies can also enable work in relatively inaccessible, often sensitive environments. Another challenge is the strain that population growth and many potential uses put on resources, particularly near urban centres. For example, an area of forest may have logging or mining potential, or it may be suitable for a park or wildlife preserve. An area of farmland near an urban centre could be developed for an airport or housing. In many areas, natural resources are located on Indigenous traditional territory, obliging resource users to respect Indigenous rights. In British Columbia in particular, where most of the province is under land claims, conflicts over natural resources continue. Canada’s economic growth relies on foreign investment and access to export markets for its resources. To contribute substantially to the economy, Canadian resources must be competitive on the world market in terms of price, quality and reliability of supply. Some aspects of export marketing, such as transportation, must therefore be highly efficient. Transportation of oil and gas has been a challenge in recent years, with opposition to new pipelines and tanker traffic from various communities and political parties. Natural resources are central to debates about climate change action and reconciliation with Indigenous peoples. The contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming has led to political division over oil sands development, pipelines and renewable energy projects. Political and legal issues also surround the duty to consult Indigenous communities on resource extraction in their traditional territories, the concept of “free, prior and informed consent” and the division of profits from such activities.
The steam turbine is a turbine in which the potential energy of heated and compressed steam produced in a special device, a steam generator, or steam of natural origin (for example, from geothermal springs) is converted into kinetic energy (when the steam expands in the turbine blade cascades) and then into mechanical work on the rotating shaft. The rows of rotating blades fixed on the steam turbine rotor change the total steam enthalpy and positive work is done. In the gas turbine (see Gas Turbine) the pressure ratio πT (that is the ratio of the working fluid pressure at the turbine inlet to the pressure at the turbine outlet) is not very large (usually not higher than 20-30) but the initial temperature of the gas (combustion products) may be as high as 1700-1800 K. In contrast, the steam turbine is characterized by larger pressure ratios πT ≈ 2000-6000 (due to higher initial values (ph) and low final values (pt) of the steam pressure) and considerably lower initial steam temperature (Th ≈ 810-880 K). Therefore, the enthalpy drop in the steam turbine is 2-3 times higher than that in the gas turbine, and the number of stages in the steam turbine is many times larger than that in the gas turbine. There are several types of steam turbines shown schematically in Figure 1. In a condensing turbine (Figure 1a) the steam is expanded down to the deep vacuum (pt ≈ 4-3 kPa) reached in the condenser. These turbines are designed with uncontrolled steam bleed used for feed water regenerative heating. The uncontrolled bleed is characterized by unsteady pressure of the extracted steam. The steam is bled through a special manifold in the bottom part of the turbine casing. Figure 1b is a schematic of a turbine with condensation and with one controlled steam bleed for process and domestic heat demands. In these turbines, a portion of steam is bled from intermediate stages to be used by consumers. The remaining portion of the steam passes the subsequent turbine stages and after that passes to the condenser. The bleed pressure is kept steady regardless of the turbine load, a special regulator device being used for this purpose. In the turbine shown in Figure 1c, there are two controlled steam extractions at different pressures. Figure 1d is the schematic of a turbine with two pressures. This turbine uses not only fresh steam from the boiler, but also exhaust steam from hammers, presses, pump, air blower and compressor drives. A backpressure turbine is shown in Figure 1e. There is no condenser in such a turbine unit. The steam at the required pressure is fed from the turbine and used for processes and for domesic needs. Steam turbine design is influenced by the turbine capacity, initial steam parameters (sub- and supercritical), its operation conditions within the power generation system (base-load, peak-load, semi-peak load), final steam moisture content, technological characteristics and other factors. Low capacity turbines (up to 50 mW) are as a rule of one-cylinder type. The disadvantages of high capacity condensing turbines are connected with the limited flow rates of the final stages. To overcome this difficulty, these turbines are constructed with division of the main steam flow (before it enters the final stages) into several parallel flows. Each part of these turbines is designed for the maximum steam flow rate Qm (Figure 2.) These parts are referred to as a high pressure cylinder, an intermediate pressure cylinder and a low pressure cylinder. Steam turbines are used as parts of stationary and transport (marine) steam turbine power units. Besides turbines these power units also include boilers (steam-generators), steam condensers and other devices. Steam turbines constructed for combined operation with gas turbine units are also used as parts of combined steam-gas plants (see Gas Turbines) with applications in both stationary and transport (marine) power units. The real cycle apbb'hta (Figure 4) of the simplest steam turbine unit includes the ap process of increasing pressure of the water in the pump, the pb process of heating water at constant pressure to the boiling temperature, and bb' process of evaporation at constant temperature. The b'h process corresponds to water superheating, the ht process corresponds to the expansion of steam in the turbine. The ta process which is the closing process of the cycle corresponds to heat removal in the condenser. This real cycle of the steam-turbine unit differs from the ideal thermodynamic cycle ap'bb'h't'a because of irreversible losses in the pump, steam pipe, turbine and condenser. These losses are denoted by I, II, III and IV areas (Tx is the temperature of water used for cooling the condensate). The specific work of the real cycle le = lt — lp, where lp = ih — it is the actual turbine work (where ih and it are the steam enthalpy at the beginning and at the end of the expansion process in the turbine); lp = ip — ia is the specific work of the pump in the real cycle (where ip and ia are the enthalpy of water at the corresponding points of the cycle). The ideal cycle thermal efficiency is ηt = (h' — it')/(h' — ia) ; the effective efficiency of the steam-turbine unit is ηe = ηtηTηm , where ηT and ηm are the efficiency of the turbine itself and the efficiency taking into account the mechanical losses in the turbine. When determining the efficiency ηt of a steam turbine it is necessary to take into account the moisture of the steam which is typical for the last stages of steam condensing turbines and for many stages of turbines using saturated and slightly superheated steam (these turbines are used, for instance, at nuclear power stations). When such steam is used the efficiency of the stages decreases. In this case relative losses ζw may be rather large (for example, in the last 3 stages of a turbine of 800 mW capacity and with initial steam pressure 24 MPa ζw = 0.012 to 0.081; still greater losses due to moisture are typical for turbines without intermediate heating). Besides that the first stages of steam turbines are often with partial admission (ε ≈ 0.15), and ventilation losses occur in them (see Turbine). In intermediate stages of heavy-duty steam-turbines using superheated steam, the maximum blading efficiency ηb = 0.905 to 0.903. Reaction ratio at the middle diameter in the high pressure and intermediate pressure cylinders of steam turbines increases with the number of stages from 0.2 to 0.4, and in the low pressure cylinder from 0.3 to 0.7. A variety of techniques are used for increasing the efficiency of steam-turbine units. One of the methods is increasing initial parameters of the steam. For example, when pressure ph is increased, the saturation temperature increases. The result is an increase of the average temperature at which heat is supplied; thus the thermal efficiency ηt of the ideal cycle increases too. However, in practice an increase of pressure to the value more than 9-10 MPa does not result in the increase of the theoretical work and does not significantly affect the unit efficiency. Also, steam moisture content at the end of the expansion process increases with the increase of pressure and results in greater losses in the course of the steam expansion and also in the turbine blade erosion. Therefore, the general tendency is to limit the moisture content to 13-15 per cent. Simultaneous increase of the values of ph and Th may considerably increase the steam-turbine unit efficiency. For this purpose many present-day steam-turbine units have intermediate (repeated) superheating of the steam after expansion in the first group of stages. In this case the theoretical work of the turbine, the cycle work and thus the cycle effiency increase, the moisture of the steam at the end of the expansion process decreases, and the amount of heat transfered in the condenser increases. The temperature of superheating as well as the initial temperature is limited by the thermal characteristics of the flow passage metal parts. A decrease of the steam pressure pt in the condenser causes a decrease of the steam condensation temperature and consequently increases the temperature difference in the cycle. The efficiency of steam-turbine units increases when regenerative extraction of steam from the turbine is used. Regenerative extraction is uncontrolled bleed of the steam from the stages with the aim of increasing the feed water temperature in the unit. In this cycle the feed water is heated by the heat released in the process of the steam cooling and condensation. Condensing steam turbines have an efficiency in the range ηe = 36 to 42%. From this it follows that only a small portion of heat released in the process of fuel combustion is transformed into effective work. Turbine units for power and steam generation have higher overall efficiency. In these units the heat from the fuel is used for power generation and for obtaining heat at some prescribed temperature level. .The theoretical work of the unit with the steam turbine for power and heat generation is less than that of the steam turbine unit with condensing steam turbine. The useful work of the cycle of the steam turbine unit for power and heat generation is also lower than that of the condensing turbine. However, the steam turbine unit for combined power and heat generation makes effective use of the heat of condensation and therefore its overall efficiency is higher than that of a condensing steam turbine unit. Horlock, J. H. (1966) Axial Flow Turbines, Butterworths, London. Kearton, W. J. (1951) Steam Turbine Theory and Practice, 6th edn., Pitman. Kostyuk, A. and Frolov, V. (1988) Steam and Gas Turbines, Moscow, Mir. - Horlock, J. H. (1966) Axial Flow Turbines, Butterworths, London. - Kearton, W. J. (1951) Steam Turbine Theory and Practice, 6th edn., Pitman. - Kostyuk, A. and Frolov, V. (1988) Steam and Gas Turbines, Moscow, Mir.
Babies and Toddlers: Discipline Discipline provides a way to teach children acceptable behavior and guide their development. While every child is different, most will benefit from some level of discipline as a way to learn good behavior. Discipline for babies and toddlers needs to be age-appropriate, and have clear rules and consistency. Parents should strive to create a safe environment for their children and reward good behavior. There are several strategies for disciplining babies and toddlers. For example, a time-out may be used to remove a child from an emotional situation. This controlled period allows the child time to calm down and think about his or her actions. To promote healthy behaviors and lifestyles, parents should also follow guidelines for setting good television-viewing habits. Parents must remember that each child is unique. Consult the child's health care provider if there are concerns with behavior or discipline.
The focal length is a measure of how a lens converges light. It can be used to know the magnification factor of the lens and given the size of the sensor, calculate the angle of view. A standard reference used for comparisons is the 35 mm format, which is a sensor of size 36×24 mm. A standard wide angle lens would have around 28 to 35 millimeters based on the 35 mm format. The smaller the number, the wider the lens is.Close The focal length is a measure of how a lens converges light. It can be used to know the magnification factor of the lens and given the size of the sensor, calculate the angle of view. The native focal length of the sensor cannot be used for comparisons between different cameras unless they have the same size. Therefore, the focal length in 35 mm terms is a better reference. For the same sensor, the smaller the number, the wider the lens is.Close Indicates the type of image stabilization this lens has: The horizontal field of view in degrees this lens is able to capture, when using the maximum resolution of the sensor (that is, matching the sensor aspect ratio, and not using sensor cropping).Close The vertical field of view in degrees this lens is able to capture, when using the maximum resolution of the sensor (that is, matching the sensor aspect ratio, and not using sensor cropping).Close Shows the magnification factor of this lens compared to the primary lens of the device (calculated by dividing the focal length of the current lens by the focal length of the primary lens). A magnification factor of 1 is shown for the primary camera, ultra-wide cameras have magnification factors less than 1, and telephoto cameras have magnification factors greater than 1.Close Physical size of the sensor behind the lens in millimeters. All other factors being equal (specially resolution), the larger the sensor the more light it can capture, as each physical pixel is bigger.Close The size (side) of an individual physical pixel of the sensor in micrometers. All other factors being equal, the larger the pixel size, the better the image quality is. In this case, each photoreceptor can capture more light and potencially can better differential the signal from the noise, yielding better image quality, specially in low-light.Close The maximum picture resolution this sensor outputs images in JPEG format. Sometimes, if the sensor can also provide images in RAW (DNG) format, they can be slightly larger because of an additional area used for calibration purposes (among others). Unfortunately, firmware restrictions for third-party apps also mean that the maximum picture resolution exposed to third-party apps might be considerably lower than the actual resolution of the sensor, therefore the resolution shown here is the maximum resolution third-party apps can access from this sensor.Close The available output picture formats this camera is able to deliver: The focusing capabilities of this camera: It displays whether this lens can be set to focus at infinity or not. Even if the camera supports autofocus and manual focus, it might happen that the focus range the lens is able to adjust to does not include the infinity position. This property is important for astrophotography, as in such low-light scenarios the automatic focus does not work reliably.Close The distance from which objects that are further away from the camera always appear in focus. Therefore, if the camera is set to focus at infinity, any object further away from this distance will appear in focus.Close The range of supported manual exposure in seconds (minimum or shortest to maximum or longest). This camera might support exposures outside this range, but only in automatic mode and not in manual exposure mode. Also, note that this range is the one third-party apps have access to, as often the first-party app preinstalled on the phone by the manufacturer might have privileged access to the hardware and offer longer or shorter exposures times.Close The range of supported manual sensitivity (ISO). This camera might support ISO sensitivities outside this range in automatic mode. Also, note that this range is the one third-party apps have access to, as often the first-party app preinstalled on the phone by the manufacturer might have privileged access to the hardware and offer an extended manual sensitivity range.Close The maximum ISO sensitivity possible in manual mode is usually reached by using digital amplification of the signal from the maximum supported analog sensitivity. This information, if available, will let you know what is the maximum analog sensitivity of the sensor.Close The data on this database is provided "as is", and FGAE assumes no responsibility for errors or omissions. The User assumes the entire risk associated with its use of these data. FGAE shall not be held liable for any use or misuse of the data described and/or contained herein. The User bears all responsibility in determining whether these data are fit for the User's intended use.
Drug dependence, or physical dependence, refers to when a person requires one or more drugs in order to function. Abruptly stopping the substance may cause physical symptoms of withdrawal. Although this can refer to dependence on medications that control health conditions, it can also be a symptom of addiction, which is different from physical dependence. The American Psychiatric Association (APA) used to distinguish between physical dependence and substance abuse. However, with the release of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5), the APA consolidated both terms with However, the SUD community is trying to make a clear distinction between SUD and physical dependence to avoid confusion, mislabeling, and stigma. This article will discuss what physical dependence is, as well as its causes, symptoms, and treatments. It will also cover when a person should seek help. Physical dependence refers to the reliance on a substance to help a person get through the day. People may also refer to it as withdrawal syndrome, However, physical dependence does not equal addiction. People can experience physical dependence on prescription opioids, antidepressants, anti-epileptics, or benzodiazepines without having an addiction to them. However, physical dependence — alongside other symptoms — may meet the criteria for SUD, according to DSM-5. By using this definition, the APA hope to prevent stigmatization associated with terms such as dependence, abuse, and addiction. SUD is a complex condition wherein a person uncontrollably uses a substance despite this having harmful consequences. Repeated use of these substances may result in changes in how the brain functions. This may result in withdrawal symptoms. Additionally, people may build up a tolerance to the substance, meaning that they require more of the drug to feel its effects. Addiction is interchangeable with the term SUD, and physical dependence falls under the SUD umbrella. Although some people may use the terms interchangeably, physical dependence Dependence refers to the physical symptoms of withdrawal and tolerance, while SUD refers to long-term behavioral, social, and physical changes. It is possible for a person to experience dependence without SUD. This can often occur when the person requires long-term pain medications for chronic pain. These individuals may become dependent on pain medications to function, but they may not have an addiction to pain medication. Repeated exposure to a substance alters a person’s brain structure and brain chemicals to accommodate a drug. This results in alterations in homeostasis. This is the state that the body maintains for optimal functioning. Abruptly stopping this substance disrupts homeostasis, and the body must adapt to not having the drug in the body. This may result in withdrawal symptoms. According to the DSM-5, the characteristic symptom of physical dependence is withdrawal. Although not all people will experience the same symptoms of withdrawal, some of the more common symptoms may include: - aching muscles - muscle spasms - anxiety or agitation - increased heart rate - difficulty concentrating - detachment from reality - nausea and vomiting - hallucinations or delusions People may be able to divide the symptoms of physical dependence into either acute withdrawal syndrome or post-acute withdrawal syndrome (PAWS). Acute withdrawal syndrome usually lasts for a relatively short period of time, while PAWS is a low level continuation of some symptoms that can last for years or even indefinitely. Drugs typically associated with the development of strong physical dependence may include the following. Opioids, such as codeine, are drugs that a doctor may prescribe to treat pain. Although these are effective for pain relief, they have a high risk of causing physical dependence if a person uses them for longer than prescribed. Antidepressants are a class of drug that may help reduce anxiety, low mood, and suicidal thoughts. Although doctors do not generally consider antidepressants to be addictive, they note that some individuals may develop physical dependence on them. If the person abruptly stops the antidepressant they are taking, it could cause withdrawal symptoms. Benzodiazepines are a group of drugs called nervous system depressants. People may take these to treat anxiety or sleeping issues. Like opioids, experts tend to consider them relatively safe when a person takes them as needed, sparingly, and for short periods of time. When taking them chronically or over long periods of time, however, physical dependence may develop. This dependence may lead to a difficult withdrawal if the person chooses to stop taking the drugs. Barbiturates are a group of drugs that have calming effects on the body. Given that barbiturates work in the body in a very similar way to benzodiazepines, the risk of physical dependence is still present. Some research suggests that barbiturate use has a high potential for physical dependence. Although it is much rarer, some people may experience physical dependence, without meeting the criteria for addiction, to certain illicit drugs. These include cocaine, methamphetamine, and ketamine. Physical dependence does not necessarily require treatment. For example, if a person needs to take opioids long term, doctors will not recommend treatment for opioid dependence. In fact, most people can manage their physical dependence in an outpatient setting with a simple, slow taper of that substance rather than stopping it abruptly. When someone has SUD, however, they can receive treatment. Depending on the substance, the individual may require detoxification as the first step in their treatment plan. Receiving treatment for SUD may include taking medications to curb substance cravings and decrease withdrawal symptoms. However, it can also include other aspects, such as undergoing psychosocial therapy. In extreme cases of withdrawal, intoxication, or overdose, a person may also require emergency care before they receive treatment for SUD. A person should contact a doctor if they believe that they have a physical dependence on their medication or think that they might be developing one. People with SUD should also contact a doctor. They have the same right to treatment and care as a person with any other health condition. Doctors will work with people to find a treatment that works for them that reduces their chances of relapsing, in the case of SUD. Doctors may also refer people to rehabilitation centers. These centers, which are often in-patient facilities, specialize in treating SUD. However, they may not help with physical dependence. Physical dependence is a medical condition that is separate from addiction. When abruptly stopping a substance, a person may experience adverse symptoms of withdrawal, such as confusion, hallucinations, and seizures. People do not necessarily need to seek treatment for physical dependence. In most cases, people can manage their physical dependence by slowing tapering the drug instead of stopping it abruptly.
The need to keep climate change within safe thresholds will require rapid emission reductions, and widespread deployment of low-carbon technologies to help achieve them. Yet many low-carbon energy sources require considerable amounts of water – and given competing demands, resource depletion and projected climate impacts, sufficient water may not be available to meet all needs. The authors start by describing how water is used in electricity generation in particular, looking at both conventional sources and renewables. Then they outline the findings of a case study in California, focusing on the water and emissions implications of the state’s renewable energy portfolio standard (RPS). The case study shows that under business as usual (BAU), greenhouse gas emissions, water withdrawals and water consumption all increase. Under the RPS, which would boost the share of renewable electricity from 25 to 34 per cent by 2020, emissions and water withdrawals drop, but water consumption (the water that is not reused or returned to the source) increases. Adjustments to California’s RPS could significantly reduce water demand, however: A scenario the authors call RPS+Technology, using more photovoltaics and less solar thermal power, and incrementally switching once-through to wet-recirculating and dry-cooling systems, reduces both water withdrawals and consumption. This would also somewhat reduce plant efficiency, however. The policy brief ends with a list of potential strategies for reducing water demand for electricity generation, in the context of renewables and beyond. Download the policy brief (PDF, 533kb) Note: This document was corrected on 4 May. Earlier versions contained errors in Figure 1 and Figure 4.
I have developed a format where services can move from linking to the EYLF to embedding it into their documentation. The reason behind this is I find that when linking educators do not learn the Learning Outcomes, Practices and Principles. They learn to match key words with the same outcome every time, or cut and paste excerpts into observations. However when we start to look at the learning outcomes there are some complex ideas in there that need to be understood. So I thought I would do a series of posts on the Learning Outcomes to help explain some of these concepts. Hopefully they are helpful, and I developed a helpful PDF glossary version. More details below. Children feel safe, secure, and supported This can be seen in different ways through the different developmental stages of childhood. A lot of this outcome has to do with the role of the educator. If the environment is not safe, secure and supportive the children cannot engage in activities because they will be anxious and uncertain. - Safe: This means children are not feeling any sort of threat while in care. This can be from the environment, the other children, or the staff. It is the role of the educator to ensure the children have a safe environment and are protected while in care. Educators can make children feel safe by ensuring their environment is protective. - Secure: Security can be represented by children feeling comfortable in their environment, able to experiment with new activities, and especially through children being able to transition in and out of care comfortably. This requires a primary attachment to be formed between the child and at least one educator, to allow them to feel secure. - Supported: Once a child is feeling secure, and has developed a strong attachment, they will feel supported through that relationship to attempt new tasks. Whether it be playing with new toys, engaging in social activities, engaging with other educators. Educators can support children by challenging them, role modelling for them, or simply engaging with them. Children develop their emerging autonomy, inter-dependence, resilience and sense of agency This outcome relates to the ability of children, once they feel safe secure and supported, to challenge themselves and their skills in an environment where they now feel comfortable. By challenging their skills and abilities children start to become more dependent and less reliant on adults or older peers. It is up to the educator to recognise this need in children and support them by allowing opportunities for them to develop these skills. - Autonomy: This relates to a child’s willingness to have control over their own world. As a child develops physically, cognitively and emotionally they are more capable of being autonomous. This could be an infant starting to gesture what they want, or becoming mobile; a toddler starting to feed itself or begin to show signs of readiness for toilet training; a preschooler starting to want to dress themselves or have some control over the routine such as sleep times. - Inter-dependence: This is a collaborative effort between children and adults, or peers. It is a recognition that children have specific goals and need help to achieve them. This could be bringing an adult to a puzzle table before starting the puzzle, reaching for a hand when about to attempt a balance beam, or an infant using the skills of an adult to recognise their gestures and get them a specific toy/activity for them. - Resilience: This is where children start to try new things, and as with anything new we try, they do not succeed at first but they do not give up. If you think of an infant starting to walk, they pull themselves up, hold onto items, wobble, fall, but they get back up. If children weren’t developed for resilience none of us would be walking. It is up to the educators to support resilience in children by providing challenges that are not too difficult and providing support and guidance to allow them to succeed. - Sense of Agency: Children with a sense of agency are those who seek control over their environment and their movements within this environment. This is something that educators can support children with by providing them opportunities to present that control. Whether it be dressing themselves, choosing activities, setting up environments, mealtimes, there are many opportunities in a day that children can have control over. Children develop knowledgeable and confident self identities These outcomes go in order, so once children have developed some control over themselves and their environment in routine tasks, they start to feel more confident in their own abilities. Educators need to be there to support children through this by providing information and support, whether it be labeling items for infants. They may also provide environments that allow for space and time where children can repeat tasks until they feel confident and capable. - Knowledgeable and confident self identities: This is where children have developed an understanding of their interests, skills and abilities. They have developed an understanding of how their world works through gaining more control in this. We often see children repeat tasks again and again. Through doing this they are cementing their knowledge and gaining confidence in their abilities. Children learn to interact in relation to others with care, empathy and respect Once children have confidence in themselves and their abilities, they start to look outwards to others. It then makes sense that this would be the next stage in the outcome. This stage needs a lot of support from educators who role model and guide children through these interactions. - Care: This is visible when children see another child upset and get them a tissue, or hold their hand. Perhaps they might get an educator to help with a hurt child. They recognise the need for care in a situation. - Empathy: This is where children not only recognise someone is feeling a certain way, but can relate to it. This can be taught by asking simple questions like “would you like it if they took your truck?” to help children acknowledge the feelings in others. - Respect: This is where children treat others in a way that protects them, and their feelings. They move from bringing a child a tissue when they are sad, to acknowledging a child would be sad if they took their truck, to not taking the truck and respecting that they are playing with it at the moment. Hopefully this has been helpful and don’t forget if you would like a copy of these please go to my website and they are on the shop page. The others will be uploaded as the blog posts come out. Don’t forget I can also provide training for you on any area you need, or I can help you move from linking to embedding the EYLF with my complete package. Get in touch if you would like to know more. If you would like to subscribe to my monthly newsletter for tips, ideas and upcoming events subscribe here http://eepurl.com/b7KQHT
Before he was 16, George Washington thought about the rules effective citizens and leaders use for their own conduct Sometime before he was 16, George Washington thought about and wrote down "Rules of Civility & Decent Behaviour In Company and Conversation". They include: - Every Action done in Company, ought to be with Some Sign of Respect, to those that are Present. - Sleep not when others Speak, Sit not when others stand, Speak not when you Should hold your Peace, walk not on when others Stop. - Think before you Speak pronounce not imperfectly nor bring out your Words too hastily but orderly & distinctly. Some of the "rules" are about simple manners, while others involve life skills including communications, persuasion, critical thinking and leadership. Did Washington remember those rules when he became the first President of the United States? Many scholars say yes. What do you think? Learning opportunityIncorporate the Rules of Civility into your classroom or dinner table discussion - Review George Washington's 110 Rules of Civility - do they still apply today? Why or why not? - Write your own Rules of Civility. What's most important to you, and why? - How important are rules of civility today? Is it old-fashioned, or relevant? - How do politics and civility go together? Should a political campaign follow rules of civility? Does that give them an advantage, or disadvantage? How would you advise a candidate or official to adopt (or ignore) rules of civility? - Think about candidates and people already in elected office. Do their actions follow George Washington's Rules of Civility? Your rules? Why or why not? Do they make up their own? - Does media and technology make it easier or harder to follow rules of civility? Why? - Tell us YOUR #1 Rule of Civility, and name an elected official or candidate who exhibits that quality, and why. With a #k12in2012 tag, post it on Facebook, tell us on Twitter or make and upload a YouTube video Learn moreLibrary of Congress George Washington's 110 Rules of Civility Do you follow the rules? Lessons in Leadership
For the first time, a spacecraft orbiting Mars has detected glass deposits inside craters on the red planet — a possible boon in the hunt for signs of past Martian life. Researchers think that the glass was created when impactors (meteoroids, asteroids or comets) slammed into Mars, superheating the Martian dirt and turning parts of the surface into glass. Scientists using NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) were able to see glass on the surface of the red planet using the spacecraft's sensors. The new Mars glass study was published this week in the journal Geology. Researchers on Earth have been able to learn about past life on this planet by studying glass deposits left over from impacts, so it's possible that researchers studying Mars can do the same thing with the red planet. A study last year "found organic molecules and plant matter entombed in glass" created by an asteroid impact in Argentina millions of years ago, NASA said. Brown University scientists Kevin Cannon and Jack Mustard decided to try to detect glass on Mars using lessons learned from the Earth-based study — but it's not easy to detect glass on a world millions of miles away. So Cannon started in a lab. He created glass by superheating powders and then measured the spectral signal — the unique band of colors emitted by the glass. Cannon provided that information to Mustard, the deputy principal investigator for MRO's Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars instrument, who used that signal to compare it to other spectra gathered from the red planet. Boom: Mustard found multiple matches. MRO data shows that several craters on Mars house glass deposits that were probably formed during impact events. Much of the glass was found in the central peaks of Martian craters, meaning they were likely created from impacts, according to NASA. “The researchers’ analysis suggests glass deposits are relatively common impact features on Mars,” Jim Green, director of NASA’s planetary science division, said in a statement. “These areas could be targets for future exploration as our robotic scientific explorers pave the way on the journey to Mars with humans in the 2030s.” MRO arrived at Mars in 2006 and has been beaming back information about the red planet ever since.
By the authority vested in me as President by the Constitution and the laws of the United States of America, including section 301 of title 3, United States Code, it is hereby ordered as follows: Section 1. Findings. (a) Influenza viruses are constantly changing as they circulate globally in humans and animals. Relatively minor changes in these viruses cause annual seasonal influenza outbreaks, which result in millions of illnesses, hundreds of thousands of hospitalizations, and tens of thousands of deaths each year in the United States. Periodically, new influenza A viruses emerge from animals, including birds and pigs, that can spread efficiently and have sustained transmission among humans. This situation is called an influenza pandemic (pandemic). Unlike seasonal influenza, a pandemic has the potential to spread rapidly around the globe, infect higher numbers of people, and cause high rates of illness and death in populations that lack prior immunity. While it is not possible to predict when or how frequently a pandemic may occur, there have been 4 pandemics in the last 100 years. The most devastating pandemic occurred in 1918-1919 and is estimated to have killed more than 50 million people worldwide, including 675,000 Americans. (b) Vaccination is the most effective defense against influenza. Despite recommendations by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) that nearly every American should receive the influenza vaccine annually, however, seasonal influenza vaccination levels in the United States have currently reached only about 45 percent of CDC goals. (c) All influenza vaccines presently in use have been developed for circulating or anticipated influenza viruses. These vaccines must be reformulated for each influenza season as well as in the event of a pandemic. Additional research is needed to develop influenza vaccines that provide more effective and longer-lasting protection against many or all influenza viruses. (d) The current domestic enterprise for manufacturing influenza vaccines has critical shortcomings. Most influenza vaccines are made in chicken eggs, using a 70-year-old process that requires months-long production timelines, limiting their utility for pandemic control; rely on a potentially vulnerable supply chain of eggs; require the use of vaccine viruses adapted for growth in eggs, which could introduce mutations of the influenza vaccine virus that may render the final product less effective; and are unsuitable for efficient and scalable continuous manufacturing platforms. (e) The seasonal influenza vaccine market rewards manufacturers that deliver vaccines in time for the influenza season, without consideration of the speed or scale of these manufacturers’ production processes. This approach is insufficient to meet the response needs in the event of a pandemic, which can emerge rapidly and with little warning. Because the market does not sufficiently reward speed, and because a pandemic has the potential to overwhelm or compromise essential government functions, including defense and homeland security, the Government must take action to promote faster and more scalable manufacturing platforms. Sec. 2. Policy. It is the policy of the United States to modernize the domestic influenza vaccine enterprise to be highly responsive, flexible, scalable, and more effective at preventing the spread of influenza viruses. This is a public health and national security priority, as influenza has the potential to significantly harm the United States and our interests, including through large-scale illness and death, disruption to military operations, and damage to the economy. This order directs actions to reduce the United States’ reliance on egg-based influenza vaccine production; to expand domestic capacity of alternative methods that allow more agile and rapid responses to emerging influenza viruses; to advance the development of new, broadly protective vaccine candidates that provide more effective and longer lasting immunities; and to support the promotion of increased influenza vaccine immunization across recommended populations. Sec. 3. National Influenza Vaccine Task Force. (a) There is hereby established a National Influenza Vaccine Task Force (Task Force). The Task Force shall identify actions to achieve the objectives identified in section 2 of this order and monitor and report on the implementation and results of those actions. The Task Force shall be co-chaired by the Secretary of Defense and the Secretary of Health and Human Services, or their designees. (b) In addition to the Co-Chairs, the Task Force shall consist of a senior official from the following executive branch departments, agencies, and offices: (i) the Department of Defense (DOD); (ii) the Department of Justice; (iii) the Department of Agriculture; (iv) the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA); (v) the Department of Homeland Security; (vi) the United States Food and Drug Administration; (vii) the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; (viii) the National Institutes of Health (NIH); (ix) the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS); and (x) the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA). (c) The Co-Chairs may jointly invite additional Federal Government representatives, with the consent of the applicable executive department, agency, or office head, to attend meetings of the Task Force or to become members of the Task Force, as appropriate. (d) The staffs of the Department of State, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), the National Security Council, the Council of Economic Advisers, the Domestic Policy Council, the National Economic Council, and the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) may attend and participate in any Task Force meetings or discussions. (e) The Task Force may consult with State, local, tribal, and territorial government officials and private sector representatives, as appropriate and consistent with applicable law. (f) Within 120 days of the date of this order, the Task Force shall submit a report to the President, through the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, the Assistant to the President for Domestic Policy, the Director of the Office of Management and Budget, and the Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy. The report shall include: (i) a 5-year national plan (Plan) to promote the use of more agile and scalable vaccine manufacturing technologies and to accelerate development of vaccines that protect against many or all influenza viruses; (ii) recommendations for encouraging non-profit, academic, and private-sector influenza vaccine innovation; and (iii) recommendations for increasing influenza vaccination among the populations recommended by the CDC and for improving public understanding of influenza risk and informed influenza vaccine decision-making. (g) Not later than June 1 of each of the 5 years following submission of the report described in subsection (f) of this section, the Task Force shall submit an update on implementation of the Plan and, as appropriate, new recommendations for achieving the policy objectives set forth in section 2 of this order. Sec. 4. Agency Implementation. The heads of executive departments and agencies shall also implement the policy objectives defined in section 2 of this order, consistent with existing authorities and appropriations, as follows: (a) The Secretary of HHS shall: (i) through the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response and BARDA: (A) estimate the cost of expanding and diversifying domestic vaccine-manufacturing capacity to use innovative, faster, and more scalable technologies, including cell-based and recombinant vaccine manufacturing, through cost-sharing agreements with the private sector, which shall include an agreed-upon pricing strategy during a pandemic; (B) estimate the cost of expanding domestic production capacity of adjuvants in order to combine such adjuvants with both seasonal and pandemic influenza vaccines; (C) estimate the cost of expanding domestic fill-and-finish capacity to rapidly fulfill antigen and adjuvant needs for pandemic response; (D) estimate the cost of developing, evaluating, and implementing delivery systems to augment limited supplies of needles and syringes and to enable the rapid and large-scale administration of pandemic influenza vaccines; (E) evaluate incentives for the development and production of vaccines by private manufacturers and public-private partnerships, including, in emergency situations, the transfer of technology to public-private partnerships — such as the HHS Centers for Innovation and Advanced Development and Manufacturing or other domestic manufacturing facilities — in advance of a pandemic, in order to be able to ensure adequate domestic pandemic manufacturing capacity and capability; (F) support, in coordination with the DOD, NIH, and VA, a suite of clinical studies featuring different adjuvants to support development of improved vaccines and further expand vaccine supply by reducing the dose of antigen required; and (G) update, in coordination with other relevant public health agencies, the research agenda to dramatically improve the effectiveness, efficiency, and reliability of influenza vaccine production; (ii) through the Director of NIH, provide to the Task Force estimated timelines for implementing NIH’s strategic plan and research agenda for developing influenza vaccines that can protect individuals over many years against multiple types of influenza viruses; (iii) through the Commissioner of Food and Drugs: (A) further implement vaccine production process improvements to reduce the time required for vaccine production (e.g., through the use of novel technologies for vaccine seed virus development and through implementation of improved potency and sterility assays); (B) develop, in conjunction with the CDC, proposed alternatives for the timing of vaccine virus selection to account for potentially shorter timeframes associated with non egg based manufacturing and to facilitate vaccines optimally matched to the circulating strains; (C) further support the conduct, in collaboration with the DOD, BARDA, and CDC, of applied scientific research regarding developing cell lines and expression systems that markedly increase the yield of cell-based and recombinant influenza vaccine manufacturing processes; and (D) assess, in coordination with BARDA and relevant vaccine manufacturers, the use and potential effects of using advanced manufacturing platforms for influenza vaccines; (iv) through the Director of the CDC: (A) expand vaccine effectiveness studies to more rapidly evaluate the effectiveness of cell based and recombinant influenza vaccines relative to egg-based vaccines; (B) explore options to expand the production capacity of cell-based vaccine candidates used by industry; (C) develop a plan to expand domestic capacity for whole genome characterization of influenza viruses; (D) increase influenza vaccine use through enhanced communication and by removing barriers to vaccination; and (E) enhance communication to healthcare providers about the performance of influenza vaccines, in order to assist them in promoting the most effective vaccines for their patient populations; and (v) through the Administrator of CMS, examine the current legal, regulatory, and policy framework surrounding payment for influenza vaccines and assess adoption of domestically manufactured vaccines that have positive attributes for pandemic response (such as scalability and speed of manufacturing). (b) The Secretary of Defense shall: (i) provide OMB with a cost estimate for transitioning DOD’s annual procurement of influenza vaccines to vaccines manufactured both domestically and through faster, more scalable, and innovative technologies; (ii) direct, in coordination with the VA, CDC, and other components of HHS, the conduct of epidemiological studies of vaccine effectiveness to improve knowledge of the clinical effect of the currently licensed influenza vaccines; (iii) use DOD’s network of clinical research sites to evaluate the effectiveness of licensed influenza vaccines, including methods of boosting their effectiveness; (iv) identify opportunities to use DOD’s vaccine research and development enterprise, in collaboration with HHS, to include both early discovery and design of influenza vaccines as well as later-stage evaluation of candidate influenza vaccines; (v) investigate, in collaboration with HHS, alternative correlates of immune protection that could facilitate development of next-generation influenza vaccines; (vi) direct the conduct of a study to assess the feasibility of using DOD’s advanced manufacturing facility for manufacturing cell-based or recombinant influenza vaccines during a pandemic; and (vii) accelerate, in collaboration with HHS, research regarding rapidly scalable prophylactic influenza antibody approaches to complement a universal vaccine initiative and address gaps in current vaccine coverage. (c) The Secretary of VA shall provide OMB with a cost estimate for transitioning its annual procurement of influenza vaccines to vaccines manufactured both domestically and with faster, more scalable, and innovative technologies. Sec. 5. Termination. The Task Force shall terminate upon direction from the President or, with the approval of the President, upon direction from the Task Force Co-Chairs. Sec. 6. General Provisions. (a) Nothing in this order shall be construed to impair or otherwise affect: (i) the authority granted by law to an executive department or agency, or the head thereof; or (ii) the functions of the Director of the Office of Management and Budget relating to budgetary, administrative, or legislative proposals. (b) This order shall be implemented consistent with applicable law and subject to the availability of appropriations. (c) This order is not intended to, and does not, create any right or benefit, substantive or procedural, enforceable at law or in equity by any party against the United States, its departments, agencies, or entities, its officers, employees, or agents, or any other person. DONALD J. TRUMP THE WHITE HOUSE, September 19, 2019.
Most of the nutrients we consume are broken down and absorbed in the small intestine, fermented by gut bacteria in the colon or passed through undigested. In a healthy person, the gut wall is selectively permeable, only allowing some luminal content such as properly broken down nutrients to pass into the bloodstream. A “leaky gut” or increased intestinal permeability indicates that the intestinal lining has become hyperpermeable and allows unwanted substances to pass into the body. While the existence of a leaky gut syndrome long was debated among doctors and scientists, studies published in the last couple of years have made it clear that increased intestinal permeability not only is a real condition, but an important underlying cause of inflammation and disease. The intestinal epithelium is the epithelium that covers the small and large intestine, and this lining serves as an interface between the human body and the external environment. The epithelial cells in the small intestine are joined together by tight junctions, and when we talk about a leaky gut, it’s primarily these intestinal junctions that have become hyperpermable (1). Leaky gut causes low-level chronic inflammation When the intestinal barrier is compromised, luminal content such as protein antigens and endotoxins (toxins released by bacteria) are allowed to pass into the bloodstream (2,3). The primary toxin associated with increased intestinal permeability is a large molecule found in the outer membrane of gram negative bacteria, called Lipopolysaccharide. When LPS binds to the cells lining the gut, there’s an increased synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines (4,5). The gut immune system has 70-80% of the body’s immune cells (6). When we consider the gut as the primary immune organ, it’s no surprise that gut dysbiosis and leaky gut have been linked to inflammation and disease. Alterations in the gut microbiota usually go hand in hand with leaky gut since one of the primary jobs of the bacteria in the gut is to regulate intestinal barrier function. Inflammation linked to chronic health disorders Studies suggest that low-level inflammation drives most of the chronic health disorders we see in the world today, such as cancer and cardiovascular disease (7,8). Since “leaky gut” only recently has been accepted by the medical community as a real conditions, it’s to early to tell which role gut-derived inflammation plays in the development of a lot of chronic health problems. However, increased intestinal permeability has already been associated with disorders such as obesity, autoimmune disease, and irritable bowel syndrome (9,10,11). Since low-level chronic inflammation is linked to most chronic health disorders, symptoms of a “leaky gut” could be everything from acne to heart disease. Sometimes, increased intestinal permeability causes no immediate symptoms, but the long-term low-grade inflammation could initiate disease. When the gut lining has become hyperpermeable, gut dysbiosis or dysfunctional gut flora is usually involved. For that reason, moderate-severe cases of leaky gut often involve constipation, flatulence, food intolerance, bloating, and/or other digestive problems. Because so many aspects of the modern lifestyle, such as widespread use of antibiotics, western diets, caesarean sections, are linked to gut dysbiosis and leaky gut, I believe that increased intestinal permeability is a major cause of chronic disease in the world today.
Carbon dioxide, CO2, is listed as one of the greenhouse gases associated with global climate change concerns. The production of cement is one process that results in large amounts of CO2 being released into the atmosphere. Your challenge is to mix different kinds of cement and determine not only how much CO2 you can keep from entering Earth’s atmosphere, but also how much CO2 can be absorbed once the cement has been poured. What is cement?Cement is one of the primary ingredients in concrete, acting as the "glue" that holds the concrete together. Cement is a mix of very finely ground minerals, usually limestone, sand, gypsum, clay and other minerals. The most common type of cement is known as "Portland cement". What materials are used to make cement?Cement is typically made by mixing water, sand and gravel with limestone and calcium carbonate. Different grades of cement are made with different materials, but this is the basic formula. To make the cement, the raw materials are blended in the correct proportions and ground into a fine powder. The powder is then heated in a kiln, where the intense heat converts it into "clinker," small pellets of calcium silicates, the primary ingredient in cement. The clinker is ground into a very fine powder that is the finished product known as Portland cement. What is the difference between normal cement and Eco-friendly cementThe primary difference between normal cement and eco-friendly cement is that eco-friendly cement does not use limestone, a primary ingredient of normal cement. The heating of limestone is responsible for 60% of the carbon dioxide emissions resulting from the production of normal cement. The rest of the emissions come from using fossil fuels to heat the kiln. Eco-friendly cement uses magnesium silicates instead of limestone, which means that the raw materials processing step produces no carbon dioxide. In addition, the magnesium silicates don't require extremely high temperatures, so biofuels can be used to heat the kiln. What is the advantage of Eco-friendly cement?Normal cement, used in the construction of most buildings, is harmful for the environment, as its production releases large amounts of carbon dioxide gas into the atmosphere. In fact, tests show that cement making accounts for about 5% of worldwide man-made CO2 emissions. Eco-friendly cement is carbon negative, meaning that after complete production, the cement will remove more carbon from the atmosphere than the amount that is used to produce it. Not only does the production process use very little carbon dioxide, but after it is installed, the cement draws CO2 out of the atmosphere air as it hardens over time. In addition, the magnesium silicates that eco-friendly cements use don't have to be heated to extremely high temperatures, so biofuels can be used to heat the kiln instead of fossil fuels. You need to log in to access this simulation.
There are 26 letters in the Portuguese Alphabet just as there are in the American alphabet. The letters K, W and Y used to be considered foreign letters, but after the last orthographic reform in 2009, they were incorporated into the regular Portuguese alphabet. Those letters will continue to be used in measurement symbols as km for quilômetro (kilometer), km for quilograma (Kilo), and W for watt; in foreign words and proper names: show, playboy, playground, windsurf, kun fu, yin, yang, kafkiano, Kafka, Katia, Kilma, William, Wallace, Yara. Here is the new Portuguese alphabet and the names of the letters: Let’s look at some examples of words starting with each letter of the alphabet in Portuguese and compare the sound of each letter to the closest sound found in words in English. The position of the letters in the English word may vary, and the words in English may not necessarily have the same meaning as the words in Portuguese. What we’re trying to do here is to find matching sounds or close sounds in the two languages. Letter A: água ~ father – letter a sounds like the a in the word father. Letter B: bom ~ base – letter b sounds just like the b in word base. - centro ~ center – letter c ifollowed by either an e or an i ,has a soft sound as in center. - canto, conta, custo ~ car – letter c followed by either an a, an o or a u has a hard sound as in car, count. Letter D: dado ~ dance – letter d always has the sound of the d in the word dance. eco ~ echo – letter e at the beginning of a word may be either open as the e in echo, or closed as at the first e in edelweiss. It is also open, no matter the position in the word, whenever it carries the accute stress mark as in café, and closed whenever it carries the circumflex stress mark as in bebê. It can also sound like the name of the letter e in English as at the beginning of e-commerce when following a consonant at the end of a word as in leve or when it is at the beginning of a word, followed by an s as in esmalte. Letter F: fato ~ fact – letter f sounds exactly as it does in English. - gato ~ gun – when the g is followed by an a, an o or a u, it has a hard sound like the g in gun. - gente ~ leisure – when the g followed by an e or an i, it sounds like the s in leisure. - hora ~ hour – letter h is always silent in Portuguese as it is in word hour. So just ignore it when you see it. Letter I: idade ~ deed – letter i always sounds like ee as in deed no matter which position it’s located in a word. - jato ~ leisure – the j is also always pronounced like the s in leisure no matter which vowel follows it. - Katia, kibom ~ kiwi – the k always has a hard sound no matter which vowel follows it. - lata, mala ~ late – letter l at the beginning of a word and between vowels always sounds like the l in English as in late. - mil ~ view – the l in the end of the word is going to sound pretty much like a w in English. - mala, mama ~ mom – letter m at the beginning of a word and between vowels sounds like the m in English as in the word mom. - cem ~ cent – the sound of the m at the end of a word has a sound similar to that of the n in english as in the word cent, but it’s a bit longer. - nota, mano ~ note – letter n at the beginning of a word and between vowels sounds like the n in English. - olá ~ awkward – letter o at the beginning of a word and between vowels sounds like the o in English. - lado ~ doodle – letter o at the end of a word sounds like oo in the word doodle. - pato ~ pot – letter p sounds just like it would in English. - roda ~ porta – carro ~ hot. Letter r always sounds like the h in English at the beginning of a word, in the middle of a word when followed by a consonant, and when it’s doubled which always occurs between two vowels. - sal ~ salt – the s always has a soft sound as in salt when it is positioned at the beginning of a word no matter which vowel follows it. - massa ~ mass – the double ss has a soft sound as ss in mass. - esporte ~ sport – the s before a consonant sounds soft as in the word sport. - preciso ~ precise – the s between two vowels sounds like a z as in precise. - tato ~ total - uva ~ juice - vela ~ very - Wilma ~ vote - Yara ~ year - zebra ~ zebra If you enjoyed this information and you’re just starting on your journey of Portuguese learning, be sure to check out the Starter Guide.
This worksheet provides practice for your students to identify the opposites or antonyms of verbs and adjectives. This worksheet contains a total of 14 questions and 6 challenge questions. Students are given a word and then have to choose the word's antonym out of three in a row. For the challenge questions, the students have to write a word for the antonym given. An answer key is provided for ease of grading! Enjoy!
What is a 'Migrant Caravan'? On October 12, 2018, a group of about 160 people from Honduras began traveling to the U.S. to seek asylum. Within two days, the group grew to 1,000 people. Because of the dangers along the way, many of the migrants decided to travel as a large group as they believed it would be safer. This is known as a “caravan.” Over the past decade, there’s been a rise in the number of unaccompanied children and families crossing the U.S.-Mexico border. Who are the People Seeking Asylum and Why? People from the Northern Triangle of Central American (Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador) say they are fleeing persecution, poverty and violence. Since the journey began, more people have joined the caravan from Guatemala and Mexico. Estimates vary as to how many people are part of the caravan but there is believed to be between 4,000 and 5,000 people. The migrants have been traveling by foot and will have traveled over 2,700 miles to reach the U.S. border. What is Asylum? Asylum is a protection given by a nation to someone who has left their home country because of a "well-founded fear of persecution," and it allows them to stay in their new country. Asylum in the United States has historically been granted to people from other countries already in the U.S. or at the border who meet the international law definition of a "refugee." The United Nations 1951 Convention and 1967 Protocol define a refugee as a person who is unable or unwilling to return to his or her home country, and cannot obtain protection in that country, due to past persecution or a well-founded fear of being persecuted in the future "on account of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion." Congress incorporated this definition into U.S. immigration law in the Refugee Act of 1980. U.S. Government's Response to Those Seeking Asylum Expressing concerns about security, President Trump deployed troops to the border with orders to shut down lanes of traffic and add barbed wiring and barricades to prevent people from crossing the border. The Defense Department anticipates the number to fluctuate between 5,500 and 7,000 troops. About this Lesson Plan This lesson provides an opportunity for students to learn more about the migrant caravan, understand what political asylum (referred to here as “asylum”) is and reflect on the people’s stories and situations. - Students will understand what the migrant caravan is, the intention of the people on it and what asylum is. - Students will consider the perspective of the people who are traveling on the caravan by listening to and reading about their stories and situations. - Students will reflect on and emphasize with people's situations by writing an essay or letter in response to stories and quotes about why people are seeking asylum.
Scientists achieved astonishing results when training a student with a memory training program in a landmark experiment in 1982. After 44 weeks of practice, the student, dubbed SF, expanded his ability to remember digits from seven numbers to 82. However, this remarkable ability did not extend beyond digits – they also tried with consonants. The study can be considered the beginning of cognitive training research, investigating how practice in areas ranging from music to chess and puzzles impacts our intelligence. So what’s the state of this research 35 years later – have scientists discovered any foolproof ways to make us smarter? We reviewed the evidence to find out. The topic of cognitive training is still very controversial, with scientists expressing opposing views about its effectiveness. Enthusiastic claims about the effects of cognitive training programs usually follow the publication of a single experiment reporting positive findings. Much less attention is paid when a study reports negative results. This phenomenon is quite common in many areas of social and life sciences and often provides a biased view of a particular research field. That is why systematic reviews such as ours are essential to rule out the risk of such bias. Making sense of conflicting evidence In a new paper, published in Current Directions in Psychological Science, we synthesize what the reviews say about several cognitive training programs. Our main method was meta-analysis – that is, a set of statistical techniques for estimating the true overall effect of a treatment. To begin with, music expertise has been associated with superior memory for music material (notes on a stave). Remarkably, music experts exhibit a superior memory even when the musical material is meaningless (random notes). In the same vein, musical aptitude predicts music skills such as pitch and chord discrimination. However, music instruction does not seem to exert any true effect on skills outside of music. Indeed, our meta-analysis shows that engaging in music has no impact on general measures of intelligence, when placebo effects are controlled for with active control groups. Music training does not affect either cognitive skills – fluid intelligence, memory, phonological processing, spatial ability and cognitive control – or academic achievement. These outcomes have been recently confirmed by other independent labs. The field of chess presents an analogous pattern of findings. Chess masters’ exceptional memory for chess positions is renowned. However, to date, chess training appears to exert only a small effect on cognitive and academic skills. What’s more, almost none of the studies reporting such effects actually used a control group – suggesting that the results were mainly due to placebos (such as being excited about a new activity). Similar results have been observed in the field of working memory training. Working memory is a cognitive system, related to short-term memory, that stores and manipulates the information necessary to solve complex cognitive tasks. Participants undergoing working memory training programs systematically improve their performance in several working memory tasks. However, experimental groups consistently fail to show any improvement over active controls in other skills such as fluid intelligence, cognitive control or academic achievement. These findings were confirmed in three independent meta-analyses about children, adults, and the general population. Video game training also fails to enhance cognitive function. In another recent meta-analysis, to be published in Psychological Bulletin, we show that video game players outperform non-gamers on a variety of cognitive tasks. However, when non-players take part in video game training experiments, no appreciable effect is observed in any of the outcome measures. This suggests the video game players may just have been better at those tasks to start with. Another group of scientists also recently carried out a systematic review on general brain training programs (often including puzzles, tasks and drills). While the researchers reported some effects, they found an inverse relationship between the size of the effects and the quality of experimental designs of training programs. Put simply, when the experiment includes essential features such as active control groups and large samples, the benefits are very modest at best. The problem with misinterpretation A pervasive problem with cognitive training studies is that improved performance in isolated cognitive tasks is often seen as a proof for cognitive enhancement. This is a common misinterpretation. To provide solid evidence, it is necessary to investigate the effects of training programs on “latent cognitive constructs” – the variables underlying the performance in a set of cognitive tasks. For example, working memory skill is a cognitive construct and can be measured by collecting data such as digit span. But if the training exerts an actual effect on the cognitive skill (construct) you should see the effects on many different tasks and latent factors – multiple measures of the same cognitive skill. And it is rare that these training programs are set up to do that. That means that, to date, cognitive training programs do not even necessarily boost those cognitive functions that the trained tasks are supposed to involve. What is enhanced is just the ability to perform the trained task and similar tasks. Researchers and the general public should be fully aware of the limits of benefits from training the brain. However, these negative findings shouldn’t discourage us from searching for ways to boost intelligence and other skills. We do know that our cognition is extraordinarily malleable to training. What we need now is more promising pathways to general cognitive enhancement rather than domain-specific enhancement. Our best bet for achieving that is probably by carrying out research on genetics and neuroscience.
Overview of tuberculosis Tuberculosis, an infectious multisystem disease, is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis). The disease affects pulmonary tract and lungs in 85% of cases. The infection is generally latent i.e. it does not cause any visible symptom. About 10% of latent infection of this disease advances into an active condition. If left untreated, the condition can be fatal. Symptoms of tuberculosis A chronic cough with blood in sputum (hemoptysis) with fever, breathlessness (dyspnea), weight loss, chest pain and night sweat are the common symptoms of active tuberculosis.The signs and symptoms of tuberculosis can be difficult to diagnose as the symptoms overlap with other respiratory conditions. There is a difference between being infected and having a clinically active disease. People with a latent condition of this disease do not spread it while the person with an active condition can. It spreads through air by the release of germs through a lung cough, spitting, singing, talking and sneezing by the affected person. If another person inhales these germs, chances of getting infection get higher. People who smoke and suffering from HIV/AIDS are more likely to get an active infection. Tuberculosis diagnosis and treatment Diagnosis of active tuberculosis is done with X-rays and examination of body fluids. However, the diagnosis of the latent condition is done by blood tests and Tuberculin skin test (TST). Early screening of people with high risk and treatment can help in the prevention. Treatment of tuberculosis is done with the help of multiple antibiotics over a long period. There are some forms of tuberculosis that are resistant to one or more drugs. These are referred as Multi-drug resistant (MDR) strains. One or more drugs used for the treatment of tuberculosis, in such cases, are not effective against it. Tuberculosis, according to World Health Organization (WHO) is the second most common cause of death worldwide after HIV/AIDS. Tuberculosis is very common in developing countries. It is estimated that one-third of the world's population is infected with tuberculosis and about 1.6 million people die every year because of this condition. Approximately, more than 90% death occurs in low and middle-income countries. About 60% of total infected people worldwide reside in India, Nigeria, South Africa, Indonesia, China and Pakistan. The disease is highly contagious and persistent formation of hard gray-colored nodules called tubercles occurs in this condition. In the year 2015, about 8.6 million cases of tuberculosis were reported and 1.8 million people died from it. However, the death rate because of tuberculosis has dropped about 41% since 1991. Quick Facts about Tuberculosis Following are some quick facts about this life-threatening condition: - Mycobacterium Tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis), a rod-shaped bacterium is the causative agent of this disease. - According to a study, untreated tuberculosis kills about half of infected people within five years of infection. - The infection is categorized as latent and active. - Active infection occurs in people with low body’s resistance or prolonged exposure. - Any person may have the infection but it is not necessary that he/she is sick. Such people often work as "carrier" of disease. - Tuberculosis is contagious disease and is transmitted from one person to another via air. - The incubation period of this infection is typically a week but may vary from person to person. - Fever, blood in cough, weight loss, fatigue (weakness) with chest pain is common symptoms of the disease. - Body's defense mechanism in most of the cases is able to tackle the infection. Only 10% of affected people develop an active infection. - The condition may create chronic complications in lungs, kidney and liver that can be fatal. - Treatment of tuberculosis often requires treatment with multiple antibiotics for one or more month. - If antibiotic doesn't work, it can be fatal. - Inadequate treatment leads to multi-drug resistance of M. tuberculosis strains which is more difficult to treat. - More than 80% of tuberculosis cases are reported in lungs while about 20% are reported in other organs like kidneys, spine, bones and lymph nodes. - Vaccination against tuberculosis is available commercially. What are the different types of tuberculosis? On the basis of stage of infection, tuberculosis is categorized into following two types: - Latent Tuberculosis - Active Tuberculosis Latent tuberculosis is a condition in which the person has tuberculosis infection but the bacteria is inactive in the body. There are no obvious symptoms in such cases and the chest X-ray is normal. The only way of diagnosing is tuberculin skin test (TST) and Interferon-Gamma Release Assay (IGRA). Latent tuberculosis is not contagious but chances of it to advance into active condition are quite high. The risk is increased in the cases of other illness such as HIV infections and other medications that slow down the immune response. Active tuberculosis is a condition in which tuberculosis bacteria divide rapidly and infect other organs too. If lungs get infected with active tuberculosis, the infection spreads quickly to other body parts too. The condition causes varied symptoms of cough, chest pain, bloodstained sputum, weakness and fever. The person suffering from active tuberculosis in lungs can spread it to other by air. Since the active form is contagious, the person needs to be tested and treated by multi-drug treatment. In addition to above discussed types, tuberculosis is categorized on the basis of “site of infection”. Following are the types: - Pulmonary Tuberculosis - Extra-pulmonary Tuberculosis Pulmonary tuberculosis has lungs as its main site of infection. It involves various parts of lungs and named accordingly. Following are the types of pulmonary tuberculosis: - Primary Tuberculosis Pneumonia - Tuberculosis Pleurisy - Miliary Tuberculosis - Laryngeal Tuberculosis - Cavitary Tuberculosis Primary Tuberculosis Pneumonia - uncommon type of tuberculosis - very infectious - causes pneumonia - high fever with cough - often in young kids, old people and HIV-patients - incubation period is quite small (develops soon after infection) - granuloma rupture in cavity between lungs and chest wall (pleural space) - fluid pooling in the pleural space - increase in fluid during infection causing compression of lungs - low grade fever - fever, night sweats, cough and weight loss - pus in pleural space - blood in sputum - appearance of small nodules - occurs soon after infection - high fever and cough (slow illness and weakness) - can be fatal - often in children and HIV-patients - infection of larynx - extremely infectious - pain in larynx and high fever - highly infectious - develops in upper lobes of lungs (oxygenated area of lungs) - formation of cavities and enlarged air spaces - cannot occur soon after infection Infection of tuberculosis can develop in parts other than lungs and respiratory system. It generally occurs in patients whose immune system is compromised or suppressed. Generally, HIV/AIDS patients and patients taking immune-suppressants are likely to get infected. Following are the types: - Tuberculosis Meningitis - Adrenal Tuberculosis - Tuberculosis Pericarditis - Tuberculosis Peritonitis - Lymph Node Disease - Osteal Tuberculosis - Renal Tuberculosis - infection of meninges (membrane surrounding brain and spinal cord) - can lead to brain tumor - headache, sleepiness and coma - permanent damage to brain and death - infection in adrenal gland - malfunctioning of adrenal gland and adrenal deficiency - decrease in steroid production - weakness and fainting - infection in pericardium (outer lining that surrounds heart) - fluid buildup in the space between heat and pericardium - discomfort and reduced heartbeat - can be fatal - infection in outer lining of intestines and abdominal wall - fluid pooling - abdominal pain and discomfort - low grade fever Lymph Node Disease - infection in lymph nodes - lymph nodes contain macrophages that seize bacteria - uncontrolled replication of M. tuberculosis - enlarged lymph nodes - can develop from lymph nodes to skin - infection in bones - can occur in spines too - leads to compression of spine and back deformity - repeated fractures - infection in urinary system that can spread to reproductive system - causes asymptomatic pyuria (white blood cells in urine) - inflammation of epididymis (in males)
Economics 11 Caltech Spring 2010 QUIZ 4 Definition (use words not equations) 3 lines or less 1pt Please define: Marginal cost. The cost of producing an additional unit of output Word problem 2pts True or False: Please explain each question in a few sentences. How does a profit‐maximizing firm decide how much to produce if it takes all prices as given? Why does the same firm shut down if the price falls below the minimum average variable cost of production? The firm sets quantity so that the of output price equals marginal cost, and it chooses its inputs so that the ratio of input prices equals the ratio of marginal product The firm shuts down if the price falls below the minimum average variable cost of production, because it is not even covering the variable costs of production, so even if all the fixed are sunk it cant make any money _____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ Technical problem 3 pts Suppose a company has total cost given by o o 2 , where capital is fixed in the short‐run. For a given quantity , give a formula for the level of capital that minimizes total cost? Suppose capital can be adjusted in the long‐run. Does this company have an increasing return to scale, decreasing returns to scale or constant returns to scale? Min TC have to minimize total cost with respect to capital (the variable input => ∂C/∂k=0 =>r ‐2q2/k2=0 or k= 20.5q/r0.5 C(q)= (2r)0.5q +(2r)0.5q or C(q)= 2(2r)0.5q Costs are linear in q so the firm has constant returns to scale.
Bacteria are present in the normal gut (intestines), especially in the lower parts of the intestine. They achieve concentrations of several billion in the colon (large intestine/bowel). These "normal" bacteria have important functions in life, including: - Protecting against infection by disease-causing bacteria - Helping the immune system of the gut to develop - Producing a variety of substances that have an important nutritional value - Together, the normal intestinal bacteria are often referred to as the gut flora (or microbiota). A number of factors may disturb the mutually beneficial relationship between the flora and the body. When this happens, bacteria that can cause disease may take hold. What is the Role of Gut Microbiota? There are many exciting developments and discoveries being made about the connection between our gut (digestive system) and our brain and how it affects our health, as well as the role microbes play in this connection. It is important to know that functional GI disorders, like IBS, are not psychological diseases; but we also have to realize that the brain plays an important role. The brain communicates constantly with the microorganisms inside each of us. These microbes have a cooperative relationship with us, not only playing a role in digestion, but also interacting and communicating with our own cells, with our gut and our brain. Gut microbes may provide a link to helping maintain a balance between the brain and the gut. Do Bacteria Play a Role in IBS? There is now evidence to support the idea that disturbances in the bacteria that populate the intestine may have a role in at least some people with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). This evidence from observations or studies can be summarized as follows: - Antibiotic use, well known to disturb the flora, may predispose individuals to IBS - Some people may develop IBS suddenly following an episode of stomach or intestinal infection (gastroenteritis) caused by bacteria (a condition called post-infectious IBS or PI-IBS) - A very low level of inflammation may be present in the bowel wall of some IBS patients, which could have resulted from an abnormal interaction with bacteria in the gut - Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) may be associated with IBS - Altering the bacteria in the gut, by antibiotics or probiotics, may improve symptoms in IBS - In PI-IBS some people who were previously well develop IBS-type symptoms following an episode of gastroenteritis, while most others recover completely. PI-IBS represents a clear link between exposure to a bacterial infection (such as from contaminated food or water) and IBS in those who seem especially at risk. A number of research studies report a role for inflammation in the bowel’s inner lining (mucosa) in IBS. This is low-grade inflammation and far less than that seen in the true inflammatory bowel diseases, ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. Interestingly, it has been found among patients in whom there was nothing to suggest that their IBS began with an infection. What suddenly causes this inflammation is not clear. It may be that subtle changes in the bacterial population in the intestines are driving it. Some people with IBS may be genetically predisposed to an exaggerated inflammatory response to normal bacteria. While this theory of IBS is in its infancy, there is already some evidence for the extension of the inflammatory process beyond the confines of the gut wall. This could explain some of the symptoms such as tiredness and fibromyalgia that may occur in IBS sufferers. For some time, various studies have suggested the presence of changes in the kind of colonic flora in people with IBS. These changes in the flora could lead to the increase of certain bacterial species, which themselves produce more gas and other products of their metabolism. This could contribute to symptoms such as gas, bloating, and diarrhea. Is there a Role for Antibiotics in Treating IBS? Normally, bacteria are virtually absent in the acid environment of the stomach and are few in the upper gut. They increase considerably in the lower parts of the small intestine, and then dramatically on crossing into the colon. Recently, it has been suggested that the small intestines of some IBS patients have increased numbers of bacteria as well as types of bacteria normally found only in the colon. This condition is called small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO). A course of antibiotics may improve symptoms, but experts are divided on whether or not SIBO plays a role in IBS. The question remains as to why at least some people with IBS respond to a course of antibiotics. This has most recently been reported in studies of IBS patients treated with the antibiotic rifaximin. Another explanation for these responses may be the suppression of certain species of bacteria in the colon, and especially those bacteria that are prone to produce gas and other substances through fermentation. An improvement of gas-related symptoms, with antibiotic therapy, has been described among a group of patients with bloating and flatulence, who did not have evidence of SIBO. Antibiotics clearly help some IBS patients though how this happens may be more complex than originally thought. A prolonged course of antibiotic therapy should be approached with caution, regardless of the safety profile of a given antibiotic. This is an important issue, as IBS tends to be a chronic and relapsing condition. Some people obtain a relatively long-lasting improvement following a single course of antibiotic, but others do not. Results of further long-term studies regarding the use of antibiotics are needed. Is there a Role for Probiotics in Treating IBS? - Given their safety profile, effective probiotics would, at first sight, appear to be more attractive as a means to influence the gut flora in IBS. Are probiotics effective in IBS? There have been several studies of a variety of probiotics in IBS. It is only recently that these have been of the quality needed to come to firm conclusions. There was some early evidence, although inconsistent, of symptom improvement in "gas-related" symptoms. - More recently, there has been some evidence of benefit from some probiotic combinations. The best evidence relates to a particular organism, Bifidobacterium infantis 35624. Studies have shown this strain to be superior to placebo in relieving the main symptoms of IBS (abdominal pain/discomfort, difficult defecation, and distension/bloating). Many recent findings add to a growing body of evidence to suggest that IBS may result, at least in part, from a dysfunctional interaction between our gut flora and ourselves. This leads to a low-grade inflammation in the gut wall that may spill over into other areas of the body. Some researchers propose a role for bacterial overgrowth in the small intestine as a common factor in causing the symptoms of IBS. Other evidence points to more subtle changes in the colonic flora. Both hypotheses remain unconfirmed. Nevertheless, short-term therapy with either antibiotics or probiotics does seem to reduce symptoms among some people with IBS. Whether or not these effects come about through changes in the number or type of bacteria in the colon and/or small intestine, it is evident that manipulation of the gut bacteria deserves further attention. IFFGD is a nonprofit education and research organization. Our mission is to inform, assist, and support people affected by gastrointestinal disorders. Our original content is authored specifically for IFFGD readers, in response to your questions and concerns. If you found this article helpful, please consider supporting IFFGD with a small tax-deductible donation.
Online Games (Websites & Apps): - Create an online reading log to reflect on reading patterns https://www.readingglue.com/ - Jot about your book using the fiction jot menu. - Use your reading notebook menu to write an notebook entry about your book. - Make a movie trailer for your favorite book in this unit to add to the “Recommended Books” section of your classroom. You could do this using the following apps. - Shadow Puppet - Create a podcast showing what it would be like to interview your main character. Enlist a family member or friend to play the role of the character while you interview. - Practice reading strategies online on Into the Book! - Username: ps11 - Password: brainpop - Character Movie - Plot Movie - Setting Movie - Make Predictions Movie - Make Inferences Movie - Choosing a Book Movie Learn About Synonyms and Antonyms Games & Activities: - Post-It Your Grit Work! Before you begin reading think and post -it your goal on the front of your book. When you finished reading for the night, reflect on your grit work. How did you reach your goal? What was successful? What would you want to do differently? - Figurative Language Hunt! When you read tonight try to find at least one place where your book uses figurative language. Write it down and write down what you think it means! - What did I Read? Put a post-it in the spot where you will stop reading tonight. When you get to the post-it, retell your reading to yourself! What are the big, important parts of what you read? Jot them down on your post-it. - Making your Ending – As you are reading you can be the author and write your own ending before you finish the story! Think about how the character behaves, thinks, says, wants and craft your own ending. - Celebrate Reading! Tonight review all the thinking work you have done in this unit. Reflect on what went well, and what you can continue to work on this year in third grade. Jot down one thing you are proud of and one thing you will continue to work on as a reader - Sketching Sketch a picture of your character’s feelings or relationships. Think about the mood, setting, and ideas you are having about your character’s feelings and relationships to help other readers see more of the story. - Habits of Good Readers! Create a list of good habits that readers have. How can you make your reading the best it can be? - What Happened? Create a timeline that matches the story you are reading. - BOOK IT! Create your own Bookmark! Think of all the strategies you use as a reader and create your own bookmark tool! For example, using context clues to figure out tricky words, or retell the big parts that you’ve read! - Create a poster that shows all the different kinds of thinking jobs you have practiced in this unit. Some of them are predicting, envisioning, questioning and solving tricky words! Games & Activities: - Predict It! After you do your reading, for the night, make a prediction about how the story will continue. Share your prediction with your family. Explain what will happen, how it will happen, and why you think it will happen. Make a mind movie for your family! Later in the week, check in with your family to let them know if your prediction is true! - Family Retell! Retell your nightly reading to one of your family members. Let them ask you questions about what you read. - Design a comprehension quiz for your book with your family, then take it. How did you do? Be sure to use skills practiced from this unit up to this point. - Chat with your family about what it means to have grit. Then, discuss what you all can do to have more grit in your reading. Pick your own grit goal, and work toward in tonight when you do your reading! - Make a prediction and track it! Before reading today make a prediction about what you think is going to happen next. Then, after reading reflect→ Did you prediction come true? What evidence supports your thinking? - Write a book recommendation! After you finish your book, think about who else might enjoy reading this book. Is it a reader who loves mystery books, or maybe folktales, or maybe a certain type of animal? Write up a book recommendation and bring it to your local library! - Interview Interview someone at home to see how much you can learn about them at a reader. Prepare questions that will help you learn more about their reading life. Think about how you can use their ideas in their own reading life - Create a Family Book Club! Choose a book together and create a book club around the book you choose. Make sure to assign reading and lead discussions around characters, plot and theme. Here are some tools to help you out. - Create a sketch! Practice your envisioning work by imagining the setting, the main character. Consider what the main character sees and feels and create a jot (sketch) that illustrates this. - Matchbook Chapter Summaries! Grab a file folder, some glue and some crayons! - Create an Award for your favorite character! - Watch A Scooby Doo Episode and gather clues to solve the mystery. Who solved the crime? Who was the culprit? - Watch your favorite fairytale – Compare and contrast it to the original book. Articles & Resources: - Highlights (multi genre) - American Girl (multi genre) - Cricket (literary) - Stone Soup (literary)
Coin Recognition Matching Worksheets Teacher Made Use These Worksheets To Teach Children About Different British Coins Encourage Children To Draw A Line To Match The Coin To The Correct Value Two Sheets Are Included In The Pack To Cover All The Coins From 1p To 2 A Useful Resource For A Money Topic Or To Send Home As A Home Learning Activity Matching Coins To Values Edubuzzkids Related Worksheets Sum Of The Values Of Coins Grade 1 Representing Coins Grade 1 Matching Coins To Values Grade 1 Money In Ones Tens And Hundreds Grade 2 Identification Of Coins Grade 1 Different Coins And Their Values Grade 2 Adding Coin Values Grade 1 Counting Money By Using Coins Grade 2 Combination Of The Coins Grade 1 Matching Money To Words Grade 2 Adding Dimes And Pennies Matching Coins Preschool And Kindergarten Math Below You Will Find A Wide Range Of Our Printable Worksheets In Chapter Matching Coins Of Section Money And Time Children Will Match The Coins To Its Correct Value In This Worksheet Category Money And Time Matching Coins Get This Worksheet Worksheet Preschool And Kindergarten Money Worksheet Pennies And Cents Draw A Line To Match The Sets Of Pennies With Correct Amount Of Money Coin Names Matching Worksheet All Kids Network Coin Names Matching Worksheet 12 532 Visits This Money Worksheet For Kids Focuses On Teaching Kids The Names Of Coins Kids Are Asked To Draw A Line From Each Coin To Its Name All The Pictures Of Coins In This Worksheet Are In Color So It Will Help Kids Recognize The Different Coins Make Sure To Check Out The Rest Of Our Money Worksheets Download Print Send Suggestion Report Issue Coin Names And Value Worksheets All Kids Network Coins Worksheet Match Each Coin To Its Value 7 270 Money Worksheet Coin Names Match Each Coin With Its Name 5 303 Related Worksheets Place Value Worksheets Tens And Ones 62 590 3 Digit Place Value Worksheets Names Worksheets 22 198 Money Matching Worksheets 10 747 Find More Worksheets Popular Top 5 Place Value Kids Activities Top 5 2nd Grade Place Value Kids ActivitiesMoney Matching Coin Game Teacher Made A Money Matching Map Is A Great Coin Game That Children Can Play To Reinforce Their Learning Of Coins Simply Write The Value Of The Coins On Plastic Cups And Let Your Child Sort A Collection Of Different Coins Into The Right Cup This Can Help Children To Identify The Differences Between Money If You Want To Challenge Them A Bit More Why Not Ask Them To Add Up The Total Value Of The Coins In Each CupCoin Matching Cut And Stick Activity Teaching Resources Coin Matching About This Resource Info Created Nov 3 Updated Feb 14 Doc 68 Kb Coin Matching Report A Problem Categories Ages Mathematics Mathematics Number Counting And Cardinality 5 7 View More Creative Commons Sharealike Other Resources By This Author Ruthbentham Ea Ee And Y Powerpoints And Resources Free 47 Ruthbentham Instruction Writing ExamplesFree Preschool Kindergarten Money Worksheets Printable Money Worksheets For Preschool And Kindergarten Including Matching Coins To Their Names Matching Coins To Their Values Identifying Coins And Counting Coins U S Pennies Nickels Dimes And Quarters Are Used Part Of A Collection Of Free And Printable Worksheets Courtesy Of K5 Learning No Login Required Identifying Coins Printable Worksheets Education These Math Worksheets Are All About Recognizing And Knowing The Value Of Coins Young Math Learners Explore Common U S Coins Such As Pennies Nickels Dimes And Quarters Recognizing And Knowing The Value Of Coins Makes Math Practice Enjoyable For Everyone Money Worksheets K5 Learning Grade 1 Money Worksheets Matching Coins To Their Names Matching Coins To Their Values Counting U S Coins Up To 6 Coins Counting Canadian Coins Up To 6 Coins Counting Money Coins Only Word Problems Grade 2 Money Worksheets Counting Up To 10 U S Coins Counting U S Coins And Bills Up To 5 Counting Canadian Coins Including Loonies And Toonies Money In Words Numbers To Words Matching Coin Values Worksheet. The worksheet is an assortment of 4 intriguing pursuits that will enhance your kid's knowledge and abilities. The worksheets are offered in developmentally appropriate versions for kids of different ages. Adding and subtracting integers worksheets in many ranges including a number of choices for parentheses use. You can begin with the uppercase cursives and after that move forward with the lowercase cursives. Handwriting for kids will also be rather simple to develop in such a fashion. If you're an adult and wish to increase your handwriting, it can be accomplished. As a result, in the event that you really wish to enhance handwriting of your kid, hurry to explore the advantages of an intelligent learning tool now! Consider how you wish to compose your private faith statement. Sometimes letters have to be adjusted to fit in a particular space. When a letter does not have any verticals like a capital A or V, the very first diagonal stroke is regarded as the stem. The connected and slanted letters will be quite simple to form once the many shapes re learnt well. Even something as easy as guessing the beginning letter of long words can assist your child improve his phonics abilities. Matching Coin Values Worksheet. There isn't anything like a superb story, and nothing like being the person who started a renowned urban legend. Deciding upon the ideal approach route Cursive writing is basically joined-up handwriting. Practice reading by yourself as often as possible. Research urban legends to obtain a concept of what's out there prior to making a new one. You are still not sure the radicals have the proper idea. Naturally, you won't use the majority of your ideas. If you've got an idea for a tool please inform us. That means you can begin right where you are no matter how little you might feel you've got to give. You are also quite suspicious of any revolutionary shift. In earlier times you've stated that the move of independence may be too early. Each lesson in handwriting should start on a fresh new page, so the little one becomes enough room to practice. Every handwriting lesson should begin with the alphabets. Handwriting learning is just one of the most important learning needs of a kid. Learning how to read isn't just challenging, but fun too. The use of grids The use of grids is vital in earning your child learn to Improve handwriting. Also, bear in mind that maybe your very first try at brainstorming may not bring anything relevant, but don't stop trying. Once you are able to work, you might be surprised how much you get done. Take into consideration how you feel about yourself. Getting able to modify the tracking helps fit more letters in a little space or spread out letters if they're too tight. Perhaps you must enlist the aid of another man to encourage or help you keep focused. Matching Coin Values Worksheet. Try to remember, you always have to care for your child with amazing care, compassion and affection to be able to help him learn. You may also ask your kid's teacher for extra worksheets. Your son or daughter is not going to just learn a different sort of font but in addition learn how to write elegantly because cursive writing is quite beautiful to check out. As a result, if a kid is already suffering from ADHD his handwriting will definitely be affected. Accordingly, to be able to accomplish this, if children are taught to form different shapes in a suitable fashion, it is going to enable them to compose the letters in a really smooth and easy method. Although it can be cute every time a youngster says he runned on the playground, students want to understand how to use past tense so as to speak and write correctly. Let say, you would like to boost your son's or daughter's handwriting, it is but obvious that you want to give your son or daughter plenty of practice, as they say, practice makes perfect. Without phonics skills, it's almost impossible, especially for kids, to learn how to read new words. Techniques to Handle Attention Issues It is extremely essential that should you discover your kid is inattentive to his learning especially when it has to do with reading and writing issues you must begin working on various ways and to improve it. Use a student's name in every sentence so there's a single sentence for each kid. Because he or she learns at his own rate, there is some variability in the age when a child is ready to learn to read. Teaching your kid to form the alphabets is quite a complicated practice.
The seventh cranial nerve is the facial nerve, a mixed nerve that has fibers both going out and coming in (both efferent and afferent fibers). It supplies the muscles of facial expression. The cranial nerves emerge from or enter the skull (the cranium), as opposed to the spinal nerves which emerge from the vertebral column. There are twelve cranial nerves. The facial nerve is the seventh cranial nerve. The facial nerve supplies the muscles of facial expression. Paralysis of the facial nerve causes a characteristic picture with drooping of one side of the face, inability to wrinkle the forehead, inability to whistle, inability to close the eye and deviation of the mouth toward the other side of the face. Paralysis of the facial nerve is called Bell’s palsy. - Nerve, sixth cranial to supply a muscle called the lateral rectus muscle that moves the eye outward. Paralysis of the abducens nerve causes inward turning of the eye (internal strabismus) leading to double vision. All 12 cranial nerves, the abducens nerve included, emerge from or enter the skull (the cranium), as opposed to the spinal nerves which emerge […] - Nerve, spinal One of the nerves that originates in the spinal cord. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. They consist of the 8 cervical nerves, 12 thoracic nerves, 5 lumbar nerves, 5 sacral nerves, and 1 coccygeal nerve. - Nerve, tenth cranial The tenth cranial nerve, and one of the most important, is the vagus nerve. All twelve of the cranial nerves, the vagus nerve included, emerge from or enter the skull (the cranium), as opposed to the spinal nerves which emerge from the vertebral column. The vagus nerve originates in the medulla oblongata, a part of […] - Nerve, third cranial The upper eyelid muscle which raises the eyelid; The extraocular muscle which moves the eye inward; and The pupillary muscle which constricts the pupil. Paralysis of the oculomotor nerve results in drooping eyelid (ptosis), deviation of the eyeball outward (and therefore double vision) and a dilated (wide-open) pupil. - Nerve, trigeminal This nerve functions both as the chief nerve of sensation for the face and as the motor nerve controlling the muscles of mastication (chewing). Problems with the sensory part of the trigeminal nerve result in pain or loss of sensation in the face. Problems with the motor root of the trigeminal nerve result in deviation […]
Leap Years, Leap Centuries Century years, such as 1900 2000, are leap years if they are evenly divisible by 400. The basic rules for calculating leap years are: - Years divisible by 4 are leap years, but - Years divisible by 100 are not leap years, but - Years divisible by 400 are leap years. The need for leap years is due to the fact that the actual length of a year is 365.242 days, not 365, as is commonly stated. To account for this, an extra day is added as February 29th on years that are evenly divisible by 4 (eg. 1992). Since the year is slightly less than 365.25 days long, adding an extra day every 4 years results in about 3 extra days being added over a 400-year period. For this reason, 1 out of every 4 century years also needs to be a leap year. Using this arrangement a year has 365.2425 days on the average.
A boat that is starting at point A is attempting to sail across a river to get to point B. If the current in the river is flowing in the downward direction, what direction should the boat point itself before setting sail? Why It Matters - If the current in the image shown is directed downward, when the boat sets sail towards point B, the current would cause the boat to miss its mark. This is because as the boat sails in the horizontal direction, it will begin to pick up a vertical velocity that is oriented in the downward direction. Therefore, the further the boat has to travel along the horizontal axis to get to the other side, the further away from point B it would be. - To take into account that velocity imparted on the boat by the flowing river, the captain of the boat would need to orient the boat in a direction so that the boat travels into the flowing river. To figure out what direction the captain should point his boat; he would simply calculate the angle from the ratio of the velocity of the river and the velocity boat relative to the water: - By doing this, the captain would orient his boat towards point C, thereby taking into account the amount the boat would drift by the time the other side is reached. Can You Apply It? Using the information provided above, answer the following questions. - If the velocity of the river relative to the ground is 5 mph and the velocity of the boat relative to the ground is 10 mph, at what angle would the boat need to set sail from point A to make it to point B? - At what point would the equation given above become invalid?
Brake discs for a critical part of a modern cars braking system. There job is to dissipate the heat created in the process of transforming the kinetic energy of the car into heat energy. Brake drums came before brake discs but they are limited with regards to how much heat they can deal with which is why modern cars use disc brakes. As mentioned in other brake information articles, the job of the braking system is to transform kinetic energy into heat energy. Disc brake carry out this process by rubbing a brake pad against a brake disc. This action creates massive amounts of heat and it is the job of the brake discs to transfer this heat away from the braking surface and into the air. Depending on the vehicle this can be done with various designs. The most straight forward is a solid disc. This transfers heat into the air from each face of the brake disc. This type of discs is usually found on lower powered cars or on the rear of normal cars. The solid brake disc is the most basic form of brake discs and has the lowest capacity to transfer heat into the atmosphere. The next step after solid brake discs is vented brake discs. Vented brake discs have large spaces between the sides of the brake discs which is occupied by fins. As the brake disc turns the air is forced to the outside of the disc through the vent between the discs surfaces. New cooler air is then drawn into the centre of the disc which then passes to the outside of the discs and so on and so forth. Vented brake discs are much more efficient that solid brake discs for 2 main reasons. 1. Vented brake discs have a much larger surface area than solid brake discs. Not only do vented brake discs have their braking surfaces exposed to the air but the gap between the braking surfaces are also exposed to the air as are the vents the fill the gap between the brake discs surfaces. 2. The effect of the brake discs turning is also used to draw fresh cool air into the centre of the disc and expelled at the outside of the disc. Solid and vented brake discs can usually be found on standard cars. There are further steps that can be taken to make brake discs even more efficient Drilled Brake Discs Drilled brake discs were more popular in the 90s and 80s and their primary purpose was to save weight. However drilled brake discs have a fatal flaw in that they can crack. If you want to create stress fractures in something the best thing you can do is drill a hole in it. Although drilled brake discs do save a bit of weight the downsides are great and you will very rarely see drilled brake discs on a racing car which should tell you all you need to know. Grooved Brake Discs Grooved brake discs are common in motorsport. Grooved brake surfaces have numerous benefits over plain faced discs as found on standard cars. 1. When brake get hot the brake pad can start to give of gas, this gas can come between the brake disc and brake pad reducing the co-efficvent of friction. The grooves in the brake discs can physcially wipe away this gas layer to keep the surface between brake pad and brake disc as clean as possible. 2. The grooves give the gases somewhere to escape. 3. Groove disc surfaces have a greater surface area than plain disc faces this helps cooling very slightly and the grooves also create air turbulence on the disc face helping to circulate the air. The downside of grooved brake discs is that they can shorten the life of brake pads. There are a number of variations of grooves. From the straight grooves found on Tarox performance brake discs to curved grooves with dimples on EBC Turbo Groove brake discs so fish-hook grooves as found on Alcon brake kits. So in summary The job of the brake discs is to dissipate the heat created by the braking process into the air There are a number of different types of brake discs Performance brake discs increase the heat dissipation properties over the standard brake discs Performance brake discs when combined with performance brake pads can hugely increase the effectiveness of a car’s braking system This page was last modified
There are behavioural differences, on average, between the sexes – few would dispute that. Where the debate rages is over how much these differences are the result of social pressures versus being rooted in our biology (the answer often is that there is a complex interaction between the two). For example, when differences are observed between girls and boys, such as in preferences for play, one possibility is that this is partly or wholly because of the contrasting ways that girls and boys are influenced by their peers, parents and other adults (because of the ideas they have about how the sexes ought to behave). Studying non-human primates allows us to identity sex differences in behavior that can’t be due to human culture and gender beliefs. Learning more about the biological roots of behavioural sex differences should not be used as an excuse for harmful stereotyping or discrimination, but it can help us better understand our human nature and the part that evolved sex differences play in some of the most important issues that affect our lives, including around diversity, relationships, mental health, crime and education. Boy chimps spend more time away from their mothers In human cultures across the world, boys tend to spend more time away from their mothers as compared with girls, which may reflect an early tendency toward greater risk taking. The same is true in chimps. For a 2014 paper, Lonsdorf and her colleagues, including famed zoologist Jane Goodall, conducted the most detailed ever analysis of the development of wild chimpanzees, observing 40 chimps from birth to age 5. They found that, by age 3, male infants showed greater physical distance from their mothers than females. The males began moving about on their own earlier than females and covered more distances independently. These and other findings from the study “suggest that some biologically based sex differences in behavior may have been present in the common ancestor of chimpanzees and humans, and operated independently from the influences of modern sex-biased parental behavior and gender socialization,” the researchers said. Baby girl monkeys are more social In humans, girls tend to show more precocious social interest and development than boys. For example, at less than two-days old, girls spend more time than boys looking at a human face than at a mechanical toy. Though a replication attempt of this specific finding for humans is needed, a very similar pattern has been found in rhesus macaque monkeys. For a paper published last year a research team led by Elizabeth Simpson observed 48 two- to three-week old monkeys as they were presented with videos of a macaque monkey face. The females spent more time looking at the videos than males and they later displayed more social behaviour toward a human. “In sum, converging evidence from humans and monkeys suggests that female infants are more social than males in the first weeks of life, and that such differences may arise independent of postnatal experience,” the researchers said. Boy monkeys enjoy more rough and tumble In human children, average sex differences in play preferences are among the most striking, consistent (and controversial) behavioural contrasts found between boys and girls. It never seems to take very long for little boys to pick up sticks and pretend that they are armed with a sword. In contrast, girls typically spend more time pretending to nurture toy dolls or similar. Of course, many say this simply reflects the way that boys are raised to be more aggressive and girls more nurturing. And yet very similar sex-linked play preferences are seen in our primate cousins. For instance, Gillian Brown and Alan Dixson studied 34 macaque monkeys for the first six months of their lives and found that the males (filled circles in the graph on the left) engaged in more rough and tumble play than females, including wrestling, pinning down, as well as chasing and gentle hitting. Males also initiated play more often than females. In her review, Lonsdorf notes that similar findings have been observed in blue monkeys, patas monkeys, Japanese macaques and olive baboons. Girl monkeys spend more time playing parent Human boys, on average, are less interested than girls in babies. There’s a similar pattern among non-human primates. Observational research at the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center with one-year-old Rhesus Macaque monkeys found that the females spent significantly more time than the males with infants. “The focus of young females’ attention on infants has been suggested to be important for the development of later maternal skills,” the researchers said. They noted that a similar observation has been found for another species: “Juvenile female vervet monkeys that live in the wild carry and cuddle small infants, an experience that may provide them with the motor skills necessary for later matemal behavior, as weIl as give them exposure to the maternal role. It is likely that this experience is similarly useful for a yearling rhesus monkey”. Lonsdorf observes in her review that a female bias for nurturing style play has also been seen in lowland gorillas and blue monkeys. Boy monkeys like learning from their dads, girl monkeys from their mums There’s little doubt that biological differences between the sexes are amplified by parenting practices and parent-child relationships, including boys’ tendency to want to emulate their dads and girls to emulate their mothers – as seen both in humans and our primate cousins. For instance, in a study of capuchin monkeys, Susan Perry looked to see whether infants adopted one of two different techniques (pounding or scrubbing) for extracting seeds from fruit – girls, but not boys, typically adopted whichever technique was used by their mothers. In wild tufted capuchins, meanwhile, male juveniles typically stick with their dads and copy their dietary preferences, such as favouring eating animals over fruit (the latter preferred by females). It’s a similar story for chimps and termite fishing with research showing how females are better at this task than males and that female infants spend more time than their boy peers watching and learning from their mothers. “Taken as a whole,” Lonsdorf concludes, “these consistent and accumulating reports of sex differences in primate behavioral development suggest that, although gender socialization in humans plays a role in magnifying the differences between young males and females, these behavioral sex differences are rooted in our biological and evolutionary heritage.”
Students Learn S.T.E.A.M concepts using Minecraft and other video Games Children love to play video games. Why not show them how to create their own games instead and channel their interest and creativity! The Minecraft S.T.E.A.M & Video Game Learning program stands on its own as an independent learning program. Monthly plans and annual memberships are available. Students can enroll anytime during the year, since they experience the fun of leaning thought engaging video games at their own pace. This program is geared towards the Neutrons and Electrons age groups. See the location specific pages for class schedules. Minecraft S.T.E.A.M & Video Game Learning is offered as a parallel program at Science Cosmos, to which students can enroll separately, or in addition to the Hands on STEM Program or the Arts Cosmos Program.Multi Program discounts are available and you should ask at your local branch. Ask aboutMulti Progam Discounts at your branch Learning while Playing Video Games Children love to play video games. Why not show them how to create their own games instead and channel their interest and creativity! Learning is fun because the visual programming allows kids to rapidly transform ideas into actual programs by connecting blocks. Guided projects are given to the kids and once they are proficient, they can apply what they've learned and build their own unique games. Video game based learning and traditional methods don’t need to be mutually exclusive. Game based learning complements the shortcomings of traditional teaching in many ways. Minecraft STEAM Learning The Minecraft STEAM Learning course retains the magic of the Minecraft video game, while adding elements to it that facilitate learning concepts in S.T.E.A.M (Science Technology Engineering Arts Math). It is a powerful bridge between physical and virtual classrooms, fostering critical 21st century skills. Student learn age appropriate Lessons in a way they immensely enjoy, aligned with curriculum standards. Unlike traditional Minecraft the STEAM learning course offers a controlled or coated environment rather than an open-ended Minecraft world. Being in the Minecraft world makes it irresistible and Kids explore and learn by observation and problem solving. Video Game Design and Learning In the Video Game Design and Learning course offered by Science Cosmos, students learn game programming while working on game-like puzzles and projects within a graphical interface. The game programming activities are designed to teach students computational thinking and the basics of computer programming. Students solve puzzles by programming visual code blocks to achieve a goal. In the process they learn how to create a video game step by step. Kids learn at their own pace and stay motivated as they earn badges by completing each game-like lessons. Learn More about our other Programs STEM Hands On Whats a better way to learn STEM concepts, than building robot and cool engineering structures. Its Learn+Fun in these self paced classes camps that are filled with learning. Kids have a great time building and discovering, while at the same time learning concepts in science, technology and engineering. Camp themes are offered from ages 4 to 14 years. Did you know that kids comprehend Math better if they can visualize better. We bring this idea to reality with our hands on Math and Abacus math programs.
Gogebic and Trap Ranges The Gogebic and Trap Ranges form two prominent ridges in Iron and Ashland Counties in northern Wisconsin. Both ridges are composed of rock types that are more resistant to erosion than the rock that underlies the valley separating the ridges. Recent glacial deposits cover the valley and parts of the ridges. The southern ridge, the Gogebic Range, contains iron-rich rock that is approximately 1.9 billion years old; it was mined for iron ore beginning in the 1880s. Soft iron ore was initially removed from shallow mines that have collapsed over time. In the 1920s, harder, high-grade iron ore was mined from depths as great as 5,200 feet. This ore was once a staple of the steel industry in the United States and drew many settlers to northern Wisconsin. Although mining continues in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and in Minnesota, the industry went bust in Wisconsin in 1964, and the final shipment left the Gogebic Range in 1965. The northern ridge, the Trap Range, is distinctly different in composition from the southern ridge; it is younger volcanic rock, consisting primarily of basaltic-lava flows that are approximately 1.1 billion years old. These types of flows are present mainly in the subsurface for nearly 1,200 miles as they gently arc from Lake Superior southwest to Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas and southeast to Ontario, Michigan, and Ohio. Formation of the Trap Range: Around 1.1 billion years ago, beneath what is now the Upper Midwest, the mantle began to push up and pull apart the crust, nearly tearing the continent in half. Eruptions shook the region, and lava poured out onto the Earth's surface, eventually forming the Trap Range of northwestern Wisconsin. Updated June 7, 2010
Rhythm and Beats Lesson Plan: One Man Band Music Game In this One Man Band game lesson plan, which is adaptable for grades K-5, students will use BrainPOP resources to explore the sounds made by various instruments, and use a free online music game to create their own one-of-a-kind One Man Band. - Explore the sounds created by various instruments through an online game. - Compare and contrast instruments within and across instrument families. - Select and research one instrument family and present findings to the class. - Internet access for BrainPOP and BrainPOP Jr. - Computers for students to use independently or in pairs - Interactive whiteboard (or just an LCD projector) Preparation:This lesson plan uses a free online music game from State of Play called One Man Band. During game play, students drag and drop instruments anywhere on the screen, then press Play or Stop to control the music on each. They can also click buttons 1, 2, or 3 to switch between different loops. To prepare for this lesson, explore the BrainPOP and/or BrainPOP Jr. movie topics on music, and determine which ones are most appropriate for your students and learning objectives. - Begin the lesson by playing the Pitch, Tone, and Beat movie from BrainPOP Jr. Instruct the class to listen for the definition of each term as they watch. - Talk with students about the meaning of the words pitch, tone, and beat. Use the Word Wall to guide your discussion. You might also want to display the Game to further students' understanding of high and low notes, or the Talk About It activity to develop the concepts of sharp and warm sounds. - Project the One Man Band game for the class and play the introduction. Draw students' attention to the different beats and rhythms the drum makes in the tutorial. Encourage students to replicate them by tapping on their desks. Have a clearly defined signal so that students know when to stop and listen once again. - Mouseover each of the instrument choices for students and play them. Facilitate a discussion about the less conventional examples, and guide students to understand that lots of objects can be used to make music (even the tops of their desks!) - As you drag different instruments onto the One Man Band, provide as much concept develop as you feel your students need. You can use the game to build background knowledge on instruments, instrument families, melody and harmony, analog and digital recording, and more. Use the related BrainPOP and BrainPOP Jr. movie topics to guide you. - Hit the Finish button and allow the class to listen to the One Man Band they created. How do the instruments work together to create a beat and rhythm? Were there any sounds that didn't seem to belong? Why did it seem that way? - Allow students to explore the game independently or with a partner. Provide sufficient time for students to create a steady beat with instrument sounds that complement one another. - At the end of class, permit several volunteers to play their One Man Band for the class. Instruct the other students to keep the beat by tapping on their desks or laps. - Encourage students to create their real-life own One Man Band using items in the classroom or around their homes! How many different "instruments" can they play at a time while still maintaining a steady beat? Extension Activity:Be sure to explore our Shock's Beatbox Game, where students combine their knowledge of phonemic awareness with their awareness of beats and rhythm to create original beat box songs! Filed as: 3-5, Analog and Digital Recording, Arts and Technology, Blended Learning, Blues, Brass Instruments, CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.1.2, CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.K.2, CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.1.2, CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.2.2, CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.2, CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.2, CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.2, Clefs and Time Signatures, Country Music, Educational Games, GameUP, Harlem Renaissance, Hip-Hop and Rap, Jazz, K-3, Latin Music, Lesson Plan, Melody and Harmony, Music, Musical Instruments, One Man Band, Percussion, Pitch, Tone, and Beat, Reading Music, Strings, Teaching Resources, instruments
Claudication is pain caused by too little blood flow, usually during exercise. It is a pain in the lower leg due to inadequate blood flow to the muscles. Pain and cramping in the legs is the main symptom of claudication. This pain or cramping is caused by poor circulation due to blockage of the arteries of the lower extremity. Claudication may occur in one or both legs, depending on where the blockage occurs. The pain is brought on by walking or exercise and disappears with rest. Claudication can range from being a mild nuisance to a disabling limitation. Claudication is caused by atherosclerosis in the lower extremities is known as peripheral arterial disease. Atherosclerosis is the hardening and narrowing of the arteries over time through the build up of fatty deposits, called plaque, along the artery walls. Risk factors of Claudication are: Age, Smoking, Diabetes, Obesity, Sedentary lifestyle, High cholesterol, High blood pressure etc. In 2010, 202 million people around the world were living with PAD. Europe and North America, an estimated 27 million individuals are affected with approximately 413,000 inpatient admissions annually attributed to PAD. The majority of individuals with PAD (70 percent) live in low/middle income regions of the world, including 55 million individuals in southeast Asia and 46 million in the western pacific region. The number of individuals with PAD increased by 29 percent in low/middle income regions and 13 percent in high income regions from 2000 to 2010 compared with the preceding decade. Treatment of Claudication includes reducing the risk factors associated with atherosclerosis which includes: Smoking cessation, Walking, usually 30 minutes a day, Medication and lifestyle changes aimed at reducing cholesterol, blood pressure and blood-sugar levels, Medication, such as aspirin, to prevent heart attack and stroke, Medication to improve walking distance, such as cilostazol, Diet low in saturated fats. Along with this treatment for Claudication includes Endovascular treatments and Surgical treatments in which Endovascular treatments consists of Angioplasty, Stents, Laser atherectomy, Directional atherectomy. Claudication ongoing research Some ongoing research studies on Claudication disease are Angioplasty versus stenting for iliac artery lesions, Surgical intervention for peripheral arterial disease, Perioperative clinical variables and long-term survival following vascular surgery.
Physiology: Branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of organisms and their parts. How your body reacts. Environment: Stress + Jetlag What is stress? 1. An internal automatic bodily/biological reaction to external stimuli 2. Our emotional and physiological reactions to situations in which we feel in conflict or threatened beyond our capacity to cope or endure. 3. An interaction between stimulus and response that depends on cognitive appraisal of the situation. Again, depends on our perception of our ability to cope. If we feel that something is beyond our control and we are unable to cope with it, then we start to feel the symptoms of stress, such as pressure, emotion, and physical effects. E.g. Heart races. How we know we have stress - Experience an external stimuli - Then use cognitive appraisal to evaluate the outcome - If we cannot cope or overcome external stimuli, we have stress Summary: Stress is “A pattern of negative physiological states and psychological responses occurring in situations where people perceive threats to their well being which they may be unable to meet” Lazarus and Folkman (1984) [Stressor stimuli] ——> [Cognitive appraisal] ——> [Stress response] Demanding -ve perceive a mismatch physiological and psychological e.g. work, pollution concludes out of control e.g lack of sleep / depression Body’s response to stress - Stressful stimuli - Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland - Gland secretes hormones - This stimulates adrenal gland - This produces other hormones such as adrenaline - Stimulates sympathetic nervous system - Results in body’s internal physiological changes e.g. increase heart rate Short term stress: Adrenaline - Adrenal glands and cortisol and it increases heart rate. This makes you very focus and the ability to get what you need to get done shoots up. Secretion of hormones makes him stiff and there is blood rush to the brain so you can think faster. Positive response to stress. Long term stress: High blood pressure, hard to sleep, affects one’s life negatively Stress can be useful: To increase performance levels (in Short Term) Emotional feelings associated with stress: Pissed off, sad, irritated Cognitions: Ability to think fast, effects autonomic system, affect all glands and organs affects hypothalamus, CRF, stimulates pituitary gland, releases hormones. Physical effects (physiological): grind teeth more, poor sleep patterns, tension in muscles, poor decisions that affect negatively in body. More likely to get sick. Cognitive response: According to Yerkes-Dodson Law - relationship between our levels of arousal and ability to function effectively. 1. As arousal increases, performance on tasks of moderate difficulty first rise but then eventually decline. 2. If you are too laid back your performance also declines. What is the physiological impact of stress 2. Coronary Heart Disease 4. Immune system Illness, link to an environmental stressor, relevant evidence, evaluation points immune system and stress: Physiological effects - associated illnesses - Headaches (Gannon et al., 1987) - Asthma (Miller and Strunk, 1979) - Colds (Stone et al., 1987) - Stomach ulcers (Brady, 1958) - Cancer (Jacobs and Charles, 1980) Reduced resistance to infection — Long term stress can affect the immune system as corticosteroids suppress its activity and thereby increasing vulnerability to infection. Cohen et al. (1993) - If participants experience higher levels of stress along with negative emotions within the previous year, they would develop more colds. Heart and circulatory disorders — Stress triggers the release of glucose or fatty acids into the blood stream that may deteriorate and block the vessels, therefore resulting in the increase in cardiovascular disorder. Stress-induced negative affect and behaviour — Stress indirectly causes illness and negative emotions and behaviour. (e.g. not enough sleep, lack of exercise etc.) Psychological effects (emotional) - Anger and frustration - Depression and helplessness - Haynes and Feinleib (1980) - Marmot et al. (1997) - The hormone melatonin controls our circadian rhythm (approx 24 hours long) - more melatonin, we feel more sleepy How melatonin is controlled: - Light enters eyes - signal transmitted by the optic nerve to the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) - SCN sends signal to pineal gland, where melatonin is created - melatonin production is adjusted according to light levels - more melatonin when it is dark What is Jet Lag? It is the mismatch of old circadian rhythm and zeitgebers (external environmental factors) such as mealtimes, light levels - happens when you cross multiple time zones Experiments to examine how the effects of jet lag on the circadian rhythm can differ in severity according to variables: Waterhouse et al. and Block and Davidson *** the results of Waterhouse et al and Block and Davidson contradict… read Waterhouse et al. fully to find out……. - Another variable that affects the severity of jet lag that we feel is the direction of travel - Some suggest that traveling from east to west will affect a person less than traveling from west to east. - This is because: - traveling from east to west, you GAIN time [phase delay] - traveling from west to east, you LOSE time [phase advance] - our body’s circadian rhythm tends to lengthen more so than shorten - Siffre’s Cave Study showed that in the absence of external environmental factors (i.e the length of a day), the body’s circadian rhythm will lengthen to about 25 hours long - Siffre’s cave study - spent 6 months in a cave - no external zeitgebers - no times cues, no telephone contact - artificial lights were switched on/off when he woke up and fell asleep - natural body rhythm lengthened to 25 hours - therefore it is easier for us to lengthen the amount of time we stay awake, than to force ourselves to sleep earlier than we usually do - environmental factors such as stress from work and jet lag from the mismatch of circadian rhythm and zeitgebers can affect our health - often these effects are negative - A lot of variables come to play in deciding how severe the effects are - however prolonged periods of our health being negatively affected by environmental factors can lead to serious complication
What are allergies? Allergies are caused by an exaggerated response by the body’s immune system to a particular substance, called an allergen. Allergies, also called allergic reactions, are common and include food allergies, allergic conjunctivitis, respiratory allergies, insect bite allergies, drug allergies, and skin allergies. Skin allergies are linked to conditions, such as eczema and contact dermatitis. Allergies are also associated with asthma and other respiratory problems. The immune system is made up of special cells that circulate throughout the body to defend the body against foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria. If you have allergies, your immune system overreacts when you inhale, swallow or touch normally harmless substances, such as pollen or dust. This results in the release of powerful mediators like histamine, which causes the swelling, inflammation, and itching of affected tissues. People with allergies are often allergic to more than one substance. Common allergies include those to dust, pollen, mold spores, animal dander, bee stings, and cockroach or dust mite droppings. Some people have allergies to certain plants; medications, such aspirin or penicillin; foods, such as eggs or milk; or chemicals and other substances, such as latex. A very common type of allergy is hay fever, which is an allergy to pollen. Hay fever and other respiratory allergies, such as allergies to mold and dust, are types of allergic rhinitis. Symptoms of these allergies can mimic the symptoms of a cold and include runny nose and sneezing. Symptoms of other types of allergies can affect the respiratory system, the gastrointestinal system, and the skin. Diagnosis and treatment of allergies can control symptoms of allergies to a degree that allows you to live a full and active life. Treatment may include a combination of lifestyle changes, medications and other measures. Allergic reactions can range in severity from mild to life threatening. Seek prompt medical care if you, or your child, have symptoms of allergies, such as sneezing, watery eyes, nasal congestion, rash, or nausea and vomiting after eating certain foods. An anaphylactic reaction is an immediately life-threatening type of allergic reaction characterized by a swollen tongue (and swelling in general), combined with hives, itching, shortness of breath, and rapid breathing (more than about 16 breaths per minute for an adult). The reaction is sudden, severe and can include respiratory distress. Seek immediate medical care (call 911) if you, or someone you are with, have symptoms of an anaphylactic reaction or other serious allergic reaction, even if there is no history of allergies. What are the symptoms of allergies? When a person has allergies, exposure to an allergen can cause a wide variety of symptoms, depending on the specific allergies, the type of exposure, and the severity of the allergies. Symptoms can occur alone or in combination with other symptoms. Symptoms of allergies can affect the respiratory system, the skin, and the gastrointestinal system. In the most severe cases, symptoms... Read more about allergiessymptoms What causes allergies? Allergies are caused by an overreaction of the body’s immune system to a particular substance, called an allergen. The immune system is made up of special cells that circulate throughout the body to defend the body against foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria. For people with allergies, the immune system overreacts when the person inhales, swallows or touches normally harmless subst... Read more about allergiescauses How are allergies treated? Allergy treatment plans use a multifaceted approach that is individualized to best address the specific cause and severity of your allergies and your age and medical history. In general, allergies are highly treatable, although they are generally not curable. Allergy treatment includes prevention of symptoms, medications to control symptoms, and lifestyle and dietary changes. Occasionally, the ... Read more about allergiestreatments
Loss of hearing affects many millions of Americans. Hearing loss can result in social isolation and other problems substantially affecting the individual’s quality of life. The most common cause of hearing loss typically affects the inner ear. Specifically, sensory elements in the inner ear start to deteriorate thus resulting in a decreased sensitivity. These elements are called hair cells and they are quite sensitive to various stimuli such as chronic noise exposure (noise induced hearing loss), certain drugs (ototoxicity mainly from certain antibiotics, chemotherapy, etc…) or certain viral diseases. Also, hair cell loss along with a loss of other structures in the inner ear has been strongly linked to aging. Thus, loss of hearing is somewhat natural process of aging, which will affect most individuals. Up to a certain degree, hearing loss can be overcome via the use of hearing aids. These devices amplify the incoming sound and thus present a louder signal to the inner ear. Typically, hearing aids cannot overcome the lack of speech understanding associated with more severe degrees of hearing loss. Thus, patients will state that they can hear that someone is talking but they have difficulties making out words. Cochlear implants can restore the individual’s ability to understand but a certain severity of hearing loss has to be present before cochlear implants can be considered. Also, new technology includes implantable hearing aids, which will work via amplification of the incoming signal.
Segregation assumed its special form in the United States after the Southern states were defeated in the Civil War and slavery was abolished. Black codes that restricted the rights of the newly freed slaves were enacted in the South in 1865-66. These were abolished during Reconstruction, but after Reconstruction white dominance was thoroughly reestablished in the South, partly by the terrorism of the Ku Klux Klan and other groups, but more by the persistence of social custom. African Americans were prevented from voting by devices such as the poll tax and unfair literacy tests and by intimidation. They were denied any equal share in community life. Toward the end of the 19th cent. segregation laws—the Jim Crow laws—were enacted to codify white dominance. Blacks were forced to attend separate schools and colleges, to occupy special sections in railway cars and buses, and to use separate public facilities; they were forbidden to sit with whites in most places of public amusement. These laws were upheld as regards railroad facilities by the case of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), in which the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the so-called separate but equal accommodation. The period 1900 to 1920 brought full extension of segregation to all public transportation and education facilities, even hospitals, churches, and jails. The tide of opposition across the nation began to rise just before World War II and was given impetus by the activities of civil-rights organizations. African Americans, enjoying a somewhat improved economic status, were in the 1930s more assertive of their rights. General opinion may have been influenced by the paradox of a nation urging war for democracy overseas while at the same time tolerating discrimination at home. In 1948, President Harry Truman issued a directive calling for an end to segregation in the armed forces. The Supreme Court had also begun to move away from the earlier opinions and toward a principle of racial equality. The court struck down state enforcement of restrictive covenants as well as racial barriers leading to unequal treatment in state professional schools and in interstate transportation. In these rulings, however, the court still ruled only on whether facilities provided for blacks and whites were equal, and not on whether the separation of the races itself was unconstitutional. In 1954, the Supreme Court took a momentous step: In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka the court set aside a Kansas statute permitting cities of more than 15,000 to maintain separate schools for blacks and whites and ruled instead that all segregation in public schools is "inherently unequal" and that all blacks barred from attending public schools with white pupils are denied equal protection of the law as guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment. The doctrine was extended to state-supported colleges and universities in 1956. Meanwhile, in 1955 the court implemented its 1954 opinion by declaring that the federal district courts would have jurisdiction over lawsuits to enforce the desegregation decision and asked that desegregation proceed "with all deliberate speed." At the time of the 1954 decision, laws in 17 southern and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Tennessee, Kentucky, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas, Oklahoma, and Missouri) and the District of Columbia required that elementary schools be segregated. Four other states—Arizona, Kansas, New Mexico, and Wyoming—had laws permitting segregated schools, but Wyoming had never exercised the option, and the problem was not important in the other three. Although discrimination existed in the other states of the Union, it was not sanctioned by law. The struggle over desegregation now centered upon the school question. By the end of 1957 nine of the 17 states and the District of Columbia had begun integration of their school systems. Another five states had some integrated schools by 1961. The states mostly fell back on stopgap measures or on pupil-placement laws, which assigned students to schools ostensibly on nonracial grounds. Forced integration led to much violence. The most notable instance was the defiance in 1957 of federal orders by Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas, who called out the Arkansas National Guard to prevent integration in Little Rock. President Eisenhower responded by sending federal troops to enforce the court order for integration. In 1958 Virginia closed nine schools in four counties rather than have them integrated, but Virginia and federal courts ruled these moves illegal. In 1960 desegregation began in Louisiana; whites boycotted the integrated New Orleans public schools at first triumphantly, later with diminishing effectiveness. In 1961 two black students registered at the Univ. of Georgia but were suspended because of student disorders; they were later returned under a federal judge's order. In 1962-63 violence erupted in Mississippi, precipitating a serious crisis in federal-state relations. Against the opposition of Gov. Ross R. Barnett, James H. Meredith, a black who was supported by federal court orders, registered at the Univ. of Mississippi in 1962. A mob gathered and attacked the force of several hundred federal marshals assigned to protect Meredith; two persons were killed. The next day federal troops occupied Oxford and restored order. Meredith became the first African American to attend a Mississippi public school with white students in accord with the 1954 court decision. In 1963, South Carolina's Clemson College became the first integrated public school in that state. Gov. George C. Wallace of Alabama stood in a doorway at the Univ. of Alabama in a symbolic attempt to block two black students from enrolling in 1963; the attempt failed. In the North attempts were also made to combat segregation. After a suit brought by black parents in 1960, the school system of New Rochelle, N.Y., was in 1961 ordered by a federal judge to be desegregated. Similar suits followed in other cities.Public Transportation and Accommodations The fight over education overshadowed efforts to achieve integration in other areas, but moves against segregation in public transportation did gain wide notice. In 1955-56, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., led blacks in Montgomery, Ala., in a boycott against the municipal bus system after Rosa Parks, a black woman, refused to give up her seat to a white man and move to the segregated section of a bus. The boycott was brought to a successful conclusion when, on Nov. 13, 1956, the Supreme Court nullified the laws of Alabama and the ordinances of Montgomery that required segregation on buses. Mixed groups of whites and blacks, called Freedom Riders, in May, 1961, undertook a campaign to force integration in bus terminals and challenge segregation in local interstate travel facilities. The buses were attacked by mobs in Anniston, Ala., where one bus was destroyed by a firebomb. There were riots in Birmingham and Montgomery when blacks attempted to use facilities previously reserved for whites; federal marshals and the National Guard were called out to restore order and escort the Freedom Riders to Mississippi. Many of them were arrested in Jackson, Miss., for infractions of the state's segregation laws, and a long series of court battles began. These protests led in 1961 to an Interstate Commerce Commission ban on segregation in all interstate transportation facilities.Other Fields Passive resistance was undertaken by groups to eradicate discrimination in other fields. In 1960 black college students staged a sit-in at segregated public lunch counters in an effort to force desegregation; similar demonstrations were made in other cities. Other campaigns were waged with some success for the desegregation of beaches, restaurants, theaters, and libraries. In 1957, New York City adopted the first law forbidding racial or religious discrimination in private rental housing. During the summer of 1963 thousands of blacks demonstrated in Birmingham, Ala., and were attacked by police using cattle prods and dogs. Nationwide revulsion to these attacks was expressed when over 200,000 people marched on Washington, D.C., and pressed for further civil-rights legislation. An attempt to deal with the increasing demands of blacks for equal rights came in 1964 when President Lyndon Baines Johnson asked for and received the most comprehensive civil-rights act to date; the act specifically prohibited discrimination in voting, education, and the use of public facilities. For the first time since the Supreme Court ruled on segregation in public schools in 1954, the federal government had a means of enforcing desegregation; Title VI of the act barred the use of federal funds for segregated programs and schools. In 1964 only two southern states (Tennessee and Texas) had more than 2% of their black students enrolled in integrated schools. Because of Title VI, about 6% of the black students in the South were in integrated schools by the next year. Early in 1965 the Voting Rights Act was passed, but it did not prevent the rising tide of militance among blacks; Watts, a black slum in Los Angeles, erupted in violence, leaving 34 dead. The next year was marked by riots in practically all major U.S. cities as blacks began shifting to an independent course expressed in the concept of black power; the term originated with Stokely Carmichael, leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, an organization that dropped whites from membership the following year. Meanwhile, integration of southern school districts was progressing; by 1967, 22% of the black students in the 17 southern and border states were in integrated schools. However, the continuing separation of blacks and whites in most areas was emphasized in 1968 when the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (the Kerner Commission) issued a report that said, "our nation is moving toward two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal." The assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., that summer set off riots in 125 U.S. cities. The issue of segregated housing was faced in the Civil Rights Act of 1968, which contained a clause barring discrimination against blacks in the sale or rental of most housing. Although integration proponents received a setback in 1970 when President Nixon announced that the desegregation of schools would be left to the courts and that his administration would de-emphasize strong desegregation procedures, real successes had already been achieved. Black college students were enrolling in previously white colleges at a greater rate; in 1964, 51% of black students had been in predominantly black colleges, but by 1971 only 34% were. At the secondary and primary levels the South had begun to move ahead of the North, despite a system of tax-exempt, segregated private schools that had been developing in the South since the 1960s. By the fall of 1972, 44% of the black students in the South were in predominantly white schools, while only 30% were in predominantly white schools in the North. The early 1970s were characterized by the controversial issue of busing as a tool to promote integration. The Supreme Court continued, in the early 1970s, to back busing plans. By 1974, however, a more conservative court had moderated its position, allowing in Miliken v. Bradley (1974) the predominantly white Detroit suburbs to be excluded from a desegregation plan. By the mid-1970s, however, only about 12% of black students in the United States remained in completely segregated schools; the number of students still in such schools remains very low. Nonetheless, in the late 1990s about one third of all black students were in schools that were 90% nonwhite. Moreover, studies showed that from the mid-1980s through the 1990s American classrooms in grades K to 12 had become increasingly segregated, a trend linked to court decisions limiting and reversing desegregation as well as to a decline in federal support for desegregation and to enduring de facto segregation in housing. Nonetheless, in 2007 a significantly more conservative Supreme Court ruled that the degree to which school districts could use race in order to avoid resegregation was limited. Affirmative action, which seeks to overcome the effects of segregation and other forms of past discrimination by allocating jobs and resources to African Americans and other affected groups, began in the 1960s. The use of racial quotas as part of affirmative action, however, led to charges of reverse discrimination in the late 1970s. In the 1980s the federal government's role in affirmative action was considerably diluted, and in 1989 the Supreme Court gave greater standing to claims of reverse discrimination. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 reaffirmed a government commitment to affirmative action, but a 1995 Supreme Court decision placed limits on the use of race in awarding government contracts. In the late 1990s, California and other states banned the use of race- and sex-based preferences. The various civil-rights acts and the diminishment of prejudice produced changes in the political arena; African Americans became increasingly elected to public office. In 1966, Edward Brooke became the first African American to be elected to the U.S. Senate since Reconstruction, and, in 1967, Carl Stokes became the first African American to be elected mayor of a major American city (Cleveland). Many major cities, among them New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago, have since elected black mayors. In 1984 and 1988, Jesse Jackson campaigned for the Democratic nomination for president, becoming the first black to contend seriously for that office. Douglas Wilder became first African American to be elected governor of a state in 1989. Gen. Colin Powell, the first African American to head the Joint Chiefs of Staff and serve as secretary of state, was the popular choice of many Republicans for the 1996 presidential nomination, although he declined to run. Although a number of blacks have achieved real prominence in business, education, government, and other fields, and many more have achieved solid, though less stunning successes as a result of integration, race remains one of the most intractable problems in the United States, in large part because personal biases and racial stereotyping (by and of all races) cannot be altered by legislation or lawsuits. This lingering prejudice fosters interracial tension and other social problems that are often ignored by the larger society unless a public outcry or worse results, as in New Jersey in the late 1990s when public controversy erupted over the use of racial profiling by the state police. Even in the last decade of the 20th cent. and the first years of the 21st, race riots have occurred; the most violent was in Los Angeles following the acquittal (1992) of the police officers accused of brutality in the Rodney King case. See M. R. Konvitz, A Century of Civil Rights (1961, repr. 1967); R. L. Green, Racial Crisis in American Education (1969); R. Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality (1976); G. Orfield, Public School Desegregation in the United States, 1968-80 (1983); D. G. Nieman, Promises to Keep: African Americans and the Constitutional Order, 1776 to Present (1991); J. T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (2001); C. Polsgrove, Divided Minds: Intellectuals and the Civil Rights Movement (2001); P. Irons, Jim Crow's Children: The Broken Promise of the Brown Decision (2002); C. V. Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (4th rev. ed. 2002); C. Carter et al., ed., Reporting Civil Rights: American Journalism 1941-1973 (2 vol., 2003). In calculus, the process of finding a function whose derivative is a given function. The term, sometimes used interchangeably with “antidifferentiation,” is indicated symbolically with the integral sign ∫. (The differential math.dmath.x usually follows to indicate math.x as the variable.) The basic rules of integration are: (1) ∫(math.f + math.g)math.dmath.x = ∫math.fmath.dmath.x + ∫math.gmath.dmath.x (where math.f and math.g are functions of the variable math.x), (2) ∫math.kmath.fmath.dmath.x = math.k∫math.fmath.dmath.x (math.k is a constant), and (3) Learn more about integration with a free trial on Britannica.com. International association of Latin American countries originally dedicated to improving its members' economic well-being through free trade. At its founding in 1960 LAFTA included Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay; by 1970 Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and Bolivia had joined. The organization aimed to remove all trade barriers over 12 years, but its members' geographic and economic diversity made that goal impossible. LAFTA was superseded in 1980 by the LAIA, which established bilateral trading agreements between members, which were divided into three groups according to their level of economic development. Cuba was admitted with observer status in 1986, and it became a full member in 1999. Seealso Inter-American Development Bank. Learn more about Latin American Integration Association (LAIA) with a free trial on Britannica.com. Integration is a process of combining or accumulating. It may specifically refer to:
DESCRIPTION OF PROGRAM - This is a hands-on class where students will design and build machines, catapults, pyramids, derby cards, buildings and other constructions out of LEGO® bricks. While exploring engineering, architecture and physics, students will develop problem solving and critical thinking skills. - Participants build a new project each month. Architectural concepts are taught while assembling buildings, bridges and other structures. - Once the project is completed, children use the rest of their time to expand their gadgets and collaborate with one another CURRICULUM & INSTRUCTIONAL CONTENT - Students will work in a lab-type setting using LEGO® bricks with an integrated curriculum based on math and science. - Instructional content includes concepts of friction, gravity and torque, scale, gears, axles and beams. - Part of the curriculum will include the construction of a scaled model of their elementary school. - The material covered each session will vary depending on students’ ages, experience, and skill level. - All material will be provided. - For children to play and socialize with friends while learning fundamentals of engineering and architecture in a noncompetitive setting. - To build problem-solving skills, provide an opportunity for creative expression and foster an appreciation of how things work. - To help students understand that Architecture and Engineering are viable career choices. - Kids already know how to build with LEGO® bricks, but with a little coaching they can learn engineering, architecture and concepts of physics and mathematics using the plastic components. - Students will develop problem-solving and critical thinking skills.
Qualifications of Members of CongressThe Constitution requires that U.S. senators must be at least 30 years of age, citizens of the United States for at least nine years, and residents of the states from which they are elected. Members of the House of Representatives must be at least 25, citizens for seven years, and residents of the states which send them to Congress. The states may set additional requirements for election to Congress, but the Constitution gives each house the power to determine the qualifications of its members. Each state is entitled to two senators. Thus, Rhode Island, the smallest state, with an area of about 3,156 square kilometers has the same senatorial representation as Alaska, the biggest state, with an area of some 1,524,640 square kilometers. Wyoming, with 490,000 persons in 1987, has representation equal to that of California, with its 1987 population of 27,663,000. The total number of members of the House of Representatives has been determined by Congress. That number is then divided among the states according to their populations. Regardless of its population, every state is constitutionally guaranteed at least one member of the House of Representatives. At present, six states -- Alaska, Delaware, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont and Wyoming -- have only one representative. On the other hand, six states have more than 20 representatives -- California alone has 45. The Constitution provides for a national census each 10 years and a redistribution of House seats according to population shifts. Under the original constitutional provision, the number of representatives was to be no more than one for each 30,000 citizens. There were 65 members in the first House, and the number was increased to 106 after the first census. Had the one-to-30,000 formula been adhered to permanently, population growth in the United States would have brought the total number of representatives to about 7,000. Instead, the formula has been adjusted over the years, and today the House is composed of 435 members, roughly one for each 530,000 persons in the United States. State legislatures divide the states into congressional districts, which must be substantially equal in population. Every two years, the voters of each district choose a representative for Congress. Senators are chosen in statewide elections held in even-numbered years. The senatorial term is six years, and every two years one-third of the Senate stands for election. Hence, two-thirds of the senators are always persons with some legislative experience at the national level. It is theoretically possible for the House to be composed entirely of legislative novices. In practice, however, most members are reelected several times and the House, like the Senate, can always count on a core group of experienced legislators. Since members of the House serve two-year terms, the life of a Congress is considered to be two years. The 20th Amendment provides that the Congress will meet in regular session each January 3, unless Congress fixes a different date. The Congress remains in session until its members vote to adjourn -- usually late in the year. The president may call a special session when he or she thinks it necessary. Sessions are held in the Capitol in Washington, D.C.
Typewriter, any of various machines for writing characters similar to those made by printers’ types, especially a machine in which the characters are produced by steel types striking the paper through an inked ribbon with the types being actuated by corresponding keys on a keyboard and the paper being held by a platen that is automatically moved along with a carriage when a key is struck. The invention of various kinds of machines was attempted in the 19th century. Most were large and cumbersome, some resembling pianos in size and shape. All were much slower to use than handwriting. Finally, in 1867, the American inventor Christopher Latham Sholes read an article in the journal Scientific American describing a new British-invented machine and was inspired to construct what became the first practical typewriter. His second model, patented on June 23, 1868, wrote at a speed far exceeding that of a pen. It was a crude machine, but Sholes added many improvements in the next few years, and in 1873 he signed a contract with E. Remington and Sons, gunsmiths, of Ilion, New York, for manufacture. The first typewriters were placed on the market in 1874, and the machine was soon renamed the Remington. Among its original features that were still standard in machines built a century later were the cylinder, with its line-spacing and carriage-return mechanism; the escapement, which causes the letter spacing by carriage movement; the arrangement of the typebars so as to strike the paper at a common centre; the actuation of the typebars by means of key levers and connecting wires; printing through an inked ribbon; and the positions of the different characters on the keyboard, which conform almost exactly to the arrangement that is now universal. Mark Twain purchased a Remington and became the first author to submit a typewritten book manuscript. The first typewriter had no shift-key mechanism—it wrote capital letters only. The problem of printing both capitals and small letters without increasing the number of keys was solved by placing two types, a capital and lowercase of the same letter, on each bar, in combination with a cylinder-shifting mechanism. The first shift-key typewriter—the Remington Model 2—appeared on the market in 1878. Soon after appeared the so-called double-keyboard machines, which contained twice the number of keys—one for every character, whether capital or small letter. For many years the double keyboard and the shift-key machines competed for popular favour, but the development of the so-called touch method of typing, for which the compact keyboard of the shift-key machines was far better suited, decided the contest. Another early issue concerned the relative merits of the typebar and the type wheel, first applied in cylinder models brought out in the 1880s and later. In modern machines of this variety the type faces are mounted on a circle or segment, the operation of the keys brings each type to correct printing position, and the imprint of type on paper is produced by a trigger action. The type-wheel machines offer an advantage in the ease with which the type segments may be changed, thus extending the range and versatility of the machine. On nearly all typewriters the printing is done through an inked ribbon, which is fitted on spools, travels with the operation of the machine, and reverses automatically when one spool becomes completely unwound. On other machines an inking pad is used, the type contacting the pad prior to printing. The noiseless linkage is a variation of the conventional typebar linkage causing the typebar to strike the platen at a lower velocity but with the same momentum. Although it produces less noise than the conventional typewriter, the noiseless typewriter cannot produce as fine an impression or as many carbon copies. A significant advance in the typewriter field was the development of the electric typewriter, basically a mechanical typewriter with the typing stroke powered by an electric-motor drive. The typist initiates the key stroke, the carriage motion, and other controls by touching the proper key. The actuation is performed by the proper linkage clutching to a constantly rotating drive shaft. Advantages of this system include lighter touch, faster and more uniform typing, more legible and numerous carbon copies, and less operator fatigue. Especially valuable as an office machine capable of a high volume of output, electric typewriters are produced by all major typewriter manufacturers. The first electrically operated typewriter, consisting of a printing wheel, was invented by Thomas A. Edison in 1872 and later developed into the ticker-tape printer. The electric typewriter as an office writing machine was pioneered by James Smathers in 1920. In 1961 the first commercially successful typewriter based on a spherical type-carrier design was introduced by the International Business Machines Corporation. The sphere-shaped typing element moves across the paper, tilting and rotating as the desired character or symbol is selected. The motion of the element from left to right eliminates the need for a movable paper carriage. The early portables of the late 19th century were slow, awkward, type-wheel machines. In 1909 the first successful portables appeared on the market. By the 1950s practically every typewriter manufacturer produced a portable typewriter; all of them were typebar machines similar in operation to the office machines. Designed with lighter parts than those of standard models, portables are more compact but less sturdy. Electrical operation of portable typewriters was introduced in 1956. Typewriter composing machines Special-purpose typewriting machines have been developed for use as composing machines; that is, to prepare originals that look as if they had been set in printer’s type (or at least more so than ordinary typewriting does), from which additional copies can be printed. Ordinary typewriting cannot compare in quality, style, and versatility with printing from type produced directly on metal slugs by standard composing machines, but the high cost of skilled typesetting labour prompted the development of composing typewriters that require far less operator training. Since the fundamental requirement of a composing typewriter is the ability to supply different styles and sizes of type, the type-wheel machine is far more suitable than the typebar. Other major requirements of a typing machine whose output must resemble print are the proportional spacing of characters in a word (rather than centring every character within the same width, as in ordinary typewriting) and justification, or alignment of the right-hand margin. An electric typebar machine was developed that provided proportional spacing—assigning space for each character in proportion to its width. The other requirement, margin justification, proved more difficult to attain. Most of these machines provided for preliminary typing of a line, determining the necessary compensation for the line length, and retyping to the exact length. A more complicated machine was introduced that would automatically justify a line of type with one keyboarding. This was accomplished by a system in which the operator typed manually into a storage unit, from which a computer first automatically compensated for line length and then operated a second typing mechanism. By mid-20th century the typewriter had begun to be used as a composing machine in spite of its limitations, and it became more popular as improvements were developed. Automatically controlled machines One of the most important advances in the field of typewriters and office machines was the development of automatic controls that allow typing from remote electrical signals rather than from manual control. This technique enabled office machine manufacturers to develop an integrated system of business communication utilizing remote control typewriters and computer techniques. With such a system, machines handling all the different office machine functions, such as the typewriter, calculating machine, and printing telegraph, together with mass data processing computers and electronic storage systems, are tied together by the use of a “common language” in the form of coded electrical signals. This coded information, coming into an office via appropriate communication channels, can be automatically recorded and printed. Component machines produced by any manufacturer can be connected to any other without the use of special code converters. Other automatic typewriter devices also have become available. A vacuum-operated system, for example, controls and operates any number of standard typewriters from a perforated roll of paper tape, much like the player piano, making possible rapid production of form letters and other papers. The need for high-speed printing machines to convert the output of computers to readable form prompted the introduction of a specialized high-speed form of “typewriter” in 1953. In this class of machines, the paper is fed between a continuously rotating type wheel and a bank of electrically actuated printing hammers. At the instant the proper character on the face of the type wheel is opposite the proper hammer, the hammer strikes the paper and prints the character, while the type wheel continues to rotate. By this means, speeds up to 100,000 characters per minute have been attained, as compared with about 1,000 characters per minute attainable with conventional typebar mechanisms. A number of different models operating on this principle were developed; all of them required elaborate electronic controls to solve the complex synchronization problem. Many other high-speed-output devices for computers were developed. Most of them utilize techniques that are remote from the typewriter field, in some cases using printing mediums other than paper. Speeds of up to 10,000 characters per second were attained by certain nonmechanical systems, which, although not actually typewriters, compete with typewriters as computer-output devices.
Taking part in the Olympic games is a personal honour as well as a national one. The Olympic Games is an international movement that believes in building community through sport and promoting inter-cultural understanding. The founder of the modern Olympic movement, Baron Pierre de Coubertin promoted the the values of Olympism- excellence, friendship and respect, upon which he expanded this international movement. In the context of competition, Olympic excellence refers to a personal best. It instructs athletes to strive towards their personal best without over-emphasizing competition. This means that winning is as important as playing for the love of the game. Olympic athletes should strive to be excellent both on and off the field and benefit from the healthy combination of strong mind, body and will. The athletes that compete during the games are the most important part of the movement. By promoting the values of solidarity, team spirit, and love for sport, the games hope to inspire mutual understanding between people. It encourages athletes to learn to overcome barriers such as poverty, racism, and religion to make long-lasting friendships with their team-mates and their opponents, and in doing so set an example for citizens of all nations. Respect has many meanings in the context of the games. It refers to respect for oneself, for their bodies and the bodies of their opponents. It also means respect for the rules of the sport in which they are participating and fair-play. Project : Can you find out what kind of projects are conducted by the International Olympic Committee to spread the core values of the organisation? For more such interesting General Knowledge articles and videos, visit: GK for Kids.
(1800 bc) oceania first settled by polynesian peoples in fiji (900 ad) ancestors of the maoris from the cook islands reached south island, new zealand. Transcript of history and culture of australia, new zealand, oceania, and antartica the european era history and governments section 1 main idea: the region's first settlers came from asia. Read more the story behind inaugural traditions skip to we decided to share a glimpse of the fascinating history behind a few classic oceania cruises. Origin of oceania and tradition the origin and the navigational techniques used by islanders to travel over large open ocean has given question to academic writers, on how the islanders are. Indigenous oceania religion refers the various beliefs and practices of despite the great variety among these traditions due to origin: oceanic. Posts about traditions oceania written by grhomeboy christmas festivities have been occurring for centuries and as knowledge of the holiday has spread, different countries around the world. Although colonial history and migration have instigated a great deal of cultural change, the indigenous peoples of this region are also making strong efforts to revive or maintain many of. An introduction to the european tradition in visual culture textile traditions of oceania history of art and visual culture service learning. A detailed study on polynesian tattoo history, including origins it’s a sub-region of oceania the tradition of polynesian tattooing existed from 2000. Traditions in architecture: africa, america, asia, and oceania is the first wide-ranging, one-volume study to examine the architectural achievements of diverse. The rock art of australian aborigines is the longest continuously practiced artistic tradition in the support the hypothesis of a long history in near oceania. Virtually all that we know about the customs of oceania comes from the accounts of europeans, for the peoples of oceania left no written record of their early culture a couple dressed in. Art of oceania properly encompasses the artistic traditions of the people indigenous to australia, new zealand, and the pacific islands the ancestors of the people. This book sheds new light on processes of cultural transformation at work in oceania and analyzes them as products of interrelationships between culturally created. Tuvalu history, language and culture history of tuvalu formerly known as the ellice or lagoon islands, tuvalu was a slaving post a situation that, along with. Oceanic art: origins, history there is archeological evidence of human settlement in oceania as early as the the traditions in which they were. Quizlet provides oceania ap world history activities, flashcards and games start learning today for free log in sign up tradition of kidnapping wo. Here's a list of the different christmas traditions in asia, find out how people celebrate christmas around the world from india, korea, hong kong & more. Culture of australia - history, people, clothing, traditions, women, beliefs, food, customs, family a-bo toggle navigation forum countries and their cultures a-bo culture of australia. The history of european-based music in australia begins with the british settlers choral traditions in oceania predate the arrival of european colonialism. Globalization, anxieties, and religion in oceania by handrio nurhan. The custom of making new year’s resolutions the history of new year’s resolutions take a look back at when and why the new year’s resolution tradition. Māori war dance, new zealand, circa 1850 1852 map of oceania by j g barbie du bocage includes regions of polynesia, micronesia, melanesia and malaysia the. Ancient traditions from all over the world ancient origins articles related to ancient traditions in the sections of history australia & oceania africa. The culture of oceania is rich in its diversity and reflective of oceania's tropical maritime environment the culture of oceania is rich in its diversity and reflective of oceania's. Near and remote oceania 493 comes very close to corresponding to that of the boundary between near oceania and remote oceania, relies also on incorporating into its. The history of oceania includes the history of australia , new zealand , papua new guinea , fiji and other pacific island nations prehistory polynesia theories. Holidays australia celebrates many of the same holidays as do people of the western world, such as easter and christmas however, australians. History of oceania main article definition oceania is the name for the vast, island-dotted swath of the pacific that lies beyond maritime southeast asia (oceania is distinct from southeast. Although some elements of this complex reflect the common southeast asian origin of oceania’s elaborated graphic art tradition of oceania. Fewer than 65 million in all, the peoples of oceania possess a vast repository of cultural traditions and ecological adaptations papua new guinea alone is home to one-third of the world's.
\|Grade span:\|\|K to 2\| Description:This lesson is one example of how you can implement the practice of Investigating Science Through Inquiry. In this activity, students use everyday objects to make and test predictions about what sinks and what floats, charting their results on a graphic organizer. - Understand scientific inquiry through questioning, predicting, observing, recording and interpreting data, and communicating results - Keep records of scientific investigations using graphic organizers - Develop group work skills such as working together and listening - Floating and sinking objects such as a rubber band, small bottles of shampoo, an orange, apple, carrot, leaf, twig, marble, nail, paperclip, pencil, rock, pumice stone, fishing sinkers, penny, crayon, floating toys (various boats, rubber duck), cans of cola (sugar free and regular), bar of soap, sponge, tennis ball, golf ball, ping pong ball, or ice cube. - Large aquarium or clear plastic container (students need to see inside the container.) - A copy of Sink or Float? By Lisa Trumbauer, Who Sank the Boat by Pamela Allen or other age-appropriate books about sinking and floating - Collect or ask students to bring in a variety of objects to test. - Make copies of the Graphic Organizer (PDF). If students use objects other than those pictured in the graphic organizer provided, make drawings or cut out illustrations to represent items to be tested, - Collect books on sinking and floating. - Collect pictures of large boats and other things that float, animals and people in water, sunken treasure, etc. If a glass aquarium is used, care should be taken to ensure that there are no cracks or leaks. What to Do: - Engage students. Introduce the study of sinking and floating by asking the students what they know about things that sink and float, and why some things sink and other things float. Record their statements on a large KWL chart. - Read aloud the story Sink or Float? By Lisa Trumbauer, Who Sank the Boat by Pamela Allen, or a similar age-appropriate book. Ask questions about the illustrations to keep students engaged and to see what they know about why things sink or float. - Explore which items sink and which objects float. In a large group, hold up an item so that all the students can see it, pass it around for students to feel, and ask them to predict if the item will sink or float. Ask older students to draw a picture or label the item and write their prediction. Have one student experimenter (rotate role) place the object into the water. - Explain the results. As each item is tested, ask students to complete their graphic organizers. After several items have been tested, ask students to think about what makes some things sink and others float. - Extend learning if time allows. Incorporate technology,literature, art, and writing by asking students to write a short story or create a drawing about sinking and floating. Use a large plastic children's pool and test larger objects such as balls of different sizes. For older students, construct boats out of clay or aluminum foil and test how much the boats will hold before they sink. Consider extending the study of sinking and floating for students ages 9 to 11 by including buoyancy and density studies. Evaluate (Outcomes to look for): - Student participation and engagement - Students' ability to make and test predictions - Answers that reflect an understanding of which objects sink and which float, including putting the object in the right place on the graphic organizer - An understanding of why some objects float while others sink Learn More:Learn more about the 5 Es.
Homo neanderthalensis, otherwise known as Neanderthals, were probably our closest relatives. Neanderthals were humans but they were a different species from us, Homo sapiens. Homo neanderthalensis evolved in Europe and Asia while we were evolving in Africa. Fossils are known from the southerly regions of western Eurasia in both glacial and interglacial periods, while mitochondrial DNA data suggest they expanded as far as Siberia at times. Learn about the form and structure of Homo neanderthalensis, find out about its evolutionary and genetic history. Discover where Neanderthal fossils are known and the type of habitat the species lived in as well as population trends and feeding patterns. Find out about the behaviour of this early human species, including its feeding habits and the diseases that it was affected by. Homo neanderthalensis is thought to have been largely similar to Homo sapiens. Learn about the average size, growth patterns, life expectancy and physiology of this species. Get reference material for Homo neanderthalensis. Homo neanderthalensis (Kebarah) burial site Homo neanderthalensis (Swanscombe 1) cranium Homo neanderthalensis (calpicus) cranium Neanderthal stone tools
- In the simplest terms, a book index is simply a key to locating information contained in a book. It is also known as back-of-the-book index, as it is mostly found at the end of the book. The words of the Index are sorted Alphabetically. - Here is an Index screenshot below : - The Index words should be relevant and of interest to a possible reader of the book, so they can easily guide him to what he may be looking for in the book. - The index terms can be names, places, events, or any other terms related to your book content. They can be single words or multi words. - A book Index is different from the Table of contents(TOC). A Table of contents is a brief list of the book contents written in the order it appears in the book; e.g. Chapters titles. It appears at the beginning of the book mostly after the copyright page. Here is a TOC screenshot below : - Some International Organizations are specialized in putting the rules of book Indexes. Some countries have their own indexing rules, but at the end you should select the indexing rules and styling that are best for the book reader. That is your main target. - Some tools are available to help you write your book index, like PDF Index Generator. Using such a tool will save you a lot of time. The main idea of the book index is to help the reader find information quickly and easily. so you must make it simple and professional as possible. Do not make things hard for your book reader.
Hydrologic Monitoring Program Everglades National Park protects a portion of the largest freshwater marsh in the United States, the Greater Everglades. A range of terrestrial, estuarine, and marine habitats simultaneously converge amidst a blend of temperate and subtropical climates to create the unique hydrologic conditions that exist in the Everglades. Water quantity and quality are critical to the health of the ecosystems that support the myriad plant and animal species inhabiting the park. However, a long history of water management in support of agricultural and urban development in south Florida has caused serious and continuing degradation of the Everglades ecosystem, prompting Congress to authorize the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) in 2000. The goal of CERP is to improve the future quality of the natural and human systems in south Florida. Specifically, the objectives are to "restore, preserve, and protect the South Florida ecosystem while providing for other water-related needs of the region, including water supply and flood protection." Restoration of the natural systems will be considered successful once analysis of numerous ecological indicators determines that the ecosystem is behaving as a wild Everglades system rather than as a set of managed and disconnected wetlands. This restoration is all the more important in the face of climate change and sea-level rise. Providing a greater flow of freshwater south through the Everglades will serve to reduce the impact of salt water intrusion into the natural system and into the aquifers that serve the municipal water supply of the region. Successful restoration of the Everglades ecosystem requires the appropriate interaction between the quantity, quality, timing, and distribution of water. Park hydrologists monitor the condition of freshwater, brackish water, and salt water resources in the Everglades through an extensive network of hydrologic monitoring sites and stations. Collected data are analyzed to better understand the movement and condition of surface and groundwater resources. In addition, biologists and ecologists monitor and evaluate biological, chemical, and environmental factors that affect water quality, including contamination and pollution produced by human activity and by natural processes. Hydrologists began monitoring precipitation in the park in 1949 and later added to the network by installing stations to monitor water levels in central Shark Slough in 1952. Since then, the network has expanded to 63 stations that currently monitor water temperature, water level, and precipitation on an hourly basis. Data collected through this network are transferred in near real-time, electronically archived, and shared over the internet to users worldwide. NPS / Lori Oberhofer Florida Bay is the large estuary situated between the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico and sandwiched between the tip of the Florida peninsula and the Florida Keys. Learn about the Florida Bay Monitoring Program. "Here are no lofty peaks seeking the sky, no mighty glaciers or rushing streams wearing away the uplifted land. Here is land, tranquil in its quiet beauty, serving not as the source of water, but as the last receiver of it. To its natural abundance we owe the spectacular plant and animal life that distinguishes this place from all others in the country." President Harry S. Truman, address at the Dedication of Everglades National Park, December 6, 1947
Electric ships have been studied for some time by naval engineers because they could offer a cleaner, faster and simpler alternative to diesel-powered craft. They could be especially efficient if their propellers were powered by superconducting motors. The only trouble is, superconductors operate at temperatures close to absolute zero (-256°C) and the heat generated is difficult to dissipate inside a ship. Fortunately, German engineering giant Siemens thinks it can get around such problems. It has designed a motor that uses high-temperature superconductors which only need to be cooled to about -140°C or so. The motor is also placed inside a pod that sits directly beneath the ship, so it is almost completely surrounded by seawater. The heat is then pumped away and the surrounding seawater allows it to dissipate far more efficiently, keeping the motor at the required temperature. Read the full superconducting ships patent application Labels: ships, underwater, vehicles
Sharks are much older than dinosaurs. Their ancestry dates back more than 400 million years, and they are one of evolution’s greatest success stories. These animals are uniquely adapted to their ocean environment with six highly refined senses of smell, hearing, touch, taste, sight, and even electromagnetism. As the top predators in the ocean, great white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) face only one real threat to their survival: us. The assaults are many. By-catch: the accidental killing of sharks by fishermen’s long lines and trawlers. Illegal poaching: selling shark fins for soup. Illegal hunting: sports fishing for shark jaws as trophies. Nets: placed along coastlines to keep sharks away from beaches. Pollution: toxins and heavy metals that build When great whites gather, they seem to show different behaviors, from open-mouthed gaping at one another to assertive body-slams. These sharks are top predators throughout the world’s ocean, predominantly in temperate and subtropical waters. Great whites migrate long distances. Some make journeys from the Hawaiian Islands to California, and one shark that swam from from South Africa to Australia made the longest recorded migration of any fish. The torpedo shape of the great white is built for speed: up to 35 miles per hour (50 kilometers per hour). And then there are the teeth — 300 total in up to seven rows. But more than brawn, the great white shark has a tremendous brain that coordinates all the highly-developed senses of this efficient hunter. Its prey, including seals and dolphins, are very clever animals, and the shark has to have enough brains to outsmart them. Despite their reputation as lone hunters, great whites will cooperate with one another, hunting in groups and sharing the spoils. And some researchers have been surprised by how fast they learn. up in the shark’s body. In some areas great white populations have plummeted by over 70%. If not stopped, it could lead to the extinction of this ancient species. Many scientists now believe that Great whites became the ocean’s top hunters through the evolution of supremely-adapted senses and physiology. Great white sharks’ most acute sense is smell. If there were just a single drop of blood floating in 10 billion drops of water, they could smell it! Their nostrils are on the underside of the snout and lead to an organ called the olfactory bulb. The great white’s olfactory bulb is reported to be the largest of any shark. Shark external ears are hard to see: they are just two small openings behind and above the eyes. The ears may be small, but they’re powerful. Inside, there are cells that can sense even the tiniest vibration in the surrounding water. Sharks also have an ‘ear stone’ that responds to gravity, giving the animal clues as to where it is in the water: head up, head down, right side up, or upside down. A great white sharks has great vision. The retina of its eye is divided into two areas – one adapted for day vision, the other for low-light and night. To protect itself, the great white shark can roll its eye backward into the socket when threatened. Sharks have a sense that humans can only be in awe of – they can sense an electrical field. A series of pores on the shark’s snout are filled with cells called the Ampullae of Lorenzini that can feel the power and direction of electrical currents. Scientists have discovered that sharks can use this sense to navigate through the open ocean by following an electrical ‘map’ of the magnetic fields that crisscross the Earth’s crust. Great white sharks are opportunistic eaters. Depending on the season, area and age, they will hunt seals and sea lions, fish, squid, and even other sharks. They have taste buds inside their mouths and throats that enable them to identify the food before swallowing. Great white sharks have an elaborate sense of touch through what’s called the lateral line – a line that extends along the middle of the shark’s body from its tail to its head. This line, which is found in all fish, is made of cells that can perceive vibrations in the water. Sharks can detect both the direction and amount of movement made by prey, even from as far as 820 feet (250 meters) away. Sharks come in all shapes and sizes. Today there are more than 440 known species — from the 6-inch long dwarf lantern shark (Etmopterus perryi) to the 60-foot long whale shark (Rhincodon typus). Unlike typical fish, sharks do not produce large amounts of small eggs. Instead, they invest their resources in fewer, larger eggs which are more likely to grow into adults. Some sharks lay eggs, while others give live birth. Great white sharks gestate their pups for a year before giving birth – that’s longer than humans. Between 2 to 12 babies are born at a time. Great whites can live up to 60 years, maybe more. Most sharks are slow to grow and take a long time to mature. That means that on the whole, sharks reproduce only a few young, making them all the more vulnerable to extinction. We may think that great whites are massive, but their ancestors would likely have made them appear midgets by comparison. An ancient shark called the Megalodon (Carcharodon megalodon), appeared on Earth more than 20 million years ago. Based on fossil teeth, scientists believe these sharks could have been as big as a school bus—big enough to probably feast on whales. For a long time, scientists thought the Megalodon was the direct ancestor of great white sharks. But new fossil evidence, announced in November 2012, suggest that it was more closely related to an ancestor of mako sharks—smaller but faster fish-eating sharks. Another shark ancestor swam the ocean 290 million years before today. Picture a shark with a teeth shaped in a ring like a saw. This fossil comes from the long-extinct Helicoprion, a buzzsaw with fins. But what did this animal actually look like? All scientists had to go on was a few fossil specimens and came up with a litany of possibilities, some more plausible than others. The face of Helicoprion was finally uncovered when a well-preserved fossil was brought in for a CT scan, and the result was published in 2013. Most of the toothy spiral is buried in the fish’s lower jaw, with just a few teeth emerging. Using the new evidence, the reconstruction is the most accurate to date—and proves some earlier reconstructions wrong. The study also found that Helicoprion is not the ancestor of a great white shark but, rather, to the chimaeras, a group of deep sea shark relatives. Just look at these x-rays. Not a single bone. Instead, these are animals with skeletons made from cartilage. These boneless fishesare in a class called Chondrichthyes that includes sharks, skates and rays. Sharks are also distantly related to the mysterious and rare chimaeras, which are found in deep ocean waters. Their enigmatic behavior has earned them names like spookfish or ratfish. The skeletons of skates, rays, chimaeras, and sharks are made of cartilage, rather than bone. DNA is a key tool in criminal cases. And that’s not just true of crimes against people. It’s true of crimes against sharks. It’s illegal to hunt great white sharks in South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Malta, Namibia, Israel and the United States and DNA testing by scientists like Mahmood Shivji can prove when a fisherman has broken the law. Watch Dr. Shivji talk more about using DNA from shark fins to determine what species of shark are being killed, often for use in shark fin soup. Shark Teeth at the NMNH The Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History has one of the largest collections of fossil shark teeth in the world – more than 90,000 different teeth. The oldest date back about 360 million years to the Devonian Period. Shark teeth come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes (pdf), all depending on their purpose. Flat teeth are adapted for crushing and grinding. Sharp and pointy teeth make it easier to grasp and hold slippery prey. Serrated teeth are ideal for ripping and tearing prey too large to swallow in one bite. Great white sharks have many more reasons to fear people than people have to fear them. Thousands of sharks are killed every year especially for shark fin soup. Why We Should Save Sharks Fear of sharks seems to be encoded in our genes. Yet humans are rarely attacked by a shark, while millions of sharks are killed by humans. Some populations of shark species, such as the shortspine spurdog, may have dropped by 95 percent. The sharks’ population decline has a ripple effect – throwing entire marine ecosystems out of balance. Shark species often are especially vulnerable to overfishing because of specific life characteristics, such as not mating until later in life, and giving birth to small litters of live young. Sharks even have allies from a group of people who you would least expect – shark attack survivors are banding together in order to urge people to protect sharks. Why save sharks? The reasons are many. Sharks keep the ocean healthy because they keep different prey species from becoming overabundant. Sharks keep the ocean clean by scavenging on dead animals. Sharks keep other species more fit by weeding out sick and weaker individuals. And sharks are beautiful – like lions and gorillas – crowning achievements of evolution. Shark Fin Soup Shark fin soup is considered a delicacy in many Asian countries, once reserved only for the wealthy or for very special occasions. But rising incomes in Asia are having a disastrous impact on sharks. To make the soup, the fins of the sharks are sliced off and the rest of the body is tossed back in the water, dead or alive: a method called shark finning. It’s estimated that 100 million sharks are killed annually to supply fins for soup. Fins from great whites can fetch the highest prices because of their rarity and size. In Hong Kong, Taiwan and China, conservationists and chefs are leading campaigns to stop serving shark fin soup. Every year, humans kill an estimated 100 million sharks. Removing sharks in large numbers can have ripple effects that throw entire ecosystems out of balance Threats and Solutions Dozens of shark nets have been installed off the east coast of South Africa and Australia. These nets are meant to protect swimmers from rare attacks. The nets entangle, suffocate and kill sharks as well as indiscriminately kill other animals — like rays, turtles, dolphins and whales Great white sharks are a global species – and saving them will take a global effort. Some steps have already been taken. Countries like South Africa, Namibia, Australia, New Zealand, Israel, and Malta have fully protected great white sharks in their national waters. In California, NOAA is protecting the sharks that feed in the Gulf of Farallones National Marine Sanctuary off the coast of California. And the international organization CITES has implemented a ban on all international trade of products that come from great white sharks.
What is Zika Virus? Signs, Symptoms, & Treatments Zika has been an important topic in world news with health organizations issuing necessary warnings about the virus in recent months. Commonly spread through mosquito bites, as well as sexual contact, this virus is rarely fatal and could be mistaken for various other diseases. Zika is relatively mild, and you will most likely fight it off without ever having to take a trip to the hospital. In fact, if it presents itself without a rash or pink eye (conjunctivitis), you might dismiss it entirely. However, pregnant women and those who are trying to get pregnant should pay closer attention to signs of Zika since it can cause fetal birth defects. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) regularly updates their recommendations for the prevention of the virus. What Is Zika Virus? Spread by the Aedes mosquito species, Zika virus is something for which to watch. The Zika virus attacks the body, and specifically brain cells, causing you to spike a fever as your body marshals its defenses, and shares similar symptoms as dengue, West Nile virus, or yellow fever. However, many people never develop any symptoms. The virus typically lasts for 2-7 days, but the risk to pregnant women was a critical factor in the decision by the World Health Organization to name Zika a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. Zika Virus and Related Conditions Zika has been linked to other health issues. By itself, the virus is relatively benign. Mild symptoms and a relatively quick recovery time make it no worse than any minor virus. What pushes Zika into public health emergency status is the increased likelihood of developing a secondary condition. For instance, Zika can cause microcephaly in a developing fetus, and in adults, the chances of developing Guillain-Barre syndrome are higher. - Microcephaly: A developmental condition that causes babies to be born with a smaller head. It can lead to developmental delays, such as speech problems; seizures; and disabilities. Children born with this condition do not live as long and struggle with lifelong disabilities. Some children may take longer to start talking and demonstrate intellectual disabilities while others may have muscular issues. In Brazil, there were nearly 5,000 confirmed or expected microcephaly cases in infants as of late April 2016, as compared to 2014, when the country reported only 147 cases. - Guillain-Barre syndrome: Typically triggered by a virus, this illness causes your body to attack itself. It can lead to paralysis and can affect your breathing. In French Polynesia, Guillain-Barre diagnoses rose as the Zika virus spread to the island. However, if you've been to an area with Zika, don't panic. Guillain-Barre is very rare and usually only affects about one out of every 100,000 people. Even with a dramatic increase, the actual number of cases in French Polynesia was 42 out of a total population of 276,831. Symptoms and Causes Zika virus is an illness spread mostly by a single strain of mosquitoes, the Aedes species. A bite from an infected mosquito can give you Zika, and the virus can be transmitted through sexual contact. In the last year, several reported cases of Zika virus developed after an individual had sex with an infected person. One way to avoid contracting the virus in this way is through the use of condoms. It might take a few days before you notice any symptoms associated with the virus, but be on the lookout for the following: - Joint pain - Muscle pain - Malaise (general discomfort) Prevention and Risks The big risk with Zika is birth defects because the virus attacks the neurological systems and can cause a variety of problems during pregnancy. Microcephaly is among the worst of them. In the early stages of pregnancy, the virus may even cause a stillbirth. However, you can avoid Zika with a few tips and tricks. - Follow travel restrictions. The CDC and WHO routinely post information about where Zika outbreaks are on the rise. Don't travel to affected areas. Following travel restrictions is the best and easiest way to avoid exposure. - Prevent mosquito bites. If you live in an affected region or must travel to the tropics, be obsessive about mosquito repellents and netting. Lemon Eucalyptus oil is a natural repellent that helps ward off disease-carrying insects. Wear loose fitting clothes. A tight fit gives a mosquito the chance to bite through your clothing. Keep the mosquitoes away and you'll keep the virus away. - Don't just protect yourself, protect your environment. Not only should you wear repellent, but you should also treat the areas around your home. Check for standing water and get rid of mosquito breeding grounds. - Use protection during sex. Because Zika can be transmitted during sex, you should refrain from unprotected vaginal, oral, or anal sex. Diagnosis and Tests To diagnose the Zika virus, your doctor will do a blood or urine test. Because Zika is very similar to other tropical diseases like dengue and chikungunya, a blood test is the only way to be sure to rule out Zika. Tell your doctor if you have recently traveled to an area where Zika is common so you can get tested and receive a diagnosis more quickly. Treatment, Procedures, and Medication In most cases, you won't need to see a doctor to cure Zika. There is no vaccine or treatment specific to the virus. Instead, doctors treat the symptoms with a variety of medications. They might suggest taking Tylenol or Ibuprofen to help control the fever and aches. You should get plenty of rest and drink lots of fluids if you are treating the virus. Healthy Lifestyle Tips During the worst heat of summer, it's recommended that you move your exercise routine into the gym. Sweat attracts mosquitoes, so do as much of your sweating indoors as possible. Also, get rid of mosquito habitats in your area. Drain off any standing water to reduce the mosquito population. That includes things like the air conditioner drain pan and flower pots. No water means no mosquitoes, which rapidly reduces your risk of exposure. More than 50 countries have reported local transmission of the Zika virus. Before planning any trips, talk to your doctor and check the latest travel recommendation by the CDC. If you are coming back from a trip abroad or live in an area where the virus has spread or is likely to spread in the United States, talk to your doctor about testing. If you are pregnant or are planning a pregnancy, discuss with your doctor how Zika could affect fetal development. Tweet us questions and comments @caredash. Write for us at CareDash! Read our Guest Writer Policy. Read More on CareDash Find out everything you need to know about polycystic ovary syndrome, also known as PCOS, including its symptoms, treatment, and how to get pregnant with PCOS. Ovarian cancer symptoms include pain or swelling in the abdomen, abnormal bleeding, or weight loss. Learn about ovarian cancer symptoms, stages, and treatment. - CDC: About Zika Virus Disease - World Health Organization: Zika Virus Fact Sheet - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Concludes Zika Virus Causes Microcephaly and Other Birth Defects - Medical Daily: Tiny Lab-Grown 3D Brains Help Scientists Study How Zika Virus Damages Stem Cells In Brain - New York Times: Short Answers to Hard Questions About Zika Virus - Centers For Disease Control and Prevention: Facts about Microcephaly - National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke: Guillain-Barre Syndrome Fact Sheet - Reuters: Brazil says Zika-linked microcephaly cases stable at 4,908
\|Forty years ago this week (August 6, 1965) the United States Congress passed, and President Lyndon Johnson signed into law, sweeping legislation securing equal voting rights for African-Americans. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was one of the most important pieces of civil rights legislation in the nation's history. VOA's Chris Simkins takes a look at the push to grant blacks voting rights and the impact of the legislation four decades later.\| The Civil Rights movement of the 1960s. African-Americans, led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., take to the streets in peaceful demonstrations calling for an end to racial discrimination The images of injustice and continued violence began to swing American opinion towards supporting legislation to protect the civil rights of blacks. In 1964 lawmakers passed, and President Lyndon Johnson signed, the Civil Rights Act. The law granted African-Americans the same freedoms as whites, saying blacks could no longer be excluded from restaurants, hotels or other public facilities on the grounds of race, color, religion or national origin. In a speech President Johnson said, "This Civil Rights Act is a challenge to all of us to go to work in our communities and in our states and in our homes and in our hearts to eliminate the last vestiges of injustice in our beloved country." One key demand was still unmet: the right to vote. African-Americans, especially throughout the southern United States, clashed with white police officers that forcibly prevented them from registering to vote. One black demonstrator trying to register to vote said, "And we will register to vote because as citizens of these United States we have the right to do it and you can turn your back on me but you cannot turn your back on the idea of justice." Historian Nick Kotz has written about President Johnson and Dr. Martin Luther King's push to win the support of southern conservative lawmakers who tried to block the voting rights legislation. Commenting on the success of the struggle, Kotz says, "The high point of success in this struggle came after there had been a bloody confrontation in Selma, Alabama on March 7, 1965. At that point the country said, and you could read it in public opinion polls, they had had enough of this injustice of keeping people of color from voting had to stop. At that point President Johnson provided the national leadership to get the job done in Congress." The 1965 Voting Rights Act banned racial discrimination in voting. On August 6th 1965, President Johnson signed the measure into law. Passage of the Voting Rights Act represented a great victory for African Americans who had fought so long. Political Analyst Thomas Mann with The Brookings Institution in Washington, D.C. says the Voting Rights Act was important in both a legal and political sense. "Legally, it finally overcame the many barriers to political participation by African-Americans whose rights had been denied in the decades after the civil war. Since then we have seen an extraordinary increase in the number of black elected officials at all levels of government and in the voting participation of black citizens." Four decades after passage of the Voting Rights Act, 37-year-old Eugene Grant is the mayor of Seat Pleasant, Maryland outside Washington, D.C. Mayor Grant is one of more than a dozen black mayors elected in the surrounding area. Crediting the Voting Rights Act for opening opportunities for blacks, he says, "Five years right after the Voting Rights Act was passed more African-Americans participated in the political process and more African-Americans were able to vote. Here in Seat Pleasant, Maryland in 1970 the first African American male was elected to the high office of mayor." Certain provisions of the 1965 Voting Rights Act are set to expire in 2007. Mayor Grant says he will join other civil rights leaders in a nationwide fight for the government to renew all parts of the Act in full to ensure strict enforcement of the legislation. Mayor Grant says people should never forget the impact this law has had on black voter participation.
The majority of solar photovoltaic modules sold are silicon-based, but in recent years increased demand for silicon solar cells has inflated the price of raw silicon materials. The shortage of high-quality silicon has lead to research to find novel ways to design photovoltaic cells using inexpensive, low-quality silicon alternatives. Photovoltaic cells based on silicon nanowire arrays have emerged as a promising candidate for solar energy harvesting.1,2 Silicon nanowire solar cells consist of arrays of radial p-n junction nanowires (see Figure 1) where the darker outer shell is composed of n-type silicon, to which the electron acceptor phosphorous has been added, and the lighter inner core from p-type silicon, to which the electron donor boron has been added. Each individual nanowire in the array has a p-n junction and acts as a tiny photovoltaic cell. Silicon solar cells based on nanowires have much shorter p-n junctions that thin film solar cells. In the nanowire structure, photo-excited electrons and holes (carriers) travel very short distances before being collected by the electrodes. This results in a higher carrier-collection efficiency in the core-shell nanowire structure, and this advantage leads to a higher tolerance for material defects and allows the use of a lower-quality silicon. The core-shell nanowire structure addresses the carrier-collection issue, one of the key factors that determine the overall efficiency of a solar cell. However, the efficiency of photon capture in the nanowire structures, another very important factor, has not yet been determined. Figure 1. Diagram of the silicon nanowire solar cell. Each individual nanowire is a tiny p-n junction. The darker outer shell is n-type silicon. The lighter inner core is p-type silicon. Nanowire arrays are expected to possess significantly different optical properties from their bulk-length counterparts because they are smaller than the wavelength of visible light. In our recent work,3 we performed numerical simulations to study optical absorption in silicon nanowire structures with a diameter between 50 and 80nm. Wave effects are taken into account by numerically solving the full-wave Maxwell's equations. Our study reveals the silicon nanowire structures have desirable anti-reflection characteristics across a broad spectrum. Radiative properties of nanowire structures of various thickness. L is the wire length. (a) Absorptance of nanowires with L = 1.16, 2.33, and 4.66μm (diameter =50nm, wire spacing =100nm). The absorptance of a thin film is included for reference. (b) Reflectance of nanowires and the thin film. (Adapted with permission, copyright American Chemical Society, 2007.3 First, we investigated the effect of wire length on optical absorption. Figure 2(a) shows the optical absorbance of an array of silicon nanowires with a diameter of 50nm. Three wire lengths, 1.16, 2.33, and 4.66μm, are selected to show the thickness-dependent absorptance. The light is incident (falls upon) the top of the nanowire structure in the normal direction along the wire axis. The absorptance of a 2.33μm silicon film is plotted in the same figure as a reference. The graph shows that the optical absorption is limited in the low-frequency regime, particularly for shorter wires. Longer wires tend to compensate for insufficient light absorption in the low-energy regime, and as the frequency increases, the absorptance in the nanowires rises and reaches a plateau. Absorptance in the nanowires in the high-frequency regime is higher than that in the thin film compared to the low-frequency regime where absorption in the film is more efficient. The total absorptance of the nanowire structure is determined by the reflectance and transmittance of light. To understand the trend of absorptance in nanowire arrays, in Figure 2(b) we plot the reflectance and transmittance for a nanowire structure and a thin film. It is interesting to note that reflectance of the nanowires is significantly lower than that of the thin film across the entire spectrum. In the thin-film solar cell, such a small reflectance can only be achieved by applying special antireflection coatings. It is the combined effect of the small reflectance and zero transmittance in the high-frequency regime that causes higher absorptance in the nanowires than in thin films. In the low-frequency regime, Figure 2 shows that the transmittance of the nanowire structure is higher than that of the thin film. The higher transmittance cannot be compensated by the low reflectance, leading to insufficient absorption of low-energy photons in the nanowire structure. Figure 3 shows the absorptance of nanowire structures with different filling ratios. All structures have a fixed wire spacing of 100nm and wire length of 2.33μm, but the wire diameter varies. The figure shows that larger filling ratios give higher absorption in the low-frequency regime, while in the high-frequency regime nanowires with smaller filling ratios can absorb more light. By changing the filling ratios, a nanowire structure can have an overall absorption efficiency close to that of thin film. Figure 3. Reflectance of nanowire structures with various filling ratios where f is the filling ratio. In summary, our analysis demonstrates that nanowire structures have the advantage of small reflectance across a wide spectrum and can be achieved without specially designed antireflection coatings. This small reflectance improves optical absorption significantly in the high-frequency regime, while in the low-frequency regime a similar improvement cannot be achieved because of the small extinction coefficient of silicon, which is the light lost to scattering and absorption. However, the less-optimal absorption in the low-frequency regime can be overcome by using longer wires or light trapping. We would like to thank the US Department of Energy and the National Science Foundation for partial financial support. Gang Chen, Lu Hu Department of Mechanical Engineering Massachusetts Institute of Technology Gang Chen is the Warren and Towneley Rohsenow Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering. His research interests include micro- and nanoscale heat transfer and energy conversion in thermoelectrics, photonics, and microelectronics, nanomechanical devices and microelectromechanical systems, and radiation and electromagnetic metamaterials. Lu Hu is a PhD student. His work focuses on near-field thermal radiation for thermophotovoltaic applications and light absorption in photovoltaic cells. 2. B. Tian, X. Zheng, T. J. Kempa, Y. Fang, N. Yu, G. Yu, J. Huang, C. M. Lieber, Coaxial silicon nanowires as solar cells and nanoelectronic power sources, Nature 449, pp. 885-890, 2007.doi:10.1038/nature06181
There are a number of potential causes of sleep apnea, which is often a chronic condition. One kind of sleep apnea is central sleep apnea, which occurs when the area of the brain that controls breathing fails to send proper messages to the muscles that control breathing. This type of sleep apnea is often caused by certain medicines or in people with medical conditions. The more common type of sleep apnea is obstructive sleep apnea, which is caused by a blockage of the breathing passage or a collapsed airway. With the airway blocked, it is difficult for air to travel through the airway to the lungs. Pauses in breath occur as the physical obstruction keeps air from traveling freely through the airway. A snoring sound results as air is squeezed through the breath's obstructed pathway. Not all snoring is caused by sleep apnea, so one should not confuse snoring and sleep apnea although many people who snore do suffer from sleep apnea. Children with enlarged tonsils are also at risk of experiencing obstructive sleep apnea as the inflamed tissue blocks the breathing passage. Small structural features along the air passage, such as the airways of the nose, mouth or throat, can result in sleep apnea as the small size may serve as obstacles to breathing. Also, during sleep, the muscles in the throat and along the air passageways relax. Overweight individuals are often affected by obstructive sleep apnea as the excess tissue weighs heavily on the airway, causing it to collapse. According to the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, more than half of people with sleep apnea are overweight. The condition is also more common in males than females, among those with a family history including sleep apnea, and the chances of experiencing sleep apnea becomes more common with age.
History of Vietnam The history of Vietnam begins around 2,700 years ago. Successive dynasties based in China ruled Vietnam directly for most of the period from 207 BC until 938 when Vietnam regained its independence. Vietnam remained a tributary state to its larger neighbor China for much of its history but repelled invasions by the Chinese as well as three invasions by the Mongols between 1255 and 1285. Emperor Trần Nhân Tông later diplomatically submitted Vietnam to a tributary of the Yuan to avoid further conflicts. The independent period temporarily ended in the middle to late 19th century, when the country was colonized by France (see French Indochina). During World War II, Imperial Japan expelled the French to occupy Vietnam, though they retained French administrators during their occupation. After the war, France attempted to re-establish its colonial rule but ultimately failed in the First Indochina War. The Geneva Accords partitioned the country in two with a promise of democratic election to reunite the country. However, rather than peaceful reunification, partition led to the Vietnam War. During this time, the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union supported the North while the United States supported the South. After millions of Vietnamese deaths, the war ended with the fall of Saigon to the North in April 1975. The reunified Vietnam suffered further internal repression and was isolated internationally due to the continuing Cold War and the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia. In 1986, the Communist Party of Vietnam changed its economic policy and began reforms of the private sector similar to those in China. Since the mid-1980s, Vietnam has enjoyed substantial economic growth and some reduction in political repression, though reports of corruption have also risen. Early kingdoms[change \| change source] According to myth, the first Vietnamese people were descended from the Dragon Lord Lạc Long Quân and the Immortal Fairy Âu Cơ. Lạc Long Quân and Âu Cơ had 100 sons before deciding to part ways. 50 of the children went with their mother to the mountains, and the other 50 went with their father to the sea. The eldest son became the first in a line of early Vietnamese kings, collectively known as the Hùng kings (Hùng Vương or the Hồng Bàng Dynasty). The Hùng kings called their country, located on the Red River delta in present-day northern Vietnam, Văn Lang. The people of Văn Lang were known as the Lạc Việt. References[change \| change source] - Kenny, Henry J. (2002). Shadow of the Dragon: Vietnam's Continuing Struggle with China and the Implications for U.S. Foreign Policy. pp. 21. - Neher, Clark D.; Ross Marlay (1995). Democracy and Development in Southeast Asia: The Winds of Change. pp. 162. Other websites[change \| change source] \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: History of Vietnam\| - Ancient Vietnam - Vietnam: History, Geography, Government, and Culture - Viet Nam - Early History & Legends - Các sách sử - Lịch sử Việt Nam - Cội nguồn Việt tộc của Phạm Trần Anh - Đồ đồng cổ Đông Sơn - Tiếng trống đồng Mê Linh và Thử viết lại cổ sử Việt Nam - Lời cáo chung cho thuyết Aurousseau về nguồn gốc người Việt - Thiền sư Lê Mạnh Thát và những phát hiện lịch sử chấn động
A new circuit was demonstrated at the 2016 IEEE International Solid- State Circuits Conference this past February that can, among other things, double Wi-Fi speed, while halving the size of the chip. The researchers at Columbia Engineering invented a new technology they call “full-duplex radio integrated circuits” which uses only one antenna to simultaneously transmit and receive at the same wireless radio frequency. “This technology could revolutionize the field of telecommunications,” says Krishnaswamy, director of the Columbia High-Speed and Mm-wave IC (CoSMIC) Lab. “Our circulator is the first to be put on a silicon chip, and we get literally orders of magnitude better performance than prior work. Full-duplex communications, where the transmitter and the receiver operate at the same time and at the same frequency, has become a critical research area and now we’ve shown that WiFi capacity can be doubled on a nanoscale silicon chip with a single antenna. This has enormous implications for devices like smartphones and tablets.” Key to full-duplex communications which virtually double the useful bandwidth in wireless communications is the circulator. This device transmits the signal entering a port to the next port in rotation. For instance, a three-port circulator where the three ports are “transmit” (1), “receive” (2) and “antenna” (3) works by routing (1) to (3), and (3) to (2). This way, you don’t get (1) to (2) which would’ve meant hearing yourself in a closed loop. For more than 60 years, these sort of circulators have been used by the industry to provide two-way communications on the same frequency channel, but they are not widely adopted because of the large size, weight and cost associated with using magnets and magnetic materials. These magnets are essential to a working circulator because they “break” Lorentz Reciprocity — a physical constraint of most electronic structures that forces electromagnetic waves to travel in the same manner in forward and reverse directions. Electrical Engineering Associate Professor Harish Krishnaswam and colleagues made a breakthrough by scrapping the magnets and using a mini-circulator that rotates the signal across a set of capacitors. They then devised a working prototype of a full-duplex system on a nanoscale silicon chip. “Being able to put the circulator on the same chip as the rest of the radio has the potential to significantly reduce the size of the system, enhance its performance, and introduce new functionalities critical to full duplex,” says PhD student Jin Zhou, who integrated the circulator with the full-duplex receiver that featured additional echo cancellation. There’s a myriad of potential applications, from better radar, to faster WiFi, to isolator that prevent high-power transmitters from being damaged by back-reflections from the antenna. Anything that uses half-duplex functions, or virtually all cell phones and WiFi routers, could double performance. “What really excites me about this research is that we were able to make a contribution at a theoretically fundamental level, which led to the publication in Nature Communications, and also able to demonstrate a practical RF circulator integrated with a full-duplex receiver that exhibited a factor of nearly a billion in echo cancellation, making it the first practical full-duplex receiver chip and which led to the publication in the 2016 IEEE ISSCC,” Krishnaswamy adds. “It is rare for a single piece of research, or even a research group, to bridge fundamental theoretical contributions with implementations of practical relevance. It is extremely rewarding to supervise graduate students who were able to do that!” Findings appeared in Nature Communications. Enjoyed this article? Join 40,000+ subscribers to the ZME Science newsletter. Subscribe now!
Turnips belong to the species Brassica rapa. Brassicsa is cabbage in Latin, and rapa translates to turnip. The ancient Roman author used the words ‘rapa’, ‘napus’ to depict long, round or flat turnips. According to Middle-Ages English, ‘napus’ became ‘naep’ in Anglo-Saxon, and combined with the word turn (‘made round’) the name turnip emerged. Turnip specifically is a root vegetable belonging to the Crucifer (mustard) family. However, technically speaking, turnips are not roots but swollen stems that happen grow underground. The Brassica genus is known for housing more significant agricultural and horticultural crops than any other. Most parts of certain species have been cultivated for food, including roots (rutabagas, turnips), stems (kohlrabi), leaves (cabbage, Brussels sprouts), flower (broccoli, cauliflower), and seeds (mustard and oilseed rape). Some members of the genus with purple/white foliage, or flower heads, are cultivated purely for ornamental purposes. Turnips are biennial plants meaning they take two years to complete their lifecycles, but are normally grown as annual plants. In the first year of growth they store what humans consume as food. If left underground for a second year, the plants produce flowers which turn into seed pods after being fertilized. Turnips are close relatives of Rutabagas, which are actually produced by crossing a turnip with a cabbage. Nutritionally, both are very similar. Turnips have white or yellowish flesh with a slightly flattened globe like shape. The root is not as dense as that of rutabaga and it's also missing the neck. Furthermore, turnips do not have secondary roots like the rutabaga. The leaves of a turnip have hair like growth on them, whereas the rutabaga has waxy leaves. While commonly cultivated in temperate climates, turnips can resist drought and frost and are easily grown in extreme weather conditions. The small versions of turnips are used for human consumption while the larger ones, including Rutabaga, are cultivated as livestock feed. The History of Turnip The precise history of turnip is not known, but it is believed that it originated in Asia and then found its way into Ancient Greece and Rome. Primitive varieties of turnip, and its relative plants mustard and radish, can be found growing all over West Asia and parts of Europe, supplying sufficient evidence of turnip’s beginnings in the area. Turnips had a bad reputation in Roman times, as they were used to throw at people not well liked in society. It is believed that the low esteem came from the fact that turnips were considered food for the poorer country population of Ancient Greece and Rome. The upper class that did eat turnips would always season it with expensive condiments like cumin or honey. Livestock has been fed on turnips for more than 600 years, especially after Charles Townshend brought them to the United Kingdom. Due to the expense of storing hay in winter months, in 1730 farmers were forced to kill their livestock before the advent of winter. Townshend realized that animals fed on turnips not only thrived, but could be fattened too, and what's more, the vegetable grew in cold, moist climates. Thanks to the turnip, livestock no longer needed to be slaughtered unnecessarily. Turnips were taken to North America by the colonists and have been in use there ever since. For a large part, initially turnips were managed as forage. Then, in the early 1900s farmers realized its potential as a valuable energy source for ruminant animals. At this time, farmers were generally turning away from Brassica root crops due to the extensive manual labour they required. However, development of new varieties with partially exposed roots made the crops more easily accessible for grazing animals, and so turnips became a more feasible food source for livestock. Grazing animals removed the need for manual labour, harvesting, and storage. The fact that Brassicas grew quickly, yielded large quantities per acre, and easily adapted to existing pastures without much tillage, made them very economical for farmers as well. Health Benefits of Turnips Both Turnip greens and roots can be consumed. The greens contain an even greater concentration of nutritional compounds than the roots. Pliny the Elder, the well-known Roman philosopher, regarded turnips as an essential food of his time. Turnips contain elevated amounts of antioxidants and phytonutrients, which are linked to lowering risks of cancer. The glucosinolates in turnips help the liver to manage toxins, ward off the effects of carcinogens, and perhaps even hinder tumour growth. The anti-inflammatory properties of turnips are thought to be a key element in averting heart disease. The ample amounts of folate (a B-vitamin) found in the vegetable, plays a critical role in maintaining cardiovascular health. Two outstanding anti-inflammatory agents (vitamin K and omega-3 fatty acids) are found in turnip greens. Vitamin K is a powerful regulator of the body’s inflammatory response system, while omega-3 fatty acids are the building blocks, and aid in reducing the risk of arthritis, heart disease, and other disorders related to chronic inflammation. Turnips provide a wide variety of antioxidants which include vitamin C, A, and E, beta-carotene, and manganese. They also contain phytonutrients which help to promote antioxidant activity which fights free radicals within the body, thus saving the cells form unnecessary damage. Turnips provide hefty amounts of fibre which regulates metabolism and keeps the digestive system in good working order. It is believed that the glucosinolates might aid in the processing of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in the stomach. The significant amounts of calcium and potassium found in turnips help to maintain good bone health and avert diseases like osteoporosis. Finally, the low calorie content makes turnips a great addition to any weight loss program, regardless of whether they are enjoyed raw in salads or prepared as a side dish. Due to their super nutritious greens and juicy roots, turnips offer many health benefits both for human and animal consumption. One cup (156 grams) of cut, boiled, and drained turnips provides the following: - 146g of water - 34 calories - 1.11g of protein - 0.2g of fat - 7.89g of carbohydrates - 3.1g of fibre - 4.66g of sugar In addition, turnips contain a host of vitamins and minerals. There are 51 mg of calcium, 0.28 mg iron, 14 mg magnesium, 41 mg phosphorus, 276 mg potassium, 25 mg sodium, 0.19 mg zinc, 0.003 mg copper, 0.111 mg manganese, 0.3 mg selenium, 18.1 mg Vitamin C, 0.042 mg thiamine, 0.036 mg riboflavin, 0.46 mg niacin, 0.22 mg pantothenic acid, 0.10 mg Vitamin B-6, 14 mcg folate, 13.6 mcg chlorine, 0.03 mg. Vitamin E, and 0.2 mg Vitamin K7. How to Use Turnips While many people prefer to add turnips as an ingredient in soups or stews that are usually consumed in winter months, they can also be enjoyed all year round in other ways. Turnips can be baked, mashed, roasted, boiled, steamed, deep fried, and even juiced. The tops and roots can be added to salads, while the roots may be used to make wine. Some foods that mix well with turnips include apples, sweet potatoes, peaches, lentils, chicken & rice, and potatoes. Scrumptious Apple-Turnip Salad 1 cup of apples grated 1 cup of turnips grated 2 – 4 tbsp. of parsley finely chopped 1 tbsp. of olive oil 1/3 cup of raisins and walnuts (roughly half and half of each) Add Pepper, basil, nutmeg to taste Steam the grated apple and turnips for approximately ten minutes or until lightly tender. Allow to cool off and then toss into a large salad bowl. Add in the remaining ingredients and mix. Turnips specifically, have not been directly used in too many health related studies, but turnip greens have been inducted in several dozen studies, establishing probable health benefits using cruciferous vegetables, of which turnips are a part of. Turnip greens standout as cancer preventing agents. In some studies, the compounds lutein and zeaxanthin found in turnip greens have shown promise in combating muscular degeneration and cataracts1. Other studies show that turnips could protect against lung, colon, stomach, and prostate cancers. Studies found that a compound in turnips “induces the death of cancer cells”.
This lesson is based on the National Register of Historic Places registration files "Oriskany Battlefield" (with photographs) and "Fort Stanwix" (with photographs), accounts of people who lived during this period, and other source materials. The Battle of Oriskany was written by Mike Kusch, Chief of Visitor Services, and Susan Jones, Park Ranger, both at Fort Stanwix National Monument. The lesson was edited by Jean West, education consultant, and the Teaching with Historic Places staff. TwHP is sponsored, in part, by the Cultural Resources Training Initiative and Parks as Classrooms programs of the National Park Service. This lesson is one in a series that brings the important stories of historic places into the classrooms across the country. Note to Educators: Because the terms used to describe the people who fought in the American Revolutionary War can be confusing and misleading, this lesson refers to those who fought for the American cause as "Rebels" rather than "Patriots" and those who fought for the British cause as "Tories" rather than "Loyalists." It is also important to discuss the meaning of the word "savage," which appears in the primary sources quoted in the lesson. In the 18th century, people frequently called American Indians savages as a way of identifying them apart from European Americans. The word savage in its negative connotation was applied to any person, regardless of ethnic or racial background, who did not conform to European standards. Where it fits into the curriculum Objectives for students Materials for students Visiting the site Fort Stanwix National Monument, administered by the National Park Service, is located in downtown Rome, New York at the intersections of Routes 69, 26, 49, and 46. For more information, contact the Superintendent, Fort Stanwix National Monument, 112 E. Park Street, Rome, NY 13440, or visit the park's Web site. Both sites are closed for part of the year due to winter snow, so please contact them before visiting.
Drivers need to remember to watch out for children riding their bikes, and kids need to remember to wear safety helmets while riding. Here are some bicycle safety tips for riders: - Always wear a bicycle helmet. - Make sure that your bike is properly adjusted for you. - Drive slowly on bike paths and sidewalks. - Look both ways before crossing the street. - Walk your bike across streets and at crosswalks. - Be aware of vehicles around you. - Stay alert and watch out for obstacles in your way, such as potholes. - Obey traffic signs, signals and laws. - Ride along with traffic on the right side of the road. - Ride single file while biking with others. - Wear light colored clothing while biking at night. - Make sure your bike is equipped with front and rear reflectors.
Common Factors Calculator This calculator factors a set of positive integers to find the common factors (common divisors) of those integers. Enter the set of numbers you want to factor separating them with commas. Click "Calculate" to see all factors of each number as well as the greatest common factor (GCF). The factors of a number include all divisors of that number. The factors of 12, for example, are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12. You can divide 12 by any of these numbers and obtain another whole integer number. Common factors are factors (divisors) that are in common among a set of numbers. Consider the factors of 27, 54, and 81: Each of the numbers can be divided by 1, 3, 9, and 27, so you can say that these numbers are common factors of the set of numbers 27, 54, and 81. The largest of the common factors is 27, so you can say that 27 is the greatest common factor of 27, 54, and 81. See the Factoring Calculator to learn more about finding the factors of a single integer number. Cite this content, page or calculator as:
UNIT 1 - INTRODUCTION TO INTERMEDIATE HOOP This unit will discuss what makes a move an intermediate move and how you know your students are ready to progress onto the intermediate syllabus. We will cover a series of markers that you can use to assess your students and techniques to introduce more challenging moves. UNIT 2 - INTERMEDIATE HOOP MOVES Unit 2 starts with a progression of the core concepts. We will look at different techniques to introduce lifting into your classes and how you can encourage your students to execute moves more efficiently and move cleanly between positions. Muscular balance and bi-lateral training is covered before we go onto introduce over 40 of the core intermediate syllabus moves, looking at each move in detail from the teaching and safety points, to progressions and regressions also touching upon common problems. UNIT 3 - INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMIC MOVEMENT To begin this unit, we will recap the core concepts of creating momentum on a hoop; beating and popping. This will be progressed into our five stage plan to help you introduce dynamic movement to your students. We will cover the rules of teaching dynamic movement, then give you 14 variations on basic rolls that you can work through with your students. UNIT 4 - INTERMEDIATE STRENGTH AND STRETCHING At an intermediate level there is a great requirement for students to be developing strength and flexibility, this is the focus of unit 4. We look at a range of strength and conditioning exercises, areas of flexibility that need to be trained to progress onto an advanced level and methods of increasing hoop stamina and endurance. UNIT 5 - PROGRESSIVE TEACHING AND COACHING Unit five looks at ways to adapt your teaching methods to enable you to coach students working at height and inverted. We will cover how to progress towards a more student led system of coaching, look at how you can effectively use progress chains to build lesson plans and how combinations and sequences will allow you to both challenge your students, avoid them hitting plateaus and also ensure safe progression to an advanced level. UNIT 6 - INTERMEDIATE HEALTH AND SAFETY Our final unit will look at ways you will need to adapt the health and safety information covered on your beginner's course to make it relevant for an intermediate group. Again, our main focus at this point is spotting, where we go into the different methods in more detail, progressing to cover spotting dynamic movement and partner spotting.
Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Evolutionary Perspective on Social Cognitions \|Previous Chapter\|\|Overview\|\|Next Chapter\| Why do we live in cities? Why do we often choose to work together? Why do we enjoy sharing our spare time with others? These are questions of Social Cognition and its evolutionary development. The term Social Cognition describes all abilities necessary to act adequately in a social system. Basically, it is the study of how we process social information, especially its storage, retrieval and application to social situations. Social Cognition is a common skill among various species. In the following, the focus will be on Social Cognition as a human skill. Important concepts and the development during childhood will be explained. Having built up a conceptional basis for the term, we will then take a look at this skill from an evolutionary perspective and present the common theories on the origin of Social Cognition. The human faculty of Social Cognition Humans are by far the most talented species in reading the minds of others. That means we are able to successfully predict what other humans perceive, intend, believe, know or desire. Among these abilities, understanding the intention of others is crucial. It allows us to resolve possible ambiguities of physical actions. For example, if you were to see someone breaking a car window, you would probably assume he was trying to steal a stranger’s car. He would need to be judged differently if he had lost his car keys and it was his own car that he was trying to break into. Humans also collaborate and interact culturally. We perform complex collaborative activities, like building a house together or playing football as a team. Over time this led to powerful concepts of organizational levels like societies and states. The reason for this intense development can be traced back to the concept of Shared Intentionality. An intentional action is an organism’s intelligent behavioural interaction with its environment towards a certain goal state. This is the concept of Problem Solving, which was already described in the previous chapter. The social interaction of agents in an environment which understand each other as acting intentionally causes the emergence of Shared Intentionality. This means that the agents work together towards a shared goal in collaborative interaction. They do that in coordinated action roles and mutual knowledge about themselves. The nature of the activity or its complexity is not important, as long as the action is carried out in the described fashion. It is important to mention that the notion of shared goals means that the internal goals of each agent include the intentions of the others. This can easily be misinterpreted. For example take a group of apes on a hunt. They appear to be acting in a collaborative way, however, it is reasonable to assume that they do not have coordinated action roles or a shared goal – they could just be acting towards the same individual goal. Summing up, the important characteristics of the behaviour in question are that the agents are mutually responsive, have the goal of achieving something together and coordinate their actions with distributed roles and action plans. The strictly human faculty to participate in collaborative actions that involve shared goals and socially coordinated action plans is also called Joint Intention. This requires an understanding of the goals and perceptions of other involved agents, as well as sharing and communicating these, which again seems to be a strictly human behaviour. Due to our special motivation to share psychological states , we also need certain complex cognitive representations. These representations are called dialogic cognitive representations, because they have as content mostly social engagement. This is especially important for the concept of joint intentions, since we need not only a representation for our own action plan, but also for our partner's plan. Joint Intentions are an essential part of Shared Intentionality. Dialogic cognitive representations are closely related with the communication and use of linguistic symbols. They allow in some sense a form of collective intentionality, which is important to construct social norms, conceptualize beliefs and, most importantly, share them. In complex social groups the repeated sharing of intentions in a particular interactive context leads to the creation of habitual social practices and beliefs. That may form normative or structural aspects of a society, like government, money, marriage, etc. Society might hence be seen as a product and an indicator of Social Cognition. The social interaction that builds ground for activities involving Shared Intentionality is proposed to be divided into three groups: - Dyadic engagement: The simple sharing of emotions and behaviour, by means of interaction and direct mutual response between agents. Dyadic interaction between human infants and adults are called protoconversations. These are turn-taking sequences of touching, face expressions and vocalisations. The exchange of emotions is the most important outcome of this interaction. - Triadic engagement: Two agents act together towards a shared goal, while monitoring the perception and goal-direction of the other agent. They focus on the same problem and coordinate their actions respectively, which makes it possible to predict following events. - Collaborative engagement: The combination of Joint Intentions and attention. At this point, the agents share a goal and act in complementary roles with a complex action plan and mutual knowledge about the selective attention and the intentions of one another. The latter aspect allows the agents to assist each other and reverse or take over roles. These different levels of social engagement require the understanding of different aspects of intentional action, as introduced above, and presuppose the motivation to share psychological states with each other. Development of Social Cognition during childhood A crucial point for Social Cognition is the comprehension of intentional action. Children's understanding of intentional action can basically be divided into three groups, each representing a more complex level of grasp. - The first one to be mentioned is the identification of animate action. This means that after a couple of months, babies can differentiate between motion that was caused by some external influence and actions that an organism has performed by itself, as an animate being. At this stage, however, the child has not yet any understanding of potential goals the observed actor might have, so it is still incapable of predicting the behaviour of others. - The next stage of comprehension includes the understanding that the organism acts with persistence towards achieving a goal. Children can now distinguish accidental incidents from intentional actions and failed from successful attempts. This ability develops after about 9 months. With this new perspective, the child also learns that the person it observes has a certain perception - thus a certain amount of predicting behaviour is possible. This is an essential difference between the first and the second stage. - After around 14 months of age, children fully comprehend intentional action and the basics of rational decision making. They realise, that an actor pursuing a goal may have a variety of action plans to achieve a goal, and is choosing between them. Furthermore, a certain sense for the selective attention of an agent develops. This allows a broad variety of predictions of behaviour in a certain environment. In addition to that, children acquire the skill of cultural learning: when they observe how an individual successfully reaches a goal, they memorise the procedure. Hence, they can use the methods to reach their own goals. This is called imitative learning, which turns out to be an extremely powerful tool. By applying this technique, children also learn how things are conventionally done in their culture. Evolutionary perspective on Social Cognition So far we discussed what Social Cognition is about. But how could this behaviour develop during evolution? At first glance, Darwin’s theory of the survival of the fittest does not support the development of social behaviour. Caring for others, and not just for oneself, seems to be a decrease of fitness. Nevertheless, various theories have been formulated which try to explain Social Cognition from an evolutionary perspective. We will present three influential theories which have been formulated by Steven Gaulin and Donald McBurney. Vero Wynne-Edwards first proposed this theory in the 1960's. From an evolutionary perspective, a group is a number of individuals which affect the fitness of each other. Group Selection means that if any of the individuals of a group is doing benefit to its group, the group is more likely to survive and pass on its predisposition to the next generation. This again improves the chance of the individual to spread its genetic material. So in this theory a social organism is more likely to spread its genes than a selfish organism. The distinction to the classical theory of evolution is that not only the fittest individuals are likely to survive, but also the fittest groups. An example would be the history of the Rapa Nui. The Rapa Nui were the natives of Easter Island which handled their resources extremely wasteful in order to build giant heads made of stone. After a while, every tree on the island was extinct because they needed the trunks to transport the stones. The following lack of food led to the breakdown of their civilization. A society which handles their resources more moderate and provident would not have ended up in such a fate. However, if both societies would have lived on one island, the second group would not have been able to survive because they would not have been able to keep the resources. This indicates the problem of the Group Selection: it needs certain circumstances to describe things properly. Additionally, every theory about groups should include the phenomenon of migration. So in this simple form, the theory is not capable of handling selfish behaviour of some agents in altruistic groups: Altruistic groups which include selfish members would turn into pure selfish ones over time, because altruistic agents would work for selfish agents, thereby increasing the cheaters' fitness while decreasing their own. Thus, Group Selection may not be a sufficient explanation for the development of Social Cognition. Since altruistic populations are vulnerable to cheaters, there must exist a mechanism that allows altruism to be maintained by natural selection. The Kin Selection approach provides an explanation how altruistic genes can spread without being eliminated by selfish behaviour. The theory was developed by William D. Hamilton and John M. Smith in 1964. The basic principle of Kin Selection is to benefit somebody who is genetically related, for example by sharing food. For the altruistic individual, this means a reduction of its own fitness by increasing the fitness of its relative. However, the closer the recipient is related to the altruist, the more likely he shares the altruistic genes. The loss of fitness can be compensated since the genes of the altruistically behaving agent have then the chance to be spread indirectly through the recipient: The relative might be able to reproduce and pass the altruistic genes over to the next generation. In principle, the disadvantage for the giver should always be less than the increased fitness of the addressee. This relation between costs and benefit is expressed by Hamilton's rule taking additionally the relatedness of altruist and recipient into account: - r shows the genetic relatedness between altruist and recipient (coefficient between zero and one), - b is the reproductive benefit or increased fitness for the recipient and - c are the altruist's reproductive costs or the reduction of his fitness in the performed action. If the product of relatedness and benefit outweighs the costs for the giver, the altruistic action should be performed. The closer the recipient is genetically related, the higher costs are acceptable. Examples for kin-selected altruism can be found in populations of social insects like ants, termites or bees. An ant colony, for instance, consists of one fertile queen and several hundreds or more of sterile female workers. While the queen is the only one reproducing, the workers are among other things responsible for brood care. The workers are genetically closer related to the sisters they raise (75%) than they would be to their own offspring (50%). Therefore, they are passing on more of their genes than if they bred on their own. According to Hamilton's rule, altruism is only favoured if directed towards relatives, that is . Therefore, Kin Selection theory accounts only for genetic relatives. Altruism however occurs among not related individuals as well. This issue is addressed by the theory of Reciprocal Altruism. The theory of Reciprocal Altruism describes beneficial behaviour in expectation of future reciprocity. This form of altruism is not a selfless concern for the welfare of others but it denotes mutual cooperation of repeatedly interacting species in order to maximise their individual utility. In social life an individual can benefit from mutual cooperation, but each one can also do even better by exploiting the cooperative efforts of others. Game Theory allows a formalisation of the strategic possibilities in such situations. It can be shown, that altruistic behaviour can be more successful (in terms of utility) than purely self-interested strategies and therefore will lead to better fitness and survivability. In many cases social interactions can be modelled by the Prisoner's Dilemma, which provides the basis of our analysis. The classical prisoner’s dilemma is as follows: Knut and his friend are arrested by the police. The police has insufficient evidence for a conviction, and, having separated both prisoners, visits each of them to offer the same deal: if one testifies for the prosecution against the other and the other remains silent, the betrayer goes free and the silent accomplice receives the full ten-year sentence. If both stay silent, the police can sentence both prisoners to only six months in jail for a minor charge. If each betrays the other, each will receive a two-year sentence. \|Prisoner 1 / Prisoner 2\|\|Cooperate\|\|Defect\| \|Cooperate\|\|6 months each\|\|10 years / free\| \|Defect\|\|free / 10 years\|\|2 years each\| Each prisoner has two strategies to choose from, to remain silent (cooperate) or to testify (defect). Assume Knut wants to minimize his individual durance. If Knut’s friend cooperates, it is better to defect and go free than to cooperate and spend six months in jail. If Knut’s friend defects, then Knut should defect too, because two years in jail are better than ten. The same holds for the other prisoner. So defection is the dominant strategy in the prisoner’s dilemma, even though both would do better, if they cooperated. In a one-shot game a rational player would always defect, but what happens if the game is played repeatedly? One of the most effective strategies in the iterated prisoner’s dilemma is the mixed strategy called Tit for Tat: Always cooperate in the first game, then do whatever your opponent did in the previous game. Playing Tit for Tat means to maintain cooperation as long as the opponent does. If the opponent defects he gets punished in succeeding games by defecting likewise until cooperation is restored. With this strategy rational players can sustain the cooperative outcome at least for indefinitely long games (like life). Clearly Tit for Tat is only expected to evolve in the presence of a mechanism to identify and punish cheaters. Assuming species are not able to choose between different strategies, but rather that their strategical behaviour is hard-wired, we can finally come back to the evolutionary perspective. In The Evolution of Cooperation Robert Axelrod formalised Darwin’s emphasis on individual advantage in terms of game theory. Based on the concept of an evolutionary stable strategy in the context of the prisoner’s dilemma game he showed how cooperation can get started in an asocial world and can resist invasion once fully established. Summing up, Social Cognition is a very complex skill and can be seen as the fundament of our current society. On account of the concept of Shared Intentionality, humans show by far the most sophisticated form of social cooperation. Although it may not seem obvious, Social Cognition can actually be compatible with the theory of evolution and various reasonable approaches can be formulated. These theories are all based on a rather selfish drive to pass on our genetic material - so it may be questionable, if deep-rooted altruism and completely selfless behaviour truly exists. - Tomasello, M. et al (2005). Understanding and sharing intentions: The origins of cultural cognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(5), 675–735. - Gaulin, S. J. C, & McBurney, D. H. (2003). Evolutionary Psychology. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. - Hamilton, W. D. (1964). The genetical evolution of social behaviour I and II. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7, 17-52. - Aumann, R. J. (1959). Acceptable Points in General Cooperative n-Person Games. Contributions to the Theory of Games IV, Annals of Mathematics Study, 40, 287-324. - Axelrod, R. (1984). The Evolution of Cooperation. New York: Basic Books.
Teacher resources and professional development across the curriculum Teacher professional development and classroom resources across the curriculum \|Mathematics: What's the Big Idea?\| Algebra: It Begins in Kindergarten.Content Guide: Monica Neagoy Supplies Needed for Workshop #7 About the Workshop What is the theme of the workshop? Whom do we see? What happens in the videoclips?We will see students from kindergarten through eigth grade using variables, studying relationships, exploring multiple representations, and making generalizations, all of which are at the heart of algebra. What issues does this workshop address?Algebra is not the meaningless abstraction nor the symbolic manipulation that math leaders are pushing to incorporate into the early curricula. Nor is it what we studied it in high school. What, then, constitues algebra in the primary and middle grades? The answer to this question is the main issue of this workshop. What teaching strategy does this workshop offer?A variety of teaching strategies will be modeled and discussed. Of note is the integration of graphing calculators in the teaching and learning of algebra. We will also see students working alone, in pairs, and in small groups and using a variety of manipulatives. To which NCTM Standards does this workshop relate?This workshop will stress number sense and spatial sense (Standards 6 and 9 in the K-4 content standards). The activities we will explore involve finding patterns and exploring relationships (Standard 13 in the K-4 standards, Standard 8 in the 5-8 standards), and measurement (Standard 10 in the K-4 standards, Standard 13 in the 5-8 standards). The four process standards (Mathematics as Problem Solving, Communication, Reasoning, and Making Connections) will also figure into this workshop. Suggested Classroom Activities and Strategies Developing Algebraic Reasoning Through Literature (K-2) Suggested Strategies This activity can be done with the entire class. Invite a volunteer to come up in front of the class and model the solution. This first solution may be in the form of a sentence or picture. Thereafter, invite others to give alternative representations for the same relationship (assuming it is correct). Explore multiple representations with the class (concrete, numerical, tabular, graphical, symbolic), pointing out the similarities and differences among them. (a) Do they see the "change" from one term to the next? Can they articulate it? Suggested Strategies This activity could begin as a whole-class activity for one or two sequences. After stressing what is important (i.e., looking at the "change" from term to term, devising generalization techniques, etc.), have students make up their own sequences and quiz their peers. It is important, every now and then, for students to be problem writers, not simply problem solvers. They invest more energy if the problem is their own creation. Also, creating a good problem can be more involved and challenging than solving one. Ask students to verbalize their findings. Encourage them to express the relationship between C and D symbolically. Suggested Strategies This activity (as well as the previous one) could be assigned to small groups of students. Divide the tasks beforehand. When the groups are done, have group reporters take turns sharing their work with the rest of the class. Encourage the "listening" groups to be attentive to the presentations by requiring an "intelligent question" of them. Finally, conclude by articulating the "big ideas." Suggested ResourcesEdwards, Ronald. Algecadabra! Algebra Magic Tricks. Pacific Grove, CA: Critical Thinking Press and Software, 1992. Lappan, Glenda, et. al. Variables and Patterns. Palo Alto, CA: Dale Seymour Publications, 1997. Laycock, Mary. Algebra in the Concrete. Hayward, CA: Activities Resources Co., Inc., 1997. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School. NCTM. February, 1997. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Algebra for Everyone. Reston, VA: NCTM, 1990. (Book and Videotape). National Council of Teachers and Mathematics. The Ideas of Algebra, K12. Reston, VA: NCTM, 1988. (Yearbook). National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Patterns: K-4 Addenda Series. Reston, VA: NCTM, 1993. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Patterns and Relationships: 5-8 Addenda Series. Reston, VA: NCTM, 1991. Teaching Children Mathematics. NCTM. February, 1997. Pre-Workshop Assignment for Workshop #8The main purpose of this assignment is to become familiar with Pascal's Triangle. If you are already familiar with it, see if you can discover patterns within the triangle which you have never found before. Let n denote the row number, beginning with: n = 0 for row "1", and then n = 1 for row "1 1", n = 2 for row "1 2 1", n = 3 for row "1 3 3 1", and so on. Mathematics: What's the Big Idea?
Middle Ages, a period of about 1,000 years in European history. It is also called the medieval period (from the Latin for “middle” and “age”). The history of Western civilization is traditionally divided into three periods—ancient, medieval, and modern. The Middle Ages is usually defined as the period between the fall of the last Roman emperor in the West (476 A.D.) and the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453) or the discovery of America (1492). The custom of calling this period the “Middle Ages” began during the Renaissance, because scholars saw it as a barbaric era separating their own age from the glories of ancient Greece and Rome. The period, especially its early part, is sometimes called the “Dark Ages” because western Europe was overrun by barbarians and much of the culture and wealth of classical civilization was lost. (Many modern historians, however, prefer not to use this term, pointing out that two great civilizations—the Byzantine and the Arabic—flourished during this period and that many of the traditions of classical civilization were preserved in the monasteries of Western Europe.) Gradually a new civilization developed, dominated by the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. During the later Middle Ages national kingdoms developed, commerce and exploration expanded, and science began to assume its modern form. The kingdoms that succeeded the Roman Empire were unstable. Charlemagne (742–814) reunited much of western Europe, but his empire was divided soon after his death. From about 900 to 1300 feudalism, a decentralized form of government, prevailed. After 1100 France, England, and Spain began to develop into strong monarchies. During the early Middle Ages trade and commerce declined greatly from their level in ancient times. The manor, a unit consisting of village and fields, was practically self-sufficient. A lord ruled the manor, and peasants tilled the soil. Most of the peasants were serfs, unfree laborers. After 1000, trade revived, towns grew, and serfdom began to decline. Craftsmen and merchants settled in towns and organized guilds to protect their interests. The Three Estates. There were three social and political classes, or estates —nobles, clergy, and common people. The function of the nobles was to govern, and that of the clergy was to worship God and tend to society's religious needs. The common people, working as peasants, craftsmen, and merchants supported the two privileged classes. Even the wealthiest nobles and clergymen lacked comforts that are taken for granted in the modern world. The peasants usually lived on the verge of famine. Amusements of the nobility included fighting, hunting, attending tournaments, and listening to the songs and stories of minstrels and bards. Markets, fairs, and church festivals provided entertainment for peasants and townspeople. Religion. Almost all the people of western Europe were members of the Roman Catholic Church. The church owned vast lands and provided all formal education. The popes ruled central Italy and greatly influenced the politics of Europe. Medieval people usually accepted the church's authority unquestioningly, though often violating its rules. Both common people and nobles were capable of acts of gross brutality, but also of religious enthusiasm and self-denial. The Crusades provided an outlet for both their religious zeal and their love of warfare. Because of the importance of religion in the Middle Ages, the period is called “The Age of Faith.” Education. Medieval education was derived from Christian teachings and from Europe's classical heritage. By 1200, universities had been founded at Bologna, Paris, and Oxford, under the auspices of the church. The main intellectual movement, which arose between the 9th and 12th century, was scholasticism, an attempt to buttress Christian faith with formal reasoning. Literature and the Arts. The medieval period was the formative age of European literature. The period began with the sagas, epics, and ballads of unlettered peoples, and ended with such masterpieces as the works of Dante and Chaucer. The great Gothic cathedrals of Europe are a testament to medieval piety and devotion to beauty. Painting and sculpture stressed religious themes, often allegorically treated. New forms of music developed, both religious and secular.
Children, by their nature, suffer many illnesses of the ears, nose and throat. Often, your child’s physician may refer him/her to an otolaryngologist for specialty care. Otolaryngology is the medical specialty that focuses on disorders of the ear, nose, and throat. Otolaryngologists are also known as ENT physicians. Ear Infections and Earache What Is Otitis Media? Otitis media means inflammation of the middle ear. The inflammation occurs as a result of a middle ear infection. It can occur in one or both ears. Otitis media is the most frequent diagnosis recorded for children who visit physicians for illness. It is also the most common cause of hearing loss in children. Although otitis media is most common in young children, it also affects adults occasionally. It occurs most commonly in the winter and early spring months. Is It Serious? Yes, it is serious because of the severe earache and hearing loss it can create. Hearing loss, especially in children, may impair learning capacity and even delay speech development. However, if it is treated promptly and effectively, hearing can almost always be restored to normal. Otitis media is also serious because the infection can spread to nearby structures in the head, especially the mastoid. Thus, it is very important to recognize the symptoms (see list) of otitis media and to get immediate attention from your doctor. How Does the Ear Work? The outer ear collects sounds. The middle ear is a pea sized, air-filled cavity separated from the outer ear by the paper-thin eardrum. Attached to the eardrum are three tiny ear bones. When sound waves strike the eardrum, it vibrates and sets the bones in motion that transmit to the inner ear. The inner ear converts vibrations to electrical signals and sends these signals to the brain. It also helps maintain balance. A healthy middle ear contains air at the same atmospheric pressure as outside of the ear, allowing free vibration. Air enters the middle ear through the narrow eustachian tube that connects the back of the nose to the ear. When you yawn and hear a pop, your eustachian tube has just sent a tiny air bubble to your middle ear to equalize the air pressure. What Causes Otitis Media? Blockage of the eustachian tube during a cold, allergy, or upper respiratory infection and the presence of bacteria or viruses lead to the accumulation of fluid (a build-up of pus and mucus) behind the eardrum. This is the infection called acute otitis media. The build up of pressurized pus in the middle ear causes earache, swelling, and redness. Since the eardrum cannot vibrate properly, you or your child may have hearing problems. Sometimes the eardrum ruptures, and pus drains out of the ear. But more commonly, the pus and mucus remain in the middle ear due to the swollen and inflamed eustachian tube. This is called middle ear effusion or serous otitis media. Often after the acute infection has passed, the effusion remains and becomes chronic, lasting for weeks, months, or even years. This condition makes one subject to frequent recurrences of the acute infection and may cause difficulty in hearing. What Are the Symptoms? In infants and toddlers look for pulling or scratching at the ear, especially if accompanied by the following - hearing problems - crying, irritability - ear drainage In young children, adolescents, and adults look for: - feeling of fullness or pressure - hearing problems - dizziness, loss of balance - nausea, vomiting - ear drainage Remember, without proper treatment, damage from an ear infection can cause chronic or permanent hearing loss. What Will Happen at the Doctor’s Office? During an examination, the doctor will use an instrument called an otoscope to assess the ear’s condition. With it, the doctor will perform an examination to check for redness in the ear and/or fluid behind the eardrum. With the gentle use of air pressure, the doctor can also see if the eardrum moves. If the eardrum doesn’t move and/or is red, an ear infection is probably present. Two other tests may be performed for more information. - An audiogram tests if hearing loss has occurred by presenting tones at various pitches. - A tympanogram measures the air pressure in the middle ear to see how well the eustachian tube is working and how well the eardrum can move. The Importance of Medication The doctor may prescribe one or more medications. It is important that all the medication(s) be taken as directed and that any follow-up visits be kept. Often, antibiotics to fight the infection will make the earache go away rapidly, but the infection may need more time to clear up. So, be sure that the medication is taken for the full time your doctor has indicated. Other medications that your doctor may prescribe include an antihistamine (for allergies), a decongestant (especially with a cold), or both. Sometimes the doctor may recommend a medication to reduce fever and/or pain. Analgesic ear drops can ease the pain of an earache. Call your doctor if you have any questions about you or your child’s medication or if symptoms do not clear. What Other Treatment May Be Necessary? Most of the time, otitis media clears up with proper medication and home treatment. In many cases, however, further treatment may be recommended by your physician. An operation, called a myringotomy may be recommended. This involves a small surgical incision (opening) into the eardrum to promote drainage of fluid and to relieve pain. The incision heals within a few days with practically no scarring or injury to the eardrum. In fact, the surgical opening can heal so fast that it often closes before the infection and the fluid are gone. A ventilation tube can be placed in the incision, preventing fluid accumulation and thus improving hearing. The surgeon selects a ventilation tube for your child that will remain in place for as long as required for the middle ear infection to improve and for the eustachian tube to return to normal. This may require several weeks or months. During this time, you must keep water out of the ears because it could start an infection. Otherwise, the tube causes no trouble, and you will probably notice a remarkable improvement in hearing and a decrease in the frequency of ear infections. Otitis media may recur as a result of chronically infected adenoids and tonsils. If this becomes a problem, your doctor may recommend removal of one or both. This can be done at the same time as ventilation tubes are inserted. Allergies may also require treatment. So, Remember . . . Otitis media is generally not serious if it is promptly and properly treated. With the help of your physician, you and/or your child can feel and hear better very soon. Be sure to follow the treatment plan, and see your physician until he/she tells you that the condition is fully cured. Doctor, Please Explain Ear Tubes Painful ear infections are a rite of passage for children – by the age of five, nearly every child has experienced at least one episode. Most ear infections either resolve on their own (viral) or are effectively treated by antibiotics (bacterial). But sometimes, ear infections and/or fluid in the middle ear may become a chronic problem leading to other issues such as hearing loss, behavior, and speech problems. In these cases, insertion of an ear tube by an otolaryngologist (ear, nose, and throat surgeon) may be considered. What are ear tubes? Ear tubes are tiny cylinders placed through the ear drum (tympanic membrane) to allow air into the middle ear. They also may be called tympanostomy tubes, myringotomy tubes, ventilation tubes, or PE (pressure equalization) tubes. These tubes can be made out of plastic, metal, or Teflon and may have a coating intended to reduce the possibility of infection. There are two basic types of ear tubes: short-term and long-term. Short-term tubes are smaller and typically stay in place for six months to a year before falling out on their own. Long-term tubes are larger and have flanges that secure them in place for a longer period of time. Long term tubes may fall out on their own, but removal by an otolaryngologist is often necessary. Who needs ear tubes and why? Ear tubes are often recommended when a person experiences repeated middle ear infection (acute otitis media) or has hearing loss caused by the persistent presence of middle ear fluid (otitis media with effusion). These conditions most commonly occur in children, but can also be present in teens and adults and can lead to speech and balance problems, hearing loss, or changes in the structure of the ear drum. Other less common conditions that may warrant the placement of ear tubes are malformation of the ear drum or Eustachian tube, Down Syndrome, cleft palate, and barotrauma (injury to the middle ear caused by a reduction of air pressure), usually seen with altitude changes such as flying and scuba diving. Each year, more than half a million ear tube surgeries are performed on children, making it the most common childhood surgery performed with anesthesia. The average age of ear tube insertion is one to three years old. Inserting ear tubes may: - reduce the risk of future ear infection, - restore hearing loss caused by middle ear fluid, - improve speech problems and balance problems, and - improve behavior and sleep problems caused by chronic ear infections. How are ear tubes inserted in the ear? Ear tubes are inserted through an outpatient surgical procedure called a myringotomy. A myringotomy refers to an incision (a hole) in the ear drum or tympanic membrane. This is most often done under a surgical microscope with a small scalpel (tiny knife), but it can also be accomplished with a laser. If an ear tube is not inserted, the hole would heal and close within a few days. To prevent this, an ear tube is placed in the hole to keep it open and allow air to reach the middle ear space (ventilation). What happens during surgery? A light general anesthetic (laughing gas) is administered for young children. Some older children and adults may be able to tolerate the procedure without anesthetic. A myringotomy is performed and the fluid behind the ear drum (in the middle ear space) is suctioned out. The ear tube is then placed in the hole. Ear drops may be administered after the ear tube is placed and may be necessary for a few days. The procedure usually lasts less than 15 minutes and patients awaken quickly. Sometimes the otolaryngologist will recommend removal of the adenoid tissue (lymph tissue located in the upper airway behind the nose) when ear tubes are placed. This is often considered when a repeat tube insertion is necessary. Current research indicates that removing adenoid tissue concurrent with placement of ear tubes can reduce the risk of recurrent ear infection and the need for repeat surgery. What to expect after surgery? After surgery, the patient is monitored in the recovery room and will usually go home within an hour if no complications are present. Patients usually experience little or no postoperative pain but grogginess, irritability, and/or nausea from the anesthesia can occur temporarily. Hearing loss caused by the presence of middle ear fluid is immediately resolved by surgery. Sometimes children can hear so much better that they complain that normal sounds seem too loud. The otolaryngologist will provide specific postoperative instructions for each patient including when to seek immediate attention and follow-up appointments. He or she may also prescribe antibiotic ear drops for a few days. To avoid the possibility of bacteria entering the middle ear through the ventilation tube, physicians may recommend keeping ears dry by using ear plugs or other water-tight devices during bathing, swimming, and water activities. However, recent research suggests that protecting the ear may not be necessary, except when diving or engaging in water activities in unclean water such as lakes and rivers. Parents should consult with the treating physician about ear protection after surgery. Myringotomy with insertion of ear tubes is an extremely common and safe procedure with minimal complications. When complications do occur, they may include: - Perforation – This can happen when a tube comes out or a long-term tube is removed and the hole in the tympanic membrane (ear drum) does not close. The hole can be patched through a minor surgical procedure called a tympanoplasty or myringoplasty. - Scarring – Any irritation of the ear drum (recurrent ear infections), including repeated in-sertion of ear tubes, can cause scarring called tympanosclerosis or myringosclerosis. In most cases, this causes no problems with hearing. - Infection – Ear infections can still occur in the middle ear or around the ear tube. However, these infections are usually less frequent, result in less hearing loss, and are easier to treat – often only with ear drops. Sometimes an oral antibiotic is still needed. - Ear tubes come out too early or stay in too long – If an ear tube expels from the ear drum too soon (which is unpredictable), fluid may return and repeat surgery may be needed. Ear tubes that remain too long may result in perforation or may require removal by the otolaryngologist. Doctor, Explain Tonsils and Adenoids Insight into Tonsillectomy and Adenoidectomy Tonsils and adenoids are masses of tissue that are similar to the lymph nodes or “glands” found in the neck, groin, and armpits. Tonsils are the two masses on the back of the throat. Adenoids are high in the throat behind the nose and the roof of the mouth (soft palate) and are not visible through the mouth without special instruments. Tonsils and adenoids are near the entrance to the breathing passages where they can catch incoming germs, which cause infections. They “sample” bacteria and viruses and can become infected themselves. Scientists believe they work as part of the body’s immune system by filtering germs that attempt to invade the body, and that they help to develop antibodies to germs. This happens primarily during the first few years of life, becoming less important as we get older. Children who must have their tonsils and adenoids removed suffer no loss in their resistance. What Affects Tonsils and Adenoids? The most common problems affecting the tonsils and adenoids are recurrent infections (throat or ear) and significant enlargement or obstruction that causes breathing and swallowing problems. Abscesses around the tonsils, chronic tonsillitis, and infections of small pockets within the tonsils that produce foul-smelling, cheese-like formations can also affect the tonsils and adenoids, making them sore and swollen. Tumors are rare, but can grow on the tonsils. When Should I See My Doctor? You should see your doctor when you or your child suffer the common symptoms of infected or enlarged tonsils or adenoids. The primary methods used to check tonsils and adenoids are: - Medical history - Physical examination - Throat cultures/Strep tests - Blood tests What Should I Expect At the Exam? Your physician will ask about problems of the ear, nose, and throat and examine the head and neck. He or she will use a small mirror or a flexible lighted instrument to see these areas. Cultures/strep tests are important in diagnosing certain infections in the throat, especially “strep” throat. X-rays are sometimes helpful in determining the size and shape of the adenoids. Blood tests can determine problems such as mononucleosis. How Are Tonsil and Adenoid Diseases Treated? Bacterial infections of the tonsils, especially those caused by streptococcus, are first treated with antibiotics. Sometimes, removal of the tonsils and/or adenoids may be recommended. The two primary reasons for tonsil and/or adenoid removal are (1) recurrent infection despite antibiotic therapy and (2) difficulty breathing due to enlarged tonsils and/or adenoids. Such obstruction to breathing causes snoring and disturbed sleep that leads to daytime sleepiness in adults and behavioral problems in children. Some orthodontists believe chronic mouth breathing from large tonsils and adenoids causes malformations of the face and improper alignment of the teeth. Chronic infection can affect other areas such as the eustachian tube – the passage between the back of the nose and the inside of the ear. This can lead to frequent ear infections and potential hearing loss. Recent studies indicate adenoidectomy may be a beneficial treatment for some children with chronic earaches accompanied by fluid in the middle ear (otitis media with effusion). In adults, the possibility of cancer or a tumor may be another reason for removing the tonsils and adenoids. In some patients, especially those with infectious mononucleosis, severe enlargement may obstruct the airway. For those patients, treatment with steroids (e.g., cortisone) is sometimes helpful. Tonsillitis and Its Symptoms Tonsillitis is an infection in one or both tonsils. One sign is swelling of the tonsils. Other signs or symptoms are: • Redder than normal tonsils • A white or yellow coating on the tonsils • A slight voice change due to swelling • Sore throat • Uncomfortable or painful swallowing • Swollen lymph nodes (glands) in the neck • Bad breath Enlarged Adenoids and Their Symptoms If you or your child’s adenoids are enlarged, it may be hard to breathe through the nose. Other signs of constant enlargement are: • Breathing through the mouth instead of the nose most of the time • Nose sounds “blocked” when the person speaks • Noisy breathing during the day • Recurrent ear infections • Snoring at night • Breathing stops for a few seconds at night during snoring or loud breathing (sleep apnea) Your child: Talk to your child about his/her feelings and provide strong reassurance and support throughout the process. Encourage the idea that the procedure will make him/her healthier. Be with your child as much as possible before and after the surgery. Tell him/her to expect a sore throat after surgery. Reassure your child that the operation does not remove any important parts of the body, and that he/she will not look any different afterward. If your child has a friend who has had this surgery, it may be helpful to talk about it with that friend. Adults and children: For at least two weeks before any surgery, the patient should refrain from taking aspirin or other medications containing aspirin. (WARNING: Children should never be given aspirin because of the risk of developing Reye’s syndrome). - If the patient or patient’s family has had any problems with anesthesia, the surgeon should be informed. If the patient is taking any other medications, has sickle cell anemia, has a bleeding disorder, is pregnant, has concerns about the transfusion of blood, or has used steroids in the past year, the surgeon should be informed. - A blood test and possibly a urine test may be required prior to surgery. - Generally, after midnight prior to the operation, nothing (chewing gum, mouthwashes, throat lozenges, toothpaste, water) may be taken by mouth. Anything in the stomach may be vomited when anesthesia is induced, and this is dangerous. When the patient arrives at the hospital or surgery center, the anesthesiologist or nursing staff may meet with the patient and family to review the patient’s history. The patient will then be taken to the operating room and given an anesthetic. Intravenous fluids are usually given during and after surgery. After the operation, the patient will be taken to the recovery area. Recovery room staff will observe the patient until discharged. Every patient is special, and recovery times vary for each individual. Many patients are released after 2–10 hours. Others are kept overnight. Intensive care may be needed for select cases. Your ENT specialist will provide you with the details of pre-operative and postoperative care and answer any questions you may have. There are several postoperative symptoms that may arise. These include (but are not limited to) swallowing problems, vomiting, fever, throat pain, and ear pain. Occasionally, bleeding may occur after surgery. If the patient has any bleeding, your surgeon should be notified immediately. Allergic Rhinitis (Hay Fever) Allergic rhinitis (hay fever) is an especially common chronic nasal problem in adolescents and young adults. Allergies to inhalants like pollen, dust, and animal dander begin to cause sinus and nasal symptoms in early childhood. Infants and young children are especially susceptible to allergic sensitivity to foods and indoor allergens. What causes allergic rhinitis? Allergic rhinitis typically results from two conditions: family history/genetic predisposition to allergic disease and exposure to allergens. Allergens are substances that produce an allergic response. Children are not born with allergies but develop symptoms upon repeated exposure to environmental allergens. The earliest exposure is through food—and infants may develop eczema, nasal congestion, nasal discharge, and wheezing caused by one or more allergens (milk protein is the most common). Allergies can also contribute to repeated ear infections in children. In early childhood, indoor exposure to dust mites, animal dander, and mold spores may cause an allergic reaction, often lasting throughout the year. Outdoor allergens including pollen from trees, grasses, and weeds primarily cause seasonal symptoms. The number of patients with allergic rhinitis has increased in the past decade, especially in urban areas. Before adolescence, twice as many boys as girls are affected; however, after adolescence, females are slightly more affected than males. Researchers have found that children born to a large family with several older siblings and day care attendance seem to have less likelihood of developing allergic disease later in life. What are allergic rhinitis symptoms? Symptoms can vary with the season and type of allergen and include sneezing, runny nose, nasal congestion, and itchy eyes and nose. A year-long exposure usually produces nasal congestion (chronic stuffy nose). In children, allergen exposure and subsequent inflammation in the upper respiratory system cause nasal obstruction. This obstruction becomes worse with the gradual enlargement of the adenoid tissue and the tonsils inherent with age. Consequently, the young patient may have mouth-breathing, snoring, and sleep-disordered breathing such as obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep problems such as insomnia, bed-wetting, and sleepwalking may accompany these symptoms along with behavioral changes including short attention span, irritability, poor school performance, and excessive daytime sleepiness. In these patients, upper respiratory infections such as colds and ear infections are more frequent and last longer. A child’s symptoms after exposure to pollutants such as tobacco smoke are usually amplified in the presence of ongoing allergic inflammation. When should my child see a doctor? If your child’s cold-like symptoms (sneezing and runny nose) persist for more than two weeks, it is appropriate to contact a physician. Emergency treatment is rarely necessary except for upper airway obstruction causing severe sleep apnea or an anaphylactic reaction caused by exposure to a food allergen. Treatment of anaphylactic shock should be immediate and requires continued observation and care. What happens during a physician visit? The doctor will first obtain an extensive history about the child, the home environment, possible exposures, and progression of symptoms. Family history of atopic/allergic disease and the presence of other disorders such as eczema and asthma strongly support the diagnosis of allergic rhinitis. The physician will seek a link between the symptoms and exposure to certain allergens. he physician will examine the skin, eyes, face and facial structures, ears, nose, and throat. In some cases, a nasal endoscopy may be performed. If the history and the physical exam suggest allergic rhinitis, a screening allergy test is ordered. This can be a blood test or a skin prick test. In most children it is easier to obtain a blood test known as the RadioAllergoSorbent Test or RAST. This test measures the amount of specific Immunoglobulin E antibodies (IgE) in the blood responding to various environmental and food allergens. The skin test results, often immediately available, may be affected by the recent use of antihistamines and other medications, dermatologic conditions, and age of the patient. The blood test is not affected by medication, and results are usually available in several days. How is allergic rhinitis treated? The most common treatment recommendation is to have the child avoid the allergens causing the allergic sensitivity. The physician will work with caregivers to develop an avoidance strategy based on the nature of the allergen, exposure, and availability of avoidance measures. Cost and lifestyle are important factors to consider. For mild, seasonal allergies, avoidance could be the most effective course of action. If pet dander is the offender, consideration should be given to removing the pet from the child’s environment. Severe symptoms, multiple allergens, year-long exposure, and limited resources for environmental control may call for additional treatment measures. Nasal saline irrigations, nasal steroid sprays, and non-sedating antihistamines are indicated for symptom control. Nasal steroids are the most effective in reducing nasal symptoms of allergic rhinitis. A short burst of oral steroids may be appropriate for some patients with severe symptoms or to gain control during acute attacks. If symptoms are severe and due to multiple allergens, the child is symptomatic more than six months in a year, and if all other measures fail, then immunotherapy (IT) (or desensitization) may be suggested. IT is delivered by injections of the allergen in doses that are increased incrementally to a maximum that is tolerated without a reaction. Maintenance injections can be delivered at increasing intervals starting from weekly to bi-weekly to monthly injections for up to three to five years. Children with pollen sensitivities benefit most from this treatment. IT is also effective in reducing the onset of pollen-induced asthma. Your child’s sinuses are not fully developed until age 20. Although small, the maxillary (behind the cheek) and ethmoid (between the eyes) sinuses are present at birth. Unlike in adults, pediatric sinusitis is difficult to diagnose because symptoms can be subtle and the causes complex. How do I know when my child has sinusitis? The following symptoms may indicate a sinus infection in your child: • a “cold” lasting more than 10 to 14 days, sometimes with a low-grade fever thick, • yellow-green nasal drainage • post-nasal drip, sometimes leading to or exhibited as sore throat, cough, bad breath, nausea, and/or vomiting • headache, usually in children age six or older • irritability or fatigue • swelling around the eyes Young children have immature immune systems and are more prone to infections of the nose, sinus, and ears, especially in the first several years of life. These are most frequently caused by viral infections (colds), and they may be aggravated by allergies. However, when your child remains ill beyond the usual week to ten days, a serious sinus infection is likely. You can reduce the risk of sinus infections for your child by reducing exposure to known allergens and pollutants such as tobacco smoke, reducing his/her time at day care, and treating stomach acid reflux disease. How will the doctor treat sinusitis? - Acute sinusitis: Most children respond very well to antibiotic therapy. Nasal decongestants or topical nasal sprays may also be prescribed for short-term relief of stuffiness. Nasal saline (saltwater) drops or gentle spray can be helpful in thinning secretions and improving mucous membrane function. If your child has acute sinusitis, symptoms should improve within the first few days. Even if your child improves dramatically within the first week of treatment, it is important that you continue therapy until all the antibiotics have been taken. Your doctor may decide to treat your child with additional medicines if he/she has allergies or other conditions that make the sinus infection worse. - Chronic sinusitis: If your child suffers from one or more symptoms of sinusitis for at least 12 weeks, he or she may have chronic sinusitis. Chronic sinusitis or recurrent episodes of acute sinusitis numbering more than four to six per year are indications that you should seek consultation with an ear, nose, and throat (ENT) specialist. The ENT may recommend medical or surgical treatment of the sinuses. - Diagnosis of sinusitis: If your child sees an ENT specialist, the doctor will examine his/her ears, nose, and throat. A thorough history and examination usually leads to the correct diagnosis. Occasionally, special instruments will be used to look into the nose during the office visit. An x-ray called a CT scan may help to determine how your child’s sinuses are formed, where the blockage has occurred, and the reliability of a sinusitis diagnosis. When is surgery necessary? Only a small percentage of children with severe or persistent sinusitis require surgery to relieve symptoms that do not respond to medical therapy. Using an instrument called an endoscope, the ENT surgeon opens the natural drainage pathways of your child’s sinuses and makes the narrow passages wider. This also allows for culturing so that antibiotics can be directed specifically against your child’s sinus infection. Opening up the sinuses and allowing air to circulate usually results in a reduction in the number and severity of sinus infections. Your doctor may advise removing adenoid tissue from behind the nose as part of the treatment for sinusitis. Although the adenoid tissue does not directly block the sinuses, infection of the adenoid tissue, called adenoiditis, or obstruction of the back of the nose, can cause many of the symptoms that are similar to sinusitis, namely, runny nose, stuffy nose, post-nasal drip, bad breath, cough, and headache. Sinusitis in children is different than sinusitis in adults. Children more often demonstrate a cough, bad breath, crankiness, low energy, and swelling around the eyes along with a thick yellow-green nasal or post-nasal drip. Once the diagnosis of sinusitis has been made, children are successfully treated with antibiotic therapy in most cases. If medical therapy fails, surgical therapy can be used as a safe and effective method of treating sinus disease in children.
Snowball Earth theory Increasing oxygen in the atmosphere could have triggered a snowball - the first of three ice-ages on Earth. In a paper delivered at the annual meeting of the Geological Society of America in Denver last week, Dr James F. Kasting, professor of geosciences and meteorology at Penn University, US, outlined his theory that rising levels of oxygen displaced methane, creating a snowball effect in the Earth's first ice-age. "For the latest two glaciations, carbon dioxide levels fell low enough to begin the glaciation process. However, for the earliest glaciation, the key may have been methane," says Kasting."Two of these glaciations occurred at 600 and 750 million years ago, but the earliest occurred at 2.3 billion years ago." A plausible explanation for glaciation at the equator in this first ice-age, according to Kasting, is that the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere fell low enough so that, over millions of years, glaciers gradually encroached from the poles to 30 degrees from the equator. Then, in about 1,000 years, the remainder of the Earth rapidly froze due to the great reflectivity of the already ice-covered areas and their inability to capture heat from the sun. The entire Earth became a snowball with oceans frozen to more than a half mile deep. "The earliest known snowball Earth occurred around the time that oxygen levels in the atmosphere began to rise," says Kasting, "Before then, methane was a major greenhouse gas in the atmosphere in addition to carbon dioxide and water vapor." Once the Earth is snow covered, it takes 5 to 10 million years for the natural activity of volcanoes to increase carbon dioxide enough to melt the glaciers. "It would have taken nearly 300 times present levels of carbon dioxide to bring the Earth out of its ice cover," says Kasting. "Then, once the high reflectivity ice was gone, the carbon dioxide would have overcompensated and the Earth would become very warm until rapid weathering would remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere," says Kasting. One reason that many scientists initially rejected the snowball Earth theory was that biological evidence does not suggest that the various forms of life on Earth branched out from the latest total glaciation. A variety of life forms had to survive from before the glaciation, which is difficult to imagine on an ice-covered world. Perhaps the ancestors of life today survived in refuges like hot springs or near undersea thermal vents. "The biological puzzle of snowball Earth is very interesting," says Kasting. "Events suggest that life was more robust than we thought and that the Earth's climate was much less stable than we assumed."
This is how 3D printers can now make glass 3D printers can now make glass, thanks to a method known as stereolithography. KARLSRUHE, GERMANY — A group of German researchers have developed a new method for making glass with 3D printing technology. The 3D printed glass is made from a mixture of glass nanoparticles and a photocurable liquid, which acts as a binding agent. Through a method known as stereolithography, the mixture is shaped and hardened after exposure to UV light. Any remaining liquid is burnt away by high heat, which further fuses the glass nanoparticles together. The research was published in the journal Nature. “We present a new method, an innovation in materials processing, in which the material of the piece manufactured is high-purity quartz glass with the respective chemical and physical properties,” Bastian Rapp, a principal investigator at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, and an author of the paper said in a press release. NEXT ON TOMONEWS Ebola returns: Outbreak in DR Congo kills three people
Torch Brazing Operations Brazing using a torch or flame is a process which can be used to join similar or dissimilar metals or alloys. Base metals which can be torch brazed include steels, copper, brass, aluminium and stainless steels. A quality joint is obtained when the process is carried out correctly, in spite of a popular belief that brazing is an inferior substitute for welding. For example, brazing brass has a strength and hardness near that of mild steel, and is much more corrosion resistant. Generally, torch brazing yields the following benefits: - leak tightness - ability to withstand pressure and vibration changes - corrosion resistance - appearance [smooth and clean] Silver brazed parts can be machined precisely, after joining. Davis Scientific Treatments [DST] carries out many torch brazing applications, found in a wide range of industries. Brazing has many advantages over other metal-joining techniques: - Brazing does not melt the base metals in the joint. - It allows much tighter control over tolerances, and produces a clean joint, without the need for further finishing. - Non similar metals, and non metals [e.g. metallised ceramics] can be brazed together. - The lower temperatures of brazing are less likely to distort the work pieces, or significantly change the crystalline structure. - Complex and multi-part assemblies can be brazed cost effectively, including thin work pieces. Brazing is less likely to result in burn-through. - Brazing is easily adapted to mass production. The individual process parameters involved are less prone to variation, so lend themselves to automation of processes. The lack of joint strength has to be taken into account, due to the softer filler materials used. The strength of base metals is usually greater than the filler metal. Brazed joints can be damaged under high service temperatures, so are usually limted in service by this factor. In the metal joining process, the filler alloy [commonly called solder] does melt, but there is no melting of the component parts of the assembly. Rather, the solder on melting flows into the joint between the parts, drawn by capillary action. The base metals are not fused, but the filler diffuses into the metal, making a surface-only alloy with the components. The joint clearances are small, to optimise the capillary action of flow. A properly designed soldered joint can turn out imperfectly, unless the correct procedures are carefully followed. These are descrbed in 6 basic steps. Torch Brazing Steps. 1. Good fit and proper clearances. As has been noted, torch brazing relies on capillary action to flow the molten filler between the base metal surfaces. Therefore, during the brazing operation, the clearance between base metal components has to be carefully controlled, and maintained unaltered. Any contaminants on the joint metal surfaces will inhibit proper brazing, as they will form a surface barrier. All oil or grease, or other dirt, must first be removed with a degreasing solvent. Sometimes a chemical treatment is required, e.g. acid pickling. 3. Fusing the components. Flux is a chemical compound which is applied to the surfaces of the joint, prior to brazing. When the metals are heated, oxides are formed, which action must be minimised. These inhibit the filler metal from wetting, and bonding to joint surfaces. Flux should be applied liberally to the base metals, preferably just prior to, or during, brazing if possible. 4. Assembly of the joint. The parts have to be positioned so that they do not move during brazing. They have to be held in correct alignment throughout the process. The easiest way is to use gravity, if shape of joint permits. Sometimes a clamping device is required. If necessary, a jig can be made. It should be designed for minimum contact with the components, to reduce heat conduction from the joint. Often jigs are used in bulk production applications. 5. Brazing operation. The actual brazing operation involves heating the assembly to soldering temperature. Usually a hand held torch is used, fuelled by gas [often acetylene]. With some common solders, the point at which the flux becomes clear does indicate that the joint area is at or near temperature. In heating pieces of unequal mass, the torch should be applied to the heavier item. In joining 2 different metals, the one with greater thermal conductivity should be favoured. 6. Cleaning the new joint. Firstly, the residue flux is removed, for which there are various methods, including use of water based solvents. Secondly, the assembly may be pickled in an acid, to remove any oxide scale, formed during the operation. Davis Scientific Treatments [DST] DST has extensive experience in the field of torch brazing, using both similar and dissimilar metals. We are always pleased to advise on a customer's particular requirements, for which we invite details of any application. Please contact us for an in-depth analysis of your particular torch brazing application. We can then supply our proposal for your consideration.
- America at War - Civics & Government - Civil Rights - First Freedoms - Labor & Work - Women in History - C3 Framework - Common Core ELA History - Social Study Standards - ISTE Standards - Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source - Provide an accurate summary of the source distinct from prior knowledge or opinions - Evaluate the accuracy, perspective, credibility and relevance of information, media, data or other resources - Communicate complex ideas clearly and effectively by creating or using a variety of digital objects such as visualizations, models or simulations. - Explore the history of journalism in the U.S. through Library of Congress primary documents. - Employ interactive features such as historical journal annotation, magnifying tools, and turning historical documents and images into social media posts. - Make an account for students to track answers, or use without an account. - Use all or part of our ten historical case studies, which cover topics from the Revolutionary War to Immigration to Watergate. - Explore the history of journalism in the United States! - Learn the ways the goals and techniques of journalists have changed over the centuries. - Use fun, interactive features including making your own social media posts based on historical records. - Imagine how journalists of the past would cover the controversies of today. Brought to you by No Account Needed
March 1st is Nuclear Remembrance Day. This is a Marshallese national holiday and is observed on the day of that the Bravo bomb was detonated, March 1st, 1954. After World War II the Marshall Islands became a US Territory and the US decided to use the Marshall Islands for testing of Nuclear devices. The Marshall Islands, specifically Bikini atoll, were chosen for nuclear testing for several reasons. - It was geographically isolated and was thousands of miles from common oceanic routes and other world powers. - It was protected by American forces and could prevent any foreigners from observing nuclear testing. - Testing could be conducted without endangering American citizens. - Bikini had a lagoon large enough for a fleet of Naval vessels. - Bikini was only inhabited by a small population of 167 people who could be easily relocated. In the early years after World War II the full negative effects of nuclear weapons were not fully understood by the public. It was during this era that the Bikini bathing suit was invented and it was named after Bikini Atoll. At the unveiling of the bikini, designer Louis Reard, stated “Like the bomb, the bikini is small and devastating.” Once the Marshall Islands were chosen, beginning in 1946 the United States over a span of 12 years detonated 67 nuclear bombs, 23 of these bombs were on Bikini atoll alone. The explosive power of these nuclear detonations was equivalent to detonating a 1.6 Hiroshima sized bomb EVERY day for the 12 years of active testing or for a total of 8,000+ Hiroshima sized bombs. On March 1, 1954, the largest bomb code named “Bravo” was detonated at Bikini Atoll. The Bravo bomb as equivalent to 17 megatons of TNT, 1,300 times more destructive than Hiroshima and was specifically designed to create vast amounts of radioactive fallout. The explosion shook islands 250 miles away, created a fireball 4 miles wide and vaporized 3 islands on the atoll. Prior to the Bravo test, the policy had been for routine evacuation of neighboring islands, but no warnings or evacuations were offered for the Bravo test, despite the U.S. knowing the wind had shifted. This placed Marshallese communities directly in the path of nuclear fallout. Three to four hours after the blast, the 64 inhabitants of neighboring Rongelap Atoll watched in wonder as the snowflake like ash from Bravo began to fall on their island, reaching a depth of 2 inches. The children played in it. People drank water saturated with it. Soon they began to experience vomiting and diarrhea, their eyes burned and their necks, arms and legs swelled. It would take two days before the US sent in a navy ship to evacuate the islanders and give them medical attention. By then the 64 people were all suffering acute radiation poisoning, with burns covering their bodies. Many would later suffer from thyroid cancers, leukemia and fertility problems. No explanation has ever been giving as to why no one was evacuated during the Bravo tests. The final nuclear tests were conducted on Bikini on July 22, 1958. Almost 60 years later, the people of Bikini Atoll remain unable to return to Bikini and remain scattered throughout the Marshall Islands as testing of their Atoll still shows unsafe levels of radiation. Bravo Fallout map 1954 Etto n̄an Raan Kein: A Marshall Islands History. by Julianne M. Walsh, Ph.D.; in collaboration with Hilda C. Heine, Ed.D.; with the assistance of Carmen Milne Bigler, Mark Stege. 2012. 526 pp. For the Good of Mankind: A History of the People of Bikini and their Islands. by Jack Niedenthal. 2nd ed. 2013. 180 pp. Day of Two Suns: U.S. Nuclear Testing and the Pacific Islanders. by Jane Dibblin. 1990. 299 pp. Paradise with an Asterisk. by S.C. Gwynne. Outside Magazine, October 2012. https://www.outsideonline.com/1905076/paradise-asterisk
The International Union for Conservation of Nature is a group dedicated to the conservation of nature and the wise use of natural resources. They maintain a comprehensive list of endangered animals called the Red List of Threatened Species. They assess plants and animals to see where they fall on a scale from “least concern” to “extinct.” The list not only identifies the species most at risk of extinction, it also makes recommendations on what needs to be done to prevent further declines. Let’s see how fair elephants are on the list and how many elephants are left in the world today. How many elephants are left in the world Today, there may be around 500,000 elephants left in the world. More than 26 million elephants once roamed the earth.©Dmytro Gilitukha/Shutterstock.com The short answer is that there are at least 463,571 elephants in the world. While this figure seems accurate, there are of course many factors to consider, and there is a huge difference in African and Asian elephant populations. Keep in mind that while there may be slightly fewer than 500,000 elephants in the world today, this total is down significantly from historical levels. In fact, it was estimated that in the 1930s there might have been 10 million elephants living on the African continent. Going back even further to the 1500’s, African elephants may have numbered as high as 26 million! Likewise, Asian elephants now comprise less than 15 percent of their historical range and are very scattered. Elephant populations around the world may be 95% to 99% down from their historic peak 500 years ago. How many African elephants are left in the world? Two wild African elephants communicate with each other. Elephants are highly social animals that need company.©JONATHAN PLEGER/Shutterstock.com As mentioned above, Africa once had as many as 26 million elephants. So the question is, how many African elephants are there today? Recent estimates put the African elephant at 415,428 remaining, but these are two different species on the continent. Let’s check them one by one. African bush elephant population Close-up of an African bush elephant at Colchester Zoo, UK.© Millie Bond – Copyright AZ Animals These elephants are listed as an endangered species and their populations are in decline. The most recent study to count was done in 2016, and the State of African Elephants report estimates that there are 415,428 elephants living in Africa. This is the sum of the African bush elephant and the African forest elephant. The greatest threat to savannah elephants is ivory poaching. Ivory was revered for its use in carvings, jewelry, piano keys, billiard balls, cutlery handles and more. african forest elephant population African forest elephant mother and her calf in the Dzanga Saline (a forest clearing) in the Central African Republic.©iStock.com/USO The African forest elephant is listed as a critically endangered species, and its population is on the decline. As mentioned above, these elephants combined with the larger jungle elephants total 415,428 individuals, so it is difficult to determine how many forest species are left. Savannah elephants are easier to document because they live in open areas on grasslands, while forest elephants can hide in dense rainforest. The greatest threat to forest elephants is also ivory poaching. Asian Elephant Population Asian elephant mother with newborn baby© Mogens Trolle/Shutterstock.com Asian elephants are listed as an endangered species, and their populations are on the decline. The latest number of Asian statues is in 2018 and is estimated at 48,323–51,680. But because some Asian elephants also live in dense tropical rainforests, it’s more difficult to get an accurate count. Data broken down by country shows that India has the largest number of elephants at 29,964. The biggest threats to these elephants are habitat loss, human conflict, poaching and illegal trade. Since female Asian elephants don’t have tusks, you’d think they’d be more protected, but trade in other elephant body parts, such as skin, has increased. The skin is used to make jewelry that is said to bring good luck. Portrait conflict is also a major threat to Asian elephants. The more humans encroach on their habitat, the more confrontational events will occur. What can be done to help elephants? There are two conservation measures designed to help maintain elephant populations. The African Elephant Conservation Act and the Asian Elephant Conservation Act, which focus on enforcing laws banning ivory imports, fund conservation programs in Asian countries. There are two things you can do to help elephants, one, never buy any ivory items, and two, educate others about elephants and their vital role in our ecosystem! I am broadly interested in how human activities influence the ability of wildlife to persist in the modified environments that we create. Specifically, my research investigates how the configuration and composition of landscapes influence the movement and population dynamics of forest birds. Both natural and human-derived fragmenting of habitat can influence where birds settle, how they access the resources they need to survive and reproduce, and these factors in turn affect population demographics. Most recently, I have been studying the ability of individuals to move through and utilize forested areas which have been modified through timber harvest as they seek out resources for the breeding and postfledging phases. As well I am working in collaboration with Parks Canada scientists to examine in the influence of high density moose populations on forest bird communities in Gros Morne National Park. Many of my projects are conducted in collaboration or consultation with representatives of industry and government agencies, seeking to improve the management and sustainability of natural resource extraction. Leave a Reply
Creating a Low Cost Ground Penetrating Radar with Two HackRFs Creating a Low Cost Ground Penetrating Radar with Two HackRFs by RTL-SDR Blog https://www.rtl-sdr.com/creating-a-low-cost-ground-penetrating-radar-with-two-hackrfs/ (sourced and republished from RSS feeds) A ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a system that uses RF pulses between 10 to 2.6 GHz to image up to a few meters below the ground. A typical GPR system consists of a transmitting radio and antenna that generates the radar pulse aimed towards the ground, and a receiving radio that receives the reflected pulse. GPR is typically used for detecting buried objects, determining transitions in ground material and detecting voids and cracks. For example, in construction it can be used to determine rebar locations in concrete, and in the military it can be used to detect non-metallic landmines and hidden underground areas. These GPR devices are usually very expensive, however researchers Jacek JENDO & Mateusz PASTERNAK from the Faculty of Electronics, Military University of Technology, Poland have released a paper detailing how two low cost HackRF software defined radios can be used to create a simple GPR. Their system uses a step-frequency continuous waveform (SFCW) signal which scans over multiple frequencies over time, and the software was written in GNU Radio. In their tests they were able to detect a dry block of sand buried 6 cm below the ground, and a wet block 20 cm below.
An application programming interface (API) is a set of tools that programmers can use to help them create software. Simply put, an API specifies how software components should interact. API interfaces are frequently used in a wide variety of fields and for a wide variety of purposes. To define the APIs concept in more detail, it is helpful to understand the basics. Let’s continue with an example to understand better. Suppose you went to a restaurant for a meal and we made a selection from the menu. From this point we forward your selections to the waiter to order. Then our selections are presented to the chef through the waiter, our food is prepared and it is returned to us. At this point we can ask ourselves, how was this dish prepared? This back and forth analogy is a starting point for this explanation. Because with an API, we don’t really know what’s going on behind the order flow in the restaurant. All we know is that we order our food and the food we order is served to us by the waiter. Now let’s continue with a real-life scenario example of how APIs work. APIs are application interfaces that provide a fast, secure and controlled communication bridge between software or databases. The way the API works is as follows. - The receiving program makes a request (API Call). This request is processed as a request to the Web server via the URI. - After receiving the request, the API calls the external program or web server. - The server sends the requested information as a response to the API. - The API passes the data it receives to the receiving program that made the request. Imagine a library with a large, diverse range of books and documents. For example, in order to do your job, you need to get some data from this library on a regular basis. Let’s say that some floors or rooms of the library are not open to everyone because they contain private data, and those who want to obtain information are given a key that only opens the relevant doors within the limits of their authority. The library security unit issues a key according to your authorization and gives it to you. With the help of this key, you can enter the floors or rooms where you can do your work, get information and carry out your work. Here the key given to you represents the API. Thanks to this card, you can access the data in the sections opened to you as you wish, without ever visiting the security unit again. In this example, each key-holding visitor is also a client program. Internet banking applications, which have been used very frequently recently, also work with the help of APIs. The application you install on your smartphone creates a bridge between your bank account information with the help of the API defined by the bank. Allows you to make transactions in your bank account after API integration. Under normal circumstances, the bank’s operating system and software are different from the operating system and software on your phone. The API allows for seamless operation and communication between these different operating systems and software. Thanks to APIs, even if the programming language or devices differ, processes run and a bridge is created. With its ease of use, speed and security, the use of APIs in software development processes and applications has increased gradually. In this article, it is mentioned how the increasingly used APIs work and examples are given.
The respiratory system plays a vital role in the body by providing oxygen, as well as excreting carbon dioxide. The three major parts of the respiratory system are the airways, the lungs, and the muscles of respiration. The airways (nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx etc.) allow air to enter the body and into the lungs. The lungs work to pass oxygen into the body, whilst removing carbon dioxide from the body. The muscles of respiration, such as the diaphragm, work in unison to pump air into and out of the lungs whilst breathing. Organs of Respiratory System Nose and Nasal Cavity - The nose is the primary opening for the respiratory system, made of bone, muscle, and cartilage. - The nasal cavity is a cavity within nose filled with mucus membranes and hairs. - Paranasal sinuses are a group of four paired air-filled spaces that surround the nasal cavity. - Maxillary sinuses are located under the eyes - Frontal sinuses are above the eyes. - Ethmoidal sinuses are between the eyes. - Sphenoidal sinuses are behind the eyes. - Function : The nose is used to inhale air into the body. The nasal cavity warms the air as it enters, acting as filtration and purifying the air by removing any dust, pollen, and other contaminants, before it passed to the inner body. - Also called the oral cavity, the mouth is the secondary exterior opening for the respiratory system. - Function : Inhaling air through the mouth allows more inhalation, as the oral cavity is far larger than the nasal cavity. The oral cavity has no hairs or filtering techniques, meaning the air you inhale does not undergo the filtration process. - Also called the throat, the pharynx is a funnel of muscle that extends from the respiratory openings to the esophagus and larynx. - Function : Air that is inhaled enters the pharynx, where it descends into the larynx via a diversion from the epiglottis. The epiglottis ensures that air can pass into the trachea, and that food enters the esophagus. - Also known as the voice box, the larynx is situated below the pharynx, in the anterior portion of the neck. - Function : Aside from allowing us the ability of speech, the larynx also acts as a defense mechanism. If any food passes into the esophagus when swallowing, the larynx produces a strong cough reflex. - Also known as the wind pipe, the trachea is a tube made of cartilage rings that are lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. - Function : The main respiratory function of the trachea is to provide a clear and unhindered airway for air to enter and exit the lungs. Inside the trachea, small hairs reside upon the inner walls. These hairs catch dust and other contaminants from inhaled air, which are later expelled via coughing. - The bronchi are two tubes stemming off of the end of the trachea. Each tube is connected to a lung. - Function : The bronchi connect the wind pipe to the lungs, allowing air from external respiratory openings to pass efficiently into the lungs. Once in the lungs, the bronchi begin to branch out into secondary, smaller bronchi, coined tertiary bronchi. - Tertiary bronchi divide to even smaller, narrower tubes known as bronchioles. - Function : Bronchioles lead to alveolar sacs, which are sacs containing alveoli. - Alveoli are hollow, individual cavities that are found within alveolar sacs. - Function : Alveoli have extremely thin walls, which allows the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide to take place within the lungs. There are estimated to be three million alveoli in the average lung. - The diaphragm is an important muscle of respiration which is situated beneath the lungs. - Function : The diaphragm contracts to expand the space inside the thoracic cavity, whilst moving a few inches inferiorly into the abdominal cavity. Whilst this is happening, the intercostal muscles also contract, which moves the rip cage up and out. The contractions force air into the lungs, by creating a negative pressure through expansion. - The lungs are a pair of large, spongy organs found in the thorax lateral to the heart and superior to the diaphragm. - Each lung is surrounded by a pleural membrane that provides the lung with space to expand as well as a negative pressure space relative to the body’s exterior. - The negative pressure allows the lungs to passively fill with air as they relax. The left and right lungs are slightly different in size and shape due to the heart pointing to the left side of the body. The left lung is therefore slightly smaller than the right lung and is made up of 2 lobes while the right lung has 3 lobes. - Function : Oxygen enters lungs as part of the air that breathe. It goes to the blood vessels deep in our lungs and then on to all parts of our body. As body uses oxygen, it makes a waste product called carbon dioxide. Physiology of Respiration Inhalation is usually an active movement. The contraction of the diaphragm muscles cause a pressure variation, which is equal to the pressures caused by elastic, resistive and inertial components of the respiratory system. In contrast, expiration is usually a passive process. Tidal volume. During inspiration, the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract, increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. This causes the intrapleural pressure to become more negative, which increases the transpulmonary pressure, causing the lungs to expand. The action of breathing in and out is due to changes of pressure within the thorax, in comparison with the outside. This action is also known as external respiration. When we inhale the intercostal muscles (between the ribs) and diaphragm contract to expand the chest cavity. Leave a Reply to Go visit http://www.car-hifi-radio-adapter.eu/ Cancel reply
3.1. For Loops¶ We’ve seen a few example programs so far that operate on multiple pieces of data in order and/or repeat some sequence of instructions repeatedly. This type of flow is called a loop, because the program loops back around to repeat instructions it just completed. We call each time we execute the body of a loop an iteration. Often, especially when dealing with large amounts of data, we want to loop through a set of things such as a list of words, the lines in a file, or a list of numbers. Lists will be covered in detail in a later chapter, but for now, it’s enough to know that we can create a list of values by writing multiple values separated by commas between When we have a list of things to loop through, we can construct a for loop for statement. A for loop starts with a for statement and includes one or more indented lines below it that make up the loop body. For In Python terms, the variable friends is a list of four strings, and the for loop goes through the list and executes the body once for each of the four strings in the list. The loop can be read like this: “For each value in friends, put that value into the variable friend and run the statements in the body of the for loop once.” Looking at the in are reserved Python keywords, friends are variables. In particular, friend is the loop variable or iteration variable for the for loop. The variable friend changes for each iteration of the loop and controls when the loop completes. The loop variable successively gets each of the strings stored friends variable in order. The CodeLens tool can help you see how for loops execute, step-by-step. In the above example, try the “Show in CodeLens” button. As you step through the code, watch the friend variable. See how it gets a new value from the list in each iteration of the loop? For loops have the form: for <var> in <sequence>: <body> Python interprets this as follows: Check to see if any values remain in <sequence>. If not, the loop ends. Otherwise: Take the next value in <sequence>and assign it to Execute the statements in Repeat (go back to step 1). There are a few important rules to keep in mind: <var>is the loop variable, and it can be any valid variable name. It is created and assigned values by the loop itself. <sequence>is any sequence of values. For now, lists are the one type of sequence we’ve seen, but there will be others. <body>is one or more Python statements, all indented below the forstatement. They all have to be indented by the same amount. Usually we use 4 spaces to indent each line. Don’t forget the colon :at the end of the for statement! It is required for the loop to be valid Python syntax. Remember, all for loops follow the same rules. If you ever encounter a new for loop that doesn’t look quite like one you’ve seen before, you can still just apply those rules to interpret the loop, step-by-step, to figure out what it does. In a sense, you can think like the computer, applying the exact same rules it does when interpreting the code, to figure out what code does. You might find the following flowchart helpful when thinking about for loops. This shows all of the steps and decisions that Python makes when interpreting a for loop. If you can remember those three basic steps and the structure that orders and organizes them, you can apply that understanding to any for loop you see. Beyond reading and understanding for loops, you need to learn how to write code using for loops. One of the best ways to do that is to see examples of for loops and to consider how they are being used. For example, the loop in the example code below is used to repeat the instructions in its body a certain number of times, but the loop variable x is never used. This is a valid way to write a for loop. Before you run the code, try to think through what it will do, then check your guess. In this case, the values from the list things are assigned into at a time, but they have no effect beyond that. The number of elements in the list still matters, though, because that controls the number of times the loop repeats here. In practice, we wouldn’t put those random values into the list just to control the number of times the loop repeats. If we just want a loop to repeat 10 times, for example, it would be confusing to anyone reading the code if we accomplish that by putting 10 arbitrary values in a list. Instead, Python provides a function called range() that we can use to generate a sequence of values of a given length. range() function generates a sequence of integers based on the argument you give it. For example, range(10) generates a sequence of 10 integers, 9 counting up by one. range(3) generates three integers: 0, 1, and 2. So if we write a for loop with a call to range(10) as the loop’s sequence, the loop will repeat 10 times. We can also access the values range() function generates by using the loop variable inside the loop. Or for a slightly more involved example: This last example adds up the values that the range() function generates, storing a growing sum in the total variable and printing it out after the loop is finished. [Remember, the CodeLens tool is an excellent way to see what a for loop is doing step-by-step! In addition to running the code examples here, use CodeLens until you can correctly guess what the program is going to do at each step.] Check your understanding Q-1: Fill in the blanks based on how the following code executes. values = [10, 5, 9, 23, 7, 2] for val in values: print(val) print(val * 10) The loop will iterate times. The first value the code prints is . The second value the code prints is . The last value the code prints is . Q-2: Fill in the blanks based on how the following code executes. for i in range(5): print("I have", i, "cookies.") The loop will iterate times. The last line the code prints is “I have cookies.”. In the ActiveCode below, write code using a for loop to print each of the words in the list provided on a line by itself. In the ActiveCode below, write code using a for loop to print the length of each of the strings in the list provided. The “length” of a string is the number of characters in it. (Remember the
What is the Circular Economy? Products have historically been designed for convenience with no consideration of the waste left behind; this is called the linear economy. A circular economy is a new, innovative approach to designing and using products; it happens when resources are used again and again and waste is reduced or eliminated. Reusing and extending the life of everyday products like electronics, clothing, and toys for as long as possible is just one way you can support the circular economy . LESSON PLANS & RESOURCES FOR YOUR CLASSROOM The Circular Classroom A range of interactive classroom activities plus enrichment homework opportunities within the easy-to-use workbooks, along with short engaging videos, activate the discovery process through collaborative and experiential learning. In turn, a new generation of creative, circular thinkers develop the thinking and doing tools necessary to design a sustainable, regenerative future through the Circular Economy. Module 1: Moving from the linear to the circular economy What is the difference in the linear and circular economies, and how does it affect us all? What kinds of actions can we take to help design a future that works better for us all? What potential for solving complex problems does a circular future hold? Module 2: Systems and sustainability How does nature work, and what is sustainability all about? How do systems in nature work? What does ‘biodegradable’ mean, and what are biocycles? How can individual actions help reduce our ecological footprints? What type of collective changes can we make to help achieve sustainability? What types of circular economy changes can we apply to our personal lives? Module 3: Design and creativity What is design and how does design affect us all? Why do humans design the world to work for the status quo? What is the difference between a professional and a citizen designer? How are systems at play all around us? How can we use creativity to create a better future? Grades : K-12 National Geographic – The Circle of Stuff Students are introduced to the concept of a circular economy and how it contrasts with the linear economies that prevail for many products. Students connect to these ideas by considering the life cycle of their favorite belonging, learning key aspects of reusing and redesigning products and processes, and engaging with case studies of successful circular economic systems. National Wildlife Federation Created in partnership with the National Wildlife Federation’s education team and Rubicon’s sustainability team, this lesson plan will encourage deeper learning for students participating in the “Trick or Trash” Halloween candy wrapper recycling campaign. It is also valuable to any students learning about recycling, sustainability or environmental preservation.
When the Greek Revolution broke out in the early months of 1821, it brought with it the revival of an idea that seemed to have gone astray after the French Revolution. The Revolutionaries themselves stated in their declaration of independence that they were fighting for liberty, equal rights and human emancipation. “We are fighting against tyranny, despotism, and the darkness of slavery,” they declared. A few months later, in their first constitution, the French revolutionaries abolished social distinctions and redistributed wealth, gave equal rights to poor and rich alike, established a functional system of distinct authorities and declared that reason and freedom go hand in hand. A slave cannot be a thinking human being, they proclaimed. It was indeed a momentous event after the undisputed victory of the conservatives against Napoleon and the consolidation of the political status quo in Europe with the Council of Vienna in 1815. No change in borders nor any change in the political regimes throughout Europe was the decision taken by the nobles and the diplomats of the all great dynasties of the period. Even the Russian Tsar insisted that there should be no change in the political map. Paradoxically, this included Russia’s major enemy, the declining Ottoman Empire, which secured its shrinking borders and its sovereignty over its subject nations. So when the Greek Revolution broke out, the conservative European alliance found its very authority questioned and challenged. When the Greeks declared their independence they gained the hostility of the established European powers and the admiration of the common people. Most historians insist that the Greek Revolution was a nationalist movement for the establishment of a Greek nation-state. In reality it was a grass root movement for human rights and freedom, a vertical movement that united most social classes under a common goal. Indeed this was a revolution of the common people against despotism and the oppression of an autocratic ruler who could not understand the changes that were happening around him. Most historians insist that the Greek Revolution was a nationalist movement for the establishment of a Greek nation-state. In reality it was a grass root movement for human rights and freedom, a vertical movement that united most social classes under a common goal: the establishment of a public sphere in which human beings could interact with equal rights, dignity, justice and solidarity. It is interesting to remember that public opinion was immediately favourable to the revolution, and the press, so heavily censored, could not hide its deep admiration for the confused news emerging from the region. Indeed other historians have presented the revolution as being organised by the middle class merchants for the Greek Diaspora, who had formed secret societies, on the model of the Masonic lodges. Yet all these societies disappeared the first day of the revolution; we have no information about them after the day the Greeks emancipated themselves from the role of the enslaved nation. Others have insisted on romantic philhellenism that permeated the post-Enlightenment Europe; yet these were contributing factors, not the fundamental reasons. The first declaration by Alexandros Ypsilanti stated “Fight for Faith and Motherland! The time has come, O Hellenes. Long ago the people of Europe, fighting for their own rights and liberties, invited us to imitation … The enlightened peoples of Europe are occupied in restoring the same well-being, and, full of gratitude for the benefactions of our forefathers towards them, desire the liberation of Greece.” It was a wake-up call; Greeks were not simply fighting for faith and motherland but for their rights and liberties; indeed these ideas coexisted in the mind and the various trends amongst them and later caused enormous trouble and disunity. After so many centuries of enslaved existence, freedom was an unfeasible dream for those who grew up in conditions of repression and fear. The father of Greek nationalism, Adamantios Koraes, from his diasporic position in Paris, sent his own edition of Aristotle’s Politics to the revolutionaries with a long letter recommending a program of social reforms and the introduction of a system of checks and balances in order to regain, as he stated, “our human nature”. He suggested that our humanity was in its expression a political issue, a question that had to be resolved through dialogue and negotiations. It is obvious that the Greek revolution was a great promise in an era of conservative rule and diminished expectations. It was not simply a nationalistic movement; it was predominantly a political and social uprising which disruptuted the domination of autocracy and totalitarianism. It renewed the great promises of the American and French revolutions, and brought their ideas for the first time into Eastern Europe and the Balkans, accelerating thus the process of fragmenting the surviving medieval empires by introducing the ideas of self-determination and self-government. Like any other revolution however the Greek revolution remained incomplete. It established an independent state which in its function undermined and finally abolished the promises of the revolution. Most revolutionaries were imprisoned, or died in utter poverty. The Revolution itself became a national myth, de-politised and de-radicalised, with racialist undertones and quasi-religious character. Today we can critically revisit the legacy of the early days and years of the revolution; we honour the visionary projects and empowering ideas; we admire the courage and the self-negation of the individuals; and yet feel rather sad with what followed. But the legacy remains declaring again and again that the struggle for human freedom, dignity and justice never ends and we have to carry it on from generation and generation and win again and again what the great people of the past have struggled to achieve for us.
Federal government debt rose from $3.3 trillion in 2001, to $10.1 trillion in 2011, to $23.0 trillion in 2021. Under current law, the CBO expects debt to rise to $35.8 trillion by 2031. If Congress passes the spending increases in the Democratic budget resolution, debt will rise to $40.1 trillion by 2031, according to CRFB. This is “debt held by the public,” meaning federal borrowing from domestic and foreign creditors. The chart scales the debt to the number of U.S. households. Debt per household under the Democratic plan would rise from $179,082 in 2021 to $288,047 by 2031. That debt is not like mortgage debt where households have a hard asset to match what they owe. Rather, it is the government going on a consumption spending spree and putting $288,047 on each household’s credit card. That is because just 5 percent of federal spending is for hard assets such as highways and fighter jets. By ballooning the debt today, politicians are imposing large and rising burdens on households tomorrow. Here are further observations: - Federal debt today is 103 percent of GDP and would rise to 119 percent by 2031 under the Democratic spending plan. That level of debt is higher than the 31 percent reached in the Civil War, 33 percent reached in World War I, and 106 percent reached in World War II. Today we are not at war, and politicians show no interest in paying down the debt as they did after past wars. - Bill Clinton was the last president to balance the budget, but the chronic red ink began in the 1930s with the rise of Keynesian economics and the invention of auto‐pilot entitlement programs. Deficit spending has been supercharged in recent years by the rise in global capital markets, which makes vast borrowing much easier. From 1791 to 1930, federal politicians balanced the budget 68 percent of the years, but since 1931 they have balanced it only 13 percent of the years. - America’s combined federal and state government debt in 2021 at 141 percent of GDP is far higher than the OECD average of 100 percent of GDP, and much higher than debt levels in Australia, Denmark, Ireland, Israel, Germany, Korea, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Sweden. - Rising debt may trigger an economic crisis with soaring interest rates and falling output. Greece’s debt crisis a decade ago created long‐lasting damage, and the country’s real income per capita is still down one‐quarter from its pre‐crisis level. America’s government debt today is about the same size relative to GDP as was Greece’s before its debt crisis. - With the Democratic spending plan, federal interest costs will top $1 trillion a year by 2031. But that assumes the CBO baseline projection of interest rates rising only to 1.9 percent on short‐term federal debt and 3.2 percent on long‐term debt. I think that is a rosy scenario. The risk is on the upside. If interest rates rise more than projected, it will have a huge budget impact because the debt is so large.
What are germiest places at school? Lunch boxes, door handles, toilets, oh my! Colds and infections often make their way into homes via the classroom. The CDC reports that “some viruses and bacteria can live from as little as 20 minutes and up to 2 hours or more on surfaces like cafeteria tables, doorknobs and desks.” Though proper hand washing may keep germs at bay, parents may be surprised to learn where in school that their children pick up germs and illnesses. Classrooms are filled with pencils, crayons, markers, books and other school supplies. Even the desk your child sits in can spread germs. Teachers can help curb the spread of germs by encouraging weekly cleaning of desktops and desk contents. In addition, students should be encouraged to throw tissues away after use rather than stuffing them in their desks. Studies have found that the dirtiest thing in the classroom is often the pencil sharpener. To avoid it, WebMD suggests that parents should provide mechanical pencils instead. WebMD notes that the lunchroom isn’t always as sanitary as it should be, especially if your children are sharing their food, failing to wash their hands before eating, or taking their lunch out of a lunchbox that hasn’t been properly cleaned. Parents and children can tackle the germs that live and spread in the lunchroom by sharing slices of food, rather than bites, preparing lunches after hand washing and on a clean surface, and washing hands before and after eating. Parents and teachers regularly remind children to wash their hands after using the bathroom, but many don’t think about other ways that germs are spread through the bathroom. Carrying in backpacks and purses and placing them on the floor, for example, spreads germs to you and wherever your bag goes, too. WebMD encourages students to hang bags if they must take them into the bathroom. Wondering where your child got lice? These insects often spread in schools where children are in close contact. Ask your child’s teacher about his or her policy for washing pillows, chair covers and other fabrics found in the classroom. Teachers of young children often have a book nook or library corner that is meant to be comfy for kids. However, once children sit down and get comfortable, lice and germs can spread to fabrics. If a place like this exists in your child’s classroom, it’s a breeding ground for germs. The best ways to avoid inviting unwanted germs into your home is to nip them in the bud before they arrive on your doorstep. The CDC encourages regular hand washing, covering your nose and mouth with a tissue that is promptly thrown away, and avoiding touching eyes, mouths and noses. By promoting the same, you help keep the germiest places at school a little bit cleaner, and away from your front door.
A lot of the life on our planet is very, very small. Most of our planet is made up of water. These two ideas are easily memorized, but not as easily grasped. Life in One Cubic Foot at the National Museum of Natural History looks at where these two facts intersect. Scientists placed biocubes, cubes measuring one-foot by one-foot by one-foot, in the ocean and studied all the life that swam, floated, or swished through it for one day. And the amount of life in just that one cubic foot is staggering. Even more mind-blowing? All of those critters play a role in maintaining the oceans, and therefore our planet. That’s right, these tiny things maintain the planet. By studying these creatures, scientists can learn about the ocean’s biodiversity and how ecosystems work. Obviously, this is important, as is sharing this information with the public. But how can we do that? It’s easy enough to gather a few dozen people around an elephant – but how do we huddle around something not quite the size of a sea-monkey? We make a scale model of it. The idea of a scale model often conjures up ideas of miniatures – like cars or ships. In order to make those things easier to understand, model makers scale them down. The reverse also works: model makers can scale things up. In the case of the Paraphronima gracilis, a creature so uncommon that it only has a Latin name, that meant creating a 13-inch sculpture of a creature that in reality, is smaller than a dime. Smithsonian Exhibits model maker Carolyn Thome took on the challenge of making a realistic model of this diminutive crustacean. Working with photographs and drawings by NMNH research zoologist Karen Osborn, Carolyn created a model Paraphronima gracilis using the digital sculpting program zbrush. Carolyn met with Karen throughout the process to ensure accuracy and to fine-tune the digital sculpture before 3D printing the file. To ensure a successful 3D print, Carolyn organized the model into three sections: the outer eye, the inner eye, and the body and legs. Our in-house 3D printer only prints in an opaque material, and Paraphronima gracilis is translucent. Carolyn had an outside company that could print in a clear polymer print her digital sculpture. The three sections were printed separately and then Carolyn sanded them. And sanded them. And then sanded them some more. This reduced the build lines and made the model as smooth and polished as possible. She then fit the sections together and bound it with adhesive to create the final model. Once it was assembled, she sprayed a few coats of two-part automotive urethane clear coat to enhance the translucency and protect the model from UV rays. You can visit our transparent friend in the focus gallery of the Sant Ocean Hall on the first floor of the National Museum of Natural History.
SAVING EYESIGHT: DEVELOPING A TEST TO DETECT GLAUCOMA AT ITS EARLIEST STAGES Scientists are reporting progress toward a test that could revolutionize the diagnosis of glaucoma – the second leading cause of vision loss and blindness worldwide – by detecting the disease years earlier than usually happens at present. They reported the findings at the 239th National Meeting of the American Chemical Society (ACS). 'We are confident that we're moving toward a breakthrough that will allow us to detect glaucoma at its earliest stage,' said Chenxu Yu, Ph.D., who headed the study. 'We hope it will benefit millions of glaucoma patients and individuals at risk for this devastating eye disease worldwide.' Glaucoma is a group of eye disorders that can damage the optic nerve, which carries visual information from the eye to the brain. It usually occurs when fluid pressure inside the eye slowly increases over time. The fluid presses on the optic nerve and damages it. Glaucoma affects about 70 million people worldwide, including about 2 million in the United States. It damages vision by stealth, with no obvious warning symptoms that would send patients to a doctor. There is no cure, and glaucoma causes irreversible loss of vision. Doctors now use two main techniques to detect the disease. One test is tonometry, which measures eye pressure by gently touching a special instrument to the outer surface of the eye. The other is ophthalmoscopy, in which an eye specialist uses an instrument called an ophthalmoscope to look directly through the pupil of the eye at the optic nerve. The nerve's color and appearance can indicate the presence of damage from glaucoma. 'All too often, these tests detect glaucoma after the disease has been silently causing damage to the optic nerve,' Yu explained. 'Years may pass between the first biological change associated with glaucoma inside the eye and diagnosis. We need ways of diagnosing glaucoma earlier, before permanent damage has occurred, so that patients can begin taking medication to control it.' In their ACS report, Yu and colleagues described development and early testing of a potential new early diagnostic method. It gives a mainstay tool in chemistry labs – Raman spectroscopy – a potential new life in medicine. The technique as used in chemistry and other laboratories involves focusing a beam of infrared laser light – invisible to the human eye – into a test sample to get information about the sample's composition. Yu's method uses Raman spectroscopy to shine laser light through the pupil of the eye. Optic nerve cells (retinal ganglion cells) inside the eye scatter the light, producing a rainbow-like 'spectrum' or pattern revealing the chemical composition of the cells. Scientists can then use that snapshot to identify biochemical changes in retinal cells that announce the presence of glaucoma. Efforts are underway to use Raman spectroscopy – named for an Indian scientist who won the Nobel Prize for developing it – elsewhere in medicine (i.e., cancer diagnosis). But Yu described this research as among the first attempts to apply the Raman technology to diagnosis of glaucoma. Yu and his colleague, Dr. Sinisa Grozdanic, a glaucoma researcher and Director of Animal Research for the Iowa City Veterans Administration Center for Treatment and Prevention of Vision Loss (VA CPTVL), are pleased with results of animal retinal tissue testing from glaucomatous dogs, in which the technique detected glaucomatous changes with 90 percent accuracy, the scientists say.
Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous emission of proton (α- particles), electrons (β-particles) and gamma rays (short wave electromagnetic waves) due to the disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements. These cause radioactive pollution. Sources of Radioactive Pollution Artificial Sources of Radioactive pollution - Accidents in nuclear power plants and nuclear waste. - Nuclear weapon testing and explosion (Nuclear fallout). The fall Out contains radioactive substances such asstrontium-90, cesium-137, iodine-131, etc. - Uranium mining and mining of other radioactive material like thorium etc. Uranium contamination is well observed in India. - Radiation therapy and direct exposures to radiation for diagnostic purposes (e.g. X-rays), chemotherapy etc. - The slow nuclear radiations can emanate from a variety of sources viz. nuclear reactors, laboratories, hospitals, and direct exposures to X-rays etc. - They include cosmic rays from space and terrestrial radiations from radio-nuclides present in earth’s crust such as radium-224, uranium-238, thorium-232, potassium-40, carbon-14, etc. - Some species of animals and plants preferentially accumulate specific radioactive, materials. For example, oysters deposit 65Zn, fish accumulate 55Fe, marine animals selectively deposit 90Sr. Effects of Radioactive pollution The use of nuclear energy has two very serious inherent problems. - accidental leakage, as occurred in the Three Mile Island, Chernobyl and Fukushima incidents - safe disposal of radioactive wastes. It has been recommended that storage of nuclear waste, after sufficient pre-treatment, should be done in suitably shielded containers buried within the rocks, about 500 m deep below the earth’s surface. However, this method of disposal is meeting stiff opposition from the public. The quick devastating and immediate effects of nuclear radiations are well known as witnessed following Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan during world war II. Continued small dose exposure to nuclear radiation can cause childhood leukemia, miscarriage, underweight babies, infant deaths, increased susceptibility to AIDS and other immune disorders and increased criminalities. Underground bomb testing releases radiations in very small doses of radicals that pollute water and soil. This radioactive water is taken by plants through roots. The radioactivity enters the food chain when such plants are eaten by animals and humans. Such radioactivity has been detected even in the milk. Radiation, that is given off by nuclear waste is extremely damaging to biological organisms because it causes mutations to occur at a very high rate. At high doses, nuclear radiation is lethal but at lower doses, it creates various disorders, the most frequent of all being cancer. Ionizing and Non-Ionizing Radiation - Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous emission of proton (alpha-particles), electrons (beta particles) and gamma rays (short wave electromagnetic waves) due to the disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements. These cause radioactive pollution. - Radiations can be categorized into two groups namely the non-ionizing radiations and the ionizing radiations. - Non-ionizing radiations are constituted by the electromagnetic waves at the longer wavelength of the spectrum ranging from near infra-red rays to radio waves [include higher wavelength ultraviolet rays, microwaves etc.]. - These waves have energies enough to excite the atoms and molecules of the medium through which they pass, causing them to vibrate faster but not strong enough to ionize them. - In a microwave oven, the radiation causes water molecules in the cooking medium to vibrate faster and thus raising its temperature. - They may damage eyes which may be caused by reflections from coastal sand, snow (snow blindness) directly looking towards the sun during an eclipse. - They injure the cells of skin and blood capillaries producing blisters and reddening called sunburns. - Ionizing radiations cause ionization (one or more electrons are pealed out from the outer shells of an atom) of atoms and molecules of the medium through which they pass. - Ionization is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing electrons to form ions, often in conjunction with other chemical changes. - Electromagnetic radiations such as short wavelength ultraviolet radiations (UV), Xrays and gamma rays and energetic particles produced in nuclear processes, electrically charged particles like alpha and beta particles produced in radioactive decay and neutrons produced in nuclear fission, are highly damaging to living organisms. - Electrically charged particles produced in the nuclear processes can have sufficient energy to knock electrons out of the atoms or molecules of the medium, thereby producing ions. - The ions produced in water molecules, for example, can induce reactions that can break bonds in proteins and other important molecules. - An example of this would be when a gamma ray passes through a cell, the water molecules near the DNA might be ionized and the ions might react with the DNA causing it to break. - They can also cause chemical changes by breaking the chemical bonds, which can damage living tissues. - Short range effects include burns, impaired metabolism, dead tissues and death of the organisms. - Long range effects are mutations increased the incidence of tumors and cancer, shortening of life-span and developmental changes. Non-ionising radiations affect only those components which absorb them and have low penetrability. Ionizing radiations have high penetration power and cause breakage of macromolecules. Biological Damage Due to Ionizing Radiations - The biological damage resulting from ionizing radiations is generally termed as radiation damage. - Large amounts of radiation can kill cells that can dramatically affect the exposed organism as well as possibly its offspring. - Affected cells can mutate and result in cancer. A large enough dose of radiation can kill the organism. - Radiation damage can be divided into two types: (a) somatic damage (also called radiation sickness) and (b) genetic damage. - Somatic damage refers to damage to cells that are not associated with reproduction. - Effects of somatic radiation damage include reddening of the skin, loss of hair, ulceration, fibrosis of the lungs, the formation of holes in tissue, a reduction of white blood cells, and the induction of cataract in the eyes. This damage can also result in cancer and death. - Genetic damage refers to damage to cells associated with reproduction. This damage can subsequently cause genetic damage to from gene mutation resulting in abnormalities. Genetic damages are passed on to the next generation. - The biological damage caused by the radiation is determined by the intensity of radiation and the duration of the exposure. - It depends on the amount of energy deposited by the radiation in the biological system. - For example, alpha particles (protons) do much more damage per unit energy deposited than do beta particles (electrons). - A traditional unit of human-equivalent dose is the rem, which stands for radiation equivalent in man. - At low doses, such as what we receive every day from background radiation (<1 mrem), the cells repair the damage rapidly. - At higher doses (up to 100 rem), the cells might not be able to repair the damage, and the cells may either be changed permanently or die. - Cells changed permanently may go on to produce abnormal cells when they divide and may become cancerous. - At even higher doses, the cells cannot be replaced fast enough and tissues fail to function. An example of this would be “radiation sickness.” This is a condition that results after high doses are given to the whole body (>100 rem). Damage due to radiation particles - Alpha particles can be blocked by a piece of paper and human skin. - Beta particles can penetrate through the skin, while can be blocked by some pieces of glass and metal. - Gamma rays can penetrate easily to human skin and damage cells on its way through, reaching far, and can only be blocked by a very thick, strong, massive piece of concrete. Half-Life – Period of Radioactivity - Each radioactive material has a constant decay rate. Half-life is the time needed for half of its atoms to decay. - The half-life of a radionuclide refers to its period of radioactivity. The half-life may vary from a fraction of a second to thousands of years. - The radionuclides with long half-time are the chief source of environmental radioactive pollution. Accidents at nuclear power plants - Nuclear fission in the reactor core produces a lot of heat which if not controlled can lead to a meltdown of fuel rods in the reactor core. - If a meltdown happens by accident, it will release large quantities of highly dangerous radioactive materials in the environment with disastrous consequences to the humans, animals, and plants. - To prevent this type of accidents and reactor blow up, the reactors are designed to have a number of safety features. Inspire of these safety measures three disasters in the nuclear power plants are noteworthy –Three Mile Island’ in Middletown (U.S.A.) in 1979, Chernobyl (U.S.S.R.) in 1986 and Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011. - In the first two cases, a series of mishaps and errors resulted in overheating of the reactor core and lot of radiation was released into the environment. - The leakage from the Three Mile Island reactor was apparently low and no one was injured immediately. However, in the case of Chernobyl, the leakage was very heavy causing the death of some workers and radiation spread over large areas scattered all over Europe. - The latest one – Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident was triggered by an earthquake. - Other important nuclear power plant disasters include Chalk River, Canada, Windscale Plutonium Production Center, U.K and Monju, Japan. - Accidents with nuclear submarines and nuclear warships is a possibility. Safe Disposal of Nuclear Wastes Radioactive wastes are of two types - low-level radioactive wastes (LLW) which include civilian applications of radionuclides in medicine, research, and industry, materials from decommissioned reactors, protective clothing is worn by persons working with radioactive materials or working in nuclear establishments. - High-level radioactive wastes (HLW) results from spent nuclear fuel rods and obsolete nuclear weapons. Some proposed methods of disposing nuclear waste are: - Bury it deep underground in insulated containers. This is a strategy being pursued in the United States. - shoot it into space or into the sun. The cost would be very high and a launch accident should be disastrous. - bury it under the ice sheet of Antarctica or Greenland ice cap. The ice could be destabilized by heat from the waste. The method has been prohibited by international law. - dump it into deep oceans by keeping the waste into glass and steel cases. But the containers might leak and contaminate the ocean. - change it into harmless or less harmful isotopes. Currently, no method is known to do that and the method would be too costly. - presently waste fuel rods are being stored in special storage ponds at reactor sites or sent to reprocessing plants. Even though reprocessing is more expensive but some countries use reprocessing as an alternative to waste storage. Preventive/Control Measures of Radioactive Pollution - Prevention is the best control measure as there is no cure available for radiation damage. - All safety measures should be strictly enforced. UN should have more powers to perform safety checks in various nuclear establishments across the world. - Worldwide monitoring of radiation leakage should be a priority. - Proper technologies should be developed to prevent contamination of water and soil by radioactive waste and radioactive materials. - More avenues for safe disposal of radioactive must be worked out. - Regular monitoring through frequent sampling and quantitative analysis in domestic nuclear establishments. - Appropriate steps should be taken to protect from occupational exposure. - Gradually decreasing the share of nuclear power is a necessity. - The world must unite to ban production and use of nuclear weapons. Impact Of Radiation From Mobile Phone Towers - The radiation that comes from mobile tower radiation is non-ionizing radiation. - Every antenna on cell phone tower radiates electro-magnetic radiation (power). - One cell phone tower is being used by a number of operators, more the number of antennas more is the power intensity in the nearby area. - The power level near towers is higher and reduces as we move away. - EMR may cause cellular and psychological changes in human beings due to thermal effects that are generated due to absorption of microwave radiation. - The exposure can lead to genetic defects, effects on reproduction and development, Central Nervous System behavior etc. - EMR can also cause non thermal effects which are caused by radio frequency fields at levels too low to produce significant heating and are due to movement of calcium and other ions across cell membranes. - Such exposure is known to be responsible for fatigue, nausea, irritability, headaches, loss of appetite and other psychological disorders. - The current exposure safety standards are purely based on the thermal effects considering a few evidences from exposure to non-thermal effects. Impact on birds - The surface area of the bird is relatively larger than their body weight in comparison to the human body so they absorb more radiation. - Also, the fluid content in the body of the bird is less due to small body weight so it gets heated up very fast. - The magnetic field from the towers disturbs birds’ navigation skills hence when birds are exposed to EMR they disorient and begin to fly in all directions. - A large number of birds die each year from collisions with telecommunication masts. What are the responsibilities of Stakeholders? - The MoEF has to notify the impacts of communication towers on wildlife and human health to the concerned agencies for regulating the norms for notification of standards for a safe limit of EMR. - Regular monitoring and auditing in urban localities/educational/hospital/industrial/ residential/recreational premises including the Protected Areas and ecologically - Carry out an ‘Ecological Impact Assessment’ before giving permission for construction of towers in wildlife and ecologically important areas. State Environment and Forest Department - State Environment and Forest Department are entrusted with the task of providing regular awareness among the people about the norms on cell phone towers and the dangers of EMR from them. Department of Telecommunications - Avoid overlapping of high radiation fields. New towers should not be permitted within a radius of one kilometer of the existing tower. - The location and frequencies of cell phone towers and other towers emitting EMR should be made available in the public domain GIS mapping of all the cell phone towers to be maintained to monitor the population of bird and bees in and around the wildlife protected area and the mobile towers. - Need to refine the Indian standard on safe limits of exposure to EMR, keeping in view the available literature on impacts on various life forms. - To undertake Precautionary approaches to minimize the exposure levels and adopt stricter norms perennial, that live longer than agricultural crops. - Any study conducted on the impact of EMF radiation on wildlife needs to be shared to facilitate appropriate policy formulations.
History of ancient Egypt (period 3300-30 BC) tells not only about kings, queens and their everyday life, but also about political events in Old, Middle and New Kingdom under great Pharaohs rule. What was status of a Pharaoh in ancient Egypt? Pharaoh was an earthly son of Ra, the highest of all deities. His title came from the ancient Egypt name for king's institution as a Great palace. He guaranteed the running of the world and was responsible for it as a spiritual leader and ruler. He was considered as a living Horus, reincarnation and legitimate successor of the first mythic king Horus - the hawk god and a son of Isis and Osiris, who inherited the Egyptian kingdom from his father. There is how history describes the Pharaoh: "As "a good God" you are praised by your liege people, worshipped by priests, you caused fear in enemies. You are a Pharaoh, the one, whose name we pronounce with fear and also the one, whom we respectfully called God, Ruler, His majesty, Horus in palace or King. You are a sacred being and so you have all power in your hands. You keep your eye fatherlike on your liege people and their prosperity and safety as well. You are a human God and king according to the principle of Maat, the goddess of truth and justice. As a child of Ra, the omnipotent God-Sun, you also maintain a world-wide and original order on Earth and fight against unleashing a chaos. There is nothing what could disturb stars movement, Nile flooding or relationships among people under your benignant care. As a spiritual leader you are the only voice of gods on Earth. You let build their temples and sanctuaries." Pharaoh was the master of both lands (after southern and northern Egypt integration) and he was a guarantee of Egypt unity. He wears pschent - a double crown on his head with a protective hawk and a cobra (uraeus). The crown symbolized the rule over Upper and Lower Egypt. Pschent was a combination of high white crown of Upper Egypt (Hedjet) and red crown of Lower Egypt (Deshret). Except the crown other symbols of Pharaoh's power were also Egyptian cross (ankh) - a symbol of life, crook a symbol of a high dignitary, flail (flagellum), a sceptre (was), which developed from a forked stick for killing serpents. The stick's bottom ended with little fork and there was a greyhound head on the top, which reminded the mysterious animal of Seth. The bodies of Pharaohs were mummified and laid in sarcophaguses after their death. The mummy of died Pharaoh was brought into the tomb on the western Nile bank 70 days after death, where "the sun disappears". The coffin was ferried across the river by a big ship decorated with flowers and the coffin was laid in a painted case under canopy during the journey. The priest was wreathed into leopard skin at the ceremony and he started with incense smoking and sacred texts recitation during the sail. Pharaoh's relatives, friends and servants sailed on other ships. Simultaneously funereal equipment and oblations were ferried, that were laid into the tomb. The coffin was laid on a sleigh pulled by oxen on the other riverbank. The sarcophagus was erected at the tomb in front of the entrance. The queen knelt and uttered "farewell with the dead". The priest started the opening of the mouth ceremony then, touched the Pharaoh's face with wooden adze and chisel and return him into life in this way, so he could speak, eat and see again. An animal was sacrificed after various rituals and the sarcophagus was brought into the tomb in the end. You can see the way of laying Pharaoh's body in a sarcophagus on Tutankhamun's sarcophagus. You can also download a list of Egyptian Pharaohs and a detailed overview of the rulers in particular dynasties from the beginning of Egypt till its affiliation as another province to Rome in year 30 BC after the battle of Actium.
Display until March 24, 2015 The Neatest Little Paper Ever Read ® March is National Kidney Month, a time to heighten awareness on the importance of these important organs. • Your kidneys, those bean-shaped organs, are vital to the function of your body. Located just below the rib cage, with one on each side of the spine, each kidney measures about 4.5 inches in length, about the size of your computer mouse. Weighing in at 4 to 6 oz. each, they account for just 0.5% of the average person’s body weight. • Although they are small in size, the kidneys are very complex organs, purifying blood and eliminating the body’s waste. Every day, the kidneys filter the entire body’s blood supply about 400 times, recycling about 400 gallons daily. In just one hour, the kidneys take in 120 pints of blood, with the flow higher than that of the heart, liver, and brain. About 25% of the blood pumped out by the heart heads for the kidneys. • Each kidney contains between 1 million and 2 million nephrons, tiny little filters that filter the blood and eliminate waste. Contrast this with a mouse kidney that contains just 12,500 nephrons. If all the nephrons in both human kidneys were placed end to end, they would cover a distance of nearly 10 miles. Each nephron separates water, acid, ions, and molecules from the blood, filters out wastes and toxins, and returns essential molecules to the blood. About half a cup of blood is filtered every minute. • If one kidney fails, the other steps up to handle the load. The nephrons have the capability of enlarging to keep things working through a process known as hypertrophy. • Some people, especially those who are obese or take calcium supplements, are at a higher risk of kidney stones. The stones occur when a solid piece of material develops in the urinary tract, causing severe pain in the lower back or abdomen. Other contributors include a diet high in animal protein, sodium, refined sugars, milk, grapefruit and apple juices, and the excessive use of antacids. • It’s estimated that about 500 million people worldwide, about 10% of the adult population, have kidney disease, and many don’t even know it. Its progress can be slowed down, but the damage cannot be reversed. While many things can contribute to kidney disease, the leading causes are high blood pressure and diabetes. Tight control of blood sugar levels can slow the disease’s advancement. Cutting down on processed foods can be a big help, since these are usually high in sodium, nitrates, and phosphates, which have been linked to kidney disease. The kidneys can also be damaged by excessive use of NSAIDS, such as ibuprofen and naproxen. • About 1.5 million people go through kidney dialysis or a transplant every year. Dialysis removes excess water, solutes, and toxins from the blood in those whose kidneys cannot perform these functions. The first kidney transplant was performed in 1933 by Ukranian surgeon Yuri Voronv. Although the patient died within two days, Voronov’s work was an important milestone in the world of medicine. The first successful kidney transplant was performed in 1954 by Dr. Joseph Murray, who transplanted the kidney of one identical twin into another at a Massachusetts hospital.
Scientists at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) have demonstrated the use of an ultrafast laser "frequency comb" system for improved remote measurements of distance and vibration. The technology, described in a forthcoming issue of Optics Letters, may have applications in automated manufacturing or defense systems because it enables unusually precise characterization of the range profile and motion of a surface. The NIST laboratory system is an adaptation of light detection and ranging (LIDAR), which transmits light through the air to a target and analyzes the weak reflected signal to measure the distance, or range, to the target and other parameters. The NIST system uses an infrared laser that emits a continuous train of very brief, closely spaced pulses of light of many colors, or frequencies. An analysis of the frequencies reveals a very fine "comb" of evenly spaced teeth. The short pulse length (quadrillionths of a second, or millionths of a billionth of a second) creates a wide range of comb frequencies, enabling more accurate range measurements; the inherent stability of the laser creates fine comb teeth, enabling very precise vibration measurements. The frequency comb serves as both the light source and as a precise ruler for measuring the reflected signal. NIST-developed software analyzes the intensity of the reflected signal to measure distance to the target, and analyzes the frequency (or Doppler) shift to measure vibration. The most unusual aspect of the system is the way it resolves common problems with signal "noise" and dispersion of light by the atmosphere into longer pulses (with different colors of light traveling at different speeds). The reflected light that is detected is divided into a number of different color bands for computer processing. Measurements are averaged across the channels, effectively multiplying the precision of the result by the number of channels. The system was used to determine the distance to, and vibration of, a rotating disk located on the far side of the laboratory. Experiments were conducted under a variety of conditions. For example, with the reflected light transmitted over an extended distance (partly through 1 kilometer of optical fiber wrapped around a spool), the NIST system could measure a 45-micrometer displacement across the disk surface at a range of 1 km thanks to the signal processing method. Conventional LIDAR would have failed at that distance due to dispersion of the reflected light within the fiber, according to the paper.
Date of this Version Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary (PASSeL) Lesson Examines quantitative versus qualitative traits, looking at the use of phenotypes in determining quantitative control of heritability. - Define a quantitative trait and contrast with qualitative traits. - Recognize when a trait is quantitatively controlled by analyzing the distribution of phenotypes observed or measured in the F2. - Describe the reasons for the distribution of phenotypes observed for a quantitative trait. - Define what is meant by broad sense heritability and explain how it can be used in breeding programs. - Lesson home - The Inheritance of High Protein - Possible Hypothesis: Is it a lack of dominance? - The Next Generation - Does the Lack of Dominance Hypothesis fit? - Quantitative Traits - Question 1 - Question 2 - Question 3 - Question 4 - Causes of Variation - Estimating Heritability - Variance: A measure of dispersion
The immune system fails to prevent infections. The immune system is made up of lymphoid tissue that includes the bone marrow, tonsils, and lymph nodes. These organs help to protect the body from harmful substances such as bacteria, virus, toxins and cancer cells. Immunodeficiency disorders may affect any part of the immune system and may be inherited or acquired later in life. The most common type of primary immunodeficiency is when the body does not produce enough or normally functioning antibodies, which are specialized proteins that destroy harmful substances. In addition, other causes such as chemotherapy, infections or severe burns may cause a secondary immunodeficiency. The typical symptoms of immunodeficiency are recurrent infections such as sinusitis, pneumonia, ear, skin and gastrointestinal infections. Immunologists evaluate your ability to fight infections, devise a plan for you to prevent exposures and treat some forms of immunodeficiency with therapies such as replacement immunoglobulin.
Find out what role nuclear power might play in our energy future Nuclear power remains contentious – does it offer a sustainable energy future? Or do the risks outweigh the benefits? This online course will answer such questions. Despite accidents like Fukushima Daiichi, many countries are building new nuclear power plants. You’ll look at the engineering and financial aspects of these large infrastructures; learn about the technologies involved; and explore how fuels and radioactive waste should be managed. You’ll also examine the outlook for nuclear power, exploring future challenges for companies and countries, and how they can be overcome. This course is intended for those with a basic understanding of nuclear energy. You’ll need to be familiar with the following concepts: protons, neutrons, elements, isotopes; the difference between nuclear fission energy and nuclear fusion energy; alpha, beta and gamma radiation; radioactive decay; the difference between momentum and kinetic energy; the separate roles played by conduction and convection in heat transfer; the basic concept of a nuclear reactor; and finally the probability of four coin tosses yielding four ‘heads’ results. If you’re new to this area we’d suggest trying The Science of Nuclear Energy course first.

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.