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Euler discussed whether or not it was possible to stroll around Koenigsberg crossing each of its seven bridges exactly once. Experiment with different numbers of islands and bridges. If you can copy a network without lifting your pen off the paper and without drawing any line twice, then it is traversable. Decide which of these diagrams are traversable. Can you cross each of the seven bridges that join the north and south of the river to the two islands, once and once only, without retracing your steps? Can you mark 4 points on a flat surface so that there are only two different distances between them? Triangle numbers can be represented by a triangular array of squares. What do you notice about the sum of identical triangle numbers? In the game of Noughts and Crosses there are 8 distinct winning lines. How many distinct winning lines are there in a game played on a 3 by 3 by 3 board, with 27 cells? A package contains a set of resources designed to develop pupils' mathematical thinking. This package places a particular emphasis on “visualising” and is designed to meet the needs. . . . A Hamiltonian circuit is a continuous path in a graph that passes through each of the vertices exactly once and returns to the start. How many Hamiltonian circuits can you find in these graphs? A huge wheel is rolling past your window. What do you see? How many moves does it take to swap over some red and blue frogs? Do you have a method? How could Penny, Tom and Matthew work out how many chocolates there are in different sized boxes? Lyndon Baker describes how the Mobius strip and Euler's law can introduce pupils to the idea of topology. Find the point whose sum of distances from the vertices (corners) of a given triangle is a minimum. A useful visualising exercise which offers opportunities for discussion and generalising, and which could be used for thinking about the formulae needed for generating the results on a Choose a couple of the sequences. Try to picture how to make the next, and the next, and the next... Can you describe your reasoning? A 3x3x3 cube may be reduced to unit cubes in six saw cuts. If after every cut you can rearrange the pieces before cutting straight through, can you do it in fewer? Show that among the interior angles of a convex polygon there cannot be more than three acute angles. This article for teachers discusses examples of problems in which there is no obvious method but in which children can be encouraged to think deeply about the context and extend their ability to. . . . ABC is an equilateral triangle and P is a point in the interior of the triangle. We know that AP = 3cm and BP = 4cm. Prove that CP must be less than 10 cm. Here are four tiles. They can be arranged in a 2 by 2 square so that this large square has a green edge. If the tiles are moved around, we can make a 2 by 2 square with a blue edge... Now try to. . . . A game for 2 players. Can be played online. One player has 1 red counter, the other has 4 blue. The red counter needs to reach the other side, and the blue needs to trap the red. Imagine an infinitely large sheet of square dotty paper on which you can draw triangles of any size you wish (providing each vertex is on a dot). What areas is it/is it not possible to draw? These are pictures of the sea defences at New Brighton. Can you work out what a basic shape might be in both images of the sea wall and work out a way they might fit together? Start with a large square, join the midpoints of its sides, you'll see four right angled triangles. Remove these triangles, a second square is left. Repeat the operation. What happens? Imagine you are suspending a cube from one vertex (corner) and allowing it to hang freely. Now imagine you are lowering it into water until it is exactly half submerged. What shape does the surface. . . . The opposite vertices of a square have coordinates (a,b) and (c,d). What are the coordinates of the other vertices? Imagine a large cube made from small red cubes being dropped into a pot of yellow paint. How many of the small cubes will have yellow paint on their faces? Square numbers can be represented as the sum of consecutive odd numbers. What is the sum of 1 + 3 + ..... + 149 + 151 + 153? ABCD is a regular tetrahedron and the points P, Q, R and S are the midpoints of the edges AB, BD, CD and CA. Prove that PQRS is a square. A bus route has a total duration of 40 minutes. Every 10 minutes, two buses set out, one from each end. How many buses will one bus meet on its way from one end to the other end? Slide the pieces to move Khun Phaen past all the guards into the position on the right from which he can escape to freedom. What size square corners should be cut from a square piece of paper to make a box with the largest possible volume? On the graph there are 28 marked points. These points all mark the vertices (corners) of eight hidden squares. Can you find the eight Three circles have a maximum of six intersections with each other. What is the maximum number of intersections that a hundred circles Can you find a way of representing these arrangements of balls? What is the shape of wrapping paper that you would need to completely wrap this model? What would be the smallest number of moves needed to move a Knight from a chess set from one corner to the opposite corner of a 99 by 99 square board? Use the animation to help you work out how many lines are needed to draw mystic roses of different sizes. A 2 by 3 rectangle contains 8 squares and a 3 by 4 rectangle contains 20 squares. What size rectangle(s) contain(s) exactly 100 squares? Can you find them all? Draw a square. A second square of the same size slides around the first always maintaining contact and keeping the same orientation. How far does the dot travel? Some students have been working out the number of strands needed for different sizes of cable. Can you make sense of their solutions? Every day at noon a boat leaves Le Havre for New York while another boat leaves New York for Le Havre. The ocean crossing takes seven days. How many boats will each boat cross during their journey? A cylindrical helix is just a spiral on a cylinder, like an ordinary spring or the thread on a bolt. If I turn a left-handed helix over (top to bottom) does it become a right handed helix? Imagine starting with one yellow cube and covering it all over with a single layer of red cubes, and then covering that cube with a layer of blue cubes. How many red and blue cubes would you need? Can you find a rule which connects consecutive triangular numbers? Show that all pentagonal numbers are one third of a triangular number. When dice land edge-up, we usually roll again. But what if we You have 27 small cubes, 3 each of nine colours. Use the small cubes to make a 3 by 3 by 3 cube so that each face of the bigger cube contains one of every colour. Have a go at this 3D extension to the Pebbles problem. You can move the 4 pieces of the jigsaw and fit them into both outlines. Explain what has happened to the missing one unit of
Pompeii, Italy, was a Roman settlement in Campania situated where the River Sarno drains into the Bay of Naples. It is uncertain when Pompeii was founded and by whom, but by the mid-6th century B.C. it occupied an area of 66 hectares (163 acres). Prior to its burial as a result of the A.D. 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius, Pompeii was a Roman colony. After Pompeii's and nearby Herculaneum's (which was also buried during the eruption) re-discovery, the two settlements have become important archaeological sites. In Roman mythology, Pompeii was founded by Hercules and may have been where the cult dedicated to the demi-god originated. The site of Pompeii was lost until the 18th century. Marble that had been worked by masons was found in the area and led to investigations that resulted in first the discovery of Herculaneum and then in in 1748 the discovery of Pompeii itself. In this first phase of rediscovery, investigations were funded by the wealthy but resulted in much damage as artworks were taken away to be displayed in the patrons' homes. Pompeii and Herculaneum gained international renown in 1762 due to the writings of Joachim Winckelmann. Despite over a century of excavations, the first rigorous archaeological excavations only began in 1860. The reason Pompeii is so well known today is not because it was exceptional in its time, but because its remarkable preservation offers archaeologists insight into the Roman way of life. In the words of A. E. Cooley and M. G. L. Cooley: "Pompeii was not a particularly significant Roman town. ... No Pompeian made his mark on Roman literature or politics. No crucial moments in Rome's history hinge on Pompeii. Yet today, because of the accident of its fate, Pompeii is a UNESCO world heritage site, attracting up to five hundred times as many visitors each year as actually used to live in the town." History of Pompeii Pompeii is located in Campania, a fertile region on the west coast of Italy. As well as being the most productive agricultural land in Italy, the region was well positioned for trade. As a result, several Greek colonies were founded in the area, the most important of which were Cumae (founded in the 8th century B.C.) and Neapolis (now known as Naples, founded in the 7th century B.C.). It is uncertain who founded Pompeii before the Greeks took over, but the historian Strabo wrote that Oscan-speaking people used to live there. Situated on the mouth of the River Sarnus, the town was a Greek trading post. The Greeks also settled at nearby Stabiae and Herculaneum. Mount Vesuvius, the volcano which destroyed Pompeii, is just 8 km from the city. The settlement is perched on a volcanic outcrop 39 meters above sea level, left over from an eruption before records began. Where the flow approaches the river it falls into a sharp drop, creating a cliff and a natural defence. Neapolis is 22 km away, and the town of Herculaneum is about midway between Neopolis and Pompeii. The derivation of the name Pompeii is uncertain and there are a number of competing theories. The Oscan word for five is pumpe, and it may indicate the Pompeii developed from a group of five villages. Alternatively it could refer to the number of ethnic groups in the town. It is also possible that Pompeii derives from Pompeius, a common Roman name. In the 7th and 6th centuries B.C. the Etruscans emerged as a leading power in Campania. They tried to conquer Greek colonies in the region and twice attacked Cumae without success. Despite the failure to take Cumae, historian Michael Grant suggests that the Etruscans may have controlled Pompeii for a while as archaeologists have recovered Etruscan inscriptions from the town. With the threat from the Etruscans, town walls were built around Pompeii. They reflected Pompeii's growth from a settlement covering about 14 hectares, to 66 hectares. The walls are still visible today, though with later additions and damage from a siege in the 1st century B.C. The earliest writings recovered from Pompeii were written in the Etruscan language and were found in the Temple of Apollo. The earliest date from the early 6th century. Etruscan influence in Campania waned in the 5th century, and was soon replaced by that of the Samnites. In 421 B.C. the Samnites succeeded where the Etruscans had failed by capturing Cumae, and soon after other Greek colonies in Campania, including Pompeii, fell under their control. Rome in the 4th century B.C. began to establish itself as the leading power in Italy. The Romans came into conflict with the Samnites, and towards the end of the century Rome succeeded in capturing towns under Samnite control, including Pompeii which fell in 310 B.C. Within a decade the region was completely under Roman control. Beginning in the 3rd century B.C. and continuing into the 2nd century B.C. Pompeii experienced a period of prosperity which is reflected in the buildings of the period. Dubbed the tufa period due to the use of tufa (a grey stone), many of the city's finest monuments were built including several temples, the theatre, the basilica, and one of the bath complexes. During the Punic Wars—fought between Rome and Carthage in the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C.—Pompeii stayed loyal to Rome, but rebelled against her authority during the Social War in 91–87 B.C. The Romans, commanded by General Sulla, captured the city in 89 B.C. after a siege. From 80 B.C., Sulla used the town as a colony for several thousand of his veterans. Latin became the dominant language in public inscriptions, replacing Oscan, and the veterans' descendants were prominent in the epigraphic record for several generations after the revolt of the early 1st century. Even at the time of the eruption in A.D. 79 the city still bore the marks of Sulla's siege. The town wall is pierced by holes where the Romans aimed their siege engines, missiles have been recovered from the site, and graffiti told defenders where to congregate if there was an attack. After Pompeii became a Roman colony in 80 B.C. (with an influx of Roman settlers including veterans of Sulla's army) the city had a generally quiet existence with some exceptions. The former soldiers were not particularly welcomed by those already living in Pompeii, and Cicero noted that there was some tension between the two groups. There was also some rivalry with nearby towns. A riot in A.D. 59 led to a ban on gladiatorial games in the town for ten years. During a gladiatorial event at the amphitheatre, Pompeians traded insults with residents of nearby Nuceria who attended the games. Events escalated until weapons were drawn and some of the Nucerians were killed or injured. The riot came to the attention of the Emperor Nero who ordered the Senate to investigate. The amphitheatre was probably founded around 70 B.C., making it the earliest known stone example of this type of building. In A.D. 63, just four years after the riot, Pompeii was bestowed with the honour of being declared a colony by the Emperor Nero. This imperial favour was conferred because Nero's wife, Poppaea Sabina, was probably from the city and her family owned several properties in Pompeii. The Eruption of Vesuvius: A.D.79 Strabo, who wrote in the 1st century A.D., stated that while Vesuvius appeared to be a volcano there was no record of any eruptions. There were, however, signs that the volcano was only dormant rather than extinct. Pompeii and Herculaneum were struck by an earthquake on 5 February 62, both suffering severe damage. Seneca documented the destruction wrought by the earthquake which emanated from Vesuvius. It has been estimated that this event may have measured around 5 on the Richter scale. Buildings damaged at Pompeii included the Temple of Isis and the Basilica. Some people living in the region were so disconcerted by the earthquake that they moved elsewhere. This marked the beginning of a period of activity from Vesuvius, with several smaller earthquakes in the following years. The earthquake was depicted in the walls paintings of a house at Pompeii belonging to Lucius Caecilius Jucundus, a local banker. One such painting was located in the household shrine (lararium), suggesting the owner was giving thanks for surviving the event. On 24 August A.D. 79 Vesuvius began to erupt. It lasted until the following day. The eyewitness account of Pliny the Younger is the most important documentary source for the events of that day. At the time Pliny was staying with his uncle, Pliny the Elder, in Misenum on the north coast of the Bay of Naples. The elder Pliny was commander of the fleet at Misenum and on seeing a cloud of smoke rising from Vesuvius set out to investigate. He died on the expedition, and his nephew's account was written decades later in A.D. 106–107 (see Pliny the Younger Letters 6.16 and 6.20). Cassius Dio, who wrote a century later, documented further details of the eruption. Archaeologist Umberto Pappalardo has suggested that Vesuvius may have erupted in November rather than August as recorded in Pliny the Younger's letters. Using Pliny's account and the stratigraphy of the archaeological record the events of the eruption can be reconstructed. The volcano's first explosions probably began in the morning of 24 August, around 9 or 10am, depositing a thin layer of ash over the surrounding area. At 1pm a column of pulverised rock was thrown about 20km into the air. It was this cloud that caught the attention of Pliny the Elder at Misenum 30km away. As admiral of the fleet at Misenum, he readied a single ship to investigate, but on receiving a first-hand account of the events at Vesuvius gave the order to prepare more vessels to help the people who lived near the volcano. In the meantime, debris rained down on Pompeii and the surrounding area and was carried southwest by the wind. Distribution of this material was not even, but Pompeii was amongst the most severely affected. In the space of 18 hours 2.5m of pumice fell on the city. Though pumice is low density (it is porous and often floats on water), the growing weight would have placed considerable stress on buildings, and it has been estimated that 0.4m of pumice and ash was enough to collapse a roof. Anyone sheltering inside rather than fleeing Pompeii would have risked being crushed to death. This stage of activity, during which Vesuvius produced 2.6 million cubic metres of pumice, has been dubbed the Plinian phase. Cassius Dio noted that ash from the eruption reached Rome, where it was believed to cause an outbreak of disease, and Africa. While Vesuvius erupted, earthquakes shook the region, causing a tsunami at Misenum. On the morning of 25 August, the nature of the eruption changed. As the pumice finished falling, pyroclastic flows hit the surrounding area, burying them in a further 0.5–2m of material. Pliny recorded that a dark cloud collapsed down the side of Vesuvius; this was the pyroclastic flow. A second flow followed. Temperatures within pyroclastic flows range from 200oC to 700oC. Anyone caught by them would have perished. Pompeii along with the nearby towns of Herculaneum and Stabiae were destroyed. After the eruption ended people were sent to the area to assess what could be done, but only the roofs of the tallest buildings could be seen. Some statues were recovered, and presumably some portable valuables, but the area was abandoned and it eventually became farmland. Herculaneum fared worse, and survivors did not attempt to recover their belongings. Survivors settled elsewhere, and the location of Pompeii passed out of living memory and remained hidden for centuries. The walls which enclosed Pompeii extended for 3km and were pierced by eight gates. Moving clockwise from the west their modern names are: the Herculaneum Gate, the Vesuvius Gate, the Capua Gate, the Noa Gate, the Sarno Gate, the Nuceria Gate, the Stabian Gate, and the Sea Gate. The oldest part of Pompeii is the south west corner, known as "The Old Town." In contrast, the rest of the city was laid out on a grid pattern with regularly sized divisions. According to Michael Grant the organised layout of Pompeii "provides the earliest known systematic urban layout in Italy". The town's streets were narrow, usually between 2.4m and 4.5m wide, and intersections were often decorated with fountains. Refuse and water collected in the streets, and stepping stones helped citizens cross them; vehicles would have been unimpeded as they usually had high axles. Though nothing stands of the earliest buildings, the area's antiquity can be discerned through its irregular street pattern, while the rest of Pompeii is more ordered. The oldest standing structures date from the late 4th century B.C. Excavations have shown that inhabited areas grew beyond the city walls near the gates. After the golden age of the tufa period (3rd and 2nd century B.C), building work stagnated in the mid-1st century A.D. Two public buildings—a temple dedicated to the Emperor Vespasian and a building dedicated to the gods protecting the city—were built but these were the exception. By A.D. 79 many buildings were still not fully repaired after the serious earthquake nearly two decades earlier. Of the public buildings only the Temple of Isis and the amphitheatre were fully repaired. Southern Italy saw the emergence of several distinct types of public building which would become commonplace in Roman architecture: amphitheatres, basilicas, baths, and Roman theatres. Pompeii includes examples of these, offering insight into the building fashions of the 1st century B.C. The oldest surviving basilica is to be found at Pompeii (located next to the Forum), while the amphitheatre is the oldest known stone-built structure of its type. The amphitheatre was located in the eastern corner of the city walls, and it was common for Roman amphitheatres to be located on the peripheries of settlements. The area where gladiatorial battles took place was oval and measured 67m by 35m. Including its seating (which could hold up to 20,000 people; about the population of Pompeii itself) the oval amphitheatre measured 140m by 105m. While gladiatorial games were perhaps the most popular entertainment in Pompeii, the city also had two theatres, one large enough to seat 5,000 people and the other 2,000. Pompeii's private buildings included homes (domus), bars, brothels, and shops. A catalogue compiled by German archaeologist Verena Gassner counted around 600 shops in Pompeii. Prostitution was a common part of life in a Roman city, and it has been estimated that there were as many as 35 brothels in Pompeii. Politics and People The Roman rule imposed by Sulla in 80 B.C. led to the implementation of a Roman form of governance. Surviving inscriptions allow historians to piece together Pompeii's political history from that time until its destruction in A.D. 79. The sources range from dedications on monuments to campaign posters (around 3,000 elections posters survive, etched on the walls of Pompeii), and they present a more detailed political history for any Roman settlement other than Rome. A council, known as the ordo decurionum, was established and had between 80 and 100 councillors (decurions). Only certain groups were allowed to become decurions, and an important qualification was owning a certain amount of property. Meetings of the ordo decuriunum were presided over by two duovir, senior magistrates. Two junior magistrates known as aediles helped the daily running of the city, and dealt with issues such as clearing the streets. Magistrates were elected annually and the positions fiercely contested. Elections were held in March and successful candidates entered office on 1 July. In the 1st century B.C., the politician Cicero wrote that it was harder to become elected to the council in Pompeii than the Senate in Rome. When Sulla established Roman rule at Pompeii in 80 B.C., the previous inhabitants were banned from holding public office though inscriptions demonstrate their descendants permeated positions of power. One effect of the influx of colonists in the 1st century B.C. was the introduction of Roman funerary rites: tombs and monuments to the deceased were erected lining the roads to and from Pompeii and were common at other Roman settlements. It is uncertain how many people lived in Pompeii, with estimates varying between 6,400 and 30,000, but the most common figure is 20,000. Studying the demography of the ancient world is full of uncertainties, but it has been estimated that around 28 B.C. around half of the people living in cities in Italy would have been slaves. The remaining free citizens would have included those who had been born free and those who were previously slaves but had gained their freedom. Writing in 2008, classicist Mary Beard noted that about a quarter of Pompeii remains buried. She suggested that the number of bodies recovered within the city (1,100 when she was writing) indicated that many of the inhabitants left Pompeii. An estimate from 1982 put the number of bodies recovered from around Pompeii at 2,000. Discovery and Investigation As the centuries passed, soil accumulated over the buried city, so that by the time excavations began archaeologists had to dig through 2m of top soil (meaning the Roman ground level was 6m underground). Though an inscription mentioning Pompeii was discovered when the River Sarno was diverted in 1594, it was not until the 18th century that the city was rediscovered. Herculaneum was discovered by accident in 1709 and organised excavations began in 1738. The growing interest surrounding Herculaneum provoked Roque de Alcubierre to investigate the site where the inscription was found in 1594, and in 1748 he began excavations. Alcubierre had been commissioned by Charles IV, King of Naples, to excavate at Herculaneum with the purpose of recovering antiques to decorate his palaces, and Alcubierre turned to Pompeii in pursuit of further treasure. The methods of investigating the city were destructive and drew considerable criticism from contemporaries, include Karl Weber who join the project in 1750. Weber was in favour of drawing plans of the structures discovered, but Alcubierre disagreed believing it was not a valuable exercise and would divert resources from uncovering treasure. The city was not identified as Pompeii until 1763 when an inscription with the settlement's name was recovered; it mentioned respublica Pompeianorum, "the commonwealth of the Pompeians". Classicist Joachim Winckelmann visited the excavations of Herculaneum in 1762 and his letters elevated it and Pompeii to international renown. The Herculaneum Academy was founded in 1775 to support the investigation of the site, and many of the discoveries from the settlements of Vesuvius are now housed in the National Archaeological Museum at Naples. The inhabitants who died during the eruption left behind cavities in the volcanic ash where their bodies decayed. In 1864, Giuseppe Fiorelli developed the method of filling these cavities with plaster. When broken apart, the solidified ash would reveal the figure of the deceased. In some cases the casts were so detailed that clothes could be made out. Under Fiorelli, the scientific investigation of Pompeii flourished. In 1862, the Purpose-Built Brothel was uncovered; the walls of its five small rooms were decorated with frescos depicting sexual scenes. It is popular amongst modern tourists, visited by thousands of people everyday. Rome's Forum was not extensively excavated until the 1870s, so Pompeii in the early 19th century offered the first insight into significant remains of a Roman forum. The ruins of Pompeii have undergone significant alterations after their excavation. For instance in the early 20th century it was common to replace Roman walls with damp proof walling. Excavations at Pompeii were halted by the Second World War. In 1943, fighting moved to Naples and the Americans bombed any buildings identified as barracks near Naples. It was assumed that buildings with metal roofs were Nazi barracks, and since some areas of Pompeii were protected by metal sheeting, they inadvertently became a target and leading to considerable damage. In all, 162 bombs were dropped on Pompeii. The act was described historian Ronald Schaffer as having "no apparent military reason" and aside from the eruption of Pompeii is considered by Mary Beard as the "biggest damage Pompeii ever suffered". The majority of archaeological investigations in Pompeii have been focused on its state at the time of its destruction. As a result relatively little is known about the site's earlier history. It is thought that the Old Town covered about 14 hectares and was centred around the Temple of Apollo and the Triangular Forum. The settlement expanded to the north and east to cover 66 hectares, which was about average for a Roman town in the early Empire. Pompeii has attracted the attention of both academics and the general public, and a plethora of material has been written about the city since its discovery, from guides and populist books to academic works. The intensive study of the city has also resulted in the publication of a ten-volume encyclopaedia detailing each house. In the first decade of the 21st century alone, dozens of universities were involved in the study of Pompeii. Since excavations began around 20,000m2 of wall paintings have been recovered from the city. A combination of exposure to the elements, damage during the Second World War, and the cumulative effect of millions of visitors to Pompeii each year have contributed to the decay of the site. The situation was such that when the World Monuments Fund launched the World Monuments Watch List in 1996, and Pompeii was included on the inaugural list. The Watch List is updated every two years and Pompeii was also included in the 1998 and 2000 lists (though 2000 was the last time). In 1997, Pompeii and Herculaneum became designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, recognising the importance of the archaeological sites. The World Heritage Site is named the "Archaeological Areas of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Torre Annunziata". While conservation projects have been undertaken in the early 21st century (partly due to the World Monuments Fund) the state of Pompeii's preservation came into sharp focus in 2010 when heavy rainfall triggered the collapse of two well-known buildings within the city: the Gladiators' House and the House of the Moralist. The damage sparked debate over whether Pompeii received enough funding for its preservation, and in 2012 the Italian government began a project of conservation costing an estimated €105 million. The city receives around 2.5 million visitors each year. - Mary Beard, Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town (London: Profile Books, 2008), 34. - Alison Cooley and M. G. L. Cooley, Pompeii: A Sourcebook (London: Routledge, 2004), 6–8, 17. - Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn, Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice, 4th edition (London: Thames & Hudson, 2004), 24–25. - Cooley & Cooley, Pompeii: A Sourcebook, 1. - Michael Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum (London: Penguin Books, 1976), 15–17; Cooley & Cooley, Pompeii: A Sourcebook, 7. - Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum, 17–21. - Beard, Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town, 34-35; Colin Amery and Brian Curran, Jr., The Lost World of Pompeii (London: Frances Lincoln Ltd., 2002), 16. - Michael Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum (London: Penguin Books, 1976), 20. - John Ward-Perkins and Amanda Claridge, Pompeii AD79 (Bristol: Imperial Tobacco Limited, 1976), 33. - Cooley & Cooley, Pompeii: A Sourcebook, 5. - Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum, 22. - Wilhelmina Feemster Jashemski, "The Vesuvian Sites before A.D. 79: The Archaeological, Literary, and Epigraphical Evidence" in The Natural History of Pompeii, edited by Wilhelmina Feemster Jashemski and Frederick G. Meyer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 7. - Cooley & Cooley, Pompeii: A Sourcebook, 17–18. - Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum, 23; Cooley & Cooley, Pompeii: A Sourcebook, 60–61. - Katherine E. Welch, The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 72–74. - Miriam T. Griffin, Nero: The End of a Dynasty (London: Routledge, 1987), 102. - Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum, 26–28. - Ernesto de Carolis and Giovanni Patricelli, Vesuvius, A.D. 79: The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2003), 74. - Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum, 28. - Cooley & Cooley, Pompeii: A Sourcebook, 29. - de Carolis and Patricelli, Vesuvius, A.D. 79: The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum, 76–78. - Cooley & Cooley, Pompeii: A Sourcebook, 32. - de Carolis & Patricelli, Vesuvius, A.D. 79: The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum, 77–78. - Penelope M. Allsion, "The AD 79 Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius: A Significant or Insignificant Event?" in Eventful Archaeologies: New Approaches to Social Transformation in the Archaeological Record, edited by Douglas J. Bolender (Albany: State University of New York, 2010); Haraldur Sigurdsson, "The Eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79" in The Natural History of Pompeii edited by Wilhelmina Feemster Jashemski and Frederick G. Meyer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 63.; Umberto Pappalardo, "L'eruzione Pliniana del Vesuvionel 79 d.C. Ercolano," Volcanology and Archaeology, PACT n. 25 (Strasbourg 1990), 209-210. - de Carolis and Patricelli, Vesuvius, A.D. 79: The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum, 78, 83–78; Kirk Martini, "Volcanic Phenomena at Pompeii", University of Virginia School of Architecture (1997), accessed 15 October 2012. - Haraldur Sigurdsson, Stanford Cashdollar, and Stephen R. J. Sparkes, "The Eruption of Vesuvius in A. D. 79: Reconstruction from Historical and Volcanological Evidence", American Journal of Archaeology 86, no. 1 (1982), 39–51, 62. - Sigurdsson, Cashdollar, and Sparkes, "The Eruption of Vesuvius in A. D. 79", 48–50. - "Pyroclastic Flows and Their Effects", United States Geological Survey. Accessed 15 October 2012. - Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum, 38, 215; Ward-Perkins and Claridge, Pompeii AD79, 37. - Ward-Perkins and Claridge, Pompeii AD79, 42–45. - Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum, 45. - Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum, 45–50. - Ward-Perkins & Claridge, Pompeii AD79, 46. - Beard, Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town, 260. - Cooley & Cooley, Pompeii: A Sourcebook, 45. - Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, "Elites and Trade in the Roman Town" in City and Country in the Ancient World, edited by John Rich and Andrew Wallace-Hadrill (London: Routledge, 1992), 256. - Thomas A. J. McGinn, The Economy of Prostitution in the Roman World: A Study of Social History and the Brothel (Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 2004), 167, 181–182. - Ward-Perkins & Claridge, Pompeii AD79, 39–40. - Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum, 205–207. - Ward-Perkins & Claridge, Pompeii AD79, 40–41. - Cooley & Cooley, Pompeii: A Sourcebook, 19. - Beard, Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town, 10. - Willem Jongman, The Economy and Society of Pompeii (Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben, 1988), 266-267. - Sigurdsson, Cashdollar & Sparkes, "The Eruption of Vesuvius in A. D. 79", 51. - Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum, 31, 215–217. - William H. Stiebing, Uncovering the Past: A History of Archaeology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 148-150. - Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum, 215. - Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum, 34, 218. - Sarah Levin-Richardson, "Modern Tourists, Ancient Sexualities: Looking at Looking in Pompeii's Brothel and the Secret Cabinet" in Pompeii in the Public Imagination from its Rediscovery to Today edited by Shelley Hales and Joanna Paul (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 318–320, and 326. - Mary Beard, "Pompeii: The Art of Reconstruction", AA Files, no. 58, (2009), 3–5. - Judith Harris, Pompeii Awakened: A Story of Rediscovery. London: I. B. Tauris & Co., Ltd., 2007), 228; Ronald Schaffer, Wings of Judgement: American Bombing in World War II (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 50; Beard, "Pompeii: The Art of Reconstruction", 4; Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum, 218. - Cooley & Cooley, Pompeii: A Sourcebook, 5–6. - Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum, 45. - Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, Herculaneum: Past and Future (London: Frances Lincoln Ltd., 2011), 7. - Joanne Berry and Sarah Court, "What’s New in Pompeii," Current World Archaeology (7 January 2012), archival copy hosted by the Internet Archive (17 March 2013). - Ancient Pompeii, World Monuments Fund, accessed 13 January 2013. - Amery & Curran, The Lost World of Pompeii; John H. Stubbs, "Introduction to the Symposium," Conservation in the Shadow of Vesuvius: a Review of Best Practices. World Monuments Fund . - "UNESCO and Italy agree to cooperate on the restoration of Pompeii", UNESCO, 29 November 2011, accessed 24 October 2012; "Pompeii gets cash boost from Italian government", BBC News, 5 April 2012, accessed 24 October 2012.
Charles Robert Darwin (18091882). Origin of Species. The Harvard Classics. 190914. IV. Natural Selection; or the Survival of the Fittest Extinction Caused by Natural Selection THIS subject will he more fully discussed in our chapter on Geology; but it must here be alluded to from being intimately connected with natural selection. Natural selection acts solely through the preservation of variations in some way advantageous, which consequently endure. Owing to the high geometrical rate of increase of all organic beings, each area is already fully stocked with inhabitants; and it follows from this, that as the favoured forms increase in number, so, generally, will the less favoured decrease and become rare. Rarity, as geology tells us, is the precursor to extinction. We can see that any form which is represented by few individuals will run a good chance of utter extinction, during great fluctuations in the nature of the seasons, or from a temporary increase in the number of its enemies. But we may go further than this; for, as new forms are produced, unless we admit that specific forms can go on indefinitely increasing in number, many old forms must become extinct. That the number of specific forms has not indefinitely increased, geology plainly tells us; and we shall presently attempt to show why it is that the number of species throughout the world has not become immeasurably great. We have seen that the species which are most numerous in individuals have the best chance of producing favourable variations within any given period. We have evidence of this, in the facts stated in the second chapter showing that it is the common and diffused or dominant species which offer the greatest number of recorded varieties. Hence, rare species will be less quickly modified or improved within any given period; they will consequently be beaten in the race for life by the modified and improved descendants of the commoner species. From these several considerations I think it inevitably follows, that as new species in the course of time are formed through natural selection, others will become rarer and rarer, and finally extinct. The forms which stand in closest competition with those undergoing modification and improvement will naturally suffer most. And we have seen in the chapter on the Struggle for Existence that it is the most closely-allied forms,varieties of the same species, and species of the same genus or of related genera,which, from having nearly the same structure, constitution, and habits, generally come into the severest competition with each other; consequently, each new variety or species, during the progress of its formation, will generally press hardest on its nearest kindred, and tend to exterminate them. We see the same process of extermination amongst our domesticated productions, through the selection of improved forms by man. Many curious instances could be given showing how quickly new breeds of cattle, sheep, and other animals, and varieties of flowers, take the place of older and inferior kinds. In Yorkshire, it is historically known that the ancient black cattle were displaced by the long-horns, and that these were swept away by the shorthorns (I quote the words of an agricultural writer) as if by some murderous pestilence.
The middle-eastern biblical description of the phonic alphabet's (Phoenecian root) division into the many spoken language-branches of the Semitic middle-eastern language family-tree describes it as having originally occured shortly after the world-flood that destroyed Atlantis (called, in Genesis, the city of Enoch), at the beginning of the Babylonian Empire from the unification of northern Akkad and southern Sumer between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In Genesis we are told of the building of the Tower of Babel, and of the subsequent "confusion of the tongues." This mythology establishes the division of the alphabet into languages to the east of Babylon, with the 50 letters of Indus Sanskrit, and to the west with the 27 "monoliteral" Hieroglyphics of Egypt as having derived from the 36 letters of pre-Babylonian "Ugaritic" cuneiform, the earliest known ante-deluvial alphabets known of including "linear-A" and "-B." No sooner than Sanskrit, Hieroglyphics and Cuneiform could the Runes themselves be dated. This is because, whether or not the meinheirs of Europe were raised before or after the world-flood, it is widely believed that the carved inscriptions on them, from which we date the eldest form of definitively "Runic" alphabetic writing, could only have been etched into the stones after the flood, on the grounds that they would have been worn away by the waters. Of course, this is hog-wash and poppy-cock out the wazoo. Consider the Rongo-Rongo writing of Easter Island - it was obviously written on them by the same people who erected the megalithic stone heads there. The fact that edifaces such as England's Stone Henge differ from the upright but un-hewn meinheirs is demonstrated by the fact the meinheirs are inscribed but Stone Henge was not, however it is equally obvious that the same technique of aligning the sites to annual astronomical observations was used ubiquitously throughout. Contemporary, and contrary, to HP Blavatsky's proposal of the theory that the meinheirs, Henges and megalithic heads were raised by the "Nefilim" (lit. Giants) of before the Biblical world-flood, Charles Darwin proved genetic characteristics could be used to trace the migration routes of species over epochs and of certain physical traits in races over the eras. It was because of Blavatsky's self-professed occultism that her theory came to weigh such heavy influence over Darwin's discovery, and why there remains now, some hundred years later, controversy on the issue of whether Darwinian "Evolution" or Christian "Creationism" should be taught in public schools. Darwin's original theory of genetic traits was, by the time Watson and Crick discovered the molecular structure of DNA, so polluted by Blavatsky's pseudo-mythology in the public mind that the discovery of light-skinned, red-haired mummies in Mongolia and southern Siberia, just north of the Tibetan Himalyas, led to such a swell of Nationalist Patriotism in Germany following the Wheimar Treaty ending WWI that it was successfully used to turn the public's eye blind during the Holocaust. In truth, from their origins in the southern hemisphere, homo sapiens migrated in all directions continually, spreading from Africa and Australia into the Middle East and southern Asia, and from there to souhern and northern Europe and to first the coasts and then the mainlands of North and South America. Throughout all these times the biological language of genetics has migrated and dispersed throughout all these lands along with us. Thus, the notion of "race" should be considered a concept applicable only to ancient peoples of the past, such as the blue Aryan Vedics of the Indus river valley, the bald Semites of the Middle East and the dark haired Egyptian Africans. The even older Aborginal and dark-skinned race should be considered the same in Africa and Australia. The idea of race should have ended with the Indo-European invasion of the Americas. By that point, the Indians had spread through China into the Siberian steppes (the Monogloid race), while the Semites of the Middle east had migrated into Southern Europe to mix with the race of caucasions who had migrated from northern Asia into northern Europe across the Caucasoid mountains. The fact that the proto-Caucasoid Asians were the Aryan Vedics of India and that the proto-Mongoloid southern Asians became the mainland north Americans should not be a matter considered on the grounds of race, but on language. In the same way, the Australian Aborginies and the African tribespeople should be thought of as having once been two seperate migrations of a single species that dwelt in Antarctica, before it became glaciated, during the time of the last north hemispheric ice-age. So we see that the division first between the two routes of one species, followed by the division among the different early settlements of equatorial Eurasians of their formerly single language into various phonic alphabets, followed most recently by the notion of nationalistic "root" races (the "ancient" feud between so-called "Aryan" caucasians and the Hebrew Semites having panned out into total caucasian xenophobia in the formerly European colonial north America), has led from one degeneration and confusion to another, until finally all is chaos, and we forget the proper time of the coming of the next northern hemisphere ice-age. But let us remember the original source of the Runes not as a written phonic language but in the mythology of their own creators, the Indo-Europeans. According to them, the Runes were first seen by Odin in the reflection of the moon in a puddle below him as he hung upside down from Ygdrassil, the "world-tree" of Druid mythology. It is far more likely the Druids created the Runes to inscribe the Meinheirs and erected Stone Henge themselves, however, as I have now illustrated, the origins of the Runes, as well as of many other ancient alphabets, remains as much a mystery as the Origin of Species so long as the Creation of God is confused with the racism of its proponents. Although it is believed the inverted (or "unlucky") crooked-spiral cross motif was authentically a design of Adolph Hitler, it is known that the reverse of this appeared first on Tibetan Buddhist monastery wall-paintings several hundred years before first appearing in Celtic Ireland. Both places the triskele, or triple-cross / spiral, and the swastika, or quadruple-cross / spiral are both considered symbols of the Milky Way galaxy as seen from above or below one of its poles. This symbol is also equivalent to the double- cross / spiral of Yin Yang and Hunab Khu. Similar symbols are the spiral and maze patterns that date back to the places of earliest habitations in Australia, Asia, Europe, and North America, so it should be considered an innate symbol in the original alphabet used in Antarctica. Its correct pronunciation, however, has obviously since been lost. Instead now it is called "Thule." That is why most post-Rennaissance alphabet forms have been retrograde to the trend of variegation and bifurcation. They attempt to simplify rather than complicate. This is occuring as the galactic cycle draws nearer to completing one full orbit around from the times of Atlantis in Antarctica. In addition to the self-styled "Theosophy" of Blavatsky, the Nazi's also adopted the Rune Lore of Guido Von List. Von List had simplified the 24 letter Younger Futhark alphabet into an 18 letter alphabet he called "Armanen." He created the shapes of these Runish letters based on the refractions of light through such hexagonal forming crystals as quartz. A similar system has been more recently proven true for the letters of the Hebrew alphabet as shadows from the spiral shape of a ram's horn. While the Hebrew letter shadow-shapes can account for the additional doubles or the finals, the idea behind von List's Armanic was to narrow down the number of Runes as much as possible, and to that end List noted in his work, The Secret of the Runes, that the original Runic alphabet "consisted of sixteen symbols in ancient times." The Armanen consists of some 18 intersections, all of which can be extracted from the six line hexagon surrounding a central triple cross. In this diagram from page 109 from Nigel Pennick's work Magical Alphabets, 1992, Weiser, we see the 18 individual runes arranged in a regular pattern around the central hexagram, and that in turn surrounds the inner-circle around the Chi-Rho motif of early Christianity. At the bottom of the diagram are given the 18 Runes of the Armanen. In this diagram we can find no particular significance to their specific order as shapes, and thus must presume their order as proceeding in the standard order of the Younger Futhark. However, I would propose there to be a higher order of the insignias' placement than given by the standard phoenetic ordering of the Younger Futhark that can be produced as an alternative combination of the letter-shapes on this same basic pattern. In other words, if the "board" is "tyled" differently, there would be more meaningful relationships between the shapes of the individual letters that would become apparent, however the best way to deduce this would be to place a consecutive sized hexagonal quartz crystal on the center of the above diagram and then shine a light through it. The most significant aspect of the above pattern is the nascent combination of polar, cardinal and zodiacal attributes (2+4+12=18). However, that much at least is inherent to the geometry of the hexagon itself, and is not a by-product of optical refraction gradients. It should be noted that the study of the Armanic Runes of Guido von List can be considered seriously now because of the mythology attached to it, propagated by von List's occult rival, Nazi SS Reichsfuhrer Heinrich Himmler's mentor Karl Maria Wiligut. According to Wiligut's mythology the planet Saturn, home of the Hyporboreans, was a burnt-out star that was once the center of our solar system. The name of Wiligut's mythological religion was Irminenschaft, and Wiligut himself was among the members of Ahnenerbe, the inner-core of the Nazi occultists. Because Wiligut distanced himself from the less radical von List, we can now discuss Armanic Runes devoid almost entirely of all but the feighntest taint of Hitler. It should also be noted, by way of discounting Irmin-ism, that the Secret Doctrine describes the spans of seven planets reigning as suns (the seven Rays). Now I'd like to show you my own pattern of arrangement for the 18 Armanic Runes. Instead of being based on the inherent hexagonal shape behind each individual letter, thus rendering a circular arrangement, I have "tyled" the "board" with squares whose numbers and letters all correspond to those in the previous diagram. Here is my own arrangement of the Armanic Runes: The reason for the placement of the phoentic letters on the squares is simple: the first six letters spell out FUDORK, ie. Futhark, the name of the traditional Runic alphabet. Therefore, they can fit across the horizontal row of squares in the middle. The six below and above then follow outward and from right to left. It should be duly noted, though, that this much of the ordering for my version of the Armanic system is more or less arbitrary, open to debate and subject to change for the better. The reason for the use of this particular form of arrangement of the 18 squares, such that 2:4:6:4:2 = 6+6+6 = 18, is much more complex, however, and will involve other systems of Runes as well as ancient languages from the entire early world. What we are about to begin embarking on is an unfolding of these diagonal (diamond) squares along a fractal pattern of expansion such that, as the overall arrangement rotates one way, the number of interior squares increases by counter-rotating the other way around. However, before we can consider the next iteration in this unfolding and, ultimately, spiralling pattern of expansion, we have to come back, again, to the Elder Futhark of 24 Runes from the more traditional, circular arrangement. This diagram, from page 121 of Pennick, ibid, displays the 24 Elder Futhark as each one a "half-hour" mark on a standard base-12 clock: Note in this diagram that the interior-most circle, divided between light above and dark below, would rotate fastest, followed by the second circle out from that, of the tides, followed by the next circle out from that, the 12 "relative" solar months per year, followed next by the outermost circle of the four cardinal zodiac signs of the seasons per aeon, then by the Runes, then by the clock circle, and finally by the seasons surrounding the central circle of day and night. The circle separating the tide cycle from the seasons above day and night is four colours: gold, garnet, burnt umbre and drab olive, and represents Malkuth in a manner the Golden Dawn called the "Dragon arrangements" that thus communicate the entire cosmic-clock (or moving calendar) between the cards of Tarot, the so-called "Wheel of Fates." Having considered this model of measurement of "cosmic" spans of time, let us return to the unfolding (diamond) squares model I presented for the 18 letters of the Armanen of von List. In the next diagram, I show the manner of interior redistribution of the letters as they occupy positions on a tyling board that has been rotated exteriorly by 90 degrees, whereby each interior square has been rotated 180 degrees. The result is that the letters now proceed to wrap around the outer rim of the (diamond) square configuration overall, zig-zagging in and out toward the central square and outward toward the medians of the (diamond) square's "sides." So we see that, as the larger (diamond) square rotates one way, each smaller component (diamond) square rotates the other, and that, as they do this, the entire system expands one way or contracts the other. This is actually due to a complex recombination method that I will explain in a moment. For now, suffice it to say that this diagram represents the 24 letters of the Elder Futhark in the same arrangement as my (diamond) square arrangement diagram for the 18 Armanen of von List. The only difference is in degree and scale of complexity. In the 18 Armanic Runes we simply see a more concise and direct, less elaborate and complex, iteration of the same model upon which the 24 Elder Futhark Runes can be assembled. Now, there exists a further extrapolation of this "unfolding" system, comprised of 27 individual base-unit (diamond) squares. I'll also return to describe it but briefly in a moment, however now let it just be said that the Runic alphabet (known as the Agnaw) of 27 characters that accompanies this diagram provides an additional level of discerning proper ordering of the individual components of the base-24 Elder Futhark arrangement seen here. Now, as to the "table of correspondences" that can be assembled on the base-24 "lattice" of the Elder Futhark in this "unfolding" arrangement, by comparison to the alphabet of the base-27 system above and the base-18 system below, may be derived a surprisingly wide variety of ancient languages later to become methods of divination. Considering the similitudes between the base-27 letter-language's symbols and the eight "double" trigrams of the I Ching, I was able to establish in one system a correspondence between each of the 27 letters with an equivalently structured trigram, and in a second system, built into the first, to place the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet that correspond to the 12 signs of the zodiac, the 7 planets and 3 of the 4 natural elements. I will leave it to the viewer to ascertain the order in which I have arranged these two systems relative to one another on the following diagram, however be aware in that the central "diamond" shaped idiograms (or diagonal "squares," each relative to the larger overall diamond-shaped, diagonal square pattern) and the I Ching trigrams are the only things necessarily fixed to one another in this diagram. The Elder Futhark attributions stand as before and my attribution for the order of the Hebrew and correspondent ideograms deserves revision, although still holding essentially sound as a rough working model. The process of folding and un-folding this model and the resultant interlocking yet obviously unique and each original forms of patterns among shapes that can be tesselated upon them is a way of unlocking the basic system by which all modern alphabets were created, each being formed by derivation or extrapolation upon every other. Just as the 3 in 4, the 4 in 5, the 5 in 6, the 6 in 7 in 8, so the 12 fit inside the 13, 13 in 16, 16 in 18, 18 in 22, 22 in 24, 24 in 25, 25 in 27, and so forth through 36, 50, 64, 72, 180 and 360. This is simply the material unfolding of a cube-root diaganol from one corner to another, and even this is merely a point at the center of its shadow, the hexagon. In short, the base-18 unfolds into the base-24 via an intermediary state, the odd-numbered base-23. So, too, are 25 and 27 both odd-number base-systems, and so both demonstrate a form of stretching out the space between the interior (diamond) squares. Whereas the structures of even-numbered base units will always form a solid, (diamond) square pattern, the odd-number base systems will always form a vertical / horizontal cross pattern that essentially divides the diamond-shaped square across its diaganols. Confer this model for a base-25 system arrangement as an example of how to begin constructing the base-27 model. From the base-27 model the system of Runes called the Agnaw arises. this information is all © 2007 - Jonathan Barlow Gee
Endemic to the U.S., Arundinaria is the only genera of bamboo native to North America. Large areas of rivercane (Arundinaria gigantea (Walter) Muhl.), known as canebrakes, were once abundant along river bottoms in the southeastern United States ( 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ). However, canebrakes are now considered critically endangered ecosystems due to agriculture, grazing, fire suppression, and urbanization ( 7, 8, 9 ). The potential loss of these critical habitats has spurred efforts in drawing attention to their importance and investigating restoration techniques. Canebrakes have been recognized as critical in filtering sediments and nutrients from agricultural runoff ( 10, 11, 12 ), providing habitat for threatened and endangered fauna ( 13 ), and providing raw materials for the manufacture of hundreds of everyday objects ranging from sandals to coffins. The production of cane baskets has been passed along through generations of Native American tribes of the Southeast, and persists today among the eastern bands of expelled tribes (Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw). Restoration efforts, however, have been hindered by the limited supply of plant materials. Like other bamboos, rivercane flowering is generally described as gregarious and sporadic (perhaps on a 30-40 year cycle) ( 14 ), making seeds hard to come by. Seeds, when produced, have low viability ( 7 ) and are recalcitrant ( 14 ), contributing to low seedling success rates. Established rivercane culms propagate vegetatively through rhizomes, making transplantation of established culms a viable, though labor-intensive, restoration method ( 15 ). Currently, researchers are investigating methods of vegetative propagation in order to increase the supply of plant materials for restoration projects.
\|Home \| Stressors \| Natural Disturbances \| Water Level Fluctuations\|\|site map\| The Great Lakes’ water levels have fluctuated dramatically since record keeping started in the early 1900's due to variation in precipitation and evaporation rates. In high water years, stands of emergent plants die off or become uprooted by wave and ice action. Historically, because of the flat landscape the marsh usually was able to migrate inland in shallow water areas that were once wet meadow. As the cycle continues, water levels eventually fall, allowing the rhizomes of emergent plants destroyed above ground to produce stems and recolonize shallower open water over time. This natural dynamic system of "lateral displacement" (where vegetative zones expand and contract) sets back succession, accelerates nutrient cycling, increases habitat diversity and enhances coastal wetland values for wildlife. For more information, see: Coastal Habitat Assessment, Section V (PDF)
Flashcards in Chapter 3.4 Inheritance Deck (32): Describe Gregor Mendel's experiment Experiment subject: different varieties of pea plants, each of which reliabily had the same characteristics when grow independently Method: hybridization (transferring the male pollen from one variety to the female parts of flowers of another variety), the resulted pea seeds were grown to find out their characteristics -- one cross Each cross was repeated with thousands of plants --> ensure accuracy and reliability --> statistically significant results at high confidence level, anomalous results are also less likely to distort the whole set of data 7 crosses were tested in total Name of the scientist who did inheritance experiments with pea plants The combination of alleles of a gene carried by one organism in a diploid cell. The physical expression of the alleles of a gene processed by an organism. It is the resulted feature of one's genotype. An allele that is expressed whether its paired allele is identical or different (i.e. regardless if the organism is heterozygous/homozygous of the gene in question). Masks the effects of recessive alleles. Alleles that are only expressed if two copies of the same recessive allele are found in the genotype (i.e. homozygous recessive). Pairs of alleles that are both expressed when present (e.g. blood type A and B alleles) --> joint effects. Specific locations on chromosomes where a gene is located. Joins two chromatids together during cell division (mitosis and meiosis). Different forms of the same gene. A heterozygous individual carrying a recessive disease-causing allele, who does not personally suffer from the disease. Use of punnett grids Predicting the outcomes of monohybrid (crossing a single trait) genetic crosses. Steps of constructing a punnett grid 1. Start with homozygous parents with different alleles (e.g. TT, tt). 2. Write down both the genotype and phenotype of the parents. 3. Write down the allele that would be contained in their gametes (e.g. T, t). 4. Write down the genotype and phenotype of the F1 generation (e.g. Tt, tall stem). 5. Construct a punnett grid (Tt * Tt) and write down the genotype and phenotypes for each grid. 6. Calculate the ratios between genotypes and phenotypes. Why blood testing is necessary to determine the blood group of a donor before a transfusion? RBCs have agglutinogens (antigens) on their surfaces, which can be used to identify self/non-self cells by the immune system. The body of a patient who receives a wrong blood transfusion would react patally, as his lymphocytes would secrete antibodies which causes blood to clot. Blood AB is known as... universal recipient (the recipient's RBCs have both type A and B agglutinogens) Blood O is known as... universal donor (no agglutinogens on type O RBCs) Why is ABO blood groups often used as a textbook example? Only one gene determines one phenotype, whereas more than one gene is often necessary to determine a phenotype in many other scenarios. Why ABO blood groups is an example of codominance? Both type A and B agglutinogens are present on RBCs for a IAIB person (type AB). An example of genetic disease caused by a recessive allele Cystic fibrosis (CF) An example of genetic disease caused by a dominant allele An example of genetic disease caused by a codominant allele Examples of a sex-linked genetic disease 1. RG colour blindless The P of a person being a CF carrier is relatively high, but since CF is caused by a recessive gene, both parents need to be carriers to have a 0.25 P of having a child with CF --> therefore overall P is low. Caused by a recessive allele of the CFTR gene on chromosome 7. The CFTR gene involves in the production of chloride ion channels that involve in secretions of sweat, digestive juices, and mucus. The disease-causing allele results in production of faulty chloride ion channels --> instead of being a lubricant --> viscious sweat, digestive juices and mucus --> block tubes/ducts/air passages --> infections in lungs as sticky mucus accumulates + prevents digestive enzymes from reaching the duodenum from the pancreas. Life expectancy: 35~50 years C --> normal; c --> CF allele Caused by a dominant allele of the HTT gene on chromosome 4. The gene product is huntingtin (protein). Causes degenerative changes in the brain --> changes in behaviour, thinking and emotions become increasingly severe --> patients will eventually need full nursing care and often suffer/die from heart failure and/or infectious diseases such as pneumonia (lung infection) Symptoms usually show up when the person is between 30~50 years old --> late onset --> the diagonised patient may have already had children by that age H --> HD allele; h --> normal Hb(S) --> SC allele; Hb(A) --> normal Three possible scenarios: 1. Hb(S)Hb(S): susceptible to malaria, severe anemia (WORST SITUATION!) 2. Hb(S)Hb(A): increased resistance to malaria, mild anemia 3. Hb(A)Hb(A): susceptible to malaria, not anemic Why sex-linked genetic diseases are more common in males? Caused by recessive alleles on the sex-linkage: sex chromosomes are not homologous, there are some genes present on X but not on Y. A male processing a disease-causing allele is affected, regardless whether the allele is dominant/recessive, as he does not have an alternative allele on the Y chromosome to combat the disease-causing allele on the X chromosome. RG colour blindness Caused by a x-linked, recessive allele of the RG gene which codes for a photoreceptor protein in cone cells. Locus of the gene is Xq28, the non-homologous section of the X chromosome. XA --> normal Xa --> colour blindness Caused by a recessive x-linked mutation in hamophilia which causes one of the clotting factors not being produced. The sufferer could bleed to death. X^X Treatment: injecting commercial blood clotting factors produced by genetic modification. Restriction enzymes cutting out the genes which codes for blood-clotting factors --> inserted into a sheep embryo's milk gene --> clotting factors produced along with sheep milk --> extraction and purify XH --> normal Xh --> hamophilia General rules when interpreting a pedigree diagram 1. Male -- squares, female -- circles 2. Generations are indicated by roman numerals (I, II etc.) 3. Individuals are indicated by letters (A, B etc.) 4. Sufferers are shaded, carriers are half-shaded --> KEY Uses of pedigree charts Trace family history of genetic-diseases Shows carriers, sufferers, non-sufferers Predict the probability of a new-born child having a genetic disease. Causes of genetic mutations 1. Exposure of short WL radiations: UV, X-ray, gamma ray, alpha particles from radioactive isotopes 2. Chemicals: carcinogens in tobacco smoke, mustard gas (WW2) Once a person dies, his mutations are eliminated from the human gene pool. Yet if that person has offspring, his genetic mutations would be passed on by gametes.
Outline two assumption of the biological approach. One assumption of the biological approach is that the behaviour can be explained in terms of different areas of the brain. This is because many different areas of the human brain have been identified as certain functions. The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes. The most important is the frontal cortex/lobe, as this is responsible for fine motor movement and thinking. Another lobe is the occipital lobe which is responsible for processing sensory information. For example, if someone was about to be poked in the eye, the occipital lobe will sense and send the information to the brain through the central nervous system(CNS) telling it to react by closing your eyes immediately. Another assumption is that behaviour can be explained in terms of the neurotransmitters. They are different types of nerves (neurone) in our system which carries information throughout our body and brain. They do so through synapses, this is where the message is relayed by chemical messages. For example, when you take painkillers the morphine will follow the bodies’ normal pain relievers. The nerve cell communicates with each other from across the synapse using the chemical messengers (neurotransmitters). The serotonin (NT) will then take effect which will change our mood and feeling. Describe Selye’s GAS model. Hans Selye research, such as the study of ‘the facing page’ led him to conclude that when animals are exposed to stressful situation, they display a universal response to all stressor. He called this general adaptation syndrome (GAS). To prove his theory, Selye’s came up with three stages that’s leads to illness, thus leading stress to illness- stress can result in a decrease of physiological resource, which lowers the organism’s resistant to infection. First stage Selye’s proposed, was the alarm reaction. This is when the stressor recognised and response is made to the alarm. The hypothalamus in the brain triggers the production of adrenaline from the adrenal glands. This causes ‘adrenaline rush’ this leads to readiness for ‘flight or fight’. Stage two is the Resistance. This is when the body starts to adapt to the environment, but at the same time resources are gradually depleting. The body seems as if it’s coping, but in physiologically things are deteriorating. And stage three is the Exhaustion stage. This is when the body system can no longer maintain it regular functions. And the stressor is unable to continue to deal with the stress, and this exhaustion can result in death if the stress continues. Hans concluded that these stages show how psychological problems can lead to biological illnesses. Describe how the biological approach is applied to either psychosurgery or chemotherapy. Chemotherapy: the biological approach believes all behaviour is psychological in nature. One of the main assumptions of the biological approach is that our behaviour can be explained by chemical messengers in the brain, known as neurotransmitters. Chemotherapy is a therapy based on this approach, and, based on this assumption aim altering neurotransmitter activity. Chemotherapy is the term used to describe the use of psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders. Antidepressant drug for example, work on the neurotransmitter serotonin, as it is believed that depression is due to insufficient amount of this. These drugs generally work by reducing the rate at which certain neurotransmitters are re-absorbed into the nerve ending. For example, SSRI’s (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) work by blocking the mechanism that re-absorbs the serotonin into the synapse. The result of this is that more serotonin is left in the synapse, alleviating the feeling of depression (hopefully). Antipsychotic drugs are used to treat disorders such as schizophrenia. Chlorpromazine for example, is used to combat the positive symptoms of...
ORB Online Encyclopedia Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean The Collapse of the Roman Empire--Military Aspects Modern historians explain the collapse of the western Roman empire in the fourth and fifth centuries in one of two ways. One group follows an institutional approach, which finds the reasons in the long-term and looks closely at internal structures. A second group has adopted a political approach and looks at short term causes of collapse. The long-term approach is the more traditional of the two. This argument suggests that Diocletian (284-305) and Constantine I (305-337) sowed the seeds of collapse. These emperors split the army into border and mobile components. The border troops became soldier-farmers and declined rapidly in efficiency, though they were still paid. Diocletian and Constantine also allowed many barbarians into the army, which had the result of decreasing its fighting efficiency. These historians argue that the weakness of the border troops meant that emperors needed more mobile troops, so they expanded the army. This in turn increased the number of recruits needed, while a simultaneous reluctance of landowners to lose scarce workers led to the recruitment of the militarily inferior barbarians. External problems exacerbated the internal crises of the empire. The small barbarian tribes who had opposed the early empire now banded together to form more powerful confederations such as Goths, Franks and Alamanni. However, some historians are doubtful about the increased power of these groups. Vigorous emperors like Diocletian, Constantine, Constantius II (337-361) and Valentinian I (364-375) kept the barbarians beyond the borders. Then the Huns arrived and drove the Goths into the Empire, defeating the army of Valens (364-378) at Adrianople in 378. From now on, the Romans could not destroy these Goths, although Theodosius I (379-395) finally settled them in the Balkans in 382. Once one group of barbarians had entered the Empire, the Romans could not muster the military strength to keep others out. Vandals, Alans and Suevi crossed the Rhine in 406 and barbarians went on to settle all over the western Empire. Visigoths, Alans and Suevi took land in Spain, Vandals in Africa and Burgundians, Visigoths and Franks in Gaul. Elsewhere, Saxons invaded Britain and at the end of the fifth century, Ostrogoths occupied Italy. This is the traditional interpretation, with a stress on institutional weakness and the barbarian invasions. In various forms it has been followed by Theodore Mommsen, J.B. Bury, Andre Piganiol and Ramsay MacMullen. But others interpret the military events of this period differently, especially A.H.M. Jones, but also Averil Cameron and Hugh Elton. These historians stress that the Eastern empire did not fall when the West collapsed. Because of this, they doubt that internal institutional factors were the primary cause of the collapse. They are also unhappy with the idea of a two-century period of decline that lasted from Diocletian to the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476. This second group of historians places the beginning of the end of the Roman Empire at various dates between 395 and 461 and their interpretations focus on the financial problems faced by the Empire. In the 395 division of the Empire, the West received fewer of the wealthy provinces. This in turn decreased the taxes collected. These commentators do not argue that the army was ineffective. Instead, they argue that paying for enough troops to fight was the problem. As well as facing diminishing resources, the West also had longer borders to defend. For these historians, western collapse was inevitable after 395, although the debate about when it could no longer be reversed is still important. In this interpretation, the defeat of the eastern field army and Valens' death in Gothic hands at Adrianople in 378 is not a critical event. Although some historians stress this loss as the beginning of the end, since this allowed a group of barbarians into the Empire who were not expelled, others disagree. They point out that the Romans made no changes to the structure of their army after this battle. Far more important was the division of the empire in 395 between Arcadius and Honorius, the two sons of Theodosius, which robbed the Empire of strategic depth, with few transfers of money or troops between the two parts. The Vandals' invasion of Africa in 429, mostly completed by 439, had severe financial and strategic consequences. The loss of Africa not only removed the wealthiest provinces from western control but also exposed the Mediterranean (especially Italy and Greece) to pirate raids. A third critical event was the murder of Majorian (457-461) in 461, denying him the chance of recapturing Africa and holding the western empire together. After Majorian's murder, western Imperial unity finally dissolved. Aegidius in Gaul and Marcellinus in Dalmatia refused to accept the new emperor Libius Severus (461-465), raised to the purple by Majorian's murderer Ricimer. A second important point to these commentators is the prevalence of civil war during the fourth and fifth centuries. The frequent occasions on which the Roman army was forced to fight itself caused a constant drain of resources, both financial and personnel, resources that might have been turned against external enemies. These wars included Constantine against Licinius (316, 324), Magnentius agianst Constantius II (351-353) and Theodosius against Magnus Maximus (383-388) and Eugenius (392-394). In the fifth century they spread to include Roman generals, e.g., Aetius against Bonifatius, although the usurpations of John (423-425) and Basiliscus (475-476) and Odoacer (476) were just as dangerous. Although civil war was a political problem, it had severe military effects, often provoking barbarian raids and weakening imperial ability to respond to them. It is difficult to reach a conclusive verdict on why the western Roman empire fell. As these arguments show, it was a long and complex process, made more difficult to understand by the patchy nature of our evidence. If there was a simple answer, the Romans would surely have found it. Whatever the reasons, throughout the fifth century, when emperors could find money and assemble troops, the Roman army was a powerful and effective force. The institution itself was not at fault, but the support it received from its commanders-in-chief, the Emperors, was often lacking. If there was a single reason for the collapse of the western Empire, it was poor leadership, not military failure. A Short Bibliography Cameron, A., The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity, AD 395-600 (London, 1993) Elton, H.W., Warfare in Roman Europe: AD 350-425 (Oxford, 1996) Jones, A.H.M., The Decline of the Ancient World (London, 1966) MacMullen, R., Corruption and the Decline of Rome (New Haven, 1989) Late Roman Army "Barbarization" in the Late Roman Army Late Antiquity Index Copyright (C) 1996, Hugh Elton. This file may be copied on the condition that the entire contents, including the header and this copyright notice, remain intact.
From What Makes Plants Flower To “Sleeping” Trees. The subject of trees seemed to received a lot of attention in the April 2018 plant science news. The stories ranged from what actually constitutes a “tree” to how tree canopies seem to move during the night. Also, new clues to what, at the cellular level, initiates flowering were reported, along with a novel approach to possibly inoculating plants against insect pests and disease. - Time To Flower?: “How do plants “know” it is time to flower? A new study uncovers exactly where a key protein forms before it triggers the flowering process in plants.” Researchers identify the cells that trigger flowering - What is a Tree?: “Despite numerous studies and 30-plus genomes under their belts, scientists are still struggling to nail down the defining traits of these tall, long-lived, woody plants.” What makes a tree a tree? - Vaccines for Plants?: “Novel technologies are being sought to replace the traditional pesticides used to protect plants, particularly edible plants such as cereals. A new collaborative project between the University of Helsinki and the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) is shedding light on the efficacy of environmentally friendly RNA-based vaccines that protect plants from diseases and pests.” A vaccine for edible plants? A new plant protection method on the horizon - Can Plants Store More Carbon Dioxide?: “Researchers around the world are working to improve plants’ ability to combat climate change.” Plants are great at storing CO2. These scientists aim to make them even better - “Sleeping”Trees?: “High-precision three-dimensional surveying of 21 different species of trees has revealed a yet unknown cycle of subtle canopy movement during the night. The ‘sleep cycles’ differed from one species to another. Detection of anomalies in overnight movement could become a future diagnostic tool to reveal stress or disease in crops.” Trees are not as sound asleep as you may think Tomorrow: From cocoa CRISPR to artificial plant cells…. HowPlantsWork © 2008-2019 All Rights Reserved.
TABLE OF CONTENTS - SPECIALIZED PROCEDURES - SOLUTIONS AND MATERIAL - RETURN TO METHODS HOME PAGE Three major classes of photosynthetic pigments occur among the algae: chlorophylls, carotenoids (carotenes and xanthophylls) and phycobilins. The pigments are characteristic of certain algal groups as indicated below. Chlorophylls and carotenes are generally fat soluble molecules and can be extracted from thylakoid membranes with organic solvents such as acetone, methanol or DMSO. The phycobilins and peridinin, in contrast, are water soluble and can be extracted from algal tissues after the organic solvent extraction of chlorophyll in those tissues. The rationale behind the extraction techniques is to disrupt cell integrity as much as possible, thereby removing pigment molecules from intrinsic membrane proteins. Freezing the tissue with liquid nitrogen, and grinding the still frozen tissue in with a mortar and pestle or blender, overcomes some of the problems of working with material that produces large amounts of viscous polysaccharides. “Freeze-thawing” tissue also breaks down cellular membranes, but may liberate more polysaccharides. Finely ground tissue can be then homogenized in organic solvent to further disrupt cellular membranes, and to liberate pigment molecules from the light harvesting pigment protein complexes. Once the pigments are extracted into appropriate solvents they can be separated chromatographically by TLC or HPLC for spectral analysis and identification. Pigment concentrations in hydrocarbon solvents can be estimated; however, these formulas are predictive, and may overestimate some pigment concentrations (see Seely et al. 1972 for the development of equations). Uncoupling pigments from the pigment binding proteins can change the absorption patterns of the pigments, resulting in shifts in maxima from 10 to 50 nm, when compared with spectra measured for intact tissues. Table 1:Pigment composition of several algal groups (after Dring 1982): \|Chlorophyta\|\|Green algae\|\|chlorophyll b\| \|Phaeophyta\|\|Brown algae\|\|chlorophyll c1 + c2, fucoxanthin\| \|Chrysophyta\|\|Yellow-brown or golden-brown algae\|\|chlorophyll c1 + c2, fucoxanthin\| \|Pyrrhophyta\|\|Dinoflagellates\|\|chlorophyll c2, peridinin\| \|Cryptophyta\|\|Cryptomonads\|\|chlorophyll c2, phycobilins\| \|Rhodophyta\|\|Red algae\|\|phycoerythrin, phycocyanin\| \|Cyanophyta\|\|Blue-green algae\|\|phycocyanin, phycoerythrin\| Pigments can be extracted from seaweeds by a variety of techniques though often, it is only through trial and error that an effective technique for a given species is found. Algae which produce large quantities of polysaccharide can be very difficult to work with. Choose your plants carefully! It is important to note that light, heat, extremes of pH, and oxygen cause the destruction of pigment extracts. The extracts should be kept cold, wrapped in foil, and worked with in the lowest light possible throughout the procedure. This technique can be used for the green, brown, and red algae as well as the seagrasses. Some of the greens and seagrasses may be extractable without grinding in liquid nitrogen; for brown and red algae more extreme measures may be necessary. Note: Field collected tissue should be cleaned of epiphytes prior to the extraction. - Grind approximately 2.0 g (fresh weight) of blotted tissue in a chilled mortar with liquid nitrogen. The mortar and pestle can be placed in the freezer prior to use, and chilled even further by adding a small amount of liquid nitrogen to it prior to adding the tissue. It may help to chop tough blades into workable pieces with a sharp razor blade before grinding. - Quickly transfer powdered tissues to a ground-glass homogenizer. Add 2 to 3 ml of ice-cold 100% acetone. Grind over ice until the remaining debris is colorless. - Transfer pigmented solution to centrifuge tube and spin at 1400 g for 2 min. Decant supernatant.NOTE: If there is color still remaining in the pellet, repeat steps 2 and 3 until the pellet is colorless.(Samples can be stored in the dark at 4o C at this point for a limited period of time) When handling the silica gel plates, care should be taken not to touch the face of the plate or damage the gel along the edges. - On a silica gel plate, draw a light pencil line above-the solvent level in the developing tank approximately 2 cm in width and approximately 2 cm from the bottom. - Draw sample into capillary tube and carefully spot the pigment extract in a solid line along the pencil line until a thin, dark line appears. Each layer should be dry before the next is added; this process can be made more rapid by drying the TLC plate with a gentle current of nitrogen gas. Also, if your extract is dilute, it can be concentrated by passing nitrogen over the solution for 20-30 min. (The TLC plate can be wrapped in foil and stored at 4o for a limited period of time) - Place a small of amount of petroleum ether:acetone (7:3 v:v) into the bottom of the developing tank. Dip filter paper in solvent and put it on sides of tank to saturate the atmosphere with solvent. Note: this should be done well in advance to the introduction of TLC plates into your development tank. - Develop the your TLC plate in a tank containing petroleum ether:acetone (7:3 v:v) for approximately 20-30 min, or however long is necessary to move the solvent front near, but not off, the top of your plate. - Mark the solvent front as soon as the strip is removed from the tank. - Mark the location of the pigment bands and measure the distance from the origin to the pigments as well as the distance to the solvent front. The Rf values for the individual pigments can be determined from: Rf = (distance moved by the pigment)/(distance moved by the solvent) - Slight differences in the dryness of the plates and in the polarity of solvent system will affect the Rf values. To aid in an approximate identification of the different pigmented bands, the following values are reasonable: Table 2: Rf values Pigment Rf Chlorophyll a 0.68 Chlorophyll b 0.54 Chlorophyll c 0.03 B-carotene 0.94 Fucoxanthin 0.51 Lutein 0.43 Violaxanthin 0.22 Neoxanthin 0.08 - After measuring the Rf values, scrape the pigments off of the plate with a spatula or razor blade. Collect the residue and transfer to an Eppendorf tube. Resuspend in the appropriate solvent (acetone for chl and ethanol for carotenoids). The amount of the solvent will depend upon the amount of pigment in the chromatographic band. - Centrifuge for 1-2 min and decant the supernatant into the appropriate cuvette. - Determine the absorption spectrum for that pigment and note the absorption maxima (wavelength maxima for several pigments are listed below). - The absorption data and the chromatographic data can be used together to identify specific pigments for each alga. Table 3: Wavelength Maxima for Pigments in Various Solvents PIGMENT WAVELENGTH MAXIMA SOLVENT beta carotene 452,470 ethanol lutein 446, 474 ethanol violaxanthin 442,470 ethanol neoxanthin 437,466 ethanol myxoxanthophyll 445, 471, 503 ethanol siphonoxanthin 455 ethanol peridinin 455 ethanol chlorophyll a 428.5, 660.5 diethyl ether chlorophyll b 452.5,642 diethyl ether chlorophyll c1 629.1 100 % acetone chlorophyll c2 630.6 90% acetone chlorophyll c2 629.6 100% acetone chlorophyll c2 630.9 90% acetone chlorophyll c 447, 533 or 449, 635 90% acetone ReferencesJeffrey, S.A. 1972. Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 279:15-33. Jeffrey, S.A. and G. Hymphrey. 1975. Biochem. Physiol. Pflanzen. 167:191-194. From Jeffery and Humphrey (1975). 1. Higher plants and algae having chlorophyll a and b. In 80% acetone: Total chlorophyll (a and b) (mg/L) = 20.2(A645) + 8.02(A663) OR Total chlorophyll (mg/L) = A652/36 Chlorophyll a (mg/L) = 12.7(A663) – 2.69(A645) Chlorophyll b (mg/L) = 22.9(A645) – 4.68(A663) In 90% acetone: Chlorophyll a (mg/L) = 11.93(A664) – 1.93(A647) Chlorophyll b (mg/L) = 20.36(A645) – 5.50(A664) 2. Diatoms, chrysomonads, and brown algae containing chlorophylls a, c1 and c2 in actual proportions. In 90% acetone: Chlorophyll a (mg/L) = 11.47(A664) – 0.4(A630) Chlorophyll c1 + c2 (mg/L) = 24.36(A630) – 3.73(A664) Extraction of pigments from brown algae, particularly the larger macrophytes, can be difficult because of the rubbery nature of the thalli, and the large amounts of polysaccharides in the tissue. The most commonly used methods for extraction of chlorophyll a, c, and fucoxanthin are described below (Seely et al. 1972). The formulas presented do not include a correction for carotenoid absorption, and therefore, may overestimate the amount of fucoxanthin present. - Remove epiphytes and rinse in distilled water. Blot dry and weigh tissue. - Place discs in test tubes, cover with 4 volumes (mL) of DMSO per gram of tissue. Allow extraction to proceed in the dark for 15 min.NOTE: This is only a recommendation. The amount of DMSO required should be determined empirically. - Remove discs from tubes, wash with 1.0 mL dH2O. Pour wash water into DMSO extract. - Place discs into clean test tubes. Add 3 mL 100% acetone. Allow the pigments to be extraction for 2 hr in total darkness. - Dilute acetone extract with 1 mL absolute methanol and 1 mL H2O. - Measure absorbance of DMSO extract at 665, 631, 582, and 480 nm. - Measure acetone extract at 664, 631, 581, and 470 nm.NOTE: Use 4:1 DMSO:H2O and 3:1:1 Acetone:Methanol:H2O as blanks. - Calculate pigment concentrations as follows:DMSO Chl a = A665/ 73.6 Chl c = (A631 + A581 – 0.3A664)/62.2 Fucox.= (A480 – 0.772(A631 +A582 – .297A665) -.049A665)/130 Chl a = A664/73.6 Chl c = (A631 + A581 – 0.3A664)/62.2 Fucox.= (A470 – 1.239(A631+ A581– 0.3A664) -.0275A664)/141 Phycobilin pigments are water soluble and therefore are not well extracted by organic solvents. Phycobilin pigments may be extracted from the pellet of an organically extracted pellet (although some loss may occur into the organic phase) or from fresh thalli using the following protocol (Evans 1988). 1. Weigh out 0.05 – 0.5 g of thallus. Transfer to mortar and grind in 5 mL 0.1M phosphate buffer, pH 6.8, with acid-washed sand. 2. Centrifuge for 10 min at 1,000 x g. 3. Transfer to 25 mL volumetric flask and bring up to volume. 4. Determine phycobilin concentration using following formula: R-PE = [(A564- A592) – (A455 – A592)0.20]0.12 C/R-PC = [(A618 – A645) – (A592 – A645)0.51]0.15 OR FOR PLANTS CONTAINING C-PC (from Kursar and Alberte 1983) C-PC = 166(A618 )- 108(A650) R-PE = 169(A498)- 8.64(A615) – 1.76(A650) TLC and in vivo spectral analysis and pigment identification: Owens, T.G., J.C. Gallagher, and R.S. Alberte. 1987. Photosynthetic light-harvesting function of violaxanthin in Nannochloropsis spp. (Eustimatophyceae). J. Phycol. 23:79-85. Determination of pigment concentration in solvents: A. Green algae and seagrasses: Jeffrey and Humphrey. 1975. Biochem. Biophys. Phlanz. 167:191-194. B. Brown algae and diatoms: Duncan, M.J. and P.J. Harrison. 1982. Bot. Mar. 25:445-447. Seely et al. 1972. Mar. Biol. 12:184-188. C. Red algae: O’Carra. 1965. Biochem. J. 94:171-174. Kursar, T. and R.S. Alberte. 1983. Plant Phys. 72:409-414. Evans, L.V. The effects of spectral composition and irradiance level on pigment levels in seaweeds. In: Experimental Phycology. Lobban, C.S., D.J. Chapman and B.P Kremer. Eds. New York. pp 123-134. Dring, M.J. 1982. The Biology of Marine Plants. Edward Arnold. pp 1-8. SOLUTIONS AND MATERIALS A. Solutions and chemicals: 100 % Acetone (reagent grade) Petroleum ether:Acetone (7:3 v:v) for 1 L : 700 ml petroleum ether and 300 ml acetone. This solution is highly flammable, use with caution. - Mortar and pestle (place into freezer well in advance of the use) - Tissue homogenizers - Silica gel plates - Developing Tanks - Centrifuge tubes - Eppendorf tubes - Filter paper - Razor blades
Fifth-graders continue to integrate reading, writing, and critical thinking skills and strategies throughout the day. Interesting fifth-grade units of study in social studies center on United States history. The Library Media program focuses on helping students become skillful users of the vast amount of information available to them. Research and scientific investigations are showcased at the district Science Festival. Daily science learning focuses on human body systems, oceans and water, and physics concepts during fifth grade. Fifth-grade students have developed comprehension and text analysis skills. They apply these skills in increasingly complex text they read on a daily basis. It is essential for all students to read often during and beyond the school day. Students also write frequently and produce writing process papers for all types of writing (narrative, expository, persuasive, and technical). With frequent writing, students gain many opportunities to apply the grammar and conventions skills they are learning. Fine Arts learning opportunities increase at these grade levels. Buildings are alive with the sound of music through classes, musical performances, and Special Chorus for fifth-graders. Band and Orchestra (Strings) are also available. A walk through the halls or a chance to attend a special showing of student work quickly reveals the wide variety of learning taking place through the art curriculum. The physical education curriculum monitors students’ fitness, with an emphasis on physical activity, wellness, and healthy living. - Fifth-grade English language arts standards in PDF format - Fifth-grade health curriculum in PDF format - Fifth-grade library curriculum in PDF format - Fifth-grade math standards in PDF format - Fifth-grade physical education curriculum in PDF format - Fifth-grade science curriculum in PDF format - Fifth-grade social studies curriculum in PDF format
The blog of Xeno, a slightly mad scientist New research from Montana State University’s Museum of the Rockies has revealed how dinosaurs like Velociraptor and Deinonychus used their famous killer claws, leading to a new hypothesis on the evolution of flight in birds. “This study is a real game-changer,” said lead author Fowler. “It completely overhauls our perception of these little predatory dinosaurs, changing the way we think about their ecology and evolution.” The study focuses on dromaeosaurids; a group of small predatory dinosaurs that include the famous Velociraptor and its larger relative, Deinonychus. Dromaeosaurids are closely related to birds, and are most famous for possessing an enlarged sickle-claw on digit two (inside toe) of the foot. Previous researchers suggested that this claw was used to slash at prey, or help climb up their hides, but the new study proposes a different behavior. “Modern hawks and eagles possess a similar enlarged claw on their digit 2’s, something that hadn’t been noted before we published on it back in 2009,” Fowler said. “We showed that the enlarged D-2 claws are used as anchors, latching into the prey, preventing their escape. We interpret the sickle claw of dromaeosaurids as having evolved to do the same thing: latching in, and holding on.” As in modern birds of prey, precise use of the claw is related to relative prey size. “This strategy is only really needed for prey that are about the same size as the predator; large enough that they might struggle and escape from the feet,” Fowler said. “Smaller prey are just squeezed to death, but with large prey all the predator can do is hold on and stop it from escaping, then basically just eat it alive. Dromaeosaurs lack any obvious adaptations for dispatching their victims, so just like hawks and eagles, they probably ate their prey alive too.” … Note that Jurassic Park got it wrong, velociraptor had feathers. A new look at some old bones have shown that velociraptor, the dinosaur made famous in the movie Jurassic Park, had feathers. The discovery was made by paleontologists at the American Museum of Natural History and the Field Museum of Natural History.Scientists have known for years that many dinosaurs had feathers. Now the presence of feathers has been documented in velociraptor, one of the most iconic of dinosaurs and a close relative of birds. … “The more that we learn about these animals the more we find that there is basically no difference between birds and their closely related dinosaur ancestors like velociraptor,” said Mark Norell, a Curator in the Division of Paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History and co-author on the study. “Both have wishbones, brooded their nests, possess hollow bones, and were covered in feathers. If animals like velociraptor were alive today our first impression would be that they were just very unusual looking birds”. ….
Prattville Junior High School 8th Grade World History Teacher: C. Jackson Phone: PrattvilleJunior High School (334) 365-6697 Student Text: World History: Journey Across Time Time Periods: -World History and Geography to 1500 B.C. -Early Civilizations to 500 B.C. -Classical Civilizations: 500 B.C. to 500 A.D. -World Expansion of Agrarian and Commercial Civilizations: 500 A.D. to 1500 A.D. Course Objective: Eighth Grade World History and Geography to 1500 directs students to think critically about the various forces that combined to shape the world today. Emphasis is placed on geographic impact, development of civic knowledge/responsibilities, and emerging economic systems within a chronological context. Critical thinking and analysis are important in this course; consequently, asking questions about societies and comparing and contrasting civilizations over time are essential. Through historical inquiry, students need not focus on world history and geography as endless factual detail; rather, rather, they may gain an understanding and appreciation and appreciation of history as an exciting story of people much like themselves at other times and places. Topics of Discussion: · Understanding our past · First Civilizations: Africa andAsia (3200 B.C.-500 B.C.) · Early Civilizations inIndia andChina (2500 B.C.-256 B.C.) · Empires ofIndia andChina (600 B.C.-A.D. 550) · AncientGreece (1750 B.C.-133 B.C.) · AncientRome and the Rise of Christianity (509 B.C.-A.D. 476) · Civilizations of theAmericas (1400 B.C.-A.D. 1570) · The Rise ofEurope (500-1300) · The High Middle Ages (1050-1450) · The Byzantine Empire andRussia (330-1613) · The Muslim World (622-1650) · Kingdoms and Trading States ofAfrica (750 B.C.-A.D. 1586) · Spread of Civilizations inEast Africa (500-1603) · The Renaissance and Reformation (1300-1600)
Can the nation be an object of worship? Do religious and national identities fortify each other? How must we understand religious violence? What is the relationship between religion and politics in a secular world? Can religion be deployed as an instrument of political mobilization and transformations? Bearing the above questions in mind, this course will examine the relationship between the Nation and Religion in South Asia. Home to almost every major Religion of the world, the region of South Asia has also witnessed a variety of movements and mobilizations that explicitly invoke religion in the service of the nation. The partition of the subcontinent into India and Pakistan in 1947, the rise of Hindu fundamentalism in India, and pro-democracy movements in Myanmar, religion is never too far from politics, nor neatly privatized. We will examine the following case studies from the subcontinent that shed light on the intersections between religion and nation: the idea of ‘Mother India,’ the 1947 Partition of the subcontinent, the controversy over Rama’s ‘birthplace’ in India, the notion of ‘Jihad,’ and Buddhist monks’ participation in pro-democracy movement in Myanmar. The course will be divided into broad thematic sections dealing with community formation, national identity, religious fundamentalisms, and political mobilizations. Course objectives include fostering a nuanced understanding of the myriad ways in which religious collectives find expression in politics and society and contribute in forging modern national identities. Students will gain critical insight into religious nationalisms in South Asia and beyond. In addition, students will be able to take what they learn from this course about religion and the nation to other situations and parts of the world. This course is not meant to provide final answers. Its primary objective is to make students think and reflect in a critical fashion, and provide them with the material and intellectual tools necessary to do so. Course evaluation will be based upon attendance and class participation, two short essays, group presentations, a film review, and a final paper. No data submitted No data submitted
Brief SummaryRead full entry A small (4 ¾ inches) wood warbler, Wilson’s Warbler is most easily identified by its black cap and yellow throat and breast. Other field marks include an olive-green back, thin black bill, and orange legs. The female Wilson’s Warbler is duller yellow-green and lacks the male’s black cap. Wilson’s Warbler breeds across a large portion of central Canada and Alaska. Smaller breeding populations occur south of the Canadian border in Maine, along the Pacific coast, and at higher elevations in the Rocky Mountains. Most Wilson’s Warblers winter in Mexico and Central America, but a small number spend the winter in south Texas and along the Gulf Coast of eastern Texas and Louisiana. In summer, Wilson’s Warbler breeds in overgrown thickets, clearings, and other semi-open habitats near woodland. During the winter, this species inhabits tropical forests as well as overgrown fields and scrubland. On migration, Wilson’s Warbler may be found in a variety of habitat types similar to those used for breeding. This species primarily eats insects and spiders, but occasionally also eats fruit. Despite its bright colors, Wilson’s Warbler is often difficult to observe due to its small size and preference for habitats with thick vegetation. With the aid of binoculars, Wilson’s Warblers may be seen deep in the undergrowth gleaning insects from branches. Wilson’s Warbler is most active during the day, but, like many migratory songbirds, this species migrates at night.
This section provides an overview for linear scales as well as their applications and principles. Also, please take a look at the list of 10 linear scale manufacturers and their company rankings. Table of Contents Linear Scales, also called Linear Encoders, are used to measure positions and distances in a straight line with high accuracy. Linear Scales are classified into two types according to the standard of the distance traveled: the absolute type, which calculates the distance traveled from the absolute position, and the incremental type, which does not have an absolute position and calculates the distance traveled only by the distance traveled. There are also two types of detection methods: electromagnetic detectors that use electromagnetic induction and optical detectors that read light from a light source by transmitting it through a code wheel, with the electromagnetic method being slightly more widely used. Linear Scales are widely used in the fields of machine tools and semiconductor manufacturing, where precision measurement is required. The electromagnetic Linear Scales are also used in more general applications due to their simple structure. A typical example is the digital caliper, a tool that measures the length of two points and displays the result digitally. Electromagnetic Linear Scales use the principle of electromagnetic induction in physics. The main scale and the detector each contain a coil, and when the distance between them changes, an electromotive force corresponding to the distance is generated. The simple structure is resistant to contamination and can be used in many cases, but it is not suitable for environments where magnetic fields are generated. Optical Linear Scales emit light from a light-emitting element and are detected by a light-receiving element located on the opposite side, with a fixed main scale and reticle grating between the light-emitting and light-receiving elements. Slits are cut in the main scale and the reticle grating, and the slits generate interference fringes, which are electrically converted to determine the position. Optical Linear Scales are more accurate than electromagnetic Linear Scales and are less susceptible to magnetic fields, but they are also slightly larger and more susceptible to external light irradiation. In recent years, there has been rapid progress in semiconductors, and the semiconductor industry has been developing with higher integration in accordance with Moore's Law. This progress in the semiconductor industry has spilled over into various electronic devices, and various products are becoming more electronically controlled and high-precision. As integration and density continue to increase, it is important to achieve higher precision in position detection for manufacturing equipment that produces semiconductors and machine tools that manufacture mechanical parts with high precision. Precise position control in semiconductor manufacturing equipment and machine tools requires an actuator to move an object and a detection method to detect the precise position of the actuator. Currently, laser interferometers and encoders are used for precise position detection. In designing an actuator, it is common to configure an actuator based on linear motion in the three axes (X, Y, and Z) and spatial motion by combining these three axes. Therefore, Linear Scales are used for precise linear position detection. Scales and detectors are installed on the moving and fixed parts, respectively, to precisely detect the distance. Linear Scales are widely used in precision equipment for machine tools and semiconductor manufacturing because they can measure positions with high precision. Therefore, the mounting method and mounting accuracy are important when designing a scale in order to maintain its accuracy. The installation accuracy is described in each product and the manufacturer's instruction manual in order to achieve the performance of the linear scale. Regarding the mounting method, it is necessary for the designer to consider the structure of the device to which the linear scale is mounted. As the accuracy of Linear Scales themselves is on the order of microns, for example, mounting accuracy of 1 mm or less is required for the distance between the sensor and the scale, yaw, roll, and pitch, respectively. it may be necessary to design and manufacture a precision jig for installation, or to manually adjust the scale during installation. *Including some distributors, etc. Sort by Features Sort by Area Number of Employees Newly Established Company Company with a History This is the version of our website addressed to speakers of English in the United States. If you are a resident of another country, please select the appropriate version of Metoree for your country in the drop-down menu.
Psychoanalysis was established by Sigmund Freud, in 1895. While examining his patients, as a neurologist, Freud realized that many of his patients had neurological symptoms without any organic cause. He came to the conclusion that such symptoms result from inner conflicts that are repressed in the form of traumatic memories and experiences. Resolving those inner conflicts by uncovering the repressed memories into the conscious mind then became the underlying feature of psychoanalysis. As psychoanalysis evolved, it began to gain popularity but at the same time faced criticisms. Freud’s associates like Alfred Adler and Carl Jung parted ways from him due to their disagreements and developed their own forms of psychoanalysis, keeping some of the basic elements the same. Like Adler and Jung, others had different perspectives about psychoanalysis, which became more prominent after the death of Sigmund Freud in 1939. Despite the many modifications, over the years, classical Freudian psychoanalysis continued to have wide acceptance. It was found to be highly applicable in therapeutic settings as well as in day-to-day life. Psychoanalysis received its immediate expression through the needs of the mentally ill. It was, initially, a clinical-based discipline, and was not academically oriented. It was due to this that psychoanalysis had a dominant role in psychiatry, as it was found suitable to clinical problems. Till the 1960s, psychoanalytic writings found an almost exclusive position in psychiatry and clinical psychology. It was one of the major reasons for the alarming rise of clinical psychology. Being clinically oriented, psychoanalysis resulted in huge advances in treatment of mental patients. It was one of the pioneer movements to treat mental patients more humanely. It is, in fact, the first of the five classical schools of psychology to give emphasis to mental illness. It stressed the importance of allowing patients to talk and express themselves. It is, thus, the forerunner of all the current approaches to counselling and psychotherapy. Psychoanalysis, however, has not restricted itself to mental illness. Apart from the understanding of abnormal behavior, psychoanalysis has also led to an understanding of normal behavior. It addresses both normal and abnormal behavior, and demonstrates that the psychological processes underlying both are fundamentally the same. Psychoanalysis has addressed a wide range of topics, apart from mental illness. It has contributed to ground breaking work on humour, marriage, death, friendship, suicide, creativity, competition, forgetfulness, mistakes, importance of culture, society, and war, and many other domains. Sigmund Freud being one of the most frequently cited authors in the psychology and the Division of Psychoanalysis (Division 39) being the sixth largest of all APA Divisions reflects the huge impact that psychoanalysis has had. Further, psychoanalysis has helped in the generalization of psychology to other fields. By showing the usefulness of psychology in explaining everyday life phenomena such as religion, sports, politics, art, literature, and philosophy, the relevance of psychology has expanded to almost every sector of human existence. Additionally, it also created substantial interest in the field of psychology among other professionals like physicians and philosophers and even the general audience. Psychoanalysis has also had an enormous influence on art and literature. This has led to literary and artistic expressions interpreted in light of the unconscious of the artist as well as the perceiver. It is for this reason that art is seen as symbolic, something that can be probed for unconscious meanings. The analysis of art is regarded as an extension of psychoanalysis. One of the reasons for the popularity of psychoanalysis is that it has a strong influence on popular culture, which began immediately after Sigmund Freud’s visit to Clark University in 1909. Due to the rising of psychoanalysis, the 20th century saw a loosening of sexual restraints in behavior, arts, literature, and entertainment. It has become widely acceptable that inhibitions or repression of sexual impulses can be harmful. The emphasis of psychoanalysis on sex helped to popularize its ideas. Even though being highly popular and contributing to the field of psychology in a major way, psychoanalysis has faced major criticisms, especially by the philosopher Karl Popper, regarding falsifiability and scientific validity. Popper, considered to be one of the greatest 20th century’s philosopher of science, majorly criticized the methodology used by Freud, which was solely based on clinical case studies and did not adhere to the commitment to the methodology expressed in the systems that were generated by academic research. In later times, however, there has been a great deal of empirical research on psychoanalytic concepts, trying to give it scientific validity. This research was initiated by Anna Freud, and later carried forward by Heinz Hartmann, George Klein, and Henry Murray. Through their research, they have given empirical evidences of psychoanalytic concepts, which in turn, led to the acceptance of psychoanalysis in mainstream academic psychology. In more recent times, advances in cognitive psychology and neurosciences have led to findings that are very consistent with Freudian concepts. These findings led a group of cognitive psychologists, neuroscientists, and psychiatrists began a movement and established a society called Neuro-psychoanalysis, which is an integration of Freudian concepts with neuroscience. This movement is often referred to as the second coming of Sigmund Freud. The person at the forefront of this movement, known as the originator of Neuro-psychoanalysis, is the neuropsychologist Mark Solms. Along with Solms, neuroscientists like Daniel Schacter and Antonio Damasio argue that Freud’s conceptions of consciousness are corroborated by contemporary neuroscience. According to Solms, Freudian concepts like the unconscious, repression, and pleasure principles can be supported by neuroscientific research. Solms examined patients of brain damage in the light of Freudian concepts. He found that the brain part known as the brain stem is associated with the core conscious also called the state of not being awake. Damage to this region makes the person unconscious. The brain area known as the prefrontal cortex is found to be associated with being aware and the ability to self-reflect. Solms likened these findings in terms of Freud’s unconscious (the part of the mind that consists of memories and emotions beyond awareness) and conscious mind (the part of the mind that consists of memories and emotions within awareness). Proponents of neuro-psychoanalysis also compare the unconscious to the highly studied phenomenon of cognitive psychology referred to as nonconscious mental processing. These are processes that are implicit and have automaticity. Cognitive psychologists refer to such activities as beyond conscious awareness and intentional control. The social-cognitive psychologist John Bargh, on the basis of a number of studies in cognitive psychology on the phenomenon of nonconscious mental processing concluded that 95 percent of human behavior is determined by these implicit and automatic activities. Psychologists clearly mention that nonconscious cognition may not be similar to Freud’s unconscious, but it comes close to it and can be seen consistent with the tip-of-the-iceberg metaphor used by Freud in describing the conscious mind. Nonconscious cognition may not be exactly the same as the unconscious mind, however, other studies by Solms reflect neuroscientific findings that are similar to specific aspects found in the unconscious. Sigmund Freud suggested that one of the basic instinctual drives that individuals have is to seek pleasure and immediate gratification, which is guided by one of the structures of personality called the id. Neuroscientific research, by Solms, shows that the pleasure-seeking drives have their neurological origins in two brain structures, namely the brain stem and the limbic system. Further, the neurotransmitter called dopamine is centrally involved in most pleasure seeking behaviors. These findings indicate a neuroscientific basis of the Freudian concept of the id. Neuroscientific research also identified the brain area of the frontal-limbic system to be associated with inhibition of impulses or impulse regulations. It has been found that when this brain area is damaged, the individual’s id-based pleasure seeking impulses increase. In other words, basically in Freudian terms, the individual behaves as if the ego is not inhibiting the basic drives and that he/she becomes hostile, highly impulsive, and least concerned about social norms. Solms suggests that injuries to the frontal lobe lead to inability of individuals to stay reality bound and they start interpreting and reacting to events through their wishes or basic drives. This, according to Solms, provides a neuroscientific explanation of Freud’s concepts of id and ego. Sigmund Freud’s concept of defense mechanisms, especially repression, has been found to have a neuropsychological basis. According to Freud, in repression the unconscious keeps ideas, feelings, and unpleasant or threatening impulses out of consciousness. Neuroscientific research, by Solms, reports cases that explore the areas of the brain that may be implicated in the use and perseverance of defense mechanisms. A number of cases have demonstrated repression of unpalatable information when damage occurs to the right brain hemisphere and, if this damaged region becomes artificially stimulated, the repression goes away; that is, awareness returns. Additionally, these patients frequently rationalize away unwelcome facts by fabricating stories, which is an indication of demonstrating the Freudian wish-fulfilling defense mechanisms. Apart from research in cognitive and neuroscience, recent research in social cognition has also given empirical evidences for Freudian concepts, especially the phenomenon of transference. Transference refers to holding mental representations of significant others in memory. According to Freud, transference occurs when childhood fantasies and conflicts associated with a parent or significant other are imposed on the psychoanalyst, during a psychotherapeutic session. This takes place outside conscious awareness. Freud believed that people hold unconscious prototypes of individuals that determine their relationships with other new individuals that they meet. Transference becomes an important phenomenon as it helps the therapist to understand and uncover the conflicts and fantasies of the individual. A series of experiments have been conducted by researchers in which they deliberately activate significant-other representations. These researches show that people tend to fill in the blanks about a new person based on the knowledge of a significant-other, when that significant-other representation is triggered. Such researches on the social-cognitive model of transference give experimental evidences for the Freudian phenomenon of transference. Therefore, contemporary research in neuroscience, cognitive psychology, and social cognition provide scientific explanations of many of Freudian concepts. These researches have made classical Freudian psychoanalysis relevant in today’s time, not letting it fade away from the realms of psychology. On one the hand there have been contemporary researches that give evidence for Freudian concepts, and on the other hand there have been a series of recent researches that completely refute Freudian psychoanalysis. Recent research in the areas of memory, consciousness, trauma, and psychotherapy has not just been questioning, but has even provided evidences against phenomena that have shaped the foundation of Freudian psychoanalysis. The central concept of Freudian psychoanalysis is the phenomenon of repression. Repression refers to the exclusion of painful, traumatic memories or undesirable urges that may have taken place in childhood, from the conscious awareness and pushing them into the unconscious. These lost/repressed memories are said to cause troubles to individuals in adulthood, in the forms of anxiety and other psychological problems. A way to treat these psychological problems, according to Freudian psychoanalysis, is to try to uncover or recover those lost/repressed memories, which is also known as recovered memory therapy. The idea of treating psychological problems by recovering repressed childhood memories has been a contention of a huge controversy, which originates to the early 1990s, known as the memory wars. Recovered memory therapy has been at the receiving end of heavy criticisms, discrediting the central idea of Freudian psychoanalysis. One of the leading the persons behind these criticisms is the well-known cognitive psychologist and human memory expert, from the University of California, Irvin, Elizabeth Loftus. Loftus has been involved in research in memory for over 20 years. She has a number of books on memory, including, The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse. The work of Loftus on eyewitness testimony has been groundbreaking. Her research showed that eyewitness testimonies are not always accurate and can easily be manipulated by misinformation, giving rise to false memories. She conducted a series of experiments in which she showed that false memories can be implanted in individuals. Similar mechanisms, according to Loftus, can be applied in recovered memory therapy sessions. She came to this conclusion when she investigated cases of a number of parents claiming to be falsely accused of sexually abusing their children. A large number of women during recovered memory therapy sessions are able to recall specific details of how they were sexually abused by their parents or a close relative. Psychotherapists claim that they are able to uncover traumatic memories of being sexually abused in childhood, helping them to overcome their psychological problems. Loftus completely discredits the idea of repressed memories being recovered, claiming that memory does not function in this manner. Loftus argues that the memories that are recovered are not accurate - memories are not like video recordings in which every past thought, emotions, and experiences are stored safely and can be recovered easily. Memories are more of reconstructive in nature. This means that past events that are recalled are not in an accurate manner, but are a blend of fact and fiction. The assumption of therapists that memory works as per the video-recorder model and not the reconstructionist model leads to the creation of false memories – memories of events that do not exist. According to Loftus, it is easy to make someone believe something to be true even if it has not occurred, especially in highly suggestible situations like recovered memory psychotherapeutic sessions. The memories that are recovered are mostly false memories. These false memories are implanted, unknowingly, by overzealous or biased therapists. The individuals after being in multiple of such recovered memory therapy sessions end up believing things that have not even taken place; they actually start believing that they have had traumatic experiences (sexual abuse in the cases investigated by Loftus) in their childhood. In a number of cases, it has been found that people end up believing that they had experienced paranormal activities such as being abducted by aliens. Strengthening her claims regarding the notions of repression and recovered memories, Loftus also states that the hippocampus, brain area that plays an important in the formation of memories, is not properly developed in early childhood. Due to this it is impossible that accurate memories are stored for a really long time and retrieved in adulthood. The human brain, therefore, according to Loftus, is incapable of recovering accurate memories from early childhood. In the same light as Loftus, Harvard psychologist and expert in trauma research, Richard McNally argues that there is no such thing as repression. In a number of his researches he shows that there is no scientific evidence of repression. On the basis of his research, he further suggests that people actually do not forget their traumatic experiences; they in fact very well remember the traumatic events. Traumatic events due to being highly emotionally arousing are remembered in a better manner rather than being forgotten. A good example of this is Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), in which people keep getting flashbacks of their past traumatic experiences. Further, McNally in his researches found that recovered memories are not genuine; they do not correspond to real events; for instance people being able to recall satanic ritualistic abuse or alien abduction. McNally also found that people recall such instances only after undergoing recovered memory procedures. McNally like Loftus, argues that memory does not operate like a video recorder and that recollections are always reconstructive in nature. Regarding this he found that false memories of emotionally negative events can be implanted in recovered memory procedures. These researches by Loftus and McNally create serious doubts and completely refute the phenomenon of repression, which is the central concept of Freudian psychoanalysis. They give clear research evidences that disprove the idea of repression. In contemporary times, one of the biggest critics of Sigmund Freud is the University of California, Berkeley, psychologist John Kihlstrom. Known for his work on consciousness, Kihlstrom has heavily criticized Freud in many of his writings. Kihlstrom states that Sigmund Freud in contemporary times is irrelevant and his ideas are completely obsolete. He argues that from 1950s onwards, with the rise of cognitive-behavioral therapies and empirical approaches to personality, Freud’s theories can be considered to be archaic. According to Kihlstrom, Freud’s theory of personality and psychotherapeutic techniques are completely dead as many of his ideas such as the psychosexual stages, Oedipus complex, or childhood origins of adult personality have no empirical evidence. He also argues that there is no empirical evidence that psychoanalytic psychotherapy is more effective than any of the behavioristic and cognitive therapies. Kihlstrom further states that there is no scientific evidence of the Freudian concepts of the unconscious and repression, which play a central role in Freudian psychoanalysis. He argues that the discovery of cognitive unconscious or nonconscious (mentioned above) and that the concept of automaticity (automatic processes) cannot be considered as evidences of Freudian unconscious. Automatic processes are unintentional, involuntary, effortless, consume little or no attentional capacity, and take place outside conscious awareness. Processes like implicit memory (any effect of a past event on an individual’s thoughts, actions, and experiences, without any conscious reflection of that event), implicit perception (influence of an event without conscious perception of that event), implicit learning (acquiring of knowledge without conscious awareness of what has been learnt) are included in automatic processes. Such processes have been found to generate conscious mental contents like percepts, memory, feelings, and desires. These automatic processes are certainly unconscious and play an important role in conscious activities, and have been proven experimentally. But Kihlstrom argues that they cannot be considered as evidence for Freud’s unconscious. The automatic processes, Kihlstrom states are very different from Freud’s unconscious, which is represented by repressed contents like childhood trauma, emotional conflict, and sexual and aggressive urges. Like Loftus and McNally, Kihlstrom completely discredits the phenomenon of repression. He also states that there is no scientific evidence of repression. He argues that experiments that claim to be evidences of repression do not involve any unconscious processes, and are simply evidences of suppression. As per Kihlstrom, the concept of repression is a clinical myth. Kilhstrom also states that Freud at best can be seen as a historical figure and is relevant only as a writer in the fields of language and literature, but has no relevance in psychology, in contemporary times. The enormous impact that Sigmund Freud has had is undeniable. However, there is always the question of the relevance of Freudian concepts in the present-day. Advances in cognitive and neurosciences giving rise to the society called Neuro-psychoanalysis led by Mark Solms and research in social cognition by Susan Anderson and associates not only give cognitive and neuroscientific explanations of Freudian concepts, but even widen the scope of Freudian psychoanalysis.
New research published in the Journal of Archeaological Science Reports reveals how archeologists can determine when a pot was used by Romans as a portable toilet, known as a chamber pot. "Conical pots of this type have been recognized quite widely in the Roman Empire and in the absence of other evidence they have often been called storage jars. The discovery of many in or near public latrines had led to a suggestion that they might have been used as chamber pots, but until now proof has been lacking," says Roger Wilson, a professor in UBC's department of classical, Near Eastern and religious studies who directs the Gerace archeological project in Sicily where the pot was found. Archeologists at the University of Cambridge analyzed crusty material formed on the inside surface of a ceramic pot dating to the fifth century from a Roman villa site in Sicily. Using microscopy to identify intestinal parasites, the team from the Ancient Parasites Laboratory identified the eggs of whipworm, confirming that the vessel had once contained human feces. Microscopic egg of whipworm from the chamber pot. Black scale bar represents 20 micrometres. Credit: Sophie Rabinow "It was incredibly exciting to find the eggs of these parasitic worms 1,500 years after they'd been deposited," says co-author Tianyi Wang, University of Cambridge, who took part in the microscopy work. Whipworms are human parasites that are about five centimeters long and live on the lining of our intestines. The eggs they lay get mixed in with the human feces, and so would be deposited in a chamber pot during use. Minerals from urine and feces built up in layers on the inner surface of the pot as it was repeatedly used, creating concretions. "We found that the parasite eggs became entrapped within the layers of minerals that formed on the pot surface, so preserving them for centuries," says co-author Sophie Rabinow, also of the Cambridge team. This is the first time that parasite eggs have been identified from concretions inside a Roman ceramic vessel and confirms the Gerace pot must have been used to contain human feces This is the first time that parasite eggs have been identified from concretions inside a Roman ceramic vessel and confirms the Gerace pot must have been used to contain human feces. Although the measurements of the Gerace chamber pot (31.8 cm high with a diameter of 34cm at the rim) indicate it could have been used for sitting on, it was more than likely used in conjunction with a wickerwork or timber chair under which the chamber pot was set. Ceramics are one of the most commonplace forms of archeological artifact recovered from Roman sites. This technique provides a crucial tool enabling researchers to identify pots that had the special purpose of being chamber pots, distinguishing them from those used as storage jars for food or other materials (although occasional alternative uses of such vessels have been documented). "The findings show that parasite analysis can provide important clues for ceramic research," says Rabinow. The technique will only work if at least one of those people who used the chamber pot was infected by intestinal worms. Where such parasites are endemic in the developing world today, more than half of people are infected by at least one type of intestinal parasite. If Romans were infected as commonly, there is high probability that this approach will identify most such vessels as chamber pots if encrusted deposits are preserved. Piers Mitchell, the parasites expert who led the study in the laboratory, says, "This pot came from the baths complex of a Roman villa. It seems likely that those visiting the baths would have used this chamber pot when they wanted to go to the toilet, as the baths lacked a built latrine of its own. Clearly, convenience was important to them." Mitchell adds, "Where Roman pots in museums are noted to have these mineralized concretions inside the base, they can now be sampled using our technique to see if they were also used as chamber pots." The identification of intestinal parasite eggs in chamber pots has the potential to advance our understanding of the sanitation, diet and intestinal health of people in the past.
Ninja: The Stealthy Warriors of Ancient Japan When we think of ninjas, images of black-clad warriors silently moving through the night come to mind. These enigmatic figures have captivated our imaginations for centuries, embodying the essence of stealth, skill, and discipline. But who exactly were the ninjas, and what made them such formidable figures in ancient Japan? The term “ninja” originated in Japan during the feudal era, which spanned from the 12th to the 19th century. These highly trained individuals were experts in espionage, sabotage, and guerrilla warfare. Contrary to popular belief, ninjas were not just assassins; they possessed a wide range of skills that made them invaluable assets in times of conflict. One key aspect that set ninjas apart was their ability to remain unseen and unheard. They mastered the art of stealth by blending into their surroundings, utilizing camouflage techniques and adapting to different environments effortlessly. Their attire played a crucial role as well – their iconic black outfits allowed them to blend into the shadows and move undetected. Ninjas were not only skilled in combat but also excelled in intelligence gathering and espionage. They were adept at infiltrating enemy territories, gathering vital information, and relaying it back to their allies. Their knowledge of disguise allowed them to assume various identities, making it nearly impossible for their enemies to identify them. In addition to their physical prowess and cunning tactics, ninjas were also masters of unconventional weaponry. Shurikens (throwing stars), kunai (multi-purpose knives), smoke bombs, and even hidden blades concealed within innocuous objects were all part of their arsenal. Their weapons were carefully crafted with precision and designed for maximum effectiveness. But being a ninja was not just about combat skills; it required mental fortitude as well. Ninjas underwent rigorous training from a young age that focused on discipline, patience, agility, and adaptability. They honed their senses to be hyper-aware of their surroundings, enabling them to react swiftly and decisively in any situation. The influence of ninjas extended beyond warfare. Their philosophy emphasized loyalty, resilience, and a strong sense of justice. They were known for their code of conduct, which emphasized the importance of integrity and honour. Even in times of great danger or personal sacrifice, ninjas adhered to their principles. Today, the legacy of the ninja continues to inspire fascination and admiration worldwide. Their stories have been immortalized in countless books, films, and popular culture references. The skills they mastered are still admired and studied by martial artists and enthusiasts alike. The ninja’s ability to overcome seemingly insurmountable odds through intelligence, agility, and resourcefulness serves as a timeless reminder that true power lies not only in physical strength but also in mental acuity. The lessons we can learn from these stealthy warriors are as relevant today as they were centuries ago. So next time you find yourself captivated by tales of these shadowy figures from ancient Japan, remember that behind the mystique lies a rich history of resilience, skill, and unwavering dedication to their craft. The legend of the ninja lives on – forever etched in our collective imagination as symbols of courage and mastery. Essential Tips for Becoming a Skilled Ninja Practitioner: Training, History, Discipline, and More! - Be prepared to train hard and stay focused on your goals. - Learn the history of ninjutsu and its techniques. - Find a qualified instructor who can teach you the proper way to move and fight as a ninja. - Practice regularly to develop your skills, strength, speed, agility and flexibility. - Develop mental discipline such as meditation and visualization techniques that will help you focus in stressful situations or combat scenarios. - Stay aware of your surroundings at all times so you can anticipate potential threats or opportunities for attack or escape if necessary. - Wear protective clothing when practicing martial arts techniques such as sparring or weapons training in order to avoid injuries from falls or impacts with other objects (e.g., walls). - Stay humble and remember that there is always more to learn about ninjutsu no matter how experienced you become over time! Be prepared to train hard and stay focused on your goals. In the world of ninjas, training is not just a routine but a way of life. To become a true master of the art, one must be prepared to train hard and stay focused on their goals. This principle holds true not only for ninjas but for anyone striving for excellence in any field. Training as a ninja requires discipline, dedication, and perseverance. It involves pushing oneself beyond limits, both physically and mentally. From honing combat skills to perfecting stealth techniques, every aspect of training demands unwavering commitment. Staying focused on your goals is essential in the path of becoming a ninja. It’s easy to get distracted or discouraged along the way, but a true ninja never loses sight of their objectives. They understand that setbacks are part of the journey and use them as stepping stones towards improvement. By staying focused, you develop mental resilience and determination. You learn to overcome obstacles with unwavering determination and find creative solutions to challenges that arise. The ability to adapt and adjust course when needed is crucial in achieving success. Training as a ninja also teaches valuable lessons about self-discipline and time management. It requires setting priorities, organizing schedules, and making sacrifices to dedicate sufficient time to practice and improvement. These skills are transferable to any aspect of life, helping individuals excel in their personal and professional pursuits. Moreover, training hard as a ninja cultivates a strong work ethic. It instills values such as perseverance, commitment, and accountability – qualities that are highly regarded in all walks of life. When you put in the effort consistently, it becomes second nature to strive for excellence in everything you do. So whether you’re aspiring to be an actual ninja or simply seeking personal growth and success, remember the importance of training hard and staying focused on your goals. Embrace challenges as opportunities for growth, maintain discipline even when motivation wavers, and never lose sight of what you aim to achieve. In the end, the path to mastery is not an easy one, but the rewards are immeasurable. By embracing the ninja’s mindset of unwavering dedication and focus, you can unlock your true potential and achieve greatness in whatever you set out to do. Learn the history of ninjutsu and its techniques. Unlocking the Secrets: Delve into the History and Techniques of Ninjutsu To truly understand the essence of a ninja, one must explore the rich history and techniques of ninjutsu. This ancient art form, born in feudal Japan, holds the key to unlocking a world of stealth, strategy, and unparalleled skill. Ninjutsu, often referred to as the “art of perseverance,” traces its roots back to the 12th century. Developed by shinobi warriors, it was a comprehensive system that encompassed various disciplines such as espionage, guerrilla warfare, survival skills, and intelligence gathering. At its core, ninjutsu was a response to the turbulent times in which it emerged. These shadow warriors were tasked with protecting their clans and engaging in covert operations during times of conflict. Their ability to adapt swiftly to changing circumstances and employ unconventional tactics set them apart from traditional samurai warriors. Learning about the history of ninjutsu offers us a glimpse into the world these highly skilled individuals inhabited. It reveals their unwavering dedication to their craft and their commitment to honing their skills through rigorous training. By delving into this history, we gain insight into their mindset and appreciate the challenges they faced. Equally important is understanding the techniques employed by ninjas. From mastering stealthy movement to employing specialized weapons and tools, each aspect played a crucial role in their success. The art of disguise allowed them to infiltrate enemy territory undetected while their knowledge of poisons ensured they had an upper hand when necessary. Studying ninjutsu techniques provides us with valuable lessons that extend beyond martial arts. It teaches us about adaptability in ever-changing situations, resourcefulness when faced with limited resources, and an acute awareness of our surroundings. These skills can be applied not only in physical combat but also in our everyday lives – enabling us to navigate challenges with grace and precision. Fortunately, the history and techniques of ninjutsu have not been lost to time. Today, there are dedicated practitioners and schools that continue to preserve and pass on this ancient knowledge. By immersing ourselves in the study of ninjutsu, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the artistry, discipline, and sheer ingenuity that defined these legendary warriors. So, if you’re intrigued by the mystique surrounding ninjas and their unparalleled abilities, take a step back in time. Learn about the history of ninjutsu and its techniques – immerse yourself in an extraordinary world where stealth and strategy reign supreme. Unleash your inner ninja and discover the secrets that lie within this captivating art form. Find a qualified instructor who can teach you the proper way to move and fight as a ninja. Embarking on the path of a ninja requires more than just an interest or fascination with their skills and techniques. To truly understand and master the art of being a ninja, it is essential to find a qualified instructor who can guide you on this extraordinary journey. A qualified instructor possesses the knowledge, experience, and expertise necessary to teach you the proper way to move and fight as a ninja. They have dedicated years to studying and training in various martial arts disciplines, honing their skills to perfection. Their understanding of the principles behind ninja techniques is invaluable in helping you develop a solid foundation. Learning from a qualified instructor ensures that you receive proper guidance on posture, movement, and technique. They will teach you how to move with grace, agility, and precision – essential qualities for any aspiring ninja. By following their instructions closely, you can avoid developing bad habits or incorrect form that may hinder your progress in the long run. Moreover, an experienced instructor will prioritize safety during your training sessions. They will emphasize the importance of warm-ups, stretches, and conditioning exercises to prevent injuries and promote physical wellbeing. They will also guide you through progressive training routines that gradually build your strength, flexibility, and endurance over time. Beyond physical training, a qualified instructor will provide valuable insights into the philosophy and mindset of being a ninja. They will share knowledge about discipline, focus, mental fortitude, and ethical conduct – all integral aspects of embracing the way of the ninja. Their teachings extend beyond combat techniques to encompass personal growth and self-improvement. Finding a qualified instructor may involve researching local martial arts schools or seeking recommendations from trusted sources. Look for instructors who have proven experience in teaching martial arts disciplines related to ninjutsu or other relevant styles. Assess their credentials, reputation within the martial arts community, and their ability to effectively communicate complex concepts. Remember that learning from an experienced instructor is not just about acquiring technical skills; it is also about building a mentor-student relationship. A qualified instructor will inspire and motivate you, providing guidance and support as you progress on your ninja journey. They will challenge you to push your limits while ensuring that you develop a strong foundation in the art. In conclusion, finding a qualified instructor is an essential step for anyone aspiring to learn the ways of the ninja. Their expertise, guidance, and mentorship will shape your understanding of this ancient art form. With their help, you can embark on a transformative journey that goes beyond physical techniques – one that embraces the true essence of being a ninja. Practice regularly to develop your skills, strength, speed, agility and flexibility. Mastering the Way of the Ninja: The Power of Regular Practice In the world of ninjas, practice is not just a means to an end; it is a way of life. Regular training is essential to develop and enhance the skills that define these stealthy warriors. From their physical abilities to their mental acuity, ninjas understand that consistent practice is the key to unlocking their full potential. First and foremost, regular practice allows ninjas to cultivate their skills. Whether it’s honing their combat techniques, perfecting their weapon handling, or refining their acrobatic movements, consistent training helps them become masters of their craft. Through repetition and dedication, they build muscle memory and improve their overall proficiency. Strength is another crucial aspect that ninjas strive to enhance through regular practice. Engaging in strength training exercises such as weightlifting, bodyweight exercises, or martial arts-specific workouts helps them develop the power needed for combat situations. Building a strong foundation allows them to execute swift strikes and perform physically demanding tasks with ease. Speed is synonymous with ninjas, and it comes as no surprise that regular practice plays a vital role in developing this attribute. By incorporating speed drills into their training routines, ninjas can improve their reaction time and quickness. Whether it’s sprinting exercises or rapid weapon strikes, consistent practice helps them move swiftly and decisively in any situation. Agility is another hallmark of ninja prowess. The ability to navigate obstacles seamlessly and move with grace requires flexibility and nimbleness. By incorporating stretching exercises and agility drills into their training regimen, ninjas can improve joint mobility, balance, and coordination. This enables them to perform complex maneuvers effortlessly while maintaining control over their bodies. Flexibility goes hand in hand with agility for ninjas. Being able to contort their bodies into various positions allows them to evade attacks, squeeze through tight spaces unnoticed or execute acrobatic moves flawlessly. Through regular stretching and flexibility exercises, ninjas can increase their range of motion and prevent injuries, ensuring they remain agile and adaptable. In the world of ninjas, practice is not limited to physical training alone. Mental acuity is equally important. Regular meditation and mindfulness exercises help ninjas cultivate focus, discipline, and a calm state of mind. This mental fortitude allows them to make split-second decisions, maintain composure under pressure, and adapt to ever-changing situations. In conclusion, regular practice is the cornerstone of ninja training. By dedicating themselves to consistent training sessions, these stealthy warriors develop their skills, strength, speed, agility, and flexibility. The path to mastery requires commitment and perseverance but promises great rewards. So whether you’re aspiring to be a ninja or seeking self-improvement in any aspect of life, remember that regular practice is the key that unlocks your true potential. Embrace the way of the ninja and embark on a journey of continuous growth and self-discovery. Develop mental discipline such as meditation and visualization techniques that will help you focus in stressful situations or combat scenarios. Developing Mental Discipline: The Ninja’s Secret Weapon In the world of ninjas, physical prowess was only part of their arsenal. These stealthy warriors recognized the importance of mental discipline as a crucial element in their training. One particular aspect they emphasized was the development of focus and clarity in stressful situations or combat scenarios. Meditation and visualization techniques were key tools employed by ninjas to cultivate mental discipline. By incorporating these practices into their training, they were able to maintain a calm and focused mindset, even amidst chaos. Meditation played a significant role in the ninja’s journey towards self-mastery. Through regular meditation sessions, they learned to quiet their minds, allowing them to let go of distractions and find inner stillness. This practice not only helped them manage stress but also enhanced their ability to make quick decisions with clarity and precision. Visualization techniques were another essential aspect of a ninja’s mental training. By visualizing different scenarios and outcomes, they could mentally prepare themselves for various situations they might encounter. This technique allowed them to respond swiftly and effectively when faced with unexpected challenges. The benefits of these practices extend beyond combat scenarios; they can be applied to everyday life as well. Developing mental discipline through meditation and visualization techniques can help individuals stay focused during high-pressure situations at work or while pursuing personal goals. Incorporating meditation into your daily routine can provide numerous benefits for your overall well-being. It helps reduce stress, improve concentration, enhance self-awareness, and promote emotional stability. By taking the time to sit in silence and connect with your inner self, you can cultivate the same mental discipline that ninjas valued so highly. Visualization techniques are equally powerful tools that can aid in achieving personal success. By vividly imagining yourself overcoming obstacles or achieving your desired outcomes, you create a positive mindset that propels you towards success. Visualizing success helps build confidence, boosts motivation, and allows you to tap into your full potential. So, whether you’re facing a daunting challenge or simply striving to improve your focus and mental clarity, take a page from the ninja’s playbook. Embrace meditation and visualization techniques as your secret weapons for developing mental discipline. By training your mind to remain calm and focused, you can navigate any situation with grace and confidence. Stay aware of your surroundings at all times so you can anticipate potential threats or opportunities for attack or escape if necessary. Ninja Tip: The Power of Awareness in the Art of the Ninja In the world of ninjas, one crucial skill stands above all others – awareness. The ability to stay fully present and attuned to your surroundings can make all the difference between success and failure, survival and defeat. This fundamental principle holds true not only for ninjas but for anyone seeking to navigate through life with a sense of control and preparedness. The concept of awareness goes beyond simply observing what is directly in front of you. It involves cultivating a heightened state of consciousness, where every sound, movement, and subtle shift in the environment becomes significant. By staying aware at all times, you gain a valuable advantage – the ability to anticipate potential threats or opportunities for attack or escape. In the art of the ninja, this level of awareness is honed through rigorous training. Ninjas are taught to trust their instincts and develop a keen sense of intuition. By training their senses to be finely attuned, they can detect even the slightest changes in their surroundings – an approaching enemy, an open escape route, or an opportunity for surprise. But this principle extends beyond physical combat situations. In our daily lives, staying aware can help us navigate challenges more effectively. By being present and observant, we become better equipped to recognize potential dangers or advantageous moments that may arise unexpectedly. In today’s fast-paced world filled with distractions, it’s easy to become disconnected from our surroundings. We often find ourselves lost in thoughts or buried in screens, oblivious to what is happening around us. However, by consciously practicing awareness like a ninja would, we regain control over our environment and enhance our ability to respond swiftly when needed. Staying aware allows us to spot potential threats before they materialize fully. It gives us time to assess situations objectively and make informed decisions rather than reacting impulsively out of panic or fear. Moreover, by remaining alert and open-minded, we also increase our chances of recognizing opportunities that may present themselves unexpectedly. To cultivate awareness, start by consciously focusing on your surroundings. Take notice of the sounds, smells, and movements around you. Observe the people and objects in your vicinity. Train yourself to be present in the moment, rather than being lost in thoughts about the past or future. Remember, awareness is not just about self-preservation; it’s also about embracing opportunities for growth and success. By staying attuned to your environment, you position yourself to seize advantageous moments that others might overlook. So, whether you’re a ninja honing your skills or an individual seeking a more empowered life, embrace the power of awareness. Stay vigilant, stay present, and unlock the potential to navigate through life with confidence and grace – just like a true ninja would. Wear protective clothing when practicing martial arts techniques such as sparring or weapons training in order to avoid injuries from falls or impacts with other objects (e.g., walls). Ninja Tip: Protect Yourself with Proper Gear During Martial Arts Training When it comes to practicing martial arts techniques, safety should always be a top priority. Whether you’re engaged in sparring or weapons training, wearing protective clothing is essential to prevent injuries from falls or impacts with objects like walls. Martial arts training can be intense and physically demanding, often involving fast movements and unpredictable scenarios. Accidents can happen, but by taking precautions and equipping yourself with the right gear, you can significantly reduce the risk of injury. One of the most crucial pieces of protective equipment is a well-fitted helmet. It safeguards your head from potential blows and reduces the chances of concussions or other head injuries. Look for helmets designed specifically for martial arts that provide adequate padding and ventilation. In addition to a helmet, wearing a mouthguard is highly recommended. This simple yet effective piece of gear protects your teeth and jaw from accidental impacts during sparring sessions. A mouthguard not only prevents dental injuries but also helps absorb some of the force generated by strikes or falls. For sparring or weapons training that involves striking techniques, padded gloves are essential. They offer protection to your hands and wrists while allowing you to maintain dexterity and grip. Look for gloves designed for your specific martial art discipline to ensure optimal comfort and functionality. To safeguard your torso, consider wearing a chest protector or body armor. These protective garments provide an extra layer of cushioning against powerful strikes or accidental collisions with objects in your training environment. When it comes to lower body protection, shin guards are a must-have accessory. They shield your shins from painful impacts during kicks or blocks. Similarly, invest in durable knee pads if you frequently engage in ground techniques or grappling maneuvers that put pressure on your knees. Lastly, don’t forget about proper footwear. Martial arts shoes or lightweight trainers with non-slip soles can provide stability and protect your feet during intense training sessions. Avoid training barefoot to minimize the risk of foot injuries from accidental stepping on sharp objects or hard surfaces. Remember, wearing protective clothing is not a sign of weakness but rather a smart and responsible approach to training. By prioritizing your safety, you can focus on improving your skills and technique without unnecessary worry. So, before you embark on your next martial arts training session, make sure to equip yourself with the appropriate protective gear. Your body will thank you, and you’ll be able to fully immerse yourself in the art of combat, knowing that you’re taking every precaution to stay safe and injury-free. Stay humble and remember that there is always more to learn about ninjutsu no matter how experienced you become over time! Stay Humble: Embracing the Endless Journey of Ninjutsu In the world of ninjutsu, one fundamental principle stands tall above all others: humility. Regardless of how experienced or skilled a ninja becomes, they understand that there is always more to learn. This unwavering commitment to continuous growth and self-improvement is what sets apart true masters from the rest. Ninjutsu, the ancient art of the ninja, encompasses a vast array of techniques and disciplines. From stealth and combat to espionage and strategy, it is a multifaceted practice that demands dedication and discipline. Yet, even those who have reached great heights in their training recognize that their journey is far from over. Staying humble in the face of expertise is a crucial mindset for any aspiring ninja. It allows one to remain open-minded and receptive to new knowledge and perspectives. The world is ever-evolving, and with it, so too are the techniques and strategies within ninjutsu. By embracing humility, ninjas ensure that they are always ready to adapt and grow alongside their art. Humility also fosters a sense of gratitude towards those who came before us. The wisdom passed down through generations forms the foundation upon which we build our skills. Recognizing this lineage keeps us grounded, reminding us that we are part of something much larger than ourselves. Furthermore, staying humble allows us to appreciate the strengths and talents of others. Each individual brings unique experiences and insights to the table. By remaining open to learning from our peers, we expand our understanding of ninjutsu beyond our own limitations. In a world where ego often takes center stage, humility serves as a powerful counterbalance. It keeps us focused on personal growth rather than seeking validation or dominance over others. Through humility, we cultivate an attitude of respect for both our craft and fellow practitioners. As we progress along our ninjutsu journey, let us remember that there is always more to learn. No matter how experienced or accomplished we become, humility keeps us humble and hungry for knowledge. Embrace the endless possibilities that lie ahead, and approach each day with a beginner’s mind. So, whether you are just starting your training or have been honing your skills for years, remember the importance of staying humble. Embrace the ever-present opportunity to learn and grow within the art of ninjutsu. By doing so, you will not only become a better ninja but also a better person on this extraordinary path of mastery.
Despite decades of economic and political upheaval, the Sterling (also known as the British Pound) has remained a stable international banking currency. The sterling’s long and distinguished history is a metaphor for Britain’s economic strength and progress. Those involved in forex trading in UK can learn a great deal from studying the history of the British pound because it provides context for the currency’s present value and trajectory. Image Source: Pixabay The history of the Sterling may be traced back to 775 AD, when silver pennies began to circulate widely and each penny was worth one pound of silver. These pennies formed the foundation of the British monetary system, which led to the United Kingdom’s rise to the position of worldwide financial superpower. The early 19th century was a pivotal time for the Sterling because it was when the country adopted the Gold Standard. By permanently pegging one Sterling to a predetermined amount of gold, the system ensured stability. But it had issues, the same as any other monetary procedure. Twice in the twentieth century, the Gold Standard was discarded: once after World War I, and again during the Great Depression. In order to deal with the economic strains and post-war uncertainty of the time, monetary policy had to be revised. The Sterling was thrown back into a changing world after WWII. To prevent their currencies from fluctuating too much relative to the US dollar and, by extension, to gold, the world’s leading countries signed the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1944. Though it is no longer the world’s major reserve currency, sterling continues to play a significant role in international finance. Plans and forecasts in the foreign exchange market were revised to account for the pound’s new position. Moving forward in time, the United Kingdom’s decision to float the Sterling in the early 1970s was pivotal. There were no longer any standards or pegs for the pound; instead, it floated freely in reaction to market forces. The change made the Sterling more volatile, but it also provided traders with additional opportunities to benefit from the currency’s swings. Still, one of the most consequential events in recent times to effect the Pound was the Brexit vote in 2016. The result of the referendum on Britain’s membership in the European Union sent shockwaves through the global financial system. Sterling dropped significantly after the tragedy, but it has always recovered and even thrived in the face of adversity. The history of the British pound sterling provides valuable lessons for currency traders due to the currency’s resilience and flexibility in the face of adversity. When the Sterling’s history is considered with the influence of current events, a clearer picture of the currency’s volatility emerges. The resilience of the pound in the wake of Brexit is made obvious when compared, for example, to the pound’s recovery after earlier global crises. Forex trading in UK is deeply rooted in the history of the Sterling, although being influenced by worldwide trends and technical developments. Along with technical analysis and current geopolitical developments, knowledge of the currency’s history is essential for effective trading. From its beginnings as silver pennies to its present-day status as a floating currency, the Sterling’s storied past can teach traders valuable lessons. Following the movement of Sterling is a good way to gain insight into the history of the British economy. From its time as the world’s preeminent colonial power to its current role in the globalized globe, the pound sterling’s trajectory has been molded by the country’s economic decisions both in the past and the present. The tale of the Sterling family is one for the ages. The fact that it has survived for so long and thrived shows how sturdy and reliable it is. In addition to a deeper understanding, this fresh perspective arms UK forex traders with the information they need to anticipate and adapt to the currency’s expected future movement. Because, as the cliché goes, “history rhymes,” and looking back at the past can help you make sense of the present and future.
Introduce the concept of sequencing to Pre-K learners in a way which is fun and meaningful for them – have them sequence their own morning routine! This activity will allow children to practice this important skill while connecting it with something that is already part of their daily lives. Sequencing skills are essential for Pre-K learners to develop a strong foundation in literacy. By learning how to sequence events, preschool children can understand story structure and the order of words in sentences, which are prerequisites for reading and writing. These sequencing skills help Pre-K children form connections between language and meaning, helping them better comprehend text. Sequencing skills also give young learners the ability to understand cause and effect relationships and make predictions about what will happen next within a text or situation. Building these crucial sequencing abilities sets Pre-K children on a path to literacy success. Using the Daily Routine Sequencing Cards Full Color Photo Set Use the full color photo set with a whole group or small group. Download the sequencing cards at the link below, and print, cut out, and laminate them. Make sure the children understand what each picture represents. Have the children use these cards to sequence their morning routine. After they wake up, what do they do first? Eat breakfast or wash their face? Each child’s sequence will be slightly different, according to their family’s morning routine. This set has 8 sequencing cards. Older children should be able to sequence all 8 cards, but you may want to limit the cards to 4 for younger children. You can also place this set in a learning center for children to use during Center Time. Black and White Set This set can by copied in order to provide each child in a small group with their own set of cards. Use the full color set first, then have children manipulate their own set of cards. Make sure children understand what each picture represents. This printable sequencing set comes with 8 picture cards to sequencing as well as a cut and paste page. There is one page that has only 3 pictures to sequence and another that has 4 pictures to sequence. Download the free Daily Routine Sequencing Printable Download: Sequencing Cards Full Color Photos
Elements of an Informational Narrative An informational narrative is used when the writer is trying to inform others about a particular subject of which they may not be familiar. Informative essays can also be called an expository or explanatory essays. This kind of essay is aimed at presenting information in a clear and concise manner so the reader can learn about the subject matter. Basics of an Informational Narrative An informational narrative is written using a variety of resources to present information. It consists of an introduction with a thesis, the body of the text with cited information supporting the thesis, and the conclusion which sums up the points presented in the narrative. When writing an informational narrative, avoid using the personal pronoun 'I,' and do not use contractions. Because this is a narrative which is supposed to present an idea, you will need to a method to cite the source where you obtained information and ideas that inspired your own thoughts. This is important so the reader can go back to the sources cited and confirm what was written is in fact what the source states. Elements of the Introduction The introduction is where the writer presents the thesis which the narrative will be based around. The thesis is the central argument in which the body of the narrative will be supporting. When writing an introduction attempt to get to the thesis in the first or second sentence of the narrative. The narrative is a tool to inform the reader about the thesis of the paper. Realize that the reader is more concerned about the thesis and less about beautiful prose. Present your argument in the thesis as soon as possible. Body of the Narrative The body of the narrative is where you present the information which you have obtained in your research and supports the thesis which was presented in the introduction. The body of the text can be as long or as short as required to complete the narrative, but in general they are at least three paragraphs long. When writing you will want to present a single idea which relates to the thesis in each paragraph along with the required citations. Do not present more than a single idea in each paragraph. Otherwise the paragraph can seem cluttered. Conclusion of the Narrative Concluding the narrative is not about just simply restating the thesis in the introduction. Summarize the information which was presented in the body of the narrative in relation to the thesis, creating a synthesis of information which the reader can conclude that what was presented supports the thesis which you presented. At the very most a conclusion should only be several paragraphs unless the narrative is extremely long or complex. Never introduce new information in the conclusion. If the information is important enough to include in the conclusion it should have been included in the body of the narrative. Tips for an informational narrative The informational narrative is about informing the reader in a clear and concise manner the thesis of the paper. Again, concise and precise wording is more important in this sort of narrative than lyrical language. Think about the audience of the narrative as well. This will affect how you write the narrative. Writing to an audience who does not understand the thesis presented will require more information and explanation than writing for a group of experts in the field which the subject matter is part of their career. Finally, the flow of the narrative should include transitions between each paragraph. Transitions are sentences or phrases that help the reader move smoothly between your ideas. - Jack Hollingsworth/Digital Vision/Getty Images
Mail before 1840 Mail delivery began in New Zealand with the coastal sealers and whalers in the early 19th century. They carried mail destined for other ships, and between New Zealand and Australian settlements. The earliest known New Zealand letter to pass through the British postal system dates from September 1815. It was carried by whaling ship from the Bay of Islands to Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania), where the postmaster despatched it to Britain with a note that the letter was ‘the first Mail or Public Conveyance from this Island [New Zealand] to England.’1 Permanent settlements of Europeans took shape during the 1810s and 1820s. Growing trade with New South Wales stimulated the demand for a more organised means of communication. Bay of Islands merchant William Powditch was appointed as an agent of the postmaster general of New South Wales in 1831, and mail was received and despatched from his store. Early post offices The first official post office in New Zealand was established at Kororāreka (renamed Russell in 1844) shortly after New Zealand became a colony of Britain in 1840. William C. Hayes served as the first postmaster. By 1845 there were post offices at Russell, Rāwene, Auckland, New Plymouth, Whanganui, Wellington, Nelson and Akaroa. The service expanded to meet the demands of a growing population in the 1850s, and by 1860 the number of post offices had risen to 107. From 1858 the country’s post offices were centrally controlled by the newly formed Post Office Department, headed by a postmaster general. The delivery of mail to inland areas was spasmodic during the early years of European settlement. Mail was usually carried between towns by visiting ships, and months could pass without communication between the government centre in Auckland and the rest of the colony. Settlers complained that the mail service should be cheaper and more efficient in the interests of the colony’s development. Mail and the Māori King movement Relations between the settler government and Waikato Māori broke down in 1859–60, and chiefs involved in the Māori King movement considered preventing settler mail from passing through their district. A Ngāti Maniapoto chief remarked that ‘the pakehas write evil reports of us from Taranaki to Auckland, and from Auckland back to Taranaki, and make Maori postmen bear them to and fro’. He compared Māori postmen to Christ before his crucifixion: ‘they made him bear the cross on which they crucified him’.2 The first attempts at a fortnightly overland service between Auckland and Wellington began in 1844, but only became regular in the 1850s. The service followed the west coast, passing through New Plymouth and Whanganui. The deliveries were usually made by Māori postmen, who did their best to keep the mail dry through river crossings and bad weather. Most of the provinces had developed regular postal services to their rural hinterlands by the end of the 1850s. Postage stamps introduced Mail was posted at post offices, and recipients had to go there to collect their mail. In the early years the cost of mail was sometimes paid by the sender and sometimes by the recipient, depending on the practice of the post office receiving the mail. Postage stamps, which were introduced in Britain in 1840, meant that all mail costs could be paid by the sender. New Zealand adopted stamps for international mail in 1855, and for domestic mail in 1862. In 1887 a nationwide system of postmarks was introduced, which showed the name of the post office where the letter was posted, and cancelled the stamp so it could not be reused. Postmarks were initially hand-stamped, then mechanised from 1899.
Species are pelagic in that they live and feed upon surface-floating hosts, the colonial hydroids such as Physalia (bluebottles), Porpita and Velella. They float upside-down in the ocean utilizing a gas bubble in their stomach for buoyancy which is usually visible on the ventral (uppermost in this case) surface of the body. The oral tentacles and rhinophores are much diminished compared to other aeolids. The cerata are arranged in rows on the ends of 3 or 4 lateral lobes down each side of the body like the fingers of a hand. These rows can be arranged in a single plane or as multiple rows. The anterior lobes are so large they give the animal a T-shaped appearance. The cerata, as with most aeolids, possess nematocysts stored in the tip that are used in defence having been obtained from their prey during feeding. They are able to “swim” by rowing the lateral lobes and by bending the body up and down. There are no special gill structures. Across the family they have a worldwide distribution in the tropical and warm temperate zones due to the floating lifestyle and are often found washed up on ocean beaches together with their prey.
Aims: To familiarise children with British culture and talk about tea time. Pupil Language: Consolidation. Teacher Language: Do you like tea? Extra Materials: Sheets of paper. - (An activity to talk about tea time.) Point to the title and say: Tea Time! Elicit known vocabulary (tea, cup, cake, etc). Have a class discussion in L1 about the English tradition of drinking tea, what they have with their tea, etc. Then, ask children: Do you like tea? If not, what do they like drinking? Note: Refer children to Spotlight on Russia (p. 90) during this lesson or the next one. Открыть всю книгу
The Red Planet is a pretty lively place. Since 2018, orbiters, rovers and landers, as well as the scientists operating them, have spotted the scars of ancient raging rivers, felt the shudders of a Marsquake and uncovered evidence of liquid water deep underground. As we discover more about Mars’s tantalisingly Earth-like story, one question still persists: is there, or has there ever been, life on Mars? Here’s everything we know so far. Read more about Mars: - Andy Weir – Is there life after Mars? - InSight: what NASA’s mission to Mars could find inside the Red Planet Does Mars have microbes? In March 2004, ESA’s Mars Express mission confirmed that methane gas was present in the Martian atmosphere. The amount of methane was small but its discovery was extraordinary because on Earth, although some methane in the atmosphere comes from volcanoes, most of it is produced by living organisms. Methane only survives in the Martian atmosphere for a few hundred years, meaning that whatever was producing it was (geologically speaking) recent. Although the volcanic explanation would be fascinating because Mars was thought to be geologically dead, the biological origin is what grabbed people’s attention. The methane seen by Mars Express was concentrated in certain regions and quickly dispersed to levels that could no longer be detected. Then, a decade later, the methane returned. This time it was detected by NASA’s Mars Curiosity rover, which had landed in Gale Crater in 2012. Using its onboard Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument suite, the rover took a dozen readings over a 20-month period, mostly revealing extremely low levels of the gas. However, in late 2013 and early 2014, methane levels rose sharply by a factor of 10. “At this point we don’t know the origin of this methane,” said NASA’s Danny Glavin, a participating scientist in the Curiosity mission, at the time. The same remains true to this day. Most recently, a re-analysis of Mars Express data has shown that it too detected methane in Gale Crater in June 2013. However, ESA’s follow-on mission to look specifically for methane, the Trace Gas Orbiter, has not yet seen any traces at all, despite looking with sensitivities between 10 and 100 times higher than the previous positive detections. In 2022, the second part of the ExoMars mission, containing a lander and rover, will arrive at Mars and continue the search. “The Rosalind Franklin rover itself won’t look specifically for atmospheric methane [but] the ExoMars landing module, named Kazachok, will have several different atmospheric spectrometers on board, so these will also investigate the local chemical composition of the Martian atmosphere,” said Abbie Hutty, ExoMars delivery manager and structure supplier operations manager at Airbus Defence and Space. Returning samples to Earth In the search for life on Mars, many researchers believe that there is only one way to make real progress: bring Mars rocks back to Earth. According to Prof Monica Grady, a planetary and space scientist at The Open University, the “plan to bring back rocks from Mars is our best bet for finding clues to past life.” Last year, ESA and NASA signed a memorandum of understanding that pledges the agencies to work together to design a series of missions that will bring Mars rocks back to Earth. “Returning Martian samples is a huge challenge that will require multiple missions, each one successively more complex than the one before,” said David Parker, ESA’s director of human and robotic exploration. NASA’s Rosalind Franklin rover will be a step towards sample return because it will cache interesting samples in up to 31 canisters that will be left on the Martian surface. A second mission would then retrieve those canisters and place them in a Martian ascent vehicle, which would boost them into orbit. A third mission from Earth would rendezvous with this vehicle in Mars orbit and bring it back to Earth. “A Mars sample return mission is a tantalising but achievable vision that lies at the intersection of many good reasons to explore space,” says Parker. European science ministers will meet later this year to decide whether to fund the necessary sample return missions. Liquid water beneath the surface of Mars Planetary geologists have long wondered what happened to the Martian water. Either it escaped into space or it seeped into the ground. If it’s in the ground then there should be great underground lakes of water or buried ice sheets. In the mid-2000s, both ESA and NASA sent spacecraft to Mars with radars capable of searching for these deposits. ESA’s MARSIS instrument and NASA’s SHARAD are complementary ground-penetrating radar that gradually unveiled the truth. In November 2016, SHARAD found a large deposit of subsurface ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. This is a large expanse, some 3,300 kilometres across, and the volume of water contained in the ice was estimated to be enough to fill Lake Superior, the largest of the Great Lakes in North America. The top of the ice sheet is covered by between 1 to 10 metres of Martian dust, explaining why it has never shown up in optical images of the surface. “This deposit is probably more accessible than most water ice on Mars, because it is at a relatively low latitude and it lies in a flat, smooth area where landing a spacecraft would be easier than at some of the other areas with buried ice,” says Jack Holt of the University of Texas, a SHARAD co-investigator. This means that it could one day help to sustain astronauts by being the Martian equivalent of a frozen water spring. It may also contain clues to whether life started on Mars or not. In July 2018, Mars Express’s MARSIS instrument found evidence for a lake of water buried near the planet’s south pole. The radar reflections show that the underground lake is more than a kilometre and a half below the surface, and approximately 20 kilometres wide. “This is just one small study area; it is an exciting prospect to think there could be more of these underground pockets of water elsewhere, yet to be discovered,” says Roberto Orosei, principal investigator of the MARSIS experiment. The discovery is a bit similar to the subglacial lakes of Antarctica on Earth, and forms of microbial life are known to thrive in these environments. Reaching the Martian lake, however, would require serious technology. It’s more than a kilometre and a half down and the Rosalind Franklin rover, which boasts the deepest drill ever to go to Mars, is only capable of penetrating two metres below the surface. Don’t hold your breath on this one. How not to contaminate Mars In 1969, American novelist Michael Crichton wrote the bestselling thriller, The Andromeda Strain. It told the harrowing story of an outbreak of extraterrestrial microbes that had been brought back to Earth by a returning satellite. But what about contamination the other way – Earth microbes running amok on Mars? The detection of life on Mars would be one of the greatest scientific discoveries of all time. So the last thing we should want to do is risk contaminating Mars by sending dirty spacecraft to the surface. Read more about Mars: The Committee On Space Research (COSPAR), an international organisation founded in 1958, sets strict standards to limit biological contamination between planetary bodies. As a result, the major space agencies go to extraordinary lengths to sterilise their spacecraft before sending them to areas on Mars that may be habitable. Sterilising a spacecraft is no easy job. The first Mars landers were NASA’s Viking 1 and 2. They needed to be well sterilised because they were looking for Martian microbes. Built in the 1970s, the surfaces of the spacecraft were first cleaned thoroughly to significantly reduce the ‘bio-burden’. Then, they were placed in an oven and heated to 112°C for 30 hours. NASA estimated that the baking reduced the remaining bacteria by a factor of a million. ESA’s Rosalind Franklin rover must adhere to similar standards. “We have to make sure that during the actual build of the rover, which is almost entirely done by humans, that those humans don’t contaminate the rover with particles of skin, hair, or greases from their skin. This means that the technicians have to do so in a specially built ‘clean room’, which is isolated from the normal working environment, and that they must wear full body protective gear,” says Hutty. Planetary protection will be a major concern when returning rocks from Mars for study in Earth’s laboratories. The COSPAR guidelines call for the most stringent safeguard for such Category V missions, as they are known. Have we already found Martian life? Considering all the talk surrounding life on Mars and all the many spacecraft and landers that have gone to the Red Planet since the 1970s, it may seem surprising that only the first two carried equipment to look for life. There were four biological experiments on the Viking spacecraft. Of these, only one returned positive results. The Labeled Release experiment was simple. It took a sample of Martian soil and introduced some liquid nutrients. Those nutrients had been ‘labelled’ with a radioactive carbon isotope. If bacteria were present in the soil, they would metabolise the nutrient and expel the carbon isotope, which would be detected by the instrument. When the experiment was run on both landers, both returned positive results. The second part was to sterilise the soil and see if that made the signal go away. It did, no radioactive gas was detected that time. “Right then and there we satisfied the pre-mission, agreed upon criteria for life. We could have said we’ve detected life, hung our hats up, grabbed a bottle of champagne and celebrated. That was not to be,” said Gilbert Levin, who was the experiment’s principal investigator. Instead, the researchers wondered why none of the other experiments had returned positive results, and declared that the Viking experiments were inconclusive but probably hadn’t found life. Over the years, researchers have proposed various non-biological reactions that could reproduce some aspects of the experiment’s results. Levin, however, has continued to champion the biological interpretation, claiming that no chemical has been able to totally mimic the results. In 2012, Joseph Miller, a neurobiologist at the University of Southern California and a former NASA space shuttle project director, and mathematician Giorgio Bianciardi, from Italy’s University of Siena, re-analysed the Viking data. Using maths, they showed the data was more consistent with biological activity than simple chemistry. The only way out of the impasse is to look for life again, which is where ESA’s ExoMars mission comes in. “The Rosalind Franklin rover’s mission is to detect life, either past or present, on the Martian surface,” says Hutty. After all this time, maybe soon we will have the answer about whether there is life on Mars.
The white-tailed eagle is Hungary’s largest predatory bird. The beak of the older eagles is yellow. Its chock shaped tail is white. The plumage of the white-tailed eagle is dim brown. The plumage and beak of the younger birds are black-brown. It flies slowly and majestically. Its voice, which is high and quick, can be heard mainly in the breeding season. It can be seen near water and barrens. By the 1970’s the number of pairs that were able to incubate had decreased and did not reach 10. Today there is a steady number of white-tailed eagles in the alluvial forests of big rivers. It builds its nest on older trees and forests near water and uses it for decades if the environment is calm enough. It starts to lay eggs at the beginning of February. The female eagle usually lays two eggs, but sometimes it has only one. It gets its food mostly from water. Besides sick and weakened fish and birds near the surface of the water it often feeds on dead animals. It searches for dead animals further from the water too. The white-tailed eagle is not a good hunter, but sometimes it can capture hares and other rodents. Older specimens are around their nest throughout the whole year. The younger eagles roam until they are mature (5-6 years). Many eagles incubate their eggs in the north. These birds winter in Hungary. The white-tailed eagle is strictly protected.
A wind turbine works the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind to make electricity. The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a generator and makes electricity. This electricity is stored in the battery for later use. The wind turbine itself is a rotary device that extracts energy from the wind. If the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery, such as for pumping water, cutting lumber or grinding stones, the machine is called a windmill. If the mechanical energy is instead converted to electricity, the machine is called a wind generator or wind turbine. In our application, we will use a wind turbine that generates electricity from the mechanical power of the wind to charge batteries we will then use to power our station. Wind Turbine systems range from small 300W turbines that are used for a variety of applications ranging from a streetlight or similar small device all the way to large scale Wind Farms of hundreds of Kilowatts which provide the capability to power entire cities. Sometimes the site chosen has an abundant wind source in which case the wind can be the only necessary source of power. With a battery system, it is capable of achieving very high rates of reliability. Batteries of good quality can last for 5-7 years before needing replacement. TelHouse has conducted extensive research in this field. Iraq’s environment is rich with natural resources and utilizing these resources is a cost effective solution depending upon the wind resources and the project financing of the particular project. After having formed a subsidiary to tap into the growing renewable energy market, TelHouse has formed strategic business relationships across the field.
- About the Initiative - View Topical Index of Curriculum Units - Search Curricular Resources - View Volumes of Curriculum Units from National Seminars - Find Curriculum Units Written in Seminars Led by Yale Faculty - Find Curriculum Units Written by Teachers in National Seminars - Browse Curriculum Units Developed in Teachers Institutes - On Common Ground - League of Institutes - Video Programs Have a suggestion to improve this page? To leave a general comment about our Web site, please click here Dr. Word Problem and the Four Operations is a unit focused on the four operations of arithmetic. This unit explores the use of Singapore bar models as a tool for solving word problems. The unit teaches students how to represent word problems with Singapore bar models beginning with a basic addition fact. The lessons are scaffold to help the students to understand how to draw models to represent subtraction, multiplication, and division. The final phase addresses representing multi-step problems with bar models. While the students at my school are high achievers in mathematics, word problems seem to be the weakest area of the math curriculum for them. My fourth graders typically have a difficult time deciding which operation a word problem requires. Often I find my students using some of the coping strategies and limited strategies that Sowder (1995) describes. One coping strategy that they use is adding the numbers that they find in the problem, regardless of what the word problem states. Another poor strategy choice is "Limited strategy 5, looking for isolated key words to tell which operation to use". This strategy is taught over and over at each grade level. Since each word problem is slightly different, children cannot figure out a strategy that automatically works for each one. Therefore, students try to develop coping strategies. Some teachers on the other hand are either teaching some of these limited strategies that are described in their teacher's manual, or they are teaching their students the way they were taught in school. This unit tries to look at word problems in a different way, so that students can develop a greater mathematical understanding that will enable them to be more successful problem solvers. Through my work on this project, after analyzing word problems and looking for similarities and differences I have come to the following conclusions. When working with the simpler problems, students can learn and become more familiar with the basic structure of word problems. However, beyond the basic structure students will encounter differences within each problem. The subtle differences among very similar problems further complicate this subject matter. As students deal with multi-step problems there definitely is not a set approach to take. The students must truly understand what is going on mathematically in each situation. So in this unit I have examined problems and grouped them into suites. The words and situations are different within the suites, but the basic structure is the same. By examining the different dimensions of the suites of problems, I have learned to approach problem solving in a clearer, more systematic way than I did in the past. This unit not only looks at the suites of problems, but also introduces the students to the Singapore bar models as a strategy for solving word problems. The Singapore bar models provide the students with a visual component to help them understand what is going on mathematically in the problem. These models can be used to represent the four operations pictorially. The Singapore bar models are easy to draw and can be used to solve algebra problems without writing an equation. Hopefully, the combination of bar models and analyzing suites of problems will lead students and teachers to more successful problem solving and help to avoid some of the pitfalls caused by coping and limited strategies. Attaching symbolic meaning to words is a difficult task for students at all levels. In fourth grade the students have just learned the four operations. This is really the first time that they have four operations to choose from when solving a problem. Their level of understanding the operations of multiplication and division, in particular, is in the beginning stages. So, word problems further complicate the issue because they have to figure out the words, the operation needed, and then they have to attach symbols to the words. This unit is intended to help students learn which mathematical operations to use when certain actions are presented in a problem. Upon completion of the unit I expect the students will have developed a greater understanding of the concepts of all four operations, and especially multiplication and division. This unit is designed to be taught over a three-week period for approximately forty-five minutes per lesson. Beginning with addition, the students will experience suites of addition problems and the related subtraction problems. Next, the unit will move into multiplication and the related division problems. At the start, the suite of problems will involve one diagram focused around one scenario. These problems will have the same story line, but will be slightly different. The students will later face individual problems, not connected to their related counterparts, and the problems will involve one of the four operations. This is a more typical representation of the real world, where a word problem stands alone. After the students have learned the four operations and how to represent problems from all of the operations using a Singapore bar model, they will study two-step problems involving the four operations in any combination. The culminating activity will be for the students to put together a collection of word problems that include all four operations focused around a theme. My students will write their own word problems around one scenario of their choice, and also illustrate their scenarios with Singapore bar models. A key feature of this unit is that it requires students to spend a significant portion of time working on word problems. Through this intensive exposure to word problems the students should become more comfortable with them and less afraid of them. Problem solving is a very important aspect of many of the high stakes tests that have become so important to school districts throughout the United States. On high stakes tests, the concepts are often embedded within a word problem. Some students automatically give up when they see the words. Others that know the concept have a difficult time understanding the task and are not able show what they know. By developing the confidence and the skills to tackle word problems, students will not only improve their math skills with the four basic operations, but also will hopefully transfer their knowledge to solving problems involving decimals, fractions, and all other areas of math. The Singapore bar models were chosen for several reasons. First, Singapore leads the world in math achievement so the strategies that the Singapore approach teaches are proven to be successful. Secondly, the bar pictures are a visual representation of the words. They may help children translate from words to symbols, particularly if the words and language are difficult for them. Another reason why this unit is appropriate and necessary for fourth graders is because the four operations are a major component of elementary math. Students need to understand the connectedness of the four operations and this unit ties the different operations together. According to Liping Ma, (Ma, 1999), there are two relationships that connect the four basic operations. These two relationships are the "derived operation" and the "inverse operation". An example of the "derived operation" is, "Multiplication is an operation derived from the operation of addition. It solves certain kinds of addition problems in an easier way" (Ma, 1999, p. 113). The inverse relationship is the other connection that Ma refers to in her explanation of the connections between the four operations. Subtraction is the inverse of addition because subtraction of a fixed number from a variable number is the inverse of addition of (the same) fixed number to a variable number. Multiplication and division are also inverse operations. Ma's (1999) analogy describes the importance of connecting the operations with this analogy: - "These two kinds of relationships tightly connect the four operations. Because all - of the topics of elementary mathematics are related to the four operations, - understanding of the relationships among the four operations, then, becomes a road - system that connects all of elementary mathematics. With this road system, one can - go anywhere in the domain" (Ma, 1999, p.113). By developing a connected road system, I seek to help my students to develop a better understanding of arithmetic. As students solve math and word problems, they need to be flexible and know different ways to approach the problems. While this unit is focused on one strategy, the Singapore bar models, the goal is to teach the students this technique so that they can increase their repertoire of strategies. Students will be required to use the bar models as I teach this unit. However, once this unit is completed, the students may or may not select the bar models as their approach to solving a given problem. As with any other strategy, some students will find that it works well for them and others may prefer a different method. Why did I choose to use the Singapore bar models? Singapore students were first in the 1995, 1999 and 2003 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), which is designed to measure trends in students' mathematics and science achievement in four-year cycles. The TIMSS 2003 results were released on December 14, 2004. (New AIR Study Compares the Quality of U.S. Math Instruction with Singapore Recognized World Leader U.S. Trails, But Both Nations Could Learn from Each Other 2/7/05 http://www.air.org/news/ documents/Singapore.htm.) Based on these findings I thought it would be interesting to expose my students and myself to Singapore models. Word problems seem to be particularly difficult for students. These models seem to simplify the problems and provide a visual representation to help the students to think about the problem. According to the Cognitively Guided Instruction model, "It is not children's manipulations of materials that is important; it is their understanding of the principles involved in the manipulations" (Carpenter, et al 1999, p. 68). Based on a study conducted by the American Institute for Research (Leinwand et al., 2005) it is important to look to Singapore and to learn from how this country teaches math to its students. This report states: - "It is unreasonable to assume that Singaporean students have mathematical abilities - inherently superior to those of U.S. students; rather, there must be something about - the system that Singapore has developed to teach mathematics that is better than the - system we use in the United States. That's why it's important to take a closer look, - and see how the U.S can learn and how the U.S can improve." This unit has objectives for the teacher and for the students. First, I will discuss objectives for the teachers. In Ma's book (1999), the author compares math teachers in China and in the United States. There are striking differences in the knowledge base of the teachers. The Chinese teachers are more knowledgeable than American teachers in their own math skills and methods for solving equations. The book then analyzes reasons why. One main reason is summarized well with the analogy of the taxi driver. She compares the way the Chinese teachers understand math to a proficient taxi driver who knows all of the roads and many ways to get to the same place. Ma associates the American teachers to a newcomer in an area. A newcomer may know a few roads and one way to get to a location. Ma states, "A teacher's map of school mathematics must be more complicated and flexible" (Ma, 1999, p. 123). A major objective of the seminar that led to the creation of this unit is for teachers to analyze and categorize word problems based on similarities and differences. It is this in depth analysis that really begins to help the teacher become a more proficient "taxi driver". At first glance, categorizing the word problems seems to be an easy task, but comparing similarities and differences goes beyond grouping the problems based on the operation involved. It looks more closely at the components and the structure of the problems the students are solving. There are several categories within each operation. Below the categories are defined and an example of each type of problem is given. These categories are from Children's Mathematics Cognitively Guided Instruction (Carpenter, et al., 1999). Additional insight has been added based on the article (Sowder, 1995). This unit clearly meets national and state standards since the four operations are such an integral part of elementary mathematics. In addition to simply learning the four operations, this unit looks at the relationships shared by the various operations. The inverse relationship of addition and subtraction, the inverse relationship of multiplication and division, and the relationship that addition and multiplication share are all explored through problem solving. By making connections between related word problems and examining different ways to solve the same word problems, students should develop a better understanding of the relationships between the four operations. As stated earlier, developing an understanding of the connectedness that the operations share is crucial to student learning. Going beyond the basic calculations, students need to think critically and to develop problem-solving skills. This unit not only provides opportunities to develop these skills, but also teaches new strategies and approaches for dealing with word problems. The suites of problems should help make students aware of the connections that closely related problems share, and thus help them to develop a greater mathematical understanding. The expectation is that if students have a better understanding of the four operations they can use this knowledge to closely examine word problems and become better problem solvers. As the strategies and activities of this unit unfold, the students will learn the Singapore bar model approach. This is just one strategy to help students solve word problems. It is visual and a more abstract "manipulative" to help students solve problems. This method will provide the students with one more approach or option when they face a word problem. Addition and Subtraction Categories Join problems involve the operation of addition. Within this category there are three different types. The most basic kind is when two quantities are joined and the result is unknown. Here is an example: Daquan has 3 toy cars. His grandma buys him 2 more for his birthday. How many cars does he have now? This problem would be solved with addition. Daquan starts with 3 toy cars and then 2 more toy cars that his grandma gives him are added to his collection. The answer is unknown, but by adding 3 and 2 the answer can be determined. 3 + 2 = start unknown change The answer is 5 toy cars. This same scenario could be written slightly differently so that the change is unknown. In this situation, Daquan has 3 toy cars. His grandma gives him some for his birthday. Now Daquan has 5 toy cars. How many toy cars did Daquan's grandma give him? The representation of this problem is: 3 + = 5 The represents 2 toy cars in this problem. Even though this is an addition problem, the subtraction equation 5 - 3 = 2 is used to solve it. Larry Sowder (1995) refers to this type of problem as a missing addend problem. Missing addend problems are confusing for children because the real world operation is addition, as the equation shows. However, mathematically it is solved with subtraction. The third type of join problem is when the start is unknown. This is another missing addend problem. Daquan has some toy cars. His grandma gives him 2 more for his birthday. Now he has 5 toy cars. How many toy cars did Daquan have before his birthday? The problem looks like this: +2 = 5 The answer is 3 toy cars. Once again subtraction 5 - 2 = 3 is used to solve for the unknown start. This dimension is composed of the same three subcategories: result unknown, change unknown, and start unknown. Sydney has 7 pieces of gum. She gives 2 pieces to her friends. How many pieces of gum does she have left? This is a result unknown because you know how many Sydney started with and you know the change. The part that is unknown is the result. Subtraction is used to separate the 2 pieces of gum that Sydney gave away from the 7 pieces that she had in the beginning. 7 - 2 = start result unknown change The is 5 pieces of gum in this problem. In the next problem, Sydney has an unknown change and once again subtraction is used to solve this type of problem. Sydney had 7 pieces of gum. She gave some to her friends. Now she has 5 pieces left. The number sentence below is used to solve for the answer, which is 2. 7 ñ = 5 She gave her friends 2 pieces of gum. The last type in this suite of problems is when the start is unknown. This is another type of problem, missing start, that Sowder claims especially causes trouble for children. It seems to be a subtraction problem, but requires addition to solve it. Sydney had some pieces of gum. She gave 2 pieces to her friends. She has 5 pieces left. How many pieces did she have before she gave some to her friends? The number sentence for this problem can be written - 2 = 5 The addition equation 2+ 5 = is used to solve this problem. She had 7 pieces of gum. In the join and separate suites, three very similar problems can be created. Two of the problems deal with subtraction and one problem deals with addition. It is by revealing this kind of relationship between the problems and the operations that fosters a deeper understanding for the students. This dimension only has two different subcategories. As the name suggests either a part will be unknown or a whole will be unknown. There is no preferred order for a missing part. This is in contrast to the first two categories of problems, in which time provided a basis for ordering the numbers in the problem. An example of an unknown whole is: There are 12 boys in the class and there are 10 girls in the class. How many students are in the class? Addition is used to solve this problem. The major difference between the part-part-whole problems and the join problems is that there is no change over time: an action is not being performed and a quantity is not being changed or moved. The boy part and the girl part coexist and together equal the whole part. Students are not being added or removed. The schema for this problem can be written 12 + 10 = The whole equals 22 students. An example with an unknown part is: There are 22 students in the class. There are 12 boys. How many are girls? The problem is looking at the part of the class that is unknown. Despite the addition equation, subtraction is used to solve this one. A number sentence for this one could be 12 + = 22 The missing part is found by subtracting. The answer is 10 girls. 22 - 12 = These problems are similar to the part-part-whole problems because there is no action involved. There is a set of objects or people and the problem is comparing the quantities. Carpenter (1999) classifies these problems based on three parts: the referent, the compared set, and the difference. Mark has 6 baseball cards. Tom has 2. How many more baseball cards does Mark have? 6 - 2 = referent compared difference unknown In this problem, the difference is what is missing. Mark's baseball cards are the referent and Tom's cards are the compared set. These two variables are known. When difference is unknown subtraction is used to solve the problem. Tom has 2 baseball cards and this is 4 less than Mark has, how many baseball cards does Mark have? Here the unknown is the referent. The compared set and the difference are known. In order to solve this type of compare problem, addition would be needed. The appropriate number sentence is 4 + 2 = . A similar problem with an unknown compared set would look like this: Mark has 6 baseball cards. Tom has less baseball cards than Mark. If the difference between their baseball card collections is 4, then how many baseball cards does Tom have? In this problem subtraction is used. 6 - 4 = . Multiplication and Division Categories Grouping and Partitioning Problems This category shares some similarities with the join category for addition and subtraction. Again, there can be three different unknowns depending how the problem is set up. When the compare category was analyzed three problems could be created. Two were subtraction and one was addition. Similarly with this category, three problems can be created, two for division and one for multiplication. In interpreting these problems, it is important to take into account that there are two interpretations of division: measurement and partitive. Measurement division is when the number of the groups is unknown, and partitive is when the size of the group is unknown. It is important for students to learn that, although these problems may seem quite different, they are both solved by the same operation, division. Let's say Zachary makes bags of lollipops for his friends. He puts 4 lollipops in each bag and makes 5 bags. How many lollipops did he use altogether? This problem asks for the total, which indicates that it is a multiplication problem. So the equation would be: 4 x 5 = In the next problem, the number of bags is unknown. This is measurement division. Zachary has 20 lollipops. He makes some bags of lollipops for his friends. He puts four lollipops in each bag. How many bags can he make? Equations representing this problem are 20 / 4 = or x 4 = 20. As the second equation suggests, this problem could also be written as a missing factor problem using the multiplication. A third type of problem calls for partitive division because the number in each group is unknown. Zachary has 20 lollipops. He makes 5 bags. How many lollipops will he put in each bag? Equations representing this problem are 20 / 5 = or x 5 = 20. There is also a group of problems known as rate problems. These are different from the previous group because they do not deal with objects that can be counted. They are a little more abstract, especially for children. The rate problems can also be divided into the same types: multiplication, measurement division, and partitive division. A monkey eats 3 pounds of bananas a day. How many pounds of bananas will the monkey eat in 5 days? This is a multiplication problem. We can represent it by 3 x 5 = . The next two problems will involve division. A monkey eats 3 pounds of bananas a day. At this rate, how many days will 15 pounds of bananas feed the monkey? This is a measurement division problem because the measurement or the number of days is missing. It can be schematized by the equations 15 / 3 = or 3x = 15. A monkey eats 15 pounds of bananas in 5 days. If the monkey eats the same amount each day, how many pounds does the monkey eat in one day? This problem is partitive division because the unknown is the amount or the part that the monkey eats in each day. The equation below will solve this problem. 15 /5 = or 5x = 15 These are similar to the previous group, but the rate involves a price. Oranges sell for 6 cents each. How much would 7 oranges cost? This is a multiplication problem and the equation to solve it is: 6 x 7 = In the measurement division problem, the number of oranges is unknown. Oranges sell for 6 cents each. How many can you buy for 42 cents? Equations that capture this equations are 42/ 6 = or 6 x = 42. The last one in this trio is the partitive division example. You have 42 cents and you buy 7 oranges. How much does each orange cost? Equations for this one are 42 /7 = or 7 x = 42 In these problems one quantity is described in relation to the other. For example: The bowling ball weighs 5 times as much as the basketball. If the basketball weighs 4 pounds, how much does the bowling ball weigh? Multiplication is used to solve this type of problem. It is represented by the equation 4x 5 = . The equation looks like the other multiplication problems, but it is different from all of the other problems presented so far. The key concept is that one quantity is presented in relation to the other. One quantity is described in terms of how many times larger it is compared to the other. This is by far the most daunting category. Based on the four operations, considering order, there are 16 possible types of problems. However, when all of the categories mentioned above are considered, there are a much greater number of combinations. My collection of multi-step problems, (see appendix) are by no means exhaustive of all of the different combinations. After collecting the problems, solving them, and classifying them, I soon realized the challenge of grouping them. I decided to group them based on the first step. Now I will discuss some of them from each category in more detail. Here is problem number twenty-nine: 8 students sold 272 concert tickets at $3 each. Each student sold the same number of tickets. How much did each student collect? The first step is to divide, since this is a grouping/partition problem. I must divide the number of tickets by the number of students. That means that I am doing partitive division. 272 divided by 8 equals 34. The next step is to multiply. This is a price problem with multiplication. 34 times $3 equals $102. Each student collected 102 dollars. Interestingly enough, this problem could also be solved a different way. The number of tickets could have been multiplied by the ticket price first, to find the total amount of money collected. Then this would be a price problem with multiplication. Then the next step would be to divide the total amount of money, $816 by the 8 students. This would be a partitive division problem since I am dividing into a certain number of groups. The solution is $816 divided by 8 yields the same answer of $102. These alternative solution methods reflect the fact that multiplication is commutative (and that division by 8 is multiplication by 1/8). Regardless of the order, the same operations and classification for those operations was used in the two methods of solving this problem. Certainly, my classifications of these multi-step problems are not the only way they can be grouped. However, it is a very reasonable first pass. Remember, Ma urged teachers to be more flexible. So, if a different way is chosen, then that is showing flexibility, which is a good thing. For the purpose of brevity, I am not going to continue to explore multiple ways of solving each problem as I go through the multi-step domain. Here is problem 30: Mr. Stone bought some books for $301. Each book cost $7. If his wife carried 18 books and he carried the rest. How many books did Mr. Stone carry? This problem falls into the price category and uses measurement division in the first step because the total number of books has to be found. To do this, the total cost $301 is divided by the cost of one book. After performing this computation, we know that Mr. Stone had 43 books in total. The next step is to subtract, but since I am analyzing the problem, just knowing to subtract is not enough. I know that Mr. Stone and his wife are carrying them some place, presumably to the same place, so the books are not being separated. So, I considered this to be a part-part-whole problem involving a missing part. Now, I can complete the calculation by subtracting 18 from 43. The difference is 25, so Mr. Stone carried 25 books. In number 33, Rebecca bought four boxes of doughnuts. There were 6 doughnuts in each box. She divided the doughnuts equally among eight people. How many doughnuts did each person receive? Based on my classification by first step, this is a grouping/partitioning problem involving multiplication. Six times four equals twenty-four. The next step is a grouping/partition problem that uses partitive division. 24 doughnuts divided by 8 people. So the answer is 3. Each person received 3 doughnuts. Interestingly all of the numbers in this problem are factors of 24. Number 37 states: A toy car costs $5. A toy airplane costs 4 times as much as the toy car. How much more does the toy airplane cost than the toy car? The first step for me is multiplicative comparison. The cost of the car is multiplied by four since the airplane costs four times as much as the car. Therefore, $5 times 4 equals $20. The next step is to compare the prices using subtraction to find the unknown difference. The difference is $15 since $20 minus $5 equals $15. In problem 40, Rani had $47. After paying for 3kg of shrimp, she had $20 left. Find the cost of 1 kg of shrimp. The first step is subtraction. It is a separate problem with an unknown change. Rani had $47. She spent some unknown amount and now is left with $20. After performing the calculation ($47-$20), the unknown change is determined to be $27. The next step is to divide $27 by 3. This is a price problem using partitive division. The cost of 1 kg would be $9. A final problem from my collection of multi-step problems is from the part-part-whole domain. Number forty-three states: A farmer had 2,000 chickens and ducks. After selling some of them, he had 650 chickens and 520 ducks left. How many chickens and ducks did he sell altogether? First I chose to perform addition to find how many chickens and ducks a farmer has left after selling some of them. 650 chickens plus 520 ducks equals 1,170 chicken and ducks. Now I am left with a separate problem to find the unknown difference. I know that it is a separate problem because the chickens and ducks are being sold and separated from the group. 2,000 take away 1,170 equals 830 chicken and ducks that were sold. Strategies for Teaching Students to Use the Singapore Bar Models I plan to begin with basic addition facts that are less than 20. I will teach the students how to draw Singapore bar models to illustrate addition and subtraction facts. The problem will be presented in a very straightforward manner such as, the sum of 7 and 8, or the difference of 15 and 8. Once the students can create these, I plan to progress to two digit numbers followed by three digit numbers. This step will involve a slightly different model with the use of brackets to represent the number for which each part stands. The next step is for the students, when presented with a word problem, to make sense of the words and draw a bar model to represent it. From this point, I will show the students how one model can represent different problems within a given scenario. Typically, there are several scenarios for the same problem. All parts of the problem are represented in the diagram and different problems can be written based on the parts that are known and unknown. The problems that are generated include problems related by inverse relationships. This strategy strengthens the students' understanding of the relationships shared by the four operations. I plan to have the students draw one illustration for each scenario. As the students become proficient the task will change. I expect the students to move into writing several related word problems for a given model. When the students have mastered addition and subtraction word problems by modeling with bar diagrams, I will teach them how to construct a similar model for multiplication and division. Initially I plan to provide a word problem that involves a basic fact such as 3 x7 and demonstrate and discuss the bar model representation. After sharing a few models, I will ask the students to construct the models given a basic fact. From this stage, I will teach the students how to name several problems with the same bar model. This process again involves the inverse relationships and the fact that multiplication is derived form addition. The final step is to have the students write several different scenarios for the same bar model involving multiplication and division. The final stage is to tackle multi-step problems with a bar picture that combines different operations. These are significantly more complicated, but by this stage the students should be comfortable with the models. I will begin by guiding the students through models of each dimension. Then the students will work in groups to categorize problems based on the two operations needed to solve the problem. Next the students will solve the problems. I expect this stage will take more practice than the previous ones. A teaching strategy that I will use for instruction and for having the children model their problems is found on the interactive Thinking Blocks website. Using this website as a teaching tool, I will initially show the students the video demonstrations through the computer onto the projection screen. After the class views the video, we will create our own problem. The students will participate in the process by manipulating the online models to create and solve the problem. Then the students could use this tool and work with partners to model and solve a problem given to them. This site can also be used for remediation, centers, for class work and homework, for enrichment, and as a teaching tool/resource. The initial introduction to the Singapore bar models will involve simple straightforward addition and subtraction problems. An example of each kind follows and both of the problems come from the Primary Mathematics 3A Workbook (1992). The sum of 9 and 7 is ____. The difference between 9 and 7 is ____. Using a basic fact less than 20 will introduce the students to how the models work. I will give the students several examples using basic facts less than 20 until they grasp the concept. Then I will introduce them to the slightly more abstract diagram where the units are no longer represented individually. For example: Find the sum of 65 and 89. The sum of 65 and 89 is ______. This model above is representative of the way the models appear once the students have been introduced to them. The end-to-end model is preferable since it is linear and makes a connection to measurement. I will have the students solve several problems that are just numerical, using the end-to end model. Then the students will use construction paper cut-outs to create models on their paper. This will provide a hands-on way to create the models. Once the students have made some with pre-cut models, they will draw their own representations. In making all models, one requirement will be that the related equation should also be written. Following the work with straightforward equations, the next step will be to move the students into using the models to represent word problems. Initially we will work with addition and subtraction. The same model can often represent several word problems related by the commutative property or the inverse relationship shared by addition and subtraction. Developing these concepts through problem solving will help to make these connections more meaningful for the students and will lead to greater motivation. Ryan's sister is 15 years old. How old is Ryan if he is 4 years older than his sister? The equation that goes with this problem is 15+4=19 years or 4+15=19 years. A few other problems that could be asked using this same model, but changing where the unknown is, are as follows: Ryan is 19 years old. His sister is 15 years old. How many years older is Ryan? The equation for this problem is: 15+4=19 years. Ryan is 19 years old. He is 4 years older than his sister. How old is his sister? The equation for this problem is: 19 - 4 = 15 years old Once the students are solving word problems, they will be required to write the equation and also to label the answers. The focus will be on being able to solve the problem with a bar model while also showing a corresponding equation. The numbers within the word problem will get more challenging. Similar problems with three digit numbers would be the next step to take with the students. The students will work with the same model for several related scenarios where each time the unknown is different. These related problems will continue to show inverse relationships and the commutative property. Once the students are comfortable with the models and with writing related problems, I will be able to move quickly to more difficult numbers since addition and subtraction through the millions has already been covered. In the next activity I will teach the students to use the bar models to show multiplication and division. I will once again begin on the computer with the projection screen. I will use the Thinking Blocks website. This time I will model a multiplication problem. The Singapore bar models would be cumbersome to draw with a large multiplier, as 7 x 36. These examples come from the Primary Mathematics Workbook 3A (1992). Roy had 3 times as many comic books as Samy. If Samy had 7 comic books, how many comic books did Roy have? Roy had ____ comic books? The equation for this problem is 7x3=21. Once again by changing the unknown a new problem is created. In this next problem the inverse relationship of division is represented. Roy has 21 comic books. Roy has 3 times as many comic books as Samy has. How many comic books does Samy have? 21 / 3 = 7 Much as I did with addition and subtraction, I am pairing up the inverse operations of multiplication and division to help the students to build a critical piece of understanding. By developing this understanding of the relationship between multiplication and division, the students will not only learn their division facts more easily, but also become better problem solvers. Carpenter, Franke, & Levi (2003) assert, "understanding the relation between multiplication and division is critical for learning division number facts and for dealing flexibly with problem situations involving multiplication and division." Again, once the students learn how to use the model to represent division, the difficulty can increase to the level of their division skills. More difficult division problems can be solved later in the year, once long division has been taught. The multi-step domain will be considerably more complicated to teach. I am focusing only on two-step problems. Mathematically there are 16 different combinations of the four operations since the order must be taken into account. Initially, I will group these problems together based on their types, or their similarities and differences. I will share examples of problems with the corresponding bar model. After taking the students through examples of each dimension, I will have the students work in cooperative groups to read word problems, look at the bar model and identify the two operations. They will also have to figure out the proper order in which to complete the operations. Once the students are proficient with this skill, I will move them into actually solving these two-step problems. This will begin as group work then it will progress to partner work and independent work. Meihua saved $24. She saved 3 times as much as Weilin. Write the missing numbers in the boxes as you answer each question below. (a) How much did Weilin save? (b) How much did they save together? I will provide the students with many opportunities to solve the multi-step problems since these vary so much. The students will participate in discussions about the problems because my students can learn so much from each other. While practicing these problems it would be fun to give each student a word problem written on an index card. We could go outside and the students could draw the Singapore bar models and solve the problem on the blacktop using sidewalk chalk. The key to conquering the multi-step problems will be keeping it fun. This will be more frustrating for some students, but by mixing up the activities and keeping it fun the students will be more motivated. Appendix A: Collection of Problems Addition and Subtraction Starter Problems for Singapore Bar Models 1) The sum of 6 and 8 is _____. 2) The sum of 9 and 7 is _____. 3) Find the sum of 65 and 89. 4) The difference between 9 and 7 is _____. 5) Find the difference between 96 and 68. 6) Find the difference between 387 and 512. 7) When 376 is subtracted from a number the answer is 825. Find the number. Join R - Result Unknown C - Change Unknown S - Start Unknown 8R) Nancy has 5 M&M's. Jermaine adds 3 M&M's to her pile. How many do they have altogether? 8C) Nancy has 5 M&M's. Jermaine adds his to her collection. Now there are 8 M & M's. How many did Jermaine have? 8S) Nancy has some M&M's. If Jermaine adds 3 to her collection they will have 8. How many does Nancy have at the start? Separate R - Result Unknown C - Change Unknown S - Start Unknown 9C) Mrs. Rogers made 150 pineapple tarts for a party. After the party, there were 16 tarts left. How many tarts were eaten at the party? 9R) Mrs. Rogers made 150 pineapple tarts for a party. The guests ate 134 tarts. How many tarts were left? 9S) Mrs. Rogers made some tarts for the party. The guests ate 134 tarts. She had 16 left. How many tarts did Mrs. Rogers make? Part Part Whole P- Part Unknown W - Whole Unknown 10P) Sharon is blowing up 52 balloons for a party. She has 24 left to blow up. How many has she already blown up? 10P) Sharon is blowing up 52 balloons for a party. She has blown up 28. How many balloons does she have left to blow up? 10W) Sharon is blowing up balloons for a party. She has blown up 28. She has 24 left to blow up. How many balloons will she have blown up when she is finished? Compare D - Difference Unknown C - Compare Unknown R - Referent Unknown 11R) Bob's sister 23 years old. She is 9 years older than Bob. How old is Bob? 11C) Bob is 14 years old. His sister is 9 years older. How old is his sister? 11D) Bob is 14 years old. His sister is 23 years old. How many years is the age difference between them? 12C) Mr. Jones traveled 386 km on Monday. He traveled 147 km more on Sunday than Monday. How many kilometers did he travel on Sunday? 13D) Randy collected 124 matchboxes. Josiah collected 283 matchboxes. Who collected more matchboxes? How many more? 14R) There are 3,402 boys at the parade. There are 987 more boys than girls. How many girls are there? How many pupils are there altogether? Multiplication and Division Starter Problems for Singapore Bar Models 15) Find the product of 41 x 5. 16) Find the product of 3 x 52. M - Multiplication DM - Division-Measurement DP - Division-Partitive 17DP) Tim printed 900 pamphlets. He packed them equally into 8 boxes. How many pamphlets were there in each box? How many pamphlets were left over? 18M) Jessica put some cookies equally into 3 jars. If each jar had 24 cookies, how many cookies were there altogether? 19DM) Molly sold 70 flowers. They were in bunches of 5. How many bunches of flowers did she sell? M - Multiplication D - Division-Measurement DP - Division-Partitive 20DP) Molly saved $32 in 4 weeks. She saved the same amount of money each week. How much did she save in a week? 21M) Kayla used 4 kg of flour to make cakes. She used 18 eggs for each kilogram of flour. How many eggs did she use? 22DM) A bucket holds 7 liters of water. A tank holds 637 liters of water. How many buckets of water can the tank hold? Price M - Multiplication DM - Division-Measurement D - Division-Partitive 23DM) Mrs. Gray paid $98 for the basket of fish. 1kg sells for $7. How many kg did she buy? 24DP) A fruit seller sold 12 kg of grapes. He collected $96. How much does 1kg cost? 25M) Mr. Smith sells fruit for $8 per kg. He sells 37 kg in one day. How much money did his customers spend on fruit at his fruit stand? 26) Roy has 3 times as many comic books as Samy. If Samy had 7 comic books, how many comic books did Roy have? 27) There are 20 monkeys in a zoo. There are 4 times as many monkeys as tigers. How many tigers are there? 28) A florist has 145 yellow roses. She has 8 times as many red roses as yellow roses. How many more red roses than yellow roses does she have? Multistep (annotated to show components) 1st step -Partitive Division 29) 8 students sold 272 concert tickets at $3 each. Each student sold the same number of tickets. How much money did each student collect? (partitive division/ price -muliplication) 1st step - Measurement Division 30) Mr. Stone bought some books for $301. Each book cost $7. His wife helped him carry 18 books and he carried the rest. How many books did he carry? (price- measurement division/ part-part-whole subtraction missing part) 31) Mr. Lee sold 462 flowers in bunches of 6 each. Each bunch sold for $5. How much money did he receive? (grouping/partition-division-measurement/ price-multiplication) 32) Miss Brown baked 600 pineapple tarts for sale. She packed them into packets of 6. She sold 45 packets. How many packets were not sold? (grouping/partition -measurement division/ separate- result unknown) 1st step Multiplication (grouping partition) 33) Rebecca bought four boxes of doughnuts. There were 6 doughnuts in each box. She divided the doughnuts equally among eight people. How many doughnuts did each person receive? (grouping/partition-multiplication/grouping/partition partitive division) 34) Jordan had 9 bags of paper plates. There were 10 plates in each bag. 25 plates were used for a party. How many plates were left? (grouping/partition- multiplication/ separate- result unknown) 35) Steven bought 7 planks, each 3 m long. He bought another plank 2 m long. Find the total length of the 8 planks. (rate - multiplication/ join - addition - result unknown) 36) Marty reads 8 pages of a book a day. After reading the book for 4 days, she still has 5 pages to read. How many pages are in the book? (rate -multiplication/part-part-whole-addition) 1st step Multiplicative Comparison 37) A toy car costs $5. A toy airplane costs 4 times as much as the toy car. How much more does the toy airplane cost than the toy car? (multiplicative comparison/ compare-subtract- result unknown) 38) A pole is 3m long. A rope is 8 times as long as the pole. If the rope is divided into 4 pieces, what is the length of each piece of rope? (multiplicative comparison/ grouping/partition - partitive division) 39) There are 650 men and twice as many women working in a factory. How many workers are there in the factory? (multiplicative comparison/ part-part-whole - addition- missing whole) 1st step Subtract 40) Rani had $47. After paying for 3kg of shrimp, she had $20 left. Find the cost of 1kg of shrimp. (price- subtract -unknown change/ price - partitive division) 41) A computer cost $1,900. A television set was $650 cheaper than the computer. Mr. Ray bought both the computer and the television set. How much did he pay? (compare - subtract - difference unknown/ join- addition- result unknown) 42) Pablo earns $3,000 a month. He spends $2,200 a month and saves the rest. How much money can he save in 6 months? (price - separate -difference unknown/ price - multiplication) 1st step Part-Part-Whole 43) A farmer had 2,000 chickens and ducks. After selling some of them, he had 650 chickens and 520 ducks left. How many chickens and ducks did he sell altogether? (part-part-whole - addition - missing whole/ separate- difference unknown) 44) 4 men and 5 women shared the cost of a present equally. The cost of the present was $117. How much did each of them pay? (part-part-whole - addition - whole unknown/ price - partitive division) Appendix B: Resources for Classroom Use The following resources are used in these lessons: an internet connection, a computer, an LCD projector, a collection of word problems, construction paper, glue, sidewalk chalk, paper and pencils. Appendix C: Annotated Bibliography Carpenter, T., Fennema, E., Franke, M., Levi, L., & Empson, S. (1999). Children's mathematics: Cognitively guided instruction. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. This was a great book that clearly identifies different types of word problems. Carpenter, T., Franke, M., & Levi, L. (2003) Thinking mathematically: Integrating arithmetic & algebra in elementary school. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. This was not very useful for this unit, but is important for developing algebra concepts early. Leinwand, Steven, (2005). New AIR study compares the quality of U.S. math instruction with Singapore recognized world leader U.S. trails, but both nations could learn from each other. 2/7/05 http://www.air.org/news/documents/ Singapore.htm. This website shares the results of a study that ranks Singapore the world leader in math achievement. Ma, Liping. (1999). Knowing and teaching elementary mathematics. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. This book compares Chinese teachers to American teachers and reveals some striking differences. Singapore primary math texts, U.S. Edition Curriculum Planning and Development Division, Ministry of Education, Singapore: Federal Publications. These textbooks and workbooks have a more simplistic appearance, but are more challenging than the corresponding U.S. grade level. These books show bar models and present place value in a slightly different way. Sowder, Larry, (1995). Addressing the story-problem problem. In J. Sowder & B. Schappelle (Eds.), Providing a foundation for teaching mathematics in the middle grades (123-131). New York: State University of New York Press. An interesting article that looks at limited and desired strategies for problem solving. Thinking Blocks, (2006) http://www.thinkingblocks.com. Date last accessed 7/3/07. This is a great website and offers many uses for teachers and students. Appendix D: Implementing District Standards: Virginia Standards of Learning Grade 4: The essential knowledge and skills for each of these objectives lists problem solving. - The student will add and subtract whole numbers written in vertical and horizontal - orm, choosing appropriately between paper and pencil methods and calculators. - The student will find the product of two whole numbers when one factor has two - igits or fewer and the other factor has three digits or fewer. - The student will estimate and find the quotient of two whole numbers, given a one- digit divisor. - Kathryn Patrice Freeman (Homeschool, Austin, TX) Subject taught: All of them... Dr. Word Problem - Solving Word Problems with the Four Operations Using Singapore Bar Models by Valerie Schwarz This unit gave me exactly the information I needed to confidently discuss word problems with our home-schooled daughter. We've done extensive work with bar modeling while using Singapore's curriculum over the last 5 years, but I still never felt completely versed in the method. We take an 'everyone around the table' approach to math, more so than any other subject, so that my daughter can benefit from seeing the very different ways I work problems as compared to her father, and although we can all three wiggle out the answers to word problems, none of us are really confident enough in our method to adequately explain it. This was incredibly helpful to me, and to my daughter. THANK YOU — your feedback is very important to us! Give Feedback
Amoebas diversified much earlier than thought Genetic study challenges standard view on ancient diversity. Tanya Loos reports. Amoebas diversified at least 750 million years ago, far earlier than previously thought, researchers have revealed. The finding, from a team led by Daniel Lahr of the University of São Paulo in Brazil, challenges existing theory about life during the time. Known as the late Precambrian period, it was thought to feature only a small number of unicellular lineages, including undifferentiated proto-amoebae and photosynthetic algae known as stromatolites. The new study revealed eight new ancestral lineages of Thecamoebae, the largest group in the amoeba domain. This newly discovered diversity has implications for understanding how microorganisms evolved on Earth. "We show that diversification apparently already existed in the Precambrian and that it probably occurred at the same time as ocean oxygenation,” says Lahr. Studying the evolution of life millions of years ago is not an easy task, as most microbial lineages do not leave a fossil record. Thecamoebae, and in particular the order Arcellids, however, are known as testates because they have a hard outer shell and leave behind vase-shaped microfossils (VSMs). VSMs do not have DNA traces, as other larger fossils sometimes do. To construct the phylogenetic tree without DNA, the team studied 19 living species, relatives of the ancient theocambians, to analyse gene expression in living organisms, using a technique called single cell transcriptome sequencing. "We sequenced whole transcriptomes of arcellinid amoebae using live samples," Lahr explains. "This yielded several thousand genes and some 100,000 amino acid sites, or 100,000 datapoints giving us the phylogenetic tree, which had never been seen before." The findings, published in the journal Current Biology, completely dismantle the previous classification of theocambians, and provide further clues into how the evolution of microbial life affected the Earth at the time. “By increasing the resolution of how life evolved in the very remote past, we can understand a little better how life affects the planet's climate and even its geology,” Lahr notes. “That will help us understand the climate changes we're currently experiencing.”
A German mineralogist by the name of Friedrich Mohs invented a scale of relative mineral hardness that has become known as the Mohs scale. This scale has been a valuable tool in identifying minerals since 1812. The following are the ten standard minerals in the Mohs scale: The hardness of material is measured by determining which material can scratch or be scratched by others, if they can scratch one another then they are the same hardness. For example if a given material is scratched by Corundum but not by Diamond, its hardness on the Mohs scale is 9.5. The Mohs scale is truly a comparative scale. In terms of absolute hardness quartz is a 100 and topaz is 200 (twice as hard). The hardness of stone is just one way of identify them, things like color, luster, crystalline form and cleavage are also used.
Your child may not talk to you about stress. That's because children usually don't know what stress is or how to verbalize when they are experiencing it. You may not be aware of the stress your child is feeling, but your child may manifest it in ways that you can see. You may notice behavior problems, your child being more moody or irritable, crying easily, or having problems sleeping. There are some ways you can help your child reduce stress and learn to relax. By taking traditional relaxation techniques and presenting them in a kid-like manner, you can teach your child coping skills to deal with stress. Deep breathing, also known as belly breathing, involves taking slow deep breaths. Because you are taking in full breaths of air, your body's oxygen exchange is improved. This not only helps you relax, but also slows down your heart rate and lowers your blood pressure. Deep breathing is easy, and most children have no problem following instructions on how to do it. Have your child sit comfortably in a chair or lie on the floor. Have them place their hands on their belly. Then ask them to take a deep breath in through their nose. While they breathe, ask them if they can feel their belly go up. Count to three as they breathe in. Then tell them to breathe out slowly through their mouth and ask them if they can feel their belly go down. Repeat this several times until your child feels relaxed. Progressive Muscle Relaxation Progressive muscle relaxation is a technique where you tense specific muscle groups and then relax them, progressing through each muscle group until every group has been tensed and relaxed. Using this technique with your child will help him to feel more relaxed. To do progressive muscle relaxation with your child, have him lie down on the floor comfortably. Then start with the top of the body and work your way down all the way to his toes. Talk him through this by saying scrunch up your forehead. Have him hold this scrunched up position for five seconds and then tell him to relax. Next, close your eyes as tight as you can. Hold each position for five seconds. And relax. Clench your jaw tight and scrunch up your lips. Hold it... and relax. Shrug your shoulders and relax. Cross your arms across your chest as tight as you can. And relax. Squeeze your hands into a fist as tight as you can. And relax. Arch your back as high as you can and hold it. Then relax. Squeeze your tummy muscles as tight as you can. Hold it and relax. Press your legs as hard as you can against the floor. And relax. Bend your ankles and try to point your toes towards your face. Hold it and relax. Scrunch your toes up tight. Hold it. And relax. Once you have finished, ask your child if he feels relaxed. If he says no, try it again. A good time to try guided imagery is when your child is ready for bed. To do guided imagery with your child, you can purchase a book or use your imagination. The point of guided imagery is to encourage your child to use his imagination and relax. Here's an example, ask your child to think about being up in the sky floating on a cloud. Then tell him to close his eyes and think about how soft the cloud is. Ask him questions like, "Do you feel your body sinking into the soft fluffy cloud?" Describe the cloud and how it feels. Tell him to feel his head gently resting on the feathery soft cloud and his legs floating in the air. End with the feet or toes. Ask him to feel his toes softly brushing against the cloud. Telling your child a gentle relaxing story while focusing on relaxing different parts of his body will help him to relax and sleep better. Listening to Peaceful Music An easy way to help your child to relax that doesn't require any technique or method is listening to gentle music. Classical music can be a good choice for this or listening to nature sounds. Lie on the floor with your child and play some relaxing music. If your child has done deep breathing or progressive muscle relaxation, you can do this while the music plays. Just taking time to listen to gentle music will help your child to relax. Mantras are a form of meditation where you chant a word or sound over and over to achieve relaxation. You have probably heard of the Hindu mantra "om" being chanted repeatedly. Instead of using sounds to chant, try chanting relaxing words or affirmations, like "I feel relaxed" or "I am loved." All of these methods are easy to do with kids and will teach them coping skills for dealing with stress. If you are looking for more ideas, try visiting Youtube. They have some great relaxation videos for kids. Lori Lite also has an amazing series of children's books that take relaxation methods like deep breathing and progressive muscle relaxation and put them into story form for kids.
Introducing new equipment into a unit or lesson can easily become too much to handle for our excited fourth graders. Self control becomes very difficult when new tools are taunting them in the back of the classroom (I can relate!). One way that I like to help my students make good choices is by introducing new tools at the beginning of a unit before we actually need them for investigations. Students were given the opportunity to take part in a “Science Tool Scavenger Hunt”. They had a chance to spend an entire science period exploring, investigating, and practicing with these tools. Eventually, we would be using the science tools for our next few science lessons on “How Scientists Collect and Use Data”. Students practiced measuring force with a spring scale, mass in a pan balance, temperature with thermometers, and length with tape measures/rulers. It was awesome to be able to let students have a less structured opportunity to engage their curiosity and explore their new science tools. Keep curious my friends, Ms. Goins, 4th Grade Teacher
Diagnosis and management of allergic rhinitis in children Allergic rhinitis is a very common disease of childhood, and its impact on quality of life is often underestimated. This article discusses the diagnosis of allergic rhinitis in children and the management options that can be tried, including allergen avoidance, pharmacological therapies and allergen immunotherapy. The prevalence of allergic disease has been on the rise for some time and now represents a global health problem.1 In the UK, allergic disease affects up to 40% of children. Clearly, this has a significant impact on workload in primary and secondary care, medication usage and admissions to hospital. Current evidence shows as many as one in five children in the UK describe symptoms of allergic rhinitis, compared with one in eight worldwide.2 Causes of rhinitis In children, there are a number of different causes for rhinitis. Whereas adults tend to suffer from intrinsic rhinitis, the most common cause of rhinitis symptoms in children is allergic rhinitis. Allergic rhinitis is an IgE-mediated inflammatory condition of the nasal mucosa, characterised by anterior nasal symptoms of pruritus, sneeze, discharge, blockage or ‘stuffiness’. In the UK, clearly defined seasonal differences in allergen exposure have led to allergic rhinitis being described as either seasonal, usually due to tree or grass pollens and referred to as hay fever, or perennial, usually due to house dust mite, mould or animal dander. However, allergic rhinitis can also be classified according to the globally-oriented Allergic Rhinitis and its Impact on Asthma (ARIA) guidelines, described below.3 Impact on quality of life Although the symptoms of allergic rhinitis are not life-threatening, they can be detrimental to the physical, psychological and social aspects of affected children’s lives and can significantly decrease quality of life – something that is often underestimated by physicians and non-sufferers alike. Allergic rhinitis can have a substantial negative impact on childhood. Adolescents report difficulties in concentration, which can be of particular concern with regard to education. Symptoms of rhinitis and the associated underlying inflammation may cause lethargy, while nocturnal symptoms, such as itch and congestion, can affect the quality of sleep; together, these effects can significantly impact on school performance.4,5 Even uncomplicated seasonal allergic rhinitis can be associated with reduced academic performance – particularly as public examinations often coincide with the grass pollen season.4,5 Learning difficulties may be worsened further in severe perennial rhinitis or in rhinitis associated with complications such as sinusitis or Eustachian tube dysfunction and conductive hearing loss. It is not uncommon for first-generation antihistamines to be used in the treatment of rhinitis, as these medications are easily accessed, affordable and licensed for use in younger children. Unfortunately, the sedative effect of these older drugs may exacerbate associated lethargy. Children with allergic rhinitis will present with one or more of the following classic symptoms: rhinorrhoea, nasal itch, sneezing and nasal obstruction, with or without conjunctivitis. The presence of two or more of these symptoms normally confirms a diagnosis of allergic rhinitis. A clinical history should establish the duration and seasonality of the symptoms. Allergic rhinitis can be further classified using the ARIA guidelines. This is based on the duration and frequency of symptoms, and the effect of symptoms on sleep, school and daily activities (see Figure 1). Some children may experience purely seasonal symptoms according to their allergies, for example tree pollen from March to June or grass pollen from April to September. Perennial symptoms occur year-round, with or without seasonal exacerbations. Figure 1. Classification of allergic rhinitis, according to the ARIA guidelines3 There is usually, but not always, a family and personal history of atopy. Allergic rhinitis is a risk factor for development of asthma and children presenting with moderate to severe allergic rhinitis should be routinely screened for asthma with an appropriate history and examination. Studies have shown that increased severity of allergic rhinitis symptoms correlate with poorer asthma control, with asthma attacks being more common when the pollen count is higher in individuals allergic to grass pollen.6 Furthermore, children with co-morbid allergic rhinitis and asthma are likely to require more GP appointments and hospital admissions than those with just asthma alone.7 Effective diagnosis and treatment of both conditions will have a positive impact on outcome. Unilateral symptoms should raise the possibility of septal deviation or the presence of a foreign body. However, alternation of the obstruction from one side to the other suggests a generalised rhinitis that makes the normal ‘nasal cycle’ more apparent. Some children may present atypically with disrupted sleep and persistent cough, but also lethargy, poor appetite and stunted growth. The typical facial features of affected children may include a long, pale face, allergic ‘shiners’ or Dennie-Morgan folds under the eyes. The child may be mouth-breathing with dry, cracked lips and associated lip-licking eczema. There may be halitosis, dental malocclusion and postnasal drip. Nasal examination may reveal an external nasal crease due to persistent rubbing and a boggy nasal bridge. A metal speculum may be use to demonstrate reduced nasal airflow. Typical mannerisms such as the ‘allergic salute’ – a habitual rubbing of the nose with the hand – reflect the intensity of the nasal itch. Internal examination of the nose – an auriscope is sufficient – will reveal a pale purple or pink, swollen inferior turbinate with a narrowing of the nasal airway. An important differential diagnosis is nasal polyps, which are pale, non-tender and mobile – in children, these should be considered to be due to cystic fibrosis until proven otherwise. Figure 2. Skin-prick testing for allergens Allergy testing, ie skin-prick testing or specific IgE blood testing (see Figure 2), provides a quick and cheap method of supporting the diagnosis and allows for the targeting of allergen avoidance measures. The majority of children with allergic rhinitis can be diagnosed through selection of a relatively small panel of allergens (see Table 1). Table 1. Suggest panel of skin-prick tests for diagnosing allergic rhinitis in children The ARIA guidelines propose a stepwise approach to the management of allergic rhinitis. The aim of treatment is to achieve unimpaired sleep, remove any limitation to daily activities and school attendance and minimise side-effects of treatment. As well as pharmacological treatments, allergen avoidance measures also need to be considered, particularly when identified by successful allergy testing. Unlike the pharmacotherapies, the evidence supporting allergen avoidance is limited, but is still recommended by ARIA guidelines and allergists. Avoidance of seasonal allergens such as pollens is notoriously difficult. Some simple advice should be offered to patients (see Table 2). Perennial allergens may be more amenable to manipulation but, particularly in the case of dust mites, these measures may be expensive, time consuming and of limited benefit (see Table 3). Advice to remove pets may not be well received and it could take many months, even with intense cleaning, to remove all traces of the allergen – this particularly true for cats. A simple compromise is keep the animal outside and wash it frequently. Hypoallergenic animals have been bred but are prohibitively expensive. Table 2. Advice for avoidance of pollen allergens Table 3. Advice for avoidance of house dust mite allergens In most instances, allergen avoidance is neither possible nor sufficient to control symptoms, and thus medications are required. Historically, a large range of medications have been used for rhinitis management, although the mainstay of treatment usually comprises oral antihistamines and nasal steroids. Topical antihistamines, anticholinergics, sodium cromoglicate and decongestants may all have their place in defined circumstances, while leukotriene-receptor antagonists (LTRAs) and immunotherapy are important options for resistant cases. A practical guide to escalating treatment is given in Figure 3. Figure 3. Treatment of allergic rhinitis in childhood – adapted from the ARIA guidelines3 Oral antihistamines are the most commonly prescribed first-line agent. Antihistamines are particularly effective against runny nose, itching and sneezing, as these symptoms tend to be histamine mediated. Second- or third-generation non-sedating antihistamine also improve allergic symptoms at sites other than the nose such as the conjunctiva, palate, skin and lower airways.8 They are less effective against nasal obstruction, although the newer third-generation antihistamines, eg levocetirizine and desloratidine, may offer some benefit. The greatest benefit is seen in patients taking antihistamines regularly rather than ‘as required’. The main issue with antihistamines is their sedative potential, which is of particular concern for young children. For this reason, first-generation antihistamines such as chlorphenamine should be avoided as a regular therapy. Second- and third-generation antihistamines do not have such a sedating effect and have few major drug interactions. As cetirizine has a good safety record in children over six months of age, this tends to be our first choice, usually once daily. Topical antihistamines, eg azelastine nasal spray or olopatadine eye drops, are sometimes used first line for mild symptoms and are useful for rhinitis or conjunctivitis symptoms respectively as they have a fast onset of action; however, they do not have any effect on symptoms at other sites. Topical corticosteroids are the mainstay for treatment of moderate/severe rhinitis and can be used in addition to oral antihistamines. They should be used as a first-line treatment in patients who have persistent moderate to severe symptoms. This class of medication best addresses underlying chronic inflammation and symptoms of nasal obstruction. The intranasal route of corticosteroid administration is significantly safer than potentially harmful oral or intramuscular corticosteroid preparations. A small proportion of the intranasal corticosteroid spray is always swallowed after administration and, despite liver metabolism, presents a potential risk of systemic side-effects if taken in frequent and/or high doses. Consequently, parents are often concerned about the potential risk to childhood growth. Long-term follow-up studies demonstrate no reduction in growth with once-daily use of mometasone or fluticasone nasal spray, making these the best choices. Clinicians should be mindful of the dose of intranasal corticosteroids prescribed to children already on inhaled steroids for asthma or more potent topical steroids for eczema. Combination treatments such as Dymista nasal spray, which contains the antihistamine azelastine and the steroid fluticasone, are particularly effective at reducing nasal inflammation and itching and may reduce symptoms more rapidly than intranasal steroids in isolation. They also offer some benefit for other symptoms including conjunctivitis.8 Dymista is currently licensed for children aged 12 years and over but may be used in younger children with moderate to severe symptoms at the discretion of the clinician. It is important to demonstrate the correct technique for intranasal administration to children (see Figure 4), as this will optimise deposition and reduce the incidence of side-effects such as nose bleeds. Treatment failure is commonly due to irregular use – often as a consequence of symptomatic relief. Ideally, use of the spray should be commenced one to two weeks prior to when symptoms normally occur. This ‘priming’ helps prevent inflammation from occurring in the first place and makes it easier to control. Figure 4. Correct procedure for the application of nasal sprays LTRAs antagonise inflammatory mediators released from nasal cells and eosinophils in both the early and late phases of the allergic response. LTRAs are administered orally and appear to be particularly effective against nasal obstruction and mucus production, with enhanced symptom control achieved when used in conjunction with an antihistamine, although this is still less effective than a nasal steroid. For patients with resistant symptoms and those with co-existing asthma, LTRAs can be used as an add-on therapy, although some individuals respond better than others. They also provide a useful alternative therapy for those unable to properly co-ordinate a nasal spray, children with ‘steroid-phobic’ parents and those who dislike the sensation, taste or odour of nasal sprays. Parents should be warned about potential side-effects of LTRAs in children, including possible nightmares and behaviour change. Allergen immunotherapy (desensitisation) While most children will find relief from their symptoms through a combination of allergen avoidance and the pharmacotherapy detailed above, a significant minority still have troublesome symptoms. There are also many children whose parents remain resistant to short- or long-term use of steroid-based medications in their child, especially knowing that these treatments are suppressing symptoms, rather than addressing the underlying allergic cause. In these scenarios, allergen immunotherapy has an important role. The practice of administering gradually increasing doses of allergen extract in order to reduce the symptoms associated with subsequent exposure has a history dating back to 1911. Subcutaneous immunotherapy (SCIT) became increasingly widespread over the course of the 20th century, albeit not without problems – 26 deaths were recorded in the UK between 1957 and 1986 and 46 deaths in the USA between 1959 and 1984. These deaths were due to anaphylaxis and bronchospasm, mostly the result of incorrect dose administration, failure to recognise and treat reactions, lack of resuscitation equipment and the inclusion of patients with unstable asthma. However, more recent work has demonstrated the safety of SCIT when conducted under standardised protocols – with systemic reactions complicating only 0.37% of injections, mostly restricted to urticaria. The long-term efficacy of a three-year course of SCIT in allergic rhinitis has been proven, demonstrating that the significant effect on symptom reduction extends for years beyond the treatment itself.9 However, its use in the UK is restricted due to the limited number of specialist centres, requirement for multiple supervised injections and concern over side-effects. Sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) in the form of soluble tablets and sprays is usually preferable in children, as it removes the need for injections and requires fewer resources. As with SCIT, treatment should be continued for at least three years. There are a limited number of SLIT products licensed for use in children over the age of five years in the UK, eg Grazax for grass pollen. However, many unlicensed products, widely used throughout Europe, are available for tree pollen, dust mite, and cat and dog allergies through specialist clinics. The first dose should be supervised in hospital but treatment is then continued at home once daily. Several studies have shown SLIT to be efficacious in reducing symptom and medication scores in children with allergic rhinitis. One study showed a reduced risk of development of asthma symptoms and asthma medication use in patients with allergic rhinitis who had completed treatment with SLIT compared with placebo.9,10 However, the reliance on daily patient administration does raise the issue of adherence, something that appears to influence efficacy. A systematic review of multiple randomised controlled trials reporting the use of SLIT and its safety profile confirmed its efficacy in reducing symptoms and medication use and reported no severe systemic reactions, anaphylaxis or use of adrenaline.11 Over one billion doses of SLIT have been given globally, with no fatal reactions recorded. The relative benefit of using SCIT over SLIT remains unclear and usually the choice is made based on patient preference and availability of resources.12 Access to SLIT or SCIT remains problematic for those children with persistent symptoms despite maximal pharmacotherapy. An audit in 2011 estimated that only 2% of those children who fulfilled the diagnostic requirements for pollen immunotherapy were actually receiving it.13 Allergic rhinitis is a very common disease of childhood that can have considerable impact on quality of life. In most cases, allergic rhinitis can be treated safely and effectively using simple medications such as oral antihistamines and nasal steroids, with newer combination treatments being increasingly used. LTRAs provide a useful adjunct to treatment, particularly in children with concomitant asthma. Allergen immunotherapy is a proven, safe treatment that is underutilised in the UK, particularly compared with our European counterparts. Currently, treatment with SCIT and initiation of SLIT is only undertaken at a limited number of specialist centres. This means patients have to be referred from primary or secondary care and may have to travel considerable distances to their nearest centre. In some cases, it may not be clear how to refer children for immunotherapy or where the local immunotherapy service is; therefore, it is important for clear referral pathways to exist in local networks. Through educational initiatives, clinicians are becoming more aware of the different methods of ‘desensitisation’ and the practicalities of providing an immunotherapy service. Hopefully, this will lead to immunotherapy clinics becoming more widely available in secondary care in the near future. In the meantime, research continues to focus on ways to make immunotherapy more effective, to enhance compliance with treatment, to understand the underlying mechanisms involved and to search for biomarkers of its efficacy. There is also ongoing work to increase our understanding of the longer-term impact of immunotherapy on progression of disease from rhinitis to asthma and also the possible role of immunotherapy in infancy as a way of preventing allergic sensitisation and asthma developing in the first instance. Declaration of interests None to declare. Dr Noronha is a registrar in paediatric allergy, Dr Fox and Dr du Toit are consultants in paediatric allergy, and Professor Lack is professor of paediatric allergy at the Children’s Allergy Service, Evelina Children’s Hospital, Guy’s and St Thomas’ Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London. 1. Gupta R, et al. Time trends in allergic disorders in the UK. Thorax 2007;62(1):91–6. 2. Pols DHJ, et al. Atopic dermatitis, asthma and allergic rhinitis in general practice and the open population: a systematic review. Scand J Prim Health Care 2016;34(2):143–50. 3. Bousquet J, et al; Aria Workshop Group; WHO. Allergic rhinitis and its impact on asthma (ARIA). J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;108(5 suppl.):S147–334. 4. Simons FE. Learning impairment and allergic rhinitis. Allergy Asthma Proc 1996;17(4):185–9. 5. Walker S, et al. Seasonal allergic rhinitis is associated with a detrimental effect on examination performance in United Kingdom teenagers: case-control study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007;120:381–7. 6. Clarworthy J, et al. The value of self-report assessment of adherence, rhinitis and smoking in relation to asthma control. Prim Care Respir J 2009;18(4):300–5. 7. Thomas M, et al. Asthma-related health care resource use among asthmatic children with and without concomitant allergic rhinitis. Pediatrics 2005;115(1):129–34. 8. Scadding GK, et al. BSACI guidelines for the management of allergic and non-allergic rhinitis. Clin Exp Allergy 2008;38:19–42. 9. Wilson DR, et al. Sublingual immunotherapy for allergic rhinitis: systematic review and meta-analysis. Allergy 2005;60(1):4–12. 10. Zielen S, et al. Sublingual immunotherapy provides long-term relief in allergic rhinitis and reduces the risk of asthma: a retrospective, real-world database analysis. Allergy 2017 31 May. doi: 10.1111/all.13213 11. Radulovic S, et al. Systematic reviews of sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT). Allergy 2011;66:740–52. 12. Durham S, Penagos M. Sublingual or subcutaneous immunotherapy for allergic rhinitis? J Allergy Clinical Immunol 2016;137(2):339–49. 13. Vance G, et al. A national audit of pollen immunotherapy for children in the United Kingdom: patient selection and programme safety. Clin Experimental Allergy 2011;41:1313–23.
One of the most dreaded viruses today is the novel coronavirus, popularly known as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It causes the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) that is wreaking havoc across the globe. Health experts and scientists come to grips with fighting the virus, but there is still no vaccine or cure for it. Now, a team of scientists may have found the coronavirus’s weakness, which can help develop new therapies to combat the deadly virus. The scientists from Scripps Research, reveal a likely vulnerability or weakness of the coronavirus. An antibody, called CR3022, recovered from a survivor of the SARS outbreak in 2002, has shown a potential vulnerability of the novel coronavirus. Published in the journal Science, the study highlights a potential target in fighting the coronavirus global pandemic. Coronavirus’ ‘chink in the armor’ Antibodies are proteins in the body’s immune system, which is produced to identify and ward off viruses. In some instances, antibodies cannot kill a virus if they do not bind to the right location. The researchers said that they were able to identify a specific area of the virus that can be targeted with drugs and can help with the development of vaccines. The antibody was isolated in 2006 by the company Crucell Holland BV in the Netherlands from a SARS patient. This illness rippled across the globe in 2002, infecting more than 8,000 people and killing about 800 people. A report from Chinese scientists earlier this year indicated that CR3022 cross-reacts against SARS-CoV-2. Wilson’s team used their structural mapping expertise to determine how the antibody binds to SARS-CoV-2. An antibody called CR3022, produced by a patient in response to the coronavirus that causes SARS, also binds to the new coronavirus that causes COVID-19. (Image courtesy of Meng Yuan and Nicholas Wu of the Wilson lab.) The researchers noticed that the antibody’s binding site is highly similar between the SARS and SARS-CoV-2, differing by just four protein building blocks called amino acids. That high degree of similarity implies that the site has a vital function that would be lost if it mutated significantly. “The knowledge of conserved sites like this can aid in structure-based design of vaccines and therapeutics against SARS-CoV-2, and these would also protect against other coronaviruses—including those that may emerge in the future,” Ian Wilson, DPhil, Hansen Professor of Structural Biology and Chair of the Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology at Scripps Research, said. The team revealed that the antibody binding site on the viruses are hidden inside, and only exposed when part of the virus changes its structure, just like in natural infection. The team further found that despite the small difference between the two coronaviruses, the antibody binds much less tightly to SARS-CoV-2, and it cannot neutralize the virus in lab tests. However, the findings still hint at the weakness in the virus being the binding site for antibodies. When the antibody is able to bind more tightly, it may lead to neutralizing the virus. The Wilson laboratory works on structural studies of antibodies bound to certain viruses such as influenza and HIV. These studies were bases for drugs and vaccines, as well as other treatments. Now, amid the coronavirus disease pandemic, the laboratory focuses on the SARS-CoV-2. “Our ultimate goal here is to obtain structural information on antibodies and their binding sites, and use that to guide SARS-CoV-2 vaccine design, just as our lab has done with influenza and HIV,” Nicholas Wu, PhD, a postdoctoral research associate in the Wilson lab, said. Now, the Scripps Research is looking for COVID-19 survivors who are willing to donate their blood. This way, the team can further study antibodies and how they can ward off viruses, such as the coronavirus that has sickened 1.3 million across 184 countries and territories, killing more than 74,000 people. The United States has reported the most cases with more than 368,000. Yuan, M., Wu, N., Zhu, X., Lee, C., So, R, et al. (2020). A highly conserved cryptic epitope in the receptor-binding domains of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV. Science. https://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2020/04/02/science.abb7269
Mosquito bites can be painful and uncomfortable. Some types of mosquitoes are able to transmit diseases to humans and animals. Mosquito numbers can increase during wet weather or follow above average high tide conditions. The most commonly inhabit saltmarsh and freshwater areas. Their breeding season peaks from September to May. Ross River and Barmah Forest viruses are the most common mosquito-borne diseases in Queensland. Some types of mosquitoes can give your dog heartworm. Council has a program to manage mosquitoes. It includes monitoring and treating mosquito-prone areas. This is done through the ground and aerial application of two main control products – Methoprene and BTI. Council also treats larval mosquitoes (not yet adult or flying mosquitoes). Tips to protect yourself from mosquitoes - Use a repellent containing DEET when outside. Always read the label and follow safety directions - Wear long-sleeve shirts and trousers. Light colours are best - Limit time outside at dusk and dawn - Remove water sources around the house. This includes containers, pot plants or items holding water - Spray screens with residual products. Always read the label and follow safety directions - Increase light and air movement around dark and damp areas - Outdoor areas can be treated with products containing a residual insecticide for control over longer periods - Change water in pet bowls and bird baths frequently. - Clean your roof gutters on a regular basis - Ensure your rainwater tank is fitted with mosquito-proof screens - Keep swimming pools clean and chlorinated - Keep any ornamental ponds and fountains stocked with fish - See a vet for advice on suitable preventative treatments/repellents if your pet is affected. Small amounts of water can breed large numbers of mosquitoes. Always empty containers and drain water-logged areas where possible. Following simple guidelines can greatly reduce your risk of getting a mosquito-borne disease. It will also increase your enjoyment of the Coast's environment. Learn how to protect yourself and your family and pets against mosquitoes - Mosquitoes Factsheet (PDF) More information on mosquitoes can be found on the Queensland Health (PDF) website. Midges do not carry disease to humans. But there are a number of things you can do to protect against biting midge. Learn how to protect yourself and your family and pets against midge - Midge Factsheet (PDF).
Never underestimate the power of a pet. Pets increase a child’s interest for understanding all forms of life and help foster respect for the animals that share this planet with us. Classroom pets also are a fun way to build observation and listening skills and to teach cooperation among students, important life lessons that can be integrated into every subject, not just science. Not all pets, however, are well suited for young children and classroom life. Their ability to thrive in your classroom environment largely depends upon how well you meet their physical, behavioral, nutritional and medical needs, so do some careful research before choosing your classroom pet. Gerbils are active and entertaining, have some diurnal habits (awake during the day) and are easy keepers, but are not as intelligent as rats. - Guinea pigs Guinea pigs are quiet and docile animals and if their cages are kept clean, they have very little odor. They are active during the day and their needs are basic: hay and fresh veggies, clean water, and an outside source of Vitamin C (available as a supplement or in special guinea pig-formulated feed pellets). Hamsters are classified as nocturnal and will typically sleep during the day when class is in session but most hamsters divide their day with periods of sleeping and waking. Hamsters respond well to being handled making them good for children. Rabbits are not a good choice because they need daily exercise, have an inclination to chew and will require “rabbit proofing” the classroom. They are also social animals and do not do well in isolation. Rats are friendly, very intelligent, and generally very good with kids. Their curious nature, however, can make them an unsuitable pet for younger children, especially those not comfortable with handling such a quick animal. There are a number of resources available through educational organizations that can assist you with developing a pet program for your classroom. Pet Care Trust (www.petcaretrust.org) is one such organization. The founder, John Pitts, D.V.M., has established a program and put together a manual with lesson plans focused on pet lessons in the classroom. The National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) also has written an informative piece called “Responsible Use of Live Animals and Dissection in the Science Classroom.” It can be downloaded at https://www.nsta.org/about/positions/animals.aspx.
It’s Halloween time, and fear is in the air. Fear can be paralyzing or exhilarating: adrenaline flows, blood pressure rises, heart rate increases. All these physiological mechanisms prepare the body to face a threat through either “fight or flight.” But how? Recently, researchers have begun to map more precisely what fear does to the brain. Studying fear is difficult, since no two people have the same fears. However, researchers at Cambridge University tried using a doozy of a fear stimulus: large spiders. Research subjects were given an MRI while standing in a box with a large tarantula spider. In reality, they were shown pre-recorded video of the spider in an identical box, but the volunteers had no way of knowing it—they truly believed the spider was locked in with their feet. (Goodness knows how they recruited the volunteers.) The resulting images demonstrated which regions of the brain were associated with different aspects of the fear process. As part of the test, subjects had to guess how much they expected to be scared of the spider on a numeric scale. They then rated their fear level again after actually seeing the spider. In people who, for example, expected the spider to be a 2/10 in scariness when it actually turned out to be an 8/10, the amygdala lit up. The amygdala was less active when people accurately predicted their fear level. It seems that among other functions the amygdala is also the bravado region of the brain. Several parts of the brain became active when the tarantula was nearest, but one of the most active was the midbrain periaqueductal grey (PAG). This region of the brain is most associated with pain suppression, and perhaps became active in anticipation of a bite. Unsurprisingly, the fear response was strongest when volunteers thought the spider was close, or when it was approaching. When the tarantula came closer, segments of the brain associated with decision making, memory, and emotion (especially the amygdala) all light up. As the spider approached, the brain seemed to decide it was time to choose a course of action—run, or maybe try to step on the spider? The amygdala also played another role, that of underestimating the response to the tarantula. This portion of the brain became very active when subjects assumed that the spider would be less scary than it actually turned out to be. Of all the findings, perhaps the most clinically significant was the role of the orbitofrontal cortex as the spider retreated. This region of the brain, associated with decision making, reward, and memory, also seems to be responsible for sounding the brain’s “all clear” signal. Further research may be able to use this knowledge to help trauma survivors, or those with debilitating phobias. It’s also interesting that the memory-forming portions of the brain kick in with the fear response. The experience may be scary, but subconsciously we are planning on surviving and learning from the experience. That is the lasting benefit of fear. Fear doesn’t just prepare us to survive in the moment. We learn about threats, and internalize responses for the future. Fear is an innate defense mechanism, a holdover from days when humans were squarely in the middle of the food chain. We may not enjoy it, but fear keeps us alive.
A highly contagious infectious Herpes viral disease of chickens and pheasants. Characterized by SEVERE respiratory distress and bloody tracheal exudates. Chickens 14 weeks and older are more susceptible than young chicken. Most LT outbreaks occur in mature hens. Can become a problem within an endemic or localised area. Chickens that recover carry the virus, so farms tend to stay infected for a while after outbreaks. Transmission is direct bird-to-bird contact, or bird contact with bird-tissue, dead infected birds, infected buildings or unattentuated vaccines. Can be spread on clothing, shoes, tires. Chickens that recover remain carrier for as long as 24 months. Clinical signs first noticed are water eyes, then the birds remain quiet because breathing is difficult, coughing, sneezing, and shaking of the head to dislodge exudate plugs in the windpipe. Birds extend head and neck to attempt open mouth breaking (gasp), and inhalation produces a wheezing sound. These birds are called "callers". Blood tinged exudates and serum clots are expelled from the trachea of affect birds. Many birds die of asphyxiation. No nervous symptoms as in NewCastle Disease. Egg production drops sharply. Gross lesions are usually confined to the respiratory tract. Tracheal hemorrhage is common, including blood clots. Treatment is difficult at best. Quarantine the farm, tighten farm security and have separate caretaker for sick birds, stop cross traffic to other poultry buildings. Administer antibiotics and vaccinate the remaining flock. Administer vaccine by eye or nose drop methods. Delay vaccination until birds are at least 6 weeks old. Vaccination with LT is not as successful as for other diseases, but is an excellent preventative measure for use in outbreaks and in epidemic areas.
Researchers in China have discovered the first protein-based toxin in an amphibian a 60 amino acid neurotoxin found in the skin of a Chinese tree frog. This finding may help shed more light into both the evolution of amphibians and the evolution of poison. While gene-encoded protein toxins have been identified in many vertebrate animals, including fish, reptiles and mammals, none have yet been found in amphibians or birds. In the case of poisonous amphibians, like the tropical poison dart frogs, their toxins are usually small chemicals like alkaloids that are extracted from insects and secreted onto the animal's skin. Therefore, Ren Lai and colleagues were surprised to find a protein toxin while examining the secretions of the tree frog Hyla annectans. They then purified and characterized this new toxin, which they called anntoxin. In protein sequence and structure, anntoxin was very similar to dendrotoxins (the venoms found in cobras and other mamba snakes) and cone snail toxins, though anntoxin only has two disulfide bridges (a strong link that helps keep proteins folded) compared to three in the other types. The slight differences may account for why anntoxin does not block potassium channels as the other venoms do, but rather sodium channels important for signaling in sensory nerves. Like these other venoms, though, anntoxin is fast-acting and potent; the researchers found it could produce rapid convulsions, paralysis and respiratory distress in several would-be predators like snakes and birds. The similarities and differences make anntoxin a very valuable protein for further study, considering amphibians' special niche as the animals bridging the evolutionary land-water gap. \|Contact: Nick Zagorski\| American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
A Guide on the Government Governance is exercised when it comes to the human behavior which for a long time has been monitored. There are fundamental rights and freedoms that each human being is granted. This the need to govern the use of the rights and the freedom because some people in the process of exercising their right and freedom and up abusing the right and the freedoms of the other people.A the government, therefore, can be defined as a system or a group of people who are governing specific community or state. In the world, there are different types of government systems that are exercised. Democracy type of government system where the general people are citizens of a country exercises their power directly through choosing representatives to make decisions for them. There are other governments where the power is infested on one person who has a class in the society. For example nobility, the wealthy, the military, corporate religious to name but a few. Dictatorship is a very rare type of a government two-year about especially in the recent generation, but it has been in existence where a person rules by dictatorship. Most of the government systems in the world consist of the component that is the executive, legislature, and the judiciary. The executive branch of the government is where the citizens elect the president who is given limited to rule the people for a specific number of years by which they are elected, or other people are elected. When a president is elected to rule over a state, they become the people that represent the country in other foreign relations and also the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces.The judiciary branch of the government is where the is the court which duty is to execute the laws of the country. On the hand, legislature branch of the government is the Congress of the federal government that is responsible for creating the laws of the state. It is within the powers of the legislative branch of the government to ensure that the levy taxes, declare war, print the money, make laws and also take control of the federal budget. One of the duties that a government should ensure the performance is to ensure that the citizens of enough access to public services. There are cases of government officials or employees mishandling the public funds and resources. However, there are mechanisms to deal with such behaviors, for example, Kip Ward is an example of government military official who misused the public resources leading to the loss of his job. One of the sources of finances foremost government systems in the world is the taxes that the citizens pay to finance different public services.
I’m Stumped! How do I estimate the age of a tree? The ‘I’m Stumped!’ geocache was hidden within a wooded area in the far North-West corner of the University of Stirling campus, indicated below. This site was chosen as clear linkages exist between location and planned learning. The scientific concepts being taught were how to use dendrochronology or tree girth to approximate the age of a tree, giving appreciation of how long a tree you are looking at took to grow. Planned extensions to this idea discussed factors influencing tree growth, and trees as a valuable resource. Links were made between trees and climate change. Using an enquiry based approach, the geocache concluded with discussions about how the children and their families could make changes in their lives to help protect the ozone layer and limit climate change. The cache contained questions and activities for the pupils, supported by teacher notes. The box held resources for completion of collaborative tasks and discussions. Differentiated tasks were included in the teacher notes. Photographs were taken to provide prompts for pupils to recall and develop their learning back at school. Upon finding the cache pupils were encouraged to step back and allow others to discover it for themselves. The cache was opened once everyone had located it. The pupils followed the instructions, reading out each card in turn: Pupils examined tree stumps of their choice and were supported to count the tree rings as a representation of approximate years of growth. Children were asked to consider how to estimate the age of a standing tree. Links were made to the buildup of tree rings and the girth of the tree. A teacher worked with pupils to demonstrate how to measure the circumference of the tree trunk. Pupils then worked in pairs independently, within set boundaries in the woodland, and used their measurements to estimate the age of trees. The group then assembled to discuss their findings. Teachers then asked the group why tree rings might differ in width. Through discussing what a tree needed to grow, the children realized how climate can influence tree growth, and they make connections to the hole in the ozone layer and global warming. The group was led into a discussion about sustainability, then encouraged to consider how they might live in a more sustainable way. Some examples of Experiences and Outcomes met by the activities: - I can use my knowledge of the sizes of familiar objects or places to assist me when making an estimate of measure MNU 2-11a - I can discuss the environmental impact of human activity and suggest ways in which we can live in a more environmentally responsible way SOC 2-08a - I have contributed to discussions of current scientific news items to help develop my awareness of science SCN 1-20a Authors: Jess Barnes, Carolynn Bell, Danielle McGinigal . (3rd Yr University of Stirling – Primary Education) * This geocache was a temporary way-marked cache – it will not be available on geocaching.com Thanks to Ms Westmoreland and all the pupils from Cowie Primary School who came along to help us trial these
Croup causes inflammation of a child’s upper airways (the voice box and windpipe) and is due to a virus. It causes a child to have a barky cough and a hoarse voice, especially during crying. Croup typically occurs during the fall and early winter months and in kids under the age of 5. Most of the time croup is a mild illness. There are some children who seem to be more prone to croup when they start with cold symptoms. In many cases, the harsh barking cough similar to a seal occurs at night time and seems to respond the best to moist air. We recommend you take your child into a steam-filled bathroom by running a hot shower or placing a cool mist humidifier at the bedside. Also, taking your child out into the cold air can provide relief for the cough. Croup usually lasts 3-7 days and is contagious for the first three days or until the fever resolves. Some children may only present with a common cold after being exposed to croup. If we evaluate your child in the office, we may prescribe steroids to help decrease the swelling in the upper airways. Antibiotics are not necessary since croup is caused by a virus and not a bacterial infection. If your child has any of the following signs, then you should take him/ her to the closest emergency room for evaluation: - difficulty breathing (rapid and/or labored) - retractions (this is when the skin tugs inward in between the ribs with each breath) - stridor (a high pitched “eeee” sound that occurs when your child breathes in) - blue or pale color around the mouth - excessive drooling (this could indicate a foreign body or other life-threatening condition) Your child may receive a breathing treatment in the emergency room that contains epinephrine if they have a severe case of croup. Categorised in: Sick Care Tips This post was written by Lancaster Pediatrics
China Information >> Rivers and Lakes Rivers and Lakes China abounds in rivers. More than 1,500 rivers each drain 1,000 square kilometers or larger areas. More than 2,700 billion cubic meters of water flow along these rivers, 5.8% of the world,s total. Most of the large rivers find their source in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, and as a result China is rich in waterpower resources, leading the world in hydropower potential, with reserves of 680 million kilowatts. China#s rivers can be categorized as exterior and interior systems. The drainage area for the exterior rivers that empty into the oceans accounts for 64% of the country,s total land area. The Yangtze, Yellow, Heilongjiang, Pearl, Liaohe, Haihe, Huaihe and Lancang rivers flow east, and empty into the Pacific Ocean. The Yarlungzangbo River in Tibet, which flows first east and then south into the Indian Ocean, boasts the Grand Yarlungzangbo Canyon, the largest canyon in the world, 504.6 kilometers long and 6,009 meters deep. The Ertix River flows from the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region to the Arctic Ocean. The drainage area for the interior rivers that flow into inland lakes or disappear into deserts or salt marshes makes up 36% of China,s total land area. The Tarim River, 2,179 kilometers long, in southern Xinjiang, is China,s longest interior river. The Yangtze River is the largest river in China, and the third longest in the world, next only to the Nile in northeast Africa and the Amazon in South America. It is 6,300 kilometers long, and has a drainage area of 1.809 million square kilometers. The middle and lower Yangtze River,s warm and humid climate, plentiful rainfall and fertile soil make the area an important agricultural region. Known as the "golden waterway", the Yangtze River is a transportation artery linking west and east. The Yellow River is the second largest river in China, 5,464 kilometers in length, with a drainage area of 752,000 square kilometers. The Yellow River valley was one of the birthplaces of ancient Chinese civilization. It has lush pastureland and abundant mineral deposits. The Heilongjiang River is north China,s largest. It has a total length of 4,350 kilometers, of which 3,101 kilometers are within China. The Pearl River is the largest river in south China, with a total length of 2,214 kilometers. In addition to those endowed by nature, China has a famous man-made river -- the Grand Canal, running from Beijing in the north to Hangzhou in the south. Construction work of the Grand Canal first began as early as in the fifth century BC. The Canal flows past Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu and Zhejiang and links five major rivers -- the Haihe River, Yellow River, Huaihe River, Yangtze River and Qiantangjiang River. With a total length of 1,794 kilometers and a drainage area of 4,583 square meters, the Grand Canal is the longest as well as the oldest man-made waterway in the world Topography. Alongside of abundant rivers, China also has lots of lakes. There are more than 2,800 natural lakes, each having a surface area of over one square kilometers, and over 130 lakes, each covering more than 100 square kilometers. There are also a large number of artificial lakes (reservoirs). With different salt content, the lakes are classified as saltwater and freshwater lakes. Large lakes are mainly distributed in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River and on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Boyang Lake in the south of the Yangtze River is the largest freshwater lake in China while the Qinghai Lake on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is the largest saltwater lake.
Enzymes are chemical substances produced in the living organism. They are marvelous organic catalysts which are essential to life as they control all the chemical reactions that take place in a living system. Enzymes are part of all living cells, including those of plants and animals. The term enzyme, which literally means in yeast’, was coined following the demonstration of catalytic properties of yeast and yeast juices. Although enzymes are produced in the living cell, they are not dependent upon the vital processes of the cell and work outside the cell. Certain enzymes of yeast, for instance, when expressed from the yeast cells are capable of exerting their usual effect, that is, the conversion of sugar.to alcohol. A striking feature of enzymes is that while they enter into chemical reaction, they remain intact in the process. They however, act with maximum efficiency at a certain temperature. Lowering the temperature below or raising it above this level slows the reaction. A high degree of heat, that is above 60°C, permanently destroys their action. It has been estimated that there are over 20,000 enzymes in the human body. This estimate is based on the number pf bodily processes that seem to require action. However, so far only about 1,000 enzymes have been identified. But their great role in nutrition and other living processes has been firmly established. They are protein molecules made up of chains of amino acids. They playa vital role and work more efficiently than any reagent concocted by chemists. Thus for instance, a chemist can separate proteins into their component amino acids by boiling them at 166°C for over 18 hours in a strong solution of hydrochloric acid, bUt the enzymes of the small intestines can do so in less than three hours at body temperature in a neutral medium. A feature which distinguishes enzymes from inorganic catalysts is that they are absolutely specific in their actions. This means that a particular enzyme can cause reactions involving only a particular type of substance or a group of closely related substances. The substance on which the enzyme acts is known as “substrate” . The specificity of an enzyme is, however, related to the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex which requires that the appropriate groupings of both substrate and enzyme should be in correct relative position. The substrate must fit the enzyme like a key fits its lock. Enzymes which are used in the cells which make them are called intracellular enzymes. Enzymes which are produced in cells which secrete them to other parts of the body are known as extra cellular enzymes. Digestive juices are an example of the latter type. There are few enzymes whose names have been established by long usage such as ptyalin, pepsin, trypsin and erepsin. Apart from these, enzymes are usually named by adding the suffixes to the main part of the name of the substrate upon which they act. Thus amylases act upon starch (amylum), lactase acts upon lactose, lipases act upon lipids, maltase acts upon maltose and protesses act upon proteins. There are, however, several enzymes which act upon many substances in different ways. These enzymes are named by their functions rather than substrates. Thus, an enzyme which causes deaminations is called a deaminase and oxidizing enzyme an oxidase. Some enzymes work efficiently only if some other specific substance is present in addition to substrate. This other substance is known as an “activator” or a “conenzyme” . “Activators” are usually inorganic ions. They increase the activity of a complete enzyme and may take part in the formation of the enzyme substrate complex. Many of the conenzymes are related to vitamins. This explains why vitamin deficiencies profoundly alter metabolism. Thus, for instance, thiamine, as thiamine pyrophosphate, functions as a conenzyme in at least 14 enzyme systems. Conenzymes, like enzymes, are being continuously regenerated in the cells. Enzymes playa decisive role in the digestion of food as they are responsible’ for the chemical changes which the food undergoes during digestion. The chemical changes comprise the breaking up of the large molecules of carbohydrates, fats and proteins into smaller ones or conversion of complex substances into simple ones which can be absorbed by the intestines. They also control the numerous reactions by which these simple substances are utilized in the body for building up new tissues and producing energy. The enzymes themselves are not broken down or changed in the process. They remain as powerful at the end of a reaction as they were at the beginning. Moreover, very small amounts can convert large amounts of material. They are thus true catalysts. The process of digestion begins in the mouth. The saliva in the mouth, besides helping to masticate the food, carries an enzyme called ptyalin which begins the chemical action of digestion. It initiates the catabolism (breakdown) of carbohydrates by converting starches into simple sugars. This explains the need for thorough mastication of starchy food in the mouth. If this is not done the ptyalin cannot carry out its functions as it is active in an alkaline, neutral or slightly acid medium and is inactivated by the highly acid gastric juices in the stomach. Although enzymatic action starts while food is being chewed, digestion moves into high gear only when the chewed food has passed the esophagus and reached the stomach. While the physical action of peristalsis churns and kneads solid food into a semi-solid amorphous mixture called chyme, this mixture undergoes chemical changes initiated by gastric juices secreted by the walls of the Stomach. These juices include mucus for lubricating the stomach, hydrochloric acid and gastric juice. The enzyme or active principle of the gastric juice is pepsin. This enzyme in combination with hydrochloric acid Starts the breakdown of proteins into absorbable amino acids called poly peptides. An additional enzyme, rennin, plays an important role in the stomach of the infant. It curdles milk and allows the pepsin to. work upon it. The gastric juice has no effect upon starches or fats. When the chyme leaves the stomach and enters the small intestine through the pylorus – the lower escape valve, it still contains much food which is in the form of raw material not yet ready for absorption in the body. Digestion is completed inside the small intestine by several juices. From liver comes a liquid called bile which converts fat globules into a smooth emulsion. The pancreas contributes various enzymes which continue the breakdown of proteins, help to. divide starch into sugars and work with bile in digesting fats. The small intestine itself secretes enzymes from its inner wall to complete the reactions. When all the enzymes have done their work, the food is digested and rendered fit for absorption by the system. The following table briefly summaries the chemical digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins by various enzymes : Source of Enzyme \|Salivary amylase (ptyalin)\|\|Starch\|\|Dextrins and maltose\| \|Gastric protease pepsin\| \|Proteins casein\|\|polypeptides Insoluble casein\| \|Gastric lipase\|\|Short chain and medium chain triglycerides\|\|Fatty acids and glycerol\| \|Small Intestine\|\|Pancreatic Proteases, trypsin chymotrypsin carboxypeptidases\| Proteins and polypeptides \|Smaller polypeptides and amino acids\| \|Panocreatic lipase Fats (steapsin )\|\|Fats\|\|Mono and diglycerides, fatty acids and glycerol\| \|Pancreatic amylase (amylospin)\|\|Amylose and amylopectin\|\|Maltose, maltotriose and a-limit dextrins\| Smaller polypeptides and amino acids \|dextrinase (isomaltase)\|\|a-limit dextrins\|\|Glucose\| \|Sucrase\|\|Sucrase\|\|Glucose and fructose\| \|Maltase\|\|Maltose\|\|Glucose (2 molecules)\| \|Lactase\|\|Lactose\|\|Glucose and galactose\| Enzymes form part of the food we eat. Raw foods contain enzymes in abundance; cooking, pasteurizing, pickling, smoking and other processing denature enzymes. It is, therefore, essential to include in our diet, substantial amount of raw foods in the form of fruits, raw salads and sprouts. Studies have revealed that the body without sufficient raw materials from raw foods, may tire and produce fewer enzymes year after year. This may lead to wearing out of body processes and consequent worn-out looks.
Meet the Animals A 45-minute program designed to introduce students to a wide variety of live animals and animal adaptations. For Students in Grades Pre-K through 2 Goal: Students will learn about animals from different families and discuss how each animal may survive in its distinctive habitat. Live animals may be used, many of which can be touched by the students. Focus on native animals of New York. NYS Elementary Science Core Curriculum Standard 1: Scientific Inquiry Key Idea 1 The central purpose of scientific inquiry is to develop explanations of natural phenomena in a continuing, creative process. Standard 4: The Living Environment Key Idea 3: Individual organisms and species change over time. Key Idea 5: Organisms maintain a dynamic equilibrium that sustains life. Key Idea 6: Plants and animals depend on each other and their physical environment. Potential Classroom Visitors: Live: snake, turtle, toad, rabbit - All animals are to be respected and appreciated; no matter their appearance. - Animals have special traits which make them capable in surviving in each individual habitat. - Some animals are ok to have at home as pets, but some should remain wild. - Animals come in all shapes and sizes, for different reasons. Meet the Animals: Instruct students to sit in a semicircle facing you. Explain safety procedures (seated at all times, quiet voices and gentle hands). Explain that none of the animals are dangerous, but still must be respected. Show and discuss each animal for 5 to 10 minutes. Ask the students questions pertinent to the animals class, adaptations, diet and habitat. Explain any key topics missed by the class discussion. Take the animal around the semi-circle and give each student a chance to touch the animal. Do not force students to touch the creatures, but encourage them to try. Some animals will not be able to be handled by the students for safety reasons. For each animal, tell the children the animals' personal story and end with a discussion of pet care and responsible ownership. Through this, students will be introduced to the "wild vs. domestic" concept. Critical Thinking Questions directed to the group: (examples) - What kind of animal is this? (bird, fish, mammal, amphibian, reptile) - What covers this animals' body? - Does this animal look like other animals? What colors can you see on the animal? - If this animal had babies how would they care for it? - If this animal was your pet how would you care for it? After the presentation, allow students to ask you questions about the animals, or questions related to their favorite animals.
In the beginning Living things breathe, feed, grow and leave offspring. They range from the simplest single-celled bacteria to plants, birds, animals and humans. Earth is the only world we know that supports life. No one knows how life began. It seems to involve the coming together of certain chemicals. But what changes these chemicals into life-forms is a mystery. Studies of ancient rocks have shown that life began on Earth about 3 800 million years ago. At that time, the Earth was a very unfriendly place. The air was dense and poisonous. Comets and meteorites were raining down on the planet. The young Earth was a water world with small areas of dry land. Many scientists think that life began in the lakes and oceans. Many of the ingredients from which life started may have been brought by comets and meteorites. Did life begin in the oceans? Lightning and ultraviolet light from the Sun may have split the hydrogen-rich gases in the atmosphere. Energy may also have come from hot springs on the sea bed, known as ‘black smokers’. Over time, the simple chemicals joined to become larger, more complex chemicals. Once these chemicals collected in the oceans or lakes, they formed an 'organic soup'. One day, an accident occurred. A molecule began to make copies of itself. Earth had sprung to life.
Getting started on a big homework project or research report can be overwhelming for kids, especially as long-term projects require a lot of time and dedication. As parents, it’s important to provide guidance and advice on how to plan for these projects and help your children see them through to the end. These step-by-step tips can help students break down big tasks into manageable chunks and make something huge seem achievable. We guarantee they will get great grades with this action plan too! Step 1- Understand the Assignment It’s important that your children start by understanding their new assignment in full. Make sure they write down exactly what needs working on in their planner, whether it’s a specific question, project task or a research paper on a topic of their choice. Remind them to ask questions about anything they’re not sure about, as well as exactly what’s expected, including the deadline date, word count, topics the work needs to include. It's much easier to ask the teacher during or after class than to struggle to remember later on. Step 2- Ask Even More Questions Once the project has been assigned, start asking even more questions. Ask your child which area of the subject interests them the most and what they want the end result to look like. Often large projects are open to interpretation, so doing this will help your child understand the assignment and narrow down the area they want to concentrate on. Once they have chosen a focus, asking questions that encourage creativity and individuality is key, especially if they want the project to be unique. What’s your favourite thing about this time period? What is the key point you are making? Who is your favourite character? Is there a fact that really stands out? Encourage your child to write down their answers as this is how they will start their project. It also means they have something to refer back to later down the line if they need inspiration. Step 3- Break the Project Down Whatever the project, it’s important to break it down into several steps. This means your child will make much more efficient progress and not feel overwhelmed. Work with them to write down every task the assignment involves, from going to the library to writing the assignment. Help them to then prioritise what’s most important and what tasks can wait until later on. Once you have done this together, start to schedule in time to complete each part. This will make sure the project is handed in on time and make a big task seem more manageable. Step 4- Get on Top of Time Management Time management is going to be key for your child if they’re undertaking a big homework project. We recommend using a calendar to map out some realistic goals with them depending on the time they have. If there’s 6 weeks to complete a project, create some mini deadlines and set specific tasks from step 3 that need to be completed by the end of each week. For example, by the end of week one, all research for the assignment should be completed. Step 5- Set an Unofficial Deadline All big projects should have two deadlines: the official one and an ‘unofficial’ one. We advise setting the unofficial deadline for a big homework project around a week before the real one. This way your child isn’t getting stressed working right up until the last minute, however, if something goes wrong there’s plenty of time to rectify any issues. Step 6- Tackle the Hardest Part First It’s tempting for your kids to start with the easy stuff and leave the harder tasks until the last minute. However, it’s a much better approach for them to tackle the hardest part first, as they’ll have much more energy and focus closer to the beginning of the project. Step 7- Persist One Task at a Time As the project work gets underway, it can be hard to keep up momentum with a strict homework schedule. It’s important for your child to persist gradually by working on one task at a time, rather than trying to complete lots of things all in one homework session. This will mean they’re giving their full attention to that part of the project, meaning it’s completed to the best of their ability. It’s often thought that multitasking is beneficial, however, if your kids are trying to assemble their project, write their presentation, and research at the same time, it’s going to be stressful and not their best work. Step 8- Don’t Let Procrastination Win One of the main reasons essays and projects get handed in late is because students tend to procrastinate. Once your child starts procrastinating regularly instead of studying, it can become a habit, making it harder and harder for them to focus on what they need to. Read our helpful blog post for 10 practical strategies on how to overcome procrastination while studying. Step 9- Review Progress Weekly As parents you can’t complete the work for your children, so you do have to trust they’re getting on with the project schedule you mapped out at the beginning. To make sure they’re staying on track, check in weekly to see how they’re getting on with their project and if they’re on track. Ask them what they have achieved during the week and what they are working on. This gives you a great opportunity to help revise the plan if they’re behind schedule or need more time to work on a certain area. For our top studying tips backed by science, our informative blog post will be sure to help.
In the context of this exercise, what is cross tabulation? In general, cross tabulation is a way to analyze relationships and other information about data. An example of using cross tabulation is shown in this exercise, which shows the labels and the number of points that actually fall under each species. labels setosa versicolor virginica 0 0 2 36 1 50 0 0 2 0 48 14 We can see, based on this cross tabulation, how accurate the results were, and understand it a lot easier and more clearly than if we had gone through all the rows in the dataset and determined the accuracy in that manner. pd.crosstab() method in Pandas, we can perform cross tabulation on our data, and by default, it will provide a frequency table. However, we can also apply aggregate functions to the data to analyze information other than the frequencies. For example, we can get the average of values by providing the np.average function to the aggfunction parameter of the method, like so,
The Ordinary Future Tense Also known as: simple future, bhaviṣyat ("about to be"), lṛṭ So far, we have only learned how to talk about events in the present tense. To talk about other time periods, we use a different verb form. In this lesson, we will learn a verb form that lets us talk about things that have not happened yet. Such verbs are said to be in the future tense. Sanskrit has two different "future tense" verbs. The one we'll study in this lesson is by far the most common. For that reason, let's call it the ordinary future tense. You can see some examples of the ordinary future tense below. गम् → गमिष्यामि gam → gamiṣyāmi go → I will go. मन् → मंस्ये man → maṃsye think → I will think. जि → जेष्यन्ति ji → jeṣyanti conquer → They will conquer. Forming the ordinary future tense The ordinary future tense is based on a special future stem. This stem uses the endings that we've studied already: P verbs use P endings, and A verbs use A endings: भविष्य → भविष्यसि bhaviṣya → bhaviṣyasi will be → you will be भाषिष्य → भाषिष्यते bhāṣiṣya → bhāṣiṣyate He will speak. Since it's much harder to form the future stem than to attach endings to it, let's spend a little more time on forming the future stem. Forming the future stem To produce the future stem, we strengthen the ordinary verb root to the medium level and attach sya to the end of it. For some roots, the vowel i may come between the strengthened root and sya. This i will change sya to ṣya according to the following internal sandhi rule: s, if it follows a vowel other than a or ā, becomes ṣ. This all seems straightforward enough. However, we should ask: Why does Sanskrit have all of these i vowels in front of its suffixes? That is, Sanskrit has suffixes like tvā and sya, but why does it also have itvā and iṣya? The answer is complex and related to the history of the Sanskrit language; it cannot be answered easily. But we can still observe some facts about how this i is used. To start, a root that uses i in the gerund will almost always use i in the future stem. भाष् → भाषित्वा, भाषिष्य bhāṣ → bhāṣitvā, bhāṣiṣya speak → having spoken, will speak मन् → मत्वा, मंस्य man → matvā, maṃsya think → having thought, will think (As an aside, note the change that occurs in man:) ns is, for some reason, usually written as ṃs. Now, back to this mysterious i. gam makes an important exception, as it often does: गम् → गत्वा gam → gatvā go → having gone The gerund uses the weakest form of the verb root; gam becomes ga. गम् → गमिष्य gam → gamiṣya go → will go A root that ends in a vowel, meanwhile, usually uses a connecting i if the strengthened root ends in o or ar. भू → भो → भविष्य bhū → bho → bhaviṣya कृ → कर् → करिष्य kṛ → kar → kariṣya जि → जे → जेष्य ji → je → jeṣya Keep in mind that we have only described some tendencies of Sanskrit, not hard rules. Do not spend time trying to remember these tendencies. Rather, just observe them; they will come to mind as you see more examples. iṭ: Panini's description of the behavior The grammarian Panini did not explain why these i vowels appear, but he did describe their behavior. He did so by creating a technical term for the i vowel when it comes between a root and its suffix: iṭ. Some roots always use this iṭ suffix; so, they are called seṭ, from sa-iṭ. Likewise, the roots that don't use the suffix are called aniṭ, from an-iṭ. And, roots that optionally use the suffix are called veṭ, from vā-iṭ. (This word is formed irregularly.) Panini's description was so thorough that his terms are still used in linguistic circles today, even outside of the realm of Sanskrit. Exceptions and Sandhi Roots containing ṛ A few roots that contain ṛ will strengthen to contain ra instead of ar. Two of these roots are dṛś and sṛj. dṛś is far more common: दृश् → द्रश् → द्रश्स्य → द्रक्ष्य dṛś → draś → draśsya → drakṣya Note that a new sandhi rule has appeared: In internal sandhi, the combinations śs and ṣs become kṣ. This is an exception to the general principle we devised in Starting Out: If two tongue consonants with two different points of pronunciation are next to each other, both become retroflexed. But if we change the general principle so that the second tongue consonant has to be a stop consonant (like t), then we have no problem accepting this new rule. Almost every ś consonant exists as a k in Proto-Indo-European, where represents a hypothetical form. A cognate to Sanskrit dṛś is the Greek verb δέρκομαι (with root form δέρκ, or derk if you can't read Greek). This comparison is easier to make if we strengthen the Sanskrit root to darś. Further, compare the noun aśva to Old Latin equos, stem form equo (pronounced "ekwo").
Einstein’s theory of general relativity underpins our whole understanding of the large-scale universe. It also has limitations, and researchers have tested it time and time again over the last 100 years. The latest test builds on previous work using an incredible laboratory, a star orbiting Sagittarius A, the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way. Star S0-2 orbits Sagittarius A every 16 years, getting as close as 17 billion kilometers (11 billion miles) from it. The orbit is stable, but the intense gravitational field is still enough to produce effects such as gravitational redshift. The light of the star is slightly redder because photons have to escape the gravitational field. S0-2’s last close passage happened in 2018, and one year ago researchers published data on the gravitational redshift of the star. This new research, published in Science, combines that data with observations made since 1995. Their result is consistent with general relativity and it categorically excludes a Newtonian model of gravity. “Einstein’s right, at least for now,” co-lead author Professor Andrea Ghez, from UCLA, said in a statement. “We can absolutely rule out Newton’s law of gravity. Our observations are consistent with Einstein’s theory of general relativity. However, his theory is definitely showing vulnerability. It cannot fully explain gravity inside a black hole, and at some point we will need to move beyond Einstein’s theory to a more comprehensive theory of gravity that explains what a black hole is.” Tracking this star for such a long time has given researchers precious insights into how the gravitational dynamics around a black hole play out. During the crucial close passage of May 2018, Ghez’s team took measurements of the star every four nights. “What’s so special about S0-2 is we have its complete orbit in three dimensions,” explained Ghez. “That’s what gives us the entry ticket into the tests of general relativity. We asked how gravity behaves near a supermassive black hole and whether Einstein’s theory is telling us the full story. Seeing stars go through their complete orbit provides the first opportunity to test fundamental physics using the motions of these stars.” S0-2 is not the only star to orbit close to Sagittarius A* and it’s not the closest either. In 2012, Ghez and her team discovered S0-102, which orbits the black hole in 11.5 years. It will experience its closest pass at some point next year, moving at over 1 percent of the speed of light.
David Ben-Gurion was the first Prime Minister of Israel, and, therefore a leading figure in recent Middle Easthistory. Ben-Gurion was born in 1886 in Plonsk in Russian Poland. He emigrated to what was then known asPalestine in 1906. In Palestine, Ben-Gurion worked in farming settlements and became an enthusiastic supporter of Zionism. Born as David Green, he changed his name to Ben-Gurion and he became a strong believer that Hebrew should be the Jewish national language – hence the change in his surname. Ben-Gurion studied law at the universities based in Salonika and Constantinople. His support for an Israeli homeland grew as he got older. He got exiled from Turkey because of his growing reputation as a supporter of Zionism and he joined a Jewish battalion in the British Army that fought the Turks in Palestine during World War One. From 1921 to 1933, he was secretary-general of the Jewish Labour Federation in Palestine and in 1930 he became the leader of the Mapai Party which was the leading socialist group among the Palestinian Zionists. In 1935, he was appointed the chairman of the Jewish Agency – a post he held until 1948. This position gave him the perfect opportunity to develop his organisational and administrative skills. By 1948, Ben-Gurion was effectively the natural choice to run the newly created Israel. He served as Prime Minister for two terms during which Israel was to face two wars. As with most leaders of Israel, he spent his time in office dealing with the threat of attack from the Arab nations that surrounded Israel. In his writings, Ben-Gurion described Israel as land that was \|“to the north, the Litani river (in southern Lebanon), to the northeast, the Wadi ‘Owja, twenty miles south of Damascus; the southern border will be mobile and pushed into Sinai at least up to Wadi al-‘Arish; and to the east, the Syrian Desert, including the furthest edge of Transjordan.”\| His first term as Prime Minister lasted from 1948 to 1953. In this time a coalition of Arab nations attacked Israel almost immediately after the nation had become a new state in May 1948. In this war, Israel had one stark choice. If they lost the war, Israel would cease to exist. Therefore, the government and the people of the newly created state literally had to fight to survive. The Israelis won the 1948 war. The victory did a great deal to enhance the political stature of Ben-Gurion. In 1956, the Suez Crisis led to another war in the Middle East. The involvement of Israel is usually overshadowed by the fact that Britain and France attacked Egypt and America failed to give both nations the support they expected from a fellow NATO member (especially as the Cold War was at its height). When Israel was not at war, Ben-Gurion concentrated his energy on developing the new state’s agricultural and industrial base. Before Israel had become independent, Ben-Gurion had envisaged the new state as one that was barely dependent on any other. He believed that self-sufficiency was the key to Israel’s survival. Ben-Gurion initially retired from politics in 1963 but he returned to front-line politics in 1965 aged 79 to lead a breakaway group from the Mapai Party who were critical of the leadership provided by Golda Meir. The Rafi included General Moshe Dayan who was to become Israel’s most famous military leader.
Wetter, O. E., Koerner, F., & Schwaninger, A. (2009). Does musical training improve school performance? Instructional Science: An International Journal of the Learning Sciences, 37(4), 365-374. The researchers used a descriptive, retrospective study to ascertain if students involved in practicing music outperformed their counterparts, who did not practice music, in school. Teachers of two school centers in the suburbs of Bern, Switzerland submitted annual reports of average grades for 134 students in grades three through six. The teachers identified students who received music training either at home or at school and researchers compared the annual grades of this group of 53 children to the grades of the remaining students who did not take music lessons. Results showed that overall, and for all individual subjects except sports, students who engage in music had higher average grades than students who do not engage in music. The study also suggests that duration of music participation impacts academic achievement. Statistical analysis comparing grades showed that children involved in music had significantly higher average grades than children in the control group. Moreover, the music group had significantly higher average grades in all individual subjects except sports. When researchers considered factors known to affect achievement including gender, grade level, parent income, and handicraft participation—in addition to music participation—music was still a significant predictor of overall average grades. Grade level and parent income were found to have higher correlations to student achievement than music participation, though combined, music participation, grade level, and parent income explain 43 percent of the variance (the size of the difference between groups) in grades between students. The research did not find a significant difference between music and non-music students at the third grade level, when students would just be starting musical training. However, at all other grade levels, students who participate in music achieved higher average grades than their non-music peers. This finding suggests that duration of musical training has a more significant effect on student achievement, meaning that the longer students practice music the stronger the impact will be on their academic achievement. Significance of the Findings: Findings suggest that participation in music correlates with higher academic performance in elementary grades, even when factors known to influence academic performance are considered. Further, no difference was seen between students who participate and who do not participate in music in third grade, but a difference was seen from fourth grade on; this may suggest greater benefit from sustained music involvement. Differences between music and non-music students are seen across subjects, suggesting a correlation between music and general cognitive performance. The study adds to an emerging body of research that aims to identify and explain the ways in which music is processed in the brain, and how those processes relate to other academic learning. Teachers from two school centers in the suburbs of Bern, Switzerland submitted copies of average grades for 134 students in grades three through six. Teachers identified for researchers, students who participated in music, as informed through discussions with the students or their parents. Researchers divided the students into three groups; students who participate in music in school or out of school (53), students who do not participate in music or a handicraft (67), and students who participate in a handicraft instead of music (14). The researchers compared grades for the groups of students in various subject areas including French, German, mathematics, history/natural history/geography, handicrafts, music, and sports, and used statistical analysis to determine correlations between academic achievement and grade level, gender, income, music participation, and enrollment in school handicraft class. Limitations of the Research: This study is most limited by self-selection bias. Because the students considered in the study chose (or, at least, their parents chose) to enroll or not to enroll in music lessons, it is not possible to determine if higher average grades of students involved in music are the result of participation in music or other factors not accounted for in the study, such as high levels of motivation or prior academic success. Similarly, the duration and intensity of music training could not be determined for each student, and therefore “participation in music” is loosely defined. Because the scope and quality of music participation cannot be determined, it is harder to draw correlations between music study and academic achievement in terms of the cognitive processes present in both. Questions to Guide New Research: Replication of this study using design features such as random assignment or pre- and post-test measures could provide information on the strength of the correlation between music participation and academic achievement. Alternatively, the inclusion of additional variables that may affect achievement such as a motivation would provide additional evidence on the role that music participation plays specifically. Since this study is suggestive of a possible relationship between music participation and academic achievement, qualitative research such as case studies on students who engage in musical activities could provide valuable information on the mechanisms at work in this relationship.
While the 8085's register complement is tiny compared to current processors, it has a solid register set by 1977 standards - about twice as many registers as the 6502. The 8085 has a 16-bit program counter, a 16-bit stack pointer, 16-bit BC, DE, and HL register pairs, and the 8-bit accumulator. The 8085 also has little-known hidden registers that are invisible to the programmer but used internally: the WZ register pair, and two 8-bit registers for the ALU: ACT and TMP. The register file is in the lower left quadrant of the chip. It contains the 6 register pairs and associated circuitry. Underneath the registers is the 16-bit address latch and increment/decrement circuit. The register file is controlled by a set of control lines on the right, which are driven by register control logic circuits and the register control PLA. The current instruction is loaded into the instruction register (upper right) via the data bus. In the upper left is the 8-bit arithmetic-logic unit (ALU), with the accumulator and two temporary registers (ACT and TMP). The 8085 has only 40 pins (visible around the edge of the image) to communicate with the outside world, a tiny number compared to current microprocessors with more than 1000 pins. For memory accesses, the 8085 reads or writes 8 bits of data using a 16-bit memory address (for a maximum of 64K of memory). In the image above, memory addresses flow through the 16-bit address bus (abus) provides memory addresses, while data flows through the chip over the 8-bit data bus (dbus). The 8 A pins handle half of the address, while the 8 AD pins are used both for the other half of the address and for data (at different times). This frees up pins for other uses, but makes computers using the 8085 slightly more complicated. In comparison, the 6502 is more straightforward, with separate pins for address and data. Overall architecture of the register fileThe diagram below shows the implementation of the 8085 register file in the same layout as on the actual chip. The 8-bit data bus is at the top, and the 16-bit address bus is at the bottom. The register control lines are on the right. In the middle are the registers, arranged as pairs of 8-bit registers. Note that the registers are arranged "backwards" with the high-order bit on the right and the low-order bit on the left. The 16-bit program counter and stack pointer are first. Next is the WZ temporary register, and underneath it the BC register pair. The HL and DE register pairs are at the bottom - these registers do not have fixed locations, but can swap roles during execution. A 16-bit register bus (regbus) provides access to the registers. Underneath the registers is the address latch, which holds a 16-bit value that is written to the address bus. This value is also the input to the 16-bit increment/decrement circuit. The output of the incrementer/decrementer can be written back to the registers. The triangles indicate tri-state buffers, basically switches that control the flow of data. Buffers containing a + are amplifiers to boost the weak signals from the registers. Buffers containing a S are superbuffers, that provide extra current to send data across the long data bus. The picture below zooms in on the chip image above, showing the register file in detail. The components in silicon exactly map onto the diagram above. Note the repeated patterns for the 16-bit circuits. The large transistors used as high-current drivers are clearly visible. The transistors in each bit of register storage are much smaller. Storing bits in the register fileThe implementation of the 8085 registers is unusual in several ways. The registers don't have explicit read and write modes; instead the register will be overwritten if there is a stronger signal on the bus. Instead of having a bus with one wire for each bit, the 8085 uses a sort of differential bus, with two wires for each bit: one wire transmits the value, and the other transmits the complement of the value. Each bit consists of two inverters in a feedback loop, with pass transistors to connect the inverters to the bus. An unusual feature of this is the lack of any circuit to break the feedback loop when modifying the register (unlike the 6502). Instead, the 8085 uses a "might makes right" technique - if a stronger signal is written to the bus, it will overwrite a register connected to the bus. The transistors driving the register bus are about twice as large as the transistors in the inverters, so they can forcibly overwrite the inverter loop. One consequence of this register implementation is that a register can't be copied directly to another register, since there's nothing to distinguish the source register from the destination register - each register could potentially damage the other's bits. To get around this, the 8085 uses an interesting trick - copies are actually done through the ALU, as will be explained later. To read a register, an amplifier circuit is used to boost the signal from the differential register bus to write it to the dbus or address latch. I assume this is a tradeoff to make the register file smaller. Each inverter pair can be made as small as possible, but then requires amplification to produce a signal strong enough for use elsewhere in the chip. The amplification circuit that drives the data bus is more complex than I'd expect, probably because of the extra power to drive the bus (details and schematic). The incrementer/decrementerThe 16-bit incrementer/decrementer at the bottom of the register file is used for multiple purposes. It increments the program counter as instructions execute, increments and decrements the stack pointer as needed, and supports the 16-bit increment and decrement instructions. An interesting feature of the incrementer is it also supports incrementing by 2, which is used to quickly skip over the two byte address in a call or jump not taken. This allows these operations to complete faster on the 8085 than the 8080. The incrementer/decrementer is implemented by a chain of adders with ripple carry - the carry from each bit flows into the adder for the next bit. (The above schematic shows two bits, and is repeated 8 times in the full circuit.) The DREG_INC and DREG_DEC control lines select increment or decrement. One performance trick is that alternating bits are implemented with different circuits and the carry out of even bits is inverted. This avoids the inverters that would otherwise be needed to flip the carry back to its regular state. This saves space, but even more importantly it speeds up carry propagation. Because the carry has to propagate bit-by-bit through all 16 bits to generate the final result, adding an inverter to each bit would slow it down significantly. The carry out is used to compute the undocumented K flag value (details). In comparison, the 6502 has a 16-bit incrementer (no decrement) used exclusively by the program counter. To reduce the carry propagation speed, this incrementer uses a carry-skip. That is, the carry out of the low-order byte is immediately generated and fed into the high-order byte. Thus the carries only need to propagate through 8-bits, the two bytes working in parallel. (The carry is easily generated by ANDing together the low-order bits. If they are all 1, there will be a carry into the high-order byte.) The WZ Temporary registersThe WZ register pair in the 8085 is used for temporary storage, but is invisible to the programmer. Internally, the WZ register pair is implemented like the other register pairs. The primary use of WZ is to hold operands from a two or three byte instruction until it can be used. The WZ registers are used to hold 16-bit addresses for LDA, STA, LHLD, JMP, CALL, and RST instructions. The registers hold the port for IN and OUT. The WZ register pair can also temporarily hold information read from memory. The registers hold the address popped off the stack for RET. For XTHL, the registers hold the value from the stack. Register decoding and the instruction setThe instruction set of the 8085 is organized so an instruction can be quickly and easily decoded to determine the instruction to use. The underlying structure for most 8085 instructions is the octal bit pattern bbDDDSSS, where destination bits DDD and/or source bits SSS select the register usage. The move ( MOV) instructions follow this structure. Other instructions (e.g. INR) use just the DDD bits to select the register, while math instructions use the three SSS bits. Some instructions only use DDD or SSS, and some instructions operate on register pairs so they don't use the lowest bit. This instruction pattern is visible if the instructions are arranged in an instruction table according to their octal values. The three bits select the register as follows: M indicates a memory operation and is treated as a pseudo-register in the instruction set. Some instructions (e.g. INX) use the top two bits to select a register pair: BC, DE, HL, or "special" (stack pointer or accumulator). Note that in the table above the low-order bit selects a register out of a register pair. This instruction set structure allows simple logic to control the registers. A multiplexer pulls out the right group of three bits, depending on the instruction and the cycle in the instruction (link to schematic). These three bits are then used to pick the specific register control lines to activate at each step. The registers are controlled by about 18 control lines that affect the movement of data and the operation of the incremented/decrementer. The following table summarizes the control lines. \|Reads the right-hand side register bus onto the data bus. This implements the multiplexing of 16-bit registers onto the 8-bit data bus. \|Reads the left-hand side register bus onto the data bus.\| \|Writes the data bus to the left-hand side register bus. This implements the demultiplexing of the 8-bit data bus to the 16-bit registers. \|Writes the data bus to the right-hand side register bus.\| \|Connects the PC to the register bus.\| \|Connects the SP to the register bus.\| \|Connects the WZ register pair to the register bus.\| \|Connects the BC register pair to the register bus.\| \|Connects the HL (DE) register pair to the register bus.\| \|Connects the DE (HL) register pair to the register bus.\| \|Writes the output of the incrementer/decrementer to the register bus.\| \|Reads the register bus into the address latch.\| \|Incrementer/decrementer performs decrement.\| \|Incrementer/decrementer performs increment.\| \|The carry/borrow out from the incrementer/decrementer.\| \|Increment/decrement by 1.\| \|Increment/decrement by 2.\| The first step in register control is the register control PLA, which generates 19 control signals based on the instruction type and the cycle step. The register control logic (between the register file and the PLA) mixes in the register selection bits as appropriate (and a few other inputs) to generate the register control lines listed above. REG_BC_RW control line is activated if the PLA indicates a register access and the register bits are 00x. The RREG_RD control line is activated for a single-register read instruction if the register bits are xx0, and LREG_RD is activated if the bits are xx1. Both control lines are activated at the same time if the PLA indicates a register pair read. The DE/HL exchange trickThe XCHG instruction exchanges the contents of the HL register pair with the contents of the DE register pair in a single M-cycle. You might wonder how the registers can be exchanged so quickly. It turns out that this instruction is implemented with a trick - an extra level of indirection. Although most 8085 architecture diagrams label one register pair as DE and another as HL, this isn't exactly true. In fact, the 8085 has two register pairs and either one can be the DE or HL pair. A status flip flop keeps track of which pair is DE and which is HL. As Pavel Zima figured out, the XCHG instruction doesn't move any data; it simply toggles the flip flop. The data remains in the same place, but the DE register is now HL and vice versa. Thus, the XCHG instruction is completed quickly. The consequence is every use of DE or HL uses this flip flop to determine which register to access (link to schematic). Using the ALU to move registersYou wouldn't expect the ALU (arithmetic-logic unit) to take part in a register-to-register move, but it happens in the 8085. Many register operations take advantage of the ALU's temporary registers. The ALU doesn't directly operate on the accumulator and input register. Instead, the accumulator is copied to the ACT (Accumulator Temporary) register and the other input is copied to the TMP register. This way, the result can be written to the accumulator without the race condition that would occur if the accumulator were an input and output at the same time. For register moves, the source value is copied to the TMP register, the ACT register is set to 0, and the ALU performs an OR operation (ALU details), writing the result (i.e. the source value) to the dbus. This result can then be stored to the register file during a later cycle. The register file in actionThe step-by-step operation of the register file is surprisingly complex. One complication is that the register file and buses must handle stepping the program counter, fetching the instruction, and performing any register moves, without interference. A second complication is that register moves go through the ALU as described above. Stepping through an operation in detail will show the complexity of the register operations. The following shows the data flow for a MOV B,E instruction, which copies the contents of the E register into the B register. To understand this table, a bit of background on 8085 instruction timing. An instruction cycle is broken down into one or more M (machine) cycles, where an 8-bit memory access can be done in one M cycle. Each M cycle is broken down into several T-states, where each T-state corresponds to one clock cycle. Each clock cycle has a low phase and a high phase. The single-byte register-to-register MOV instruction takes one M cycle (M1), 4 T cycles, or 8 clock phases. Each clock phase is a separate line in the table. To make things more complicated, the activity for an instruction isn't entirely within its own instruction cycle. To improve performance, the 8085 uses simple pipelining, where the M1 opcode fetch of the next instruction overlaps with completion of the previous instruction. MOV B, E instruction (which copies the E register to the B register) is illustrated in the table below. The PC is copied to the incrementer latch at the end of the previous operation, and then is written to the address pins during the T1 cycle. The PC is updated with the incremented value at the end of the T2 cycle. The instruction opcode is fetched in the T3 cycle, and at this point execution can start on the instruction. It's not until the T1 cycle of the next instruction that the register file swings into action. The E register is written to the dbus at the end of the T1 cycle. Then the ALU's TMP register is loaded from the dbus. The ALU's other argument, the ACT register is 0 at this point, and the ALU is configured to perform an OR operation. At the end of the (next instruction's) T3 cycle, the result of the ALU operation (i.e. the E register) is stored in the B register via the dbus. Meanwhile, the next instruction is getting fetched (grayed out). \|Cycle\|\|T/clock\|\|PC action\|\|Register action\| \|T4/1\|\|PC → inc latch\| \|T1/0\|\|inc latch → address pins\| \|T1/1\|\|inc latch → address pins\| \|T2/1\|\|inc → PC\| \|T3/0\|\|data pins → dbus → instruction reg\| \|T4/1\|\|PC → inc latch\| \|T1/0\|\|inc latch → address pins\| \|T1/1\|\|inc latch → address pins\|\|E reg → dbus\| \|T2/0\|\|dbus → TMP reg\| \|T2/1\|\|inc → PC\| \|T3/0\|\|data pins → dbus → instruction reg\| \|T3/1\|\|ALU → dbus → B reg\| Each step in the table above is activated by the appropriate register control lines. For instance, in T2/1, the PC is updated by triggering the ConclusionThe 8085 has a complex register set, and it uses some interesting tricks to reduce the size of the chip and to optimize some operations. The register set is much harder to understand than I expected, but with careful examination it reveals its secrets. Credits: The chip images are from visual6502.org. The visual6502 team did the hard work of dissolving chips in acid to remove the packaging and then taking many close-up photographs of the die inside. Pavel Zima converted these photographs into mask layer images, a transistor net, an 8085 simulator, and register file schematics (top, bottom).
In fluid dynamics, the Darcy–Weisbach equation is a phenomenological equation, which relates the head loss — or pressure loss — due to friction along a given length of pipe to the average velocity of the fluid flow for an incompressible fluid. The equation is named after Henry Darcy and Julius Weisbach. The Darcy–Weisbach equation contains a dimensionless friction factor, known as the Darcy friction factor. This is also called the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor, resistance coefficient or simply friction factor. The Darcy friction factor is four times the Fanning friction factor, with which it should not be confused. Head loss form - hf is the head loss due to friction (SI units: m); Note: This is also proportional to the piezometric head along the pipe; - L is the length of the pipe (m); - D is the hydraulic diameter of the pipe (for a pipe of circular section, this equals the internal diameter of the pipe) (m); - V is the average flow velocity, experimentally measured as the volumetric flow rate per unit cross-sectional wetted area (m/s); - g is the local acceleration due to gravity (m/s2); - f is a dimensionless parameter called the Darcy friction factor, resistance coefficient or simply friction factor. f can be found from a Moody diagram or calculated; For Laminar flow: f=64/Re; Re is the Reynolds Number; For Turbulent flow: 1/sqrt(f)=2 log(Re*Sqrt(f))-.8 for Re>3000; Pressure loss form where ρ is the density of the fluid, the Darcy–Weisbach equation can also be written in terms of pressure loss: where the pressure loss due to friction Δp (Pa) is a function of: - the ratio of the length to diameter of the pipe, L/D; - the density of the fluid, ρ (kg/m3); - the mean flow velocity, u (m/s), as defined above; - Darcy Friction Factor, fD, a (dimensionless) coefficient of laminar, or turbulent flow; Since the pressure loss equation can be derived from the head loss equation by multiplying each side by ρ and g. Darcy friction factor - See also Darcy friction factor formulae The friction factor fD or flow coefficient λ is not a constant and depends on the parameters of the pipe and the velocity of the fluid flow, but it is known to high accuracy within certain flow regimes. It may be evaluated for given conditions by the use of various empirical or theoretical relations, or it may be obtained from published charts. These charts are often referred to as Moody diagrams, after L. F. Moody, and hence the factor itself is sometimes erroneously called the Moody friction factor. It is also sometimes called the Blasius friction factor, after the approximate formula he proposed. For laminar (slow) flows, it is a consequence of Poiseuille's law that fD = 64/Re, where Re is the Reynolds number calculated substituting for the characteristic length the hydraulic diameter of the pipe, which equals the inside diameter for circular pipe geometries. For turbulent flow, methods for finding the friction factor f include using a diagram such as the Moody chart; or solving equations such as the Colebrook–White equation, or the Swamee–Jain equation. While the diagram and Colebrook–White equation are iterative methods, the Swamee–Jain equation allows f to be found directly for full flow in a circular pipe. Confusion with the Fanning friction factor The Darcy–Weisbach friction factor, fD is 4 times larger than the Fanning friction factor, f, so attention must be paid to note which one of these is meant in any "friction factor" chart or equation being used. Of the two, the Darcy–Weisbach factor, fD is more commonly used by civil and mechanical engineers, and the Fanning factor, f, by chemical engineers, but care should be taken to identify the correct factor regardless of the source of the chart or formula. Most charts or tables indicate the type of friction factor, or at least provide the formula for the friction factor with laminar flow. If the formula for laminar flow is f = 16/Re, it's the Fanning factor, f, and if the formula for laminar flow is fD = 64/Re, it's the Darcy–Weisbach factor, fD. Which friction factor is plotted in a Moody diagram may be determined by inspection if the publisher did not include the formula described above: - Observe the value of the friction factor for laminar flow at a Reynolds number of 1000. - If the value of the friction factor is 0.064, then the Darcy friction factor is plotted in the Moody diagram. Note that the nonzero digits in 0.064 are the numerator in the formula for the laminar Darcy friction factor: fD = 64/Re. - If the value of the friction factor is 0.016, then the Fanning friction factor is plotted in the Moody diagram. Note that the nonzero digits in 0.016 are the numerator in the formula for the laminar Fanning friction factor: f = 16/Re. The procedure above is similar for any available Reynolds number that is an integral power of ten. It is not necessary to remember the value 1000 for this procedure – only that an integral power of ten is of interest for this purpose. Historically this equation arose as a variant on the Prony equation; this variant was developed by Henry Darcy of France, and further refined into the form used today by Julius Weisbach of Saxony in 1845. Initially, data on the variation of f with velocity was lacking, so the Darcy–Weisbach equation was outperformed at first by the empirical Prony equation in many cases. In later years it was eschewed in many special-case situations in favor of a variety of empirical equations valid only for certain flow regimes, notably the Hazen–Williams equation or the Manning equation, most of which were significantly easier to use in calculations. However, since the advent of the calculator, ease of calculation is no longer a major issue, and so the Darcy–Weisbach equation's generality has made it the preferred one. The Darcy–Weisbach equation is a phenomenological formula obtainable by dimensional analysis. Away from the ends of the pipe, the characteristics of the flow are independent of the position along the pipe. The key quantities are then the pressure drop along the pipe per unit length, Δp/L, and the volumetric flow rate. The flow rate can be converted to a mean flow velocity u by dividing by the wetted area of the flow (which equals the cross-sectional area of the pipe if the pipe is full of fluid). Pressure has dimensions of energy per unit volume. Therefore, the pressure drop between two points must be proportional to (1/2)ρu2, which has the same dimensions as it resembles (see below) the expression for the kinetic energy per unit volume. We also know that pressure must be proportional to the length of the pipe between the two points L as the pressure drop per unit length is a constant. To turn the relationship into a proportionality coefficient of dimensionless quantity we can divide by the hydraulic diameter of the pipe, D, which is also constant along the pipe. Therefore, The proportionality coefficient is the dimensionless "Darcy friction factor" or "flow coefficient". This dimensionless coefficient will be a combination of geometric factors such as π, the Reynolds number and (outside the laminar regime) the relative roughness of the pipe (the ratio of the roughness height to the hydraulic diameter). Note that (1/2)ρu2 is not the kinetic energy of the fluid per unit volume, for the following reasons. Even in the case of laminar flow, where all the flow lines are parallel to the length of the pipe, the velocity of the fluid on the inner surface of the pipe is zero due to viscosity, and the velocity in the center of the pipe must therefore be larger than the average velocity obtained by dividing the volumetric flow rate by the wet area. The average kinetic energy then involves the mean-square velocity, which always exceeds the square of the mean velocity. In the case of turbulent flow, the fluid acquires random velocity components in all directions, including perpendicular to the length of the pipe, and thus turbulence contributes to the kinetic energy per unit volume but not to the average lengthwise velocity of the fluid. In hydraulic engineering applications, it is often desirable to express the head loss in terms of volumetric flow rate in the pipe. For this, it is necessary to substitute the following into the original head loss form of the Darcy–Weisbach equation - u is, as above, the average flow velocity - Q is the volumetric flow rate (m3/s); - Aw is the cross-sectional wetted area (m2). For the general case of an arbitrarily-full pipe, the value of Aw will not be immediately known, being an implicit function of pipe slope, cross-sectional shape, flow rate and other variables. If, however, the pipe is assumed to be full flowing and of circular cross-section, as is common in practical scenarios, then where D is the diameter of the pipe where all symbols are defined as above. The implication of this equation is that for a fixed volumetric flow rate head loss increases linearly with the length of the pipe, L, but decreases with the inverse fifth power of the diameter, D. Thus, by merely doubling the diameter of a pipe of a given wall thickness, even though the amount of material required per unit length doubles, the head loss decreases to 1/32, about 3%, of the smaller diameter pipe. - Manning, Francis S.; Thompson, Richard E. (1991), Oilfield Processing of Petroleum. Vol. 1: Natural Gas, PennWell Books, ISBN 0-87814-343-2, 420 pages. See page 293. - Engineering Fluid Mechanics 8th Edition; Copyright John Whiley&Sons Inc. 2005; Crowe, Clayton T. ; Elger, Donald F. ; Roberson, John A. pg.379 Equation 10:22 paragraph 3. - FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 5TH ADDITION;Copyright 2002 John Wiley&Sons Inc.;Authors Incopera, Frank P., Dewitt, David P.; pg 470 paragraph 3 - Engineering Fluid Mechanics 8th Edition; Copyright John Whiley&Sons Inc. 2005; Crowe, Clayton T. ; Elger, Donald F. ; Roberson, John A. pg.379 Equation 10:23, Equation 10:24 paragraph 4. - The Darcy-Weisbach Equation by Glenn Brown, Oklahoma State University–Stillwater - De Nevers (1970), Fluid Mechanics, Addison–Wesley, ISBN 0-201-01497-1 - Shah, R. K.; London, A. L. (1978), "Laminar Flow Forced Convection in Ducts", Supplement 1 to Advances in Heat Transfer, New York: Academic - Rohsenhow, W. M.; Hartnett, J. P.; Ganić, E. N. (1985), Handbook of Heat Transfer Fundamentals (2nd ed.), McGraw–Hill Book Company, ISBN 0-07-053554-X
As an art branch, Neo-impressionism emerged in France after impressionism. Artists in this oil painting school accepted the impressionist art views about natural light and the instant conscious, but they thought that the impressionism painting colors were not scientific. Neo-impressionist artists tried to practice oil painting art optics. The artists painted by Complementary colors. They separated the objects’ colors under sunshine and arranged the pure color spots and dots without mixing them together. This painting method was also named as Divisionism (also called: Chromoluminarism). It was also called as Pointillism. When painting, the artists created the images based on the colors mutual relation. Neo-impressionism was the result of painting skill and the scientist practice. It was also the impressionism art that painted by the conscious and experience transformed to the classical painting art that painted by rules, theories and orders. Georges Seurat and Paul Signac were the main originators of Neo-impressionism. Paul Signac had even learnt the impressionism painting skill and influenced by Van Gogh, Gauguin, and Cezanne. Paul Signac painted many landscape painting. After 1884, he cooperated with Georges Seurat and practiced the Pointillism painting system. He painted by bigger points than Seurat. His oil paintings were more free and casual. The Port of Saint Tropez is Paul Signac’s representative art work. The Neo-impressionism painting arts that based on the scientific theory recovered classical painting principle in some aspects. They analyzed the painting colors and attempted in the art creation, but they were restrained by the principles and forms too much, that made their oil paintings not vivid.
A cover crop is a crop that’s planted primarily to manage soil quality, weeds, pests, and more, in order to protect their farm’s land. Cover crops are great because they have so many benefits yet require only basic care and can grow in nearly every part of the country. As if it couldn’t get any better, the University of Illinois recently discovered that migratory birds can use cover crop fields as a place to rest and refuel. “Here in the Midwest, we’re one of the major flyway zones for migratory birds, where there once was plenty of habitat for grassland birds to safely forage and rest during their migration. Now that agriculture is the dominant landscape, they’re finding it harder to get the resources they need on the way to their breeding grounds,” said Cassandra Wilcoxen, a graduate research assistant in the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences at the University of Illinois. “We think cover crops, such as cereal rye, likely provide migrating birds with more vegetation and a safe area to escape from the elements and from predators.” The problem is that the window to plant cover crops in the fall and terminating them in the spring can vary too much depending on how fast the seasons change. This makes it hard for farmers to adjust to the birds’ schedules. However, Wilcoxen is hopeful that farmers will be more sensitive about the crop cycle after learning about the birds. “Production agriculture has taken a lot of habitat from wildlife but we need it to provide food for us and the world. But how do we mesh the two? Where are the opportunities? No-till is a great example. It helps slow soil erosion and it helps birds. Now, cover crops are another overlapping win-win opportunity to benefit both agriculture and wildlife,” she said. Can cover crops really do it all? To learn more about the benefits of cover crops and specifically the impact they have on the birds, read more here. Share this Post
Buruli ulcer, caused by the Mycobacterium ulcerans, occurs in the (sub) tropics, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa, Western Pacific regions and South America, and is a chronic devastating skin disease. In 2015, 2037 new cases of Buruli ulcer were reported globally and 1913 of them in the African Region. In Africa, about 48% of those affected are children under 15 years. Infection often results in destruction of skin tissue with large ulcers on arms and legs. Diagnosis therefore, is partly based on the detection of early nodular (painless) swellings or visible ulcers with optional laboratory confirmation tests. Treatment requires four different approaches: daily injections of antibiotics for 8 weeks, wound care, prevention of disability (exercises, anti-deformity positioning, and elevation and mobilization of the infected limb), and surgery and skin grafts in severe cases. Wound care primarily consists of clean dressings of the ulcers to improve healing. When left untreated, the ulcers can lead to permanent scarring, bone infection, deformity and permanent disability. The scarring and disability often lead to stigmatization, movement limitations, participation restrictions, and social exclusion. Towards intensified control - The Global Buruli Ulcer Initiative The Global Buruli Ulcer Initiative has set the priority to minimize suffering, disabilities and socioeconomic burden, whereby early detection and access to antibiotic treatment is crucial. Furthermore, it aims to raise awareness of the disease and to promote the development of better tools for treatment and prevention. In order to achieve intensified control of Buruli Ulcer, a clinical trial of oral antibiotic therapy was started in 2013 in Benin and Ghana. The use of an oral antibiotic regimen would ensure that more people have access to treatment and that it will cure 70% of the total cases in endemic countries by 2020.
- English/Language Arts - Social Studies - Health Science/Physical Education - Family & Consumer Science - World Languages Reading and writing skills serve as the conduit for all learning and provide a foundation for achievement across the curriculum. LMSD teachers of English/Language Arts embrace their responsibility to ensure that students master the skills of close reading and meaningful writing. They are also passionate about the role that literature can and should play in their students' lives as a vehicle for cultural appreciation and intellectual growth. English/Language Arts classes are student-centered and interactive opportunities for students to read, write, talk, ask questions, listen, research, and think critically. The focus is on how students can become better readers and writers. Students read from a wide range of genres, including classics and contemporary works, and they write in a variety of modes for various purposes and audiences. They explore topics of individual interest as well as those which will provide them with a context for understanding the literary canon. A deep understanding of the historical, political and cultural aspects of our world is integral to sustaining our democracy and ensuring that students become informed, responsible citizens. Curriculum centered in the core areas of civics, economics, geography and history provides the content for the critical thinking and inquiry-based learning that occurs in social studies classrooms. Teachers guide students to examine issues, past and present, from a variety of perspectives beyond those presented in textbooks. They model and encourage the close reading of authentic primary documents. They model and teach research and writing skills for a variety of purposes and audiences and strategies for effective speaking and debate. Social studies teachers seek to guide students to become critical thinkers who can ask the right questions, find the information to answer those questions, and present their thinking in meaningful ways. The study of music allows students to blossom in many diverse ways: creative expression, teamwork, critical thinking, tolerance, and performance to name a few. Our music teachers - each one a talented musician - emphasize all aspects of the music experience, rather than focus primarily on performance. Students become critical listeners as they refine their appreciation of music and critical thinkers as they examine the socio-cultural context of the music they hear and play. They learn the discipline of practice and experience the rewards of contributing to a collaborative effort. Our students are given and wide range of opportunities to participate in musical performances and activities and are encouraged to push their limits and grow as musicians. The study of art provides students with new ways of seeing themselves and the world. In the supportive, respectful environment of our art classes, students are encouraged to express their ideas and come to understand the visions of their classmates and of professional artists. They are taught the language of aesthetics and how to think critically about the art that surrounds them. They also learn and practice the process of creation and engage in the many decisions that lead to a work of art. A team of experienced and dedicated art teachers deliver a rich and varied art curriculum. Students acquire technical skills, a broad knowledge of materials and media and the discipline and dedication necessary to complete complex projects. Students have the opportunity to explore their interests and continue their studies by taking a sequenced series of art courses in the media that appeal to them. Every student has mathematical potential, but it often takes a rich instructional experience to convert it to mathematical power. The District's secondary mathematics program encourages students to explore a world of mathematical thinking and communicating that will help them grow into mathematically-literate decision-makers. The District's mathematics program is guided by the rigorous Standards for Mathematical Practice. These standards, aligned with the National Common Core, ensure that students will be well-prepared for 21st century problem-solving. The LMSD middle school curriculum is designed to use a problem-based approach with concrete models. Courses help students to develop multiple strategies to solve problems and to recognize the connections between concepts. The pre-algebra and Algebra 1 curricula deliver traditionally rigorous algebraic content using a problem-based approach. Materials are aligned to exceed expectations set forth by the state to ensure student success on the Keystone Exam. There are strong threads woven throughout the courses on multiple representations and the meaning of a solution. Science education provides an orientation to the world that invites learners to make meaning of what is known and to explore what is unknown in order to become engaged in responsible citizenship and personal decision-making. The District's science education program exposes students to rich scientific content through engaging, inquiry-based experiences that allow for the practice of scientific "habit of mind." The middle school science program builds on an excellent elementary foundation in which students develop strong questioning, reasoning, and scientific literacy skills. The curricular program goes beyond the coverage of academic standards and taps into student strengths in technology, creative expression, and communication to ensure that the whole student is engaged in the learning process. When students enter the rigors of the high school science program, they are well-positioned to deeply explore core offerings in biology, chemistry and physics. The vitality and breadth of the District's science programs is evidenced by the extraordinary levels of student participation and success in science-focused academic clubs and competitions. The foundation for healthy living begins with accessing the tools and knowledge to make healthy choices. Health and physical education are necessary components of a well-rounded educational program, providing students with factual, evidence-based information to guide a lifetime of well-being. The middle school health programs provide a continuum of experiences in both health and physical education that are based on state and national standards and incorporate best practices in instruction. The physical education curriculum emphasizes healthy living through movement (kinesthetic) and fitness. Our instructors model activities that students can incorporate into their daily lives while teaching them the principles that make the activities effective for maintaining healthy bodies. The health curriculum guides students in healthy, personal decision making with a focus on nutrition, interpersonal relationships, sexuality, mental health and drugs and alcohol. A student who has a deep understanding of technology sees possibilities where others see problems. This kind of thinking is developed though hands-on, experiential learning where students make broader meaning of knowledge gained through mathematics and science courses. The District's robust technology education program engages students in solving complex problems that help them to discover how to extend human potential. Technology education goes well beyond the use of computers; students engage in the world of design around them. They are encouraged to explore solutions in areas where questions have yet to be asked. The comprehensive middle school program is designed to build on the PA Standards for Science, Technology, and Engineering Education and the National Educational Technology Standards and covers the principles concerning understanding, applying, and evaluating technology use in a variety of settings including medical, communication, transportation, and construction applications. Through independent and team projects, students use written and verbal communication to present ideas and projects and make use of the most relevant software packages and hardware systems. Many of our students at the secondary level demonstrate a further commitment to exploring technology through co-curricular technology programs. The Technology Student Association (TSA) clubs at the four schools are the most popular clubs in the District. Students compete in statewide and national contests and consistently return with numerous individual and team awards. In recent years, LMSD students have been elected to lead the national TSA organization. The middle school Family & Consumer Science experience creates a foundation of practical skills for all students by giving them exposure to curricular programming in textiles, culinary arts, family and financial education. Issues of preparation, safety and short-term and long-range planning are woven throughout the curriculum. One of the most rewarding experiences in Family and Consumer Sciences is sharing one's creations for the enjoyment of others. On a regular basis, the culinary classes create set-up venues in which others can come in and share in their creative experiences. LMSD World Language Program Overview: World language is an essential component of the student experience in Lower Merion. The study of languages and cultures provides important preparation for living, leading, and achieving in a global community. The World Language program focuses on communication within the cultural context of the language being studied. The LMSD World Language program seeks to help students: - Communicate in the target language through speaking, writing, listening, reading - Gain knowledge and understanding of other cultures - Connect with other disciplines to acquire a deeper insight into one's own language and culture - Participate in multilingual communities and global societies LMSD World Language classes focus on communication-based learning. The four skills of listening, reading, writing and speaking have been repackaged into language modes. These three modes place the primary emphasis on the purpose of communication and the context in which it happens, rather than on any one skill in isolation and consist of: Interpersonal, Interpretive and Presentational. Instruction and assessment will, to the greatest extent possible, reflect real world, authentic communication in the target language and will use as many authentic materials as possible. LMSD World Language Program Specifics: World Language instruction begins in 1st grade and continues in an articulated sequence until graduation. - Foreign Language in the Elementary School (FLES): Students learn French or Spanish starting in first grade. Students are engaged in second language instruction for 20-30 minutes two to three times per week. In FLES, the main focus is on understanding and speaking. Visuals, manipulatives, and integration of cultural topics are a crucial part of the FLES classroom. A typical class includes songs, rhymes, games, play-acting, and other physical activities. - Middle School World Language: Students continue with their elementary language studies of French or Spanish in sixth grade. In 7th grade, they may change languages or they may elect to study Latin. French, Spanish and Latin Instruction occur on a daily basis in 7th and 8th grade. Students who study Middle School language for a two year sequence will have completed the equivalent of a Level 1 course at the High School. The middle school world language program is designed to provide students with a supportive learning environment focused on communication with an increased focus on reading and writing skills in the second language. - High School World Language: Students have the opportunity to study French, Japanese, Latin, and Spanish. French, Latin, and Spanish offer college preparatory and honors level courses through Level 5 or Advanced Placement. Students can elect to study Japanese in 11th & 12th grade (honors only.) All students use the target language to perform real world tasks, demonstrate growth in their communicative proficiency through formative and summative performance assessments, and acquire increased levels of proficiency. Teachers work to utilize the three modes of communication for instruction, assessment and grading practices.
Skills circuits are a fun way to review language. They also provide a change to coursebook activities allowing learners to work together to recycle grammar or vocabulary and share knowledge. They require careful planning of both materials used in the circuit and attention to the timing of the activity itself. What are skills circuits? The importance of recycling When to use skills circuits Classroom management considerations For a complete lesson strategy click HERE
The original design of the tower bridge was created by Sir Horance Jones a lifelong architect. Jones, a native of London, was well respected in his professional community and served as the president of Royal Institute of British Architects. In 1864 Jones was elected chief architect and surveyer of the city of London and in 1886 his was knighted. During the course of this suspension bridge's construction, the tower bridge took five major ycontractors. These contractors implored a combined 432 construction workers. In order to create a strong foundation, over seventy-thousand tons of concrete were sunk into the Thames riverbed. Additionally, over eleven thousand tons of steel was used to create the bridge's frame. The total cost at the time was roughly 1,487,459 US dollars, which in today's money would be about $153,268,600
Spring to Fall Ragweed pollen is arguably the largest single seasonal allergen in North America. Also, skin contact may cause dermatitis. About 17 widely-distributed species of ragweed are found in North America. Short (or common) ragweed has lacy and palmate leaves (with parts diverging from a common base, like the fingers of a hand). The flowers grow in a spike that extends vertically above the leaves. Ragweed heights range from a few inches to more than 12 feet. Giant ragweed grows from 12 to 18 feet tall in moist soils and has leaves with three lobes (hence its scientific name Ambrosia trifida). Common places to find ragweed plants are along the margins of agricultural fields, urban landscapes, along roadways, and near riverbanks that typically change during each spring snow melt and runoff. Flowering occurs late in the summer, since pollen development occurs when temperatures become lower than 60 degrees F. and the night length increases. The Ambrosia pollen grains are somewhat flattened to nearly spherical; the opercula slightly granular, and the ora lolongate to subcircular.The sexine is tectate; the largest spines with pointed apices and broad bases, sometimes with intermixed spinules, or occasionally with very short spinules interspersed with small piloid elements. The grains are very distinct. However, the pollen grains of Ambrosia trifida, Ambrosia artemisiifolia and Ambrosia psilostachya are indistinguishable to most pollen counting professionals. Therefore, in typical pollen count reports and forecasts, all ragweed types are combined into one category: ragweed. Ambrosia pollen grains are 16-27 micrometers in diameter. The shaded areas on the map indicates where the genus has been observed in the United States. Enter a full or partial species name to find more information on one of over 1,200 potentially allergenic plants. For example, you can find chenopods searching on "cheno"
Inventor: George Washington Carver\| George Washington Carver, born a slave in 1864 (approximately), contributed significantly to agricultural research. Although he was orphaned as an infant, endured hardship in pursuit of his education, and encountered racial prejudice at every juncture, Carver has become revered for his focus on the poorest southern farmers and his creative chemistry which served to revitalize the economy of the war torn South. He encouraged Alabama farmers to practice plant rotation and soil building techniques using nitrogen producing legumes like sweet potatoes and peanuts. To encourage this practice he developed over 400 products from the sweet potato and peanut. These and other products from pecans, cotton, and waste products virtually changed the economy of the South. Throughout his life he revered nature and felt his discoveries were from divine revelation and so belonged to everyone. In 1894, Carver received a Bachelor of Agriculture from Iowa State Agricultural College and became a member of the faculty of Iowa State College. In 1896, he received a Master of Agriculture from Iowa State College. In 1896, Carver was recruited by Booker T. Washington to become the Director of Agriculture of Tuskegee Institute in Alabama and the Tuskegee Agricultural Experiment Station. In 1906, he designed the 'Jessup Wagon' to bring information and demonstrations to farmers in the Alabama country side. This later became the basis of the USDA Extension Service. In 1921, Carver appeared at the US House of Representatives Committee of Ways and Means about the peanut tariff. The United Peanut Association elected him to go and speak on their behalf. This was the beginning of his life as a folk hero. In 1935, he was appointed Collaborator, Mycology and Plant Disease Survey, Bureau of Plant Industry, USDA. During his first 20 years at Tuskegee, Dr. Carver produced agricultural products which helped create a demand for crops other than cotton in the south. From peanuts, over 300 products including: milk, cheese, cream, coffee, plastics, paper, wood stains, flour, soap, linoleum, cooking oils, cosmetics, and medicinal massaging oils. From sweet potatoes over 118 products including: starch, tapioca, mock coconuts, molasses, breakfast foods, feed for livestock, dyes, flour, vinegar, ink, and synthetic rubber. From soybeans: flours, coffee, cheese, sauce, bisque for ice cream, oil, chick food, soup mixtures, bran, and stock food. From waste and native materials: rugs, tablerunners, table mats, scarfs, fuel briquettes, floor mats, synthetic marble, wallboard, wood veneers from yucca and Florida palm, vegetable dyes, etc. From cotton: paving blocks, cordage, paper, fiber for rope, and many other products. U.S. Department of Agriculture
Hypothermia is dangerously low body temperature, below 95 °F (35 °C). Low body temperature; Cold exposure Hypothermia occurs when more heat is lost than the body can generate. It is usually caused by extended exposure to the cold. Common causes include: - Being outside without enough protective clothing in winter. - Falling overboard from a boat into cold water. - Wearing wet clothing in windy or cold weather. - Heavy exertion, not drinking enough fluids, or not eating enough in cold weather. As people develop hypothermia, their abilities to think and move are often lost slowly. In fact, they may even be unaware that they need emergency treatment. Someone with hypothermia also is likely to have frostbite. The symptoms include: - Weakness and loss of coordination - Pale and cold skin - Uncontrollable shivering (although at extremely low body temperatures, shivering may stop) - Slowed breathing or heart rate Lethargy, cardiac arrest, shock, and coma can set in without prompt treatment. Hypothermia can be fatal. - If any symptoms of hypothermia are present, especially confusion or changes in mental status, immediately call 911. - If the person is unconscious, check airway, breathing, and circulation. If necessary, begin rescue breathing or CPR. If the victim is breathing fewer than 6 breaths per minute, begin rescue breathing. - Take the person inside to room temperature and cover him or her with warm blankets. If going indoors is not possible, get the person out of the wind and use a blanket to provide insulation from the cold ground. Cover the person's head and neck to help retain body heat. - Once inside, remove any wet or constricting clothes and replace them with dry clothing. - Warm the person. If necessary, use your own body heat to aid the warming. Apply warm compresses to the neck, chest wall, and groin. If the person is alert and can easily swallow, give warm, sweetened, nonalcoholic fluids to aid the warming. - Stay with the person until medical help arrives. - Do NOT assume that someone found lying motionless in the cold is already dead. - Do NOT use direct heat (such as hot water, a heating pad, or a heat lamp) to warm the person. - Do NOT give the person alcohol! Call 911 anytime you suspect someone has hypothermia. Give first aid while awaiting emergency assistance. Persons most likely to experience hypothermia include those who are: - Very old or very young - Chronically ill, especially who have heart or blood flow problems - Overly tired - Under the influence of alcohol or drugs Before you spend time outside in the cold, do NOT drink alcohol or smoke. Drink plenty of fluids and get adequate food and rest. Wear proper clothing in cold temperatures to protect your body. These include: - Mittens (not gloves) - Wind-proof, water-resistant, many-layered clothing - Two pairs of socks (avoid cotton) - Scarf and hat that cover the ears (to avoid major heat loss through the top of your head) - Extremely cold temperature, especially with high winds - Wet clothes - Poor circulation, which is more likely from age, tight clothing or boots, cramped positions, fatigue, certain medications, smoking, and alcohol If you have diabetes or circulatory problems see your doctor regularly and maintain good health habits in order to reduce the risk of blood vessel complications that may put you at risk for hypothermia. Danzl DF. Accidental hypothermia. In: Marx JA, Hockberger RS, Walls RM, eds. Rosenâ€™s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 7th ed. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby; 2009:chap. 138. Bessen HA. Hypothermia. In: Tintinalli JE, Kelen GD, Stapczynski JS, Ma OJ, Cline DM, eds. Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide. 6th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2004:chap 192. Review Date: 1/14/2010 Reviewed By: Jacob L. Heller, MD, MHA, Emergency Medicine, Virginia Mason Medical Center, Seattle, Washington. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- 2009 A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.
Look after kids ears This website provides information specifically for Indigenous childcare workers and families on ear disease and hearing loss. The website has information on: - Ways that families can help prevent ear disease; - How to recognise when children are likely to have ear disease and need to be referred to a health clinic and; - Communication and support strategies to use with children with hearing loss. Hearing loss is widespread among young Indigenous children around Australia. A very high proportion of young Indigenous children who attend childcare are likely to have fluctuating hearing loss as a consequence of middle ear disease (otitis media). If child care workers are aware of signs of ear disease and hearing loss, as well as effective communications skills to use with children who have hearing loss, they can improve outcomes for young Indigenous children. Childcare workers can potentially play a crucial role in helping to prevent young children experiencing ear disease – for example, by encouraging prevention strategies such as breast feeding and avoiding cigarette smoke. They can also help to ensure young children with ear disease do not experience delays in language and social skills. By using the most effective communications skills, as well as encouraging families to do the same, child care workers can help minimise poor long term developmental and social outcomes occurring for children. However, to date, childcare workers have generally not had access to training or resources that would allow them to play these important roles. There are also a variety of training and resources for those training early childhood workers including posters, booklets and videos. The website is designed to be interactive in encouraging users to think about what they already know about a topic before viewing information on the website. The videos accessed on the site focus on interviews with Indigenous adults and outline both long term consequences of hearing loss for adults as well as the impact of children’s ear disease on families. The website also contains information on the risks of hearing loss occurring through exposure to excessive noise. Recent research has found that Indigenous children have a high risk of hearing loss from exposure to excessive noise in and around their home environment. The website provides information on families can act to reduce this type of noise exposure, especially among young children. The website was created by Phoenix Consulting and Batchelor Institute of Tertiary Education with funding provided by a grant from a Hearing Loss Prevention Project from the Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care Abstract adapted from Phoenix Consulting
The migraine—a common but debilitating brain disorder characterized by severe headaches, often with accompanying nausea and visual auras—has perplexed neurologists for decades. There are so many types of migraine, and each person’s physiology responds differently to the few drugs and treatments available. In the hunt for an umbrella drug to treat all migraines, researchers at the University of British Colombia have investigated a potential new treatment for migraine with aura, which affects about one-third of migraine sufferers: pregabalin (brand name Lyrica). In a class of drugs called gabapentinoids, pregabalin is an anticonvulsant used to treat epilepsy, neuropathic pain, and fibromyalgia. The researchers published their results today in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Migraines begin in the brain before they’re ever visualized as an aura or felt as an intense headache. Researchers believe migraines are triggered by a brain pattern known as cortical spreading depression, or SD. Though triggers can be numerous, the SD starts in the brain as a “depolarization of neurons in a particular area of the brain,” Stuart Cain, lead author and a neurophysiologist at University of British Columbia, Vancouver tells mental_floss. “This causes a wave of excitation that travels across the brain.” After the excitation period, there’s a long period of inactivity in which the neurons become stuck in this inactive state. “It’s this wave of inactivity that is actually causing spreading depression, and that causes the migraine aura,” he explains. Though the mechanisms are still not fully understood, they also believe this SD triggers the trigeminal nerve, one of the most widely distributed nerves in the head. That is what causes the headache pain. As the SD travels slowly through the brain, it may go into the visual cortex and stimulate visual hallucinations, or even the auditory cortex, causing auditory hallucinations. In regular mice, the SD is constrained to the cortex, known as cortical spreading depression, which is typical migraine without aura. But in the mutant mice they used for the study, genetically modified to exhibit high susceptibility to the familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM) gene, FHM-1, which are associated with migraines accompanied by a visual aura, the SD enters the subcortical structures of the hippocampus, causing this type of migraine. Migraines, strokes, and epilepsy are all known as calcium channel disorders; among other things, calcium channels play a role in cell depolarization and excitability. The FHM-1 patients have mutations in the P2 voltage-gated calcium channel. Pregabalin has been shown in previous studies to bind to the alpha-2 delta subunit of voltage-gated calcium channels, modulating the amount of calcium coming into the cell through this channel. When pregabalin inhibits the calcium, it also suppresses SD, which can stop migraines from starting. To test the effects of pregabalin on the mutant mice, the researchers anesthetized the mice and induced migraine through implanted carbon fiber electrodes in the occipital cortex. Then, they injected them with a dose of pregabalin mixed with saline. (Humans would take an oral dose.) “Mice have very fast metabolism, so you can’t wait too long,” Cain says. So 45 minutes later, they took eight consecutive image slices using a special form of MRI known as “diffusion weighted” MRI or “DW-MRI” over 13 minutes to track the SD in the mouse brains. “When SD occurs, the brain cells swell, and this changes the brightness of intensity on the MRI image. So we can view it as a movie traveling through the brain,” Cain says. As they theorized, the pregabalin did indeed have an effect on SD. It slowed the speed and intensity of the SD waves. It also helped clear up a question neurologists have had about whether SD ever goes into the cerebellum, a structure in the very back of the brain that controls movement. “We were excited to see if the SD went into that structure in mutant mice, but it never did, so that was quite a big finding for the field," he says. "We now know that ataxia [a loss of voluntary muscle control] has nothing to do with SD.” While they can’t recreate this same study design in human trials, since that would require inserting electrodes into the brain, they do have plans to combine MRI diagnostics with administration of pregabalin to attempt to improve outcomes for migraine patients. Cain is optimistic about the drug’s possibilities. “What the study shows is that more clinical trials are definitely warranted so we can properly validate its use for migraines,” he says. For migraine patients, any new treatment in the already limited arsenal may bring hope.
Many of the names in Wuthering Heights are strikingly similar. For example, besides the two Catherines, there are a number of Lintons, Earnshaws, and Heathcliffs whose names vary only slightly. What role do specific names play in Wuthering Heights? Names have a thematic significance in Wuthering Heights. As the second generation of characters gradually exhibits certain characteristics of the first generation, names come to represent particular attributes. The Earnshaws are wild and passionate, the Lintons tame and civilized; therefore, young Catherine Linton displays a milder disposition than her mother, Catherine Earnshaw. Linton Heathcliff becomes a mixture of the worst of both his parents. In other words, he possesses Heathcliff’s arrogance and imperiousness, combined with the Lintons’ cowardice and frailty. Names in Wuthering Heights also serve to emphasize the cyclic nature of the story. Just as the novel begins and ends with a Catherine Earnshaw, the name of Hareton Earnshaw also bookends an era; the final master of Wuthering Heights shares his name with a distant ancestor, whose name was inscribed above the main door in 1500. In many ways, Wuthering Heights structures itself around matched, contrasting pairs of themes and of characters. What are some of these pairs, and what role do they play in the book? Matched and contrasting pairs form the apparatus through which the book’s thematic conflicts play out, as the differences between opposed characters and themes force their way into action and development. Some of the pairs include: the two manor houses, Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange; the two loves in Catherine’s life, Heathcliff and Edgar; the two Catherines in the novel, mother and daughter; the two halves of the novel, separated by Catherine’s death; the two generations of main characters, each of which occupies one half of the novel; the two families, Earnshaw and Linton, whose family trees are almost exactly symmetrical; and the two great themes of the novel, love and revenge. By placing these elements into pairs, the novel both compares and contrasts them to each other. The device of pairing serves to emphasize the book’s themes, as well as to develop the characters. Analyze the character of Edgar Linton. Is he a sympathetic figure? How does he compare to Heathcliff? Is Catherine really in love with him? Edgar Linton is a kind, gentle, civilized, somewhat cowardly man who represents the qualities of Thrushcross Grange as opposed to the qualities of Wuthering Heights. Married to a woman whom he loves but whose passions he cannot understand, Edgar is a highly sympathetic figure after Heathcliff returns to Wuthering Heights. The man finds himself in an almost impossible position, seeing his wife obviously in love with another man but unable to do anything to rectify the situation. Still, he proves weak and ineffectual when compared to the strong-willed Heathcliff, and thus can exercise almost no claim on Catherine’s mind and heart. While the reader may pity Edgar and feel that morality may be on his side, it is hard not to sympathize with the charismatic Catherine and Heathcliff in their passionate love. It is impossible to think that Catherine does not really love Edgar with some part of herself. Although she marries him largely because of her desire for his social status, she seems genuinely drawn to his good looks, polished manners, and kind demeanor. But it is also impossible to think that her feelings for Edgar equal her feelings for Heathcliff—compared with her wild, elemental passion for Heathcliff, her love for her husband seems frail and somewhat proper, like Edgar himself. 1. Discuss the novel’s narrative structure. Are the novel’s narrators trustworthy? Why or why not? With particular reference to Nelly’s story, consider what might be gained from reading between the lines of the narration. What roles do the personalities of the narrators play in the way that the story is told? 2. What role does social class and class ambiguity play in Wuthering Heights? To what extent is Heathcliff’s social position responsible for the misery and conflict so persistent in the book? 3. Discuss revenge in Wuthering Heights. In what ways is it connected to love? What is the nature of love in the novel, that it can be so closely connected to vengeance? 4. Think about the influence of the physical landscape in the novel. What role do the moors play in the development of the story, and in the presentation of the characters? How does Catherine’s abiding love of the moors help us to understand her character? What do the moors come to symbolize in the novel? Hello All ! I wanted to know a few links between the two famous stories of Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights and the main themes that occur within both the novels.The first one that stood out to me was the descent into madness of both Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights, imagining Catherine being everywhere and Bertha Mason in Jane Eyre being known as 'Insane'.What other links can be made between the two novel?? 27 out of 36 people found this helpful i need the main idea of chapter 4 can anyone help me please?? 4 out of 14 people found this helpful I really like this book, it is such a great classic! Here are my views on it ...
Scientists Discover Possible ‘Lost Continent’ Researchers may have discovered granite remnants of a “lost continent” off the coast of Brazil this week. How do continents get lost in the first place? (They lie low after bad break-ups.) - Granite boulders discovered far off the coast of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, may be remnants of a giant continent that was “lost” as movements in the Earth’s lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) ripped it apart between 100 million and 200 million years ago. The CNN video identifies this ancient “lost continent” as Gondwana, part of the “supercontinent” of Pangaea. Look at our map gallery on “Earth’s Tectonic Plates,” which illustrates the movements of tectonic plates from 600 million years ago through today. Gondwana is not identified in the map gallery. On what slide would students label Gondwana? - According to the article and video, Gondwana was the southern part of Pangaea, which started to rift, or break apart, about 200 million years ago. The fourth slide, “Geologic Plates 200 million years ago,” is probably the best place to identify Gondwana. By the next slide, South America and Africa have entirely split and Gondwana has been “lost” in the early Atlantic Ocean. - We know Gondwana included the modern continents of South America and Africa. What other modern continents survived the “loss” of Gondwana? Look at the “Geologic Plates 200 million years ago” map for clues. - Australia and Antarctica were also a part of Gondwana. The so-called Indian Subcontinent of south Asia (really, the Indian tectonic plate) was a part of Gondwana, too. - Continents continue to drift and rift today. Places where the Earth’s crust is splitting are called rift valleys. Read our short encyclopedic entry on rift valleys. Where do students think a continent is being rifted apart and “lost” today? - The Great Rift Valley in eastern Africa (technically, the East African Rift) is tearing apart the continent. Geologists say that the continent we know today as Africa will, like Gondwana, be “lost” in millions of years. Two distinct landmasses will likely remain: the Nubian tectonic plate, which will carry most of what we think of as Africa, and the Somali tectonic plate, which will carry the Horn of Africa.
To help bring awareness to the importance of Earth’s groundwater, a new map showing the world’s groundwater supplies has been created in part from data acquired by the NASA/German Aerospace Center and the Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission. To highlight declines in the world’s groundwater supplies, a new visualization of Earth’s groundwater reserves, created in part with space data from the joint NASA/German Aerospace Center (DLR) Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission, debuted on New York’s Times Square on March 22, International World Water Day. The 30-second animation, titled “Visualizing Seasonal and Long-term Changes in Groundwater Levels,” will be on display several times each hour through April 22 on Times Square’s massive Thomson Reuters and NASDAQ digital signboards. Viewers of the interactive animation are invited to use their mobile devices to submit their city and add a graph to the sign. The animation can be viewed at: http://vimeo.com/user10042778 . Netherlands designer Richard Vijgen developed the animation using GRACE data analyzed by professor Jay Famiglietti, director of the UC Center for Hydrologic Modeling at the University of California, Irvine; and from United States Geological Survey data supplied by Leonard Konikow. Vijgen was the winning entry in an international design visualization competition sponsored by the organization HeadsUP!, in collaboration with Visualizing.org. Founded by digital media artist Peggy Weil, HeadsUp! challenges designers to visualize critical global issues and create a shared sign for the public square. Groundwater is a critical, but often overlooked, natural resource. According to a U.N. report, more than 1.5 billion people around the world depend on groundwater for their drinking water. It comes from the natural percolation of precipitation and other surface waters down through Earth’s soil and rock, accumulating in cavities and layers of porous rock, gravel, sand or clay. Groundwater levels respond slowly to changes in weather and can take months or years to replenish once pumped for irrigation or other uses. Famiglietti’s analyses show that groundwater is being depleted at alarming rates in many of the world’s major aquifers. “The GRACE data set is exciting, because it gives us the first global pictures of Earth’s changing freshwater,” he said. The twin GRACE satellites, which celebrated their 10th year in orbit this week, measure minute changes in Earth’s gravity field by measuring micron-scale variations in the separation between the two spacecraft, flying in formation 137 miles (220 kilometers) apart in low Earth orbit. These variations in gravitational pull are caused by local changes in Earth’s mass. Masses of water, ice, air and solid Earth can be moved by weather patterns, seasonal change, climate change and even tectonic events such as large earthquakes. GRACE was developed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. The depletion of groundwater from large aquifers due to drought and human activities affects gravity enough to provide a signal that GRACE can measure, in concert with other remote sensing data. After accounting for other mass variations, such changes in gravity can be translated into an equivalent change in water. GRACE has been used to detect major depletion of groundwater in northern India, California’s Central Valley and elsewhere around the globe. Groundwater levels are monitored by local sensors as well as from space with GRACE, but the data are formatted for expert hydrologists, rather than concerned citizens. Underground and out of sight, the public lacks a clear indicator of changing groundwater levels. By using the GRACE satellite data, HeadsUP! offered designers the chance to visualize the water under the surface of Earth, as “seen” from space. Image: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UC Irvine/USGS/Richard Vijgen/Peggy Weil/Heads Up! 2012
An explanation: The tropics are a cradle, a museum, and a biodiversity engine Representing data in graphs and charts lets us see patterns that might be missed if we were just looking at long list of numbers. In this module, we have examined visual representations of data on modern organisms and fossils and have learned that the tropics are: - Crowded: Species are packed into the tropics and have been for much of Earth's history. This pattern is known as the latitudinal diversity gradient, or LDG. - A cradle: At least some marine species tend to originate in the tropics. - A museum: Bivalves, at least, seem to have lower extinction rates in the tropics than they do elsewhere on Earth. - A biodiversity engine: Bivalves, at least, seem to mainly originate in the tropics and then spread out from there. Based on the data we've seen, it seems that the LDG might be caused by a combination of high tropical speciation rates and low tropical extinction rates. Furthermore, the tropics could serve as a source of biodiversity on the rest of the planet, by generating species that spread to other latitudes. Of course, the data we've seen here are not the last word. We've mainly concentrated on small, shelly marine animals that have left behind a good fossil record. Do the same patterns hold for other ocean-dwellers and for animals and plants that live on land? Perhaps. Perhaps not. As scientists discover new fossils and develop new ways of analyzing the fossil data we already have, we may be able to answer these questions. As a student, it can often seem that science has answered most of the questions there are to be asked. After all, our textbooks are packed with scientific answers to all sorts of questions. But, in fact, scientists rarely have the problem of finding an unanswered question. Those are ever-multiplying! As this module demonstrates, the real challenge is finding a question that we can get the data to answer!
producer gas, fuel gas consisting chiefly of carbon monoxide and nitrogen. It is prepared in a furnace or generator in which air is forced upward through a burning fuel of coal or coke. Although the fuel is introduced through the top, no air is admitted there. The carbon of the fuel is oxidized by the oxygen of the air from below to form the carbon monoxide. The nitrogen of the air, being inert, passes through the fire without change. When steam is introduced with the air, the final gaseous product contains hydrogen also. Producer gas has a low heating value because it is about 60% inert nitrogen. It is widely used in industry because it can be made with cheap fuel. When producer gas contains hydrogen, it is also a source material for the manufacture of synthetic ammonia.
Sometimes when we think of a bully, we visualize the biggest, toughest kid on the playground. However, that image of a bully is actually a deceptive stereotype. Bullies can be all sizes and ages, male or female. What's more, the art of bullying can vary as well. The aggressive, physical behavior has always been a bullying trademark and usually attributed to boys. Girls are well known for the “under the radar” bullying such as emotionally manipulations, exclusion and gossip. Bullies can be found anywhere there is social interaction and hierarchy such as schools, neighborhoods and even in our homes. As adults and parents we should be very quick to interfere with bullying incidents for the sake of the bully and the victim. We understand immediately how the victim needs help, but what about the bully? According to the US Department of Education, bullying is an early warning sign of what may be continued and more serious antisocial behavior. So what do you do if the bully is your child? Unfortunately, many parents are either unaware or choose to ignore the fact that their child’s behavior, which may be common or seem “normal”, is still bullying. To get a better understanding of who bullies, it is helpful to be able to identify the common characteristics of a bully. • They have a strong desire to control or dominate their environment as well as other people. • They can be impulsive and opportunistic; taking advantage of situations that may arise. • They maintain physical or emotional power over others. • They are lacking in empathy. According to Dr. Dan Olweus, a research professor of psychology who has studied bullying among youth for over thirty-five years, bullies usually fit within the following four categories with these more specific character traits: Aggressive Bullies: This is the most commonly identified bully which uses physical power to dominate. They are often hot tempered, fearless, belligerent and extremely confident. Passive Bullies: They do not normally initiate the bullying incident but they become enthusiastic participants (the sidekick of the aggressive bully). Often they are insecure, less popular, have low self-esteem and have unhappy home lives. Bully-Victim: These children are the victims of bullies and act out in retaliation from their own bullying circumstances by focusing their negative emotions on a weaker child. Now instead of them being the victim, they are the bully. Parents may see this cycle play out in their home as one child who is bullied at school, acts out aggressively towards their younger sibling at home. These children are good at provoking their victims and generally, they are less popular and prone to depression. Pure Bullies: They are without an underlying issue which facilitates the bullying process like the other bully types (unhappy home life, victim, lack of self-control). Generally, they are children who like using bullying to obtain dominance and power. Studies done on children who bully also gave a little insight into the common behavior of their parents. An international group of experts found the following parenting traits to be prevalent. Parents of bullies: • Often do not know their whereabouts • Are inconsistent in their discipline of their children • Do not maintain a stable home life for their children • Poor role models for problem solving • Poor role models for getting along with others Parents who have discovered or even suspect their child is bullying should impose swift intervention measures. Usually bullying can be heavily subdued and even stopped with the proper involvement. Parents should try to get involved in bullying prevention programs within the schools and nearby communities. Parents can also teach children how to empower themselves in a positive manner, rather than resorting to bullying. In addition to focusing on the child who bullies, parents should be prepared to deal with their own parenting issues. If a child lives in a home environment in which bullies thrive, then it is difficult to help them address their bullying problem inside or outside of the home. Children bullies often grow up to be adult bullies and it is common to find that their relationships (friends, families, co-workers, etc) suffer. Also the statistics are high for children who bullied in relation to criminal convictions at an early age. One of the most important steps a parent can take is the first one: Acknowledging that their child is a bully and needs help. Dismissing bullying as normal behavior is doing a disservice to the overall welfare of your child and to others around them.
DDR SDRAM access Memory is organized into a grid-like pattern, with "rows" and "columns." The data stored comes in blocks and is defined by the coordinates of the row and column. The steps for the memory controller to access data in SDRAM follow in order: First, the SDRAM is either in idle state or executing the previous operation. The controller issues the "active" command. It activates a certain row, as indicated by the address lines, in the SDRAM chip for accessing. This command typically takes a few clock cycles. After the delay, column address and either "read" or "write" command is issued. Typically the read or write command can be repeated every clock cycle for different column addresses (or a burst mode read can be performed). However, the read data isn't available until a few clock cycles later, because the memory is pipelined . When an access is requested to another row, the current row has to be deactivated by issuing the "precharge" command. The precharge command takes a few clock cycles before a new "active" command can be issued. Now we can study the detailed definition of various timing parameters. CAS Latency (CL) : CAS Latency (Column Access Strobe Latency), also known as "Access Time," is the most important memory parameter and is the first of the series of numbers. It is the delay time between the moment a memory controller tells the memory module to access a particular memory column on a RAM memory module, and the moment the data from given array location is available on the module's output pins. In DDR SDRAM it is specified in clock cycles, while in asynchronous DRAM it is specified in nanoseconds. RAS to CAS Delay (tRCD) : tRCD stands for row address to column address delay time. Inside the memory, the process of accessing the stored data is accomplished by first activating the row then the column where it is located. tRCD is the time required between the memory controller asserting a row address strobe (RAS), and then asserting a column address strobe (CAS) during the subsequent read or write command. The lesser this time, the better it is, as the data will be read sooner. RAS Precharge (tRP) : Whenever a new row is to be activated for the purpose of accessing a data bit, a command called “Precharge” needs to be issued to close the already activated row. RAS Precharge time, tRP is the number of clock cycles needed to terminate access to an open row of memory, and open access to the next row. Active to Precharge Delay (tRAS) : After an “Active” command is issued, another "Precharge" command cannot be issued until tRAS has elapsed. So, tRAS is the minimum number of clock cycles needed to access a certain row of data in the memory between the data request (Active) and the Precharge command. Basically, this parameter limits when the memory can start reading (or writing) a different row. : All the four parameters work with memory real clock i.e. half the rated clock. A memory with CL=4 need not be slower than the one with CL=3. It all depends on what clock frequency both of them work and accordingly, absolute latencies can be calculated for each of the two. For better understanding, the timing diagram of a memory with timing parameters 3-3-3-10 (assumed) is presented in figure 4. Click image to enlarge Figure 4: Timing diagram of DDR SDRAM, 3-3-3-10 To conclude the article, we can summarize the timing parameters as below: This article originally appeared on the EE Times Europe website. - CAS Latency (CL) is the time it takes to read the first bit of memory from a DRAM with the correct row already open. - The time to read the first bit of memory from a DRAM without any active row is tRCD + CL. - The time to read the first bit of memory from a DRAM with the wrong row open is tRP + tRCD + CL. - The number of clock cycles required between an "Active" command and issuing the "Precharge" command is tRAS.
Many different groups and individuals objected to President Roosevelt's New Deal. These people included the Supreme Court, former President Herbert Hoover, Huey Long, the wealthy people and several newspapers and magazines showing the opinions of many average Americans. Some people, like Huey Long, believed that the wealth in America would not be redistributed, to help the people in poverty. On the other hand, the wealthy people in America were against FDR and his New Deal because the government was giving the country's money to the poor for work relief, and not helping everyone else. Other people, like the Supreme Court and it's justices, were against many of the New Deal programs because they gave more power to the federal government. Due to this, FDR tried to pack the court with more justices, so that he would have a majority. But all this action did was increase the amount of people who were against him. Many average Americans also protested to the New Deal because they thought that it would lead FDR to become a dictator, which was similar to what was happening in Europe with Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin and many others. They worried that the programs within the New Deal would give the federal government that it would turn into a dictatorship. Lastly, President Hoover was a strong disbeliever in the New Deal and it's actions for several reasons, including increasing business competition, caused inflation and supported monopolies. All of these groups and individuals were just some example of the people who did not support FDR's New Deal, which caused a lot of controversy and debate in after the Depression in the 1930s.
\|[Previous] \| [Next]\| More Cell Wall Surface Structures (cont.) ©2001 Timothy Paustian, University of Wisconsin-Madison Fimbriae are shorter and straighter than flagella and are more numerous. Not all bacteria synthesize them. Fimbriae do not function in motility, but are thought to be important in attachment to surfaces or at least in cells sticking together. Figure 1 - Transmission electron micrograph of Aquaspirillum hydrophila showing flagella (thick, long structures) and pili (thinner fibers) Pili are longer than fimbriae and there are only a few per cell. They are known to be receptors for certain bacterial viruses, but I doubt the bacteria makes them for that purpose. There are two basic functions for pili, gene transfer and attachment The sex pilus (or F-pilus) is involved in sexual reproduction of certain bacteria. A donor bacteria will attach to a recipient via the sex pilus. Then a copy of part of the donor bacterium's genome passes through the sex pilus into the recipient. This is a mechanism of genetic exchange between bacteria. Interestingly, transfer of genes this way is not restricted to species. It is possible for E. coli to transfer information to many different Gram negative species. Conjugation, as it is called, is one explanation for the rapid spread of drug resistance in many different species of bacteria. Pili have also been show to be important for the attachment of some pathogenic species to their host. Neisseria gonorrheae, the causative agent of gonorrhea, has a special pili that helps it adhere to the urogenital tract of its host. The microbe is much more virulent when able to synthesize pili. Many, but not all bacterial cells have an external coating excreted onto the outside of the cell. There are two types of glycocalyx, capsules and slime layers, but the difference between the two is somewhat arbitrary. A glycocalyx is a general term for any network of polysaccharide or protein containing material extending outside of the cell. A capsule is closely associated with cells and does not wash off easily. A slime layer is more diffuse and is easily washed away. Figure 2 - Capsule surrounding cells of Streptococcus species. The capsule is about the diameter of the cell. Glycocalyx contains polysaccharide, although some may also contain protein(s), typically glycoproteins. There are many different types of polysaccharides plus some polyalcohols and amino sugars in glycocalyx and the exact makeup is species specific. The structure can be thick or thin, rigid or flexible. Glycocalyx is identified by staining cells with India ink, which does not penetrate the structure. When observed in the microscope the cells appear dark with an outline around them. This outline is the capsule or slime layer. This brings us to the outside of the microbe and to an end of this chapter on bacterial structure. You should now have a better understanding of the molecular make-up of the typical bacteria. Some ideas that you should take away from this chapter are... In subsequent chapters we will learn what all these various parts are doing. \|This page was last built with Frontier on a Macintosh on Fri, Oct 5, 2001 at 10:19:04 PM.\|
According to Joe Malkevitch of York College and the American Mathematical Society, the traveling salesman problem can be solved using algorithms. However, attempts to find a simple algorithm to answer the traveling salesman problem have failed.Continue Reading According to Joe Malkevitch, the traveling salesman problem involves a hypothetical salesman starting from his home, making his rounds to sell his goods and then returning home. The problem for the salesman is to take the route that costs the least, called the minimal cost tour or the optimal tour. The traveling salesman problem appeared in mathematics as early as 1832, when it was referenced as a practical problem in a German book. Karl Menger is credited with popularizing the problem in the European mathematical community in the 1920s, and Merrill Flood popularized it in the United States. Flood also introduced the problem to the Rand Corporation, which was involved in operations research; the Rand Corporation attempted to solve the problem with operations research. The traveling salesman problem is relevant to modern business, according to Malkevitch. Just like a salesman trying to find the optimal route to take, companies attempt to find the cheapest and easiest routes by which to sell their products. A company that manufactures computer chips could save money using an optimal route.Learn more about Data Graphs
Images: Seeding the Seafloor with Observatories H2O (Hawaii-2 Observatory)—In 1998, scientists used the remotely operated vehicles (ROV) Jason and Medea to create the pioneering long-term seafloor observatory called H2O (Hawaii-2 Observatory). They spliced an abandoned submarine telephone cable into a termination frame. The frame relays power and communications to a junction box, which serves as an electrical outlet for scientific instruments. (Illustration by Jayne Doucette, Woods Hole Oceasnographic Institution) In 2003, H2O got its first renovation. ROV Jason's manipulator arm plugs in an instrument to the deep-sea observatory's junction box. (High-definition image copyright Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and the BBC Natural History Unit, courtesy of the WHOI Advanced Imaging and Visualization Laboratory and Johnson-Sea-Link submersible, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution. Jason?s arm pours glass beads into a container used to bury a seismometer beneath seafloor sediments. MARS (Monterey Accelerated Research System)—The next step for deep-sea observatories will be MARS, a test bed using a fiber-optic cable that allows high-speed, high-bandwidth communications and data transfer. MARS will have a 40-mile cable along the north side of the Monterey Canyon, connecting a shore station to an undersea node that serves as a power and data-transfer station for instruments. VENUS (Victoria Experimental Network Under the Sea —The University of Victoria is developing a shallow-water undersea observatory called VENUS in the Strait of Georgia between Victoria and Vancouver. NEPTUNE (North East Pacific Time-integrated Undersea Networked Experiments)—The NEPTUNE project aims to establish an earth/ocean observatory across the Juan de Fuca Plate off the US West Coast. Researchers propose to lay 1,865 miles of fiber-optic submarine cables linking 30 seafloor nodes that support assorted instruments and robotic vehicles Back to story
What is intercropping? Intercropping involves planting different vegetables side by side to take advantage of the different times of maturity, heights, spreads, or rooting depths. A classic example of intercropping involves corn and beans. A few weeks after sowing corn seeds, pole beans are planted close to the corn rows to use the corn stalks for support. As another example, set tomato transplants between lettuce plants; the lettuce matures and is harvested before the tomato plants grow very large. Also, try sowing radish seeds with carrot seeds. The radishes germinate quickly, marking the row of slowly sprouting carrots. Radishes are harvested within a few weeks, long before they interfere with the carrots. Many other intercropping ideas will develop from your own gardening experience. Remember, however, that yields of certain vegetables may be reduced when crowded. Intercropping is one of several ways to increase the harvest from a very small garden plot.
The state of the Earth's atmosphere is influenced by many factors The only way to predict the day-to-day weather and changes to the climate over longer timescales is to use computer models. These models solve complex mathematical equations that are based on well established physical laws that define the behaviour of the weather and climate. However, it is not possible to represent all the detail in the real world in a computer model, so approximations have to be made. The models are tried and tested in a number of ways: - They are used to reproduce the climate of the recent past, both in terms of the average and variations in space and time - They are used to reproduce what we know about ancient climates (which are more limited) - The Met Office Hadley Centre model is unique among climate models in that it is used with more regional detail to produce the weather forecasts every day Two critical factors have helped us to improve these models over the years. First, our knowledge of the real world has improved, which allows us to improve the models. Second, the speed and power of computers has increased dramatically, allowing us to represent more detail in the models. IMPROVEMENTS IN THE SCIENCE The climate system is highly complex, with many potential interactions and feedbacks. Over the years, more of this complexity has been included in models. In the 1970s, models included a simple representation of the atmosphere. Rain was included but not clouds; carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations were considered and the radiation (heating) that determines the effect of CO2 on temperature was also included. Now, current state-of-the-art climate models include fully interactive clouds, oceans, land surfaces and aerosols, etc. Some models are starting to include detailed chemistry and the carbon cycle. It is worth thinking a little about why these processes are important, and a few examples are highlighted here: 1. Clouds affect the heating and cooling of the atmosphere For example, on a cloudy day, less radiation (heating) from the sun reaches the Earth's surface and we feel cool. On the other hand, on a cloudy night the heat generated during the day is trapped and the temperature near the surface remains relatively warm. However, it is not just the amount of cloud that is important, but also the detailed properties of the cloud. Thin cirrus cloud high up in the atmosphere has a different effect on climate to thick cloud nearer the Earth's surface. 2. The oceans take much longer to warm up than the land They also move heat around the globe; for example, the Gulf Stream in the north Atlantic Ocean brings warm water from the tropical Atlantic up to northern Europe, and has a strong effect on the temperatures that the UK experiences. 3. The land surface influences how much radiation is absorbed at the surface An area that is covered in trees will be dark and will heat up more by absorbing more radiation. Areas covered in ice, or at the opposite extreme desert, will both reflect more radiation and absorb less heat. These are atmospheric particles, such as sulphate and black carbon that are produced naturally from volcanoes and forest fires, as well as by humans from fossil fuel power stations and other industrial activities. They generally have a cooling effect on climate, by reducing the amount of sunlight reaching the surface (the so-called global dimming effect) and by changing the properties of clouds. The presence of man-made aerosols is reducing global warming in the short term. 5. The chemistry and carbon cycle determine how much carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere Currently the biosphere (plants, soils, phytoplankton) absorbs half of the carbon dioxide that man produces. The latest climate model predictions suggest that this will not continue indefinitely and that some parts of the biosphere (in particular soils) could start to release carbon if temperatures increase too much. IMPROVEMENTS IN COMPUTER POWER Climate modelling has always made use of the best computers, but has been limited by the available computer power. Scientists use supercomputers to run complex climate models In the 1970s, as well as including only limited science, the models included very little detail and could only be run for very short periods. A typical model divided the world up in to boxes 600km across with five levels to represent all the vertical structure. They were used to predict changes on timescales of months up to a year or so. They were mainly used to understand climate processes rather than to predict the future. The latest Hadley Centre model, HadGEM1 (which is typical of current state-of-the-art models), uses 135km boxes with 38 levels in the vertical, and includes all of the complexity of the climate system outlined above. The massive increases in computer power since the 1970s are used in the following ways in the Met Office Hadley Centre: - Much higher resolution is used to give more regional detail. The changes between the 1970s and the present day outlined above required 256 times more computer power - Representations of all the key processes identified as important for climate change are included in various versions of the model - Much longer predictions are run, typically reproducing the last 150 years and predicting the next 100 to 1,000 years - Far more experiments are run with different versions of the models so that we can quantify the uncertainty in our predictions The latest climate models predict similar possible global average temperature changes to models used five or 10 years ago, ranging from 1.6-4.3C (2.9-7.7F) in the current best estimates using a mid-range emissions scenario. However, we are much more confident about these ranges. Using Hadley Centre models we have even been able to start to assign probabilities to more dangerous high temperature changes at the upper end of this range that could arise if climate turns out to be very sensitive to increased greenhouse gases. "Man-made climate change is... beyond reasonable doubt" We also have more detail about regional changes in climate. For example, using our climate models combined with observations, we can attribute recent changes in climate on continental scales, and even on the small scale of the Central England Temperature, to man's impact on the environment. Now that man-made climate change is established beyond reasonable doubt and further climate change is inevitable, it is even more important to improve our climate predictions to provide the best possible information to planners and more widely. In order to do this we will continue to require the best possible science to be developed into climate models which are able to run at the highest possible resolution on some of the most powerful computers on the planet. In the long term, we would hope to have a climate model that could capture the observed regional detail and represent variations in weather systems. Dr Vicky Pope is head of the Climate Programme at the UK Met Office's Hadley Centre
List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world \|History of technology\| A number of inventions were made in the medieval Islamic world, especially during the "Islamic Golden Age" (traditionally dated 9th to 13th centuries), as well as the late medieval period, including the Emirate of Granada and the three Gunpowder Empires: the Ottoman Empire, Safavid Persia, and Mughal Empire.[clarification needed] Science and technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge and technologies from contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, India, China, and Greco-Roman antiquity, while making a number of improvements and innovations. The following is an incomplete list including some of the inventions and innovations made in the medieval Islamic world, listed in chronological order. - 8th century - Mental institute: Hospitals in the Islamic world accepted people with mental illnesses, which was a revolutionary idea at the time. Islamic doctors believed music (especially "natural music", such as the sound of wind blowing through leaves, the songs of birds, and the rushing of water) was an effective treatment for mental illness; hence an orchestra platform was constructed on the terrace at the asylum in Aleppo, and fountains were available at the center of every hospital. - Tin-glazing: The tin-glazing of ceramics was invented by Muslim potters in 8th-century Basra, Iraq. The oldest fragments found to-date were excavated from the palace of Samarra about 80 kilometres (50 miles) north of Baghdad. - 9th century - Lusterware: Lustre glazes were applied to pottery in Mesopotamia in the 9th century; the technique soon became popular in Persia and Syria. Earlier uses of lustre are known. - Frequency analysis in cryptology: the first known recorded explanation of cryptanalysis was given by Al-Kindi (also known as "Alkindus" in Europe), in A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. This treatise includes the first description of the method of frequency analysis. - 10th century - Vertical-axle windmill: A small wind wheel operating an organ is described as early as the 1st century AD by Hero of Alexandria. The first vertical-axle windmills were eventually built in Sistan, Persia as described by Muslim geographers. These windmills had long vertical driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades. They may have been constructed as early as the time of the second Rashidun caliph Umar (634-644 AD), though some argue that this account may have been a 10th-century amendment. Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grains and draw up water, and used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries. Horizontal axle windmills of the type generally used today, however, were developed in Northwestern Europe in the 1180s. - 11th century - 12th century - Bridge mill: The bridge mill was a unique type of watermill that was built as part of the superstructure of a bridge. The earliest record of a bridge mill is from Córdoba, Spain in the 12th century. - Hybrid trebuchet: The term Al-Ghadban (The Furious One) was applied to the hybrid trebuchet, though the usage of the term was not consistent and may have taken on a broader meaning. The first record of a counterweight trebuchet was in the 12th century from Mardi ibn Ali al-Tarsusi while talking of the conquests of Saladin. - 13th century - Rocket technology was adopted from China in the 13th century. In c. 1275, Hasan al-Rammah described "...an egg which moves itself and burns." - Fritware: It refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, beginning in the late 1st millennium, for which frit was a significant ingredient. A recipe for "fritware" dating to c. 1300 AD written by Abu’l Qasim reports that the ratio of quartz to "frit-glass" to white clay is 10:1:1. This type of pottery has also been referred to as "stonepaste" and "faience" among other names. A 9th-century corpus of "proto-stonepaste" from Baghdad has "relict glass fragments" in its fabric. Emirate of Granada - 14th century - Hispano-Moresque ware: This was a style of Islamic pottery created in Arab Spain, after the Moors had introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe: glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Hispano-Moresque ware was distinguished from the pottery of Christendom by the Islamic character of its decoration. - 15th century - Coffee: Stories exist of coffee originating in Ethiopia, but the earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia. It was in Yemen that coffee beans were first roasted and brewed as they are today. From Mocha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Muslim world, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas. - Iznik pottery: Produced in Ottoman Turkey as early as the 15th century AD. It consists of a body, slip, and glaze, where the body and glaze are "quartz-frit." The "frits" in both cases "are unusual in that they contain lead oxide as well as soda"; the lead oxide would help reduce the thermal expansion coefficient of the ceramic. Microscopic analysis reveals that the material that has been labeled "frit" is "interstitial glass" which serves to connect the quartz particles. - 16th century - Hookah or waterpipe: according to Cyril Elgood (PP.41, 110), the physician Irfan Shaikh, at the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar I (1542-1605) invented the Hookah or waterpipe used most commonly for smoking tobacco. - Marching band and military band: The marching band and military band both have their origins in the Ottoman military band, performed by the Janissary since the 16th century. - Islamic Golden Age - Timeline of science and engineering in the Islamic world - Science in medieval Islam - Science in the medieval Islamic world - Islamic attitudes towards science - Medicine in the medieval Islamic world - Islamic arts - Islamic economics - Islamic literature - Islamic philosophy - Islamic technology - Gunpowder Empires - p. 45, Islamic & European expansion: the forging of a global order, Michael Adas, ed., Temple University Press, 1993, ISBN 1-56639-068-0. - Max Weber & Islam, Toby E. Huff and Wolfgang Schluchter, eds., Transaction Publishers, 1999, ISBN 1-56000-400-2, p. 53 - Anne Blanchard and Emmauel Cerisier (2008), Arab Science and Invention in the Golden Age, Enchanted Lion Books, ISBN 1-59270-080-2, p.44-45 - Mason, Robert B. (1995), "New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World", Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture, Brill Academic Publishers, XII: 1, doi:10.2307/1523219, ISBN 90-04-10314-7. - Caiger-Smith, 1973, p.23 - Ten thousand years of pottery, Emmanuel Cooper, University of Pennsylvania Press, 4th ed., 2000, ISBN 0-8122-3554-1, pp. 86–88. - Broemeling, Lyle D. (1 November 2011). "An Account of Early Statistical Inference in Arab Cryptology". The American Statistician. 65 (4): 255–257. doi:10.1198/tas.2011.10191. - Al-Kadi, Ibrahim A. (1992). "The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions". Cryptologia. 16 (2): 97–126. doi:10.1080/0161-119291866801. - Drachmann, A.G. (1961), "Heron's Windmill", Centaurus, 7: 145–151. - Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp.1-30 (10f.) - Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42239-6. - Dietrich Lohrmann (1995). "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte 77 (1), p. 1-30 (8). - Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64-9 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering Archived 25 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine.) - Maillard, Adam P. Fraise, Peter A. Lambert, Jean-Yves (2007). Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. p. 4. ISBN 0470755067. - Lucas, Adam (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, Brill Publishers, pp. 62 & 64, ISBN 90-04-14649-0 - Chevedden, Paul E. (1 January 2000). "The Invention of the Counterweight Trebuchet: A Study in Cultural Diffusion". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 54: 71. doi:10.2307/1291833. The traction trebuchet, invented by the Chinese sometime before the fourth century B.C., was partially superseded at the beginning of the eighth century by the hybrid trebuchet. This machine appears to have originated in the realms of Islam under the impetus of the Islamic conquest movements. - Bradbury, Jim (1992). The Medieval Siege. The Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-312-7. - Partington, James Riddick (1999), A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 203, ISBN 0-8018-5954-9 - Bernsted, A.K. (2003), "Early Islamic Pottery: Materials and Techniques, London: Archetype Publications Ltd., 25; R.B. Mason and M.S. Tite 1994, The Beginnings of Islamic Stonepaste Technology", Archaeometry, 36 (1): 77–91, doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1994.tb00712.x. - Mason and Tite 1994, 77. - Mason and Tite 1994, 79-80. - Caiger-Smith, 1973, p.65 - Weinberg, Bennett Alan; Bonnie K. Bealer (2001), The world of caffeine, Routledge, pp. Page 3–4, ISBN 978-0-415-92723-9 - Ireland, Corydon. Gazette "Of the bean I sing" Check \|url=value (help). Retrieved 21 July 2011. - John K. Francis. "Coffea arabica L. RUBIACEAE" (PDF). Factsheet of U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Retrieved 2007-07-27. - Meyers, Hannah (2005-03-07). ""Suave Molecules of Mocha" -- Coffee, Chemistry, and Civilization". Archived from the original on 9 March 2005. Retrieved 2007-02-03. - Tite, M.S. (1989), "Iznik Pottery: An Investigation of the Methods of Production", Archaeometry, 31 (2): 115–132, doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1989.tb01008.x. - Tite 1989, 120. - Tite 1989, 129. - Tite 1989, 120, 123. - Razpush, Shahnaz (15 December 2000). "ḠALYĀN". Encyclopedia Iranica. pp. 261–265. Retrieved 19 December 2012. - Sivaramakrishnan, V. M. (2001). Tobacco and Areca Nut. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan. pp. 4–5. ISBN 81-250-2013-6. - Blechynden, Kathleen (1905). Calcutta, Past and Present. Los Angeles: University of California. p. 215. - Rousselet, Louis (1875). India and Its Native Princes: Travels in Central India and in the Presidencies of Bombay and Bengal. London: Chapman and Hall. p. 290. - Bowles, Edmund A. (2006), "The impact of Turkish military bands on European court festivals in the 17th and 18th centuries", Early Music, Oxford University Press, 34 (4): 533–60, doi:10.1093/em/cal103 - Qatar Digital Library - an online portal providing access to previously digitised British Library archive materials relating to Gulf history and Arabic science - 1001 Inventions: Discover The Muslim Heritage In Our World - "How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs" by De Lacy O'Leary
Santa fe trail 3. Historical Significance 3.1. Confederate Insurgency Glorieta Pass is the site of a decisive Civil War battle. The Confederacy controlled Santa Fe and the Rio Grande Valley and were able to lay claim to the entire Southwest. The Union controlled the High Plains from their base at Fort Union in New Mexico Territory. Glorieta Pass was crucial to invasion from either direction in the same way that it was key to prehistoric trade routes and to the Santa Fe Trail (U.S. National Park Service, People of Pecos). Union forces prevailed at the climactic battle on 28 March, 1862, and then made steady progress toward expelling the Confederates from the Southwest up to the end of the war (Wikipedia, Battle of Glorieta Pass). The Battle of Glorieta Pass is only the most recent in a series of political struggles for dominance in the Southwest and on the Great Plains that have taken place since the Spanish conquest. For example, there was a succession of Spanish governors of Nuevo México who were killed while raiding for slaves among the Navajos, assassinated while suppressing rebellion, or executed during reprisals in the 1830s (Wikipedia, Albino Pérez). 3.2. Foreign Intervention When the Civil War began in 1861, the American Revolution, which was concluded officially in 1783, was hardly within living memory, but the War of 1812--1815 certainly was. Both were seen in the United States as unwarranted European meddling in the hemisphere (Wikipedia, War of 1812). Among the many reasons attested to justify the Civil War is that the United States would be less susceptible to such meddling if the Union could be preserved. In school we study American success in the Spanish-American War of 1898, World War I and World War II and are accustomed to thinking of the nation as a superpower since the Cold War. It requires an effort to imagine the time when the United States was extremely fearful of foreign domination; nevertheless, on the eve of the Civil War this was not an unfounded concern. Coincidentally the Juárez administration suspended interest payments to European creditors in the summer of 1861, and the French invaded Mexico, eventually installing a Catholic puppet monarchy under Austrian Archduke Maximilian that lasted until 1867. The French withdrew their support in 1866 to repair relations with the United States, which had fought and won its war against the Confederacy. Then the Juárez government regained control and executed Maximilian. The Mexican holiday of Cinco de Mayo commemorates an 1862 battle during this extended conflict (Wikipedia, French intervention in Mexico). 3.3. Domestic Insurrection The Boonslick area of Missouri where the U.S. end of the Santa Fe Trail originated was known as Little Dixie because it was settled by emigrants from the Upland South of Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee. It was a slave-holding region (Wikipedia, Boonslick). By contrast the Indian Lands of Kansas and Nebraska, opened to white settlement in 1854, came to be occupied by a mixture of pro-slavery insurgents and abolitionists, each side hoping to outnumber the other, control territorial politics, and determine whether Kansas would enter the Union as a free state or a slave state. Out-of-state financiers on both sides recruited private militias, sent them into Kansas, and supplied them for Holy War. For a time, Kansas was called "Bleeding Kansas" because of the death squads that operated there. John Brown and his sons and followers were an example. Terrorism, cruelty, and mayhem escalated, reaching even to the floor of the U.S. Senate. The territorial public, like the American public altogether, was so polarized by the dispute that neither side would honor the votes taken on whether to admit Kansas to the Union as either a free state or a slave state. In 1859, the jihadis moved on to what they hoped were greener pastures back east, but John Brown was captured at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now in West Virginia), by U.S. Marines and charged with murder, fomenting a slave revolt, and treason against the State of Virginia. He was tried in civilian court, convicted, and hanged (Wikipedia, John Brown). Ten insurgents were killed outright in the raid on Harpers Ferry. Seven were captured and hanged. Two marines were killed along with six civilians. The body count is thus 25. Nine other civilians were wounded. (Wikipedia, John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry). This and a change in territorial administration brought a brief respite of relative peace back in Kansas before the Civil War. In all about 56 people were killed there (Wikipedia, Bleeding Kansas). 3.4. Yankee Imperialism The Republic of Texas rebelled against Mexico and achieved independence in 1836. In 1841, President Lamar ordered a combined military and trade expedition to Santa Fe. His Nationalist forces were captured by Governor Armijo of Nuevo México, and sent to Mexico City for incarceration. Texas author Larry McMurtry appropriated this historical context for his fictional novel Dead Man's Walk (1995), which is part of the Lonesome Dove cycle. Until 1843, operatives for the Republic of Texas continued to harass trade along the Santa Fe Trail and aroused authorities in both Nuevo México and Missouri (Wikipedia, Santa Fe Trail). With the election of Polk in 1844, United States expansionist sentiment triumphed. Nationalists in Texas and abolitionists in the United States were overruled by annexationists, and Texas was admitted to the Union as a slave state at the end of 1845 (Wikipedia, Texas). Expansionist fervor was not appeased, though, and the disputed borders between the new state of Texas and Mexico became the pretext for the Mexican-American War. An expeditionary force under Kearny was sent into Nuevo México, and he proclaimed the conquest in Las Vegas on 15 August, 1846. It was apparent that the United States was prepared to pay for the capitulation of Nuevo México or compel it by other means. The intrigue surrounding the bloodless capture of Santa Fe on 14 August, 1846, is, of course, not well documented, and accounts as to how it came to be are in doubt (Wikipedia, Manuel Armijo). One construction of events is that businesses in Santa Fe saw their bread buttered on the side of the United States due to the ongoing success of trade over the Santa Fe Trail. Another is that joining the United States seemed to promise political stability in an era of upheaval. This sadly turned out not to be the case. The newly appointed U.S. military governor of Nuevo México, Charles Bent, was assassinated at the beginning of the Taos Revolt in 1847 (Wikipedia, Charles Bent). New Mexico, or Nuevo México in Spanish, is often incorrectly believed to have taken its name from the nation of Mexico. However, New Mexico was given its name in 1563 ... by Spanish explorers who believed the area contained wealthy Indian cultures similar to those of the Aztec Empire. Mexico, formerly a part of New Spain, adopted its name centuries later in 1821, after winning independence from Spanish rule (Wikipedia, New Mexico). Nuevo México officially became United States territory in 1848 along with Alta California after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. For awhile after American forces occupied the Halls of Montezuma in Mexico City, it appeared there would be no treaty, and there were calls to annex all of Mexico, but that plan quickly fizzled, faded, and was forgotten once the treaty was signed. New Mexico Territory was organized as part of the Compromise of 1850.
In spring and summer of 2010, plants in some tomato and pepper fields in coastal California have developed virus-like symptoms. Affected plants were found in both Monterey and San Benito counties, though disease incidence was low. Samples submitted to the Gilbertson lab at UC Davis tested positive for the curly top virus, indicating that these symptoms were due to curly top disease. Curly top can be a severe disease for both tomato and pepper. Symptoms of the disease vary depending on the host plant infected and the stage of growth when infections occur. In general, affected plants show some degree of stunted and distorted growth and leaf curling and light green to yellow discoloration. In tomato, curly top symptoms begin with leaves showing light green coloration, up-curling, and vein purpling on the underside of leaves. Plants become stunted with twisted, distorted, and yellow leaves. Plants infected at an early stage of development stop growing and die, often standing out among nearby healthy plants. Plants infected at later stages of development show distorted growth and light green-yellow leaves with vein purpling; these symptoms will develop on the upper part of the plant or on entire shoots, but the plants generally do not die. Any fruits produced will be stunted and ripen prematurely. In peppers, plants are stunted with shortened internodes. Leaves are light green or yellow in color, show strong up-curling, and are thick and brittle. Plants infected at a young stage of growth may die, whereas older plants are stunted and leaves again curl upwards and are light green to yellow; any fruits that develop are small, wrinkled, and unmarketable. As for all diseases caused by viruses, confirmation of curly top disease requires laboratory testing because other tomato and pepper viruses can cause symptoms that are similar to those caused by the curly top viruses (e.g., symptoms caused by Tomato spotted wilt virus). In California curly top disease affects many plants including tomato, pepper, bean, pumpkin, squash, spinach, sugar beet, other crops, and many weeds. Researchers have discovered that curly top disease in the western USA is actually caused by several distinct virus species. Therefore, curly top of tomato or pepper could be caused by one or more of the following viruses: Beet curly top virus (BCTV), Beet mild curly top virus (BMCTV), Beet severe curly top virus (BSCTV). For example, samples in 2008 from Monterey County tested positive for either BMCTV or BSCTV. The curly top viruses are vectored by the beet leafhopper (Circulifer tenellus). The virus is not carried in seeds nor is it mechanically transmitted (i.e., by touch or physical contact). Disease incidence and distribution in tomato and pepper fields in a given year are dependent on the populations of the beet leafhopper and the migratory feeding patterns of this insect. Most infections tend to occur early in the growing season, but late season infections may also occur, as in 2010. In general, for coastal California, disease incidence is usually low and symptomatic plants occur randomly in a field, indicating where the fast moving leafhopper has stopped to feed. The random, scattered distribution of diseased plants reflects the fact that tomato and pepper are not preferred hosts of the beet leafhopper and that the insects move on in search of preferred hosts, such as plants in the beet family (Chenopodiaceae). Tomato infected with curly top viruses: If infected early, plants can be severely stunted. Tomato infected with curly top viruses: Leaves can be thickened, deformed, yellowed, and rolled upwards. Symptomatic tomato leaves often develop purple veins. Pepper infected with curly top viruses: If infected early, plants can be severely stunted. Pepper infected with curly top viruses: Leaves can be thickened, deformed, and rolled upwards.
Based on the best research on how children develop reading skills, these six books introduce a carefully selected progression of letter sounds-starting with the easiest and most common. Each book helps build a young reader's confidence with repeated examples of the letter sounds being focused on, as well as "words to learn" and "words to sound out." These books will readily appeal to Dora's audience of beginning readers as they capture all of the familiar elements from Dora's hit TV show, including her spunky personality. Explore phonics with Dora, Boots, and their friends! This bind-up includes six phonics stories featuring six different sounds:
Written for the freshman-level, two-semester introductory chemistry courses for majors in the sciences and engineering and others desiring a solid foundation in the principles of chemistry, the second edition of this book retains the approach of the first edition, presenting a thorough introduction to the principles of chemistry necessary to understand the descriptive chemistry that follows and to prepare students for further study. The second edition pays greater attention to developing students' ability to think critically about the subject. The book assumes an average highschool background in the sciences and maths, but aims to build upon these foundation to provide students with a basis for more advanced work. The "Consider This" sections highlight terminology, concepts, or skills with which students often have difficulty. "Nomenclature Notes" sections introduce chemical terminology gradually. Coverage of stoichiometry in chapter 2 allows early lab work on solution properties and reactions. The early introduction of thermochemistry (Chapter 3) logically builds on the reaction stoichiometry in Chapter 2. Early coverage of real and ideal gases in chapter 4 also allows the early introduction of lab experiments involving gases. Parallel problems (with answers) for student solution follow and reinforce the concepts in the text's numerous worked examples. Atomic structure and bonding is covered in two chapters - basic topics are presented in chapter 8, advanced topics requiring additional chemical maturity are presented in chapter 19. "synopsis" may belong to another edition of this title. Book Description Mcgraw-Hill College, 1992. Hardcover. Book Condition: New. 2 Sub. Bookseller Inventory # DADAX007054445X
The Magic School Bus: Inside a Hurricane Puzzle Page In this hurricanes worksheet, students find 10 words pertaining to storms and hurricanes in a word search puzzle. Students then complete a hurricane maze. This has a Magic School bus theme. 2nd - 3rd English Language Arts 3 Views 147 Downloads Compound Word Trivia Engage young learners in expanding their vocabulary with these fun games and activities. Children learn how compound words, root words, and affixes provide clues about the meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary. These six activities get... 1st - 4th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Greek and Latin Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes How can adding a prefix or suffix to a root word create an entirely new word? Study a packet of resources that focuses on Greek and Latin roots, as well as different prefixes and suffixes that learners can use for easy reference 3rd - 8th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable I Can Read! Sight Words Set #6 Master the sight words big, said, come, and in with a packet of helpful reading activities. Kids work on their reading skills with tracing pages and bingo activities, as well as flash cards, connect-the-dots, and a short word search. K - 2nd English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Frindle Lesson Plan "Who says a pen has to be called a pen? Why not call it a frindle?" Inspired by this quote from the award-winning novel written by Andrew Celements, this instructional activity allows children to invent their own terms for common... 3rd - 6th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable
Magnetic Levitation is a way to suspend objects in air without any support, as if in defiance of gravity. An unsung phenomenon of the past which is now being put to use in a variety of interesting and useful applications. As a child you must have seen a ping pong ball being levitated on an air stream at the output pipe of a vacuum cleaner. Magnetic levitation, also known as maglev is used in a similar way to levitate objects in air without any support, using magnetic field. All magnets, whether natural or electromagnets, have two poles. We all known that like poles repel and unlike poles attract. Magnetic levitation is the product of the repulsion generated as a result of two magnetic fields. An object is said to be levitated when the force created by electromagnetic repulsion equalizes the weight of the object. Technically, it's the electromagnetic force counteracting the gravitational force. How Is Maglev Obtained? It is proved that magnetic levitation cannot be obtained just by using static ferromagnetism, as the object would tend to gain instability. In order to create proper magnetic levitation condition, diamagnetic materials or superconductors have to be used. But in all these cases a little help from pseudo-levitation needs to be taken. Pseudo-levitation is a system that provides stability to the levitated object using a magnetic mechanism. For light objects, magnets made of diamagnetic materials are sufficient. The atoms of a diamagnetic substance such as silver and bismuth, doesn't have a specific dipole moment. When these objects are brought under the influence of a magnetic field, a dipole moment is induced in the direction opposite to that of the field applied. Because of this a repulsive force is generated that creates the desired levitation. Another way of obtaining magnetic levitation is by using electromagnetism. Electrodynamic fields are created when electricity is passed through a conductor. The moving charges that are created as a result of the magnetism, provides a vertical push that is equal to the gravitational pull, which in turn help to produce a stable levitation condition. Heavier objects are generally levitated by this method. Apart from these main methods, eddy currents or electrodynamic suspension, oscillating magnetic fields and permanent magnet suspension are also used. Present And Future Use Maglev train is a famous application of the maglev technology . Almost all the prominent countries have these trains as a major mode of transport in their system. Apart from this, maglev toys are also quite famous and are available in all the markets. Some of the famous maglev toys are maglev toy train, maglev toy cars, maglev clocks etc. Future might see maglev technology put to use in a variety of applications. Maglev cars are supposed to be under development. These cars wont require a track but would fly in air. NASA is working on a maglev catapult that is predicted to reduce the costs and launching problems of a spacecraft. Also, Maglev elevators are already made and soon be put to use in Japan and China.
That’s bad news because surface melting could work hand in hand with an already documented trend of ocean-driven melting to compromise West Antarctica, which contains over 10 feet of potential sea level rise. “It provides us with a possible glimpse of the future,” said David Bromwich, an Antarctic expert at Ohio State University and one of the study’s authors. The paper appeared in Nature Communications. “You probably have read these analyses of West Antarctica, many people think it’s slowly disintegrating right now, and it’s mostly thought to be from the warm water eating away at the bottom of critical ice shelves,” Bromwich continued. “Well, that’s today. In the future, we could see action at the surface of these ice shelves as well from surface melting. So that makes them potentially much more unstable.” The researchers, based at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Ohio State University, and a number of other institutions, were able to observe the melt event not because they were directly present but because they had set up a monitoring station deep in the heart of West Antarctica that detected a sharp warming of the atmosphere and the presence of clouds containing a large amount of moisture. When that happened, Bromwich’s Ohio State team then went to satellites to determine what the consequences of the event had been, and microwave data showed the large melt event. The resulting observations, from the satellites, suggest not that the Ross Ice Shelf was covered with lakes or pools, but rather, that liquid water mixed into the snow atop it. “In some parts it could be slush for example, a mixture of ice and liquid water,” said Bromwich. Here’s a figure the research team provided, showing the area and extent of the melt: The melting occurred during a strong El Niño event, which are known to bring added warmth to West Antarctica. Several other past melt events atop the Ross Ice Shelf have also coincided with El Niños. In this case, the event brought moist air in from the ocean. The researchers report in their study that there even appears to have been rainfall atop the Ross Ice Shelf, and other parts of West Antarctica, a striking occurrence. “The story of melt all over the ice shelf rattled through the science community as it happened,” said Robin Bell, an Antarctic researcher at the Lamont-Doherty Earth Institute at Columbia University who was not involved in the study. “Who had heard of rain in Antarctica — it is a desert!” For now, the melt event didn’t have any big consequences — the ice shelf surface subsequently refroze, and that was that. But it’s worrisome, Bromwich said, because of how it fits into a pattern predicted by a very influential study of Antarctica published last year, which used climate and ice sheet models to predict the possibility that there could be major ice loss in this century capable of driving as much as 4 feet of sea level rise from Antarctica alone. That study, by Rob DeConto of the University of Massachusetts-Amherst and David Pollard of Penn State University, noted that in the future, West Antarctica’s ice shelves, which hold back massive glaciers, may not only melt from below due to their interactions with the ocean. The ice shelves may also begin to melt from above, causing liquid water to filter down into their depths and leading them to fracture apart. If Antarctic ice shelves fracture — something that has already been observed to occur on the Greenland ice sheet and in some parts of Antarctica where warmer temperatures already occur — then that would allow the ice lodged behind them to flow into the ocean much more rapidly. “These big melting events that we were studying in this paper is in exactly one of the critical areas that the DeConto and Pollard paper modeled big retreat in the Antarctic ice sheet,” said Bromwich. “So that’s the big significance here. It kind of shows how these big events could take place in the real world, not just the modeled world.” Bromwich also notes that El Niño events could become more frequent in the future — causing the Antarctic ice sheet to be hit by more frequent major melt events. “I would say this shows in perhaps a more realistic way, how melting could proceed in the future,” he said. “Melting is thought to be death to ice shelves,” Bell added. “This is the first well documented melt event where we can see how it happened.” More from Energy and Environment:
A Scale is a collection of pitches that work together in order to achieve some melodic-harmonic purpose. There are many kinds of melodic-harmonic purposes; there are many kinds of scales. Each scale type has a unique personality. Each scale sounds different. More important, each scale feels different. Each note in a scale has a particular musical function. Some establish the tonality. Some create harmonic tension. Some provide harmonic release. Think of each scale as a distinctive palette of musical colors that work together to create a certain mood or feeling. Never think of a scale as un-bendable or un-breakable rule.
Phonetics deals with the sound substance of language. This substance may be studied from different points of view and according to this points one may speak about different branches of phonetics. 1) From the point of view of the specification of the object of the study phonetics may be special and general. The former is concerned with the study of the phonetic system of a concrete language. General phonetics is concerned with the study of man's speech sounds on the whole. It establishes types of speech sounds, which exist in different languages, the ways they are produced and the role they play when forming and expressing thoughts. The result of such study is a number of theories concerning human languages as an abstraction, e.g. phoneme theory. 2) From the point of view of the time concerned in the phonetic study phonetics may be descriptive and historical. Descriptive phonetics studies the phonetic system in a stative form at a particular period of time, studies the phonetic system synchronically. Historical phonetics studies the system in it's historical development, diochronically. It studies written documents and compares the spelling and pronunciation of one and the same word in different periods of the language development. 3) Phonetics may be studied from the point of view of the sphere of linguistic study. Divided into theoretical and practicalphonetics. Theoretical phonetics applies the theories worked out by general phonetics to the language it analysis. It deals with functioning of phonetic units in the language as a system. Practical phonetics (applied phonetics) is all the practical applications of phonetics, which are especially important when learning a certain language. Practical phonetics deals with functioning of phonetic unit in speech. 4) From the point of view of correlation between different languages. There is one more important part of phonetics called comparative phonetics. It compares phonetic systems of two or more languages and not only kindred ones. 5) From the point of view of the aspects of a speech sound there may be the following division of phonetics. Investigations show that there are 4 aspects of a speech sound: · articulatory aspect · auditory aspect · acoustic aspect · functional aspect (linguistic, social) Articulatory phonetics studies speech sounds from the point of view of their articulation and in connection with the organs of speech by which they are produced.It employs experimental methods. Auditory phoneticsdeals with the study of man's perception of sound phenomena. It also employs experimental methods. Articulatory and auditory phonetics are sometimes combined into one branch called physiological phonetics. Because sound production and sound perception are physiological processes. Acoustic phonetics investigates acoustic properties of sounds, such as quality, length, intensity, pitch and others. It also employs experimental methods. Phonology (functional phonetics) is a purely linguistic branch, dealing with the functional aspect of sound phenomena. It discovers segmental and prosodic features that have a differentiantial value in a language. It establishes the system of phonemes and prosodies. The basis of phonology is the phoneme theory, established by Ivan Andreevich Baudouin de Courtenay in the years between 1868 and 1881. The theory was developed by his pupils, such as Sherba, Grushevskiy and some others. Phonology was founded in Prague by such linguists as Nikolay Trubetskoy, Roman Jakobson and others. The branch was launched in 1923. Trubetskoy claimed that phonology should be separated from phonetics. According to him phonetics is a biological science which is concerned with physical and physiological characteristics of speech sounds, while phonology is a linguistic science and is concerned with the social function of phonetic phenomena. The majority of Russian phoneticians do not consider it logical and to separate form from function and to exclude phonetics from the linguistic science. All the above branches of phonetics are closely connected since the object of their study, that is speech sounds, is the close unity of acoustic, articulatory, auditory and linguistic aspects.
New images of the liquid methane and ethane seas and lakes that reside near Titan’s north pole reveal new clues about how the lakes formed and about Titan’s “hydrologic” cycle. Pasadena, California– With the sun now shining down over the north pole of Saturn’s moon Titan, a little luck with the weather, and trajectories that put the spacecraft into optimal viewing positions, NASA’s Cassini spacecraft has obtained new pictures of the liquid methane and ethane seas and lakes that reside near Titan’s north pole. The images reveal new clues about how the lakes formed and about Titan’s Earth-like “hydrologic” cycle, which involves hydrocarbons rather than water. While there is one large lake and a few smaller ones near Titan’s south pole, almost all of Titan’s lakes appear near the moon’s north pole. Cassini scientists have been able to study much of the terrain with radar, which can penetrate beneath Titan’s clouds and thick haze. And until now, Cassini’s visual and infrared mapping spectrometer and imaging science subsystem had only been able to capture distant, oblique or partial views of this area. Several factors combined recently to give these instruments great observing opportunities. Two recent flybys provided better viewing geometry. Sunlight has begun to pierce the winter darkness that shrouded Titan’s north pole at Cassini’s arrival in the Saturn system nine years ago. A thick cap of haze that once hung over the north pole has also dissipated as northern summer approaches. And Titan’s beautiful, nearly cloudless, rain-free weather continued during Cassini’s flybys this past summer. The images are mosaics in infrared light based on data obtained during flybys of Titan on July 10, July 26, and September 12, 2013. The colorized mosaic from the visual and infrared mapping spectrometer, which maps infrared colors onto the visible-color spectrum, reveals differences in the composition of material around the lakes. The data suggest parts of Titan’s lakes and seas may have evaporated and left behind the Titan equivalent of Earth’s salt flats. Only at Titan, the evaporated material is thought to be organic chemicals originally from Titan’s haze particles that once dissolved in liquid methane. They appear orange in this image against the greenish backdrop of Titan’s typical bedrock of water ice. “The view from Cassini’s visual and infrared mapping spectrometer gives us a holistic view of an area that we’d only seen in bits and pieces before and at a lower resolution,” said Jason Barnes, a participating scientist for the instrument at the University of Idaho, Moscow. “It turns out that Titan’s north pole is even more interesting than we thought, with a complex interplay of liquids in lakes and seas and deposits left from the evaporation of past lakes and seas.” The near-infrared images from Cassini’s imaging cameras show a bright unit of terrain in the northern land of lakes that had not previously been visible in the data. The bright area suggests that the surface here is unique from the rest of Titan, which might explain why almost all of the lakes are found in this region. Titan’s lakes have very distinctive shapes — rounded cookie-cutter silhouettes and steep sides — and a variety of formation mechanisms have been proposed. The explanations range from the collapse of land after a volcanic eruption to karst terrain, where liquids dissolve soluble bedrock. Karst terrains on Earth can create spectacular topography such as the Carlsbad Caverns in New Mexico. “Ever since the lakes and seas were discovered, we’ve been wondering why they’re concentrated at high northern latitudes,” said Elizabeth (Zibi) Turtle, a Cassini imaging team associate based at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, Maryland. “So, seeing that there’s something special about the surface in this region is a big clue to help narrow down the possible explanations.” Launched in 1997, Cassini has been exploring the Saturn system since 2004. A full Saturn year is 30 years, and Cassini has been able to observe nearly a third of a Saturn year. In that time, Saturn and its moons have seen the seasons change from northern winter to northern summer. “Titan’s northern lakes region is one of the most Earth-like and intriguing in the solar system,” said Linda Spilker, Cassini project scientist, based at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California. “We know lakes here change with the seasons, and Cassini’s long mission at Saturn gives us the opportunity to watch the seasons change at Titan, too. Now that the sun is shining in the north and we have these wonderful views, we can begin to compare the different data sets and tease out what Titan’s lakes are doing near the north pole.” The Cassini-Huygens mission is a cooperative project of NASA, the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency. JPL manages the mission for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate, Washington. The California Institute of Technology in Pasadena manages JPL for NASA. The VIMS team is based at the University of Arizona in Tucson. The imaging operations center is based at the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colorado. All the new images are available online at: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/multimedia/index.html. Images: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona/University of Idaho; NASA/JPL-Caltech/SSI/JHUAPL/Univ. of Arizona
In this lesson of English Grammar, we are going to learn What is Tense in English grammar, and we also see the different types of tenses with suitable examples. To download the PDF of this lesson please find the PDF downloadable link mentioned below of this article. What is Tense? It is defined as the form of a verb which indicates the time and the state of an action or event. How many types of tenses are there? th ree major types of tense: Present indefinite or Simple present Present continuous tense Present perfect tense Present perfect continuous tense Simple past or past indefinite tense Past continuous tense Past perfect tense Past perfect continuous tense Future indefinite tense Future continuous tense Future perfect tense Future perfect continuous tense Let I show you in details the types of Tenses. V1= BASE FORM OF VERB V2= PAST SIMPLE V3= PAST PARTICIPLE Present Tense: What is Simple Present or Present Indefinite tense? It denotes habitual action, custom, practice, repeated action, permanent/eternal, general truth etc. Simple present or Present indefinite tense structure: The boy goes for a walk in the morning. Ayesha always comes in time. The cow gives milk. The sun rises in the East. We use simple present or present indefinite tense when: Historical present: Babur now leads his man through the Khyber Pass. Now Arjuna shoots arrows at Bhishma. Future arrangement: Near future without pre-planning. He leaves Tokyo tonight. He comes in a few days' time. The school opens at 8 a.m. after the vacation. He comes back from London tomorrow. Habitual action or recurring action: He takes exercise every day. Ram goes to school Universal Truth: The earth moves around the sun. Truth is power. Facts of the present: He is a good girl. There is a temple. Keywords: Every day, usually, generally, normally, sometimes, every week, every year, etc. When these words are present in a sentence and also follow the present indefinite sentence structure, you can easily identify that the tense of the sentence is simple present What is Present Continuous tense? It refers to an action in progress in the present at the time of speaking. Present continuous tense sentence structure: (SUBJECT + AM/ IS/ ARE + MAIN VERB + ING) He is playing chess. It is raining now. It also expresses future action or a definite arrangement in the near future. For examples, She is going to write a book I am going to my father tomorrow verbs for their meaning are not generally used in continuous form (present, past, future): Hear, see, smell, taste, etc. Verbs of emotion or state of mind: Love, hate, wish, Desire, hope, want, etc. Appear, look, seem, etc. Verbs denoting possession: Own, have, belong, comprise, possess, etc She is owning a car. (wrong ) - She owns a car (right) I am having no house. (wrong) - I have no house. (right) A continuous action of the present moment: Keywords: Now, still, at present, etc. He is studying now. Static verbs cannot be used in progressive action: The glass contains water. He owns a house. The flower smells sweet. I see he is a good boy. The temple stands in the heart of the city. Near future + planned action: I am leaving for Dubai tonight. We are going on a trip to Rajasthan this month. NOTE: Do not use Present Continuous tense when the action is OFFICIAL. What is Present Perfect tense? The action is over but the result or effect is still continuing. Present Perfect tense sentence structure: (SUBJECT + HAS/HAVE + V3 + OBJECT) Keywords: Just, just now, yet, of late, lately, recently, already, etc. I have just finished the walk. She has already had her breakfast. I have come to know about it lately (Adverb). Of late (Prepositional Phrase), the number of literates increased. What is Present Perfect Continuous tense? A continuous action running for a certain period of time. I have been reading this book since morning. I have been reading this novel for seven hours. We use since for staring time of the action. And for, a total duration of the action. Present Perfect Continuous tense structure: (SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS + BEEN + V1 + ING + OBJECT) ' Since' is used only in present perfect continuous. It cannot use in Past or Future tenses, there we can use ' From' in place of ' Since' If any static verb [External Link] is used in the structure of the present perfect continuous tense, the verb form changes into present perfect tense He has been owing this house since 2005 (Wrong) He has owned this house since 2005 (Right) Past Tense: What is Simple Past tense or Past Indefinite? Simple past tense is used to convey that the action is completely over or an indefinite action of the past. Simple past or Past indefinite tense structure: (SUBJECT + V2 + OBJECT) (SUBJECT + DID NOT + V1 + OBJECT ) They did not go. (DID + SUBJECT + V1) Did he arrive? (DID NOT + SUBJECT ( NOUN) + V1) (DID + SUBJECT ( PRONOUN)+ NOT + V1) Did not the boy play? Did he not play? Keywords: Yesterday, ago, before, back, last night, last year, year/date/day of past, etc. I used to take exercise every morning. I met the boy yesterday. He went away five minutes ago. I passed in an examination in 2016 Recent or the distant past: Her father died yesterday. Babur founded the Mughal Empire in India Point of time: People lived in caves a long time ago. What is Past Continuous tense? A continuous action of the past moment. He was studying when I saw him. Past continuous tense structure: (SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + V1 + ING + OBJECT) I was reading. They were reading. Keywords: Then, that time, when (Conjunction) + past tense, a particular time of the past. I was studying at 6 am yesterday. He came while I was studying. I was studying when he came. Rain stopped when he came (Simple past). Always use ' While' before Past continuous tense. Don't use 'when'. What is Past Perfect tense? It expresses an action which was completed before another past action. Past perfect tense structure: (SUBJECT + HAD + V3 + OBJECT) In the case of two successive actions of the past, past perfect tense is used with the first action. The patient had died before the doctor arrived. The patient died after the doctor had examined him. What is Past Perfect continuous tense? A continuous action that was running for a period of time in the past. He had been suffering from fever before he came here. Past perfect continuous tense structure: (SUBJECT + HAD + BEEN + V1 + ING + OBJECT + TIME FRAME) I had been working with the company for 5 years. I had been working with the company from 2011-2016 For - Total duration of action. From - The starting point of action. To - Ending point of action. Future Tense: What is Future Indefinite tense? It expresses an action that will happen in the future. Future indefinite tense structure: (SUBJECT + WILL / SHALL + V1 + OBJECT) I shall visit your place. He will write a letter. You will make it. Keywords: Soon, shortly, in a few moments, tomorrow, next week/ Month/ year, etc. She will reach here shortly. They will arrive soon. Generally, 'shall' is used with the first person of pronoun, 'I' 'we' 'will' is used with second and third persons. besides, 'shall' and 'will' can be used reversely. You shall not move. (order) I will stand by you. (promise) They shall be rewarded. (assurance) Sometimes, future action is expressed in the present continuous tense. She is getting engaged soon. (certain to marry) Future action is also expressed in the present indefinite tense. The pm leaves for Mumbai next Sunday. She arrives from London next month. What is Future Continuous tense? It is used to express an action which will be in progress at a given time in the future. Future Continuous tense structure: (SUBJECT + SHALL / WILL BE + [V + ING] ) She will be writing to me when I reach home. I shall be sleeping at 11 o'clock at night. What is Future Perfect tense? It is used to express an action which will be in progress at a given time in the future. Future Perfect tense structure: (SUBJECT + SHALL/WILL + HAVE + V3) He will have typed 8 letters by lunch today. I shall have known her for five years next month. What is Future Perfect Continuous tense? It is used to express an action which will begin before a definite moment in the future and will continue up to that moment and will be in progress even at that moment. Future continuous tense structure: (SUBJECT + SHALL/WILL + HAVE + BEEN + V + ING) When the clock strikes eleven, I shall have been writing these letters for three hours. The poor will have been starving for many days. A Must Watch Video Lesson on Tense: So that's all for tenses in English Grammar. I recommended you to check out our parts of speech related topics too. It will definitely help you a lot. References [External Links]:
You are here Thursday, March 4, 2021 NIH scientists discover how DNA fragments can trigger inflammation in sickle cell disease Researchers have discovered that DNA from the mitochondria - the cell’s “powerhouses” - acts as a danger signal in the body and triggers inflammation in people with sickle cell disease. A better understanding of mitochondrial DNA, long known to circulate in human blood, may provide vital insight into how to stop the underlying chronic inflammation that marks this inherited red blood cell disorder. It could also lead to new ways to reduce the pain crises suffered by people living with the life-threatening disease. The study, published in the journal Blood, was supported by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), part of the National Institutes of Health. “These study findings suggest that measuring DNA of mitochondrial origin could help us better understand its role in pain crises, destruction of red blood cells, and other inflammatory events in sickle cell disease,” said Swee Lay Thein, M.B., D.Sc., chief of the Sickle Cell Branch at NHLBI. “It could also serve as a marker of disease progression and a way to measure the effectiveness of therapeutic interventions.” Normally a red blood cell gets rid of its mitochondria when it matures, because the energy from mitochondria is not needed to carry out the red blood cell’s function of delivering oxygen throughout the body. However, Thein and her team showed that red blood cells from people with sickle cell anemia - the most common and often most severe type of sickle cell disease - abnormally retain the mitochondria, which can lead to a buildup of highly reactive chemical molecules that stresses the cells. This condition, researchers found, allows damaged mitochondrial DNA to enter circulation with too few of the small molecules, called methyl groups, that typically attach to the DNA to help the cells function. This abnormal amount of molecules on the mitochondrial DNA, in turn, stimulates inflammation, a hallmark of sickle cell disease. To do the study, Thein and her staff scientist, Laxminath Tumburu, Ph.D., the study’s main author, analyzed the complete set of DNA extracted from the blood plasma of 34 people with sickle cell anemia, as well as the blood plasma from eight healthy volunteers. “We were intrigued when we found higher levels of free-floating mitochondrial DNA in the plasma of the patients with sickle cell disease,” Thein said. “These were shorter and more fragmented than free-floating nuclear DNA fragments, which are also known to drift in the patient’s blood.” The free-floating mitochondrial DNA from patients with sickle cell disease had fewer methyl groups than were found in the blood plasma of the healthy volunteers. As intriguing: the free-floating mitochondrial DNA from seven of those patients had even less of these methyl groups when the patients were having a pain crisis, compared to when they were not. To examine why this was the case, the researchers looked at how the blood plasma containing high levels of free-floating mitochondrial DNA triggers a specific inflammatory process. Neutrophils are part of the immune system and they form structures called neutrophil extracellular traps, or NETs that are crucial components of the immune response and are typically protective in bacterial or viral infections. But a negative consequence of these NETs is inflammation that is detrimental and often continual, even in the absence of infection. Knowing this, Thein and her team were able to block the formation of NETs by treating neutrophils with a small molecule inhibitor. With this improved understanding of the components that contribute to the sickle cell disease process, the researchers said they now want to pursue preclinical testing of drugs that target mitochondrial DNA and the inflammatory process it stimulates. About the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI): NHLBI is the global leader in conducting and supporting research in heart, lung, and blood diseases and sleep disorders that advances scientific knowledge, improves public health, and saves lives. For more information, visit https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov. About the National Institutes of Health (NIH): NIH, the nation's medical research agency, includes 27 Institutes and Centers and is a component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIH is the primary federal agency conducting and supporting basic, clinical, and translational medical research, and is investigating the causes, treatments, and cures for both common and rare diseases. For more information about NIH and its programs, visit www.nih.gov. NIH…Turning Discovery Into Health® Tumburu, L. et al. Circulating mitochondrial DNA is a pro-inflammatory DAMP in sickle cell disease.
Chinese researchers realized an elementary link of a quantum repeater based on absorptive quantum memories (QMs) and demonstrated the multiplexed quantum repeater for the first time. On June 2nd, 2021, the work was published in Nature. The fundamental task of a quantum network is to distribute quantum entanglement between two remote locations. However, the transmission loss of optical fiber has limited the distance of entanglement distribution to approximately 100 km on the ground. Quantum repeaters can overcome this difficulty by dividing long-distance transmission into several short-distance elementary links. The entanglement of two end nodes of each link is created firstly. Then the entanglement distance is gradually expanded through entanglement swapping between each link. Previously, an elementary link of a quantum repeater has been realized in cold atomic ensembles and single quantum systems. These demonstrations are all based on emissive QMs, in which the entangled photons are emitted from QMs. Quantum repeaters constructed by emissive QMs have simple structures, but poor compatibilities. It is of great challenge to support deterministic entanglement sources and multiplexed operations simultaneously, which are two key technologies to enhance the entanglement distribution rate. Quantum repeaters based on absorptive QMs can overcome such limitations because they separate the quantum memories and the entangled photon sources. The research team, led by Prof. LI Chuanfeng and Prof. ZHOU Zongquan from University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), focuses on the research of absorptive QMs based on rare-earth-ion-doped crystals. For this kind of QMs, the entanglement source can be flexibly selected, including deterministic entanglement sources, while remaining the capability of multiplexed operations, and therefore should be more efficient for quantum repeater applications. In this work, they used external entangled photon-pair sources (EPPSs) based on spontaneous parametric down-conversion and achieved heralded entanglement distribution between two absorptive QMs for the first time. They built an elementary link with an intermediate station and two nodes at the ends. Each node contains an absorptive QM with a bandwidth of 1GHz and a bandwidth-matched EPPS. In each node, one entangled photon of each photon pair was stored in the “Sandwich-like” QM while the other was transmitted to the middle station for joint Bell-state measurement (BSM). A successful entanglement swapping operation was heralded by the successful click of BSM. The entanglement between two QMs 3.5 meters apart was established with a fidelity of approximately 80.4%, although there weren’t any direct interactions between two remote QMs. Four temporal modes were employed in this demonstration of an elementary link of a quantum repeater, accelerating the entanglement distribution rate by four times. Prof. ZHOU Zongquan said: “The use of absorptive quantum memory is expected to achieve high efficiency quantum repeater and quantum network in the future, and further promote the communication between ‘Cowherd and Weaver Girl’ in the quantum world.” This work provides a feasible roadmap for the development of practical quantum repeaters and lays the foundation for the construction of high-speed quantum networks. Reviewers pointed out”The present work focuses on the ensemble approach, which has a number of advantages in the context of quantum repeater applications, multiplexing for instance.” They highly recommend this work as”a significant accomplishment that will form the basis for further research” and “a major step forward in the development of a practical quantum repeater.” Prof. LI Chuanfeng said that the team will continue to improve the indicators of absorptive QM, “we will use deterministic entanglement source to greatly improve the entanglement distribution rate, and to achieve practical quantum repeaters beyond direct transmission of optical fiber.” For future developments, the research team will continue to improve the performances of the absorptive QMs, and adopt deterministic entanglement sources, so as to greatly enhance the entanglement distribution rate, and to achieve a practical quantum repeater that outperforms the direct transmission of photons. Reference: “Heralded entanglement distribution between two absorptive quantum memories” by Xiao Liu, Jun Hu, Zong-Feng Li, Xue Li, Pei-Yun Li, Peng-Jun Liang, Zong-Quan Zhou, Chuan-Feng Li and Guang-Can Guo, 2 June 2021, Nature. LIU Xiao and HU Jun from CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information and CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics are the co-first authors. The corresponding authors are Prof. LI Chuanfeng and Prof. ZHOU Zongquan.
Special education (also known as special-needs education, aided education, exceptional education, special ed. , SEN, or SPED) is the practice of educating students to address their differences and special needs. Ideally, this process involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, and accessible settings. These interventions are designed to help individuals with special needs achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and in their community, which may not be available if the student were only given access to a typical classroom setting. Special education includes learning disabilities (such as dyslexia), communication disorders, emotional and behavioral disorders (such as ADHD), physical disabilities (such as osteogenesis imperfecta, cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, spina bifida, and Friedreich's ataxia), and developmental disabilities (such as autistic spectrum disorders including autism and Asperger syndrome and intellectual disability) and many other disabilities. Students with these kinds of disabilities are likely to benefit from additional educational services such as different approaches to teaching, the use of technology, a specifically adapted teaching area, a resource room, or a separate classroom. "The Special Education Process Explained". Special Education Guide. 2013. Retrieved 01 June 2019.
Two-Toed Sloths primarily eat leaves, but also shoots, fruits, vegetables, nuts, berries, bark, and occasionally small rodents. They have large stomachs, with multiple chambers, which help to ferment the large amount of plant matter that they eat. Food can take up to a month to digest due to their slow metabolism. Depending on when in the excretion cycle a sloth is weighed, urine and feces may account for up to 30 percent of the animal’s body weight, which averages about 13 pounds (6 kilograms). Although they have a much more diverse diet in the wild than in captivity they can survive well in captivity on a diet of fruits and vegetables. The Three-Toed sloth is much more difficult to maintain in captivity because it needs a constant supply of leaves from various trees such as the Guarumo Cecropia and up to 96 other lesser known species. The Three-Toed Sloth will not normally consume vegetables and fruits. The leaves to feed them in captivity must be harvested from the forest daily and hand fed to them. Sloths live approximately 12 years. Two-Toed Sloths are not closely related genetically to the Three-Toed Sloth and are thought to have evolved independently to occupy a similar ecological niche. The Two-Toed Sloth is larger than the Three-Toed and can weigh from 8-19 lbs. (4- 8.5 kg). The Two-Toed Sloths are actually more related genetically to the extinct Giant Sloth than they are to the Three-Toed Sloth. A sloth’s musculature, stomach, and metabolism are intensely coordinated to operate using a minimum of expended energy and to yield the most energy from their low-calorie food supply (leaves). They have very low muscle mass relative to the size of their stomach and intestines compared to other mammals. Their stomach and intestines comprise an enormous 30% of their entire weight. The digestion of the leaves they eat can take up to one month. This system, like a cow’s stomach, is slow but very efficient in deriving as much energy as possible from the relatively indigestible leaves they consume. Their low body temperature of approximately 86°F (30°C) and their lethargic behaviors are other body functions that save energy. A male sloth reaches sexual maturity in 4-5 years and females in around 3 years. Male sloths attract female sloths by marking their territory with a powerfully scented secretion from a rear gland in their buttocks. They normally copulate in the branches of a tree. The gestation period is from 5-7 months and only one offspring is born weighing about 9 ounces (250g). It clings to its mother’s abdomen with its claws and suckles for up to 4 weeks before beginning to feed on leaves chewed up by the mother for another month. It then feeds alongside the mother for up to 6 more months. This time period spent with the mother after weaning gives the young sloth the opportunity to learn individual food trees. The mother then moves on to a new feeding range and leaves her offspring her previous home range to live and feed. This gift of territory helps to insure the survival of her young. However, the mortality rate of sloths is so high that rarely will two successive generations survive. Unlike many other mammals of their type Sloths have color vision. They also have an excellent sense of smell which aids in finding food sources and mates, but they have extremely poor hearing. Sloths are most closely related to anteaters and armadillos than any other mammals and are grouped in the same order with them. They are also thought to be related to the Koala Bear in Australia but from way back in the evolutionary calendar. These animals lead a solitary life and only come together to mate.
The United States entered World War II in December 1941 after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor. President Franklin Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, authorizing evacuation of persons of Japanese descent. On March 17, 1942, the Committee on Military Affairs issued House Report No. 1906, recommending the passage of H.R. 6758, which gave teeth to the executive order by creating a “penalty for violation of restrictions or orders.” The report states: “The necessity for this legislation arose from the fact that the safe conduct of the war requires the fullest possible protection against either espionage or sabotage to the national defense material, national defense premises, and national defense utilities. In order to provide such protection it has been deemed advisable to remove certain aliens as well as citizens from areas in which war production is located and where military activities are being conducted.” The bill became Public Law 77-503 on March 21, 1942, signaling the beginning of the relocation and internment of Japanese American residents of western states and the territory of Hawaii. Close to 120,000 individuals of Japanese descent, American citizens and Japanese citizens legally residing in the United States, were interned before the relocation order was rescinded in 1944.
Perhaps one of the world’s most emotive and iconic animals, the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) is the largest living terrestrial mammal, with the largest recorded individual reaching a massive four metres at the shoulder and weighing an impressive ten tonnes. The African elephant’s brain is bigger than that of any other animal and its skull is exceptionally large, having evolved to support the trunk and the heavy teeth and jaws. The skull comprises up to 25 percent of the elephant’s total body weight. Preliminary genetic evidence suggests that there may be at least two species of African elephants: the savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) and the forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis). The forest elephant can be distinguished from the savanna elephant by its smaller body size, smaller ears, and its straighter, downward-projecting tusks. However, many conservationists believe there is not yet sufficient evidence to justify this distinction , and that premature allocation into more than one species may leave hybrids in an uncertain conservation status. Elephants are unusual among mammals in that they continue to grow throughout their life, although the rate at which they grow slows after they reach sexual maturity. The hefty body of the African elephant is supported by stocky, pillar-like legs which have thick, heavy, vertically-aligned bones . The African elephant has four toes on the forefeet and three toes on the hind feet, unlike both the forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), which each have five toes on the front feet and four toes on the hind feet . The feet are broad and the toes are embedded in a fatty substance which cushions the weight of the animal and enables it to move more quietly. The thick skin of the African elephant is generally dull brownish-grey, with a sparse scattering of black, bristly hairs. The skin is wrinkly and adapted for keeping the body cool, as the wrinkles increase the surface area of the skin, trapping moisture which then takes much longer to evaporate than if the skin was smooth. The end of the tail is flattened and has a tuft of coarse, crooked hairs. The characteristic outward-curving tusks of the African elephant are actually elongated upper incisors, which are formed from a unique composition of calcareous materials. Both the male and female African elephant have tusks and, like the rest of the body, the tusks continue to grow throughout the elephant’s life. The upper lip and nose of all elephant species are elongated and muscular, forming the distinctive trunk. The African elephant uses its trunk to form and amplify vocalisations, to feed from the ground and from trees and shrubs, to break off branches, and to pick leaves, shoots and fruits. It is also used to aid drinking, greeting, touching and other social behaviours. The end of the trunk has two prehensile finger-like lips which are covered in fine, sensory hairs. The large, oversized ears of the African elephant are distinguished from other elephant species by the presence of overhanging flaps along the upper edges. As well as playing a role in communication, the ears are also important in temperature regulation and heat loss. A rich network of blood vessels is found immediately beneath the thin skin which covers the back of the ears, and when temperatures rise the ears are fanned to help increase the flow of air and cool the blood through evaporation. Also known assavanna elephant. SynonymsLoxodonta africana africana. FrenchÉléphant Africain, Éléphant d’Afrique.SpanishElefante Africano.SizeMale head-body length: 6 – 7.5 m Female head-body length: 5.4 – 6.9 m Male shoulder height: c. 3.3 m Female shoulder height: c. 2.7 m Average male weight: 6 tonnes (2)Average female weight: 3 tonnes. African elephant biology African elephant society is highly complex and arranged around family units composed of groups of closely related females and their calves. Each family unit contains around ten individuals (7), led by an old female known as the ‘matriarch’ (2). Family units often join up with other bands of females to form ‘kinship groups’ or ‘bond groups’, and larger herds may number well over a hundred individuals (8). The male elephant leaves its natal group at puberty and tends to form much more fluid alliances with other males (2). The African elephant communicates with other elephants in a variety of ways. For example, changes in the posture and position of the tail, head, ears and trunk convey visual signals and messages, while smell plays a significant role in maintaining social contact within the herd, in detecting threats, and in assessing the health or sexual condition of another elephant. Touch is also an important method of communication, and the elephant will use its dextrous, tactile trunk in greetings and other social behaviours (2) (5). Vocalisations, however, provide the primary mode of communication between individuals (2) (5). The distinctive, trumpeting call of the elephant is produced mainly in excitement or surprise, during attack, or when playing, while the most common elephant vocalisation is a growl used in warning and to maintain contact between individuals (2). Other sounds made by the African elephant range from high-pitched squeaks to deep rumbles, and two-thirds of the calls are emitted at a frequency below the range of human hearing (2) (5) (10). These low frequency sounds enable the African elephant to communicate over large distances (2) (5), with some calls being heard by other elephants at distances of at least eight kilometres (5). It is thought that the ability of the African elephant to communicate over such distances is essential to successful reproduction, as male and female elephants tend to range separately for much of the year. During the female’s short oestrus period, which lasts only two to four days, the female will emit a series of powerful, low-pitched calls to attract breeding males from several kilometres away . The African elephant is extremely long-lived, sometimes surviving for up to 70 years. Although the female African elephant may reach sexual maturity at 10 years old, it is most fertile between the ages of 25 and 45. There is no distinct breeding season and the female will typically produce a calf every three or four years, although the interval between births may be longer when conditions are not favourable, and birth peaks in certain areas may relate to the local rainfall patterns. Elephant calves are born after an exceptionally long gestation period of nearly two years, and continue to be dependent on the female for several years . The calves are also cared for by other females in the group, especially by young females known as ‘allomothers’ . The social bonds between elephants are very strong, and if faced with danger the group will form a protective circle around the young calves, with the adults facing outwards and the matriarch adopting a threatening pose or even charging the intruder. African elephants are known to care for their wounded and also show recognition of, and particular interest in, elephant bones . African elephant groups will spend the day wandering their home range in search of food and water . During the wet season, the African elephant feeds mainly on grasses, as well as leaves from a range of trees and shrubs. It will often dig for roots after the first rains of the season, and will also eat flowers and fruits when they are abundant. At other times of the year, the African elephant will also feed on the woody parts of trees and shrubs . An adult elephant requires 160 kilograms of food a day; using its highly mobile trunk it plucks at grasses and leaves, or tears at branches and bark with its tusks, which can cause enormous damage . The African elephant also needs to consume an extraordinary amount of fluid each day, and in the dry season, may dig holes into dried river beds in search of water . African elephant range The African elephant occurs largely in eastern, southern and western Africa , although its populations are becoming increasingly fragmented The following are a list of links and articles which will tell you more about the habitats, plants and animals which concern you. The list is by no means comprehensive and we welcome recommendations from you for additions. It will be regularly updated.
Food waste – setting the UK and global scene Around 50% of all food produced on the planet never gets eaten. In the UK, almost 15 million tonnes of food waste is generated each year. Around 40% of this ends up in landfill1 where it produces harmful methane with a global warming potential 21 times stronger than carbon dioxide. So it is vital that we act decisively today. Launched by ReFood, Vision 2020 is a credible solution to this ever-growing problem. Its main aim is to bring about a change in Government strategy, to ban food waste from landfill and instead see it recycled. By achieving this, we'll also be helping the UK meet its obligations under current Landfill Directives. We want to see an industry-agreed timetable for this ban, with changes introduced swiftly, yet in a manageable order. After all, the clock is ticking and time is not on our side. Our aims for 2020 This is what the UK looks like now, and also what it could look like in 2020 if we achieve zero food waste to landfill: When Vision 2020 was first launched in early 2011, there was an absence of available statistics on food waste in the UK. WRAP’s 2008 report entitled ‘The Food We Waste’ estimated that 6.7m tonnes of food waste were generated by households every year, but elsewhere it was largely guesswork. Thanks to a body of research principally funded by WRAP since then, the picture is clearer and the size of the benefits more easily determined. This is what the UK could look like in 2020 if we achieve zero food waste to landfill. 1 Defra 2011: Government Review of Waste Policy in England
Behavior exhibited by persons in response to certain stimuli. Instrumental behavior is a concept that grew out of the behavior therapy movement, originating in the 1950s with the work of H.J. Eysenck . Behavior therapy asserts that neuroses are not the symptoms of underlying disorders (as Sigmund Freud theorized), but are in fact disorders in and of themselves. Further, these disorders are learned responses to traumatic experiences in much the same way that animals can be demonstrated to learn a response to instrumental, or operant, conditioning . In the classic behaviorist experiments of Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner , it was shown that animals could be trained to respond in a learned way to external stimuli. Humans also respond in a similar manner. If, for instance, a child has a difficult, painful relationship with his older brother, who is athletic and popular, he may develop a fear or hatred of all popular, athletic males that will stay with him throughout life—even after the original stimuli for the reaction (his older brother) is absent. This behavior is referred to as instrumental behavior. In treating a patient to eliminate instrumental behaviors, behavioral therapists rely on several fairly well-tested techniques. Perhaps the most popular is counter-conditioning, a process in which a therapist links the stimuli to a different instrumental behavior, or conditioned response . Other methods include flooding and modeling . In flooding, a therapist will attempt to expose a patient to an overload of the anxiety-producing stimuli in order to lessen its effect. In modeling, the patient is exposed to someone who has successfully dealt with a similar anxiety-producing stimuli.

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