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The great thing about the scientific method is that we can figure out what will happen if we do something before we do it. Scientists figured out long ago that burning fossil fuels and putting CO2 into the atmosphere at a great rate would affect the planet's climate systems. Which it has. One of the predictions about the effect of dumping CO2 into the atmosphere was that the Arctic would be affected most. Which it has been. Scientists predicted an Arctic acceleration or amplification: a process where positive feedbacks become ever stronger with ever less Arctic ice. Ice loss is accelerating. Arctic mosaic May 01 2011 A glance at the current Arctic mosaic satellite image, above, seems to show nothing unusual. However, with a bit of background knowledge and some more current data we can see more detail, and understand it better. Arctic melt 20 years ahead of climate modelsArctic warming, like global warming, is not uniformly distributed: some regions warm a lot faster than others. By measuring the air temperature directly over the Arctic after the end of the summer melt, Serreze found a large amount of released heat. Temperatures in areas losing ice were as much as 5 °C higher over the last four years as compared to the historic average. The computer models predict this "Arctic acceleration," says Serreze but 20 years into the future. "The models are giving us the big picture of what is going on, but it's all happening much faster than expected," he says. This change may already be irreversible, as the extra heat creates a runaway thinning of ice that will soon be unable to survive in the summer Sun. If it disappears entirely during the summers, the ramifications would be global.http://www.newscientist.com/ Melting Arctic ice could nearly fill Lake Erie: StudyAll that melting ice is likely to have effects on salinity. That is what I missed when I wrongly predicted an early April breakup of the Nares Ice Bridge. A lowered salinity in surface waters means that the ice which forms is less saline than ordinary sea ice - hence generally stronger. Four large glaciers in Canada's High Arctic have been continuously monitored since 1963, and "a third to half" of all the ice mass loss that has occurred since measurements began has happened in the last five years, says Sharp. He says one of the most significant findings of the study is that Canada's Arctic glaciers are about twice as sensitive to ice loss as temperatures climb as expected, suggesting that models used to predict what could happen in future "may be unduly conservative."http://www.vancouversun.com ...the northern end of Nares Strait has been experiencing an increase in freshwater runoff since the mid 1980s. The recent changes are most pronounced at the northern end of the strait and diminish toward the south, a pattern consistent with proximity to the apparently freshening Arctic Ocean source in the north and mixing with Baffin Bay waters as the water progresses southward. This increasing freshwater signal may reflect changes in circulation and ice formation that favor an increased flow of relatively fresh waters from the Arctic Ocean into Nares Strait. Hydrographic Changes in Nares Strait (Canadian Arctic Archipelago) in Recent Decades Based on δ18O Profiles of Bivalve Shells Torres et al Sea ice concentration April 30 2011 source: Cryosphere Today Given what we know about the recent rapid changes in the Arctic climate system, it is unsurprising that images like the one above reveal what is not yet clear in the Arctic mosaic images: there is a great deal of low concentration ice already, at the end of April. Given that open water absorbs heat and promotes melting, it is reasonable to expect that the sea ice extent will now begin to decline more rapidly. We may expect the 2011 line in the graph below - which is already touching the 2007 line - to dip more sharply downwards during May. AMSR-E sea ice extent May 01 2011 The Cryosphere Today 'Tale of the Tape' continues to show 2011 as significantly different from previous years. This suggests to me that the 2011 drop in ice extent has barely begun. Northern Hemisphere sea ice anomaly from 1979 - 2008 mean - resized. source and link to full sized graph below. Sea ice anomaly - subsection of above graph from 2004 - 2011 source: Cryosphere Today It is not just extent, area and concentration that are anomalous. The oldest and thickest ice is now confined to a relatively small area. A great amount of ice is 1st year ice and / or is 2 meters or less in thickness, as shown in the next graphic. Ice thickness forecast May 01-02 2011 In general, the ice is thinner and younger than historical norms. The Arctic Oscillation has now entered a negative phase which, if continued, will promote further ice loss. The Arctic is losing ice at an ever-increasing rate. This should be a major concern to politicians and citizens alike. Even if we could stabilize our CO2 emissions and prevent global warming rising above 2oC, that may not be enough. Not only is warming more effective in the Arctic, but Arctic warming is likely to increase the input of GHGs into the atmosphere. Given what paleoclimate studies tell us about prehistoric Arctic climates, I consider it highly plausible that if we continue with our business as usual profligacy, then the feedbacks from the Arctic climate to the planetary climate system will make our too-late efforts to control CO2 entirely futile. By studying fossilized seashells from 3.5 million years ago, scientists from the University of California in Los Angeles have constructed an ancient climate record for Ellesmere Island.Further reading on the current state of the Arctic: Their research shows that, during this period, temperatures were considerably higher in the High Arctic than today. Three to four million years ago, temperatures from May to September were 11 to 16 C warmer there than the present-day average temperatures of −1.6 to 1.3 C. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has said keeping carbon dioxide levels at 400 ppm, by reducing greenhouse gas emissions world-wide, will keep global temperature rise to two degrees Centigrade. Previous research has shown that, for the High Arctic, this 2 C rise will still mean temperatures up to 16 C higher in the Arctic than today by 2100. Related reading on Ellesmere Island's ice shelves: The Oldest Arctic Ice More of my Arctic-related articles: The ChatterBox Arctic Index
Understand Java 8 -:: (double colon) operator-Method References using simple example In this post we will understand the Method Reference using a simple example. Usually we use lambda expressions to create anonymous methods which return us the desired output. But sometimes lambda expressions do nothing but call an existing method. Because this lambda expression calls an existing method, method. Java Stream reduction. A reduction is a terminal operation that aggregates a stream into a type or a primitive. The Java 8 Stream API contains a set of predefined reduction operations, such as average(), sum(), min(), max(), and count(), which return one value by combining the elements of a stream. Java Stream reduce method. The map is a well known functional programming concept which is incorporated into Java 8. Map is a function defined in java.util.stream.Streams class, which is used to transform each element of the stream by applying a function to each element. Because of this property, you can use map () in Java 8 to transform a Collection, List, Set or Map. Previous Next In this post, we will see about Java 8 Stream map function. Stream’s map method takes single element from input stream and produces single element to output stream. Type of Single input Stream and Output stream can differ. Java 8 Stream Map function Map function returns a stream consisting of the results of applying the given function to the elements of this stream. Internal iteration provides several features such as sequential and parallel execution, filtering based on the given criteria, mapping etc. Most of the Java 8 Stream API method arguments are functional interfaces, so lambda expressions work very well with them. Let’s see how can we write above logic in a single line statement using Java Streams. Java Stream Filter. Java stream provides a method filter() to filter stream elements on the basis of given predicate. Suppose you want to get only even elements of your list then you can do this easily with the help of filter method. This method takes predicate as an argument and returns a stream of consisting of resulted elements. Signature. Mapping. Streams support the method map, which takes a function (java.util.function.Function) as an argument to project the elements of a stream into another form. The function is applied to each element, “mapping” it into a new element. For example, you might want to use it to extract information from each element of a stream. In the example in Listing 10, we return a list of the length. SQL in Java 8: ResultSet Streams. With Java 8, writing SQL will change fundamentally, no matter what API you're using. In the above example we are using java stream conditional filter to get user having age greater than 18. Java 8 stream Map. Java stream Map function is used to map object from one form to other of same or different type. It needs Function (java.util.function.Function) which takes one input and gives output of same or another type. First of all map() is intermediate stream operation. You get back Stream from intermediate operations not a Collection. Next streams are lazy init which means they will not execute until a terminal operation is run. So you need to have one terminal operation. The map operation takes a Function, which is called for each value in the input stream and produces one result value, which is sent to the output stream. The function used for transformation in map () is a stateless function and returns only a single value. map () method is used when we want to convert a stream of X to stream of Y. In Java 8, the conversion of each temperature can be done in just one line of code. The key to achieving this goal is to use the map method of the Stream class. This method maps (i.e., translates) each element of a collection based on a given lambda or method reference. To learn how to map elements using the map method, follow these four steps. Java 8 Stream.map () example. Stream.map () method returns a stream consisting of the results of applying the given function to the elements of this stream. We can use Stream.map () function for transforming the objects based on the input method. The given below example, converts all string elements in upper case. In this article, I will show how read JSON object using JAVA 8. Tools Used: 1) eclipse version Luna 4.4.1. 2) Maven 3.3.3. 3) JDK 1.8. Simple steps to follow are: 1) Create a simple maven project. 2) Add the dependencies. 3) Write a simple java program to read JSON object from file. 4) Run the program. Add the given dependency to json api. Java 8: Accumulate the elements of a Stream using Collectors Last modified February 12, 2019. Java. I’ve earlier written about the Stream API and how you can write more declarative code by using it. In this article I want to focus on the different ways of accumulating the elements of a Stream using Collectors. This is made possible by using collect — a method in the Stream interface. Java 8: Streams, Collectors, Map, Function, MapToInt, Method references - Control.java. Generics capabilities were added in Java way back in version J2SE 1.5, but most Java developers only learned the minimum they needed to know about them to get the job done. With the advent of Java 8, suddenly the JavaDocs are filled with method signatures like this one from java.util.Map.Entry. Java Stream How to - Map object to create new object. Website Home; HOME; Index; Stream How to; Stream How to; IntStream; Lambda; Lambda API; Lambda Interface; List; Map; Optional; Stream; Stream Average; Stream Collector; Stream Convert; Stream File Folder; Stream Filter; Stream Group; Stream Map; Stream Parallel; Stream Partition; Stream Reduce; Stream Sort; Stream Sum; Java Stream How to. Part 2: Processing Data with Java SE 8 Streams. by Raoul-Gabriel Urma Published May 2014. Java; Technical Details; Technical Article. Combine advanced operations of the Stream API to express rich data processing queries. In the first part of this series, you saw that streams let you process collections with database-like operations. As a refresher, the example in Listing 1 shows how to sum.
It’s a common dream—the dream of arriving at work in our pajamas or forgetting everything we needed to know for a big presentation or performance. We wake up with our hearts pounding and palms sweating, still overcome by the humiliation we felt in the dream. Those types of dreams usually occur as a reaction to stressful or anxious situations, but the feelings of humiliation and embarrassment experienced in the dream seem very real. Those who have Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) experience a similar fear daily while interacting with their peers. Social Anxiety is an intense fear of being negatively judged, rejected, or embarrassed by others in social situations. Symptoms can range from blushing and rapid heart rate to nausea, sleep disturbance, and avoidance of social situations. Social Anxiety Disorder in Children As the third most common mental health disorder (after depression and substance abuse), over 12% of the population suffer from symptoms of social anxiety every day, with numbers of social anxiety since COVID and reentry anxiety rising as students return to their school campuses and our nation begins to find some normalcy in a post-pandemic world. Signs of kids with social anxiety usually begin to show between the ages of eight and fifteen, which is the developmental stage when adolescents typically feel more self-aware and self-conscious. What is reentry anxiety? It’s the anxiety students feel about re-entering public spaces like school or other gathering places now that most COVID restrictions have lifted. There is a difference between kids who are shy and those who have a social anxiety disorder. It’s normal to be nervous about meeting new people, giving a speech in class, or interacting with a group of strangers. When there is a fear so intense that it keeps kids from functioning or performing tasks, that’s a strong sign of a kid with social anxiety. For instance, when a student doesn’t try out for the volleyball team because they are worried about being scrutinized, even though they love volleyball, they could be suffering from social anxiety. Other examples include not asking the teacher a question for fear of sounding unintelligent or seeing a group of friends laughing and imagining they are mocking them even when reassured that they are not. A shy person will eventually warm up to people, while those with social anxiety will not. Post-Pandemic Anxiety Disorders Those with social anxiety before the pandemic may have found that the pandemic allowed for too much time to “overthink” instead of socialize, causing their condition to worsen. Even those who showed no signs of dealing with social anxiety before the pandemic may have developed Social Anxiety Disorder during the isolation of quarantine. For instance, academically successful students who didn’t show symptoms of social phobia pre-COVID may now have post-COVID social anxiety because of the uncertainty in their ability to succeed after months of being removed from a system where they felt successful. Some kids may fear socializing post pandemic—after months in isolation, they may fear that their appearance has changed and that they will be judged by their peers, while others may fear a loss of friendships due to the passing of time when they were unable to maintain their former relationships. The pandemic affected every child in some way. For some, the pandemic meant more time at home with their families, and they still were able to communicate with and spend time with friends. Kids who were already enrolled in virtual school before the pandemic began were ahead of the game when it came to their education and, as a result, saw fewer disruptions in their everyday learning routines. Because their school routine didn’t change drastically, they may not experience the reentry anxiety or other COVID anxiety kids in brick-and-mortar schools are experiencing. For others, the pandemic dramatically impacted the central hub for socialization and emotional development in the childhood years—in-person school—which looked very different. Gone were the casual hallway conversations with peers, opportunities for classroom discussions, field trips, and so many traditional social opportunities and milestones. In some states, in-person schools were closed for nearly two years, leading to what is now considered a social anxiety pandemic. Now that these schools have mostly reopened, they are seeing a sharp rise in kids with social anxiety and behavioral issues, including fighting. Along with change in everyday childhood norms, many children experienced trauma during the pandemic, such as the loss of loved ones, divorce, poverty, and relocation to different neighborhoods and cities. The Impact of COVID-19 and Social Anxiety on Students Kids have more emotional challenges when faced with the types of sudden life changes that happened during the pandemic. Sudden changes trigger elevated levels of cortisol in the brain, which activates our “fight or flight” reactions. There is a natural defensive reaction during transitions, when kids subconsciously prepare themselves for the next sudden change that might come along. With time, we should see fewer behavior issues and post-pandemic anxiety in brick-and-mortar schools as kids settle into their normal routines, receive mental health support and resources, and tap into their natural ability to adapt to whatever comes their way. How Virtual Learning Can Support Students with Anxiety Disorders Students who attend virtual school tend to feel more in control of their social interactions, which can help symptoms of social anxiety. For instance, at Connections Academy® schools, students can socialize within the virtual classroom through online classroom discussions and LiveLesson® sessions, which can remove the focus on physical appearance or acceptance by peers that leads to kids with social anxiety. They can also choose to socialize at in-person events such as field trips and school programs, which is a fantastic way to practice social skills. School staff can support students who are experiencing social anxiety or reentry anxiety by being sensitive to their needs. Establish clear rules against bullying, harassment, and discrimination to ensure students feel safe. Assign groups or pairs instead of allowing students to choose partners for themselves, to ensure that nobody feels excluded. Be sure to reward participation and encourage those who are reluctant to participate without shaming those who choose not to participate. Kids who feel safe in their learning environment are less likely to feel anxious. How to Support Kids with Social Anxiety Here are some ways you can help your child manage symptoms of social anxiety: - Teach your child relaxation techniques such as deep breathing, guided imagery (imagine a fun adventure), or progressive muscle relaxation. - Practice reframing; find a way to turn a negative thought into a positive one. - Teach problem-solving skills and how to identify the triggers that cause their anxiety. - Work on friendship skills, such as starting conversations, being a good listener, and asking questions. - Avoid too much technology. While it can be just as fulfilling to socialize with people virtually, it’s easy to use technology to avoid social situations. It’s best to try to find a healthy balance by making both in-person and virtual connections. Be sure to get help if you think your child has social anxiety. Left untreated, social anxiety can control their life. It can lead to depression, low self-esteem, drug or alcohol abuse, and trouble in careers and relationships. Social Anxiety Disorder is often treated through behavioral therapy, which helps kids learn to manage their emotions and to develop coping skills they can use their entire lives. Connections Academy offers online licensed school counselors for every student. Reach out to your school counselor or consult with a local mental health expert if your child shows signs of social anxiety.
What is the Ring of Fire ‘Ring of Fire’ is a zone in the Pacific basin where the frequency of earthquakes and volcanoes is very high. The region stretches from the eastern side of New Zealand and comprises of the region between the western borders of the Eurasian plate, and eastern edges of the North American and south American plates. The Ring of fire or the circum Pacific seismic belt extends to a length of almost 40000 Kilometers. Almost 75 percent of the active volcanoes of the world are located in this region and the horseshoe shaped region comprises about 450 volcanoes. The interaction between the lithospheric plates is said to be the prime reason as to why the region has frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The process of subduction of the pacific plate under the other plates, results in the production of enormous energy that is capable of melting the rocks in the region, thereby, leading to molten material rising above the surface resulting in a volcano in the region. The Pacific plate is continuously being forced under the other continental plates in this region and this gives rise to volcanoes very frequently. These areas are prone to earthquake and the risk is high owing to the fact that they are coastal areas. Minor tremors on the sea basin can lead to tsunamis too and lead to high number of casualties. The earthquake that occurred in March 2011 in Japan measured 9.0 on the Richter scale and it would be worth noting here that this region was in the Ring of Fire. Some of the areas of frequent collisions between the plates are as mentioned below. In Japan, where volcanoes and earthquakes are most common the Pacific plate is subducted under the Eurasian plate, leading to the creation of islands in this region. Due to the interaction of the Pacific plate with the North American plate, the Aleutian trench is getting deeper. Mount Saint Helens in British Columbia has been created as a result of the subduction zones created by the Pacific plate, the Juan de Fuca and Gorda plates. Mexican volcanoes have been created by the collision of the Cocos plate with North American plate. The volcanoes in New Zealand and other areas of Micronesia are a result of the subduction of the Indo Australian plate under the Pacific plate. These regions are under constant threat of earthquakes and therefore, all the structures in these regions need to be constructed in a manner so that they may resist minor tremors that are seen throughout the year to avoid situations similar to that happened in Fukushima.
Published this month to commemorate the hundredth anniversary of American women winning the right to vote in August 1920, Library of America’s new anthology American Women’s Suffrage: Voices from the Long Struggle for the Vote 1776–1965 presents the definitive story of the campaign for women’s suffrage in this country. Susan Ware is the author of Why They Marched: Untold Stories of the Women Who Fought for the Right to Vote, American Women’s History: A Very Short Introduction, and Letter to the World: Seven Women Who Shaped the American Century, among other books. She is Honorary Women’s Suffrage Centennial Historian at the Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, and General Editor of American National Biography. Her commentary is featured in The Vote, this year’s multipart PBS American Experience documentary on the suffrage movement. Via email, Ware explained the thinking that went into her selections and why this history is so germane to our current moment. Library of America: This year we commemorate the 100th anniversary of the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment, but in your introduction you’re careful to note, “the 1920 milestone had very little meaning for various groups of prospective female voters.” Who were those groups, and are they the reason why your anthology extends to 1965? Susan Ware: Whenever we say “women won the right to vote in 1920” there should always be a mental asterisk next to that statement. Even though the Nineteenth Amendment said that the right to vote “shall not be denied on account of sex,” certain groups of women still found themselves unable to exercise that right. The largest group was African American women living in the South, who were subjected to the same Jim Crow restrictions like literacy tests and poll taxes that had been used to disenfranchise African American men since the late nineteenth century. It was the Voting Rights Act of 1965, rather than the Fourteenth, Fifteenth, and Nineteenth Amendments, that finally paved the way for Blacks to vote in the South, which is why the anthology uses that date as its end point. Native American women also were initially left outside the Nineteenth Amendment until the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 recognized their rights as U.S. citizens alongside tribal sovereignty. Puerto Rican women did not receive the right to vote until 1935, and Chinese American women not until 1943, when barriers to citizenship that dated to the 1880s were lifted as a wartime measure. In addition, numbers of women, especially Mexican American and Native American, bumped up against state restrictions that made it difficult for them to vote until the Voting Rights Act of 1965 removed those barriers. LOA: In your introduction you write: “Fully telling the history of women’s suffrage means putting race at the center of the story.” How do the well-documented bigotry of certain prominent suffragists and the neglect of African American women’s contributions to the movement affect its legacy today? Ware: Let’s start with the racism of prominent white suffrage leaders, who were often more than willing to pander to fears about Black women to advance their cause. Add to that their general unwillingness to welcome African American suffragists into predominantly white mainstream suffrage organizations, and you have a record of racism and bigotry that has to be recognized as part of the movement’s legacy. Not to excuse this behavior, but similar attitudes were likely found in almost any white-led movement back then. In other words, suffragists shared the attitudes of many white Americans at the time, rather than being unusually racist and intolerant. Because of this undeniable strand of racism, there is a tendency to dismiss women’s suffrage as a movement solely for the benefit of white, middle-class women, but this is shortsighted. Among other things, it continues the historical erasure of African American women’s vibrant contributions to the suffrage cause, which often occurred not within white organizations but in Black women’s clubs, churches, and community organizations. Because of what had happened to African American men’s voting rights after Reconstruction, African American women didn’t need to be schooled in the importance of the vote and they made its extension to women an important priority of their political activism. This story, which is well represented in the anthology, definitely deserves to be recognized as part of the larger suffrage history. LOA: Your collection is also noteworthy for its regional emphases, highlighting the significance of events that took place in the West, Midwest, and even South. Why is it important to make sure these areas are included in the broader panorama? Ware: For the simple reason that it is impossible to understand the suffrage battle, especially in its final decade, without paying attention to geography. The earliest victories were all in Western states; in contrast, many of the strongest suffrage holdouts were in the industrial Northeast and the South. Geography matters: whether and when a woman first voted was very much shaped by where she lived. In particular the victories in the West, especially the successful California referendum in 1911, brought flocks of women voters to the polls years before the Nineteenth Amendment passed. Politicians took note of the increasing numbers of women voters; even if their states hadn’t yet granted women the vote, if and when they did, women voters might retaliate against politicians who had stood in the way. The successful 1917 women’s suffrage referendum in New York State was another regional victory with national implications, providing critical momentum in the final years of the struggle. And don’t forget that it was Tennessee, a Southern state, that put the Nineteenth Amendment over the top. LOA: The Ida B. Wells piece included here, “Seeking the Negro Vote” (1914–1915), is a hardheaded account of the compromises, disillusionment, and disappointment attendant on real-world politicking. Was one of your aims to portray what can happen after a disenfranchised community gets the vote? Ware: Advocating for the right to vote also meant advocating for larger roles in party politics, and party politics can be messy and complicated, as Ida Wells-Barnett found out in Chicago in 1914 and 1915. That was one reason for including the excerpt from her autobiography. The other was to reinforce the point that while the vast majority of African Americans still lived in the South, there were significant African American communities in Northern cities like New York, Pittsburgh, and Chicago, and those residents were deeply involved in politics on the local, state, and national levels, almost exclusively within the Republican Party. Not until the New Deal in the 1930s did African American voters switch their allegiance to the Democratic Party. LOA: The barbed, witty poems of Alice Duer Miller are one of the most enjoyable discoveries in the book. Can you talk about some of the other more “literary” pieces—excerpts from novels and plays, for instance—readers will find in the collection? Ware: Women’s suffrage was a political movement for a political goal, but suffragists also had a healthy sense of humor and a willingness to find creative ways to plead their cause. In their campaigns suffragists often resorted to humor and satire to make their points. Finley Peter Dunne’s clever dialogue with a millworker and Marie Jenney Howe’s monologue of rhyming couplets which punched holes in antisuffragist arguments are two examples. Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Hazel MacKaye realized that plays and pageants were a creative way to reach new audiences, and writers such as Mary Johnston and Oreola Williams Haskell also got into the act by writing suffrage-themed novels. And finally a personal favorite of mine: “How It Feels to be the Husband of a Suffragette,” published anonymously in Everybody’s Magazine in 1914 but now attributed to Arthur Raymond Brown, who was indeed married to a suffragist and wrote about their marriage with humor and panache. LOA: The decade leading up to 1920 was marked by two rival approaches—that of the established “second-generation” suffragists and a younger, more militant group exemplified by figures like Alice Paul. You argue that it was the combination of both approaches that led to the Nineteenth Amendment’s passage. While we all know that history doesn’t repeat itself, is there a lesson here for activists in the twenty-first century? Ware: Actually, in the case of suffrage, history was repeating itself, because the movement split after the Civil War over the question of whether newly freed African American men had priority over women, white and Black, in the provision of voting rights under the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments. Like the split in the movement between Carrie Chapman Catt’s mainstream suffrage organization and Alice Paul’s upstart National Woman’s Party in the 1910s, the earlier split was over tactics and priorities, with personalities also playing a role. The lessons from the suffrage movement for contemporary activists go beyond just accommodating rival approaches. They include a focus on electoral politics, lobbying and grassroots organizing to go along with mass marches and public demonstrations; the creative use of popular culture and new forms of media to get the word out; and the creation of coalitions and alliances that cross race, class, and other identities while drawing on the energies of multiple, overlapping generations. All of these themes are well represented in this anthology and are just as relevant today as they were at the height of suffrage mobilization.
How do you teach grid referencing? How do you teach grid referencing? In a grid reference, we give the eastings first and then the northings. That means that when you find your point on the map, you must go along to the east first and then move up second. Some people remember the order by saying ‘along the corridor and up the stairs’! What is grid reference ks2? A grid reference tells you where something is on a map. The 1st letter or number tells you how far across the map something is. The 2nd letter or number tells you how far up the map something is. Can you put grid references into Google Maps? To use Google Maps position the map and, using the zoom tool on the left-hand side of the screen, zoom in to the maximum level to find the place for which you want a Grid Reference. Then either: Click “Grid Reference Tools” and choose “Get Grid Reference from Map”. The map will centre on the place name, if found. How do I find a Grid Reference location? Click on the ‘Find by Grid Reference’ menu option, this will display the Go To Location search box. Enter in the X and Y co-ordinates (Eastings and Northings) in to the relevant boxes and click ‘Go’. The selected location should now be shown in the middle of map window. How do I find a grid reference location? How do you read a grid reference on a map? - Start at the left-hand side of the map and go east until you get to the bottom-left-hand corner of the square you want. Write this number down. - Move north until you get to the bottom-left corner of the square you want. What is a 4 digit grid reference? A 4-figure grid reference contains 4 numbers. For example, you might be given the number 3422. The first two numbers are called the easting, which is the number you would look for at the bottom of the map. Your grandfather gives you the 4-figure grid reference 1331. How do you find a 4 and 6 grid reference? Things to remember: - First, find the four-figure grid reference but leave a space after the first two digits. - Estimate or measure how many tenths across the grid square your symbol lies. - Next, estimate how many tenths up the grid square your symbol lies. - You now have a six figure grid reference. How to help your students read grid references? Build your students’ ability to read four-figure to six-figure grid references before applying their skills to reading OS maps. Read More… Please Sign In or Join for FREE to suggest a change for this resource. How can students make their own grid map? Students create their own grid map using a grid reference with instructions to find certain places or locations. The map should be of the classroom of the playground. Discuss the importance of placing items in a single row and column so they can be easily located. Annotation of student grid maps of the classroom or playground. How to read grid references in OS maps? Created in collaboration with the Geographical Association, this lesson pack helps students to learn how to read four-figure and six-figure grid references on maps. Build your students’ ability to read four-figure to six-figure grid references before applying their skills to reading OS maps. Read More… How many figures are in a grid reference? Explain that grid references have a two letter code, as well as four figures to define the grid square, and two more to show the exact location within that grid square. Practise finding places on an OS map using six-figure grid references.
When viewed from a satellite in daylight, the landscape of central Argentina shows barely a sign of human settlement. But by night, the place could be mistaken for a game of luminescent connect-the-dots. Rows of bright, evenly spaced points of light puncture the darkness. The nighttime lights betray the presence of towns. It’s no mistake that these lights appear every 30 to 50 kilometers (roughly 20 to 30 miles), as many of the towns grew up around railway stations. Maps from the middle of the 20th century show the network of railway lines that gave shape to this curious configuration. Today, cars have outpaced trains in popularity, but the mark of the railways remains emblazoned in the terrain. Some tracks are still visible from space, such as those running parallel to the road between Cordoba and Villa Maria. The same is true of the line that runs northeast through Rio Cuarto. Highways now connect the “dots”—and these cities. The second image on this page shows Argentina’s night lights as observed in 2016. The image is drawn from a global composite that was made by selecting the best cloud-free nights in each month over each land mass on Earth. The data come from the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on the NASA-NOAA Suomi NPP satellite. VIIRS includes a special “day/night band,” a low-light sensor that measures light emissions and reflections, allowing researchers to distinguish the intensity, types, and sources of night lights and to observe how they change over time. A natural-color image (top) shows the same area by day with a cloudless composite from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on Aqua and Terra satellites. Fields for growing crops and raising cattle dominate the landscape. Most people reside in the country’s main cities, including Cordoba and Santa Fe. A mere 10 percent of Argentina’s population lives in rural areas, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. NASA Earth Observatory images by Joshua Stevens, using Suomi NPP VIIRS data from Miguel Román, NASA GSFC, and MODIS data from the Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center (LP DAAC) and Google Earth Engine. Story by Pola Lem.
Exam Board: OCR Option B Exam Board Website: OCR – Oxford, Cambridge and RSA Examinations Geography stimulates an interest in and a sense of wonder about places, people and the environment. It helps us all make sense of a changing world and how society, the economy and environment combine to bring about change. It explains where places are, how places and landscapes are formed and how people and their environment interact. \|Geography Curriculum Summary\| \|Year 7\|\|During Year 7 we study a wide variety of topics as we journey around the world in the class room. Topics include; Antarctica, The UK, Africa and Russia.\| \|Year 8\|\|Year 8 continues our journey around the world covering; Oceania, The Middle East, Asia, North America and South America.\| Pupils will work towards the 3 components of the GCSE: Our natural world – pupils will develop an understanding and appreciation of the natural world they live in and why it looks the way it does. They will study the rich diversity of landscapes and ecosystems which are changing through physical processes and human interactions. People and Society – Pupils explore the social, cultural, political and economic forces that make places unique, and how these change over time and space, particularly the growth of urbanisation and the challenges of feeding an ever-growing population. Geographical Exploration – This component draws on geographical knowledge, understanding and skills that have been developed in the previous components. This synoptic assessment enables pupils to demonstrate their understanding of the connections between the different elements of the subject.
By Gábor Lőrinczi Based on the research article “Comparison of foraging tool use in two species of myrmicine ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)” by Gábor Módra, István Maák, Ádám Lőrincz and Gábor Lőrinczi in Insectes Sociaux, 69, pages 5–12 (2022). Some ants are real tool users. For example, some myrmicine ants (i.e., ants that belong to the highly diverse subfamily Myrmicinae) place or drop bits of leaf, wood, soil etc. into liquid food (e.g., rotten fruit pulp, body fluids of dead arthropods, droplets of honeydew released by aphids, etc.), and then they carry the food-soaked objects to the nest, where nestmates can feed on them. This behavior is similar to that shown by many primates who use leaves, mosses, paper, rags, etc. as “sponges” to soak up water and other liquids. In this video, you can see a laboratory colony of Aphaenogaster subterranea using various tools to carry honey-water. While this so-called foraging tool use is well documented and makes good intuitive sense in omnivorous ants like Aphaenogaster species, studies on granivorous ants (i.e., ants that primarily feed on seeds), which interestingly are also known to use tools when feeding on liquids, are still scarce. So what about harvester ants? Do they have a different tool-using behavior as compared to omnivorous species? And why do they show this behavior in the first place? To answer these questions, we compared the foraging tool use in captive colonies of two closely related myrmicine ants with different diet, Aphaenogaster subterranea, an omnivorous species, and Messor structor, a mainly granivorous species. In our experiments, we provided colonies with honey-water baits and a mixture of six types of objects (sand grains, small soil grains, large soil grains, pine needles, leaves and sponges) they could use as tools. During the observations, we recorded the type and number of tools placed into honey-water baits, and the type and number of food-soaked tools retrieved and transported to the nest. As we have expected, the two species showed many differences in the nature of their tool-using behavior. Firstly, the foraging workers of A. subterranea both dropped more tools into honey-water baits and retrieved more of these tools than the workers of M. structor. Secondly, A. subterranea preferred smaller tools over larger ones, while M. structor showed no preference towards any specific tool type. Thirdly, tool dropping was much faster in A. subterranea, and both the dropping and retrieving of tools began much earlier than in M. structor. We think that for Aphaenogaster species that regularly utilize and compete for liquid food sources, the ability to efficiently hide and transport edible liquids with the help of tools may be more important than it is for harvester ants like Messor species, which mainly feed on seeds. Using tools, however, may still be useful for harvester ants, for example, when local seed sources are not available but there are other opportunities to acquire food for the colony.
“Weakest” is rarely a superlative worth celebrating, but experiments began this summer in a room (below) with the weakest magnetic field in our solar system—and scientists are excited. Built by physicists at the Technical University of Munich, the room achieves a millionfold reduction in the intensity of ambient magnetic fields, a 10-fold improvement on any previous man-made structure, registering even less such activity than the vast, empty space between planets. The facility's shielding consists of layers of a highly magnetizable metal that ensnare fields so they do not pass through to the structure's interior. Within, ultraprecise experiments can take place with only minute interference from the results-mucking effects of Earth, electronics, living bodies, and more. The room's special type of silence therefore offers a unique opportunity to probe important questions in physics, biology and medicine. 1 Why is there more matter than antimatter in the universe? The Munich physicists will observe whether a neutron's magnetic properties behave evenly in the presence of high electric fields and precisely controlled magnetic fields. Strong discrepancies in how the particles are balanced, such as a slight difference in charge, could hint at how the asymmetry of matter occurred. 2 Do magnetic monopoles exist? If particles with a single pole are out there, they will be able to pass through the room's shielding. Without interference, sensors would register the increased magnetic activity. 3 What is dark matter made of? Researchers plan to monitor the room for theorized “axionlike” dark matter particles, which could affect the spins of some atoms. 4 How do animals use magnetic fields to navigate? By raising organisms in an environment with very little magnetic activity, researchers may be able to discern whether use of such fields is a learned or an innate trait. 5 What can magnetism reveal about human health? Any space with very little magnetic noise opens up the possibility for more detailed diagnoses: for instance, distinguishing the magnetic field of a mother's heart from that of her unborn child to determine irregularities.
The Internet and online technologies, like mobile phones are magnificent tools to communicate, learn, play and be entertained by the contents from all around the world. For many of us, the Internet and the mobile phone is our social lifeline. They are the media we used to engage with friends out-of-school hours and keep up-to-date. Like communicating in the real world, risks exist when communicating online. Cyberbullying, identity thefts, scams and inappropriate contents are some the common risks. How to Stay Safe on the Internet for young people: - Never give out personal information, such as your name, home address or phone number, the name of your school etc. - Do not meet in person with someone you met online. - Do not give out your password to anyone, even your best friend.Be careful where you store password that you have recorded or write down. - In chat rooms, use names that are not gender-specific so you are less likely to receive pornographic material or other forms of harassment. - If you do receive pornographic material, inform your parents or trusted adults. - Don’t share photos of yourself, your family, or your home with people you meet online. - Never open e-mails that come from unknown sources DELETE them. - If you receive mean or threatening comments online, don’t respond. Log off and report the activity to your parents. - Nothing you write on the Web is completely private. Be careful what you write and to whom. - When in doubt, always ask your parents for help. If you’re not sure, log off. Tips for parents: - Encourage your children to inform you if they encounter something on the Internet that makes them feel anxious, uncomfortable, or threatened. Stay calm and remind your kids it is OK to bring it towards your attention. Let them know you will work with them to help them resolve the situation positively. - As soon as your children are using the Internet on their own, establish rules for Internet use. These rules should define whether your children can utilize social-networking sites and how they can operate them. - The recommended age to sign up for social websites is usually 13 and over. If your children are under the recommended age, do not let them use the sites. - Teach your children never to meet any person that they’ve communicated via online only. - Be wary of identifiable information in your child’s profile.Too much information can make your children vulnerable to cyberbullying, Internet predators, Internet fraud, or identity theft. - Teach your children about cyberbullying.Tell them that if they think they’re being cyberbullied, they should share this information right away with parents, teachers, or any other adults that they trust. - Encourage kids to communicate with other people online in the same way they would face-to-face. Ask kids to treat other people the way they would prefer to be treated. If your children refuse to follow the rules you’ve set to help protect their safety and you’ve attempted to help them change their behavior, you can contact the social website your child uses and ask them to remove the page. \|Last Reviewed\|\|:\|\|07 Jun 2012\| \|Content Writer\|\|:\|\|Dr. Hargeet Kaur a/p Basant Singh\|
An alternating current (AC) power cord, or simply AC cord, is a cord used to connect a device to a power supply, such as a wall outlet. These types of cords are often used in electronic devices such as desktop personal computers (PCs), laptops, printers, and small kitchen appliances. They can be permanently attached to the device or removable and come in a number of types that indicate the power supply needed and the temperature threshold of the AC cord. The cord itself is typically a length of wire or wires that have been secured within a rubber exterior to shield anything outside the cord from being electrocuted. Alternating current refers to the type of electrical current used throughout many countries today, including the United States. Promoted by several early electrical pioneers, such as Nikola Tesla, it is the type of electricity that commonly comes from a wall socket and is therefore used for powering home and office devices. An AC cord is merely a power cord that can transfer the current from the socket or power supply into a powered device. The different types of cords have been established by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) under its specification IEC 60320. They fall under several different types that are numbered for easier reference and full names of such cords will often be shown as IEC 60320 C1 or IEC 60320 C15, though many times they can be referred to simply as C1 cords or C15 cords. Any type of IEC 60320 AC cord has a voltage rating of a maximum of 250 volts. C1 and C2 cords are unpolarized and often used for small, handheld devices such as electric shavers. While C3 and C4 cords are not as common as other cords, C5 and C6 connectors are often used for laptop computers and projectors. These cords are commonly called “Mickey Mouse” or “cloverleaf” connectors because the shape of the three-pronged connector is similar to these shapes. C7 and C8 connectors can be polarized or unpolarized, with the unpolarized version often called a “figure eight” cord due to its shape. A polarized C7 or C8 AC cord is similarly shaped, but one of the two circular sides is flat on one side. C13 and C14 connectors are commonly used with desktop computers and are commonly found as power cords for both computer towers and monitors. These types of cords are so common that they may often be referred to simply as “IEC cords.” C15 and C16 cords are also commonly used but are preferred for use with small kitchen appliances such as hot plates, and are designed to withstand higher temperatures than other cords. Most AC cords have a maximum temperature rating of 158 degrees Fahrenheit (or 70 degrees C). C15 and C16 cords have a maximum temperature rating of 248 degrees Fahrenheit (120 degrees C) and appear much like a C13 or C14 cord but with a small notch in the end to ensure that lower temperature cords cannot be used in C15 and C16 devices. There are C17 and C18 cords, though they are used less commonly than other types, and appear much like C13 and C14 cords but without a third pin for grounding. C19 and C20 cords are rectangular in shape and used for devices that require higher electrical currents, such as network servers. Higher current cords also exist but are less common than those described here.
Hypothesis tests are significant for evaluating answers to questions concerning samples of data. A statistical hypothesis is a belief made about a population parameter. This belief may or might not be right. In other words, hypothesis testing is a proper technique utilized by scientist to support or reject statistical hypotheses. The foremost ideal approach to decide if a statistical hypothesis is correct is examine the whole population. Since that’s frequently impractical, we normally take a random sample from the population and inspect the equivalent. Within the event sample data set isn’t steady with the statistical hypothesis, the hypothesis is refused. Types of hypothesis: There are two sort of hypothesis and both the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) must be totally mutually exclusive events. • Null hypothesis is usually the hypothesis that the event wont’t happen. • Alternative hypothesis is a hypothesis that the event will happen. Why we need Hypothesis Testing? Suppose a specific cosmetic producing company needs to launch a new Shampoo in the market. For this situation they will follow Hypothesis Testing all together decide the success of new product in the market. Where likelihood of product being ineffective in market is undertaken as Null Hypothesis and likelihood of product being profitable is undertaken as Alternative Hypothesis. By following the process of Hypothesis testing they will foresee the accomplishment. How to Calculate Hypothesis Testing? - State the two theories with the goal that just one can be correct, to such an extent that the two occasions are totally unrelated. - Now figure a study plan, that will lay out how the data will be assessed. - Now complete the plan and genuinely investigate the sample dataset. - Finally examine the outcome and either accept or reject the null hypothesis. Assume, Person have gone after a typing job and he has expressed in the resume that his composing speed is 70 words per minute. The recruiter might need to test his case. On the off chance that he sees his case as adequate, he will enlist him in any case reject him. Thus, he types an example letter and found that his speed is 63 words a minute. Presently, he can settle on whether to employ him or not. In the event that he meets all other qualification measures. This procedure delineates Hypothesis Testing in layman’s terms. In statistical terms Hypothesis his typing speed is 70 words per minute is a hypothesis to be tested so-called null hypothesis. Clearly, the alternating hypothesis his composing speed isn’t 70 words per minute. So, normal composing speed is population parameter and sample composing speed is sample statistics. The conditions of accepting or rejecting his case is to be chosen by the selection representative. For instance, he may conclude that an error of 6 words is alright to him so he would acknowledge his claim between 64 to 76 words per minute. All things considered, sample speed 63 words per minute will close to reject his case. Furthermore, the choice will be he was producing a fake claim. In any case, if the selection representative stretches out his acceptance region to positive/negative 7 words that is 63 to 77 words, he would be tolerating his case. In this way, to finish up, Hypothesis Testing is a procedure to test claims about the population dependent on sample. It is a fascinating reasonable subject with a quite statistical jargon. You have to dive more to get familiar with the details. Significance Level and Rejection Region for Hypothesis Type I error probability is normally indicated by α and generally set to 0.05. The value of α is recognized as the significance level. The rejection region is the set of sample data that prompts the rejection of the null hypothesis. The significance level, α, decides the size of the rejection region. Sample results in the rejection region are labelled statistically significant at level of α . The impact of differing α is that If α is small, for example, 0.01, the likelihood of a type I error is little, and a ton of sample evidence for the alternative hypothesis is needed before the null hypothesis can be dismissed. Though, when α is bigger, for example, 0.10, the rejection region is bigger, and it is simpler to dismiss the null hypothesis. Significance from p-values A subsequent methodology is to evade the utilization of a significance level and rather just report how significant the sample evidence is. This methodology is as of now more widespread. It is accomplished by method of a p value. P value is gauge of power of the evidence against null hypothesis. It is the likelihood of getting the observed value of test statistic, or value with significantly more prominent proof against null hypothesis (Ho), if the null hypothesis of an investigation question is true. The less significant the p value, the more proof there is supportive of the alternative hypothesis. Sample evidence is measurably noteworthy at the α level just if the p value is less than α. They have an association for two tail tests. When utilizing a confidence interval to playout a two-tailed hypothesis test, reject the null hypothesis if and just if the hypothesized value doesn’t lie inside a confidence interval for the parameter. Hypothesis Tests and Confidence Intervals Hypothesis tests and confidence intervals are cut out of the same cloth. An event whose 95% confidence interval reject the hypothesis is an event for which p<0.05 under the relating hypothesis test, and the other way around. A p value is letting you know the greatest confidence interval that despite everything prohibits the hypothesis. As such, if p<0.03 against the null hypothesis, that implies that a 97% confidence interval does exclude the null hypothesis. Hypothesis Tests for a Population Mean We do a t test on the ground that the population mean is unknown. The general purpose is to contrast sample mean with some hypothetical population mean, to assess whether the watched the truth is such a great amount of unique in relation to the hypothesis that we can say with assurance that the hypothetical population mean isn’t, indeed, the real population mean. Hypothesis Tests for a Population Proportion At the point when you have two unique populations Z test facilitates you to choose if the proportion of certain features is the equivalent or not in the two populations. For instance, if the male proportion is equivalent between two nations. Hypothesis Test for Equal Population Variances F Test depends on F distribution and is utilized to think about the variance of the two impartial samples. This is additionally utilized with regards to investigation of variance for making a decision about the significance of more than two sample. T test and F test are totally two unique things. T test is utilized to evaluate the population parameter, for example, population mean, and is likewise utilized for hypothesis testing for population mean. However, it must be utilized when we don’t know about population standard deviation. On the off chance that we know the population standard deviation, we will utilize Z test. We can likewise utilize T statistic to approximate population mean. T statistic is likewise utilised for discovering the distinction in two population mean with the assistance of sample means. Z statistic or T statistic is utilized to assess population parameters such as population mean and population proportion. It is likewise used for testing hypothesis for population mean and population proportion. In contrast to Z statistic or T statistic, where we manage mean and proportion, Chi Square or F test is utilized for seeing if there is any variance inside the samples. F test is the proportion of fluctuation of two samples. Hypothesis encourages us to make coherent determinations, the connection among variables, and gives the course to additionally investigate. Hypothesis for the most part results from speculation concerning studied behaviour, natural phenomenon, or proven theory. An honest hypothesis ought to be clear, detailed, and reliable with the data. In the wake of building up the hypothesis, the following stage is validating or testing the hypothesis. Testing of hypothesis includes the process that empowers to concur or differ with the expressed hypothesis.
What happened in Oroville? The Oroville Dam, located in the Sierra Nevada foothills on the Feather River just a few miles east of the City of Oroville, is the tallest dam in the United States and encloses the second largest reservoir in California, Lake Oroville. The dam was built by the California Department of Water Resources in 1961, and began operating in 1968. Its structure consists of an earthfill embankment, a main concrete spillway, and an earthen emergency spillway. The dam also generates hydroelectricity in an underground power station, the Edward Hyatt Pump-Generating Plant. Water from the lake supplies the California Aqueduct, which flows into the San Joaquin Valley and the Southern California coast. In February 2017 after multiple high-volume storms, some of which were characterized as atmospheric river events, Lake Oroville was beginning to reach capacity as inflow rates from the Upper Feather River exceeded annual averages and projected rates. Water flows from the Feather River and its tributaries continued to increase from rapid snowmelt and high precipitation in the Sierra Nevada over the course of a week. As a result, water began to overtop the main spillway. Over the course of a few days, the main concrete spillway partially ruptured and began to erode. Dam operators cut back on the water release to avoid further damage, even as Lake Oroville’s water level continued to rise with inflows from another storm. As the lake’s surface approached the emergency level, dam operators were prompted to allow water to flow over the emergency spillway for the first time in history. As the emergency spillway came into use it also partially failed as the earthen slope began to erode, which compromised the structural integrity of the emergency spillway wall and raised concerns of a catastrophic release. A rupture of the emergency spillway could release a 30-ft wall of water — a grave threat to downstream levies and residents. About 188,000 people were evacuated as a precaution. The erosion and structural damage to the spillway led to the deployment of 800 personnel from the Department of Water Resources (DWR) in emergency response teams to clean up the more than 1.7 million cubic yards of debris and repair the damaged hillside. In March, the DWR estimated emergency response and recovery costs of $4.7 million a day. In April, the estimated repair cost for the spillways was announced, totaling more than $275 million. The following graphic illustrates normal dam operation and the malfunction that occurred over the course of multiple events in January and February 2017: The Oroville Dam incident is not unique in terms of potential impact to nearby communities resulting from above average water flows. Landslides, washouts, and other events damaged western region Union Pacific railroad routes and the Interstate 80 highway, delaying transportation of critical goods and services across the Sierra Nevada. These are just a few of the many examples of damages sustained from extreme precipitation events in the winter of 2016/2017 – which was the wettest on record for the Sacramento, Feather, and American River basins. Atmospheric Rivers in Northern California Atmospheric Rivers (ARs) are to northern California what hurricanes are to the east coast. AR events are described by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration as long, narrow regions in the atmosphere that transport water vapor from tropical regions, often releasing their water as precipitation when they move above land masses. Between 80 and 90 percent of the major river flood events in California happen as a result of landfalling atmospheric rivers. Scientific knowledge regarding the behavior of ARs once they make landfall is expanding but is still limited, making ARs particularly challenging to predict and prepare for. However, more extreme precipitation and flood events are expected as a result of current climate change projections, and in California many of these extreme events are caused by atmospheric rivers. Furthermore, it only takes a small temperature shift to influence whether an AR brings snow or rain; rain-on-snow ARs are on average only 2 degrees Celsius warmer than snowpack-preserving storms. More research is needed to understand the risks of ARs and how to prepare for them; however, it is clear from the 2016-2017 winter and the Oroville incident that consideration of ARs must be incorporated into hazard mitigation planning throughout the state. What is Green Infrastructure? Green infrastructure can mitigate the impact of future atmospheric rivers and extreme storms like the February 2017 Oroville event. Green infrastructure manages water through nature-based processes and ecological systems. It can be either natural (a wetland) or man-made (a park), and provides ecological, hydrological, and other benefits to society and ecosystems. Green infrastructure can also reduce and treat storm water both at the source and downstream in cities and streets. This is in contrast to grey infrastructure and conventional water management systems such as wastewater plants, buildings, pipes, drainage paths, or dams. Man-made green infrastructure often takes shape in the restoration or creation of vegetation and healthy soils, or other landscape alterations that increase an area’s ability to absorb and store water. These alterations can be made to urban spaces and nearby land as well as upstream of these areas. Much of the Sierra Nevada landscape provides natural green infrastructure in the form of meadows and wetlands. These places can prevent downstream flooding by serving as natural pathways for water: meadows and wetlands act as sponges, absorbing precipitation at greater capacity, and release it slowly into streams later in the summer, and the streams in turn bring the water down into the foothills and valley. However, human-induced changes, such as river cutting, logging practices, overgrazing, development, parking lots, roads and other impervious surfaces have greatly reduced the Sierra Nevada’s natural capacity for stormwater mitigation. According to the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, some 40 to 60 percent (130,000 to 200,000 acres) of Sierra Nevada meadows are in a degraded state. How Green Infrastructure Could Mitigate Future Flood Events Like Oroville Investing in green infrastructure upstream benefits both neighboring communities and downstream communities. It can reduce the stress that heavy precipitation places on grey infrastructure systems like the Oroville Dam and downstream cities, and lower the risk and severity of flooding. Green infrastructure investment can take the shape of meadow restoration, which can restore the ability of meadows to absorb sudden influxes of water such as heavy winter precipitation and slow down its release into nearby water flows. This increase in water absorption enables healthy meadows to shift the temporal distribution of stream flow, as they retain water and thus reduce peak flows during winter and spring while increasing water flow during late summer. (It should be noted that these effects vary according to soil type, geography, and other factors, and may only occur slowly over time). For example, a 2012 Indian Valley meadow restoration project completed by American Rivers and partners successfully shifted the timing of water absorption of an over-grazed meadow to soak up more spring runoff and release flows later in the summer. According to the research team, the meadow’s post-restoration stream outflow increased during summer months by 39% – a substantial increase over pre-restoration efforts, despite reduced spring inflow attributable to drought conditions. Using reasonable assumptions, meadow restoration in the Sierra Nevada could increase groundwater storage by 50,000 to 500,000 acre-feet annually. Furthermore, a separate study on multiple meadows near Lake Tahoe shows that small meadows can delay floods, providing valuable time for downstream emergency operations. Preliminary studies suggest that larger meadows could reduce flood peaks by 15 percent. The Indian Valley project involved reversing channel downcutting by restoring the surface elevation of streams back up to the same level as meadows. Channel down-cutting occurs when streams erode the soil in their channel below the elevation of surrounding meadow and drains water faster and more extensively, drying the meadow out in the process. Downcut stream channels in a degraded meadow can reduce groundwater storage by as much as 30 percent during and after snowmelt. The following Nature Conservancy graphic demonstrates this concept: Restoration efforts that maintain floodplains, restore the water table, and reduce downcutting can mitigate flood risks and reduce flood peaks through supporting groundwater absorption. One study found that mitigating downcutting reduced flood peaks by up to 25 percent. In a scenario similar to the Oroville event, in which the flow rate exceeded projections by 30 percent, a 25 percent reduction in inflow could have significantly reduced the reservoir water level and strain on the spillways. In addition, restoring down-cut streams can allow high flows to overtop the channel and deposit sediment on meadows and floodplains, reducing downstream sedimentation. By slowing water flow, this also reduces stream bank erosion. Reduced sediment transport in turn reduces the amount of sediment deposited in reservoirs, thus maintaining reservoir capacity. One Feather River meadow restoration project helped to reduce annual sediment loading by 17.5 percent. In general, any restorative effort that maintains or improves characteristics of healthy meadows will also restore water absorption capacity, such as creating a dynamic, open soil structure, improving the capacity of vegetation to absorb water, and supporting biodiversity. Absorption capacity helps to improve resilience both in surrounding areas and communities as well as downstream areas that receive water from these meadows and forests. Natural solutions that leverage the use of traditional ecological knowledge held by Native American tribal communities regarding native plant species and interactions with stream flow and hydrology can also play a significant role in helping to ensure the resilience of upstream communities. For example, the Maidu Summit Consortium and Conservancy recently developed a land management plan that will return over 2,300 acres of sacred tribal lands in Plumas County to ownership by the Mountain Maidu community, enabling a return to the use of traditional land management practices and methods in restoring watershed health, biodiversity, and forest health. Green infrastructure further downstream can also reduce the impacts of flooding and extreme precipitation in urban communities and grey infrastructure. For instance, open space conservation adjacent to urban areas, especially conservation of riparian areas, wetlands, and steep hillsides, can mitigate urban flooding by providing natural sinks for the water. Trees and vegetated open spaces such as parks and green roofs can absorb stormwater before it reaches streets and gutters: one study found that over a 16-year period, urban green roofs reduced stormwater flows between 65-85 percent. Bioswales and landscape medians deployed by the County of Sacramento infiltrate 98 percent of runoff from a ten-year storm, while other combinations of bioswales, retention ponds, and other green infrastructure features report similarly high infiltration rates. Other examples include urban agriculture, green walls, and urban woodlands. In addition to upstream and downstream flood mitigation, green infrastructure can provide many other cobenefits such as climate change resilience, carbon sequestration, and wildlife habitat. Urban vegetation, belowground biomass, and soils all provide carbon storage and sequestration benefits, and can even become net sinks. Urban vegetation such as shade trees and green roofs can mitigate the urban heat island effect by reducing air and surface temperatures and shading buildings from summer heat, thereby also improving resident comfort and reducing energy costs related to air-conditioning. Additional urban co-benefits include improved air and water quality: vegetation can absorb and filter contaminants in water flows and airborne particulate matter. Other studies cite psychological, recreational, safety, economic, and health benefits associated with urban green spaces. For example, parks and golf courses encourage people to take walks, relax, socialize, and recreate, improving physical health and mood as well as access to community and social support; parks, golf courses, and urban agriculture can also provide job opportunities. Urban agriculture can help localize food sources, reduce food deserts, and connect people to food system and nutrition education. Natural green infrastructure upstream affords multiple co-benefits as well, as long as it is properly maintained. For example, while forests and meadows can act as carbon sinks, they lose this capacity when they are mismanaged – this is evident in the widespread tree mortality resulting from overcrowded stands, drought, insect and disease infestations, and outdated forest management practices in the Sierra Nevada. Restored moist and wet meadows can produce up to five times as much biomass as unrestored dry meadows, a significant increase in carbon storage capacity; one study cites an ongoing carbon sequestration rate of 65 CO2e tons/acre, while another cites up to 220 CO2e tons/acre over a ten-year period resulting from restoration efforts. Other co-benefits provided by restored meadows and forests include increased biodiversity and wildlife habitat, especially for at-risk species, increased late-season water supply, reduced erosion (and reduced sediment transport downstream), reduced water temperatures, improved water quality, improved recreational and economic opportunities such as hunting and fishing, and improved rangeland quantity and quality for ranchers and farmers. Finally, meadow restoration is relatively low in cost compared to grey infrastructure projects, with recent projects ranging from $100 to $250 per acre-foot of potential increased water storage. Reservoir projects, in contrast, range from $338 to $685 per acre-foot, and the cost of the Oroville dam crisis is over $275 million. Policy Opportunities: AB-2480 In September 2016, Governor Jerry Brown signed AB-2480, a source watershed restoration and conservation bill, into law. This legislation officially recognizes meadows and streams as green infrastructure. Moreover, it recognizes source watersheds as integral to California’s watershed, making them eligible for infrastructure investment. This policy provides the opportunity to invest in source watersheds and the natural systems that maintain them – and furthermore, to invest in solutions that mitigate the impact of downstream flooding like the Oroville event. Green Infrastructure and Climate Change Resilience Planning Knowledge about the physical impacts of climate change expected in northern California is growing, and the impacts are projected to be significant. Droughts alternating – and in some cases, co-existing – with extreme storm events set the stage for dangerous floods. Wildfires in the Sierra Nevada forests and foothills can increase the speed of runoff and erosion. Oroville serves as a wake-up call to a climate change-fueled hydrological crisis shaped as much by the way the landscape in the watershed above the lake and the dam responded to the extreme storms as it was by the condition of the dam and the spillway. A holistic consideration of the watershed – including the characteristics and the complexity of both the uplands and the lowlands — is essential for effective adaptation to a dynamic climate. Developing more effective ways of storing snow and water in the higher elevations could save money and lives. Grey infrastructure budgets are already stretched thin and funding for maintenance is often deprioritized, as was the case with Oroville. Green infrastructure, with its multiple co-benefits, can be funded from multiple sources, including those that address regional flood control, forest health, wildlife habitat, air and water quality, fire protection, carbon storage and credits, and open space. Funding agencies and local governmental jurisdictions are generally not organized to consider the health and functioning of our watersheds as a whole, which creates significant institutional barriers to cross-sectoral collaboration. Regional climate collaboratives have formed in California to help address this gap by convening stakeholders across regions and sectors. The Sierra Climate Adaptation and Mitigation Partnership (Sierra CAMP) and the Capital Region Climate Readiness Collaborative (CRCRC) are two such public-private organizations that exist to analyze and instigate solutions that bridge urban-rural, upstream-downstream investment barriers. They are working together through the Sierra Nevada Conservancy’s Uplands Lowlands working group, a new effort to connect rural source watershed stakeholders with urban water users and identify creative solutions for a wide range of issues of mutual concern. In addition, the collaboratives work with their members, which range from local governments to community-based and faith organizations to private architectural and engineering firms and local businesses, to sponsor on-the ground demonstration projects that address climate vulnerabilities. Sierra CAMP and the CRCRC are examples of the cross-sectoral, imaginative partnerships that are necessary to find robust solutions to extreme weather events and prevent future disasters like the Oroville Dam incident.
Mathematics helps children make sense of the words around them and find logical meaning in the physical world. Through mathematics, children learn to understand their world in terms of numbers, shapes and patterns. They learn to reason, connect ideas, and think logically with mathematical concepts. Mathematics is more than rules and operations that we were taught in school. It is about connecting to and understanding the relationship in every aspect of life. The present education system has made a 360° shift from learning mathematics by obedience to learning by applied reasoning. This means children learn best when they are interested and even excited about what they are doing. Children are given many opportunities to see and hear different things, and to move about and play with things they can touch. This helps them to connect things, and demonstrate concepts in their own way. Children should be encouraged to think and to show respect for their thinking. But remember, it is not just the doing but the thinking that promotes learning. In view of this we have provided Math Labs at both the schools to make the study of Mathematics meaningful and interesting. Taking into consideration the national aspirations and expectation reflected in the guidelines of the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) developed by NCERT, the Central Board of Secondary Education had initiated a number of steps to make teaching and learning of mathematics at schools activity-based and experimentation oriented. The guidelines are:- - Foster mathematical awareness, skill building, positive attitude and learning by doing - Learning concepts using concrete objects - Verify math facts and properties using models, measurement and activities - Individualized and peer learning centers: Discovery, Enrichment, Remedial and Reinforcement - Teachers to explain and demonstrate many concepts using charts, models, aids and activities Maths Lab will enable school students to learn and explore mathematical concepts and verify mathematical facts and theorems using technology tools. Maths Lab will offer Multiple Teaching and Learning Aids comprising of Technology Applications, Videos, Manipulative, Measuring Instruments, Tables and Charts, to schools based on the three pillars of ‘Imagination, Investigation and Interaction’. Math Lab provides an opportunity to students to understand, internalize, discover and verify the basic mathematical and geometrical concepts through concrete objects and situations, thus building interest and confidence in students learning the subject. The laboratory also allows and encourages the students to think, discuss among themselves as well as with the teacher, and assimilate concepts. Maths Lab encompasses the following - Maths Lab Junior - For classes 3 to 5 - There are 82 activities given based on the NCERT guidelines. - Maths Lab for Middle and Senior School: For 6 to 10 - There are 405 activities the implementation of NCF guidelines effectively. These activities are designed appropriately keeping in mind the age of the learners thereby catering to the different pedagogical needs. e.g., the Graphical User Interface used in the junior classes is different from that of the Senior and Middle School.
Your child's ability to see the world relies on healthy eyes. By teaching them how to care for their eyes, you help protect them from injury and ensure their eyes and vision remain healthy in the long run. Here are our 5 top eye care tips for kids. Good Eye Care Habits for Children 1. Maintain a Healthy Diet and Drink Plenty of Water A nutritious diet and healthy eyes go hand in hand. Encourage your child to eat healthy foods like fresh fruits and vegetables, and prioritize foods rich in vitamin A found in green leafy and yellow vegetables. Eggs are also rich in important nutrients, containing vitamin A, lutein, zeaxanthin, and zinc, all vital for eye health. Another thing to look out for is hydration. Proper hydration plays a key role in maintaining healthy eyes and a healthy body, so make sure your child drinks plenty of water (the appropriate amount will vary according to your child's age, level of physical activity and weather conditions). 2. Wear Eye Protection Physical activity is enjoyable and healthy, but make sure your child is wearing the right protective eyewear, like safety goggles, anytime they participate in sports or activities that could cause an eye injury (i.e. playing ball, hockey, carpentry). Wearing a helmet for sports like riding a bicycle protects against concussions, which can result in lingering vision problems, and are usually preventable. Furthermore, provide your child with good UV-blocking sunglasses to protect their eyes from the sun’s UV radiation. Staring directly at the sun, or the light rays reflecting off water and snow, can potentially cause retinal burns, in addition to long term damage. 3. Give The Eyes a Rest Staring at the school board and school books all day, followed by playing video games or watching TV in the evening can cause eye strain. Be sure your child gets sufficient sleep to allow their eyes to rest. Replace evening activities with those that don't require intense eye focusing: going to the park, playing outdoors with friends, or simply lying down with their eyes closed while listening to music or an audiobook. 4. Reduce Time Spent on Digital Devices Spending time on digital devices and staring at screens is an integral part of our lives. Playing video games, watching videos on their smartphones and playing computer games, all require the eyes to fixate for extended periods of time, which can lead to digital eye strain, headaches and even dry eyes. Try to reduce the amount of time your child spends on the screen by getting your child to participate in other activities, such as sports. And when using digital devices or screens for long periods of time, get them into the habit of taking frequent breaks and give their eyes a rest by looking into the distance every few minutes. 5. Get Their Eyes Checked Regularly School-aged children's vision can change often, and unexpectedly, until the late teenage years. Left uncorrected, poor eyesight can interfere with learning, and cause behavioral and attention issues. Getting a routine eye exam is important as it can uncover vision problems, detect eye conditions early on, and significantly increase the odds of preserving long-term eye health. For those who wear glasses or contacts, it's important to check for any changes and update the prescription as needed. Ensure your child’s eyes are being cared for properly by scheduling an eye exam with Cox Family Eye Care, P.C. in Princeton today. Your child’s eye doctor can further educate them on eye safety and answer any questions you or your child may have. My kid frequently rubs their eyes. Is that bad? Kids often rub their eyes, especially if they have allergies, irritated eyes, or they feel like something is stuck in their peepers. Rubbing can scratch the cornea, and transfer bacteria from the child’s hands to their eyes, causing an eye infection. Instead of rubbing, have them wash their eyes with cool water to flush out any foreign body or irritant, and ease inflammation. If the problem persists, contact your child’s optometrist. Other than reducing screen time, is there anything else I can do to maintain eye health & safety? When you're at home, keep an eye on your children's playtime and make sure that none of their toys — or the toys at their friends’ homes — are sharp. Sharp plastic swords and toys with jagged edges can cause serious eye injuries.
Sharing meals together is a simple and delightful ritual, and it’s hard to imagine any celebration where food doesn’t play a central role. In short, we can’t live well without eating well, and the COVID-19 pandemic has underscored that a healthy diet can shield us from diseases. Today, food systems drive environmental degradation and biodiversity loss, and are responsible for 37% of greenhouse gas emissions. Nearly one in every ten people in the world suffers from severe food insecurity, which at its worst means they have not eaten anything for days. Most of the world’s premature deaths occur due to diet-related diseases and one-third of all the food produced globally is wasted, while people who grow it populate poverty statistics. These are only broad brushstrokes. However, it’s clear that changing our food systems for the better would win us a chance at a liveable world, where everyone enjoys good health and prosperity. Making such changes entails resolving complex systemic challenges and joint coordinated action from all sectors of society on local, national and global levels. Here are five ideas drawn from SEI’s research for how to drive transformation in food systems – ideas that might not usually come to mind. 1. Cut ground-level ozone pollution Ozone is usually thought of as the “good gas”. That’s true when it’s 15–30 km above the Earth’s surface, forming the ozone layer that protects our planet from harmful radiation. However, when it floats in the troposphere, just 8–14 km above the ground, ozone poisons plants, causing yellowing, necrosis, reduced photosynthesis and biological deterioration, all of which stunt crop yields. In fact, India is already losing 14% of wheat and 6% of its rice harvest due to ozone pollution. Other ozone hotspots are in the Midwestern USA, much of mainland Europe and the coast of China. Air quality monitoring hardly ever focuses on rural areas and is rarely considered in seasonal crop-yield forecasts. Installing ozone monitoring networks in rural areas and incorporating calculations of ozone pollution effects into crop modeling is essential, but, ultimately, addressing ground-level ozone pollution is about switching to clean energy, especially in industry and transportation. 2. Invest in sustainable sanitation COVID-19 has made us all acutely aware that simple hygiene measures, like handwashing, can go a long way in limiting the spread of infectious diseases. However, it’s not as widely known that people who lack access to clean water and sanitation also suffer from recurring gastrointestinal infections, which lead to malnutrition and stunting, with huge implications for human and economic development. Increasingly, scientific evidence indicates that safe water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) are a priority when it comes to better nutrition. But WASH can deliver even more than that. Installing circular sanitation systems that capture, recycle and repurpose waste can help generate valuable resources locally, like fertilizer, energy and water and can improve food security and resilience, all while creating jobs and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. For example, SEI’s Clean and Green framework was developed to help establish effective resource reuse in rural areas, in parallel with hygiene and sanitation promotion. Developed into an open access online platform, the Revamp tool facilitates the transition to a circular economy by estimating the financial value and reuse potential of waste on a city scale. 3. End deforestation Forests are most often cleared with the intention to grow agricultural crops, so it may sound counter-intuitive to say that deforestation is detrimental to food security. Trees, however, are essential for maintaining environmental conditions favourable for agriculture. Bare land can’t regulate and store water, has lower fertility because it lacks organic matter and is susceptible to erosion. All of this forces people to apply synthetic fertilizers and heavy irrigation and then expand further into forests in pursuit of more farmland, maintaining a vicious cycle. Additionally, forests are sacrificed in favour of industrial agriculture; soy farming in Brazil’s Cerrado, cattle pastures in the Amazon and palm oil in Indonesia are the most well-known examples. These farms may provide jobs to local farmers, but the produce usually goes to affluent consumers and most of the profit to intermediaries handling sales on the international markets, while local communities are often left with nothing but depleted resources. Forests, on the other hand, have supplied local and indigenous communities with nutritious foods, healthy game meat and medicines for millennia. Halting deforestation, therefore, can not only improve food security but also spur the transition to climate-smart sustainable farming in balance with nature, as demonstrated by agroecology, agroforestry and other innovative approaches. Understanding where and how industrial farming causes deforestation is the first step. The Trase tool uses publicly available data to increase the transparency of agricultural supply chains, revealing their environmental and social risks in tropical forest regions. 4. Bank on social equity and gender equality The world produces enough food to feed everyone, yet we are far from ending hunger. Many experts agree that poverty, injustice and inequality, rather than scarcity, are the root causes of hunger. Farmers, farm and food workers often have meagre social protections and are paid poorly for essential labour that is exhausting and hazardous. Additionally, fresh and nutritious foods, like fruits, vegetables, fish, eggs and meat, are expensive and hard to get if you are poor, your family has low socio-economic status and you happen to live in a marginalized community or remote area. This, in turn, pushes people to eat unhealthy foods, which results in higher rates of non-communicable diseases (NCDs), missed workdays, climbing healthcare bills and, ultimately, deeper poverty and a shorter life. Women’s empowerment and higher gender equality tend to correlate with better nutritional outcomes and are a well-recognized tool against hunger. Women are more likely than men to be food insecure, a fact driven by cultural norms, such as favouring boys and men in household food distribution, and structural inequalities, like income gender gaps and lower education. Women comprise 43% of the agricultural labour force in the Global South, but men are persistently considered the de facto heads of households as well as their main providers. Because of this, women farmers often can’t own land and lack access to credit, information, extension services and agricultural inputs. SEI research on women’s empowerment in rice value chains in Cambodia, Pakistan and Vietnam shows that women often are confined to production, processing and small-scale retail, while men dominate business and trade. Traditional gender roles like domestic chores and caretaking prevent women from accessing the lucrative stages of food value chains. For example, out of 200 members of the Cambodian Rice Federation, which manages rice export companies, only two are women. In turn, policy tends to work in favour of traders, who are mostly men. For example, price regulation policies in Vietnam benefit rice traders but do not reduce production costs for small rice producers, while the country’s Rural Development Strategy 2010–2020 did not include gender at all. Questioning and correcting gender inequalities and other systemic power imbalances can go a long way in helping to make food systems more sustainable, and in reducing hunger and improving nutrition. 5. Prioritize collaboration over competition The global food system is very complex and full of “wicked” problems. From plant genetic engineering and lab-grown meat, international trade, agricultural subsidies and sustainability certifications to child labour and land rights, plant-based diets, loss of agrobiodiversity and advertisement of sugary drinks, many diverse issues are part of the food system dilemma and no single actor can possibly solve it alone. So, fixing our food system will require collaboration on different levels and scales. Partnerships between governments, businesses, scientists, advocacy organizations, artists, chefs, communities and citizens will be vital. Working with people who do not share the same interests, values and vocabulary isn’t always easy, but is essential for covering more ground and increasing influence, combining efforts, sharing resources and enriching the food systems discourse with diverse voices and experiences. Networks and digital communication platforms, like SIANI, can help with that. Crucially, such networks can help us break out of silos, generate safe discussion spaces, make connections and power integrative solutions that we urgently need to get our food systems on track. As the UN prepares to convene the 2021 Food Systems Summit, it’s vital to employ all the solutions we can think of and turn the vision of a sustainable future into reality.
What Is the Function of Triglycerides? Triglycerides are lipids, a type of fat. They are found in foods that come from both plants and animals. The triglycerides in plants come from vegetable oils, such as sunflower and peanut, which remain liquid at room temperature. Meat and dairy products contain triglycerides in animal fats, which remain solid at room temperature. Triglycerides are necessary for certain bodily functions, but high levels of them can lead to health problems. Triglycerides are the most common lipid found in the body. They contain three chains of fatty acids. Although similar in structure to the phospholipids that build cell membranes, triglycerides are completely hydrophobic, meaning they cannot mix with water, so they cannot integrate into membranes. Because they can't mix with water, triglycerides bind to specialized proteins called lipoproteins to enable them to travel through the blood. Triglycerides provide your body with energy, but their main function is to store energy for later use. The food you eat contains calories in the form of carbohydrates, protein and fat. When you consume more calories than your body can use, it stores those calories in the form of triglycerides. Fat cells hold the triglyceride molecules until your body needs energy, such as between meals. Hormones signal the fat cells to release the triglycerides for your body to use. Triglycerides serve a necessary function -- without them your body would run out of energy unless you were eating constantly. The American Heart Association warns that an elevated triglyceride level, a condition known as hypertriglyceridemia, is associated with coronary artery disease. You can monitor your triglyceride and your cholesterol levels by asking your doctor to order a lipid panel profile, which requires you to provide blood samples. The test results indicate the levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol. Doctors recommend a triglyceride level of 150 milligrams per deciliter or less to reduce your risk of heart disease. A level of 200 to 499 milligrams per deciliter is considered high, and a level above 500 milligrams per deciliter is very high. If your triglyceride level is in the high or very high range, you should make lifestyle changes to reduce those numbers. The best way to reduce your triglyceride level is to decrease the number of calories you consume each day, especially if you are overweight. In addition to cutting calories, reduce your intake of saturated fat, trans fat and cholesterol, and eat more fruits and vegetables. If you drink alcohol, do so in moderation, because even small amounts can cause significant changes in your blood triglyceride level. Getting regular moderate-intensity exercise, at least 30 minutes five days a week, can also help lower your triglycerides. - University of Colorado Health Sciences Center: Cholesterol and Triglycerides – What You Should Know - Cleveland Clinic: What You Need to Know About Triglycerides - Michigan State University, Department of Chemistry: Lipids - MayoClinic.com: Triglycerides: Why Do They Matter? - American Heart Association: Triglycerides Stephanie Chandler is a freelance writer whose master's degree in biomedical science and over 15 years experience in the scientific and pharmaceutical professions provide her with the knowledge to contribute to health topics. Chandler has been writing for corporations and small businesses since 1991. In addition to writing scientific papers and procedures, her articles are published on Overstock.com and other websites.
The vegetation period is usually defined as the part of the year when the average daytime temperature is above a particular threshold. This threshold depends on the type of plant, but is usually between +3°C and +5°C. In northern Sweden, the length of the vegetation period has increased by around two weeks over the last 40 years. The length of the vegetation period has also increased in southern Sweden, but not by as much. In southern Sweden, this increase has also mainly been concentrated on the last decade. Climate scenarios suggest that the vegetation period will become longer in future throughout the country. A longer vegetation period may lead to certain agricultural harvests increasing in future, and may provide opportunities to grow new crops. It may also benefit forest growth. This is provided that the crops or forests have sufficient water at their disposition. At the same time, the risk of pests and harmful fungi will also increase.
Music is a unique form of communication that can change the way in which students feel, think and act. Music forms part of an individual’s identity. Positive interaction with music can develop students’ competence as learners and increase self-esteem. Music brings together intellect and feeling and enables personal expression, reflection and emotional development. As an integral part of culture, past and present, music helps students to understand themselves, relate to others and develop their cultural understanding. It forges an important link between home, school and the wider world. Music education encourages active involvement in different forms of music-making. It helps to develop a sense of group identity and togetherness. Music can influence students’ development, in and out of school, by fostering personal development and maturity and creating a sense of achievement and self-worth. Music learning develops pupils’ critical skills, their ability to listen, to appreciate a wide variety of music and to make judgements about musical quality. It also increases self-discipline, creativity, aesthetic sensitivity and fulfilment. We enable students to develop: capacity to express ideas and feelings symbolically through the medium of sound necessary skills and concepts social skills and awareness through making music in groups an awareness of musical traditions and developments in a variety of cultures and societies.
On Jan. 14, 2019, the Major Atmospheric Gamma Imaging Cherenkov (MAGIC) observatory in the Canary Islands captured the highest-energy light every recorded from a gamma-ray burst. MAGIC began observing the fading burst just 50 seconds after it was detected thanks to positions provided by NASA's Fermi and Swift spacecraft (top left and right, respectively, in this illustration). The gamma rays packed energy up to 10 times greater than previously seen. Credit: NASA/Fermi and Aurore Simonnet, Sonoma State University A pair of distant explosions discovered by NASA’s Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope and Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory have produced the highest-energy light yet seen from these events, called gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). The detections, made by two different ground-based observatories, provide new insights into the mechanisms driving gamma-ray bursts. Astronomers first recognized the GRB phenomenon 46 years ago. The blasts appear at random locations in the sky about once a day, on average. The most common type of GRB occurs when a star much more massive than the Sun runs out of fuel. Its core collapses and forms a black hole, which then blasts jets of particles outward at nearly the speed of light. These jets pierce the star and continue into space. They produce an initial pulse of gamma rays — the most energetic form of light — that typically lasts about a minute. As the jets race outward, they interact with surrounding gas and emit light across the spectrum, from radio to gamma rays. These so-called afterglows can be detected up to months — and rarely, even years — after the burst at longer wavelengths. Much of what astronomers have learned about GRBs over the past couple of decades has come from observing their afterglows at lower energies. Now, thanks to these new ground-based detections, they're seeing the gamma rays from GRBs in a whole new way. On Jan. 14, 2019, just before 4 p.m. EST, both the Fermi and Swift satellites detected a spike of gamma rays from the constellation Fornax. The missions alerted the astronomical community to the location of the burst, dubbed GRB 190114C. One facility receiving the alerts was the Major Atmospheric Gamma Imaging Cherenkov (MAGIC) observatory, located on La Palma in the Canary Islands, Spain. Both of its 17-meter telescopes automatically turned to the site of the fading burst. They began observing the GRB just 50 seconds after it was detected and captured the most energetic gamma rays yet seen from these events. The energy of visible light ranges from about 2 to 3 electron volts. In 2013, Fermi’s Large Area Telescope detected light reaching an energy of 95 billion electron volts (GeV), then the highest seen from a burst. This falls just shy of 100 GeV, the threshold for so-called very high-energy (VHE) gamma rays. With GRB 190114C, MAGIC became the first facility to report unambiguous VHE emission, with energies up to a trillion electron volts. That’s 10 times the peak energy Fermi has seen to date. Data from a different burst, which Fermi and Swift both discovered, confirm afterglows reach these energies. Ten hours after the alerts, the High Energy Stereoscopic System (H.E.S.S.) pointed its large, 28-meter gamma-ray telescope to the location of the burst, called GRB 180720B. A careful analysis carried out during the weeks following the event revealed that H.E.S.S. clearly detected VHE gamma rays with energies up to 440 GeV. Even more remarkable, the glow continued for two hours following the start of the observation. Catching this emission so long after the GRB’s detection is both a surprise and an important new discovery. The fading afterglow of GRB 190114C and its home galaxy were imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope on Feb. 11 and March 12, 2019. The difference between these images reveals a faint, short-lived glow (center of the green circle) located about 800 light-years from the galaxy’s core. Blue colors beyond the core signal the presence of hot, young stars, indicating that this is a spiral galaxy somewhat similar to our own. It is located about 4.5 billion light-years away in the constellation Fornax. Ground-based facilities have detected radiation up to a trillion times the energy of visible light from a cosmic explosion called a gamma-ray burst. This illustration shows the set-up for the most common type. The core of a massive star (left) has collapsed and formed a black hole. This “engine” drives a jet of particles that moves through the collapsing star and out into space at nearly the speed of light. The prompt emission, which typically lasts a minute or less, may arise from the jet’s interaction with gas near the newborn black hole and from collisions between shells of fast-moving gas within the jet (internal shock waves). The afterglow emission occurs as the leading edge of the jet sweeps up its surroundings (creating an external shock wave) and emits radiation across the spectrum for some time — months to years, in the case of radio and visible light, and many hours at the highest gamma-ray energies yet observed. These far exceed 100 billion electron volts (GeV) for two recent GRBs. The High Energy Stereoscopic System (H.E.S.S.) is an array of five ground-based gamma-ray telescopes located in Namibia in southern Africa. Four 12-meter telescopes — one is visible in the background — surround the larger H.E.S.S. II 28-meter telescope. As gamma rays impact the upper atmosphere, they strike air molecules and break them apart, creating showers of high-energy particles. These particles produce flashes of blue light called Cherenkov radiation, and a camera at the telescope’s focus records them. In July 2018, H.E.S.S. II detected gamma rays with energies up to 440 GeV from GRB 180720B, some of the highest energies ever seen from a gamma-ray burst. This brief animation illustrates the mirror of one of the MAGIC telescopes at Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on La Palma, Canaray Islands. Two 17-meter telescopes detect flashes of blue light, called Cherenkov radiation, that signal the arrival of gamma rays in the upper atmosphere.
Heartworm has been diagnosed in dogs in all parts of the world and is actually very common. This may be due to the fact that heartworm has a virtual 100% prevalence rate in unprotected dogs living in highly endemic areas. Heartworm, also known as Dirofilaria immitis, is transmitted by mosquitoes. The mosquito injects a microscopic larvae which grows into an adult worm six to eighteen inches long inside the heart of the affected dog. The worms can cause mild symptoms, such as coughing, but with time, more severe symptoms such as congestive heart failure, weight loss, fluid build up in the abdomen, fainting spells, anemia, collapse, and death usually occur. Luckily we have several excellent medications which can prevent heartworm if given as directed. There are oral medications which need to be given monthly, and which also help protect against some intestinal parasites. There is one topical medication which is also applied monthly. An injectable medication, ProHeart, which is administered every six months, is back on the market after being withdrawn for several years. Feline Leukemia/Feline Immunodeficiency Virus Testing (FELV/FIV Combo test): Like the AIDS virus, FeLV and FIV hinder the host's immune system, making the cat more susceptible to common infections. Feline Leukemia is associated with more illnesses and deaths of cats than any other infectious agent. Although not actually a cancer, it can cause several types of cancer in your cat. FeLV is considered a "social contact" disease generally spread through intimate contact between cats, such as grooming or sharing water bowls. Pregnant or nursing cats can pass the virus on to their kittens as well. Studies estimate the prevalence of FeLV in the United States at two to three percent of the cat population, meaning that 1.5 to 2.5 million cats carry and spread the virus. The FIV virus is less prevalent but still may infect almost one million cats in North America. Typically spread by fighting, FIV virus is caused by bite wounds between unfriendly cats. However, It should be noted that neither disease is spread from cats to people. Cats carrying either of these viruses may not show any signs of illness. In fact, due to the ability of these viruses to hide in the cat's cells, many cats can go years without any apparent symptoms. This can be a problem when new cats are introduced into the household, or if your cat ventures from home for a few days. The American Association of Feline Practitioners (AAFP) recommends testing cats routinely. Testing is considered the mainstay of preventing transmission of both diseases. Any sick cat should be tested, regardless of any negative results from previous testing. Microscope Evaluation/Cytology/ Needle Biopsy:
Measurement of the LANGUAGE PIE It has been a long time, that intellectuals, scholars and Western linguists, unable to discover the real roots of the languages have come up with the theory of Proto-Indo-European language, according to them, a language already disappeared, by which always according to them, lay out all European languages, giving the same credit to the natural offspring and vehicular ones. The following example is one of the many, that this would likely be not true, empirical roots of PIE language are a "scientific" fairytale , which adds more mystery in the whole account. The truth is that all words of written/spoken, are graphical /lexical transformation product of the primitive words which carry a particular concept in themselves, and there is nowhere common PIE roots, which linguists has filled their books with, defocusing our attention from the simple truth. Already proven by modern linguistics, in basis of primitive words, where it points-out the verbs, is a system c-v-c (consonant-vowel-consonant) sounds. In Albanian language almost all the verbs obey this rule, eg: 'catch, step, get, increase, see, plays, etc.(kap, hap, marr, rris, shoh, loz) or a even a simpler system eat, drink, do, stay etc(ha, pi, bej, rri), thus a combination of a consonant with a vowel. One of the most ancient primitive words of Albanian language that has been created when the language has innate itself, is the verb “mas” (measure), which is pronounced so often indiscriminate as “mat”, especially when used for lexical forms of the past, participle/infinitive, names or surnames. What is measuring(matja) itself? Measurement is a action performed by human to LEARN about the object/phenomenon, which we evaluate in the vast majority of cases of its dimensions, mass and all other physical measurable characteristics , that make us able to distinguish it from other objects/phenomenas. Measurement is done also for people, ex. when we meet an unknown person, except measurement (evaluation) of the stature of his appearance, we also learn from him his intellectual level, while measuring(estimating) it. So measurement(matja) is to learn(mesuar). It is the latter that has been introduced ready from Albanian as a graphical concept to provide the English term of measurement/mass(matjes/mases): pamesu = pa + mesu The verb MAT (or MAS) of Albanian has formed innumerable lexical forms not only in Albanian itself but in other "foreign” languages too, which are only forgotten spoken Albanian idioms customized to write the language, and later separated as a distinct new language: "Others" Europeans, the English seem to have properly used the Albanian language and its expressions to build their vocabulary, whose words being written with Latin letters as well as Albanian , do not create confusion as "Greek" does on the graphical aspect. For example to use pjekuri(mature) the English uses the word mature: Because such they were not, and for this has come ORA (time) to say the truth, the time made us cautious(MATUR), to discover out our divine language history and to take credit for our past..
Germany, a country hundreds of years in the making, was unified in 1871. After years of being separate states and loose confederations, Germany became a whole, unified nation through Prussian strength in the economy and more importantly strength in the military. The might of the Prussia’s military was in its army, which it used in wars to bring together the separate German states into a unified Germany. The Seven Weeks War against Austria was the first example of this. When Prussia won that war, the Northern German Confederation was formed with Prussia at the head and Austria not included, thus creating the first unified Germany, even if not completely, and changing war and politics of Europe forever. In 1818 Prussia established the Zollverein, a free trade agreement between German states. Quickly many other states joined the Zollverein, including twenty-five of the northern German states. As a result of the Zollverein, common customs were adopted, internal boarders abolished, and a common currency and weights system were used. The internal customs duties were replaced by a single tariff charge at the Prussian State frontier, and a customs union was established with Prussia at the head. The Zollverein opened up the many different independent German states to each other, making them economically dependent on each other and Prussia. One reason Germany was unified under Prussia was partially because of the economic power and control granted it through the Zollverein. In 1863 the Danish king tried to annex Schleswig, which has been a duchy of Denmark along with Holstein for some time. Since the Danish king was duke of Schleswig he was not supposed to annex it. As a result of his actions both Prussia and Austria responded by declaring war on Denmark. Denmark had hoped for help from Britain or France, but neither came forcing Denmark to stand alone against both Prussia and Austria. After three months of fighting Denmark had los... “An Investigation into the role of Bismarck and the Zollverein in German Unification” 10 Nov. 1999: n. pag. Online. Internet. 13 Feb. 2000. Available www.hogarth.demon.co.uk/Euro/Germany6.html-This site explained in more detail the importance of the Zollverein, and how it influenced other smaller states. “German Unification, covering 1805-71” n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Jan. 2000. Available http://www.argonet.co.uk/user/mseaborn/hist/germany/notas.html-This site put the information in chronological order and under headings giving a greater understanding of when and how events happened. Menzel, Wolfgang Germany: From the Earliest Period. New York and London: the Co-operative Publication Society, 1978. Vol. 4 of 4- this book laid the information out in an easy to understand format, giving a general background to find more books from. Schirp, Francis M. Ph.D. Short History of Germany. St Louis: B. Herder, 1915- this book, although before 1955, gave the movements of armies and information on the armies and fighting that surpassing that of the later books. Stern, Fritz Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichroder, and the Building of the German Empire. New York: Knopf, 1977- this book about Bismarck supplied background, and helped in my understanding of the workings of the unification, from money, to some of Bismarck’s thoughts, and the working of the Prussian government. “The Road to National Unification” 1 March 1997: n pag. Online. Internet. 26 Jan 2000. Available www.mcps.k12.md.us/schools/churchillhs/sslwpimants/unification.html – this site gave the best information on what was going on in the world outside of Germany that related Germany.
An adjective is a word that modifies a noun. It describes the qualities of a noun, such as size, shape, color, mood, nationality, age, etc. In the case of different, it can be used to compare items or people that are not the same, or not comparable. 1. This restaurant offers a different menu than the one next door. 2. None of the two versions were exactly the same, they were slightly different. 3. The employee in charge of this task needs to think differently than they did before. The word different is rarely used in the comparative degree, as it normally implies that there are two things being compared, rather than more than two. It also shouldn’t be used to describe physical characteristics, such as size or shape. For example, it would not be correct to say 'This chair is different size than the other one'.
How to Calculate 1/1 Divided by 1/7 Are you looking to work out and calculate how to divide 1/1 by 1/7? In this really simple guide, we'll teach you exactly what 1/1 ÷ 1/7 is and walk you through the step-by-process of how to divide fractions. Before we dive into the calculation, let's recap on some fraction basics. The number above the dividing line is called the numerator, while the number above the dividing line is called the denominator. For dividing fractions it's also useful to know that the first fraction (1/1) is called the dividend and the second fraction (1/7) is called the divisor. Let's set up 1/1 and 1/7 side by side so they are easier to see: Here is a really quick way to divide fractions. In the divisor (the second fraction) we flip the numerator and the denominator. This is known as the reciprocal and basically it means the reverse of the fraction. When we find the reciprocal, we also have to change the division sign to a multiplication sign: Once you've flipped the second fraction and changed the symbol from divide to multiply, we can multiply the numerators together and the denominators together and we have our solution: You're done! You now know exactly how to calculate 1/1 - 1/7. Hopefully you understood the process and can use the same techniques to add other fractions together. The complete answer is below (simplified to the lowest form): Note: since the numerator is greater than the denominator in this example, we've simplified it into a mixed fraction. Convert 1/1 times 1/7 to Decimal Here's a little bonus calculation for you to easily work out the decimal format of the fraction we calculated. All you need to do is divide the numerator by the denominator and you can convert any fraction to decimal: Cite, Link, or Reference This Page If you found this content useful in your research, please do us a great favor and use the tool below to make sure you properly reference us wherever you use it. We really appreciate your support! "How to Calculate 1/1 divided 1/7". VisualFractions.com. Accessed on December 2, 2021. http://visualfractions.com/calculator/divide-fractions/what-is-1-1-divided-by-1-7/. "How to Calculate 1/1 divided 1/7". VisualFractions.com, http://visualfractions.com/calculator/divide-fractions/what-is-1-1-divided-by-1-7/. Accessed 2 December, 2021. How to Calculate 1/1 divided 1/7. VisualFractions.com. Retrieved from http://visualfractions.com/calculator/divide-fractions/what-is-1-1-divided-by-1-7/. Preset List of Fraction Division Examples Below are links to some preset calculations that are commonly searched for:
The next in our series of syndromes that hearing loss may help identify is Alport Syndrome. The areas that are affected most in Alport are kidney disease, hearing loss, and eye abnormalities. Kidney disease in of itself is linked to hearing loss as described in an earlier post, but those with Alport syndrome have a progressive loss of kidney function to the point of End-stage kidney disease, which requires dialysis. The eye abnormalities include misshapen lenses in the eyes and coloration differences in the retina. Despite these abnormalities, vision loss is rarely associated with Alport syndrome. Hearing loss, though, is frequent with this syndrome. As the child grows, the inner ear develops abnormalities and progressive sensorineural hearing loss occurs. The presence of Alport syndrome is about 1 in 50,000 newborns, with males having more severe symptoms. The syndrome is x-linked about 80% of the time, meaning that the affected gene is on the X chromosome. Since males only have one X chromosome, this causes their symptoms to be more severe. Close to 15% of the time the syndrome is passed in an autosomal recessive pattern, with each parent having a copy passed onto the child. As in Jervell Lange, and many other syndromes of autosomal recessive, the carriers may not show symptoms or are completely unaffected. The recommended testing for diagnosing Alport syndrome is hearing evaluation, creatinine (protein in urine) and BUN (bluood urea nitrogen) testing, blood count, renal biopsy and urinalysis. Once Alport is diagnosed there is no cure, but treatment includes monitoring and treating to control the disease. If you or someone you know would like to find a genetic professional in your area, here is a good place to start.
For millennia, we saw the oceans as mysterious wellsprings of nature's power, capable of rising up and engulfing us. The history books are filled with stories of cities and towns caught off guard by the sudden onrush of a tropical storm. We now see hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones as the product of climate systems on a much larger scale... water and wind, oceans and land. They are fueled by heat from the sun, captured and stored in the upper layer of tropical oceans. The deeper and warmer this upper layer becomes, the stronger and longer lasting a hurricane can be. In the Atlantic Ocean, they often begin their lives over mountains in East Africa. As the wind sweeps over them, an area of low pressure forms. It travels across the Sahara Desert, then moves out over the warm Atlantic. There, it can spawn thunderstorms over a broad region. As the low gradually comes under the influence of the Earth's rotation, called the Coriolis force, it begins to spin. As the storm intensifies, the pressure in its center continues to drop, forming what's known as "the eye." It acts like a partial vacuum, causing winds at the sea surface to spiral inward toward it. These in-spiraling winds evaporate moisture from the warm ocean surface. As they near the eye, they veer upward, producing clouds and rain. Much of this air moves outward at the top of the storm, like a chimney. Some flows back down into the center, causing the eye to dry out and become clear. The path a hurricane takes, and the intensity it reaches, are determined by its interaction with global weather systems and ocean currents. In most cases, they form in vast ocean areas along the equator, pushed along by equatorial wind currents. At higher latitudes, to the north and south, east-bound winds circle the globe. Where they converge in the tropics, the flow shifts to the west, forming the trade winds and a band of precipitation called the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone. Stretching all around the Earth, this is the breeding ground for countless thunderstorms and larger tropical storms.
homeostasis in the muscular system Best Results From Wikipedia Yahoo Answers Youtube The muscular system is the anatomical system of a species that allows it to move. The muscular system in vertebrates is controlled through the nervous system, although some muscles (such as the cardiac muscle) can be completely autonomous. There are three distinct types of muscles: skeletal muscles, cardiac or heart muscles, and smooth (non-striated) muscles. Muscles provide strength, balance, posture, movement and heat for the body to keep warm. Upon stimulation by an action potential, skeletal muscles perform a coordinated contraction by shortening each sarcomere. The best proposed model for understanding contraction is the sliding filament model of muscle contraction. Actin and myosin fibers overlap in a contractile motion towards each other. Myosin filaments have club-shaped heads that project toward the actin filaments. Larger structures along the myosin filament called myosin heads are used to provide attachment points on binding sites for the actin filaments. The myosin heads move in a coordinated style, they swivel toward the center of the sarcomere, detach and then reattach to the nearest active site of the actin filament. This is called a rachet type drive system. This process consumes large amounts of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Energy for this comes from ATP, the energy source of the cell. ATP binds to the cross bridges between myosin heads and actin filaments. The release of energy powers the swiveling of the myosin head. Muscles store little ATP and so must continuously recycle the discharged adenosine diphosphate molecule (ADP) into ATP rapidly. Muscle tissue also contains a stored supply of a fast acting recharge chemical, creatine phosphate which can assist initially producing the rapid regeneration of ADP into ATP. Calcium ions are required for each cycle of the sarcomere. Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcomere when a muscle is stimulated to contract. This calcium uncovers the actin binding sites. When the muscle no longer needs to contract, the calcium ions are pumped from the sarcomere and back into storage in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. There are approximately 639 skeletal muscles in the human body. The following are some major muscles and their basic features: Aerobic and anaerobic muscle activity At rest, the body produces the majority of its ATP aerobically in the mitochondria without producing lactic acid or other fatiguing byproducts. During exercise, the method of ATP production varies depending on the fitness of the individual as well as the duration, and intensity of exercise. At lower activity levels, when exercise continues for a long duration (several minutes or longer), energy is produced aerobically by combining oxygen with carbohydrates and fats stored in the body. Activity that is higher in intensity, with possible duration decreasing as intensity increases, ATP production can switch to anaerobic pathways, such as the use of the creatine phosphate and the phosphagen system or anaerobic glycolysis. Aerobic ATP production is biochemically much slower and can only be used for long-duration, low intensity exercise, but produces no fatiguing waste products that can not be removed immediately from sarcomere and body and results in a much greater number of ATP molecules per fat or carbohydrate molecule. Aerobic training allows the oxygen delivery system to be more efficient, allowing aerobic metabolism to begin quicker. Anaerobic ATP production produces ATP much faster and allows near-maximal intensity exercise, but also produces significant amounts of lactic acid which render high intensity exercise unsustainable for greater than several minutes. The phosphagen system is also anaerobic, allows for the highest levels of exercise intensity, but intramuscular stores of phosphocreatine are very limited and can only provide energy for exercises lasting up to ten seconds. Recovery is very quick, with full creatine stores regenerated within five minutes. Heart muscles are distinct from skeletal muscles because the muscle fibers are laterally connected to each other. Furthermore, just as with smooth muscles, they are not controlling themselves. Heart muscles are controlled by the sinus node influenced by the autonomic nervous system. Smooth muscles are controlled directly by the autonomic nervous system and are involuntary, meaning that they are incapable of being moved by conscious thought. Functions such as heart beat and lungs (which are capable of being willingly controlled, be it to a limited extent) are involuntary muscles but are not smooth muscles. Control of muscle contraction Neuromuscular junctions are the focal point where a motor neuron attaches to a muscle. Acetylcholine, (a neurotransmitter used in skeletal muscle contraction) is released from the axon terminal of the nerve cell when an action potential reaches the microscopic junction, called a synapse. A group of chemical messengers cross the synapse and stimulate the formation of electrical changes, which are produced in the muscle cell when the acetylcholine binds to receptors on its surface. Calcium is released from its storage area in the cell's sarcoplasmic reticulum. An impulse from a nerve cell causes calcium release and brings about a single, short muscle contraction c From Yahoo Answers Answers:C integumentary system is your skin. Answers:nerve impulse travels to muscle impulse is conducted to sarcomeres in the muscle through the t tubule impulse depolarises muscle, calcium floods in more calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. (calcium induced calcium release) calcium binds to troponin, which moves tropomyosin. cross bridges form and actin fillaments are pulled. muscle contracts don't worry too much about the actin and myosin - just remember impulse, t tubule, sarcomre, calcium, contraction Answers:2. antagonistic muscles 7. c (may b) Answers:I think it would be better for you to figure it out on your own, sorry, but I do have something that I think might help you. Please refer to the source section of my answer. I hope it's helpful. I think it'd be better for you to figure it out from the picture, you'll learn it better.
Large powder avalanches can easily accelerate to 130 kilometers (80 miles) per hour in a matter of seconds, and they do not usually last long. So it was a stroke of luck that on April 17, 1996, the Thematic Mapper (TM) on Landsat 5 happened to capture this false-color image of an avalanche barreling down a steep flank of Kanjut Sar, a peak in the Karakoram Range in northern Pakistan. The image combines infrared, red, and green wavelengths to make it easier to distinguish the avalanche. Snow appears red; bare rock or soil is cyan. Shadows are black. The source of the avalanche appears to be a slope at roughly 6,500 meters (21,000 feet) elevation. As the avalanche gathered force, snow swept into a valley and tumbled nearly 750 meters (2,500 feet) onto Khurdopin Glacier. Khurdopin has a prominent band of debris (a medial moraine) that runs down its center. The moraine winds and loops in a distinctive way that suggests the glacier “surges” every few decades. Surging glaciers cycle through quiet periods, in which they store large amounts of ice and snow at high elevation, and then periods of rapid forward movement. Jakob Steiner of Utrecht University and the Mountain Hydrology group first noticed the avalanche while investigating Khurdopin’s history of surging. By digging through satellite imagery, researchers have described surges in the 1970s and 1990s. Steiner and colleagues are tracking a newer, even faster surge that began in October 2016. They keep a particularly close watch on Khurdopin because its surges can dam the Vijerab River and lead to dangerous floods downstream. With a height of 7,760 meters (25,460 feet), Kanjut Sar is the 11th highest mountain in Pakistan and the 26th highest in the world. Though not frequently climbed, it is well-known for its avalanches. In a report published by the American Alpine Club, climber Toni Spring recounted a close call with an avalanche on the mountain in 1986. “We had just set up Camp I at 5,700 meters when we heard the sound of tons of wet snow sliding. We jumped aside to a safer spot. The avalanche swept away our camp, leaving us barefoot in the snow. Fortunately, we could dig out enough gear to descend, but it was difficult without outer boots.” NASA Earth Observatory image by Jesse Allen, using Landsat data from the U.S. Geological Survey. Story by Adam Voiland.
Summer travel and vaccinations. Are you covered? In the simplest terms, a vaccine gives us an immunity against whatever disease it is designed to protect us from. When you get a vaccine, it sparks an immune response in your body, which helps it fight off and remember the germ so it can attack it if it ever invades again.1 Vaccines are made from very small amounts of weak or dead germs, so they won’t make you sick—but they will often provide long-lasing immunity to serious diseases that can make you incredibly ill.2 As an added bonus, when you get vaccinated, you’re also protecting those around you who are unable to be vaccinated due to weak or failing immune systems, like people with cancer. When you stay healthy, they have a much better chance of staying healthy too. Most of us receive vaccinations as children—but are they still effective? Do we need boosters? Are we still protected against the diseases we think we are? As it turns out, according to Immunize Canada3, childhood immunization does not provide lifelong immunity against some diseases like tetanus (lockjaw) and diphtheria. Ask your doctor to check your records to determine what immunizations you were given and when, and to find out which ones you need to update. Immunize Canada recommends the following immunization schedule, but your doctor will be able to help you determine if and when you should be vaccinated4: - Tetanus: everyone, every 10 years - Diphtheria: everyone, every 10 years - Pertussis: everyone, once in adulthood and during each pregnancy - Influenza: everyone, annually, particularly those over 65, anyone at high risk, and those who are at risk of spreading the disease to others - Hepatitis B: people with medical, occupational or lifestyle risks - Hepatitis A: people with medical, occupational or lifestyle risks - Meningococcal: people with high-risk conditions and people living in communal residences, including military personnel - Measles: people who were born after 1970 and who did not receive the vaccine or get the disease - Mumps: people who have not had the vaccine or the disease - Varicella: people who have not had the vaccine or the disease - HPV: females and males age 9-26 years of age - Herpes zoster: People over 50 years of age and older, including people who have had a previous episode of shingles - Travel vaccines: varies by destination—consult a health clinic, your health care provider or your local public health office It’s a good idea to keep a record of your vaccinations so you always know what immunizations you’ve had and when. That way you’ll be able to be proactive about getting your boosters when they’re recommended by your doctor.
Species Spotlight: Massassauga Rattlesnake The Massassauga rattlesnake is native to Ontario and North-Eastern USA. In Ontario, there are two populations: the Great Lakes – St. Lawrence River population, which is classed as threatened under Ontario’s Endangered Species Act, and the Carolinian population, which is classed as endangered. The snake is primarily found in two locations – on the Eastern side of Georgian Bay, and on the Bruce Peninsula. The Bruce Peninsula population occurs from around Wiarton to the tip of the Peninsula, and perhaps on to Manitoulin Island. The Massassauga is a distinctive snake with a triangular head and a grey or dark brown body dotted with darker saddle-shaped marks. It can grow up to a metre long and has a small rattle at the end of its tail, which makes a buzzing sound when shaken. Adult snakes shed their skin two or three times per year, and each time they do so they add an extra “button” to their rattle. Although the Massassauga is Ontario’s only rattlesnake, the Eastern foxsnake and Eastern milksnake mimic the Massassauga by quickly vibrating the tips of their tails. The Massassauga lives in a range of habitats including tall grass prairie, bogs, marshes, shorelines, forests, and alvars. Wherever they are, they need open areas where they can warm themselves in the sun. In the winter, they hibernate underground where they can remain above the water table but below the frost line, such as in crevices in the bedrock, sphagnum swamps, tree root cavities, and animal burrows. Sometimes they will share their hibernation sites with other hibernating snakes, amphibians, or even crayfish. The diet of the Massassauga includes small mammals, fish, lizards, frogs, and even other snakes. It has the ability to separate its jaw into two segments which allows it to consume prey three times bigger than its head. Breeding occurs every 2-3 years and the females give birth to between 8 and 20 live young. While it is a venomous snake (the only one in Ontario), it will only bite in self-defence if threatened or harassed. Massassaugas are very shy and prefer to hide from their enemies. If threatened, they will first shake their tail as a warning, and only strike as a last resort. Only two deaths resulting from a Massassauga bite have ever been recorded in Ontario, and both of these occurred more than 50 years ago. Despite this, persecution by humans is a significant threat to this snake as people deliberately kill it out of fear and dislike. Other threats include road mortality and urban development, cottage development, and expanding road systems, which destroy or fragment the snake’s habitat. The Massassauga was once found throughout Southern Ontario, but has experienced significant declines. What can you do? • Report a sighting to the Natural Heritage Information Centre and/or the Ontario Reptile and Amphibian Atlas. Photographs with specific locations and mapping coordinates are helpful! • Watch for snakes crossing the road, especially between May and September. • Learn about snakes and help dispel the myths! • Never deliberately harm, kill, capture, or handle a snake. • Never buy snakes that have been caught in the wild. • Report any illegal activity related to plants and wildlife to 1-877-TIPS-MNR (847-7667). If hiking on the Bruce Trail, in Bruce Peninsula National Park, or other locations in the Bruce Peninsula, it’s possible that you may come across a Massassauga rattlesnake. The most common strikes occur to the foot or ankle when hikers unknowingly step over or on a snake. As a precaution, watch where you’re walking, wear appropriate footwear, and don’t reach into areas you can’t see (particularly at night). If you hear a rattle, stop, locate the where the rattle is coming from, and slowly back away. If you are bitten by a Massassauga, remain calm and call emergency services. Never try to catch or kill the snake – it is unnecessary, dangerous, and illegal. Keep the danger of snakes in perspective – encountering a Massassauga is rare and by following simple precautions you can usually avoid a confrontation. Photo Credit: “Massasauga rattlesnake” by Tim Vicekrs – St Louis zoo, self-made. Licensed under Public Domain via Commons
After you have drawn the scale lines and enclosed the chart, you plot the data on the chart. When you plot columns on the chart, you do not have to make them 100% accurate, they are approximations. Therefore, you round off the values they represent to the nearest whole number. Round off to the nearest dollar for the chart in this lesson. If you want the columns to show 100% accuracy, label each column at the top. Using the chart's scale, mark the height of the value of the first column, draw a vertical line from the first mark on the Xaxis to the height mark, and complete the column by using three spaces on the X axis. Skip two spaces and mark the height of the next column. Plot the remaining values using the same process. Remember, the distance between columns is two spaces and each column uses three spaces (2 to 3 ratio) Figure 117. Plotting data After you checked the chart for accuracy and appearance, you can ink the chart. Make the lines forming the outer edges of the chart and the bars thicker than the horizontal scale lines. When inking the chart remember the horizontal scale lines do not pass through the columns or bars. To add to the visual appearance of the chart and help the reader establish the value of the columns, add pattern tapes, opaque tape, or zipatone patterns. Opaque tapes are available in many colors. The pattern tapes come in regular or irregular hatchmarks or designs. They are helpful in creating a twodimensional texture on the chart (figure Figure 118. Pattern tape
2.3.3 Geometrical isomerism A second type of isomerism occurs with diene monomers, and is present in both NR and butadiene rubbers (BR). It occurs because the single double bond in the final polymer can exist in two ways: a cis form and a trans form. The repeat unit shown in Table 3 for NR does less than justice to the two-dimensional structure of this material (Figure 17). In this planar formula where the bonds are shown in their correct orientation to one another, the base polymer in natural rubber can be seen to be m-polyisoprene, where the pendant methyl group appears on the same side as the lone hydrogen atom. The two parts of the chain in which this single repeat unit sits, lie on the opposite side of the double bond. But there is an alternative structure with exactly the same formula: the polymer is gutta percha, and its structural formula is shown below that of NR in Figure 19. Here, the two parts of the chain are on opposite sides of the double bond, giving the overall chain a zig-zag appearance. It is also a naturally occurring polymer, but has quite different properties to natural rubber. It is a highly crystalline and rigid material without the long-range elasticity characteristic of an elastomer. It was used formerly as an electrical insulator, but has now been largely superseded by synthetic plastics.
Speak Up About Meningitis Educate Yourself and Your Teen About Meningitis Talk to your teen about the potentially devastating effects of meningococcal meningitis and the need for 2 vaccinations. Here are a few healthy habits that can help prevent meningitis: - Ensure your child or teen is fully vaccinated against meningococcal disease.1 - Tell your child or teen to avoid sharing glasses, sharing eating utensils, and toothbrushes—anything that someone has put in or near their mouth.2-4 - Make sure your child or teen is getting enough sleep. Being tired or having irregular sleep patterns can weaken the immune system, which may make a teen more prone to meningitis.5 - Advise your child or teen to stay away from smoke and smoking. Studies have shown that smoking or being around people who smoke can increase one's chances of catching meningococcal meningitis.6-8 Questions for Your Health Care Provider When you visit your teen’s doctor or nurse, you could ask these questions to get the conversation started: "Has my child been vaccinated against meningococcal disease? When will he or she need a booster shot?" If YES, then ask: - "When was my child vaccinated for meningococcal disease? Is that vaccination still effective?" - "What else can I do to help protect my child from meningococcal disease?" If NO, then ask: - "Why wasn’t my child vaccinated?" - "Doesn’t the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommend vaccination?" - "Can my child get vaccinated now?" - According to public health officials, should I be educated about meningococcal disease and should my child be offered the vaccine before attending high school, summer camp, or college? The Right Opportunity Your teenager probably doesn’t go to the doctor as much as younger kids do, but you could always call your doctor or discuss meningococcal disease and its prevention when your teen is at the doctor for: - Routine well visits - Visits for acne management - Annual back-to-school checkups - Pre-college checkups - Visits for seasonal allergies - Sick visits for minor illnesses - Checkups before summer camp - Sports physicals Next: Meningitis Video Library
The Exodus, Moses and the Pharaohs The Egyptian Sojourn of the Hebrews a mural from a tomb in Bani Hassan depicting Asiatics with families and flocks. According to Oahspe, for three hundred years prior to 1550 b.c.e., which was the end of the cycle of Cpenta Armij, the northern and eastern kingdoms of Heleste and Pars’ie (a large expanse from the Mediteranean north, south and eastward to Persia) were driven to war by Baal and Ashtaroth. And so, by 1550 b.c.e., there were millions of people from the east who had migrated into Egypt, among these were Faithists escaping the wars resulting from Baal and Ashtaroth’s struggles to gain dominion and territory. Some biblical scholars attribute the Hyskos rule to Israelites, but the peace-seeking Israelites, did not come as warriors making themselves dominant in the territory they occupied, but rather they became servants to the Egyptians who dominated the regions: Oahspe, Bk of the Arc of Bon, \|\| 27/14.20. For more than three hundred years, the God Baal and the Goddess Ashtaroth had driven the foreign kingdoms to war; and as a consequence of these wars the Faithists had fled into Egupt, and even accepted servitude rather than be slain elsewhere.\|\| The disruption of war and relocation of large numbers of Asiatics to the more peaceful regions of Egypt is also reflected in Egyptian art and culture of the Middle Kingdom, as evidenced in Egyptian art of that period, depicting Asiatics in peaceful travel with family and domestic goods, or Egyptian domestic scenes depicting Asiatics in service to the wealthy Egyptians. During the reign of Amenemhet III, near the end of the Middle Kingdom period, many Asiatic workers, including laborers, soldiers and craftsmen, came to Egypt. In context with the Oahspe account, it can be seen that the military experience of the eastern warriors under Baal and Ashtaroth’s inspiration with their horse drawn chariots and advanced weaponry, later adopted by the Egyptians, was not derived from the Hebrews, but from warrior Asiatics under the inspiration of Baal and Ashtaroth. The Eastern Delta regions of Egypt were a major point of interface with migrating Asiatics, where trade flourished and foreign technology was absorbed by the Egyptians. The power base of the Middle Kingdom was close to the Eastern Delta regions at Itjtawy (south of Memphis at the upper end of the delta), providing the Pharaoh with the advantage of tribute, trade and Asian innovative technology over the southern areas of Egypt. According to conventional Egyptology, the rise of the Hyksos was supposed to have culminated in a century of Hyksos rule prior to 1550 b.c.e, The supposed fragmentation of the upper and lower kingdoms of Egypt into separate dynasties is believed to have been as a result of the growing numbers of Asiatics (Hyksos) gaining dominance in the delta regions. However, numerous scholars dispute this as a misrepresentation of the subordinate positions that Egyptians allowed Asiatics to take in provincial regions within the Egyptian Hegemony. Again, this is reflected in the power structures of the 12th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom: retrieved 4 Oct, 07 \|\|Nomarchs were the semi-feudal rulers of Ancient Egyptian provinces. Serving as provincial governors, they each held authority over one of the 42 nomes (Egyptian: sepat) into which the country was divided.….The position of the nomarch was at times hereditary, while at others nomarchs were appointed by the pharaoh. The balance of power between nomarchs and the central government varied from one pharaoh's rule to the next. Generally, when the national government was stronger, nomarchs were appointed governors. But when the central government was weaker – at times of foreign invasion or civil war, for example – rulers of individual nomes would assert themselves and establish hereditary lines of succession…..\|\| \|\|In the Middle Kingdom the Ancient Egyptians developed a new government where the pharaoh did not have total power over Egypt. The officials got their way. However, this did not mean that their civilization was weak or that the pharaohs did not have any power. In fact, strong pharaohs of the 12th dynasty had complete authority…..The Middle Kingdom was formed after a series of wars between the rulers of Upper Egypt (the South) and Lower Egypt (the North). The rulers of Upper Egypt won, and they reunified the country about 2000 BC, with the capital first at Thebes in the south, and then at a new city just south of Memphis. The Pharaohs of this period are not as powerful as before. They show themselves as taking care of their people, instead of as god-kings as in the Old Kingdom. They are the shepherds of the people now. The nomarchs (local officials) are powerful.\|\| Various sources of education material for schools. The interface of the incoming Asiatics with Egyptians was controlled through laws which were designed to enslave those who would not adopt Egyptian religion, this in turn also affected many Faithists to adopt Egyptian ways, as per the Oahspe account: Bk of the Arc of Bon \|\|27/14.11. Among the Sun laws were the following, to wit: The God of Gods (i.e., Osiris) decrees Whoever does not bow down to me, shall not partake of me. Behold, mine is the sign of the circle! My enemies shall not receive great learning. 12. They shall not hold sun places (be employers), but shall be as servants only all their lives. And these signs shall discover them: 13. If they worship not me, but the Great Spirit; 14. If they deny that the Creator is in the image of a man; 15. Then their possessions are forfeited already; nor shall they possess houses in their own names; nor send their children to the schools; for they shall be servants and the servants of servants forever. 17. Under the Eguptian laws it was accounted a sufficient crime of idolatry to worship the Great Spirit, Jehovih, that the Israelites were not even admitted to the courts to be tried for an offence, but fell under the jurisdiction of the master for whom they labored, and his judgments were unappealable. 18. Among the Israelite [4 million] not all were of full faith, but many, to shirk the rigors of the Sun laws, professed to be worshippers of God (Osiris), and they would also enlist as soldiers, and otherwise connive in the ways of men, for sake of favour. 19. For which reason the Sun King (Pharaoh*) feared the time might come when the Israelites might revolt against the Sun laws or become solders and confederate with foreign kingdoms for the overthrow of the This concurs with the historical evidence that not all the Hebrews who came to Egypt remained servants, but sought advancement within Egyptian culture and society. And so there is an understandable blurring of historical definitions between Hebrew Faithist and Hyksos (warrior Asiatic). The upper regions (southern) of Egypt were kept in submission to the Lower Regions (northern) in the Middle Kingdom before the fragmentation of Osiris’ dominions in the lower heavens until about 250 years before the end of the cycle of Cpenta Armij, i.e. 1800 b.c.e. At this point Osiris’ kingdom became divided and several of his generals rebelled and took fragments for themselves. One interesting detail that confirms the name of one of these rebel generals is the name taken by the rulers of the 17th Dynasty. Tao I and Tao II both carry the name of Teo-Judas who seceded from Osiris kingdom, taking over the lower heavens above South Arabin’ya (South Egypt). Upon fragmentation, the southern region of Egypt, under the dominion of Teos-Judas in the lower heaven, probably began its own dynasty at least 100 years before the end of the cycle of Cpenta Armij. The inherited status granted to the nomarchs by Amenemhat II reflects these divisions of power, which nevertheless, remained subject to the Pharaoh of Egypt as nome states, until sometime during the reign of Amenemhat III, when the nomarchs were disinherited. Oahspe reveals that Nu-ghan was under the inspiration of Baal, indicating that by the time Ahmose I, as a prince of the southern nome region of Egypt, centred in Thebes, succeeded to the Pharaonic throne of Egypt, Teos-Judas had been replaced by Baal, usurping the remnants of Osiris Kingdom in the lower heavens at the end of the Cpenta Armij cycle. The unification of the southern nome region of Upper Egypt with the Egyptian throne in Lower Egypt now appears to Egyptologists to be the work of Ahmose I, rather than a matter of succession to the existing Pharaonic throne of Egypt which had, up until then, been occupied by the 12th Dynasty rulers. All Oahspe references are from the Standard Edition Oahspe of 2007
By Kristin Perry According to the USDA, it takes a thousand years to create one inch of soil. Missouri leads the nation in soil conservation efforts. Since 1984, the citizens of Missouri have taxed themselves with a soil and water conservation tax. The last time Missouri voted on it, this tax passed with a resounding 70 percent. The Missouri soil and water conservation tax totals about 40 to 48 million dollars a year. According to a recent article, Missouri's soils conservation tax has saved 148 million tons of Missouri's soil over 28 years. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has renewed its efforts to build shallow water habitat by digging large channels along the Missouri River. The channels are miles long, two hundred feet wide and 25 feet deep. The opposition is not aimed at the projects, the opposition is to the fact that the Corps wants to dump the excavated soil from these construction projects directly into the Missouri River. This Corps has issued a proposal to build a second chute at Jameson Island. But the proposal to dump the soil is not just about Jameson Island and an additional 30 acres of soil. This is the beginning of the Corps second assault on Missouri's soil resources. Altogether, the Corps has indicated it plans to dump 60,000 acres of soil, five feet deep. That's 822 million tons of soil. That is a magnitude of five and a half times more than all of the soil that Missouri's tax has saved. Sediment is a pollutant under the Clean Water Act. Missouri citizens know it is against the law to dump soil into the river. The Environmental Protection Agency and the Missouri Department of Natural Resources have enforced harsh fines against our citizens for letting sediment run into our rivers.
Article body copy For fisherman Jean-Christophe Cabrol, the arrival of la malaïgue in the Thau Lagoon in southern France this August was like watching a wildfire slowly devour an entire forest. Only in this case, the forest was underwater—and the conflagration resulted in the deaths not of trees but of thousands of tonnes of mussels and oysters. “There’s nothing we can do to protect them except move all the shellfish somewhere else,” Cabrol says. “But it’s very hard to move all of them. Some people who tried to move their shellfish to rafts in other locations still lost everything, because the malaïgue hit there as well.” Malaïgue is a natural phenomenon that has been observed in lagoons near the Mediterranean Sea for decades, most recently in 2006. It arrives when a lack of wind combines with high water temperatures, resulting in a reduction in the amount of oxygen in the water. The first sign of the malaïgue’s arrival is a white discoloration of the water, signaling the growth of anaerobic bacteria. That’s followed by the strong stench of sulfur. Once triggered, malaïgue can spread across huge stretches of water in days, killing fish and shellfish alike. The only thing that ends the phenomenon is the return of the wind. Within three days to a week, the surface turbulence caused by blowing wind can oxygenate the water enough to sustain some shellfish, even if the water temperature remains high. This summer, unprecedented high temperatures scorched countries across Europe, from the Arctic Circle to the Mediterranean Sea. In the Thau Lagoon, 30 kilometers southwest of Montpellier, France, that meant water temperatures above 29 °C persisted for more than a week. The heat in itself was enough to kill virtually all the mussels growing in the lagoon, since they struggle to survive in water hotter than 27.5 °C. Oysters can hold out in water as warm as 30 °C, but once the malaïgue set in, many quickly succumbed to the lack of oxygen. Within a week, 2,703 tonnes of oysters died, along with 1,218 tonnes of mussels. As the site of the largest shellfish aquaculture industry in the Mediterranean, the losses in the Thau are a huge blow for thousands of people. In all, the dead mussels and oysters represent a loss of nearly US $7-million, according to the regional government. Cabrol, the president of an advocacy organization for shellfish producers, has now gone through two incidences of malaïgue. His father, also a fisherman, worked through three of them. Even with the risk of future malaïgue events, Cabrol remains optimistic and is training his son to take on the same career. This hopefulness is shared by marine biologist Franck Lagarde, who works for the French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea. Lagarde says environmental efforts, including everything from reducing runoff from nearby farms to rebuilding the population of aquatic plants, have improved the health of the Thau Lagoon ecosystem. “The return of seagrasses has been especially important. They seem to play a mitigating role in this type of event, since they provide more oxygen to the environment,” Lagarde says. But the long-term fate of shellfish in the region is less certain. As demonstrated this year, mussels are extremely vulnerable to higher water temperatures. Yet scientists are still unsure how regional wind patterns, the main player in malaïgue, will be affected by climate change. The phenomenon will undoubtedly continue to happen, Lagarde says, though not necessarily more frequently. Lagarde thinks it’s important to watch these lagoons as they respond to rising temperatures and increasing atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide. “They’re like fragile mirrors of the future,” he says. “What’s happening in lagoons today is what will happen in coming years in other ecosystems.”
Cursive Practice: N, M, L, P, R, B In this cursive worksheet, students trace and then write upper case N, M, L, P, R and B, then practice writing words that contain those letters. 6 Views 20 Downloads Cursive Capitals Formation Chart Make sure your pupils get all their curly-cues just right with a step-by-step reference page of uppercase cursive letters. The page breaks down each capital letter into one to four steps. See the materials tab for a matching reference... 2nd - 5th English Language Arts Graphic Organizers for Reading Strategies Help your pupils grow the reading strategies they need to succeed by supporting them with various graphic organizers. This packet includes a wealth of attractively formatted graphic organizers for predicting, keeping track of plot,... 7th - 12th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable The Sign of the Beaver Student Response Journal Discuss the themes and events of Elizabeth George Speare's The Sign of the Beaver with a collection of journal topics. Each chapter contains two or three questions for kids to consider and write about, for a total of 24 questions. 4th - 7th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Built around a moving short film about second chances and tough choices, this lesson mixes grammar, prediction, and narrative writing. Pupils practice with adjectives and prefixes before moving on to the film. The resource directs you to... 9th - 12th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable New Review Island of the Blue Dolphins: A Novel Study Reading Island of the Blue Dolphins by Scott O'Dell? Use this set of worksheets to accompany a novel study of the famous book. Each set of sheets is broken up to include two chapters of reading comprehension, vocabulary study, research... 4th - 6th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Wonderful worksheets and activities complementing six sequential lessons are what you'll find in this unit on folklore. Pupils create folktales using literary devices and included story starters, compare and contrast different folklores,... 2nd - 4th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable
A lagoon is a small pond that receives wastewater from a home for treatment. The lagoon is three to five feet in depth and the size is determined by the number of bedrooms in a home. A lagoon works to treat domestic sewage by a biological process. How does a lagoon work? The sewage from the home enters the lagoon on the bottom. The solids stay on the bottom and become sludge. Algae, a microscopic plant that lives in the lagoon, works with carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce oxygen. Other microorganisms use this oxygen to digest the sewage. This is why sunlight and good wind action are essential for a lagoon to work properly. Trees must be cleared around a lagoon for this reason. The lagoon should also be mowed frequently to make sure the lagoon gets plenty of sun and wind. What should be done to maintain a lagoon? A properly built and maintained lagoon should have little to no odor. The lagoon may “turn over” in the spring and in the fall and have some odor for a few days. If the lagoon has an odor at other times there may be another problem. If a lot of leaves fall into the lagoon, they can cause the lagoon to smell. When the leaves begin to decompose they produce tannic acid which lowers the pH of the lagoon. This kills the algae and upsets the biological process that is treating the sewage. If this occurs, trim or cut the trees that are causing the leaves to fall into the lagoon. The water in the lagoon can be treated with 2 pounds of ammonium or sodium nitrate per day until the odor dissipates. Odors can also be caused when something is put down the sewer that upsets the natural process in the lagoon such as a large amount of chemicals or lack of sunlight as in extended cloudy weather. If the home has a garbage disposal, it is best to have a properly sized and constructed septic tank preceding the lagoon. The tank should have at least 1000 gallons of capacity. This will reduce the fats and solids that will overload the lagoon. The lagoon should be filled with water prior to operation. No additives will be necessary to start the biological process. The bacteria from the sewage will be sufficient for this. The lagoon banks and area around the lagoon will need to be kept mowed and free of trees. The banks should be mowed to the water’s edge. This will prevent tall grass from drooping into the lagoon where it provides mosquito breeding areas and could contribute to premature filling. Mowing debris should not enter the lagoon. Remove trees within 50 feet of the lagoon to keep leaf debris from entering, avoid shading the surface and help control tree roots. Remove any other vegetation or trees which shade the lagoon, especially during the winter months. Watch for damage to the banks, especially from burrowing animals. Repair any damage immediately and reseed with grass as needed. Remove cattails and other vegetation including duckweed and floating algae masses from the lagoon immediately to minimize mosquito breeding and excess organic loading and to improve oxygen transfer. To help reduce damage to the banks, keep the fence in good repair so animals cannot get on the banks.
Our country is very rich in literary heritage. Literature means novels, poetry plays, prose and other creative written works. They are considered to have artistic qualities. They have permanent worth through their intrinsic excellence. These artistic writings are worthy of being remembered. The Vedic Literature in Ancient India The Vedas are the earliest literary works in India. The Rig Veda is the earliest record of the Indo-Aryan culture. Though devoted more to the study of spiritual and moral subjects, it contains frequent references to the daily life of the early Vedic people, their manners, customs, beliefs, their society, political organisation, their trade and occupations and their mode of warfare. These references put together enable us to construct a vivid picture of the ancient Indian society. There are many references in RigVeda which bear resemblance to Harappan Culture. In the RigVeda, is the Gayatri Mantra which is recited by millions of Hindus everyday. The RigVeda was followed by other three Vedas. The Samveda or the book of chants contains 1549 hymns taken from Rig Veda. Yajurveda is generally called the book of “sacrificial prayers”. It treats the principles of Yajnas sacrifices and some magical formulas and charms. The Atharvaveda contains hymns dealing mostly with special customs, magic and witchcrafts. It also throws light on Vedic civilization and culture. The Brahmanas are the explanation of the meanings of the Vedic hymns. They were written by lamed priests to explain Vedic texts in simple prose. The Aryanakas are the concluding portions of the Brahmanas. They deal with philosophy and stress the path of knowledge. The general body of early philosophical treatises is known as upanishad. Their number is about 200. They deal with high philosophical problems. What is this world? What becomes of one after death? Such questions are asked and boldly answered in the Upanishadas. The Vedanagas are the limbs of the Vedas and deal with such subjects as Grammer, Phonetics and Astronomy. The Upvedas deal with four secular subjects : (a) Ayurved (medicine), (b) Dhanurveda or military science (c) Gandharva veda or music (d) Shilpveda or architecture. The Sutras represent the last phase of the Vedic literature. They are written in a very compressed style. They deal with the vedic rituals and customary law. The Sruta Sutra describe the itua1s of greater sacrifices. The Garahya Sutra describes the ceremonies connected with the domestic life from birth to death. The Dharam Sutra are the earliest works on law both religious and secular. Six Schools of Hindu Philosophy They make a systematic and logical examination of the doctrines of life and Moksha. These schools are (1) The Samkhya School of Kapila (2) The Yoga System of Patanjali (3) Nayaya School of Gautma (4) The Vaisesika System of Kanda, (5) Uttra Mimamsa of Vyasa The Two Great Epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata The Ramayana was written by Rishi Valmiki and it is the oldest and the most popular epic. It is devoted to the celebration of the deeds of Rama. This work is the first example of Sanskrit Kavya and comprises of 21,000 couplets. The style is simple but highly literary. The Mahabharata is the longest epic in the world and contains more than 100,000 slokas or verses. Its main theme is “the Great epic of the War of the descendants of Bharata” but numerous other stories have been added to illustrate the main theme. It is believed to be the work of a legendary sage Vyasa. But in its present form it cannot be regarded as the work of one author. The Mahabharata is regarded as the “encyclopaedia” of moral teachings as conceived by Brahmanical mind. The historical importance of the two great epics is really great. They reflect the social customs, political and religious conditions of the age. They vividly portray the virtues and vices and ideals of the people. These epics have considerably influenced the daily life of the Hindus. The lives of Rama and Sita have always supplied to Hindu men and women their ideals of life. Rama is still regarded as an ideal son and an ideal king. Sita is still regarded as a model of Indian womanhood for both purity and loyalty Lakshmana is still looked upon as an ideal brother. Similarly, Yudhishtra is regarded as an embodiment of truthfulness and Lord Krishna as an incarnation (Avtar) of God Vishnu. Shrimad Bhagvada Gita is the most instructive and the most interesting portion of the Mahabharata. It is the most beaitftil and perfect song of the Supreme God. Hindus believe that it contains the very words of Shri Krishha incarnation (Avtar) of God Vishnu, to his disciple and friend 0 the Pandav hero Arjuna. It teaches the doctrine of rnshkama karma (work done without seeking any, reward) and Bizakii (loving faith) in God of Grace. Man must do his duty in a selfless way without any desire for reward. The Bhagvad Gita, for more than two thousand years, has deeply influenced the Hindu thought. It is read and revered by millions of Hindus to this day. It has been translated in almost all the living languages of the world. According to Aldous Huxley, “It is of enduring value not only for the Indians but for mankind”. The Puranas are the storehouse of Indian philosophy and ancient Indian history They are eighteen in numbers. They deal with exploits of gods and heroic princes. Some Puranas gave the names of several kings of different dynasties, in succession. The main purpose of the Puranas was to propagate religion and morals and to create a fear of God in the minds of people. The exact date of the Puranas cannot be fixed but they are a valuable source of information for the history of the period before the 6th century B.C. Panini, the celebrated Sanskrit grammarian, flourished not later than the fourth century B.C. He was the author of the Ashtadhyayi, the most scientific work on Sanskrit grammar. According to Max Mullar, the Hindus and Greeks are the only nations which have developed the science of grammar and Panini perhaps is the greatest grammarian that the world has ever seen.
On this day in 1916, on Easter Monday in Dublin, the Irish Republican Brotherhood, a secret organization of Irish nationalists led by Patrick Pearse, launches the so-called Easter Rebellion, an armed uprising against British rule. Assisted by militant Irish socialists under James Connolly, Pearse and his fellow Republicans rioted and attacked British provincial government headquarters across Dublin and seized the Irish capital’s General Post Office. Following these successes, they proclaimed the independence of Ireland, which had been under the repressive thumb of the United Kingdom for centuries, and by the next morning were in control of much of the city. Later that day, however, British authorities launched a counteroffensive, and by April 29 the uprising had been crushed. Nevertheless, the Easter Rebellion is considered a significant marker on the road to establishing an independent Irish republic. Following the uprising, Pearse and 14 other nationalist leaders were executed for their participation and held up as martyrs by many in Ireland. There was little love lost among most Irish people for the British, who had enacted a series of harsh anti-Catholic restrictions, the Penal Laws, in the 18th century, and then let 1.5 million Irish starve during the Potato Famine of 1845-1852. Armed protest continued after the Easter Rebellion and in 1921, 26 of Ireland’s 32 counties won independence with the declaration of the Irish Free State. The Free State became an independent republic in 1949. However, six northeastern counties of the Emerald Isle remained part of the United Kingdom, prompting some nationalists to reorganize themselves into the Irish Republican Army (IRA) to continue their struggle for full Irish independence. In the late 1960s, influenced in part by the U.S. civil rights movement, Catholics in Northern Ireland, long discriminated against by British policies that favored Irish Protestants, advocated for justice. Civil unrest broke out between Catholics and Protestants in the region and the violence escalated as the pro-Catholic IRA battled British troops. An ongoing series of terrorist bombings and attacks ensued in a drawn-out conflict that came to be known as “The Troubles.” Peace talks eventually took place throughout the mid- to late 1990s, but a permanent end to the violence remained elusive. Finally, in July 2005, the IRA announced its members would give up all their weapons and pursue the group’s objectives solely through peaceful means. By the fall of 2006, the Independent Monitoring Commission reported that the IRA’s military campaign to end British rule was over.
Whether you are planning a rainforest-themed birthday party or lesson plan for your classroom, children will enjoy hands-on crafts to help them learn about the lush trees, green foliage and colourful animals of the rainforest. Interactive crafts teach the children in an entertaining way while building fine motor skills in young children. Allow children to take home their crafts as mementos of the party or classroom lesson. Create easy crafts for the children by printing several colouring pages of rainforests and animals found in rainforests. Give the children markers and crayon for colouring the pictures. Other ideas include drawing guides for the children to learn to draw different animals and rainforest trees. How-to guides are available online to print. The guides will help the children learn to draw step by step. To make the crafts more durable and last longer, laminate the pictures and drawings for the children before they take them home. Print coloured pictures of rainforest animals and scenery on cardstock. Tape the pictures to cardboard and cut them into puzzle pieces. Make fewer pieces for younger children and more pieces for older children. Place each puzzle in a plastic zipper bag and give one puzzle to each child. The children can do their puzzles, take them apart and place them back in their bag to do again. Older children can make their own puzzles. For a variation, get a large rainforest-themed puzzle and have all the children work together to complete the puzzle. Give the children self-hardening clay to use to make their own animals. They can create the entire animal and body or just the face. Print pictures of animals for the children to use as a guide while creating their animals. For another animal craft, give each child a ceramic rainforest animal, such as a snake or a monkey. Small, ceramic animals are available at most craft stores and online. The children can use acrylic paint to paint the animals. Hot-glue a small craft pin or magnet to the back of the animals for the children. Children can create their own set of rainforest binoculars. Give each child two empty toilet-paper rolls and have him tape the rolls together. Children can use construction paper to cover the toilet-paper rolls and rainforest-themed stickers, paint, markers and crayons to decorate the binoculars. Attach a long piece of yarn to the binoculars so the children can hang them around their necks. Another idea is a rainforest vine. Each child can cut out pictures of rainforest trees and animals to attach to a long piece of green twine. The children can tape the pictures to the vine and hang the vine in a classroom.
Reading Comprehension Skills – Adding Meaning to Reading Reading Comprehension Skills — From Passive to Active Reading comprehension skills allow readers to move from elementary reading to effective reading. Reading begins as an exercise in decoding letters and sounding out words. This is passive reading, where we focus on memorizing patterns and practicing fluency. The bridge from passive to active reading requires reading comprehension skills. Reading comprehension is the ability to understand what we read — where words have context and texts have meaning. Reading comprehension skills allow us to read proficiently, learn effectively, problem-solve, strategize, conceptualize, and succeed in life. Without reading comprehension skills, many students are left behind. Reading Comprehension Skills — The Cognitive Foundation Reading comprehension skills are based on earlier stages of reading development, including oral reading and reading speed/fluency. Without developing these earlier reading skills, students must continually focus on decoding letters and words, rather than pursuing the progression to meaning and understanding. Numerous studies show that the key to developing proficient reading skills in the early years of education is an even earlier foundation in underlying cognitive skills. Therefore, strong reading comprehension skills are now viewed as totally dependant on the strength of the cognitive foundation established in the early years. These same studies reveal that approximately 80% of students testing low in reading comprehension skills also have weak underlying cognitive skills such as auditory and visual processing. Thus, for many struggling students, successful reading comprehension means a return to the fundamental tools that support the cognitive foundation. At LearningRx, we know that building the cognitive foundation must start with identifying and strengthening the underlying cognitive components — the building blocks for learning success. A weakness in any core process (building block) can present a major obstacle for developing future reading skills such as fluency and comprehension. At LearningRx, our programs target and strengthen cognitive weaknesses by training specific processing skills in intense, one-on-one, mentoring relationships with our students. We now have nearly two decades of dramaticsuccess under our belts! Reading Comprehension Skills — Attack Weak Cognitive Tools in A Powerful Way Reading comprehension skills are necessary for meaningful and effective reading. Early reading is grounded in strong cognitive skills such as attention, auditory analysis, sound blending, sound segmenting, memory, processing speed, and visualization. Therefore, the key to improving reading comprehension skills is to attack weak cognitive skills at the foundational level. At LearningRx, that’s what we do! When you’re ready to strengthen your child’s reading comprehension skills in a powerful way, please contact a LearningRx Center near you. You’ll learn everything you need to know about cognitive skills assessment and training and how our programs can improve your student’s life for a lifetime!
Statistics - Measures of Central Tendency If a person is given a large pile of numbers then, there is no hope of understanding the numbers unless a way to work the numbers out is figured out. For example if a pizza parlor managers is trying to keep track of the daily sales figures of different types of pizza. Suppose, if the values for daily sales of pizzas for a period of 9 days is taken: 40, 56, 38, 38, 63, 59, 51, 50, 46 A list of numbers like this is called raw data. One useful thing to do would be to calculate the average of all the numbers. 40 +56 + 38 + 38 + 63 + 59 + 51 + 50 + 46/9 = 441/9 = 49 Therefore, one can say that on an average, the pizza parlor has sold 49 pizzas per day. Mean = Σx/n, where Σx is the group of numbers and n is the number or count of the numbers. Median is the halfway point of the data, that is half of the numbers are above it and half are below. To compute median, we must put the list of numbers in order. Here, we can take the above example 1. 40 38 2. 56 38 3. 38 40 4. 38 46 5. 63 50 6. 59 51 7. 51 56 8. 50 59 9. 46 63 From this list the median value is 50. Four values are greater than 50 and four values are below 50. Mode is the value that occurs most frequently. If there is more than one value that occurs the greatest number of times, all such values are called modes. In the pizzas example, the value of the mode is 38, because the number 38 occurs twice in the list while none of the other numbers occur more than once. Many distributions that arise in practice are reasonably symmetric with most of the values concentrated near the middle, in which case the mean, median and mode are all close together. However, a distribution can have more than one mode. A distribution with two modes is called bimodal distribution. For more details you can visit our websites at http://www.helpwithassignment.com/statistics-assignment-help and http://www.helpwiththesis.com
NASA said today new data show carbon dioxide-based snow, or what's more commonly known as dry ice, falls on the Red Planet's south pole -the only known such weather in our solar system. Frozen carbon dioxide requires temperatures of about minus 193 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 125 Celsius) and the new analysis is based on data from observations in the south polar region during southern Mars winter in 2006-2007, identifying a tall carbon dioxide cloud about 300 miles (500 kilometers) in diameter persisting over the pole and smaller, shorter-lived, lower-altitude carbon dioxide ice clouds at latitudes from 70 to 80 degrees south. In the news: Google Glass goes high-fashion Instruments on NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) in orbit around Mars detected the snow for this latest study, NASA said. The presence of carbon dioxide ice in Mars' southern polar caps isn't a surprise, NASA said, for example, the Phoenix Lander mission in 2008 observed falling water-ice snow on northern Mars. NASA said Mars' south polar ice cap is the only place on Mars where frozen carbon dioxide persists on the surface year-round. Just how the carbon dioxide from Mars' atmosphere gets deposited has been in question. It is unclear whether it occurs as snow or by freezing out at ground level as frost. These results show snowfall is especially vigorous on top of the residual cap. "These are the first definitive detections of carbon dioxide snow clouds," said Paul Hayne of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in a statement. "We firmly establish the clouds are composed of carbon dioxide -- flakes of Martian air -- and they are thick enough to result in snowfall accumulation at the surface." Check out these other hot stories:
Student teams in the process of creating their castles I wanted to give my students an exciting science project to work on that would require them to apply all the team building skills they had developed during the year. My last unit in Science was Forces and Motion, so I decided that since my students are into fantasy, each team would need to create a castle, out of everyday "junk”, that uses forces, motion and six simple machines in its design. A Crash Course in Forces and Motion with Max Axiom, Super Scientist by Emily Sohn. The graphics and fast paced text kept my 4th graders engaged as we read about a superhero who uses the amusement park to explain the science behind forces and motion. I also purchased the Audible Audio Edition of the book for $2.95, which was used in a center, along with the book, as a way of reinforcing their learning. Before listening to the first chapter, I asked my students, "Think about your favorite amusement park ride. What are some words to describe how you move when you are on that ride?" As they shared their responses, I asked, "What is the ride doing? What is happening to your body? How does it make you feel?" The students were equipped with pencils, paper and clipboards. Their job was to write down science words as they were introduced in the story. I asked them to raise their hand when they heard a word and I would stop reading while we all jotted the words down on our paper. We discussed our word list and narrowed it down to words that supported the concept of force and motion. Then, we counted up the number of words we had left and created a 3/4 Book Foldable® out of yellow copy paper for each word. Students wrote the word on the outside of the tab and we talked about what we remembered from the book. Students stored their 3/4 Books in Ziploc baggies. Science instruction for the next few weeks focused on students gaining a deeper understanding of the concepts introduced through the Max Axiom book. Students learned about force, push, pull, gravity, friction, inertia, and acceleration as they hunted for examples around the school, performed simple physics experiments and used print and multimedia as resources. As students learned the concepts they filled in the remaining spaces on the 3/4 Book Foldables® with the following: Under the tab, a definition. Below the definition, real-life examples. To the left of the tab, a labeled picture. After the students learned about the forces and motion concepts, we moved on to simple machines. Students had already been introduced to a few of the simple machines when they constructed force and motion science kits purchased from the Eli Whitney Museum website. They continued to learn about the six simple machines, the ramp, the inclined plane, the lever, the pulley, the screw, and the wheel and axle through a Bill Nye video, EdHeads, BrainPop and their favorite online game, Twitch. Using green copy paper, they made a 3/4 Book Foldable® for each simple machine, writing the name of the machine on the outside, a sentence underneath, examples, and a picture. All of the 3/4 Book Foldables®, the yellow forces and motion words and the green simple machine words, were glued side-by-side and bound together with a strip of scrap booking paper. Finally it was time to do the culminating team project, the castles. Students referred to their 3/4 side-by-side Books as they created a castle that used all six simple machines.
William Henry Harrison: Early Years William Henry Harrison was born on February 9, 1773, at Berkeley, his family’s plantation near Richmond, Virginia. His father, Benjamin Harrison (1726-91) was a signer of the Declaration of Independence and governor of Virginia. The younger Harrison attended Hampden-Sydney College and studied medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, before dropping out in 1791 to join the Army. Harrison fought against Indian forces in various territorial conflicts, including the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794, which was won by the U.S. and opened present-day Ohio to white settlement. Harrison was promoted to captain and became commander of Ohio’s Fort Washington, near present-day Cincinnati. In 1795, Harrison married Anna Tuthill Symmes (1775-1864), whose father was a judge and wealthy land owner in Ohio. At first, Judge Symmes was against a match between the two, believing his prospective son-in-law’s military career on the frontier was not conducive to marriage; as a result, the Harrisons eloped. The couple had 10 children, six of whom died before Harrison became president. Their son John Scott Harrison (1804-78) would grow up to become a U.S. congressman from Ohio and the father of Benjamin Harrison (1833-1901), the 23rd American president. Harrison Fights on the Frontier After Harrison resigned from the Army in 1798, President John Adams (1735-1826) named him secretary of the Northwest Territory, a region encompassing the present-day states of Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin and parts of Minnesota. The following year, Harrison became the Northwest Territory’s first congressional delegate. In 1800, Congress created the Indiana Territory from part of the Northwest Territory, and Harrison became governor of the new territory. In this position, he negotiated treaties with American Indian tribes in which they agreed to hand over millions of acres of land. Not all tribes were happy with these treaties, however, and Harrison subsequently called in U.S. forces to remove Indians from the treaty lands and secure them for white settlers. In 1811, at the Battle of Tippecanoe, in Indiana, Harrison’s forces fought off followers of the powerful Shawnee leader Tecumseh (1768-1813). Although the U.S. suffered significant troop losses and the battle’s outcome was inconclusive and did not end Indian resistance, Harrison ultimately emerged with his reputation as an Indian fighter intact. He capitalized on this image during his 1840 presidential campaign, using the slogan “Tippecanoe and Tyler too.” After a dozen years as governor of the Indiana Territory, Harrison rejoined the Army when the War of 1812 began. He was made a brigadier general and placed in charge of the Army of the Northwest. Harrison scored a decisive victory against the British and their Indian allies in 1813 at the Battle of the Thames, near the southern section of present-day Ontario, Canada. The chieftain Tecumseh was killed during the battle, and the confederation of Indian tribes he led never again posed a serious threat in the region. The Log Cabin Campaign In 1814, Harrison resigned from the Army as a major general, and moved with his family to a farm in North Bend, Ohio. Two years later, Harrison was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Ohio. In 1819, he became a state senator. Starting in 1825, he spent three years as a U.S. senator. He resigned his senate seat in 1828 to become U.S. minister to Colombia, a post he held for a year. In 1836, Harrison was a Whig Party candidate for the U.S. presidency (the recently established Whigs ran three presidential candidates in different parts of the nation that year). Harrison lost the election to Democrat Martin Van Buren (1782-1862). Four years later, the Whigs nominated Harrison again, with Virginia politician John Tyler (1790-1862) as his running mate. During the campaign, a pro-Democrat newspaper mocked Harrison, then in his late 60s, for being too old to run for president, and said: “Give him a barrel of hard [alcoholic] cider, and… a pension of two thousand [dollars] a year… and… he will sit the remainder of his days in his log cabin.” The Whigs used this statement to mount a “log cabin campaign,” positioning Harrison, or “Old Tip,” as a symbol of the common man and promoting his image as an Indian fighter on the frontier. (His supporters used log cabin and cider barrel imagery on campaign memorabilia, including log-cabin-shaped bottles of whiskey from the E.C. Booz distillery, which led to “booze” becoming a common American term for alcohol.) Van Buren, who was unpopular with Americans for his mismanagement of the financial crisis known as the Panic of 1837, was painted by his opponents as an out-of-touch, wealthy elite. In fact, he came from humble roots while Harrison was well-educated and hailed from an established family. However, the tactics worked: Harrison won the presidency with an electoral vote of 234-60 and approximately 53 percent of the popular vote. Harrison’s Brief Presidency The 68-year-old Harrison was sworn into office on March 4, 1841. He was the oldest U.S. president until Ronald Reagan (1911-2004) was elected in 1980 at age 69. Harrison gave a lengthy inaugural address–the longest in history–and opted not to wear a coat or hat, despite the inclement weather. Four weeks later he was dead from pneumonia. Harrison was succeeded by his vice president, John Tyler, who earned the nickname “His Accidency.” First lady Anna Harrison, who outlived her husband by two decades, became the first presidential widow to receive a pension from Congress–a one-time payment of $25,000, the equivalent of one year of her husband’s White House salary. She was also given free postage on all her mail. The former president and his wife are buried at the William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial in North Bend, Ohio.
How does the word sound? History of this Word "homo" is from "homos" (same), spoken by people of Greece starting about 1000 B.C. In this sense, "homo" is a word added to another word to make a new word. A prefix added to the start of a word. Indicates that "the same" modifies the word. Created to expand meanings. Can be used with many words to form new words. Examples of how the word is used \|A homogeneous mixture has the same uniform appearance and composition throughout.\| \|Homograft replacement surgery is performed when a patient's heart valves are replaced with donated human valves.\|
NEUROCRANIUM: The part of the skull that surrounds 1.CARTILAGINOUS NEUROCRANIUM (CHONDROCRANIUM): Neurocranium that develops by endochondral ossification (with a cartilaginous 2.MEMBRANOUS NEUROCRANIUM: That part of the skull that develops by membranous ossification. 1.The Frontal and Parietal bones are membranous. 2.Sutures are connections between bones. They allow for growth of the cranium. 3.Fontanelles occur at the intersection of two sutures. 1.There are six of them. 2.The Anterior Fontanelle stays open until the middle of the 2nd year. KNOW THAT! 4.Craniostenosis is the failure for the skull to expand due to malformed sutures. VISCEROCRANIUM: The rest of the skull, not overlying the brain. The Maxilla, Mandible, and facial skeleton. 1.The middle ear bones are endochondral. 2.Styloid Process of Temporalis 3.Greater Cornu and Inferior body of the Hyoid 2.MEMBRANOUS VISCEROCRANIUM: Maxillary and Mandibular SPECIAL VISCERAL EFFERENT (SVE) FIBERS: 1.They all innervate Branchial Muscles, derived from Branchial arches 2.They all originate from the Nucleus Ambiguus. GENERAL EFFERENT (GSE, GVE) FIBERS: They innervate muscles that are derived from somites. BRANCHIAL (PHARYNGEAL) ARCHES: They are primitive gills in the neck region of the embryo. 1.In humans, we form a primitive gill but then we don't break down the membranes to form mature gills. 2.This is an example of ontogeny recapitulating phylogeny, and so is the Mesonephric Duct of the Kidney, which develops and then disintegrates, being replaced by metanephric duct. 3.Two different types of mesenchyme compose the Neural Arches: 1.Neural Crest: Forms the Arch Cartilages. The arch cartilages are made of neural crest! So this would be ectodermal (neural crest) mesenchyme. 2.Mesodermal: The rest of the neural arch is mesodermal mesenchyme. BRANCHIAL POUCHES: The outpocketing of endoderm, or the endodermal component on the inside of each arch. BRANCHIAL CLEFTS (GROOVES): The ectodermal ingrowths, found in between each set of arches. 1.All of the clefts disappear except the 1st Branchial Cleft, which becomes the External Auditory Meatus. and the outer epithelium of the tympanic membrane. DEVELOPMENT OF THE MOUTH: 1.The Breakdown of the Buccopharyngeal Membrane marks the future mouth. It is very important to the embryo, as it allows for communication of amniotic fluid between the inside (gut) of the embryo and the environment. DEVELOPMENT OF PARATHYROID: Reiterated from above. There are four parathyroid glands on the thyroid, two superior and two inferior. 1.The two Inferior Parathyroids are formed from Pouch III. Pouch III forms the inferior ones because it also forms part of the Thymus which migrates down to the Anterior Mediastinum, hence the third pouch is dragged down a bit with it. 2.The two Superior Parathyroids are then formed by Pouch IV. DEVELOPMENT OF THE THYROID GLAND: Starts in the floor of the pharynx and then works its way down. 1.For a short time it remains connected to the pharynx by a thyroglossal duct which disintegrates in the adult, leaving behind the remnant of the foramen cecum of the tongue. DEVELOPMENT OF THE TONGUE: 1.All tongue muscles are somite-derived -- not branchial arches! 2.Anterior 2/3: Formed from lateral lingual swellings from arch 1 mesenchyme. 3.Posterior 1/3: From hypobranchial eminence from arch 3 mesenchyme. DEVELOPMENT OF THE FACE: 1.It forms from five processes. 1.FRONTONASAL PROCESS: Forms Nasal Processes and Globular Processes 2.PAIRED MAXILLARY PROCESSES: Grows toward the midline to meet each other. 3.PAIRED MANDIBULAR PROCESSES: Grows toward the midline to meet each other. 1.First, Olfactory Pits form in the Frontal Process. 2.The Frontal Processes then grow around these pits, forming the following: 1.2 Lateral Nasal Processes -- Forms the lateral ala of nose. 2.1 Medial Nasal Process -- Forms philtrum. 3.2 Globular Processes, on the end of the Lateral Nasal Processes. They fuse together to form the premaxilla. 3.CLEFT LIP: Failure to join of the Maxillary Process and Globular Process. Could be on the same side or bilateral. 1.Hare Lip: A midline cleft. Very uncommon. 4.CLEFT PALATE: An opening between the nasal and oral cavities, caused by a failure of the maxillary shelves to come together and fuse. 1.This is a different etiology then cleft lip! Although they commonly occur together. BRANCHIAL FISTULA: Failure of the Branchial clefts to disappear. The cleft stays completely open. They are located on the side of the neck. BRANCHIAL SINUS: Incomplete breakdown of the branchial clefts. The cleft is partially open, either to the inside or outside. They are located on the side of the FIRST ARCH SYNDROMES: Rare syndromes involving the first arch. Due to middle ear ossicles, these syndromes lead to deafness.
The coronavirus behind the global COVID-19 pandemic evolved from nature and not a lab, according to a new genetic study. Researchers analyzed the genome sequence of the novel SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus that emerged in the city of Wuhan, China, last year and found no evidence that a lab or some other type of engineering made the virus. “We determined that SARS-CoV-2 originated through natural processes by comparing the genetic sequences and protein structures of other coronaviruses to those of new virus that causes COVID-19,” says Robert F. Garry, professor of microbiology and immunology at Tulane University School of Medicine and senior author of the paper in Nature Medicine. “It is very close to a bat virus. The adaptations that the virus has made to affect humans are actually very different than what you would expect if you were designing it using computational models in biological engineering. Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses that can cause illnesses ranging widely in severity. The first known severe illness a coronavirus caused emerged with the 2003 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak in China. A second outbreak of severe illness began in 2012 in Saudi Arabia with the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS). Last year, Chinese authorities alerted the World Health Organization of an outbreak of a novel strain of coronavirus causing severe illness, subsequently named SARS-CoV-2. As of March 17, 2020, over 179,000 cases of COVID-19 have been documented, although many more mild cases have likely gone undiagnosed. The virus has killed over 7,400 people. Shortly after the outbreak began, Chinese scientists sequenced the genome of the novel coronavirus and made the data available to researchers worldwide. The resulting data show that the epidemic has expanded because of human-to-human transmission after an initial introduction into the human population. The ‘backbone’ of the new coronavirus Researchers used this sequencing data to explore the origins and evolution of SARS-CoV-2 by focusing in on several telltale features of the virus. They analyzed the genetic template for spike proteins, armatures on the outside of the virus that it uses to grab and penetrate the outer walls of human and animal cells. More specifically, they focused on two important features of the spike protein: the receptor-binding domain (RBD), a kind of grappling hook that grips onto host cells, and the cleavage site, a molecular can opener that allows the virus to crack open and enter host cells. The scientists found that the RBD portion of the SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins evolved to effectively target a molecular feature on the outside of human cells called ACE2, a receptor involved in regulating blood pressure. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein was so effective at binding the human cells that the scientists concluded it was the result of natural selection and not the product of genetic engineering. Data on SARS-CoV-2’s backbone—its overall molecular structure—support this evidence for natural evolution, researchers say. If someone wanted to engineer a new coronavirus as a pathogen, they would have constructed it from the backbone of a virus known to cause illness. But the scientists found that the SARS-CoV-2 backbone differed substantially from those of already known coronaviruses and mostly resembled related viruses found in bats and pangolins. “These two features of the virus, the mutations in the RBD portion of the spike protein and its distinct backbone, rules out genetic engineering as a potential origin for SARS-CoV-2” says coauthor Kristian Andersen, an associate professor of immunology and microbiology at Scripps Research. The first of two scenarios Based on their genomic sequencing analysis, Garry and his colleagues conclude that the most likely origins for SARS-CoV-2 followed one of two possible scenarios. In one scenario, the virus evolved to its current pathogenic state through natural selection in a non-human host and then jumped to humans—how previous coronavirus outbreaks have emerged, with humans contracting the virus after direct exposure to civets (SARS) and camels (MERS). The researchers proposed bats as the most likely reservoir for SARS-CoV-2 as it is very similar to a bat coronavirus. There are no documented cases of direct bat-human transmission, however, suggesting that an intermediate host likely occurred between bats and humans. In this scenario, both of the distinctive features of SARS-CoV-2’s spike protein—the RBD portion that binds to cells and the cleavage site that opens the virus up—would have evolved to their current state prior to entering humans. In this case, the current epidemic would probably have emerged rapidly as soon as humans became infected, as the virus would have already evolved the features that make it pathogenic and able to spread between people. And the second In the second proposed scenario, a non-pathogenic version of the virus jumped from an animal host into humans and then evolved to its current pathogenic state within the human population. For instance, some coronaviruses from pangolins, anteater-like mammals found in Asia and Africa, have an RBD structure similar to that of SARS-CoV-2. A coronavirus from a pangolin could possibly have been transmitted to a human, either directly or through an intermediary host such as civets or ferrets. Then the other distinct spike protein characteristic of SARS-CoV-2, the cleavage site, could have evolved within a human host, possibly via limited undetected circulation in the human population prior to the beginning of the epidemic. The researchers found that the SARS-CoV-2 cleavage site, appears similar to the cleave sites of strains of bird flu that has been shown to transmit easily between people. SARS-CoV-2 could have evolved such a virulent cleavage site in human cells and soon kicked off the current outbreak, as the coronavirus would possibly have become far more capable of spreading between people. “It is pretty well-adapted to humans. That’s one of the puzzles we’re trying to understand as we examine the virus. It could have been circulating in humans for a while now,” Garry says. Additional coauthors are from Columbia University, the University of Sydney, and the University of Edinburgh. The National Institutes of Health and the Pew Charitable Trusts funded the work. Source: Tulane University
In this section Anatomy of the urinary system How does the urinary system work? The body takes nutrients from food and converts them to energy. After the body has taken the food that it needs, waste products are left behind in the bowel and in the blood. The urinary system keeps the chemicals and water in balance by removing a type of waste, called urea, from the blood. Urea is produced when foods containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain vegetables, are broken down in the body. Urea is carried in the bloodstream to the kidneys. Urinary system parts and their functions: - Two kidneys - a pair of purplish-brown organs located below the ribs toward the middle of the back. Their function is to: - Remove liquid waste from the blood in the form of urine. - Keep a stable balance of salts and other substances in the blood. - Produce erythropoietin, a hormone that aids the formation of red blood cells. The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney. - Two ureters - narrow tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Muscles in the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing urine downward, away from the kidneys. If urine backs up, or is allowed to stand still, a kidney infection can develop. About every 10 to 15 seconds, small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters. - Bladder - a triangle-shaped, hollow organ located in the lower abdomen. It is held in place by ligaments that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine through the urethra. - Two sphincter muscles - circular muscles that help keep urine from leaking by closing tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder. - Nerves in the bladder - alert a person when it is time to urinate, or empty the bladder. - Urethra - the tube that allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the urethra. When all the signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs.
Source: Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences In the South China Sea, the Yongle blue hole was recently found to be the deepest blue hole on Earth, reaching 300 meters down—deep enough to submerge the Eiffel Tower. A blue hole, essentially a marine sinkhole with an opening to the sea surface, forms a natural laboratory where scientists can research patterns that are harder to detect in the unsheltered waters of the open ocean. Blue holes are usually circular pits with steep walls. Tides wash over their tops, but their unique structure keeps the environment deep inside relatively isolated. As a result, blue holes can have unique microbial communities, sediment archives, and chemical gradients. Yao et al. tested the waters of the Yongle blue hole to learn more about its carbon cycling processes, which are not often studied in blue holes. The researchers found the lowest concentrations of dissolved organic carbon ever recorded in coastal waters. At the same time, they found some of the highest concentrations of dissolved inorganic carbon in similar conditions. Both the organic and inorganic carbon molecules were much older than carbon found at parallel depths in the open ocean. The scientists concluded that the carbon cycling process in this blue hole depends strongly on the natural gradients found in its depths; between about 80 and 100 meters, dissolved oxygen disappears, and salinity, temperature, and pH all change sharply. They attribute the bulk of carbon cycling in this blue hole to the processes of the microbes that live there, including sulfur cycling and methane production. The role of carbonate dissolution from the walls of the blue hole in affecting the ages of carbon in this system remains uncertain, yet there appears to be no evidence of inflow of subterranean fresh water into the bottom waters of the blue hole. Blue holes allow scientists to study chemical gradients with a precision impossible in the open ocean. As marine environments around the globe experience growing patches of low oxygen, understanding these gradients and cycles is more important than ever. Further, the amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the hole seems to be increasing, so blue holes may become a carbon dioxide source that must be factored into wider climate change and blue carbon predictions. (Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JG005307, 2020) —Elizabeth Thompson, Science Writer Thompson, E. (2020), Carbon cycling in the world’s deepest blue hole, Eos, 101, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020EO142415. Published on 10 April 2020. Text © 2020. AGU. CC BY-NC-ND 3.0 Except where otherwise noted, images are subject to copyright. Any reuse without express permission from the copyright owner is prohibited.
Respond to these questions. Cite evidence from the text to support your positions. Then, respond to two of your peers’ posts by asking questions or making comments that connect the discussion to broader themes or larger ideas. How does Nelson Mandela react to the events described in the text? Point out textual details that capture his reactions. Why did Mandela react as he did? What might have happened had his reactions to various historical events and realities been different? What do you think the role of leadership is in setting the example for the nation’s people?
\|Northern Leopard Frog\| The Northern Leopard Frog (Lithobates pipiens) is named for its leopard-like spots across its back and sides. Another common name for this frog is the ‘meadow frog’ for its common habitat. Historically, these frogs were harvested for food (frog legs) and are still used today for dissection practice in biology class. Northern Leopard Frogs are about the size of a plum, ranging from 7 to 12 centimetres. They have a variety of unique colour morphs, or genetic colour variations. They can be different shades of green and brown with rounded black spots across its back and legs and can even appear with no spots at all (known as a burnsi morph). They have white bellies and two light coloured dorsal (back) ridges. Another pale line travels underneath the nostril, eye and tympanum, ending at the shoulder. The tympanum is an external hearing structure just behind and below the eye that looks like a small disk. Black pupils and golden irises make up their eyes. They are often confused with Pickerel Frogs (Lithobates palustris); whose spots are more squared then rounded and have a yellowish underbelly. \|Colour variations of the Northern Leopard Frog\|\|Pickerel Frog\| Male frogs are typically smaller than the females. Their average life span is two to four years in the wild, but up to nine years in captivity. Tadpoles are dark brown with tan tails. \|Cowichan Lake Lamprey\| Lampreys are an amazing group of ancient fish species which first appeared around 360 million years ago. This means they evolved millions of years before the dinosaurs roamed the earth. There are about 39 species of lamprey currently described plus some additional landlocked populations and varieties. In general, lamprey are one of three different life history types and are a combination of non-parasitic and parasitic species. Non-parasitic lamprey feed on organic material and detritus in the water column. Parasitic lamprey attach to other fish species to feed on their blood and tissues. This is why lamprey are often unfairly called “aquatic vampires”. Most, 22 of the 39 species, are non-parasitic and spend their entire lives in freshwater. The remainder are either parasitic spending their whole life in freshwater or, parasitic and anadromous. Anadromous parasitic lampreys grow in freshwater before migrating to the sea where they feed parasitically and then migrate back to freshwater to spawn. The Cowichan Lake lamprey (Entosphenus macrostomus) is a freshwater parasitic lamprey species. It has a worm or eel-like shape with two distinct dorsal fins and a small tail. It is a slender fish reaching a maximum length of about 273mm. When they are getting ready to spawn they shrink in length and their dorsal fins overlap. Unlike many other fish species, when lampreys are getting ready to spawn you can tell the difference between males and females. Females develop fleshy folds on either side of their cloaca and an upturned tail. The males have a downturned tail and no fleshy folds. Lamprey don’t have gills like other fish species but have pores for breathing. These seven gill pores are located one after another behind the eye. There are several characteristics which are normally used to identify lamprey. Many of these are based on morphometrics or measurements, of or between various body parts like width of the eye or, distance between the eye and the snout. Other identifying characteristics include body colour and the number and type of teeth. Some distinguishing characteristics of this species are the large mouth, called and oral disc and a large eye. This species also has unique dentition. For example, these teeth are called inner laterals. Each lateral tooth has cusps and together they always occur in a 2-3-3-2 cusp pattern. The Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris) is the smallest marine mammal in North America – males measure 1.2 metres in length and weigh an average of 45 kilograms (females are a bit smaller). At the same time, the Sea Otter is the largest member of its family, the mustelids, which includes River Otters, weasels, badgers, wolverines and martens. It’s also the only member of its family that doesn’t need land at all; it’s completely adapted to life in the water. It may come to land to flee from predators if needed, but the rest of its time is spent in the ocean. The Sea Otter’s fur is one of the thickest in the animal kingdom, with 150,000 or more hairs per square centimetre. It varies in colour from rust to black. Unlike seals and sea lions, the Sea Otter has little body fat to help it survive in the cold ocean water. Instead, it has both guard hairs and a warm undercoat that trap bubbles of air to help insulate it. The otter is often seen at the surface grooming; in fact, it is pushing air to the roots of its fur. \|Giant Pacific Octopus Underside\| The Northern Giant Pacific Octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini) is a large cephalopod mollusk, which means it’s related to gastropods (snails and slugs) and bivalves (clams and oysters). Mollusks are invertebrates, meaning they have no bones. Insects are also invertebrates, but mollusks differ from insects in that they don’t have an exoskeleton. They are cold-blooded, like all invertebrates, and have blue, copper-based blood. The octopus is soft-bodied, but it has a very small shell made of two plates in its head and a powerful, parrot-like beak. \|Anatomy of the Giant Pacific Octopus' head\| The Giant Pacific Octopus is the largest species of octopus in the world. Specimens have weighed as much as 272 kg and measured 9.6 m in radius (although they can stretch quite a bit), but most reach an average weight of only 60 kg. They’re normally reddish-brown in colour. There are two species of chorus frogs here in Canada: the Boreal Chorus Frog (Pseudacris maculata) and the Western Chorus Frog (Pseudacris triseriata). Prior to 1989, all Canadian chorus frogs were considered to be one species, as they are very similar – it’s even hard for scientists to differentiate them! Studies determined, though, that they are indeed different. While the Western Chorus Frog might have slightly shorter legs than the Boreal Chorus Frog, and that their respective calls have different structures, genetics have proven this. \|Boreal Chorus Frog (left), Western Chorus Frog (right)\| Chorus Frogs are about the size of large grape, about 2.5cm long on average, with a maximum of 4cm. They are pear-shaped, with a large body compared to their pointed snout. Their smooth (although a bit granular) skin varies in colour from green-grey to brownish. They are two of our smallest frogs, but best ways to tell them apart from other frogs is by the three dark stripes down their backs, which can be broken into blotches, by their white upper lip, and by the dark line that runs through each eye. Their belly is generally yellow-white to light green. Males are slightly smaller than females, but the surest way to tell sexes apart is by the fact that only males call and can inflate their yellow vocal sacs. Adults tend to live only for one year, but some have lived as many as three years. Their tadpoles (the life stage between the egg and the adult) are grey or brown. Their body is round with a clear tail. \|Common Raven showing its hackles and large beak\| The Common Raven Corvus corax is one of the heaviest passerine birds and the largest of all the songbirds. It is easily recognizable because of its size (between 54 and 67 centimetres long, with a wingspan of 115 to 150 cm, and weighing between 0.69 and two kilograms) and its black plumage with purple or violet lustre. It has a ruff of feathers on the throat, which are called 'hackles', and a wide, robust bill. When in flight, it has a wedge-shaped tail, with longer feathers in the middle. While females may be a bit smaller, both sexes are very similar. The size of an adult raven may also vary according to its habitat, as subspecies from colder areas are often larger. A raven may live up to 21 years in the wild, making it one of the species with the longest lifespan in all passerine birds. \| American Crow The Common Raven is often mistaken for an American Crow in southern Canada and the United States. Both birds are from the same genus (order of passerine birds, corvid family –like jays, magpies and nutcrackers, Corvus genus) and have a similar colouring. But the American Crow is smaller (with a wingspan of about 75 cm) and has a fan-shaped tail when in flight (with no longer feathers). It also has a narrower bill and lacks the raven’s hackles. Their cries are different: the raven produces a low croaking sound, while the crow has a higher pitched cawing cry. While adult ravens tend to live alone or in pairs, crows are more often observed in larger groups. \|Common Raven vs American Crow\| The Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) is a medium to large saltwater fish: generally averaging two to three kilograms in weight and about 65 to 100 centimetres in length, the largest cod on record weighed about 100 kg and was more than 180 cm long! Individuals living closer to shore tend to be smaller than their offshore relatives, but male and female cod are not different in size, wherever they live. The Atlantic Cod shares some of its physical features with the two other species of its genus, or group of species, named Gadus. The Pacific Cod and Alaska Pollock also have three rounded dorsal fins and two anal fins. They also have small pelvic fins right under their gills, and barbels (or whiskers) on their chins. Both Pacific and Atlantic Cod have a white line on each side of their bodies from the gills to their tails, or pectoral fins. This line is actually a sensory organ that helps fish detect vibrations in the water. The colour of an Atlantic Cod is often darker on its top than on its belly, which is silver, white or cream-coloured. Its exact colour varies between individuals and seems to depend on its habitat in order to camouflage, or blend in: when there’s lots of algae around, a cod can be reddish to greenish in colour, while a paler grey colour is more common closer to the sandy bottom of the ocean. In rocky areas, a cod may be a darker brown colour. Cod are often mottled, or have a lot of darker blotches or spots. The Atlantic Cod may live as long as 25 years. The North Atlantic Right Whale (Eubalæna glacialis) is one of the rarest of the large whales. It can weigh up to 63,500 kilograms and measure up to 16 metres. That’s the length of a transport truck and twice the weight! Females tend to be a bit larger than males – measuring, on average, one metre longer. Considering its weight, it’s fairly short, giving it a stocky, rotund appearance. Its head makes up about a fourth of its body length, and its mouth is characterized by its arched, or highly curved, jaw. The Right Whale’s head is partially covered in what is called callosities (black or grey raised patches of roughened skin) on its upper and lower jaws, and around its eyes and blowhole. These callosities can appear white or cream as small cyamid crustaceans, called “whale lice”, attach themselves to them. Its skin is otherwise smooth and black, but some individuals have white patches on their bellies and chin. Under the whale’s skin, a blubber layer of sometimes more than 30 centimetres thick helps it to stay warm in the cold water and store energy. It has large, triangular flippers, or pectoral fins. Its tail, also called flukes or caudal fins, is broad (six m wide from tip to tip!), smooth and black. That’s almost the same size as the Blue Whale’s tail, even though Right Whales are just over half their size. Unlike most other large whales, it has no dorsal fin. For a variety of reasons, including its rarity, scientists know very little about this rather large animal. For example, there is little data on the longevity of Right Whales, but photo identification on living whales and the analysis of ear bones and eyes on dead individuals can be used to estimate age. It is believed that they live at least 70 years, maybe even over 100 years, since closely related species can live as long. The Right Whale has a bit of an unusual name. It is thought to have been named by whalers as the “right” whale to hunt due to its convenient tendencies to swim close to shore and float when dead. Its name in French is more straightforward; baleine noire, the black whale. The American Eel (Anguilla rostrata) is a fascinating migratory fish with a very complex life cycle. Like salmon, it lives both in freshwater and saltwater. But its life-cycle is exactly the reverse of salmon’s: the eel is a catadromous species. It is born in saltwater and migrating to freshwater to grow and mature before returning to saltwater to spawn and die. The American Eel can live as long as 50 years. It is a long, slender fish that can grow longer than one metre in length and 7.5 kilograms in weight. Males tend to be smaller than females, reaching a size of about 0.4 m. With its small pectoral fins right behind its gills, absence of pelvic fins, long dorsal and ventral fins and the thin coat of mucus on its tiny scales, the adult eel slightly resembles a slimy snake but are in fact true fish. Adult eels vary in coloration, from olive green and brown to greenish-yellow, with a light gray or white belly. Females are lighter in colour than males. Large females turn dark grey or silver when they mature. It is known by a variety of names in Canada, including: the Atlantic Eel, the Common Eel, the Silver Eel, the Yellow Eel, the Bronze Eel and Easgann in Irish Gaelic. In Indigenous languages, like Mi’kmaq, it is known as k’at or g’at, the Algonquins call it pimzi or pimizi, in Ojibwe bimizi, in Cree Kinebikoinkosew and the Seneca call it goda:noh. The American Eel is the only representative of its genus (or group of related species) in North America, but it does have a close relative which shares the same spawning area: the European Eel. Both have similar lifecycles but different distributions in freshwater systems except in Iceland, where both (and hybrids of both species) can be found. The American Lobster (Homarus americanus) is a marine invertebrate which inhabits our Atlantic coastal waters. As an invertebrate, it lacks bones, but it does have an external shell, or exoskeleton, making it an arthropod like spiders and insects. Its body is divided in two parts: the cephalothorax (its head and body) and its abdomen, or tail. On its head, the lobster has eyes that are very sensitive to movement and light, which help it to spot predators and prey, but are unable to see colours and clear images. It also has three pairs of antennae, a large one and two smaller ones, which are its main sensory organs and act a bit like our nose and fingers. These antennae are able to smell the water to locate prey and touch elements in the lobster’s environment so it can find its way. The lobster’s mouth is located just below its eyes. Around its mouth are small appendages called maxillipeds and mandibles which help direct food to the mouth and chew. Food is then brought to the first of the lobster’s two stomachs, which is just inside its mouth! The lobster’s respiratory system is made of gills, like fish, which are situated on each side of its cephalothorax. The lobster’s legs are also found on the cephalothorax. Lobsters have ten legs, making them decapod (ten-legged) crustaceans, a group to which shrimp and crabs also belong (other arthropods have a different number of legs, like spiders, which have eight, and insects, which have six). Four pairs of these legs are used mainly to walk and are called pereiopods. The remaining pair, at the front of the cephalothorax, are called chelipeds and each of those limbs ends with a claw. These claws help the lobster defend itself, but also capture and consume its prey. Each claw serves a different purpose: the bigger, blunter one is used for crushing, and the smaller one with sharper edges, for cutting. The claw used for crushing can be on the lobster’s right or left side, making it “right-handed” or “left-handed”. When a lobster’s limb, claw or antennae becomes damaged or lost, it is regrown when the lobster moults, a process called autotomy or regeneration. Hairs on the lobster’s legs and claws also act as sensory organs and are able to smell. North American Lobster Missing A Claw The Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica) is a medium-sized songbird, about the size of a sparrow. It measures between 15 and 18 centimeters (cm) in length and 29 to 32 cm in wingspan, and weighs between 15 and 20 grams (g). But while it is average-sized, it’s far from average-looking! Its back and tail plumage is a distinctive steely, iridescent blue, with light brown or rust belly and a chestnut-coloured throat and forehead. Their long forked tail and pointed wings also make them easily recognizable. It’s these wings, tail and streamlined bodies that make their fast, acrobatic flight possible. Both sexes may look similar, but females are typically not as brightly coloured and have shorter tails than males. When perched, this swallow looks almost conical because of its flat, short head, very short neck and its long body. Although the average lifespan of a Barn Swallow is about four years, a North American individual older than eight years and a European individual older than 16 years have been observed. Sights and sounds: Like all swallows, the Barn Swallow is diurnal –it is active during the day, from dusk to dawn. It is an agile flyer that creates very acrobatic patterns in flight. It can fly from very close to the ground or water to more than 30 m heights. The species may be the fastest swallow, as it’s been recorded at speeds close to 75 kilometers per hour (km/h). When not in flight, the Barn Swallow can be observed perched on fences, wires, TV antennas or dead branches. Both male and female Barn Swallows sing both individually and in groups in a wide variety of twitters, warbles, whirrs and chirps. They give a loud call when threatened, to which other swallows will react, leaving their nests to defend the area. Freshwater turtles are reptiles, like snakes, crocodilians and lizards. Like other reptiles, they are ectothermic, or “cold-blooded”, meaning that their internal temperature matches that of their surroundings. They also have a scaly skin, enabling them, as opposed to most amphibians, to live outside of water. Also like many reptile species, turtles lay eggs (they are oviparous). But what makes them different to other reptiles is that turtles have a shell. This shell, composed of a carapace in the back and a plastron on the belly, is made of bony plates. These bones are covered by horny scutes made of keratin (like human fingernails) or leathery skin, depending on the species. All Canadian freshwater turtles can retreat in their shells and hide their entire body except the Common Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina). This shell is considered perhaps the most efficient form of armour in the animal kingdom, as adult turtles are very likely to survive from one year to the next. Indeed, turtles have an impressively long life for such small animals. For example, the Blanding’s Turtle (Emydoidea blandingi) can live for more than 70 years! Most other species can live for more than 20 years. There are about 320 species of turtles throughout the world, inhabiting a great variety of terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems on every continent except Antarctica and its waters. In Canada, eight native species of freshwater turtles (and four species of marine turtles) can be observed. Another species, the Pacific Pond Turtle (Clemmys marmorata), is now Extirpated, having disappeared from its Canadian range. Also, the Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina) has either such a small population that it is nearly Extirpated, or the few individuals found in Canada are actually pets released in the wild. More research is needed to know if these turtles are still native individuals. Finally, the Red-eared Slider (Trachemys scripta elegans), has been introduced to Canada as released pets and, thus, is not a native species. Little Brown Bat The Little Brown Bat, or Little Brown Myotis (Myotis lucifugus) weighs between 7 and 9 g, and has a wingspan of between 25 and 27 cm. Females tend to be slightly larger than males but are otherwise identical. As its name implies, it is pale tan to reddish or dark brown with a slightly paler belly, and ears and wings that are dark brown to black. Contrary to popular belief, Little Brown Bats, like all other bats, are not blind. Still, since they are nocturnal and must navigate in the darkness, they are one of the few terrestrial mammals that use echolocation to gather information on their surroundings and where prey are situated. The echolocation calls they make, similar to clicking noises, bounce off objects and this echo is processed by the bat to get the information they need. These noises are at a very high frequency, and so cannot be heard by humans. Narwhals (Monodon monoceros) are considered medium-sized odontocetes, or toothed whales (the largest being the sperm whale, and the smallest, the harbour porpoise), being of a similar size to the beluga, its close relative. Males can grow up to 6.2 m -the average size being 4.7 m- and weigh about 1,600 kg. Females tend to be smaller, with an average size of 4 m and a maximum size of 5.1 m and weigh around 900 kg. A newborn calf is about 1.6 m long and weighs about 80 kilograms. The narwhal has a deep layer of fat, or blubber, about 10 cm thick, which forms about one-third of the animal’s weight and acts as insulation in the cold Arctic waters. Like belugas, they have a small head, a stocky body and short, round flippers. Narwhals lack a dorsal fin on their backs, but they do have a dorsal ridge about 5 cm high that covers about half their backs. This ridge can be used by researchers to differentiate one narwhal from another. It is thought that the absence of dorsal fin actually helps the narwhal navigate among sea ice. Unlike other cetaceans –the order which comprises all whales–, narwhals have convex tail flukes, or tail fins. These whales have a mottled black and white, grey or brownish back, but the rest of the body (mainly its underside) is white. Newborn narwhal calves are pale grey to light brownish, developing the adult darker colouring at about 4 years old. As they grow older, they will progressively become paler again. The narwhal’s colouring gives researchers an idea about how old an individual is. Some may live up to 100 years, but most probably live to be 60 years of age. The narwhal’s most striking feature is undoubtedly its tusk. This long, spiral upper incisor tooth (one of the two teeth narwhals have) grows out from the animal’s upper jaw, and can measure up to 3 m and weigh up to 10 kg. Although the second, smaller incisor tooth often remains embedded in the skull, it rarely but on occasion develops into a second tusk. Tusks typically grow only on males, but a few females have also been observed with short tusks. The function of the tusk remains a mystery, but several hypotheses have been proposed. Many experts believe that it is a secondary sexual character, similar to deer antlers. Thus, the length of the tusk may indicate social rank through dominance hierarchies and assist in competition for access to females. Indeed, there are indications that the tusks are used by male narwhals for fighting each other or perhaps other species, like the beluga or killer whale. A high quantity of tubules and nerve endings in the pulp –the soft tissue inside teeth – of the tusk have at least one scientist thinking that it could be a highly sensitive sensory organ, able to detect subtle changes in temperature, salinity or pressure. Narwhals have not been observed using their tusk to break sea ice, despite popular belief. Narwhals do occasionally break the tip of their tusk though which can never be repaired. This is more often seen in old animals and gives more evidence that the tusk might be used for sexual competition. The tusk grows all throughout a male’s lifespan but slows down with age. Of the 198 species of woodpeckers worldwide, 13 are found in Canada. The smallest and perhaps most familiar species in Canada is the Downy Woodpecker Picoides pubescens. It is also the most common woodpecker in eastern North America. This woodpecker is black and white with a broad white stripe down the back from the shoulders to the rump. Its wings are checkered in a black and white pattern that shows through on the wings’ undersides, and the breast and flanks are white. The crown of the head is black; the cheeks and neck are adorned with black and white lines. Male and female Downy Woodpeckers are about the same size, weighing from 21 to 28 g. The male has a small scarlet patch, like a red pompom, at the back of the crown. The Downy Woodpecker looks much like the larger Hairy Woodpecker Picoides villosus, but there are some differences between them. The Downy’s outer tail feathers are barred with black, unlike the Hairy Woodpecker’s, which are all white. The Downy is about 6 cm smaller than the Hairy, measuring only 15 to 18 cm from the tip of its bill to the tip of its tail. And the Downy’s bill is shorter than its head, whereas the Hairy’s bill is as long as or longer than its head length. The Downy’s name refers to the soft white feathers of the white strip on the lower back, which differ from the more hairlike feathers on the Hairy Woodpecker. Woodpeckers are a family of birds sharing several characteristics that separate them from other avian families. Most of the special features of their anatomy are associated with the ability to dig holes in wood. The straight, chisel-shaped bill is formed of strong bone overlaid with a hard covering and is quite broad at the nostrils in order to spread the force of pecking. A covering of feathers over the nostrils keeps out pieces of wood and wood powder. The pelvic bones are wide, allowing for attachment of muscles strong enough to move and hold the tail, which is important for climbing. Another special anatomical trait of woodpeckers is the long, barbed tongue that searches crevices and cracks for food. The salivary glands produce a sticky, glue-like substance that coats the tongue and, along with the barbs, makes the tongue an efficient device for capturing insects. Signs and sounds As early as February or March a Downy Woodpecker pair indicate that they are occupying their nesting site by flying around it and by drumming short, fast tattoos with their bills on dry twigs or other resonant objects scattered about the territory. The drumming serves as a means of communication between the members of the pair as well. Downys also have a variety of calls. They utter a tick, tchick, tcherrick, and both the male and the female add a sharp whinnying call during the nesting season. Hatchlings give a low, rhythmic pip note, which seems to indicate contentment. When a parent enters the nest cavity, the nestlings utter a rasping begging call, which becomes stronger and longer as the chicks mature. Everyone who has visited the coast is familiar with gulls, those graceful, long-winged birds that throng the beaches and harbours and boldly beg for scraps. The gulls are a family of birds that live mainly at sea, either along the shore, or out in the ocean itself. Worldwide, there are more than 350 species of birds that live either partially or exclusively at sea, and these are generally known as "seabirds.” The table below lists the 14 families of marine birds and the approximate number of species in each (the exact number of species is continually being revised as genetic research reveals that some very similar-looking birds are so different in their genetic makeup that they constitute different species). All species belonging to the albatross, auk, frigatebird, gannet, penguin, petrel, and storm-petrel families feed exclusively at sea. In addition, many species of cormorants, grebes, gulls, jaegers, loons, pelicans and terns feed either entirely or mainly at sea. The Phalaropes are the only shorebirds that feed at sea. Families of birds in which all species feed either entirely of partially at sea and the approximate number of species in each family appear below (from https://www.worldbirdnames.org/ioc-lists/master-list/). The number of species that breed in Canada are shown in parentheses. Ducks and grebes that feed at sea are not included. Ptarmigans are hardy members of the grouse family that spend most of their lives on the ground at or above the treeline. Three species are present in North America: the Willow Ptarmigan Lagopus lagopus, the White-tailed Ptarmigan Lagopus leucurus, and the Rock Ptarmigan Lagopus mutus. Like other grouse, ptarmigans have chunky bodies, short tails and legs, and short, rounded wings. Willow Ptarmigans weigh from 450 to 800 g, White-tailed Ptarmigans weigh about 350 g, and Rock Ptarmigans are intermediate in size. All ptarmigans have feathered feet, unique among chickenlike birds, which improve their ability to walk in snow. They also have white wings throughout the year. Inflatable red combs above their eyes, which are especially evident in territorial and courting males, are inconspicuous to barely visible in females. Ptarmigans have three seasonal plumages per year, instead of the two that are usual for most birds. These plumages keep the birds, particularly the female, well camouflaged at all times. In winter, all ptarmigans of both sexes are basically white. Whereas White-tailed Ptarmigans have permanently white tail feathers, the tails of Willow and Rock Ptarmigans remain black throughout the year. In winter, male—and some female—Rock Ptarmigans sport a black stripe that extends through the eye to the bill (as if they had put on charcoal goggles to prevent snow blindness), distinguishing them from male Willow Ptarmigans. In ptarmigans, the moult, or shedding of old feathers, starts with the head and progresses towards the tail. As soon as the spring snowmelt begins, females moult into a barred breeding plumage of brown, gold, and black. Female ptarmigans are difficult to tell apart in spring, but the overall tones of the White-tailed Ptarmigan females are cooler in comparison to those of the other two species. Breeding males delay their moult.
The Church of the Holy Wisdom did not only commemorate Rus’s conversion to Orthodoxy, but it also honored Kiev as a place of education and law. When Yaroslav the Wise built St. Sophia, not only was he honoring the religion of the Byzantine Empire, but it was his desire to make Kiev a center for learning and law. He assembled advisors to take the best from Slavic and Roman law to explain Church-State relations, property rights, and the clergy’s role in society. The result was the Russkaia Pravda, the first compilation of Russian laws. He brought in Greek architects and artists to complete not only the cathedral but other important buildings. Works of Greek literature were translated, giving the scholars of Rus the opportunity to learn more about their Western counterparts. (Mazour, 24) A previously unorganized, Pagan, and relatively uneducated land became a cultural center with the conversion to the Orthodox faith and the desire of Kiev’s rulers to follow in the footsteps of Constantinople. St. Sophia was the center of a complex of buildings that were ordered to be built by Yaroslav the Wise. In addition to being where chronicles and laws were written, it also housed the earliest national library, was the seat of the Kievan Metropolitan, was where foreign dignitaries were received, and where important people like princes and clergymen were buried. (Mazour, 503) The interest in learning, laws, and spirituality begin a historical heritage in Eastern Europe much like the legacy of Byzantium did for Western Christianity. Because of the already established trade routes of the Varangians, Christianity had come by way of the Greeks to Rus. However, the influence of the Kievan princes became even more widespread as their civilization grew. Yaroslav’s daughter, Anna, was married to the King of France. (Lavrin, 2) Anna impressed the court with her ability to read and write, and her famous signature (in Cyrillic) “Anna Regina” still exists for us today of proof of her literacy and learning. (Reid, 10) A literary tradition had thus begun with Yaroslav’s insistence towards an educated Rus. Because the Russians, by way of Cyril and Methodius, had adopted an alphabet that had its roots in Greek symbols, but which used the languages they themselves had developed, the Kievans did not take Greek as their language for religious purposes. This was the beginning of an identity that owed much to Byzantium but that was also starting to develop in such a way as to reflect the practical needs of its people. However, much of the early writings of the Ukrainian literary tradition, had their inception within the walls of St. Sophia and the surrounding area in Kiev. The Primary Chronicle, a history of Russia to 1113, is based on the Byzantine type of chronicle. (Lavrin, 3) The choice of Prince Vladimir when deciding a faith for his people set off a sequence of events that has forever established a course for the history of Ukraine and Eastern Europe. With Byzantium as its basis, Kievan Rus established Orthodoxy as its religion, developed an interest in education, and began a literary tradition. A new form of architecture and a style of art were introduced, bringing about the construction and decoration of St. Sophia, which combined local building traditions with the codes for a place of worship established by Byzantium. While the cathedral that exists today is greatly changed from the St. Sophia envisioned by Yaroslav, it still stands as a monument to the rich cultural legacy left in the wake of the early Kievan princes who undertook the transformation of the Slavs from pagan, literarily bereft, and lawless subjects into Orthodox, lawful people with a literary tradition. The church of “Wisdom,” as in Constantinople, was certainly an appropriate name for the cathedral, for through its construction were the Slavs inspired to take learning upon themselves. Like Byzantium, Eastern Europe fashioned an identity out of strongly influential cultural elements that spilled out of its borders and into the rest of the West. - Lavrin, Janko, Russian Writers: Their Lives and Literature. Toronto: D. Van Nostrand, 1954. - Mazour, Anatole G., Russia: Tsarist and Communist. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand, 1962. - Reid, Anna, Borderland: A Journey through the History of Ukraine. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000.
What is Lymphedema? Although many people have never heard of this condition, lymphedema is a common cause of leg or arm swelling due to the collection of too much lymph fluid. Nearly 1 million Americans are affected by this condition, and the number of people worldwide with it may soon approach 100 million. The swelling produced by lymphedema is usually not painful, but it may cause a heavy, aching discomfort and limit a person’s ability to use his or her arms or legs, increase the risk of certain infections, or cause emotional distress due to the severe swelling of the arm or the leg. There are three types of blood vessels in the body: arteries, veins, and lymph vessels. Arteries deliver oxygen and nutrient-rich blood from the heart to the tissues and organs of the body and the veins return blood back to the heart to be re-oxygenated by the lungs. The lymph vessels are a third type of blood vessel that carries fluid from the tissues and organs of the body back to the veins. The lymph vessels are long, thin-walled tubes that form a very intricate network in the arms and the legs. In some cases, these lymph vessels are absent or are damaged or destroyed, and lymph fluid accumulates in the tissues of the arm or leg causing severe swelling. Many things can damage the lymph vessels and cause lymphedema, including cancer and treatment for cancer, such as surgery or radiation therapy, infections, other surgical procedures, and certain injuries. In some cases, lymphedema is an inherited condition that is present at birth or develops during the early years of life or puberty. In these inherited cases, there is commonly a family member who also had lymphedema. In the United States, treatment for breast cancer, including surgery and radiation therapy, is one of the most common causes of lymphedema. Interestingly, the most common cause of lymphedema worldwide is a certain type of infection known as filariasis. Lymphedema usually manifests as severe swelling of an arm or leg. For patients who have developed lymphedema as a complication of cancer treatment, the swelling is almost always on the same side as the treatment. In some cases, lymphedema may involve both of the limbs, typically the legs. The swelling commonly extends from the arm or leg into the fingers or the toes. In the early stages of lymphedema, the swelling is soft, and pressing on the limb may result in movement of the fluid. This is called “pitting edema.” In the later stages of lymphedema, scar tissue and fibrous tissue may develop in the swollen limb causing a more dense texture of the swelling and a cobblestoned or orange-peel like appearance of the skin. Patients with lymphedema may experience heaviness of the effected arm or leg and have difficulty with exercise or participation in other activities. In the most severe cases of lymphedema, swelling may be disfiguring and may lead to emotional distress and even difficulty wearing clothes or shoes. In addition to swelling, patients with lymphedema are at risk for developing certain types of skin infection in the swollen arm or leg known as cellulitis and lymphangitis. In mild to moderate infections, the skin will become warm, red, tender and the patient may feel flu-like symptoms. Oral antibiotics and careful skin care should be started as soon as symptoms develop. In severe cases, high fevers and even shock may develop and require immediate hospitalization for intravenous antibiotics and close observation. Patients with severe, long-standing lymphedema are at increased risk for developing certain types of cancer, including certain skin cancers and lymphoma, although this is very rare. Lymphedema is generally diagnosed on the basis of medical history and physical examination. Lymphedema must be differentiated from other causes of limb swelling, including venous insufficiency, deep vein thrombosis (blood clot), congestive heart failure, other medical conditions such as kidney, liver, or thyroid disease, and enlargement of the legs due to extra fat (called lipidema). In some cases, additional diagnostic testing is necessary, such as a lymph scan known as lymphoscintigraphy. Lymphos cintigraphy can be used to detect blockages in the lymph vessels or the absence of lymph vessel. This test requires a small amount of radioactive material to be injected through a small needle into the hand or foot. Except for minor discomfort, this test is not otherwise dangerous or painful. Other tests may be performed to exclude the other causes of leg swelling, such as a CAT scan or MRI, blood tests, or an ultrasound to exclude the presence of a blood clot. Lymphedema is a chronic condition that can be diagnosed by a health care provider. There are many effective treatments of lymphedema. Although it is unusual to completely cure lymphedema, most people who receive proper treatment can lead normal, active lives. The most important therapy for lymphedema is wearing compression garments such as prescription-strength stockings or gloves or short-stretch bandages. These compression garments need to be worn daily, but should be removed at night. They provide adequate compression for the treatment of lymphedema, and these garments must be prescribed by a health care provider. Probably the most effective treatment for reducing swelling due to lymphedema is known as complete decongestive physiotherapy that involves a combination of therapeutic massage (known as manual lymphatic drainage) and the use of compression bandages. Complete decongestive physiotherapy involves intensive treatment over a limited period of time, such as multiple treatments per week for two or three weeks. At the end of therapy, a compression stocking or glove is fitted for long-term maintenance. In some cases, a health care provider may provide a pneumatic compression pump that is used on the arms or legs at home for additional treatment of lymphedema. In rare cases, surgical treatment may be recommended for patients with advanced lymphedema that has not responded to complete decongestive physiotherapy and compression therapy. It is very unusual for lymphedema to require surgical treatment, and this should be performed only in experienced centers. Personal hygiene and avoidance of injury are essential in the prevention of lymphedema-related problems, especially skin infection. Follow these simple personal care measures to help keep skin healthy and reduce the risk of infection or swelling to worsen: - Keep skin as clean as possible. Dry skin thoroughly, but gently, especially between toes. - Wash hands frequently, applying lotion after each hand-washing to avoid over-drying the skin. - Wear compression support garments as prescribed during waking hours, removing for sleep. Perform skin care before and after use. Wash gently and hang to dry; have spare garments for alternate use. - Avoid blood pressure cuffs, needle sticks, injections or procedures on the affected limb. Wear a “lymphedema alert” bracelet. - Immediately report any new swelling or signs of infection such as redness, pain, warmth, streaks, rash, blisters, fever or flu-like symptoms. - Avoid tight clothing. - Avoid excess heat – overly hot showers, sun, hot tubs/saunas. Avoid sunburn and keep as cool as possible in summer weather. - Wear cotton-lined household gloves for housework; use garden gloves for gardening. - Carefully trim nails; see a podiatrist if necessary. Check feet with a mirror for wounds, fungal infections or cracked skin. Wear extra-wide, extra-depth shoes. - Avoid trauma – pet scratches, insect bites, burns, sports injuries or bruising. Seek appropriate care immediately. Wash all cuts with soap and water and apply antibiotic ointment. - Maintain normal body weight. Follow a low-fat, low salt, high-fiber diet plan. Exercise daily as ability allows – walking, swimming, light aerobics, biking, yoga and stretching are recommended. *Excerpted from Lymphedema: A Patient’s Guide by Patricia A. Lewis, MSN, FNP, Bassett Healthcare, 1 Atwell Road, Cooperstown, NY 13326. Used with permission by the author.
Although many developing countries are currently in the early stages of their urban transitions, Brazil has largely completed its urban transitional process. In fact, Brazil urbanized rather quickly in comparison to countries in places such as Asia and Africa. However, this accomplishment has been exhausting and disruptive in many ways leaving Brazil with severe economic, social and environmental problems. Failure on the part of policymakers to foresee and plan for intensive urban growth and massive population growth has damaged its urbanization process in a variety of ways. Through their inability to grasp the social composition of the urban growth process and with the persistence of policies aimed at promoting class interests, the spread of severe shelter poverty, fiscal inadequacy and environmental degradation has handicapped Brazil’s ability to take advantage of its full potential. It is well-know that the concept of urban transition coincides with demographic transition theory. The original theory is by Skeldon, and it suggests that as countries move from rural-agricultural to urban-industrial and from high levels of mortality and fertility to lower levels, they achieve economic success. Thus today, the majority of Brazilian citizens live in urban areas and large cities, levels of mortality and fertility have dropped dramatically, and its urban growth rate has slowed from its previous rate. All these considerations are indications that its urbanization process has peaked and that Brazil is in the later stages of this process. Although in the later stages of its urban transition, cities still face significant urban growth particularly in the outlining areas. These areas are known as “suburbana” or peripheries of large metropolitan cities. Since the 1950s, these areas have experienced rapid growth due to migrations from the interior regions rather than from natural increase due to births. The majority of the residents in these areas are poor or low-income, living in single-family houses or apartment buildings. For the most part, governmental programs to relocate inhabitants have failed because inhabitants resist moving from areas that are in close proximity to their places of work. Nevertheless, Brazil’s urban transitional process and its significance for present-day social and environmental analysis is a substantially important factor. What is most striking about its urbanization process is the rapid and advanced development that it has undergone. For example, a process that took centuries for North America and Europe to accomplish, – that is, to shift from being 10 per cent urban to 52 per cent urban between 1750 to 1950, by the time the first comprehensive demographic census was taken in 1940, Brazil moved from 31 per cent urban to 81.1 per cent urban in just 60 years. Thus, Brazil’s substantial urban growth process is unique and one of the underlining factors contributing to its present-day rapid economic growth. Sources: Martine, G. and George McGranahan (2010). Brazil’s early urban transition: what can it teach urbanizing countries? London; New York: Brazilian Association of Population Studies and the International Institute for Environment and Development; Skeldon, R. (1990). Population Mobility in Developing Countries. London and New York: Belhaven Press. For more information see: Neil Turner – Brazil: Settlement, immigration and urbanization; Ethnology/Cultural Anthropology; Grin Publishing http://www.grin.com
Build and Simulate a Simple Circuit In this example, you model a triangle wave generator using Simscape™ Electrical™ blocks and custom Simscape Electrical blocks, and then look at the voltage at the wave generator output. You use a classic circuit configuration consisting of an integrator and a noninverting amplifier to generate the triangle wave, and use datasheets to specify block parameters. For more information, see Parameterizing Blocks from Datasheets. To see the completed model, open the Triangle Wave Generator example. Select Blocks to Represent System Components First, you select the blocks to represent the input signal, the triangle wave generator, and the output signal display. You model the triangle wave generator with a set of physical blocks. The wave generator consists of: Two operational amplifier blocks Resistors and a capacitor that work with the operational amplifiers to create the integrator and noninverting amplifier Simulink-PS Converter and PS-Simulink Converter blocks whose function is to bridge the physical part of the model, which uses physical signals, and the rest of the model, which uses Simulink® signals. You have a manufacturer datasheet for the two operational amplifiers you want to model. Later in the example, you use the datasheet to parameterize the Simscape Electrical Band-Limited Op-Amp block. The following table describes the role of the blocks that represent the system components. Generates a sinusoidal signal that controls the resistance of the Variable Resistor block Displays the triangular output wave \|Simulink-PS Converter\|\|Converts the sinusoidal Simulink signal to a physical signal\| Defines solver settings that apply to all physical modeling blocks \|PS-Simulink Converter\|\|Converts the output physical signal to a Simulink signal\| \|Capacitor\|\|Works with an operational amplifier and resistor block to create the integrator\| \|Resistor\|\|Works with the operational amplifier and capacitor blocks to create the integrator and noninverting amplifier\| \|Variable Resistor\|\|Supplies a time-varying resistance that adjusts the gain of the integrator, which in turn varies the frequency and amplitude of the generated triangular wave\| \|DC Voltage Source\| Generates a DC reference signal for the operational amplifier block of the noninverting amplifier Converts the electrical voltage at the output of the integrator into a physical signal proportional to the current Provides the electrical ground \|Band-Limited Op-Amp\|\|Works with the capacitor and resistor to create an integrator and a noninverting amplifier\| \|Diode\|\|Limits the output of the Band-Limited Op-Amp block, to make the output waveform independent of supply voltage\| Build the Model Create a Simulink model, add blocks to the model, and connect the blocks. Create a new model. Add to the model the blocks listed in this table. The Library Path column of the table specifies the hierarchical path to each block. Sine Wave Simulink > Sources Scope Simulink > Commonly Used Blocks Simulink-PS Converter Simscape > Utilities Solver Configuration Simscape > Utilities PS-Simulink Converter Simscape > Utilities Capacitor Simscape > Foundation Library > Electrical > Electrical Elements Resistor Simscape > Foundation Library > Electrical > Electrical Elements Variable Resistor Simscape > Foundation Library > Electrical > Electrical Elements Electrical Reference Simscape > Foundation Library > Electrical > Electrical Elements DC Voltage Source Simscape > Foundation Library > Electrical > Electrical Sources Voltage Sensor Simscape > Foundation Library > Electrical > Electrical Sensors Simscape > Electrical > Integrated Circuits Simscape > Electrical > Semiconductor & Converters You can use the Simscape function ssc_newwith a domain type of electricalto create a Simscape model that contains these blocks: Rename and connect the blocks as shown in the diagram. The blocks in the triangle wave generator circuit are organized in two stages. The Comparator Stage contains a comparator constructed from a Band-Limited Op-Amp block and two Resistor blocks. The Integrator Stage contains an integrator constructed from another Band-Limited Op-Amp block, a Resistor, a Capacitor, and Electrical Reference. Specify Model Parameters Specify these parameters to represent the behavior of the system components: Model Setup Parameters These blocks specify model information that is not specific to a particular block: As with Simscape models, you must include a Solver Configuration block in each topologically distinct physical network. This example has a single physical network, so use one Solver Configuration block with the default parameter values. You must include an Electrical Reference block in each Simscape Electrical network. This block does not have any parameters. Input Signal Parameters Generate the sinusoidal control signal using the Sine Wave block. Set the Sine Wave block parameters as follows: Triangle Wave Generator Parameters Configure the blocks modeling the physical system that generates the triangle wave: Integrator stage — Band-Limited Op-Amp, Capacitor, and Resistor block R3 Comparator stage — Band-Limited Op-Amp1, Resistor blocks R1 and R2 Diode and Diode1 Simulink-PS Converter and PS-Simulink Converter blocks that bridge the physical part of the model and the Simulink part of the model. Accept the default parameters for the Simulink-PS Converter block. These parameters establish the units of the physical signal at the block output such that they match the expected default units of the Variable Resistor block input. Set the two Band-Limited Op-Amp block parameters for the LM7301 device with a +–20V power supply: The datasheet gives the gain as 97 dB, which is equivalent to 10 ^ ( 97 / 20 ) = 7.1e4. Set the Gain, A parameter to The datasheet gives input resistance as 39 Mohms. Set Input resistance, Rin to Set Output resistance, Rout to 0ohms. The datasheet does not quote a value for Rout, but the term is insignificant compared to the output resistor that it drives. Set minimum and maximum output voltages to –20 V and +20 V, respectively. The datasheet gives the maximum slew rate as 1.25 V/μs. Set the Maximum slew rate, Vdot parameter to Set the bandwidth to Set the two Diode block parameters for a 4.3 V zener diode. To model a BZX384-B4V3, set block parameters as follows: On the Main tab, set Diode model to Piecewise Linear. This selects a simplified Zener diode model that is more than adequate to test the correct operation of this circuit. Leave the Forward voltage as 0.6 V — this is a typical value for most diodes. The datasheet gives the forward current as 250 mA when the forward voltage is 1V. So that the Diode block matches this, set the On resistance to (1 V – 0.6 V) / 250 mA = The datasheet gives the reverse leakage current as 3 μA at a reverse voltage of 1 V. Therefore, set the Off conductance to 3 μA / 1 V = The datasheet gives the reverse voltage as 4.3 V. On the Breakdown tab, set the Reverse breakdown voltage Vz to Set the Zener resistance Rz to a suitably small number. The datasheet quotes the Zener voltage for a reverse current of 5 mA. For the Diode block to be representative of the real device, the simulated reverse voltage should be close to 4.3V at 5mA. As Rz tends to zero, the reverse breakdown voltage tends to Vz regardless of current, as the voltage-current gradient becomes infinite. However, for good numerical properties, Rz must not be made too small. If, say, you allow a 0.01 V error on the Zener voltage at 5 mA, then Rz is 0.01 V / 5 mA = 2 ohms. Set the Zener resistance parameter to this value. The Voltage Sensor block does not have any parameters. Accept the default parameters for the Variable Resistor block. These parameters establish the units of the physical signal at the block output such that they match the expected default units of the Variable Resistor block input. Set the Capacitor block parameters as follows: Capacitor voltage — This value starts the oscillation in the feedback loop. It is found in the Variables tab. Series resistance — Set the DC Voltage Source block Constant voltageparameter to Set the Resistor R3 block Resistance parameter to Set the Resistor R1 block Resistance parameter to Set the Resistor R2 block Resistance parameter to Accept the default parameters for the PS-Simulink Converter block. These parameters establish the units of the physical signal at the block output such that they match the expected default units of the Scope block input. Signal Display Parameters Specify the parameters of the Scope block to display the triangular output signal. Double-click the Scope block and then click the View > Configuration Properties to open the Scope Configuration Properties dialog box. On the Logging tab, clear the Limit data points to last check box. Configure the Solver Parameters Configure the solver parameters to use a continuous-time solver.Simscape Electrical models only run with a continuous-time solver when the Simscape Solver Configuration block has its Local Solver parameter cleared. You also change the simulation end time, tighten the relative tolerance for a more accurate simulation, and remove the limit on the number of simulation data points Simulink saves. In the model window, select Modeling > Model Settings to open the Configuration Parameters dialog box. In the Solver category in the tree on the left side of the dialog box: 2000e-6for the Stop time parameter value. ode23t (Mod. stiff/Trapezoidal)from the Solver list. 4e-5for the Max step size parameter value. 1e-6for the Relative tolerance parameter value. In the Data Import/Export category in the Select tree, clear the Limit data points to last check box. For more information about configuring solver parameters, see Simulating an Electronic, Mechatronic, or Electrical Power System. Simulate Model and Analyze Results Run the simulation and plot the results. In the model window, select Simulation > Run to run the simulation. To view the triangle wave in the Scope window, double-click the Scope block. You can do this before or after you run the simulation. The following plot shows the voltage waveform. As the resistance of the Variable Resistor block increases, the amplitude of the output waveform increases and the frequency decreases. Triangle Waveform Voltage
In this section, we will learn what form attribute is and how it works. What is form Attribute in HTML <button> Tag? The form attribute is used to link a <form> element to the target <button> element. Basically, in order to link an HTML <button> element to a form in order to use that button to submit the data of that form to the server, we have two choices: - We can wrap the target <button> element in the body of the target <form> element. - Or we can use the form attribute to link the target <button> element to the related form. For the second method, the target <form> element needs to have an id attribute and the value of this attribute becomes the value of the form attribute of the <button> element. Using this method, there’s no need for the <button> element to be in the body of the <form> element anymore. Note: make sure you set the `type` attribute of the target <button> element to “submit” as well. Otherwise, the button might not run as expected. HTML form Attribute in <button> Tag Syntax: <button form="form-id" type= "submit"> </button> <button> Tag form Attribute Values The value we set for the form attribute is the id value of the target <form> element.
Mental disorders are quite common now a days but most of us only take care of physical health. But what about mental health on which all of our daily routine activities are dependent. The prevalence of mental disorders have been increased to a greater extent that care homes for people with dementia have been developed in all over world. If you further want to know about mental disorders then you can read more in this article. There are many different types of mental disorders. Some of these have been given in this article. In this type of disorder, the person respond to certain conditions with anxiety or the person continuously remain in the feeling of sadness and his response to certain conditions is abnormal. It also includes general anxiety disorder, panic disorder and social anxiety disorder. But anxiety remains for short period of time. It is persistent state of sadness which remains for several years and in most of the cases the person thinks about suicide. Anxiety and depression are mistakenly understood same but these are different. Anxiety remains for short time and depression remains for long period of time. It is characterized as distorted awareness and reduction in thinking ability. Sometimes, the person remain in the state of imagination and he feels that these things are happening in real life. Hallucinations, delusions and schizophrenia are common psychotic disorders. In this person may suffer from different personality traits. Sometimes, the influence of personality remains for longer period of time on person’s mind and so it also affects thinking ability and behavior of person. Paranoid personality disorder is the most common type of this disorder. Obsessive compulsive disorder: In this, the person may feel some sort of fear so he repeats his actions. He may also feel disturbing thoughts which are called obsessions e.g. the fear of germs so the person washes his hands again and again due to fear of germs. Post traumatic stress: This disorder occur after he happening of certain incident in life such as accident, death of loved one or any other. So these persons have frightening thoughts for long period of time and they become emotionally weak. It is characterized as short term memory loss and it occurs at the later age. And gradually person forgets everything.
Each summer, our editorial team integrates feedback from scholars and instructors to produce an improved draft for the following academic year. We may make small, grammatical corrections during the academic year, but more substantial improvements are made each summer. For more information about our feedback and revision process, please see our feedback instructions. Unfortunately, we are not able to acknowledge all of the excellent feedback we receive during the academic year. But please know that we thank you deeply for helping to show that a collaborative, free, and online textbook can maintain the highest standards of professional excellence. ¶ 3 Leave a comment on paragraph 3 0 In the 1760s, Benjamin Rush, a native of Philadelphia, recounted a visit to Parliament. Upon seeing the King’s throne in the House of Lords, Rush said he “felt as if he walked on sacred ground” with “emotions that I cannot describe.” ((Benjamin Rush to Ebenezer Hazard, October 22, 1768, in L. H. Butterfield, ed., Letters of Benjamin Rush, 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951), 1:68.)) Throughout the eighteenth century, colonists had developed significant emotional ties with both the British monarchy and the British constitution. British subjects enjoyed a degree of liberty unknown in the unlimited monarchies of France and Spain. The British North American colonists had just helped to win a world war and most, like Rush, had never been more proud to be British. And yet, in a little over a decade, those same colonists would declare their independence and break away from the British Empire. Seen from 1763, nothing would have seemed as improbable as the American Revolution. ¶ 4 Leave a comment on paragraph 4 0 The Revolution built institutions and codified the language and ideas that still define Americans’ image of themselves. Moreover, revolutionaries justified their new nation with radical new ideals that changed the course of history and sparked a global “age of revolution.” But the Revolution was as paradoxical as it was unpredictable. A revolution fought in the name of liberty allowed slavery to persist. Resistance to centralized authority tied disparate colonies ever closer together under new governments. The revolution created politicians eager to foster republican selflessness and protect the public good but also encouraged individual self-interest and personal gain. The “founding fathers” instigated and fought a revolution to secure independence from Britain, but they did not fight that revolution to create a “democracy.” To successfully rebel against Britain, however, required more than a few dozen “founding fathers.” Common colonists joined the fight, unleashing popular forces that shaped the Revolution itself, often in ways not welcomed by elite leaders. But once unleashed, these popular forces continued to shape the new nation and indeed the rest of American history. II. The Origins of the American Revolution ¶ 6 Leave a comment on paragraph 6 0 The American Revolution had both long-term origins and short-term causes. In this section, we will look broadly at some of the long-term political, intellectual, cultural, and economic developments in the eighteenth century that set the context for the crisis of the 1760s and 1770s. ¶ 7 Leave a comment on paragraph 7 1 Between the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the middle of the eighteenth century, Britain had largely failed to define the colonies’ relationship to the empire and institute a coherent program of imperial reform. Two factors contributed to these failures. First, Britain was at war from the War of the Spanish Succession at the start of the century through the Seven Years’ War in 1763. Constant war was politically consuming and economically expensive. Second, competing visions of empire divided British officials. Old Whigs and their Tory supporters envisioned an authoritarian empire, based on conquering territory and extracting resources. They sought to eliminate Britain’s growing national debt by raising taxes and cutting spending on the colonies. The radical (or Patriot) Whigs’ based their imperial vision on trade and manufacturing instead of land and resources. They argued that economic growth, not raising taxes, would solve the national debt. Instead of an authoritarian empire, “patriot Whigs” argued that the colonies should have equal status with the mother country. There were occasional attempts to reform the administration of the colonies, but debate between the two sides prevented coherent reform. ((Jack P. Greene, The Constitutional Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).)) ¶ 8 Leave a comment on paragraph 8 1 Amidst the uncertainty, colonists developed their own notions of their place in the empire. They saw themselves as British subjects “entitled to all the natural, essential, inherent, and inseparable rights of our fellow subjects in Great-Britain.” The eighteenth century brought significant economic and demographic growth in the colonies. This success, they believed, resulted partly from Britain’s hands-off approach to the colonies. By mid-century, colonists believed that they held a special place in the empire, which justified Britain’s hands-off policy. In 1764, James Otis Jr. wrote, “The colonists are entitled to as ample rights, liberties, and privileges as the subjects of the mother country are, and in some respects to more.” ((James Otis, The Rights of the Colonies Asserted and Proved (Boston, 1764), 52, 38.)) ¶ 9 Leave a comment on paragraph 9 1 In this same period, the colonies developed their own local political institutions. Samuel Adams, in the Boston Gazette, described the colonies as each being a “separate body politic” from Britain. Almost immediately upon each colony’s settlement, they created a colonial assembly. These assemblies assumed many of the same duties as the Commons exercised in Britain, including taxing residents, managing the spending of the colonies’ revenue, and granting salaries to royal officials. In the early 1700s, elite colonial leaders lobbied unsuccessfully to get the Ministry to define their assemblies’ legal prerogratives, but the Ministry was too occupied with European wars. In the first half of the eighteenth century, royal governors tasked by the Board of Trade attempted to limit the power of the assemblies, but the assemblies’ power only grew. Many colonists came to see their assemblies as having the same jurisdiction over them that Parliament exercised over those in England. They interpreted British inaction as justifying their tradition of local governance. The British Ministry and Parliament, however, disagreed. ((Greene, Constitutional Origins of the American Revolution, 118.)) ¶ 10 Leave a comment on paragraph 10 1 Colonial political culture in the colonies also developed differently than that of the mother country. In both Britain and the colonies, land was the key to political participation, but because land was more easily obtained in the colonies, a higher proportion of male colonists participated in politics. Colonial political culture drew inspiration from the “country” party in Britain. These ideas—generally referred to as the ideology of republicanism—stressed the corrupting nature of power on the individual, the need for those involved in self-governing to be virtuous (i.e., putting the “public good” over their own self-interest) and to be ever vigilant against the rise of conspiracies, centralized control, and tyranny. Only a small fringe in Britain held these ideas, but in the colonies, they were widely accepted. ((Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1967).)) ¶ 11 Leave a comment on paragraph 11 1 In the 1740s, two seemingly conflicting bodies of thought—the Enlightenment and the Great Awakening—began to combine in the colonies and challenge older ideas about authority. Perhaps no single philosopher had a greater impact on colonial thinking than John Locke. In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Locke argued that the mind was originally a tabula rasa (or blank slate) and that individuals were formed primarily by their environment. The aristocracy then were wealthy or successful because they had greater access to wealth, education, and patronage and not because they were innately superior. Locke followed this essay with Some Thoughts Concerning Education, which introduced radical new ideas about the importance of education. Education would produce rational human beings capable of thinking for themselves and questioning authority rather than tacitly accepting tradition. These ideas slowly came to have far-reaching effects in the colonies and, later, the new nation. ¶ 12 Leave a comment on paragraph 12 1 At the same time as Locke’s ideas about knowledge and education spread in North America, the colonies also experienced an unprecedented wave of evangelical Protestant revivalism. In 1739-40, the Rev. George Whitefield, an enigmatic, itinerant preacher, traveled the colonies preaching Calvinist sermons to huge crowds. Unlike the rationalism of Locke, his sermons were designed to appeal to his listeners’ emotions. Whitefield told his listeners that salvation could only be found by taking personal responsibility for one’s own unmediated relationship with God, a process which came to be known as a “conversion” experience. He also argued that the current Church hierarchies populated by “unconverted” ministers only stood as a barrier between the individual and God. In his wake, new traveling preachers picked up his message and many congregations split. Both Locke and Whitefield had empowered individuals to question authority and to take their lives into their own hands. ¶ 13 Leave a comment on paragraph 13 0 In other ways, eighteenth-century colonists were becoming more culturally similar to Britons, a process often referred to as “Anglicization.” As the colonial economies grew, they quickly became an important market destination for British manufacturing exports. Colonists with disposable income and access to British markets attempted to mimic British culture. By the middle of the eighteenth century, middling-class colonists could also afford items previously thought of as luxuries like British fashions, dining wares, and more. The desire to purchase British goods meshed with the desire to enjoy British liberties. ((Jack P. Greene, Pursuits of Happiness: The Social Development of Early Modern British Colonies and the Formation of American Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press., 1988), 170-1. Also, see John Murrin, “Anglicizing an American Colony: The Transformation of Provincial Massachusetts,” PhD diss., Yale University, 1966.)) These political, intellectual, cultural, and economic developments built tensions that rose to the surface when, after the Seven Years’ War, Britain finally began to implement a program of imperial reform that conflicted with colonists’ understanding of the empire and their place in it. III. The Causes of the American Revolution ¶ 15 Leave a comment on paragraph 15 1 Most immediately, the American Revolution resulted directly from attempts to reform the British Empire after the Seven Years’ War. The Seven Years’ War culminated nearly a half-century of war between Europe’s imperial powers. It was truly a world war, fought between multiple empires on multiple continents. At its conclusion, the British Empire had never been larger. Britain now controlled the North American continent east of the Mississippi River, including French Canada. It had also consolidated its control over India. But, for the ministry, the jubilation was short-lived. The realities and responsibilities of the post-war empire were daunting. War (let alone victory) on such a scale was costly. Britain doubled the national debt to 13.5 times its annual revenue. In addition to the costs incurred in securing victory, Britain was also looking at significant new costs required to secure and defend its far-flung empire, especially the western frontiers of the North American colonies. These factors led Britain in the 1760s to attempt to consolidate control over its North American colonies, which, in turn, led to resistance. ¶ 16 Leave a comment on paragraph 16 1 King George III took the crown in 1760 and brought Tories into his Ministry after three decades of Whig rule. They represented an authoritarian vision of empire where colonies would be subordinate. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was Britain’s first major postwar imperial action concerning North America. The King forbade settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains in an attempt to limit costly wars with Native Americans. Colonists, however, protested and demanded access to the territory for which they had fought alongside the British. ¶ 17 Leave a comment on paragraph 17 1 In 1764, Parliament passed two more reforms. The Sugar Act sought to combat widespread smuggling of molasses in New England by cutting the duty in half but increasing enforcement. Also, smugglers would be tried by vice-admiralty courts and not juries. Parliament also passed the Currency Act, which restricted colonies from producing paper money. Hard money, like gold and silver coins, was scarce in the colonies. The lack of currency impeded the colonies’ increasingly sophisticated transatlantic economies, but it was especially damaging in 1764 because a postwar recession had already begun. Between the restrictions of the Proclamation of 1763, the Currency Act, and the Sugar Act’s canceling of trials-by-jury for smugglers, some colonists began to fear a pattern of increased taxation and restricted liberties. ¶ 18 Leave a comment on paragraph 18 1 In March 1765, Parliament passed the Stamp Act. The act required many documents be printed on paper that had been stamped to show the duty had been paid, including newspapers, pamphlets, diplomas, legal documents, and even playing cards. The Sugar Act of 1764 was an attempt to get merchants to pay an already-existing duty, but the Stamp Act created a new, direct (or “internal”) tax. Parliament had never before directly taxed the colonists. Instead, colonies contributed to the empire through the payment of indirect, “external” taxes, such as customs duties. In 1765, Daniel Dulany of Maryland wrote, “A right to impose an internal tax on the colonies, without their consent for the single purpose of revenue, is denied, a right to regulate their trade without their consent is, admitted.” (([Daniel Dulany], Considerations on the Propriety of imposing Taxes in the British Colonies, for the Purpose of raising a Revenue, by Act of Parliament. The Second Edition (Annapolis: Printed and Sold by Jonas Green, 1765), 34. For a 1766 London reprint, see https://archive.org/details/cihm_20394.)) Also, unlike the Sugar Act, which primarily affected merchants, the Stamp Act directly affected numerous groups throughout colonial society, including printers, lawyers, college graduates, and even sailors who played cards. This led, in part, to broader, more popular resistance. ¶ 19 Leave a comment on paragraph 19 1 Resistance to the Stamp Act took three forms, distinguished largely by class: legislative resistance by elites, economic resistance by merchants, and popular protest by common colonists. Colonial elites responded with legislative resistance initially by passing resolutions in their assemblies. The most famous of the anti-Stamp Act resolutions were the “Virginia Resolves,” passed by the House of Burgesses on May 30, 1765, which declared that the colonists were entitled to “all the liberties, privileges, franchises, and immunities . . . possessed by the people of Great Britain.” When the resolves were printed throughout the colonies, however, they often included a few extra, far more radical resolves not passed by the Virginia House of Burgesses, the last of which asserted that only “the general assembly of this colony have any right or power to impose or lay any taxation” and that anyone who argued differently “shall be deemed an enemy to this his majesty’s colony.” ((The Newport Mercury, June 24, 1765. This version was also reprinted in newspapers in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Maryland.)) The spread of these extra resolves throughout the colonies helped radicalize the subsequent responses of other colonial assemblies and eventually led to the calling of the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765. Nine colonies sent delegates, including Benjamin Franklin, John Dickinson, Thomas Hutchinson, Philip Livingston, and James Otis. ((Proceedings of the Congress at New-York (Annapolis: Printed by Jonas Green, 1766).)) ¶ 21 Leave a comment on paragraph 21 0 The Stamp Act Congress issued a “Declaration of Rights and Grievances,” which, like the Virginia Resolves, declared allegiance to the King and “all due subordination” to Parliament, but also reasserted the idea that colonists were entitled to the same rights as native Britons. Those rights included trial by jury, which had been abridged by the Sugar Act, and the right to only be taxed by their own elected representatives. As Daniel Dulany wrote in 1765, “It is an essential principle of the English constitution, that the subject shall not be taxed without his consent.” (([Dulany], Considerations on the Propriety of imposing Taxes in the British Colonies, 8.)) Benjamin Franklin called it the “prime Maxim of all free Government.” Because the colonies did not elect members to Parliament, they believed that they were not represented and could not be taxed by that body. In response, Parliament and the Ministry argued that the colonists were “virtually represented,” just like the residents of those boroughs or counties in England that did not elect members to Parliament. However, the colonists rejected the notion of virtual representation, with one pamphleteer calling it a “monstrous idea.” (([George Canning], A Letter to the Right Honourable Wills Earl of Hillsborough, on the connection between Great Britain and her American colonies (London: Printed for T. Becket, in the Strand; and J. Almon, in Piccadilly, 1768), 9.)) ¶ 22 Leave a comment on paragraph 22 0 The second type of resistance to the Stamp Act was economic. While the Stamp Act Congress deliberated, merchants in major port cities were preparing non-importation agreements, hoping that their refusal to import British goods would lead British merchants to lobby for the repeal of the Stamp Act. In New York City, “upwards of two hundred principal merchants” agreed not to import, sell, or buy “any goods, wares, or merchandises” from Great Britain. ((“New York, October 31, 1765.” New-York Gazette, or Weekly Mercury, November 7, 1765.)) In Philadelphia, merchants gathered at “a general meeting” to agree that “they would not Import any Goods from Great-Britain until the Stamp-Act was Repealed.” ((“Resolution of Non-Importation made by the Citizens of Philadelphia,” October 25, 1765, mss., Historical Society of Pennsylvania. http://digitalhistory.hsp.org/pafrm/doc/resolution-non-importation-made-citizens-philadelphia-october-25-1765. For the published notice of the resolution, see “Philadelphia, November 7, 1765,” broadside, “Pennsylvania Stamp Act and Non-Importation Resolutions Collection,” American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, PA.)) The plan worked. By January 1766, London merchants sent a letter to Parliament arguing that they had been “reduced to the necessity of pending ruin” by the Stamp Act and the subsequent boycotts. ((“The Petition of the London Merchants to the House of Commons,” in Prologue to Revolution: Sources and Documents on the Stamp Act Crisis, 1764-1766, ed. Edmund S. Morgan (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 130-1.)) ¶ 23 Leave a comment on paragraph 23 0 The third, and perhaps, most crucial type of resistance was popular protest. Violent riots broke out in Boston, during which crowds burned the appointed stamp distributor for Massachusetts, Andrew Oliver, in effigy and pulled a building he owned “down to the Ground in five minutes.” ((Gov. Francis Bernard to Lord Halifax, August 15, 1765, in Ibid., 107.)) Oliver resigned the position the next day. The following week, a crowd also set upon the home of his brother-in-law, Lt. Gov. Thomas Hutchinson, who had publicly argued for submission to the stamp tax. Before the evening was over, much of Hutchinson’s home and belongings had been destroyed. ((For Hutchinson’s own account of the events, see Thomas Hutchinson to Richard Jackson, August 30, 1765, in The Correspondence of Thomas Hutchinson, Volume 1: 1740-1766, ed. John W. Tyler (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 2014), 291-4.)) ¶ 31 Leave a comment on paragraph 31 0 We dare.” ((Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New-York, procured in Holland, England, and France, 13 vols., ed. Edmund O’Callaghan (Albany: Weed, Parsons and Company, Printers, 1856), 7:770. The image can be found here: https://pbs.twimg.com/media/Btm5M84IMAA4MCY.png:large.)) ¶ 32 Leave a comment on paragraph 32 0 By November 16, all of the original twelve stamp distributors had resigned, and by 1766, groups who called themselves the “Sons of Liberty” were formed in most of the colonies to direct and organize further popular resistance. These tactics had the dual effect of sending a message to Parliament and discouraging colonists from accepting appointments as stamp collectors. With no one to distribute the stamps, the Act became unenforceable. ¶ 34 Leave a comment on paragraph 34 0 Pressure on Parliament grew until, in February of 1766, they repealed the Stamp Act. ((Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New-York, procured in Holland, England, and France, 13 vols., ed. Edmund O’Callaghan (Albany: Weed, Parsons and Company, Printers, 1856), 7:770. The image can be found here: https://pbs.twimg.com/media/Btm5M84IMAA4MCY.png:large.)) But to save face and to try to avoid this kind of problem in the future, Parliament also passed the Declaratory Act, asserting that Parliament had the “full power and authority to make laws . . . to bind the colonies and people of America . . . in all cases whatsoever.” However, colonists were too busy celebrating the repeal of the Stamp Act to take much notice of the Declaratory Act. In New York City, the inhabitants raised a huge lead statue of King George III in honor of the Stamp Act’s repeal. It could be argued that there was no moment at which colonists felt more proud to be members of the free British Empire than 1766. But Britain still needed revenue from the colonies. ((“The Declaratory Act,” The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History, and Diplomacy, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/declaratory_act_1766.asp)) ¶ 35 Leave a comment on paragraph 35 1 The colonies had resisted the implementation of direct taxes, but the Declaratory Act reserved Parliament’s right to impose them. And, in the colonists’ dispatches to Parliament and in numerous pamphlets, they had explicitly acknowledged the right of Parliament to regulate colonial trade. So Britain’s next attempt to draw revenues from the colonies, the Townshend Acts, were passed in June 1767, creating new customs duties on common items, like lead, glass, paint, and tea, instead of direct taxes. The Acts also created and strengthened formal mechanisms to enforce compliance, including a new American Board of Customs Commissioners and more vice-admiralty courts to try smugglers. Revenues from customs seizures would be used to pay customs officers and other royal officials, including the governors, thereby incentivizing them to convict offenders. These acts increased the presence of the British government in the colonies and circumscribed the authority of the colonial assemblies, since paying the governor’s salary had long given the assemblies significant power over them. Unsurprisingly, colonists, once again, resisted. ¶ 36 Leave a comment on paragraph 36 0 Even though these were duties, many colonial resistance authors still referred to them as “taxes,” because they were designed primarily to extract revenues from the colonies not to regulate trade. John Dickinson, in his “Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer,” wrote, “That we may legally be bound to pay any general duties on these commodities, relative to the regulation of trade, is granted; but we being obliged by her laws to take them from Great Britain, any special duties imposed on their exportation to us only, with intention to raise a revenue from us only, are as much taxes upon us, as those imposed by the Stamp Act.” Hence, many authors asked: once the colonists assented to a tax in any form, what would stop the British from imposing ever more and greater taxes on the colonists? ((“Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, to the Inhabitants of the British Colonies. Letter II.,” The Pennsylvania Gazette, December 10, 1767.)) ¶ 37 Leave a comment on paragraph 37 1 New forms of resistance emerged in which elite, middling, and working class colonists participated together. Merchants re-instituted non-importation agreements, and common colonists agreed not to consume these same products. Lists were circulated with signatories promising not to buy any British goods. These lists were often published in newspapers, bestowing recognition on those who had signed and led to pressure on those who had not. ¶ 38 Leave a comment on paragraph 38 1 Women, too, became involved to an unprecedented degree in resistance to the Townshend Acts. They circulated subscription lists and gathered signatures. The first political commentaries in newspapers written by women appeared. ((“Address to the Ladies,” Boston Post-Boy, November 16, 1767; Boston Evening-Post, February 12, 1770. Many female contributions to political commentary took the form of poems and drama, as in the poetry of Hannah Griffitts and satirical plays by Mercy Otis Warren.)) Also, without new imports of British clothes, colonists took to wearing simple, homespun clothing. Spinning clubs were formed, in which local women would gather at one their homes and spin cloth for homespun clothing for their families and even for the community. ((Carol Berkin, Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America’s Independence (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005), 17-8.)) ¶ 39 Leave a comment on paragraph 39 3 Homespun clothing quickly became a marker of one’s virtue and patriotism, and women were an important part of this cultural shift. At the same time, British goods and luxuries previously desired now became symbols of tyranny. Non-importation, and especially, non-consumption agreements changed colonists’ cultural relationship with the mother country. Committees of Inspection that monitored merchants and residents to make sure that no one broke the agreements. Offenders could expect to be shamed by having their names and offenses published in the newspaper and in broadsides. ¶ 40 Leave a comment on paragraph 40 1 Non-importation and non-consumption helped forge colonial unity. Colonies formed Committees of Correspondence to keep each other informed of the resistance efforts throughout the colonies. Newspapers reprinted exploits of resistance, giving colonists a sense that they were part of a broader political community. The best example of this new “continental conversation” came in the wake of the “Boston Massacre.” Britain sent regiments to Boston in 1768 to help enforce the new acts and quell the resistance. On the evening of March 5, 1770, a crowd gathered outside the Custom House and began hurling insults, snowballs, and perhaps more at the young sentry. When a small number of soldiers came to the sentry’s aid, the crowd grew increasingly hostile until the soldiers fired. After the smoke cleared, five Bostonians were dead, including one of the ringleaders, Crispus Attucks, a former slave turned free dockworker. The soldiers were tried in Boston and won acquittal, thanks, in part, to their defense attorney, John Adams. News of the “Boston Massacre” spread quickly through the new resistance communication networks, aided by a famous engraving initially circulated by Paul Revere, which depicted bloodthirsty British soldiers with grins on their faces firing into a peaceful crowd. The engraving was quickly circulated and reprinted throughout the colonies, generating sympathy for Boston and anger with Britain. ¶ 42 Leave a comment on paragraph 42 1 Resistance again led to repeal. In March of 1770, Parliament repealed all of the new duties except the one on tea, which, like the Declaratory Act, was left, in part, to save face and assert that Parliament still retained the right to tax the colonies. The character of colonial resistance had changed between 1765 and 1770. During the Stamp Act resistance, elites wrote resolves and held congresses while violent, popular mobs burned effigies and tore down houses, with minimal coordination between colonies. But methods of resistance against the Townshend Acts became more inclusive and more coordinated. Colonists previously excluded from meaningful political participation now gathered signatures, and colonists of all ranks participated in the resistance by not buying British goods, and monitoring and enforcing the boycotts. ¶ 43 Leave a comment on paragraph 43 0 Britain’s failed attempts at imperial reform in the 1760s created an increasingly vigilant and resistant colonial population and, most importantly, an enlarged political sphere––both on the colonial and continental levels––far beyond anything anyone could have imagined a few years earlier. A new sense of shared grievances began to join the colonists in a shared American political identity. ¶ 45 Leave a comment on paragraph 45 1 Following the Boston Massacre in 1770, the conflict between the colonies and the mother country cooled. The colonial economy improved as the postwar recession receded. The Sons of Liberty in some colonies sought to continue nonimportation even after the repeal of the Townshend Acts. But, in New York, a door-to-door poll of the population revealed that the majority wanted to end nonimportation. ((New York Gazette, or Weekly Post-Boy, June 18, July 9, 16, 1770.)) Yet, Britain’s desire and need to reform imperial administration remained. ¶ 46 Leave a comment on paragraph 46 2 In April of 1773, Parliament passed two acts to aid the failing East India Company, which had fallen behind in the annual payments it owed Britain. But the Company was not only drowning in debt; it was also drowning in tea, with almost 15 million pounds of it in stored in warehouses from India to England. So, in 1773, the Parliament passed the Regulating Act, which effectively put the troubled company under government control. It then passed the Tea Act, which would allow the Company to sell its tea in the colonies directly and without the usual import duties. This would greatly lower the cost of tea for colonists, but, again, they resisted. ¶ 47 Leave a comment on paragraph 47 1 Merchants resisted because they deplored the East India Company’s monopoly status that made it harder for them to compete. But, like the Sugar Act, it only affected a small, specific group of people. The widespread support for resisting the Tea Act had more to do with principles. By buying the tea, even though it was cheaper, colonists would be paying the duty and thereby implicitly acknowledging Parliament’s right to tax them. According to the Pennsylvania Chronicle, Prime Minister Lord North was a “great schemer” who sought “to out wit us, and to effectually establish that Act, which will forever after be pleaded as a precedent for every imposition the Parliament of Great-Britain shall think proper to saddle us with.” ((The Pennsylvania Chronicle, September 27, 1773. For an example of how fast news and propaganda was spreading throughout the colonies, this piece was reprinted in the Massachusetts Gazette, October 4, 1773; New-Hampshire Gazette, and Historical Chronicle, October 15, 1773; Virginia Gazette, October 21, 1773.)) ¶ 48 Leave a comment on paragraph 48 1 The Tea Act stipulated that the duty had to be paid when the ship unloaded. Newspaper essays and letters throughout the summer of 1773 in the major port cities debated what to do upon the ships’ arrival. In November, the Boston Sons of Liberty, led by Samuel Adams and John Hancock, resolved to “prevent the landing and sale of the [tea], and the payment of any duty thereon” and to do so “at the risk of their lives and property.” ((Massachusetts Gazette, and Boston Post-Boy, November 29, 1773.)) The meeting appointed men to guard the wharfs and make sure the tea remained on the ships until they returned to London. This worked and the tea did not reach the shore, but by December 16, the ships were still there. Hence, another town meeting was held at the Old South Meeting House, at the end of which dozens of men disguised as Mohawk Indians made their way to the wharf. The Boston Gazette reported what happened next: ¶ 49 Leave a comment on paragraph 49 0 But, behold what followed! A number of brave & resolute men, determined to do all in their power to save their country from the ruin which their enemies had plotted, in less than four hours, emptied every chest of tea on board the three ships . . . amounting to 342 chests, into the sea ! ! without the least damage done to the ships or any other property. ((Boston Gazette, December 20, 1773.)) ¶ 50 Leave a comment on paragraph 50 1 As word spread throughout the colonies, patriots were emboldened to do the same to the tea sitting in their harbors. Tea was either dumped or seized in Charleston, Philadelphia, and New York, with numerous other smaller “tea parties” taking place throughout 1774. ¶ 51 Leave a comment on paragraph 51 1 Popular protest spread across the continent and down through all levels of colonial society. Fifty-one women in Edenton, North Carolina, for example, signed an agreement––published in numerous newspapers––in which they promised “to do every Thing as far as lies in our Power” to support the boycotts. ((Virginia Gazette, November 3, 1774; Cynthia A. Kierner, “The Edenton Ladies: Women, Tea, and Politics in Revolutionary North Carolina,” in North Carolina Women: Their Lives and Times, ed. Michele Gillsepie and Sally G. McMillen (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2014), 12-33.)) The ladies of Edenton were not alone in their desire to support the war effort by what means they could. Women across the thirteen colonies could most readily express their political sentiments as consumers and producers. Because women were often making decisions regarding which household items to purchase, their participation in consumer boycotts held particular weight. ((Ellen Hartigan-O’Connor, The Ties that Buy: Women and Commerce in Revolutionary America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), 178-84.)) Some women also took to the streets as part of more unruly mob actions, participating in grain riots, raids on the offices of royal officials, and demonstrations against the impressment of men into naval service. The agitation of so many helped elicit responses from both Britain and the colonial elites. ¶ 52 Leave a comment on paragraph 52 1 Britain’s response was swift. The following spring, Parliament passed four acts known collectively, by the British, as the “Coercive Acts.” Colonists, however, referred to them as the “Intolerable Acts.” First, the Boston Port Act shut down the harbor and cut off all trade to and from the city. The Massachusetts Government Act put the colonial government entirely under British control, dissolving the assembly and restricting town meetings. The Administration of Justice Act allowed any royal official accused of a crime to be tried in Britain rather than by Massachusetts courts and juries. Finally, the Quartering Act, passed for all colonies, allowed the British army to quarter newly arrived soldiers in colonists’ homes. Boston had been deemed in open rebellion, and the King, his Ministry, and Parliament acted decisively to end the rebellion. ¶ 53 Leave a comment on paragraph 53 1 The Ministry, however, did not anticipate the other colonies coming to the aid of Massachusetts. Colonists collected food to send to Boston. Virginia’s House of Burgesses called for a day of prayer and fasting to show their support. Rather than isolating Massachusetts, as the Ministry had hoped, the Coercive Acts fostered the sense of shared identity created over the previous decade. After all, if the Ministry and Parliament could dissolve Massachusetts’ government, nothing could stop them from doing the same to any of her sister colonies. In Massachusetts, patriots created the “Provincial Congress,” and, throughout 1774, they seized control of local and county governments and courts. ((Ray Raphael, The First American Revolution: Before Lexington and Concord (New York: New Press, 2002), 59-168.)) In New York, citizens elected committees to direct the colonies’ response to the Coercive Acts, including a Mechanics’ Committee of middling colonists. By early 1774, Committees of Correspondence and/or extra-legal assemblies were established in all of the colonies except Georgia. And throughout the year, they followed Massachusetts’ example by seizing the powers of the royal governments. ¶ 54 Leave a comment on paragraph 54 1 Committees of Correspondence agreed to send delegates to a Continental Congress to coordinate an inter-colonial response. The First Continental Congress convened on September 5, 1774. Over the next six weeks, elite delegates from every colony but Georgia issued a number of documents, including a “Declaration of Rights and Grievances.” This document repeated the arguments that colonists had been making since 1765: colonists retained all the rights of native Britons, including the right to be taxed only by their own elected representatives as well as the right to trial-by-jury. ¶ 55 Leave a comment on paragraph 55 2 Most importantly, the Congress issued a document known as the “Continental Association.” The Association declared that “the present unhappy situation of our affairs is occasioned by a ruinous system of colony administration adopted by the British Ministry about the year 1763, evidently calculated for enslaving these Colonies, and, with them, the British Empire.” The Association recommended “that a committee be chosen in every county, city, and town … whose business it shall be attentively to observe the conduct of all persons touching this association.” These Committees of Inspection would consist largely of common colonists. They were effectively deputized to police their communities and instructed to publish the names of anyone who violated the Association so they “may be publicly known, and universally condemned as the enemies of American liberty.” The delegates also agreed to a continental non-importation, non-consumption, and non-exportation agreement and to “wholly discontinue the slave trade.” In all, the Continental Association was perhaps the most radical document of the period. It sought to unite and direct twelve revolutionary governments, establish economic and moral policies, and empower common colonists by giving them an important and unprecedented degree of on-the-ground political power. ((American Archives: Fourth Series containing A Documentary History of the English Colonies in North America, ed. Peter Force (Washington D.C., 1837), 1:913-6. https://archive.org/stream/AmericanArchives-FourthSeriesVolume1-ContainingADocumentaryHistory/AaSeries4VolumeI#page/n455/mode/2up.)) ¶ 56 Leave a comment on paragraph 56 0 But not all colonists were patriots. Indeed, many remained faithful to the King and Parliament, while a good number took a neutral stance. As the situation intensified throughout 1774 and early 1775, factions emerged within the resistance movements in many colonies. Elite merchants who traded primarily with Britain, Anglican clergy, and colonists holding royal offices depended on and received privileges directly from their relationship with Britain. Initially, they sought to exert a moderating influence on the resistance committees but, following the Association, a number of these colonists began to worry that the resistance was too radical and aimed at independence. They, like most colonists in this period, still expected a peaceful conciliation with Britain, and grew increasingly suspicious of the resistance movement. ¶ 57 Leave a comment on paragraph 57 1 However, by the time the Continental Congress met again in May 1775, war had already broken out in Massachusetts. On April 19, 1775, British regiments set out to seize local militias’ arms and powder stores in Lexington and Concord. The town militia met them at the Lexington Green. The British ordered the militia to disperse when someone fired, setting off a volley from the British. The battle continued all the way to the next town, Concord. News of the events at Lexington spread rapidly throughout the countryside. Militia members, known as “minutemen,” responded quickly and inflicted significant casualties on the British regiments as they chased them back to Boston. Approximately 20,000 colonial militiamen lay siege to Boston, effectively trapping the British. In June, the militia set up fortifications on Breed’s Hill overlooking the city. In the misnamed “Battle of Bunker Hill,” the British attempted to dislodge them from the position with a frontal assault, and, despite eventually taking the hill, they suffered severe casualties at the hands of the colonists. ¶ 60 Leave a comment on paragraph 60 0 While men in Boston fought and died, the Continental Congress struggled to organize a response. The radical Massachusetts delegates––including John Adams, Samuel Adams, and John Hancock––implored the Congress to support the Massachusetts militia then laying siege to Boston with little to no supplies. Meanwhile, many delegates from the Middle Colonies––including New York, New Jersey, and Philadelphia––took a more moderate position, calling for renewed attempts at reconciliation. In the South, the Virginia delegation contained radicals such as Richard Henry Lee and Thomas Jefferson, while South Carolina’s delegation included moderates like John and Edward Rutledge. The moderates worried that supporting the Massachusetts militia would be akin to declaring war. ¶ 61 Leave a comment on paragraph 61 0 The Congress struck a compromise, agreeing to adopt the Massachusetts militia and form a Continental Army, naming Virginia delegate, George Washington, commander-in-chief. They also issued a “Declaration of the Causes of Necessity of Taking Up Arms” to justify this decision. At the same time, the moderates drafted an “Olive Branch Petition” which assured the King that the colonists “most ardently desire[d] the former Harmony between [the mother country] and these Colonies.” Many understood that the opportunities for reconciliation were running out. After Congress had approved the document, Benjamin Franklin wrote to a friend saying, “The Congress will send one more Petition to the King which I suppose will be treated as the former was, and therefore will probably be the last.” Congress was in the strange position of attempting reconciliation while publicly raising an army. ¶ 62 Leave a comment on paragraph 62 1 The petition arrived in England on August 13, 1775, but, before it was delivered, the King issued his own “Proclamation for Suppressing Rebellion and Sedition.” He believed his subjects in North America were being “misled by dangerous and ill-designing men,” who, were “traitorously preparing, ordering, and levying war against us.” In an October speech to Parliament, he dismissed the colonists’ petition. The King had no doubt that the resistance was “manifestly carried on for the purpose of establishing an independent empire.” By the start of 1776, talk of independence was growing while the prospect of reconciliation dimmed. ¶ 63 Leave a comment on paragraph 63 1 In the opening months of 1776, independence, for the first time, became part of the popular debate. Town meetings throughout the colonies approved resolutions in support of independence. Yet, with moderates still hanging on, it would take another seven months before the Continental Congress officially passed the independence resolution. A small forty-six-page pamphlet published in Philadelphia and written by a recent immigrant from England captured the American conversation. Thomas Paine’s Common Sense argued for independence by denouncing monarchy and challenging the logic behind the British Empire, saying, “There is something absurd, in supposing a continent to be perpetually governed by an island.” His combination of easy language, biblical references, and fiery rhetoric proved potent and the pamphlet was quickly published throughout the colonies. Arguments over political philosophy and rumors of battlefield developments filled taverns throughout the colonies. ¶ 64 Leave a comment on paragraph 64 1 George Washington had taken control of the army and after laying siege to Boston forced the British to retreat to Halifax. In Virginia, the royal governor, Lord Dunmore issued a proclamation declaring martial law and offering freedom to “all indentured servants, Negros, and others” if they would leave their masters and join the British. Though only about 500-1000 slaves joined Lord Dunmore’s “Ethiopian regiment,” thousands more flocked to the British later in the war, risking capture and punishment for a chance at freedom. Former slaves occasionally fought, but primarily served as laborers, skilled workers, and spies, in companies called “Black Pioneers.” British motives for offering freedom were practical rather than humanitarian, but the proclamation was the first mass emancipation of enslaved people in American history. Slaves could now choose to run and risk their lives for possible freedom with the British army, or hope that the United States would live up to its ideals of liberty. ((Pennsylvania Evening Post, September 21, 1776.)) ¶ 65 Leave a comment on paragraph 65 0 Dunmore’s Proclamation had the additional effect of pushing many white Southerners into rebellion. After the Somerset case in 1772 abolished slavery on the British mainland, some American slave-owners began to worry about the growing abolitionist movement in the mother country. Somerset and now Dunmore began to convince some slave owners that a new independent nation might offer a surer protection for slavery. Indeed, the Proclamation laid the groundwork for the very unrest that loyal southerners had hoped to avoid. Consequently, slaveholders often used violence to prevent their slaves from joining the British or rising against them. Virginia enacted regulations to prevent slave defection, threatening to ship rebellious slaves to the West Indies or execute them. Many masters transported their enslaved people inland, away from the coastal temptation to join the British armies, sometimes separating families in the process. ¶ 66 Leave a comment on paragraph 66 0 On May 10, 1776, nearly two months before the Declaration of Independence, the Congress voted a resolution calling on all colonies that had not already established revolutionary governments to do so and to wrest control from royal officials. ((Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789, 34 vols. (Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904-37), 4:342. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field([email protected](jc004109.)) The Congress also recommended that the colonies should begin preparing new written constitutions. In many ways, this was the Congress’s first declaration of independence. A few weeks later, on June 7, Richard Henry Lee offered the following resolution: ¶ 67 Leave a comment on paragraph 67 0 Resolved, That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, Free and Independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connexion between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved. ((“Report & the resolution for independancy agreed to July 2d. 1776,” ms., Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 23, folio 17, National Archives, Washington D.C. http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/american_originals/declarat.html.)) ¶ 68 Leave a comment on paragraph 68 1 Delegates went scurrying back to their assemblies for new instructions and nearly a month later, on July 2, the resolution finally came to a vote. It was passed 12-0 with New York, under imminent threat of British invasion, abstaining. ¶ 69 Leave a comment on paragraph 69 0 The passage of Lee’s resolution was the official legal declaration of independence, but, between the proposal and vote, a committee had been named to draft a public declaration in case the resolution passed. Virginian Thomas Jefferson drafted the document, with edits being made by his fellow committee members John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, and then again by the Congress as a whole. The famous preamble went beyond the arguments about the rights of British subjects under the British Constitution, instead referring to “natural law”: ¶ 70 Leave a comment on paragraph 70 0 We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government. ((Journals of the Continental Congress, 5:510-6.)) ¶ 71 Leave a comment on paragraph 71 1 The majority of the document outlined a list of specific grievances that the colonists had with the many actions taken by the British during the 1760s and 1770s to reform imperial administration. An early draft blamed the British for the transatlantic slave trade and even for discouraging attempts by the colonists to promote abolition. Delegates from South Carolina and Georgia as well as those from northern states who profited from the trade all opposed this language and it was removed. ¶ 72 Leave a comment on paragraph 72 0 Neither the grievances nor the rhetoric of the preamble were new. Instead, they were the culmination of both a decade of popular resistance to imperial reform and decades more of long-term developments that saw both sides develop incompatible understandings of the British Empire and the colonies’ place within it. The Congress approved the document on July 4, 1776. However, it was one thing to declare independence; it was quite another to win it on the battlefield. V. The War for Independence ¶ 75 Leave a comment on paragraph 75 0 The war began at Lexington and Concord, more than a year before Congress declared independence. In 1775, the British believed that the mere threat of war and a few minor incursions to seize supplies would be enough to cow the colonial rebellion. Those minor incursions, however, turned into a full-out military conflict. Despite an early American victory at Boston, the new states faced the daunting task of taking on the world’s largest military. ¶ 76 Leave a comment on paragraph 76 1 In the summer of 1776, the British forces that had abandoned Boston arrived at New York. The largest expeditionary force in British history, including tens of thousands of German mercenaries known as “Hessians” followed soon after. New York was the perfect location to launch expeditions aimed at seizing control of the Hudson River and isolating New England from the rest of the continent. Also, New York contained many loyalists, particularly among its merchant and Anglican communities. In October, the British finally launched an attack on Brooklyn and Manhattan. The Continental Army took severe losses before retreating through New Jersey. ((Barnet Schecter, The Battle for New York: The City at the Heart of the American Revolution (New York: Walker & Co, 2002).)) With the onset of winter, Washington needed something to lift morale and encourage reenlistment. Therefore, he launched a successful surprise attack on the Hessian camp at Trenton on Christmas Day, by ferrying the few thousand men he had left across the Delaware River under the cover of night. The victory won the Continental Army much needed supplies and a morale boost following the disaster at New York. ((David Hackett Fischer, Washington’s Crossing (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).)) ¶ 77 Leave a comment on paragraph 77 2 An even greater success followed in upstate New York. In 1777, in an effort to secure the Hudson River, British General John Burgoyne led an army from Canada through upstate New York. There, he was to meet up with a detachment of General Howe’s forces marching north from Manhattan. However, Howe abandoned the plan without telling Burgoyne and instead sailed to Philadelphia to capture the new nation’s capital. The Continental Army defeated Burgoyne’s men at Saratoga, New York. ((Richard M. Ketchum, Saratoga: Turning Point of America’s Revolutionary War (New York: H. Holt, 1997).)) This victory proved a major turning point in the war. Benjamin Franklin had been in Paris trying to secure a treaty of alliance with the French. However, the French were reluctant to back what seemed like an unlikely cause. News of the victory at Saratoga convinced the French that the cause might not have been as unlikely as they had thought. A “Treaty of Amity and Commerce” was signed on February 6, 1778. The treaty effectively turned a colonial rebellion into a global war as fighting between the British and French soon broke out in Europe and India. ¶ 79 Leave a comment on paragraph 79 0 Howe had taken Philadelphia in 1777 but returned to New York once winter ended. He slowly realized that European military tactics would not work in North America. In Europe, armies fought head-on battles in attempt to seize major cities. However, in 1777, the British had held Philadelphia and New York and yet still weakened their position. Meanwhile, Washington realized after New York that the largely untrained Continental Army could not match up in head-on battles with the professional British army. So he developed his own logic of warfare, which involved smaller, more frequent skirmishes and avoided any major engagements that would risk his entire army. As long as he kept the army intact, the war would continue, no matter how many cities the British captured. ¶ 80 Leave a comment on paragraph 80 0 In 1778, the British shifted their attentions to the South, where they believed they enjoyed more popular support. Campaigns from Virginia to South Carolina and Georgia captured major cities but the British simply did not have the manpower to retain military control. And, upon their departures, severe fighting ensued between local patriots and loyalists, often pitting family members against one another. The War in the South was truly a civil war. ((David K. Wilson, The Southern Strategy: Britain’s Conquest of South Carolina and Georgia, 1775-1780 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2005).)) ¶ 81 Leave a comment on paragraph 81 1 By 1781, the British were also fighting France, Spain, and Holland. The British public’s support for the costly war in North America was quickly waning. The Americans took advantage of the British southern strategy with significant aid from the French army and navy. In October, Washington marched his troops from New York to Virginia in an effort to trap the British southern army under the command of Gen. Charles Cornwallis. Cornwallis had dug his men in at Yorktown awaiting supplies and reinforcements from New York. However, the Continental and French armies arrived first, quickly followed by a French navy contingent, encircling Cornwallis’s forces and, after laying siege to the city, forcing his surrender. The capture of another army left the British without a new strategy and without public support to continue the war. Peace negotiations took place in France and the war came to an official end on September 3, 1783. ((Richard M. Ketchum, Victory at Yorktown: The Campaign that Won the Revolution (New York: Henry Holt, 2004).)) ¶ 83 Leave a comment on paragraph 83 1 Americans celebrated their victory, but it came at great cost. Soldiers suffered through brutal winters with inadequate resources. During the single winter at Valley Forge in 1777-8, over 2,500 Americans died from disease and exposure. Life was not easy on the home front either. Women on both sides of the conflict were frequently left alone to care for their households. In addition to their existing duties, women took on roles usually assigned to men on farms and in shops and taverns. Abigail Adams addressed the difficulties she encountered while “minding family affairs” on their farm in Braintree, Massachusetts. Abigail managed the planting and harvesting of crops, in the midst of severe labor shortages and inflation, while dealing with several tenants on the Adams’ property, raising her children, and making clothing and other household goods. In order to support the family economically during John’s frequent absences and the uncertainties of war, Abigail also invested in several speculative schemes and sold imported goods. ((Woody Holton, Abigail Adams (New York: Free Press, 2009), 208-17.)) ¶ 84 Leave a comment on paragraph 84 0 While Abigail remained safely out of the fray, other women were not so fortunate. The Revolution was not only fought on distant battlefields. It was fought on women’s very doorsteps, in the fields next to their homes. There was no way for women to avoid the conflict, or the disruptions and devastations it caused. As the leader of the state militia during the Revolution, Mary Silliman’s husband, Gold, was absent from their home for much of the conflict. On the morning of July 7, 1779, when a British fleet attacked nearby Fairfield, Connecticut, it was Mary who calmly evacuated her household, including her children and servants, to North Stratford. When Gold was captured by loyalists and held prisoner, Mary, six months pregnant with their second child, wrote letters to try to secure his release. When such appeals were ineffectual, Mary spearheaded an effort, along with Connecticut Governor, John Trumbull, to capture a prominent Tory leader to exchange for her husband’s freedom. ((Joy Day Buel and Richard Buel, The Way of Duty: A Woman and Her Family in Revolutionary America (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1995), 145-70.)) ¶ 86 Leave a comment on paragraph 86 0 Slaves and free blacks also impacted (and were impacted by) the Revolution. The British were the first to recruit black (or “Ethiopian”) regiments, as early as Dunmore’s Proclamation of 1775 in Virginia, which promised freedom to any slaves who would escape their masters and join the British cause. At first, Washington, a slaveholder himself, resisted allowing free blacks and former slaves to join the Continental Army, but he eventually relented. In 1775, Peter Salem’s master freed him to fight with the militia. Salem faced British Regulars in the battles at Lexington and Bunker Hill, where he fought valiantly with around three-dozen other black Americans. Salem not only contributed to the cause, but he earned the ability to determine his own life after his enlistment ended. Salem was not alone, but many more slaves seized upon the tumult of war to run away and secure their own freedom directly. Historians estimate that between 30,000 and 100,000 slaves deserted their masters during the war. ¶ 87 Leave a comment on paragraph 87 1 Men and women together struggled through years of war and hardship. For patriots (and those who remained neutral), victory brought new political, social, and economic opportunities but it also brought new uncertainties. The war decimated entire communities, particularly in the South. Thousands of women throughout the nation had been widowed. The American economy, weighed down by war debt and depreciated currencies, would have to be rebuilt following the war. State constitutions had created governments, but now men would have to figure out how to govern. The opportunities created by the Revolution had come at great cost, in both lives and fortune, and it was left to the survivors to seize those opportunities and help forge and define this new nation-state that they had helped create. VI. The Consequences of the American Revolution ¶ 90 Leave a comment on paragraph 90 1 Like the earlier distinction between “origins” and “causes,” the Revolution also had short- and long-term consequences. Perhaps the most important immediate consequence of declaring independence was the creation of state constitutions in 1776 and 1777. The Revolution also unleashed powerful political, social, and economic forces that would transform the new nation’s politics and society, including increased participation in politics and governance, the legal institutionalization of religious toleration, and the growth and diffusion of the population, particularly westward expansion. The Revolution also had significant short-term effects on the lives of women in the new United States of America. In the long-term, the Revolution would also have significant effects on the lives of slaves and free blacks as well as the institution of slavery itself. It also affected Native Americans by opening up western settlement and creating governments hostile to their territorial claims. Even more broadly, the Revolution ended the mercantilist economy, opening new opportunities in trade and manufacturing. ¶ 91 Leave a comment on paragraph 91 1 The new states drafted written constitutions, which, at the time, was an important innovation from the traditionally unwritten British Constitution. These new state constitutions were based on the idea of “popular sovereignty,” i.e., that the power and authority of the government derived from the people. ((Willi Paul Adams, The First American Constitutions: Republican Ideology and the Making of the State Constitutions in the Revolutionary Era (Chapel Hill: Published for the Institute of Early American History by the University of North Carolina Press, 1980; repr. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001), 126-46.)) Most created weak governors and strong legislatures with more regular elections and moderately increased the size of the electorate. A number of states followed the example of Virginia and included a declaration or “bill” of rights in their constitution designed to protect the rights of individuals and circumscribe the prerogative of the government. Pennsylvania’s first state constitution was the most radical and democratic. They created a unicameral legislature and an Executive Council but no genuine executive. All free men could vote, including those who did not own property. Massachusetts’ constitution, passed in 1780, was less democratic in structure but underwent a more popular process of ratification. In the fall of 1779, each town sent delegates––312 in all––to a constitutional convention in Cambridge. Town meetings debated the constitution draft and offered suggestions. Anticipating the later federal constitution, Massachusetts established a three-branch government based on checks and balances between the branches. 1776 was the year of independence, but it was also the beginning of an unprecedented period of constitution-making and state-building. ¶ 92 Leave a comment on paragraph 92 1 The Continental Congress ratified the Articles of Confederation in 1781. The Articles allowed each state one vote in the Continental Congress. But the Articles are perhaps most notable for what they did not allow. Congress was given no power to levy or collect taxes, regulate foreign or interstate commerce, or establish a federal judiciary. These shortcomings rendered the post-war Congress rather impotent. ¶ 93 Leave a comment on paragraph 93 1 Political and social life changed drastically after independence. Political participation grew as more people gained the right to vote, leading to a greater importance being placed on representation within government. ((Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787 (Chapel Hill: Published for the Institute of Early American History and Culture by the University of North Carolina Press, 1969). )) In addition, more common citizens (or “new men”) played increasingly important roles in local and state governance. Hierarchy within the states underwent significant changes. Society became less deferential and more egalitarian, less aristocratic and more meritocratic. ¶ 94 Leave a comment on paragraph 94 1 The Revolution’s most important long-term economic consequence was the end of mercantilism. The British Empire had imposed various restrictions on the colonial economies including limiting trade, settlement, and manufacturing. The Revolution opened new markets and new trade relationships. The Americans’ victory also opened the western territories for invasion and settlement, which created new domestic markets. Americans began to create their own manufactures, no longer content to rely on those in Britain. ¶ 95 Leave a comment on paragraph 95 2 Despite these important changes, the American Revolution had its limits. Following their unprecedented expansion into political affairs during the imperial resistance, women also served the patriot cause during the war. However, the Revolution did not result in civic equality for women. Instead, during the immediate post-war period, women became incorporated into the polity to some degree as “republican mothers.” These new republican societies required virtuous citizens and it became mothers’ responsibility to raise and educate future citizens. This opened opportunity for women regarding education, but they still remained largely on the peripheries of the new American polity. ¶ 97 Leave a comment on paragraph 97 0 Approximately 60,000 loyalists ended up leaving America because of Revolution. Loyalists came from all ranks of American society, and many lived the rest of their lives in exile from their homeland. A clause in the Treaty of Paris was supposed to protect their property and require the Americans to compensate Loyalists who had lost property during the war because of their allegiance. The Americans, however, reneged on this promise and, throughout the 1780s, the states continued seizing property held by Loyalists. Some colonists went to England, where they were strangers and outsiders in what they had thought of as their mother country. Many more, however, settled on the peripheries of the British Empire throughout the world, especially Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Quebec. The Loyalists had come out on the losing side of a Revolution, and many lost everything they had and were forced to carve out new lives from scratch far from the homes they had known for their entire lives. ((Maya Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World (New York: Vintage Books, 2011).)) ¶ 98 Leave a comment on paragraph 98 1 In 1783, thousands of Loyalist former slaves fled with the British army. They hoped that the British government would uphold the promise of freedom and help them establish new homes elsewhere in the Empire. The Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, demanded that British troops leave runaway slaves behind, but the British military commanders upheld earlier promises and evacuated thousands of freedmen, transporting them to Canada, the Caribbean, or Great Britain. They would eventually play a role in settling Nova Scotia, and through the subsequent efforts of David George, a black loyalist and Baptist preacher, some settled in Sierra Leone, in Africa. Black loyalists, however, continued to face social and economic marginalization, including restrictions on land ownership within the British Empire. ((Alan Gilbert, Black Patriots and Loyalists: Fighting for Emancipation in the War of Independence (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012).)) ¶ 100 Leave a comment on paragraph 100 1 The fight for liberty led some Americans to manumit their slaves, and most of the new northern states soon passed gradual emancipation laws. Some manumission also occurred in the Upper South, but in the Lower South, some masters revoked their offers of freedom for service, and other freedmen were forced back into bondage. The Revolution’s rhetoric of equality created a “revolutionary generation” of slaves and free blacks that would eventually encourage the antislavery movement. Slave revolts began to incorporate claims for freedom based on revolutionary ideals. In the long-term, the Revolution failed to reconcile slavery with these new egalitarian republican societies, a tension that eventually boiled over in the 1830s and 1840s and effectively tore the nation in two in the 1850s and 1860s. ((Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 217-89.)) ¶ 101 Leave a comment on paragraph 101 0 Native Americans, too, participated in and were affected by the Revolution. Many Native American tribes and confederacies, such as the Shawnee, Creek, Cherokee, and Iroquois, had sided with the British. They had hoped for a British victory that would continue to restrain the land-hungry colonial settlers from moving west beyond the Appalachian Mountains. Unfortunately, the Americans’ victory and Native Americans’ support for the British created a pretense for justifying the rapid, and often brutal expansion into the western territories. Native American tribes would continue to be displaced and pushed further west throughout the nineteenth century. Ultimately, American independence marked the beginning of the end of what had remained of Native American independence. ¶ 103 Leave a comment on paragraph 103 0 The American Revolution freed colonists from British rule and offered the first blow in what historians have called “the age of democratic revolutions.” The American Revolution was a global event. ((For a summary of the global aspects of the Revolution, see Ted Brackemyre, “The American Revolution: A Very European Ordeal,” U.S. History Scene, http://ushistoryscene.com/article/am-rev-european-ordeal.)) Revolutions followed in France, then Haiti, and then South America. The American Revolution meanwhile wrought significant changes to the British Empire. Many British historians even use the Revolution as a dividing point between a “first British Empire” and a “second British Empire.” At home, however, the Revolution created a new nation-state, the United States of America. By September of 1783, independence had been won. What that independence would look like, however, was still very much up for grabs. In the 1780s, Americans would shape and then re-shape that nation-state, first with the Articles of Confederation, ratified in 1781, and then with the Constitution in 1787 and 1788. ¶ 104 Leave a comment on paragraph 104 0 Historians have long argued over the causes and character of the American Revolution. Was the Revolution caused by British imperial policy or by internal tensions within the colonies? Were colonists primarily motivated by constitutional principles, ideals of equality, or economic self-interest? Was the Revolution radical or conservative? But such questions are hardly limited to historians. From Abraham Lincoln quoting the Declaration of Independence in his “Gettysburg Address” to modern-day “Tea Party” members wearing knee breeches, the Revolution has remained at the center of American political culture. Indeed, how one understands the Revolution often dictates how one defines what it means to be “American.” ¶ 105 Leave a comment on paragraph 105 3 The Revolution was not won by a few “founding fathers.” Men and women of all ranks contributed to the colonies’ most improbable victory, from the commoners protesting against the Stamp Act to the women who helped organize the boycotts to the Townhend duties; from the men, black and white, who fought in the army and the women who contributed to its support. The Revolution, however, did not aim to end all social and civic inequalities in the new nation, and, in the case of Native Americans, created a new degree of inequality. But, over time, the Revolution’s rhetoric of equality, as encapsulated in the Declaration of Independence, helped highlight some of those inequalities and became a shared aspiration for future social and political movements, including, among others, the abolitionist and women’s rights movements of the nineteenth century, the suffragist and civil rights movements of the twentieth century, and the gay rights movement of the twenty-first century. VIII. Reference Material ¶ 107 Leave a comment on paragraph 107 0 This chapter was edited by Michael Hattem, with content contributions by James Ambuske, Alexander Burns, Joshua Beatty, Christina Carrick, Christopher Consolino, Michael Hattem, Timothy C. Hemmis, Joseph Moore, Emily Romeo, and Christopher Sparshott. ¶ 108 Leave a comment on paragraph 108 0 Recommended citation: James Ambuske et al., “The American Revolution,” Michael Hattem, ed., in The American Yawp, Joseph Locke and Ben Wright, eds., last modified August 1, 2016, http://www.AmericanYawp.com. - ¶ 111 Leave a comment on paragraph 111 0 - Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1967. - Berkin, Carol. Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America’s Independence. New York: Vintage, 2006. - Breen, T. H. The Marketplace of Revolution: How Consumer Politics Shaped American Independence. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. - Carp, Benjamin L. Rebels Rising: Cities and the American Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. - Cogliano, Francis D. Revolutionary America, 1763-1815: A Political History. New York: Routledge, 2008. - Countryman, Edward. The American Revolution. 5th ed. New York: Hill and Wang, 1988. - Egerton, Douglas R. Death or Liberty: African Americans and Revolutionary America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. - Fliegelman, Jay. Prodigals and Pilgrims: The American Revolution against Patriarchal Authority 1750-1800. Cambridge University Press, 1985. - Gibson, Alan. Interpreting the Founding: Guide to the Enduring Debates Over the Origins and Foundations of the American Republic. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006. - Greene, Jack P. The Constitutional Origins of the American Revolution. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010. - Holton, Woody. Forced Founders: Indians, Debtors, Slaves, and the Making of the American Revolution in Virginia. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999. - Jasanoff, Maya. Liberty’s Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011. - Kammen, Michael G. A Season of Youth: The American Revolution & the Historical Imaginative. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988. - Kerber, Linda K. Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980. - Maier, Pauline. American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence. New York: A. A. Knopf, 1997. - ––––––. From Resistance to Revolution: Colonial Radicals and the Development of American Opposition to Britain, 1765-1776. New York: Vintage, 1974. - Middlekauf, Robert. The Glorious Cause: the American Revolution, 1763-1789. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. - Morgan, Edmund S. The Birth of the Republic, 1763-89. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956. - Nash, Gary B. The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America. New York: Viking, 2005. - Norton, Mary Beth. Liberty’s Daughters: the Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 1750-1800. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1980. - O’Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson. The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013. - Raphael, Ray. The First American Revolution: Before Lexington and Concord. New York: New Press, 2002. - Waldstreicher, David. Slavery’s Constitution: From Revolution to Ratification. New York: Hill and Wang, 2010. - Wood, Gordon S. The American Revolution: A History. New York: Modern Library, 2003. - ––––––. The Radicalism of the American Revolution. New York: Vintage, 1992. - Young, Alfred F. The Shoemaker and the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution. Boston: Beacon Press, 1999. - Young, Alfred F., and Gregory Nobles. Whose American Revolution Was It?: Historians Interpret the Founding. New York: New York University Press, 2011.
With the right public infrastructure investment, the United States could as much as double the amount of carbon dioxide emissions currently captured and stored worldwide within the next six years. Carbon capture is a key component in reducing carbon dioxide emissions and maintaining the planet’s average temperature within 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. To do that, it is estimated that by 2050, 5,000 to 10,000 million metric tons of carbon dioxide need to be captured and stored each year, according to the U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Michael Celia, director of the Princeton Environmental Institute, and Ryan Edwards, who earned his Ph.D. in civil and environmental engineering at Princeton, propose a pipeline network that would transfer carbon dioxide waste from ethanol refineries in the American Midwest — where grains are fermented to produce the alcohol-based fuel — to oilfields in West Texas. The captured carbon would then be pumped into near-depleted oil fields through a technique known as enhanced oil recovery, where the carbon dioxide helps recover residual oil while ultimately being trapped underground. The researchers found that this capture-and-storage network could prevent up to 30 million metric tons of human-made carbon dioxide from entering the atmosphere each year — an amount equal to removing 6.5 million cars from the road. Currently, about 31 million metric tons of carbon dioxide annually are captured and stored worldwide.
What Is A Firewall In Construction? What Is A Firewall In Construction? A firewall is a structure that is designed to prevent the spread of fire by creating a barrier between different parts of a building or between different buildings. These structures may be used in a variety of settings, including buildings, electrical substations, aircraft, and vehicles. Firewalls are often used as part of a building’s passive fire protection systems and are constructed in accordance with local building codes. They can be used to subdivide a building into separate fire areas or to protect valuable equipment, such as transformers at an electrical substation, from the spread of fire in the event of an ignition. They can be designed to withstand exposure to fire for a certain amount of time, usually measured in hours, and can help prevent the collapse of a building if one section becomes unstable due to fire. While you may not be able to see firewalls, they are an important safety feature that helps ensure you have enough time to escape in the event of a fire. Types of Firewall There are three types of fire-resistant walls: firewalls, fire barriers, and fire partitions. Firewalls are self-supporting walls that extend from the foundation to the roof and are designed to prevent the spread of fire. They are used to divide buildings into smaller sections, and are structurally stable enough to remain standing even if a section of the building collapses. Fire barriers are continuous walls that extend from one exterior wall to another, or from a floor to a ceiling or roof, and have a fire resistance rating equal to or greater than the required rating for the application. They are not self-supporting and do not extend through concealed spaces. Fire partitions are similar to fire barriers, but do not need to extend through concealed spaces if the construction below the partition has a fire resistance rating equal to or greater than the partition. A high challenge fire wall is a specialized firewall designed for use in buildings with high fire risk occupancies, and has enhanced fire resistance ratings and additional protection against the spread of fire. Portions of buildings that are separated by firewalls may be treated as separate buildings in terms of fire safety. Characteristics Of Firewall Fire walls are used as a form of passive fire protection in buildings to prevent the spread of fire. They are designed to have a specific fire resistance rating as required by codes, and in Germany they must also be able to withstand impacts. Fire walls must be able to withstand a minimum load of 5 lbs per square foot and any additional seismic loads. In substations, fire walls are often modular and custom designed for the specific application. In buildings, fire walls typically extend through the roof and are capped with flashing to protect against the elements. What Are The Materials Use For Firewalls Fire walls are usually made of concrete, blocks, or reinforced concrete. Older fire walls made before World War II were made of brick. Fire barrier walls are typically made of drywall or gypsum board with wood or metal framing. Any penetrations through fire walls, such as for pipes and cables, must be protected with a firestop assembly to prevent the spread of fire. These openings must not weaken the structural integrity of the wall or it will not be able to withstand the required fire duration without the risk of collapse. Other openings in fire walls, such as doors and windows, must also be fire-rated.
What’s The Difference Between “i.e.” vs. “e.g.”? Published December 3, 2018 WATCH: How Do You Use i.e. And e.g.? What’s the difference between i.e. and e.g.? They may be small, but their power to befuddle writers and speakers of the English language is mighty. The term i.e. is a shortening of the Latin expression id est, which translates to “that is.” It is used to introduce a rephrasing or elaboration on something that has already been stated. The term e.g. is an abbreviation of the Latin expression exempli gratia, meaning “for the sake of example” or more colloquially, “for example.” This term is used to introduce examples of something that has already been stated. Examples using i.e. and e.g. Here is an example using i.e. “I like citrus fruits, i.e., the juicy, edible fruits with leathery, aromatic rinds.” In this example, i.e. introduces an elaboration on citrus fruits. Here is an example using e.g. “I like citrus fruits, e.g., tangerines, lemons, and limes.” In this example, e.g. introduces examples of citrus fruits. Don't Get Mixed Up Again! Get Dictionary.com tips to keep words straight ... right in your inbox. CommentsThis field is for validation purposes and should be left unchanged. How do you correctly use i.e. and e.g.? One easy way to remember the difference between these two abbreviations is by employing a simple mnemonic device: Think of the i at the beginning of i.e. as a stand in for the first word in the phrase “in other words.” This indicates that the clause that follows will rephrase or explain the first part of the sentence. E.g. is a little more straightforward since e stands for exempli meaning “example.” And, remember that in formal writing, e.g. and i.e. are often set off in parentheses and followed by a comma; in less formal writing, it is standard to place a comma before and after these terms.
Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is a technology that enables organisations to automate mundane and repetitive tasks, such as data entry, document processing, and other manual processes. The purpose of RPA is to reduce the burden of manual processes and enable organisations to focus on more value-added activities. RPA can be used in a variety of industries, from finance and insurance to healthcare and retail. For example, a healthcare organisation may use robotic process automation to automate the review of patient records. By using RPA, the healthcare organisation can quickly and accurately review records, saving time and money. In summary, robotic process automation is a technology that enables organisations to automate mundane and repetitive tasks, such as data entry, document processing, and other manual processes. The purpose of RPA is to reduce manual labour and enable organisations to focus on more value-added activities. An example of RPA is the automation of the review of patient records in a healthcare organisation, which saves time and money. Are you looking for these answers? Continue reading! What exactly is RPA? Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is the utilisation of technology to enable employees to design software programs or “robots” to gather, interpret, and process data from existing applications. These robots are created to complete automated tasks that may include data entry, adjusting existing data, initiating responses, and connecting with other digital systems. In essence, RPA provides a means for companies to develop and manage software robots that can mimic human activities while interacting with digital systems. Most importantly, Robotic Process Automation (RPA) utilises ‘bots’ or software robots that are designed to replace or automate mundane and repetitive tasks, thereby increasing organisational efficiency and accuracy. Additionally, by removing or automating low-value processes, RPA can help to reduce costs and allow personnel to focus on more critical objectives. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is a technology that enables organisations to automate various rule-based tasks that are traditionally performed by humans. By leveraging computer vision and machine learning (ML) technology, RPA facilitates the automation of basic algorithmic activities that are characterised by specific logic, order, and structure. This ultimately reduces the workload of staff, streamlining business operations and improving operational efficiency. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) refers to a suite of tools and technologies used by software engineers to design and implement automated bots that can take over repetitive tasks that would otherwise require human intervention. These tools, often referred to as RPA systems, RPA software, and RPA technologies, are used interchangeably to refer to the same concept. What is Robotic Process Automation (RPA) and what is an example of it? For instance, consider the task of email processing. An employee would typically read the content on the screen, gather the relevant information, copy it into a Word document, and save it. By providing a Robotic Process Automation (RPA) tool with explicit instructions to follow the same procedure, the same task can be automated. RPA can extract the required information from emails through screen scraping, separate the data, and save it in a Word document, without any manual intervention. The use of Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is on the rise, and the global market for RPA is projected to reach 11 billion US dollars by 2027. RPA offers a range of opportunities for businesses to drive progress in various areas. These applications can provide instant benefits for departments such as sales, human resources, marketing, operations, customer service, and technical support. Here are several compelling reasons why your company should consider leveraging the power of RPA: Increased productivityResearch conducted by Automation Anywhere has revealed that employees can dedicate up to a quarter of their work hours to performing repetitive tasks. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is a technology that has the potential to automate these repetitive operations and increase productivity. Companies who have implemented RPA in their operations have reported a significant improvement in efficiency, with 27% of managers surveyed in a recent NICE study noting a boost in productivity as a result of RPA. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) provides a valuable opportunity to optimise corporate operations by allowing employees to focus on innovation and creative work while automating regular, mundane tasks. This enables employees to utilise their time more efficiently and productively, allowing for increased productivity across multiple processes. This can result in a significant improvement in operations, as the small team of workers can be replaced with more efficient and cost-effective automation. Furthermore, this will enable the organisation to capitalise on the potential of its human resources and have a more profitable and successful business. Increased effectivenessRobotic Process Automation (RPA) technologies are revolutionising the way businesses operate, as they allow for increased efficiency in regular business processes. By utilising RPA programs, businesses are able to complete tasks in a fraction of the time it would take a human to do the same job, enabling them to save time and resources. Many mundane, repetitive tasks such as email blasts, salary distribution, invoice processing, and analytics can all be automated with RPA systems, providing businesses with a more efficient and streamlined workflow. Additionally, Robotic Process Automation (RPA) systems can simplify complex tasks by as much as 80%, allowing for a continuous, unbroken workflow that can significantly increase the efficiency of all business operations. Improved precisionRobotic Process Automation (RPA) technology offers an advantage over traditional labour in that it does not make errors. This is because RPA machines follow the code that is included in the system, which eliminates the risk of human error. This precision results in processes that are completed accurately and quickly, as RPA systems are programmed to carry out tasks precisely and without deviation. The automation that is enabled by RPA software provides businesses with greater efficiency and cost-effectiveness, as well as the peace of mind that comes with knowing that tasks are completed without any potential for mistakes. When it comes to a data sorting process for a firm, Robotic Process Automation (RPA) technologies can be used to complete the job effectively if the firm optimises their input-output procedures. It is important to ensure that the data is structured in a consistent way, as this will make it much easier for RPA software to evaluate and organise the data. Furthermore, it is essential that the RPA system is setup correctly in order to handle structured input data, as this will increase the accuracy of the process overall. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is a reliable and dependable technology that is essential for any organisation looking to increase efficiency and reduce costs. The Deloitte Global RPA Survey found that 85% of employees believe RPA meets or exceeds accuracy standards, making it a viable solution for automating business processes. For a successful adoption of RPA, it is essential for businesses to properly design, map, and optimise the processes that are to be automated. Increased securityHumans are prone to making mistakes, either intentionally or unintentionally, which can lead to the unauthorised disclosure of confidential information. This can have serious implications for organisations that possess sensitive data, and thus, it is imperative to limit the number of people that have access to such data in order to ensure its security. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) systems offer a significant advantage when it comes to data security. By reducing the amount of data touchpoints and decreasing human reliance, these systems can help ensure that data remains secure. Automated procedures are much less likely to lead to security breaches than manual processes, as people may inadvertently compromise the security of a system. In this way, RPA can improve the security of data systems through automation. Increased scalabilityManagers must be able to effectively manage their human resources in order to accommodate varying workloads. As workloads increase, more employees may need to be brought on board in order to meet the demand; however, the process of employee onboarding can be quite time-consuming, as it involves careful examination and training. On the other hand, when workloads decrease, firms may find themselves struggling with underutilization of their human resources bandwidth, as they are no longer engaged in the same capacity as before. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is a powerful tool that can readily adjust and adapt to different levels of workloads. This scalability of robotic automation helps to ensure that businesses are able to meet any changes in demand or supply without incurring excessive costs or spending. Hence, RPA ensures that organisations can scale their operations without compromising on their bottom line. Analytical effectivenessData analysts must closely monitor changes in demand or supply, customer satisfaction, and product effectiveness in order to provide meaningful insights for effective management. Collecting, analysing, and applying data to organisational processes on a regular basis is a time-consuming and labour-intensive process, but it is essential for gaining a thorough understanding of the organisation and its operations. Data analysis often involves repetitive tasks when multiple parameters must be monitored. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) can be used to automate the process of collecting, analysing, and reporting actionable data to management, significantly reducing the turnaround time for decision making and enabling managers to make faster, more informed decisions. The implementation of Robotic Process Automation (RPA) software can significantly enhance the decision-making capabilities of a company by streamlining the gathering and processing of data. With this improved clarity and data processing, managers can have more influence over the operations of the firm, allowing them to make more informed choices. Consequently, RPA can effectively expedite the process of collecting and analysing data, and ultimately provide the organisation with a competitive advantage. Why may Robotic Process Automation (RPA) be the next big thing for your company? Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is increasingly becoming a critical component of any successful organisation, as it offers a range of advantages that are difficult to ignore. In recent years, the demand for RPA has been growing rapidly across many businesses, as they look to benefit from the automated processes it offers. Despite the many advantages of implementing RPA, it is important to note that creating and executing a successful RPA system is a difficult task that requires careful planning and execution. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) engineers have revolutionised the way Robotic Process Automation (RPA) systems are developed and maintained. Through expert programming, ML engineers are able to ensure that RPA bots adhere to the instructions provided during the process execution. By enlisting the help of ML engineers, businesses can easily upgrade the process, flow and automation of their systems. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) systems are designed and programmed by Artificial Intelligence (AI) engineers to ensure precise and efficient automation. By hiring highly qualified AI developers, companies are able to create more advanced RPAs that are capable of autonomously carrying out a variety of tasks. These AI developers use AI technology to automate the repetitive operations that are often required in various industries. By investing in the development of AI-powered RPAs, businesses can benefit from increased efficiency and productivity, while simultaneously streamlining their operational processes. Information technology (IT) departments are taking advantage of Robotic Process Automation (RPA) technology to expedite the implementation of cloud solutions. RPA systems are providing enhanced speed, security, and affordability when it comes to data movement, while also allowing for improved cost-effectiveness and flexibility when using cloud technologies. To gain a better understanding of how IT organisations are transitioning to cloud technology, readers are invited to explore this article. - What is the purpose of robotic process automation? Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is a technology that enables businesses to automate certain processes that would otherwise be carried out by humans. By leveraging Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) capabilities, RPA allows software programs to execute basic tasks in an efficient and predefined manner, thus increasing the productivity of business operations. - Where does robotic process automation come into play? Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is a technology that is used to automate repetitive tasks in business operations. This technology is widely adopted across various industries, including finance, banking, health care, insurance, telecommunications and many more. RPA can help to streamline processes, reduce human errors, and improve accuracy and efficiency, resulting in cost savings and improved customer satisfaction. - With an example, explain robotic process automation. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) refers to the use of software applications that can carry out routine tasks and processes without requiring direct human input. An example of this is a chatbot, which uses RPA technologies and Artificial Intelligence (AI) to provide automated responses to customer queries. By leveraging machine learning algorithms and natural language processing, RPA engineers can develop chatbots that understand consumer questions and respond with pre-programmed responses that are tailored to the query. In this way, RPA systems can help businesses automate customer interactions, reducing the need for human resources and increasing efficiency. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) has the potential to revolutionise the manner in which your organisation carries out essential operations. By leveraging the advantages of RPA, Works can aid your business in optimising its processes. Our team of remote software engineers is available to assist you in the development of a tailored RPA system that meets the precise needs of your organisation. Are you looking to incorporate Robotic Process Automation (RPA) into your business operations to help increase efficiency? Are you searching for experienced developers to help you create custom RPA solutions tailored to the needs of your company? If so, Works can help you find the perfect fit. Our team of AI and machine learning specialists has the knowledge and experience to create powerful RPA solutions that can take your business operations to the next level. To learn more about our services, please visit our Hire page. Are you having difficulty sourcing the cream of the crop for your business? If so, this post can provide you with some useful pointers on how to secure the most capable personnel for your organisation. Reach out to us today to start leveraging Silicon Valley-level software engineers to streamline your business operations. For further details, please visit our Hire Developers page.
Apparently, it’s possible for planets to shrink, and it’s happening within our very own solar system. Mercury, already the smallest planet, is contracting, causing what appears to be shrinkage. According to research from NASA’s MESSENGER spacecraft, the planet closest to the sun has lost about four miles of elevation in some areas. Scientists have known that Mercury was shrinking since the 1970s when they first saw the planet’s giant cliffs. According to planetary scientist William McKinnon of Washington University in Saint Louis, this shrinking behavior is consistent with the type of planet Mercury is, a huge, iron planet with a thin, outer shell made up of rock. With a single layer of solid plates on the surface and a molten iron core, the geology of the small planet adds credence to the shrinking theory. Mercury’s surface acts a lot like the skin of an apple; as it dries out, it shrinks. As the core cooled over millions and billions of years, the surface contracted causing the outer crust to fracture and move about to fit the core. Paul Byrne, a researcher at the Carnegie Institution of Washington and the Lunar and Planetary Institute, states that it’s difficult to know when the shrinkage occurred. It could have started more than 3.8 billion years ago when astronomers believe massive asteroids pelted many of the planets in our solar system, although there are signs that the shrinkage happened after the asteroid collisions. What we do know is that the shrinkage has been happening for a long, long while. Bryne is the lead author of a paper discussing these results in the March 16 issue of Nature Geoscience.
The International Day of Nonviolence is marked every year on October 2, the birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi, one of the prominent faces of the Indian freedom struggle and the pioneer of the nonviolent philosophy and approach. As we mark the International Day of Non-violence, proposed by the United Nations in 2007, we remember the Indian freedom fighter born as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. The International Day of Non-Violence honours how Gandhi’s practise and legacy has influenced global, non-violent protests. Gandhi popularised the renowned Sanskrit adage ‘Ahimsa Paramo Dharma,’ which loosely translates to ‘non-violence is the highest moral value.’ The International Day of Nonviolence was first commemorated in 2007, when the United Nations General Assembly approved a resolution on June 15, 2007, declaring that this day provides an opportunity to “disseminate the message of nonviolence, particularly via education and public awareness.” The resolution was approved with the intention of establishing a culture of peace, tolerance, and understanding via the teachings of India’s worldwide icon, who inspired millions to follow the path of nonviolence. Anand Sharma, India’s then-Minister of State for External Affairs, introduced the resolution at the General Assembly on behalf of 140 co-sponsors. Sharma stated that the resolution’s broad and diverse support reflected worldwide admiration for Gandhi and his ideology. The United Nations has every reason to commemorate Gandhi’s birthday as International Day of Non-violence. Gandhi’s dedication to India’s freedom, as well as his tactics, have served as the foundation for civil and human rights movements across the world. Simply said, Gandhi believed that using violence to promote peace was totally illogical, and that “just means lead to just ends.” This is a lesson that we can all learn from. The United Nations acknowledges a conceptual link between the human rights concepts enshrined in its universal proclamation and those advocated by Gandhi. He is known today for his contributions to India’s liberation and for sharing a theology for coping with injustice and discord with the rest of the world. He taught people the idea of Ahimsa, which promotes the use of nonviolence as a strategy for peaceful conflict settlement.
Glue can be made from the protein in milk called casein. In this experiment you will prepare polymer glue from milk. The casein is separated from milk by processes called coagulation and precipitation. A glue can be made from milk by souring it using vinegar (an acid) which separates it into curds and whey. The curds can be neutralised by various bases to produce a variety of different glues. The glue can be tested for strength by sticking together two lolly sticks and attaching weights to them. This activity lends itself to group, investigative and competitive work. In general it is a good idea to give students the basic glue-making recipe described in the procedure notes and then allow them to vary it. Depending on what you are trying to achieve in the activity, you may or may not want them to make detailed notes about exactly what goes into each mixture. Students can make up one ‘batch’ with one type of milk and then divide the curds and water mixture into portions and add a different base to each portion. A large number of different glues can then be made without too much effort. The glues can be tested by first using them to stick together lolly sticks, and then attaching weights to the sticks until the glue gives way. If paper is used instead, the paper almost always breaks first as the glues are surprisingly strong. Students should wear eye protection, because the sticks can splinter if they break. In addition, a sand tray or box of scrunched up newspaper should be placed under the weights to avoid harming students’ feet. Making one glue takes about 15 mins. More glues can be made quickly as the students already have the equipment set up. This can be fitted into one long lesson, although there may be difficulties with getting the glues dried and tested. It is probably better suited to two lessons; one to make the glues and the other to test them Each working group requires: Measuring cylinders (100 cm3 and 25 cm3) Beakers (100 cm3 and 250 cm3) Heat resistant mat Filter funnel and paper Lolly sticks (Note 1) Weights (the ones on a hook are ideal) to be added about 100 g at a time Sand tray or box of scrunched up newspaper Each working group requires: Milk (semi-skimmed, full fat, and skimmed), at least 100 cm3 Bases – eg sodium hydrogen carbonate, magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate, milk of magnesia Refer to Health & Safety and Technical notes section below for additional information. Health & Safety and Technical notes Wear eye protection. Vinegar - see CLEAPSS Hazcard. Distilled vinegar is best because it is colourless. Other forms of vinegar can be used. A dilute solution of ethanoic acid could also be used. Sodium hydrogen carbonate - see CLEAPSS Hazcard. Magnesium carbonate - see CLEAPSS Hazcard. Calcium carbonate - see CLEAPSS Hazcard. Milk of magnesia - see CLEAPSS Hazcard. 1 Lolly sticks are available in most craft shops. Making the glue a Measure 100 cm3 of milk and 20 cm3 of vinegar into a beaker. Place the beaker on a tripod and gauze and heat over the Bunsen burner. Stir constantly until small lumps start to form. Stop heating, but keep stirring until no more lumps form. b Let the lumps settle, then decant the liquid from the top. Filter the rest of the mixture and keep the solid part (which is called the curds.) Wash the beaker. c Gently squeeze off any excess liquid from the curds and then put them into the beaker. Add 15 cm3 of water and stir until the mixture is smooth. d Add about half a spatula of the base and check that the mixture is neutral using indicator paper. If it isn’t, add more base until it is. This is the glue. e Use the glue to stick together two lolly sticks. Only have 2 cm of the sticks overlapping and stuck together. Label the lolly sticks with the milk and base used. f Make other glues by using different bases and milks and use them to stick together more lolly sticks. Testing the glue a Arrange two tables or chairs about 10 cm apart. Lay your glued lolly sticks so that they form a bridge between the two. b Hang a weights hook onto the lower of the two lolly sticks as close to the glued join as you can. Add weights about 10 N at a time and record the force required to break the glue. This activity can be used to encourage a group of students to work together, as an investigation (‘which is the strongest glue?’) or as a competition (‘who can make the strongest glue?’.) Variations to the glue making can include: using ordinary, semi-skimmed and skimmed milk with a variety of bases – eg sodium hydrogen carbonate, magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate. Carbonates are good as they bubble when you add them so it is easy to tell when the glue is neutralised without needing to use indicators; the pH of the glue (ie add not enough through to excess base); the acid used to curdle the milk. Skimmed milk tends to give the best glues. The glue consists of particles of the protein casein that are precipitated from the milk by the adding the acid. It is the polymerisation of these protein molecules that forms the glue. The fat in the milk can get in the way of these polymer chains – lubricating them like oil does in a bicycle chain – and preventing them from sticking together as effectively. Casein is the predominant protein found in fresh milk and cheese. In milk it exists in the form of a soluble calcium salt. In its acidic form, casein is precipitated by acids such as ethanoic acid (the predominant acid in vinegar). In this experiment, calcium ethanoate is a by-product of the initial souring process, and it is one of the components of the whey solution. The insoluble casein which forms the curds has relatively little secondary or tertiary structure. This means it cannot denature (change structure). It is relatively hydrophobic, and this is why it is fairly insoluble in water. If appropriate, students may like to be reminded of Little Miss Muffet ‘who sat on a tuffet, eating her curds and whey ….’ Students should realise that they have probably eaten curds and whey, because these are the lumps and the liquid in cottage cheese. However, in cheese manufacture vinegar isn’t the agent used to precipitate out the casein; the enzyme ‘rennin’ is used instead. In addition to being consumed in milk, casein is used to manufacture adhesives, binders, protective coatings, plastics (such as for knife handles and knitting needles), fabrics, food additives, and many other products. It is commonly used by bodybuilders as a slow-digesting source of amino acids. Here are some possible questions for students. (Answers in italics.) 1 What do you think is the purpose of the vinegar in this experiment? To convert the casein into an insoluble form - the curds. 2 Why is sodium hydrogen carbonate added? To remove any excess acid. 3 What is the gas given off when the sodium hydrogen carbonate is being added? Carbon dioxide - acids react with carbonates to form this gas . 4 Use a search engine to find information about casein, which is present in milk. What type of substance is casein? Casein is a protein, or, more precisely, a phosphoprotein. Health & Safety checked, 2016 This Practical Chemistry resource was developed by the Nuffield Foundation and the Royal Society of Chemistry. © Nuffield Foundation and the Royal Society of Chemistry Page last updated October 2015 This is a resource from the Practical Chemistry project, developed by the Nuffield Foundation and the Royal Society of Chemistry. This collection of over 200 practical activities demonstrates a wide range of chemical concepts and processes. Each activity contains comprehensive information for teachers and technicians, including full technical notes and step-by-step procedures. Practical Chemistry activities accompany Practical Physics and Practical Biology.
The Ancient Sopherim From the ancient world to today, scribes (Hebrew, sopherim) have played a crucial role in preserving Jewish culture. Other ancient civilizations also had scribes. But Israel’s were unique. In ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, only the scribes could read and write. Egyptian hieroglyphs and the cuneiform writing of Mesopotamia were difficult and complex. In God’s providence, the time of the Exodus from Egypt was the very time the simple 22-letter alphabet began to be used. Suddenly, anyone could read and write. Israel was unique, however, because every man was not only able to read, he was commanded to read. Consequently, the role of the scribe was different in Israelite society, where everyone could read and write. The Israelite scribe was first and foremost a faithful witness; he wrote exactly what he heard, and he copied any writing exactly as it was given to him. Some scribes served as notaries, placing their seals on documents to verify their authenticity. On display in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem is a clay fragment bearing the seal of Baruch the son of Neriah, the scribe who preserved in writing the words of Jeremiah the prophet. A scribe’s highest calling was to copy, precisely and without error, the words of the Bible. Scribes were required to be expert in every aspect of their work. Every scribe knew how to manufacture the tools of his profession. He was able to turn animal skins, usually sheepskins or deerskins, into fine leather surfaces that would absorb ink and retain the shapes of letters for hundreds of years. He made his ink from gallnuts, little round bulges that form on oak trees when certain insects lay their eggs. These gallnuts contain tannin, a basic ingredient of ink. His pen was a quill with the tip cut at a precise angle and length. Our English word scribe comes from the final step in the preparation of a scroll. The sopherim needed lines on the writing surface to guarantee the letters would be uniform in size and the columns uniform in width. In English, we write on top of the line. Hebrew letters are written suspended below the line; that is why so many Hebrew letters have a thick bar across the top. On a Torah scroll, these lines could not be drawn with ink because only the words of God could be written with the permanence of that medium. So a sopher would use a thorn and ruler to “scribe” lines into the leather’s surface. As a scroll aged, these lines became more visible; they can be seen clearly on many pages of the Vilna Scroll, which is 300 years old. Over the years, the Jewish scribes developed rigorous stipulations for writing biblical scrolls. The Talmud contains an entire tractate, almost an individual book, devoted to the rules for the work of the scribes. There are rules for the writing materials, the size and dimensions of the scrolls, and the size of the columns and lines. Another Talmudic tractate stipulates that each column should be wide enough to write the longest word in the Hebrew Bible (lemishpachoteycem, “for your families”) three times. Torah scrolls are written in paragraphs, with specific rules governing whether a paragraph can begin on the same line or must begin on a new line. Each book of the Torah must be separated from the previous book by four lines. The rules for writing each letter and each word are equally meticulous. From A.D. 600 to A.D. 1000 a special group of scribes called Masoretes dedicated themselves to preserving the exact pronunciation of each word of the Bible. Scrolls used in synagogues contain no vowels. So the Masoretes developed a system of vowel pointing, called nikud, and accent marks to insure the Bible would be read aloud accurately. Today Jewish people around the world use the Masoretic texts when studying the Hebrew Scriptures and teaching boys how to read the Bible aloud on the day of their bar mitzvah. As Christians, we owe a great debt to the ancient sopherim, whose meticulous work over the millennia has preserved for us the Hebrew Scriptures we read today.
I recently read Colin Calloway’s book on The Indian World of George Washington, and that got me thinking about two very different depictions of our nation’s first President. I write about the Senecas, with whom these particular depictions originate, in Native America. In the late 1790s, the great Seneca prophet Handsome Lake experienced a series of visions that became the basis of the Gaiwiio, the good news of peace and power, the “old time” religion still practiced by many Haudenosaunee Iroquois traditionalists in New York State and Canada. This was a critical moment in Seneca history, and the emergence of this gospel, and Handsome Lake’s message, was one of enormous significance, bringing hope and an explanation for their historical experience to Haudenosaunee peoples. As related in the 1850s to the early anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan by the Tonawanda Seneca Jemmy Johnson, George Washington “stood preeminent above all of the white men” because “of his justice and benevolence to the Indians.” Johnson told Morgan that the Senecas believed “that the Great Spirit had received” Washington “into a celestial residence upon the plains of heaven, the only white man whose noble deeds had entitled him to this heavenly favor.” The only one. Not in paradise, but just outside. Washington resided there, silent and content. “No word ever passes his lips. Dressed in his uniform, and in a state of perfect felicity, he is destined to remain through eternity in the solitary enjoyment of the celestial residence prepared for him by the Great Spirit.” It is quite an image, and one difficult to reconcile with the man known by many Indians as the “Town Destroyer,” a name originally claimed by his great-grandfather for the fighting he did along the Potomac frontier in the 1670s, and which our Washington appears to have appropriated and used when it served his purposes. From his birth to his death, Washington lived in a world carved out of Indian land. Washington spent nearly his entire career thinking about and fighting against native peoples, engaging them in diplomacy, and laying plans and conceiving of policies to acquire Indian lands for himself, for his fellow investors, and, later, for his nation. Indeed, Washington was instrumental in the dispossession of native peoples. The country he played so fundamental a role in founding rose on lands lost by native peoples. During the colonial period, during the era of the Revolution, during the Confederation and under the new Constitution, Americans could disagree intensely over the conduct of Indian policy. This long-running debate, however, for white Americans was always over means, not ends. The debate boiled down to defining the nature of the Indians’ defeat. Washington’s treatment of Native America makes clear that the answer would involve violence. During the Revolution, Washington ordered invasions of the Iroquois that resulted, if we choose to believe Haudenosaunee voices, in the rape and murder of Onondaga non-combatants by New York militiamen following Colonel Goose Van Schaick. It resulted in what can justly be called war crimes against Senecas and Cayugas as well the destruction of their crops and orchards, and dozens of towns in 1779 as part of the infamous Sullivan campaign. Washington hoped that Sullivan’s men would “distract and terrify” the Indians and, in Washington’s own words, “extirpate them from the Country.” Sullivan’s soldiers drank a toast promising, among other things, “civilization or death to all American savages.” As my kids sometimes say, “That’s pretty racist.” Not a pretty picture at all. So how did this guy end up outside the Senecas’ heaven, close to, but not quite inside, paradise? To best answer that question, I suggest that we flip the narrative, and try to look at these important events in American history as native peoples might have experienced them. As I point out in Native America, we can start with the words we use. Words like ‘Indian,” for example, or phrases like “Native American,” of course are flawed. They obscure more than they reveal, and they would have meant little to peoples whose names for themselves often translated as “people” or “the real people,” or “the real human beings.” But the problem with words goes even deeper than this. Too many historians, for too long, have relied upon flawed dichotomies: there was a “pre-contact” or “prehistoric” period that came before “contact” and before the arrival of Europeans ushered in the “historic” era. Native peoples obviously had long histories on this continent before Europeans arrived. They interacted and exchanged with and fought against native neighbors near and far, and these contacts bred a host of cultural practices that pertained to their “contact” with others. They did not simply drop these aboriginal practices when Europeans arrived. Language can be difficult, and words tricky things. Colonists “settle” but Indians do not: they are depicted nomads who wander and roam when they in places were more fixed and tied to place than the newcomers. Europeans plant crops, but Indians do not, according to conventional wisdom; colonists serve as soldiers while native peoples fight as warriors. Language can emphasize difference, and an emphasis of difference can be misleading, for example, because it might make violence seem inevitable, or reinforce racial and racist stereotypes. In reality, the differences between natives and newcomers at the outset might not have been as great as our flawed language leads us to believe. Both, for example, relied upon an agriculture centered upon corn to stay alive. Both supplemented their agricultural produce with sources of protein they acquired systematically. Native peoples, for instance, managed forests, burned underbrush, and generated new growth that attracted game that hunters could more easily harvest. Newcomers, meanwhile, turned their livestock loose and allowed it to forage and fend for itself. When the settlers got hungry, they went out into the woods to hunt down their nearly feral cattle and hogs. Some more words. The “Founding Fathers,” the patriots, and white settlers who encroached on native peoples’ lands, Indians saw not as freedom fighters but as “perfidious cruel rebels” and, tellingly, as “white savages.” They referred to them not as champions of liberty but as “Butchers,” and “Killers,” and “Madmen.” They called them “Big Knives” or “Long Knives,” names that chillingly reflected the violence with which they were associated. Native Americans in this part of the country in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries feared that Americans acted with genocidal intent, and they said it again and again and again. One solution to the Indian question, for some white settlers, you see, was extermination, and groups of white Americans expressed that desire and acted on it in ways that confirmed the nightmares of native peoples. You can think of the murder and mutilation of children carried out by the Paxton Boys late in 1763, acts of horrific violence that have brought my students to the edge of tears. Children murdered by white vigilantes armed with tomahawks. Or the massacre at Gnaddenhutten, 1782. Gnaddenhutten– “The Houses of Mercy.” That’s what that name means. No mercy there for the Christian Indians who lived and prayed and worked there. The soldiers from Pennsylvania surrounded the Christian Indians at Gnaddenhutten. They had them at their mercy. So they held a vote on whether or not to kill the one hundred Christian Indians they had taken captive. This was, for many native peoples, what American democracy looked like. I have written about the massacre at Gnaddenhutten on this website. It is a devastating history. One could write a history of Native Americans that uses the violence meted out on native children as the vehicle driving the narrative, from the earliest period to the present. I tell my students about these violent episodes. These events allow us to mess around with words. Murder at Gnadenhutten becomes an expression of democracy. Frontier settlers become savages. I try to decenter things, to upset expectations. And I think we need to do this if we are to understand why so many native peoples so forcefully and effectively resisted the newly independent United States. And, also, how the Senecas,–the victims of a brutal invasion ordered by Washington and by acts of vigilante justice for decades thereafter– might pass a silent George Washington, the man who ordered the burning of their towns and forced them to flee their homeland, on their way into heaven. After the war, after he resigned his commission, Washington’s advice was sought out and given on Indian affairs. In a letter he wrote to James Duane of New York in the fall of 1783, he called for effective and meaningful oversight of the settlement of the western territories. He always had distrusted squatters, and feared the unregulated expansion of white settlement. He wanted peace and order on the frontier, to acquire land without conflict. “To suffer a wide extended Country to be over run with Land Jobbers, Speculators, and Monopolisers or even scatter’d settlers,” he wrote “is pregnant of disputes with the Savages, and among ourselves, the evils of which are easier, to be conceived than described.” Native peoples, he asserted, had sided with Great Britain against the American states and all good advice. A “less generous people” than we, he said, would drive them out. Recognizing that this would involve a renewal of conflict with native nations that had been battered but not defeated during the war, Washington suggested that the Indians be told that the past will be forgotten. The United States, however, whether they liked it or not would “establish a boundary line between them and us beyond which we will endeavor to restrain our people from hunting, or settling, and within which they shall not come, but for the purpose of Trading, Treating, or other business unexceptionable in its nature.” Indians would give up lands in the process, to the United States or to the states with the best claim to those lands. The sale of Indian lands allowed states to pay their soldiers. The sale of Indian lands allowed New York to abstain from taxing its citizens before the War of 1812. Indian dispossession made New York the empire state. But the result of these Confederation policies was chaos. The Articles of Confederation, the new nation’s first constitution, established a limited government in which the states retained all rights they had not explicitly granted to the national government. In Article IX of the Articles, which listed Congressional powers, the states granted the national government the “sole and exclusive right and power” of “regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the States, provided that the legislative right of any State within its own limits be not infringed or violated.” Who might these Indians be? New York? Virginia? North Carolina? Georgia? This crazy ambiguity allowed aggressive states like North Carolina, Georgia, and New York, and even entities like the upstart “State of Franklin,” to conduct their own Indian policies, negotiate their own treaties, and extract their own land cessions, at times in defiance of Congress and, in the case of Georgia, at the point of a gun. Land speculators, squatters, cattle rustlers, timber cutters, state politicians, congressional commissioners, and Indian killers—they all assaulted the Native American estate. And Congress itself, in the treaties it convened with Indian nations it claimed to have defeated, operated on a “conquest theory,” asserting that because the Indians had aligned themselves with Great Britain, and Britain had lost, so too had the Indians. Native peoples seethed with resentment at the treatment they received from national and state officials during the Confederation, as congressional commissioners cast aside long-established protocols for conducting diplomacy, and thumped Indian leaders in the chest demanding cessions. This could not stand, for these native nations maintained the capacity to resist. Washington certainly supported efforts to replace the Articles of Confederation with a more powerful central government based on the imperial model. He agreed with the Virginians who saw the faults in the Articles. Like James Madison. In his white paper laying out the “Vices of the Political System of the United States,” Madison placed as number two on his list “encroachments by the States on Federal authority,” and he gave as an example “the wars and treaties of Georgia with the Indians,” state aggressions against the powerful Creeks that threatened the entire Southern frontier. Washington frequently expressed a similar complaint. The new constitution of 1787 eliminated the ambiguity of the Articles of Confederation. In Article I, Section 8, we the people granted to Congress power “to regulate Commerce with Foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes.” That’s it. That is all it says. To flesh out that spare language, Congress in 1790 passed the first of several Indian trade and Intercourse Acts. (The first was enacted in 1790, the last in 1834). The law, which reflected perfectly the views of Washington and his secretary of War Henry Knox about the conduct of Indian policy, provided rules governing those instances when native peoples and newcomers came into contact. Legal land sales required the oversight of an appointed federal commissioner and the subsequent ratification of the transaction by the Senate. Trade without a license obtained from federal agents was prohibited. It is important to say a few words about this important piece of legislation, the nation’s first Indian law. Washington, in a letter written to the Senecas in December of 1790, saw the new law as a watershed. The Iroquois had indeed lost much to the State of New York during the Confederation years but now, he wrote, “the case is entirely altered—the general government only has the power to treat with the Indian nations, and any treaty formed and held without its authority will not be binding.” The Trade and Intercourse Act would provide “security for the remainder of your lands.” The United States, he continued, “will never consent to your being defrauded,” “will protect you in all your just rights,” and “considers itself bound to protect you in all the lands” you still possess. Washington never claimed any power over the internal workings of native nations. Nor did the Constitution grant to the national government any powers over the internal workings of native nations. Sovereign native nations were a force Washington and his contemporaries recognized. Washington needed a peaceful and orderly frontier, but the government he commanded was a tiny thing. The total number of non-uniformed employees of that national government in 1801, the first year for which we have good figures, was less than three thousand, and the vast majority of these worked in customs or other revenue-related functions, or the postal service. The number of federal officials in all of New York working in Indian affairs, for instance, could be counted on one hand. The government and its agents, then, could do little to curb encroachment, or prevent theft, or timber cutting or cattle rustling, by white people in Indian country. Even if the will was there—and that is a matter that is debatable—the institutional apparatus was not. The states continued to purchase Indian lands. Settlers continued to encroach. Conflict erupted in Georgia, the Carolinas, and in the Ohio Country, where growing numbers of militant native peoples came together in a spirited resistance against American expansion. This territorial and physical aggression unquestionably frustrated Washington, but aware fully that power claimed but not exercised was power lost, he largely held his tongue. Controlling state governments was one thing; controlling the violence of settlers still another. Thirteen Senecas, to cite one example from some of my own work, were murdered by white frontiersmen between 1784 and 1790 and probably another half-dozen more in the couple of years that followed that. Native peoples found their life, liberty, and property in jeopardy. For them, these were times that tried men’s souls. And here’s the thing. These grievances were significant, and Washington understood this. He mentioned them in his annual messages to Congress. He worked to negotiate treaties to resolve them, always looking for additional cessions of land. Indians in the so-called Northwest Territory shared many of these grievances. So while the government hoped to extract cessions and purchase the land upon which settlers settled and squatters squatted, native peoples increasingly committed themselves to protecting their homelands by force. So they were ready when, in September of 1790, General Josiah Harmar led a force of 1450 regular soldiers and Kentucky militiamen out against the native towns along the Wabash and Maumee rivers in what today is the state of Indiana. Native peoples from many nations—Shawnees, Miamis, Ottawas, Potawatomis, Weas, and Kickapoos—ambushed Harmar’s force along the Maumee and killed 180 of his men. The defeated American force returned home by the end of October. The defeat of Harmar’s invasion emboldened those native peoples willing to resist American forces, and swelled their ranks. Potawatomis and Shawnees, along with Delawares and Miamis, attacked a settlement called Dunlap’s Station just north of Cincinnati in January of 1791, while Potawatomis joined with Ottawas and Chippewas to attack targets elsewhere along the Ohio. By the spring, land speculators in the Ohio country complained that they found it difficult to recruit prospective settlers. “The Indians kill people so frequently,” they wrote, “that none dare stir into the woods to view the country.” Native peoples had their own fears, of course. When Kentucky militiamen attacked a cluster of villages in northern Indiana where Potawatomis and many other native peoples lived, they threatened them with extermination. If native peoples refused to make peace, Brigadier General Charles Scott said, “your warriors will be slaughtered, your towns and villages ransacked and destroyed, your wives and children carried into captivity.” Many of those who lived in the Ohio country saw in the United States, whatever its claims to desire peace, a truly existential threat, the menace of genocide. Meanwhile, Congress had already laid plans for another military invasion to take place in 1791. Arthur St. Clair, whose chief qualification was his seniority, led American forces into the Miami River Valley in September. Most of his soldiers were militiamen, poorly trained and poorly supplied. Before dawn on November 4, a force that consisted of Potawatomis, Shawnees, and large numbers of others—Ottawas, Chippewas, Wyandots, Mingos, Delawares, Miamis, and a few Chickamauga Cherokees—attacked St. Clair’s much larger force. The soldiers panicked and ran. Over 640 soldiers were killed or captured or unaccounted for. Another 250 were wounded. Fewer than 500 men made it to safety unharmed. They killed only a small number of Indians in the largest defeat ever suffered by American military forces at the hands of native warriors. Twenty percent of the American military had been wiped out in one day. By 1792, native peoples from many nations had gathered at a site called the Glaize, near today’s Defiance, Ohio. There they reflected upon the meaning of their victories over the American forces. Native peoples with grievances against the Americans settled there, and their numbers included Potawatomis, Shawnees, Delawares, Miamis, Sacs, Foxes, Ottawas, Hurons, Munsees, Conoys, Mingos, and Cherokees and Creeks. The presence of the southern nations showed that the diplomatic connections between militants north and south remained strong. American agents feared that the powerful and well-armed Creeks and Chickamaugas would join with the Shawnees and other northerners to attack American settlements. The Indians gathered at the Glaize, according to the Shawnee leader Painted Pole, would unite to resist further invasions. The inability of the American government to control its vicious backcountry settlers, and its own rapacious desire for Indian land, had unified its many enemies into a powerful native force. With the British still occupying forts on American soil, and imperial officials brazenly discussing the policy of creating a neutral Indian barrier state north of the Ohio River, with native peoples hostile towards the United States insulating Britain’s holdings from American expansion, the situation was dire indeed. It is stunning. Britain hoped to snap off that part of the United States north of the Ohio River to create a neutral Indian barrier state. If powerful groups like the Senecas, with the potential to receive easily British arms and ammunition from Fort Niagara joined with the victorious northwesterners, the entire frontier could be set ablaze. Washington ordered another invasion of the Ohio Country. Late in the summer of 1794, American general Anthony Wayne led his force of 3000 soldiers toward the Maumee Valley. There, on August 20, he defeated the confederated tribes at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. Although casualties were roughly the same on each side, the Americans took the field, and razed the Indian towns. The fleeing warriors headed toward the British post at Fort Miami. British agents had remained active in the Northwest since the close of the Revolution, and they had armed and encouraged the natives’ resistance to American expansion. Now, however, they kept closed the gates to their forts and refused to fire upon the pursuing Americans. Once again, the British abandoned their native allies and demonstrated, if the point still required demonstration, that native peoples in the Old Northwest needed the British more than the British needed them. They now had no choice but to make peace with the United States. A year after the battle, at Greenville, the Potawatomis, Shawnees, Delawares, Ottawas, Chippewas, Miamis, Weas, Kickapoos, Piankashaws, and Kaskaskias agreed to a peace that “shall be perpetual … between the United States and Indian tribes.” They paid as the price of that peace a massive cession of lands to the United States. The confederated tribes gave up tracts of land in Indiana and Illinois, and, more significantly, all of southern and eastern Ohio. The Treaty of Greenville revealed the sort of changes that the President and the Secretary of War hoped to bring to their defeated enemies. Each of the nations signing the treaty would receive an annuity, a yearly payment of money and other items the tribe could use to supply its wants. If the tribes should “desire that a part of their annuity should be furnished in domestic animals, implements of husbandry, and other utensils convenient for them, and in compensation to useful artificers who may reside with or near them, and be employed for their benefit,” they need only to inform the federal agent stationed nearby and “the same shall at the subsequent annual deliveries be furnished accordingly.” The United States would thus see to the civilization of the Indians, by transforming them from wandering hunters into settled farmers on the American model. Because farming required less land than the hunt, the thinking went, more land soon would be opened for white settlement and expansion. To make this argument, of course, required the Americans who wrote the treaties, like Wayne, and those who ratified and proclaimed them, like the members of Senate and the president, ignore the vast Indian cornfields that American forces destroyed, or the herds of cattle and swine that even now native peoples relied upon for food. To save the Indians, Americans would civilize them, and civilization required that they live upon less land. Americans took native land in the name of helping native peoples become civilized. Taking, as one historian put it, became giving. There were still the problems in Iroquoia that caused Senecas to contemplate joining the Indians to their west. Their disaffection was real, the threat they posed to the United States significant. As Anthony Wayne invaded the Maumee valley, the American commissioner Timothy Pickering met with the Six Nations at Canandaigua in western New York. He hoped to resolve long-standing difficulties with the Senecas. Their lands formed the central issue at the council. Through the Treaty of Canandaigua, signed on November 11, 1794, Pickering and the Senecas redefined the boundaries of the Seneca estate. The new western boundary of their lands ran “along the river Niagara to Lake Erie.” This gave to the Senecas access to the river and the islands and access to British Canada to their west, a freedom, they hoped, that gave them an outlet and the opportunity to avoid the fate of other encircled Indian tribes. The Senecas did not wish to become “mere makers of baskets and brooms.” This was an important concession. The ability to move through space, to interact with Haudenosaunee communities distant from them, was of immense importance to Iroquois peoples. Pickering also agreed to pay to the Senecas “a quantity of goods to the value of ten thousand dollars,” and, further, that “with a view to promote the future welfare of the Six Nations,” an annuity of $4500. As with the treaty negotiated eight months later at Greenville, the United States sought to civilize the Six Nations and transform them into farmers on an American model. To the Senecas, however, the 1794 Treaty of Canandaigua recognized their sovereignty. This is why it is so critical. It is why they honor Washington still and commemorate the treaty every year. Pickering, on the president’s behalf, pledged that the United States would never claim the Senecas’ lands, “nor disturb the Seneka nation, or any of the Six Nations, or their Indian friends residing thereon and united with them, in the free use and enjoyment thereof.” The Free Use and Enjoyment of their lands: it is a critical phrase. They could, they hoped, live upon their lands without the interference of outside authorities, and with the protection of the United States against unlawful intrusion. The treaty, the Senecas believed, recognized their right to exist upon their ancestral lands as a nation free from outside interference. It recognized their nationhood. 1794, by any standard, was a momentous year in the history of the Early Republic. There’s the Whiskey Rebellion, and the foreign policy problems occasioned by war between France and Great Britain. And Indian affairs. That year, Washington said that he had hoped to oversee the orderly expansion of American settlement while pursuing a policy “calculated to advance the happiness of the Indians and to attach them firmly to the United States.” He wanted peace, and to see to the “civilization” of native peoples. To this end, congress enacted and he signed the Trade and Intercourse Acts, designed to ensure order along the frontier and peace in relations between native peoples and the citizens of the young republic. He abandoned the conquest theory advanced by the Continental Congress in the immediate aftermath of the Revolution for a system based on treaties that, he hoped, would regulate American expansion while guaranteeing native nations the lands that they did not cede—at least until the next treaty council. Yet Washington that same year lamented “the insufficiency of the existing provisions of the laws toward the effectual cultivation of peace with our Indian neighbors.” By 1796, the final year of his presidency, Washington still hoped to restrain “the commission of outrages upon the Indians,” but he feared that “scarcely anything short of a Chinese wall, or a line of troops, will restrain Land jobbers, and the encroachment of settlers upon the Indian territory.” A Chinese Wall was out of the question. The policies advanced by Henry Knox and he failed to achieve their cardinal goals for a number of reasons. Many native peoples, of course, already considered themselves civilized, and saw little attractive in the arrogant assumption that they must abandon their culture in order to survive. Others dressed like their white neighbors, bore Anglo-American style names, and lived in American-style housing. Many of them spoke English. They may even have listened to missionaries who worked to save their souls. Many already were members of Christian congregations. But they borrowed selectively, took what they wanted, and they lived on the margins of American society in communities of their own making. Though they incorporated substantial amounts of Anglo-American material culture into their lives, they remained quietly indifferent to what many Americans felt they had to offer native peoples. Those native peoples who did work with the Americans—the leaders who, hoping to avoid the horrors of wars they feared they could not win, or the continuing loss of their lands—signed treaties guaranteeing them all that remained until they were ready to sell. They may have attended to the missionaries, accepted agricultural implements and livestock, and tried to make changes in their ways of living because they believed that doing so offered the best chance for their people to survive. But making these changes raised all sorts of challenges. The frontier, we must remember was a violent and at times a frightening place. Many settlers living on war-ravaged frontiers simply could not trust their Indian neighbors, no matter how small a sliver of their original lands they retained. Settlers in the Ohio country, for example, experienced the horrors of warfare just as did Indians. Some of them witnessed the death of friends and neighbors in Indian attacks. More of them heard horrifying stories of Indian attack. These settlers had occasion to fear Indians and they found in their fears justification for horrible acts of terror. They could, as did those Ohio country settlers in 1782, conclude that the singing of psalms by Christian Indians at the Moravian mission at Gnadenhutten was not the expression of praise for a peaceful and loving God, but the ranting and boasts of savages who had wet their hands in the settlers’ blood. These acts of violence, along with the failure of the young republic to control its land-hungry settlers, and the continued suffering in many native communities, gave encouragement to those leaders who called for an armed resistance against the Americans. By 1794, much of this resistance had collapsed, and native peoples paid an enormous price for it. Warfare, and the resulting dislocation, devastated native communities. The Cherokees surrendered over 20,000 square miles of their territory. The Six Nations, combined, lost much more, and the population of both nations declined significantly between 1776 and 1794. The birth of the new republic, an “empire for liberty” in Jefferson’s view, proved catastrophic for many native peoples. Washington always wanted to dispossess Indians, to acquire their lands. He hoped to do so peacefully, through treaties, with a minimum of cost and violence. Unlike, say, Jefferson, who wrote at length about native peoples, he never gave much thought to their history and culture. Native peoples were, for him, an obstacle, and a problem to be solved. A creature of empire, his solutions were imperial, even if his was an imperialism tempered by his limited control over his countrymen, and a recognition of the power, and the nationhood, or native peoples. Some of these natives succeeded against long odds in remaining upon their lands. That was the case with the Senecas and the Tuscaroras I visited yesterday, who in their casino enterprises, their tribal businesses, in their programs for cultural preservation, continue to assert their untrammeled right to the “free use and enjoyment of their lands” as their departed relatives move past Washington, who signed the treaty that recognized their enduring nationhood, on their way into paradise.
As part of the global community, where communication plays a significant role in daily or professional contexts, we need to learn how to be an effective communicator. To achieve the objective, we need to equip ourselves to not only verbal communication skills but also nonverbal communication skills. Before that, let’s define the term! Nonverbal communication means “a process in which people transmit and receive the message without using words” (Madonik, 2001). Burgoon and Saine (1978) also explained that “nonverbal communication is all communication refers to actions which are sent out purposely, received with consciousness and may have a response.” Furthermore, Troppa (2009) in Adetunji and Sze (2012) mentioned that nonverbal communication is beyond the communication purpose itself; it affects interlocutors’ relations and interactions. According to Adetunji and Sze (2012), nonverbal actions are “ways to show likeness or hatred, respect or rudeness, reception or rejection” (Adetunji & Sze, 2012). Compared to verbal communication, the use of nonverbal communication is more effective to communicate feelings and attitudes. Based on data from Mehrabian’s research (2007), 55% of our message during a conversation was conveyed by body language, 38% was from the tone of voice and only 7% came from words. In other words, the finding is in line with a famous quote saying that “actions speak louder than words.” In this case, body language explains better than words. Experts categorize various different forms of nonverbal communication. Masterclass (2020) classifies them into eight major types which are: 1) kinesics (or body movement), such as hand gestures and head movements, 2) proxemics (or closeness/personal space) which is the measure of physical distance between interlocutors when they communicate, 3) posture, for instance, a person’s way to sit or stand and how s/he opens her/his body during the communication process, 4) eye contact, 5) touch, like a hug or a handshake, 6) paralanguage that includes vocal qualities, for example, loudness and the tone of voice, 7) facial expressions, like a frown and a smile, and 8) physiology that covers changes in body physiology, such as an increase in sweat and blinking rapidly. Understanding nonverbal communication forms will be a great help to advance your communication skills. Pay attention to people’s actions and changes! Be the master of communication! [ Keep learning & Keep growing! ] Adetunji, R. R. & Sze. K. P. (2012). Understanding Non-Verbal Communication across Cultures: A Symbolic Interactionism Approach. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255967701 Burgoon, J. K&T.Saine. (1978). The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Madonik, B. (2001). I Hear What You Say, but What Are You Telling Me? The Strategic Use of Nonverbal Communication in Meditation. San Francisco: Josey Bass (Wiley). Masterclass. (2020, February 27). 8 Important Types of Nonverbal Communication. Retrieved from https://www.masterclass.com/articles/important-types-of-nonverbal-communication#what-is-nonverbal-communication Mehrabian, A. (2007). Nonverbal Communication. New Brunswick: NJ: Aldine Transaction. Published at :
Studies show rapid rise Recent warming events have been unmatched in the past 2,000 years, according to international and Australian researchers. A suite of new studies have used seven different statistical methods to look at 2,000-year-long global data on average temperatures. It finds the largest warming trends have happened in the second half of the 20th century. The data highlights the unusual character of warming in recent decades, the experts say. Another paper has looked at the rates of surface warming and driving forces, and also found that all rates of warming were fastest in the later 20th century. The assessment of the global patterns of climate variability finds that before the 20th century, climate epochs did not occur simultaneously across the globe. For example, the coldest temperatures over the Common Era occurred in central and eastern Pacific regions in the 15th century, in northwestern Europe and southeastern North America in the 17th century, and elsewhere during the 19th century. Similarly, no pre-industrial period experienced globally coherent, long-term warmth. By contrast, the warmest period during the Common Era occurred in its final decades for more than 98 per cent of the globe. The analyses reveal that rates of warming over periods of at least 20 years were fastest during the later 20th century. Pre-industrial fluctuations were primarily driven by volcanic activity. Agreement between reconstructions and simulations suggests that climate forecasts for the next few decades may be realistic, the authors say. “The findings give us the clearest picture yet of the speed and global extent of modern climate change relative to the pre-industrial climate of the last 2000 years,” says one of the study’s authors, University of Melbourne researcher Ben Henley. “Our study shows that the most rapid warming of the past 2000 years has occurred during, and since, the second half of the 20th century, highlighting the extraordinary character of current climate change, due mostly to human emissions of heat-trapping gases. “We humans are responsible for immense changes to the global climate. It is up to the global community to determine if this is what we want to be doing to our planet. Australia has an important part to play in that global community.”
Spiders have eight legs, two body regions, no wings or antennae. Some spiders like moisture and are found in basements, crawl spaces and other damp parts of buildings. Others like dry, warm areas such as subfloor air vents, upper corners of rooms and attics. They hide in dark areas. They feed on insects, other spiders and any other prey they are able to subdue. Spiders have three or four pair of eyes. Many spiders have poor vision, but some species of spiders, such as the jumping spider, have exceptional vision. Spiders do not have chewing mouthparts and commonly utilize digestive enzymes in their saliva to break prey down before consuming it. Additionally, the gut of a spider is too narrow to allow for consumption of large food particles. Almost all spider species are predators, although one plant-feeding species has been documented. Spiders are capable of producing silk that is elastic, adhesive and strong. This silk is used to spin webs as well as to construct egg sacs and line spider dwellings. The size and shape of spider webs vary by species: some are orb-shaped, while others are funnel-shaped; some webs are orderly, while others appear haphazard. Some spider species live in burrows rather than webs, while others are free ranging and take refuge in crevices. - Keep Spiders Out to Begin With A good way to prevent spiders from getting into your home, is to make sure you don’t have an environment around your house that attracts spiders. Spiders often make their homes outside in plants, piles of leaves or wood, or dark undisturbed places like old tires or buckets. Having these things right next to your house makes it more likely that a spider will wander in. Create some distance between these things and your house, to make it less likely that a spider finds a way inside - Get Rid of Their Food Source and Shelters Making sure that your house is clean is generally a good way to decrease the number of pests in your home. In the case of spiders, not only will a clean home provide fewer places for the spiders to hide, but it will also make it less likely that small insects will be around for the spiders to eat. Without a reliable food source, and with fewer hiding spots, it will be harder for spiders to stay. A pest control professional should be contacted for assistance.
In order to understand the present day students must know the past. That past may show us where we need to go next. By studying choices and decisions of the past, students can confront today’s problems and choices with a deeper awareness of the alternatives before them and the likely consequences of each, while also recognizing the uniqueness of the historical time they are living in. The United States was founded on diametric ideas. Students need to know current issues that affect them, in order to react to new political events, participate appropriately, and then confidently make decisions for change. Only if we teach students to critically think can they make good decisions. However, as society becomes seemingly evermore divided, finding common ground is easier when people understand history's consequences. Several areas of importance critical to continuing our American experiment arise through in-depth study of the Constitution, cultural origins, the tradition of loyal opposition, and mechanisms of compromise, voter participation, and struggles for liberty and sovereignty. After the Revolution, it was unclear if America would stay together with such diverse geographical, economic, and cultural differences and interests. The law of our land is the U.S. Constitution. "Besides the personal rights mentioned or recognized in the Government Code[s], every person has, subject to the qualifications and restrictions provided by law, the right of protection from bodily restraint or harm, from personal insult, from defamation, and from injury to his personal relations. Amended by Stats. 1953, Ch. 604." This link will take you to two links that you may me interested in looking at. Remember all of this fall within the SOCIAL CONTRACT and we all have these rights and no one can take rights from others.
The body needs certain bacteria to help with a number of biological processes, including digestion. But, there are also ’bad’ bacteria that can lead to infections, and subsequently a number of potentially life-threatening medical conditions. Children’s ball pits could be providing the perfect environment for germs to live and thrive, according to scientists. Under the right conditions, these ball pits could contain the bacteria that cause septicaemia, pneumonia, meningitis, urinary tract infections, and even sepsis. We found considerable variation in the number of microorganisms between the different ball pit samples May Ellen Oesterle Ball pits have become more popular since the 1980s, said researchers from the University of North Georgia. But they’re often found to be contaminated with dirt, vomit, urine, or even faeces, which helps the bacteria to grow. While these play areas are commonly found in restaurants and children’s play areas, the researchers assessed the cleanliness of ball pits at paediatric physical therapy clinics. They found “considerable” colonisation of bacteria, and some balls as had up to 1,000 bacteria living on them. In total, there were 31 different bacteria species living in the ball pits, as well as one species of yeast. “We found considerable variation in the number of microorganisms between the different ball pit samples,” said researcher May Ellen Oesterle. “This suggests that clinics utilise different protocols for cleaning and maintenance, potentially representing a broader need to clarify and establish standards that reduce the risk of transmission.” Bacteria that could cause deadly infections in humans include Enterococcus faecalis, which can cause endocarditis and meningitis. Staphylococcus hominis can cause bloodstream infections and sepsis, while Streptococcus oralis can lead to streptococcal shock. The scientists also found Acinetobacter Iwofii, which has been reported to cause pneumonia, urinary tract and skin infections. “This research shows that ball pits may pose an infection hazard,” said Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology (APIC) President, Karen Hoffman. “Facilities should establish a program for regular cleaning to protect patients and healthcare workers from potential infection risks.” Dangerous bacterial infections Dangerous bacterial infections from food poisoning to meningitis. Sepsis is also referred to as blood poisoning or septicaemia, it is a potentially life-threatening condition triggered by an infection or injury Pneumonia is a type of bacterial infection in the lungs, that causes the air sacs to become inflamed. The inflammation sometimes causes them to fill up with fluid and pus. Common pneumonia symptoms include difficulty breathing, a bad cough that won’t go away, a fever, and the chills. Meanwhile, meningitis is an infection that affects the brain and spinal cord, said the NHS. It can be very serious if it’s not treated straight away, although a number of vaccinations are available to protect against the infection. Meningitis symptoms include a very high temperature, vomiting, headache, a rash, stiff neck, and a dislike of bright lights. Source: Read Full Article
Humans and machines have been working together for more than a century. It’s not a new concept. In fact, since the first machine was invented, people have been creating more advanced machines for decades. And over the last 30 years, the advancements have been remarkable. Just look at the smartphone. It used to take five or six different “machines” to accomplish what can now be done in the palm of your hand with just one. And all it requires is just a few clicks and swipes from your fingertips. Machine advancement has been incredible during the last decade. But if you look at what’s on the tech horizon, smartphones are just scratching the surface. In fact, thanks to the latest discoveries and advancements with artificial intelligence (AI), the possibilities are endless. Humans and machines are already working together in incredible ways. What Is Artificial Intelligence? So what is artificial intelligence? According to techopedia.com, AI is an area of computer science that emphasizes the creation of intelligent machines that work and react like humans. Some of the activities computers with artificial intelligence are designed for include: - Speech recognition In a nutshell, AI makes it possible for machines to actually learn from experience, and perform human-like tasks. Scientists and software programmers have made great strides in AI. Some of the most common examples of AI today are chess-playing computers, digital voice assistants, and self-driving cars. However, there is still much to be learned about AI. It’s extremely difficult to teach a computer to carry on meaningful conversations or understand and feel the way humans do. Scientists have been successful at teaching machines how to perform certain, specific tasks. But no matter how well a self-driving car performs in road tests, it still couldn’t carry on an intelligent conversation with you during the commute. Could AI Be Dangerous? That being said, a lot has been made of artificial intelligence and its capabilities. Some tech experts expect AI to overtake the world (not literally, of course) and eventually have a hand in everything we do. But despite its amazing potential, there are others who fear the possible repercussions of teaching supercomputers and/or robots how to do so many things. Taking over the world doesn’t seem out of the realm of possibility in some tech circles. Some can even envision an army of super-intelligent robots or machines turning on humans and essentially wiping them out. Others fear that AI could fall into the wrong hands and be used for evil purposes by evil people. And others simply worry it could cost millions of workers their jobs. But despite the doomsday theories, most just see AI as a way to enhance the way we do things and make our lives better. That includes the workplace. Hundreds of companies are working on AI advancements for all walks of life. Currently, companies are using artificial intelligence in numerous industries, including medical, industrial, machinery, technology, entertainment, and many more. So how will humans and machines work together in the future? Will AI make things better or worse? The Positive Effects of Artificial Intelligence It’s hard to predict exactly. No one can say with 100 percent certainty how artificial intelligence will continue to advance or what effects it will have on life, as we know it. No one knows the level of intelligence machines could actually reach. But the reality is AI is already improving several aspects of life, including in the workplace. According to an article in the Harvard Business Review, AI is already “becoming good at many ‘human’ jobs—diagnosing disease, translating languages, providing customer service—and it’s improving fast.” But that doesn’t mean it will replace humans. It will change how work is done but it’s designed to enhance human capabilities and not replace them. These are just some of the ways machines and humans will be working together in 2019…and beyond. - Humans Will Train Machines – humans will continue to teach machines to perform tasks, explain the outcomes, and maintain the responsible use of machines. In order for machines to learn new tasks, humans must teach them. Humans also need to track and explain the outcomes for continued learning and better performance. And they must ensure that AI systems work properly and safely to protect humans. - Machines Will Help Humans – as humans teach machines, they’ll continue to help us in numerous ways, including enhancing our strengths, extending our physical capabilities and helping us improve interaction with employees and customers. Humans and machines will be able to interact and communicate in more effective ways. AI will also enhance our decision-making and analytical abilities. Additionally, with their sophisticated sensors, motors, and actuators, AI-enabled machines will recognize objects and people and safely work side-by-side with humans in multiple work environments. - Improved Decision Making – artificial intelligence also helps us make better decisions. AI provides valuable information and guidance to help us better understand and analyze data and make more informed and proven decisions. - Recruiting Will Continue to Change – according to HR Technologist, “HR teams, recruiters, and staffing managers are using AI technology and AI-based products to improve hiring.” Some companies use AI to assist their recruiting teams in creating more compelling job postings. Other companies use AI to match potential candidates with open positions. - Improving the Onboarding and Training Process – another effective use of AI is streamlining the new-hire process. New AI tools will help employees improve their abilities to complete tasks and teach then greater efficiency. - They Compliment Each Other’s Strengths – when you combine the strengths of AI and humans you can accomplish a lot more. The speed, quantitative abilities, and scalability of AI paired with human attributes such as leadership, social skills, creativity and teamwork lead to better results. - Enhancing Data Analytics – data analysis is huge in today’s tech-driven world. AI will help improve this process by properly sifting through millions of signals and identifying key points, and doing it much faster than humans. Humans can then use this information to improve systems. - Improving Day-to-Day Productivity – in 2019, AI will continue to help improve employee productivity. Menial tasks can be eliminated, or greatly reduced, when humans use AI tools to cut back on traditional workplace practices. Employers can monitor production levels and pinpoint key factors slowing employees down. - Humans Are Still in Control – remember AI still works best when the human element is involved. AI is not intended to replace humans in the workplace, but rather enhance their performance. But in order for this to happen, humans will have to be in charge of AI machines and what they do. It will require close interaction and continual monitoring. But together humans and AI can accomplish great things in 2019. Artificial Intelligence Is Here to Stay Ultimately AI has already become part of life and it seems certain it will continue to gain momentum in the workplace. But you don’t have to fear AI. When combined with human intelligence, reasoning, and feeling AI is likely to become a major tool for advancing many positive causes. How is artificial intelligence affecting your workplace? Have you lost some of your duties to AI? Do you think AI will eventually take over your job? Or maybe AI is helping you get more done. Use the comment section below to tell us how you feel about artificial intelligence in the workplace and what trends you’ve seen.
Photosynthetic (plant-like) constituent of plankton, mainly comprised of unicellular algae Plankton pertain to the small organisms that drift, float, or weakly swimming in aquatic habitats. Some of them may be capable of diel vertical migration but they, in general, flow with their surrounding currents. They may be classified according to their trophic level groups: (1) phytoplankton, (2) zooplankton, (3) bacterioplankton, and (4) mycoplankton. Phytoplankton are the photosynthetic constituent of the plankton. Most of them are algal groups such as diatoms, dinoflagellates and cyanobacteria. They are mostly microscopic and therefore cannot be seen by unaided eye. Nevertheless, they become noticeable when they are present in high numbers since they contain pigments such as chlorophyll and accessory pigments (e.g. xanthophylls and phycobiliproteins). Bright green algal blooms for instance are caused by the rapid increase or accumulation in the population of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria). The red tide phenomenon is another example of algal bloom caused by the rapid growth of dinoflagellates and diatoms giving a red or brown hue in marine waters. An algal bloom caused by phytoplankton is referred to as phytoplankton bloom. Word origin: Ancient Greek phutón (“plant”) + planktón, (planktós (“wandering”)
To recycle gold from computer motherboards and PCI or circuit boards, it is necessary to remove the gold components, such as gold-plated connectors, pins and traces. After removing all gold components from the computer boards, recyclers must separate the gold from its metal or plastic housing in order to process the gold. Computer gold processing methods include chemical stripping, using a compound that reacts with gold and melting down the metal components to grind them up.Continue Reading After cooling and grinding up the melted metal components and gold recycled from computer boards, the gold is ready for further purification. A smelting process and extraction process further remove any impurities from the recycled gold. Recyclers then sort the gold by karat and melt it in a crucible at about 1,947 degrees Fahrenheit. Computer circuit boards have gold traces in densities similar to mined ore. Municipalities and commercial collectors recycle gold from computer motherboards and circuit boards. The most valuable computer components to mine are the motherboard, PCI boards, RAM and processor. The microscopic transistors of the PC’s processor hold hundreds of gold-plated pins. Most circuit boards also have small amounts of metals such as palladium and silver, in addition to recyclable gold.Learn more about Precious Metals & Gems
Between the 1950s and 1960s, the profitability of agriculture made farming more attractive to landlords, so that owner farmers tended to replace tenants and farms were consolidated into larger units. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the government made specific provisions for assisting small farmers through grants and improvement schemes. In 1967, compensation was paid to farmers hit by the foot and mouth epidemic. There was also great technological change as farming became increasingly mechanised. Mechanisation produced rapid gains in productivity, but the number of agricultural workers was greatly reduced. Subsidy remained the basis of agricultural prosperity through to the 1970s. The government subsidised prices for a wide range of products, both arable and pastoral (and also fertiliser and animal foodstuffs), but the nature of subsidy changed over time. With the end of rationing in 1953, the government ceased to be the major purchaser of agricultural produce, which was again sold and bought in a free market. By the mid-1950s, food surpluses tended to depress world prices. The amount of subsidy necessary to keep British farmers in production therefore tended to increase over time. The annual round of negotiations between the <<National Farmers' Union>> and the Department of Agriculture, known as the Farm Prices Review, was a complex exercise. The expanding agricultural subsidy undermined public regard for the industry and became the subject of much criticism. The government attempted to control the subsidy through the annual farm prices review in order to reduce the burden on the Exchequer. These attempts were, however, undermined by the balance of payments difficulties during the 1960s. The government needed to reduce agricultural imports, but this could only be managed through the subsidy. Admission to the EEC in 1973 produced significant changes in the nature of the agricultural subsidy, as Britain became part to the Community's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Under the British system, the subsidy was the difference between the market price for produce and the price required for farmers to maintain a reasonable living. Under the CAP, individual commodities were allocated a price across all the member states. These prices were maintained by intervention (the buying and storing of products when the price fell below a certain price). The CAP also used import tariffs to prevent cheap imports. It resulted in the excessive storing of surpluses, most famously in the butter and grain 'mountains' and the wine 'lake'. Under the British system, the subsidy came from general taxation, to which the better off contributed more than the poor, while at the same time allowing consumers continued access to cheap food at world market prices. The EEC system effectively passed the subsidy onto the consumer via artificially inflated prices. Moreover, the EEC system would have international implications, since most of Britain's food imports had traditionally come from non-European sources, and over half from the Commonwealth, which would now be affected by the common external tariff.
Pineal tumour is the development of abnormal growth in the pineal gland or in the nearby area. The pineal gland is a small, cone shaped structure in the midline region of brain located at the back side to the third ventricle. The pineal gland secretes neurotransmitters called melatonin which regulates the circadian rhythm of the body. The gland contributes to a variety of cells such as parenchymal cells, endothelial cells, glial cells and germ cells. The diversity of cells in the gland presents tumours of different cellular origin in the gland. Pineal cell tumours are those that arise in the parenchymal cells involved in the image stimulus processing. The pineal tumours are termed as pineocytoma which are slow and benign and pineoblastomas which are malignant and aggressive. - Hydrocephalus due to increased pressure on the skull - Disruption in hormonal production and release - Nausea and Vomiting - Changes in vision - Gradual loss of memory The symptoms of brain tumour at initial stages are not regular and difficult to diagnose as other diseases also cause similar symptoms. The neurologist may perform neurological exam to detect the abnormality in vision, balance, hearing, reflexes and coordination.After the neurological test the doctor may suggest for other tests such as: - Computerized Tomography Scan (CT) - The CT scan generates two dimensional brain images using high power X-rays which is connected to a computer. The patient has to lie on a movable table while taking the images. A tracer dye will be injected through I.V route after a few initial CT scan images. The dye will make the tumours more visible, which often takes less than 10 min. - Magnetic Resonance Imaging Scan (MRI) - The scan uses radio waves and magnetic field to generate the brain images. The patient has to stay inside a cylindrical machine for 15 min to 60 min. MRI scans outline the soft tissues of the body and also bone which are most widely useful in diagnosing brain tumours. A special dye will be injected into the bloodstream which makes tumours to distinguish from healthy tissue. - Head and Skull X- ray- Head X rays will be done to detect alterations in skull bone. It also detects hydrocephalus condition associated with brain tumour. In some cases it may also detect the calcium deposits associated with the tumour. Although X-rays are routinely performed, the test is less sensitive than other imaging tests. - Angiogram - A special dye will be injected into the blood stream which flows through the blood vessels in the brain to detect the blood vessels in and around the tumour. - Other Tests - such as: - The other tests such as magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT) scans will able to analyse the brain activity by investigating the brain chemistry and metabolism. - The scans along with MRI scans will be helpful to understand the function and brain activity but cannot be used in primary diagnosis of the tumour. - The absolute test to diagnose the brain tumours is biopsy. The biopsy can be taken to collect a small part of brain tissue such as needle biopsy which can be done with the help of CT scan or the part of the tissue removed as a part of surgery. - The tissue analysis will detect the type of tumour, grade of tumour and also help to determine the treatment - Cerebrospinal fluid test to detect the presence of certain chemicals such as Beta-HCG, AFP etc. - Blood test should be required to detect the markers in blood. - Surgery is the first line treatment for the pineal tumours. Though it is challenging to remove a tumour from the pineal region of brain but the recent advancements in surgery have made it a successful treatment option. - The surgery called craniotomy is performed by a neurosurgeon where a portion of the skull is removed to get access to the tumour site and excised. If hydrocephalus is detected shunt is placed before the surgery. - The aim of surgery is to completely remove the tumour while preserving the nearby tissue. The benign pineal tumours will be cured after complete resection but the malignant tumours are difficult for total resection resulting in subtotal resection which improves the effectiveness of adjuvant treatments. Chemotherapy and Radiation - In some patients tumour still remains after the surgery, mostly the malignant type. At such times, chemotherapy and radiotherapy is given. - The neurosurgeon will decide which treatment will be effective after the surgery for complete cure. - The germinomas also called as germ cell tumours and pineoblastomas respond well to the radiotherapy. - The non germinomotous and pineoblastomas are treated with chemotherapy. However chemotherapy administration for brain tumours is not well studied. - Pineal cysts which are asymptomatic do not require immediate therapy and are kept under observation.
What is a linear rail actuator and what applications do they suit? Linear rail actuators are commonly found across a whole range of industries and are used for moving loads from one point to another. Linear rail actuators offer an advantage over other linear actuators by providing a high-rigidity, four-way equal load-carrying ability. We take a look here at linear motion systems, how a linear rail actuator works, and what kinds of applications they might be used in. What is an actuator? An actuator is designed to move a load, usually powered by hydraulics, pneumatics or electricity. The applications that actuators are used in vary from enormous earth-moving equipment in a construction or mining setting, through to tiny precision movements required in the manufacture of electronic components. A linear actuator is designed to move loads in straight lines; forward and/or backward, up and/or down. Linear motion systems are often powered by hydraulics or pneumatics as these inherently produce linear motion, however, where precision and control over acceleration and deceleration is required, electric motors are often used to create linear motion from a rotating motor. Linear rail actuators A linear rail actuator is, essentially, a rodless actuator that uses either single or parallel rails for the motion guide rather than a solid body as you would find in a standard linear actuator. A linear rail actuator is made up of a stationary base and load bearing carriage which travels along a rigid rail, usually aluminium. One of the more common rail actuators found in linear motion systems is a linear ball screw actuator. What is a linear ball screw actuator? A linear ball screw is a mechanical type of linear rail actuator. A threaded shaft provides a helical raceway for ball bearings which are contained within the load mount. They have very low internal friction and are by their nature built to high precision, so they provide excellent accuracy and repeatability. The reduced friction means they have a much higher mechanical efficiency than a standard screw and nut combination. A linear ball screw actuator unit is also capable of carrying greater loads and achieving a higher thrust force than other types of linear actuator. Benefits of a linear rail actuator - Complete end-to-end axial stability - Precise accuracy - Contact angle of 45 degrees so that it will bear an equal load in radial, reversed radial and lateral direction - Loads are easy to attach to the carriage - Smooth movements - Low noise output - Self-alignment capability - Available in specialist configurations such as wide load and heavy load capability, reduced height, miniature and compact options Applications for linear rail actuators Linear motion systems are used in many industrial settings, and the rail configuration found in linear rail actuators lends itself to high stiffness for stability, as well as low-friction guidance, with loads ranging from very lightweight at just a few grams through to thousands of kilograms. They are also not limited in travel length as compared to other linear actuators. This makes them applicable to almost any industrial environment where loads must be moved in a straight line over distances. Some examples of applications for linear rail actuators are: Overhead transport systems: loads can be centred beneath the rail and bearing block, allowing for the transportation of heavy loads around a factory setting. Machine tools: travel accuracy and stability are key to the requirements of machine tools, often combined with heavy loads. This makes a linear rail actuator ideal, particularly where dual rails are used to ensure the minimum of deflection. Gantry robots: often with two or three rail axis working in parallel to ensure greater moment capability, gantry – or Cartesian – robots use rails, often with a linear ball screw actuator, to enable movement across the X, Y and Z-axis. Used in processes from packaging to semi-conductor manufacture, these devices are found in many industrial plants. Processing environments: with electrical linear rail actuators being both clean and quiet, they are ideal for industries such as food and drink, medical device manufacture or electrical manufacturing. Linear rail actuators have few places for bacteria or dirt to accumulate and will manage the clean-down process without issue. Matara are experts in linear motion systems, with nearly 25 years in the industry, offering a complete solution for a whole range of environments and applications. We have a variety of linear rail actuators, both for standard use and specialist applications, and also offer a bespoke service for custom requirements. Get in touch to talk to us about what you need in a linear motion system and we will work with you to get you the right result. Tel 01684 850000 or email [email protected].
Basic Guidelines For English SpellingsREAD THESE ARTICLES The diffraction of a beam of electrons by atoms or molecules, used especially for determining crystal structures. - ‘An advantage in using electron diffraction from crystals over imaging for evaluating the effect of energy filtering is that quantitative analyses can be carried out for high-resolution data more easily and reliably.’ - ‘That work led to their discovery of electron diffraction in 1927.’ - ‘This is reminiscent of the two-dimensional projection Fourier map obtained experimentally by electron diffraction.’ - ‘To this were added inter-helical distance constraints derived from intermediate-resolution electron diffraction studies to define the packing of the helical bundle.’ - ‘This study has been undertaken to extend earlier electron diffraction work in which the M-state was trapped by a similar protocol.’ Are You Learning English? Here Are Our Top English Tips
The Amazonian rainforest is being destroyed at double the rate of all previous estimates, according to research published today in the journal Science. The destruction is leaving the forest more prone to fires and allowing more carbon dioxide to be released into the atmosphere, according to scientists. A new analysis of satellite images of the Brazilian part of the Amazon basin, which forms part of the largest contiguous rainforest on Earth, shows that on average 15,500 sq km (6,000 square miles) of forest is being cut down by selective logging each year. This is besides a similar amount clear-cut annually for cattle grazing or farming. Conservationists have been able to monitor large clear-cut areas using satellite images. But the extent of selective logging, where individual trees of high value, such as mahogany, are felled and smuggled out of the forest, had been unclear, the effects being masked from satellites by the forest's dense canopy. "People have been monitoring large-scale deforestation in the Amazon with satellites for more than two decades, but selective logging has been mostly invisible until now," said Gregory Asner, of the Carnegie Institution, Washington. He tackled the problem by developing an analytical method named the Carnegie Landsat Analysis System, which allows each pixel of an image to be scrutinised for the amount of forest left to determine the overall ratio of forested to deforested land. Natalino Silva, of the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, said: "We can now see what's happening from the top of the forest all the way to the soil. We have a whole new picture of the Amazon region and selective logging." The analysis revealed some surprising facts. "We discovered that annually an area about the size of Connecticut is disturbed this way," said Professor Asner. "Selective logging negatively impacts many plants and animals and increases erosion and fires. Additionally, up to 25% more carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere each year - above that from deforestation - from the decomposition [of plant material] that the loggers leave behind. Timber harvests are much more widespread than previously thought." Using images of the Amazon basin taken from 1999 to 2002, Prof Asner studied the five states that account for 90% of deforestation. The extent of selective logging was found to be between 4,685 and 7,973 square miles each year. Michael Keller, of the US Forest Service, who was the co-author of the research, said: "We expected to see large areas of logging, but the extent to which logging penetrates deep into the frontier is much more dramatic than we anticipated." A large mahogany tree can fetch hundreds of dollars at the sawmill, making it a tempting target. "People go in and remove just the merchantable species from the forest," said Prof Asner. "Mahogany is the one everybody knows about, but in the Amazon there are at least 35 marketable hardwood species, and the damage that occurs from taking out just a few trees at a time is enormous." About 400m tonnes of carbon enter the atmosphere every year because of traditional deforestation in the Amazon, and Prof Asner estimates that an additional 100m tonnes of carbon occurs through selective logging. "When a tree trunk is removed, the crown, wood debris and vines are left behind to decompose, releasing carbon dioxide gas into the atmosphere," he said. A thinned canopy also makes the forest more dry and prone to fire. "On average, for every tree removed, up to 30 more can be severely damaged by the timber harvesting operation itself," said Prof Asner.
Before reading this tutorial, you should learn about variables and input values using cin. In any language, there are some operators to perform arithmetic, logical and control operations. The basic operators which are used to perform arithmetic operations on integers are as follows:- + Addition, also called unary addition % Modulus (remainder after division) The operators +,-,* and / perform the same operation as they do in other languages. The operators + and – are unary operators and can take one or two operands. The multiply and divide are called binary operators as they take two operands. Integer division will always give the result which is of integer type and truncates the remainder. The output of integer division will be the quotient. For example, 5/2 will give the answer 2 and not 2.5. The modulus operator gives the remainder after the integer division. For example, 5/2 will give the answer 1, which is the remainder. Here is a program which illustrates the functioning of the operators. The result is: - When the statement d=a+b; is executed, it takes the values 20 and 30 of variables a and b respectively, performs their sum and assigns the result to variable d which gets the value 50. e=a-b; gives the result -10, f=ab; gives the result 600, where integer variable a is equal to 20 and variable b is equal to 30. The output of statement h=a% b operator is 20 as it is modulo operator which gives the remainder when a is divided by b. The output of division operator is 0 as the quotient of 20/30 is 0. Note here that all the answers are in integers as we have defined the variables to be of type int. If we define them to be of type float or double, then the answers would be different. Also, modulo operator (%) does not works with float and double. In an expression which involves several operators, the order in which the operators are evaluated depends on the priority given to them. The priority given to the operators is called precedence. The operators such as , /, % have higher precedence than the operators +,-. The operators , / and % have same precedence and operators + and - have same precedence. For example, in the statement a+bc; bc is evaluated before and the result of bc is added to a. It is same as If the expression contains operators of same precedence then the order in which they are evaluated can be either left associative or right associative. Left associative means that left most operators are evaluated first then the operators on the right. Right associative means that right most operators are evaluated first than the operators on the left. If the expression a+b+c is evaluated in the left associative manner, then result of a+b is added to c. Similarly in the right associative, result of b+c is added to a. If the expression contains parentheses, then the natural order of execution of the operators is overridden by the parentheses. The parentheses are given more priority than the any of the operators. Parentheses force the operations to have higher precedence. If the expression contains nested parentheses, then the innermost parentheses are evaluated first. For example in the expression a(b+c), b+c is evaluated before the multiplication operation. Here is the program which illustrates the meaning of precedence, associativity and parentheses. The result of the program is In the given program a=20, b=30 and c=40. In the statement ab is evaluated first then the operators + and – are evaluated. The operation ab gives 600 and then a is added and c is subtracted which gives the final result 580. In the statement ab/c, the operators * and / have same precedence and it is left associative. The multiplication operator is evaluated before the division operator. The operation ab gives the result 600 which is then divided by 40 and giving the final result as 15. In the last statement parentheses are used, the innermost expression (b/c) is evaluated first giving the result 0 where b=20 and c=40, which is then multiplied with variable a and the final result is 0. INCREMENT, DECREMENT OPERATOR The operator ++ and -- are called an increment operator and decrement operator respectively. They are unary operators and are applied to integers. They perform the same function as x=x+1 in the case of increment operator and performs the function x=x-1 in the case of decrement operator. Increment operator increments the value of variable x by 1 whereas decrement operator decreases the value of variable x by 1. For example ++x and x=x+1 have same effect. These operators are more precise and directly modify the values. If the operator is written in front of the variable then it is called prefix form whereas if the operator is written after the variable then it is called postfix form. Prefix form and postfix form have different meanings. Prefix form - ++x. It means that value of variable x is incremented before the value is used in context. For example, z=++x; when x=6 gives z=7 and x=7. Same is the case with decrement operator for example, the expression z=--x when x=6 gives z=5 and x=5. Postfix form - x++. It means that value of variable x is incremented after the value is used in context. For example z=x++, when x=6 gives z=6 and x=7. Same is the case with decrement operator for example, the expression z=x-- when x=6 gives z=6 and x-5. The op= ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS These operators consist of an operator sign and equality operator. They modify the current value of the variable by performing an operation. Consider the following case x +=2; is same as x=x+2; x =2 ; performs the operation x = x * 2 and gives the value 6 when the original value of x was 3. Basically these operators are short hand notations for the normal operators where the meaning is that the operation specified in the statement has to be performed on the variable left to the operator with the variable right to the equality operator and the value is stored in the variable left to the operator. Let us discuss the next tutorial on control structures in C++. Go to the previous lesson or proceed to the next lesson
Friction Stir Welding Friction-stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process (meaning the metal is not melted during the process) and is used for applications where the original metal characteristics must remain unchanged as far as possible. This process is primarily used on aluminum, and most often on large pieces which cannot be easily heat treated post weld to recover temper characteristics. It was invented and experimentally proven by Wayne Thomas and a team of his colleagues at The Welding Institute UK in December 1991. TWI holds a number of patents on the process, the first being the most descriptive. Principle of operation Schematic diagram of the FSW process: (A) Two discrete metal workpieces butted together, along with the tool (with a probe). (B) The progress of the tool through the joint, also showing the weld zone and the region affected by the tool shoulder.In FSW, a cylindrical-shouldered tool, with a profiled threaded/unthreaded probe (nib or pin) is rotated at a constant speed and fed at a constant traverse rate into the joint line between two pieces of sheet or plate material, which are butted together. The parts have to be clamped rigidly onto a backing bar in a manner that prevents the abutting joint faces from being forced apart. The length of the nib is slightly less than the weld depth required and the tool shoulder should be in intimate contact with the work surface. The nib is then moved against the work, or vice versa. Frictional heat is generated between the wear-resistant welding tool shoulder and nib, and the material of the work pieces. This heat, along with the heat generated by the mechanical mixing process and the adiabatic heat within the material, cause the stirred materials to soften without reaching the melting point (hence cited a solid-state process), allowing the traversing of the tool along the weld line in a plasticised tubular shaft of metal. As the pin is moved in the direction of welding, the leading face of the pin, assisted by a special pin profile, forces plasticised material to the back of the pin while applying a substantial forging force to consolidate the weld metal. The welding of the material is facilitated by severe plastic deformation in the solid state, involving dynamic recrystallization of the base material. The solid-state nature of the FSW process, combined with its unusual tool and asymmetric nature, results in a highly characteristic microstructure. While some regions are common to all forms of welding some are unique to the technique. While the terminology is varied the following is representative of the consensus. The stir zone (also nugget, dynamically recrystallised zone) is a region of heavily deformed material that roughly corresponds to the location of the pin during welding. The grains within the stir zone are roughly equiaxed and often an order of magnitude smaller than the grains in the parent material. A unique feature of the stir zone is the common occurrence of several concentric rings which has been referred to as an ‘onion-ring’ structure. The precise origin of these rings has not been firmly established, although variations in particle number density, grain size and texture have all been suggested. The flow arm is on the upper surface of the weld and consists of material that is dragged by the shoulder from the retreating side of the weld, around the rear of the tool, and deposited on the advancing side. The thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) occurs on either side of the stir zone. In this region the strain and temperature are lower and the effect of welding on the microstructure is correspondingly smaller. Unlike the stir zone the microstructure is recognizably that of the parent material, albeit significantly deformed and rotated. Although the term TMAZ technically refers to the entire deformed region it is often used to describe any region not already covered by the terms stir zone and flow arm. The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is common to all welding processes. As indicated by the name, this region is subjected to a thermal cycle but is not deformed during welding. The temperatures are lower than those in the TMAZ but may still have a significant effect if the microstructure is thermally unstable. In fact, in age-hardened aluminium alloys this region commonly exhibits the poorest mechanical properties. Advantages and disadvantages The solid-state nature of FSW immediately leads to several advantages over fusion welding methods since any problems associated with cooling from the liquid phase are immediately avoided. Issues such as porosity, solute redistribution, solidification cracking and liquation cracking are not an issue during FSW. In general, FSW has been found to produce a low concentration of defects and is very tolerant to variations in parameters and materials. Nevertheless, FSW is associated with a number of unique defects. Insufficient weld temperatures, due to low rotational speeds or high traverse speeds, for example, mean that the weld material is unable to accommodate the extensive deformation during welding. This may result in long, tunnel-like defects running along the weld which may occur on the surface or subsurface. Low temperatures may also limit the forging action of the tool and so reduce the continuity of the bond between the material from each side of the weld. The light contact between the material has given rise to the name 'kissing-bond'. This defect is particularly worrying since it is very difficult to detect using nondestructive methods such as X-ray or ultrasonic testing. If the pin is not long enough or the tool rises out of the plate then the interface at the bottom of the weld may not be disrupted and forged by the tool, resulting in a lack-of-penetration defect. This is essentially a notch in the material which can be a potent source of fatigue cracks. A number of potential advantages of FSW over conventional fusion-welding processes have been identified: Good mechanical properties in the as welded condition Improved safety due to the absence of toxic fumes or the spatter of molten material. No consumables - conventional steel tools[clarification needed] can weld over 1000m of aluminium and no filler or gas shield is required for aluminium. Easily automated on simple milling machines - lower setup costs and less training. Can operate in all positions (horizontal, vertical, etc), as there is no weld pool. Generally good weld appearance and minimal thickness under/over-matching, thus reducing the need for expensive machining after welding. Low environmental impact. However, some disadvantages of the process have been identified: Exit hole left when tool is withdrawn. Large down forces required with heavy-duty clamping necessary to hold the plates together. Less flexible than manual and arc processes (difficulties with thickness variations and non-linear welds). Often slower traverse rate than some fusion welding techniques although this may be offset if fewer welding passes are required.
After today's discussion in class, I realized that teachers should not overwhelm their students with technology nor should they be too dependent on technology within the classroom. However, I believe that technology can be an extremely useful learning tool. It provides new ways for students to visualize the subject matter, especially when dealing with different dimensions, graphs, and shapes. By using technology, the teacher can reach out to more of his/her students with the incorporation of different learning styles. For example, when finding the volume of a cylinder, some students may be able to memorize the equation without ever visualizing the actual object. However, for the spatial learners, they may need to see that you first find the area of one of the bases and then multiply it by the height. These forms of technology will allow teachers to gear their instruction more accurately towards the specific learning goal by acknowledging each student's learning style. When reading Pete Rubba's thoughts about online courses vs. face-to-face teaching, I found it hard to believe that face-to-face teaching would dwindle away so quickly. I feel that face-to-face interaction is something that cannot be replaced. I understand that Rubba was trying to stress how important technology is in education, but I feel he was to extreme on his assumption. I agree best with Bob McCollum and Kyle Peck's beliefs on the matter. When it comes to teaching a math courses, I believe that one of the most important aspects is relating the methods/concepts to the each student's learning style. It is important to go into further instruction with an individual student if they are having a specific issue. Unfortunately, students do not have the luxury of being explained in a different way when taking an online course. I found it interesting to read about how technology has progressed over time and how it affects our limitations as learners. Technology provides simplified ways to approach complex material. Since technology has helped math progress tremendously over the years, I find it very important to use it within the classroom, but I know not to rely on it. When making those lessons using technology, it is important to know the capability of your students so it is not too simple or too complicated. Therefore, you can maximize each student's learning experience.
How Do Psychologists Study About the Brain? The brain is the central focus of a neuroscientist. Being a major organ of the central nervous system, the brain is responsible for monitoring and regulating many of the information coming from our external and internal environment. Studying about the brain therefore sheds important insights about the biological foundations of behavior and mental processes. Psychologists study the brain in different ways: Brain Lesioning may be natural or artificial. Artificial brain damages are induced in the laboratory by surgery, laser removal and through the use of drugs; while natural brain damages may be caused by environmental hazards that are naturally occurring or by some unusual and/or common street accidents. Basically this method provides psychologists insights into what aspects of behavior are affected by damage on certain parts of the brain, and up to what extent can the damage significantly alter behavior. Staining the brain is a technique used by psychologists to pinpoint which neurons are connected and activated by each other. Because neuronal membranes contain ion channels that open and close whenever a neuron is activated, stains like horse dish peroxidase enter these channels and paint the path neurotransmitters take to transmit information to neighboring neurons. Because neurons are generally too small to be seen by the naked eye, psychologists use high-powered microscopes to see through a neuron's activity. Brain Electrical Recording Electrical Recording is used to monitor the electrical activity of the brain. This is because neurons communicate with each other via electrochemical transmission. One form of brain electrical recording is through the use of an electroencephalogram wherein surface electrodes are placed on the scalp. The electrical record gathered from this technique is called an electroencephalograph (or EEG), and is used mainly to study about brain disorders, epilepsy and the nature of sleep. Another form of electrical recording is single-unit recording in which the electrical activity of a single neuron is monitored using a thin probe inserted in the brain and near a particular neuron. The electrical information is then amplified to be seen and registered on the screen. Brain Imaging is done to enable psychologists to "see" what is happening in the brain. Computerized Tomography or CT Scan presents a clear 3-dimensional image of the brain from the assembly of various 2-dimensional x-rays of the brain. Positron-Emission Tomography or PET Scan presents a hazy picture of the brain based on glucose consumption of the different parts of the brain. For example, different parts of the brain "light up" in accordance with the different activities we engage in. Magnetic Resonance Imaging or MRI shows the biochemical activities of the brain by means of magnetic field and radio waves. Among the three (3) techniques for brain imaging, MRI is the most preferred method because it provides the clearest picture of the brain, is non-invasive, and poses no risks for radiation problems.
12. The endosymbiotic theory says that precursor eukaryotic cells acquired flagella by endosymbiosis with a _____ ancestor, and others gained photosynthetic ability from endosymbiosis with a _____ ancestor. 13. The cell's series of tunnel-like membranes functioning in transport and storage are the 14. An organelle that is a stack of flattened, membranous sacs and functions to receive, modify, and package proteins for cell secretion is the 15. Which organelle contains cristae where enzymes and electron carriers for aerobic respiration are found? 16. Organelles found in algae but not found in protozoa or fungi are the 17. Protists with contractile vacuoles use them to expel excess water from the cell. 18. The cytoskeleton anchors organelles. provides support. functions in movements of the cytoplasm. helps maintain cell shape. 19. The size of a eukaryotic cell ribosome is 20. Filamentous fungi are called 21. When buds remain attached, they form a chain of yeast cells called 22. Fungi that grow as yeast at one temperature but will grow as mold at another temperature are called 23. Fungal spores are used to identify fungi. 24. Which of the following spores are produced within a sac? 25. Which of the following spores are sexually produced? 26. A mold is observed to have asexual conidia, sexual spores within a sac, and septate hyphae. It is most likely classified in the 27. What do zygospores, ascospores, and basidiospores have in common? They are sexual spores. 28. Which is not a characteristic of fungi? 29. Blooms of certain dinoflagellates are associated with all of the following except 30. Which is mismatched? Pyrrophyta - euglenids 31. All of the following are found in some or all protozoa except 32. The motile, feeding stage of protozoa is called the 33. The group of protozoa that have flagella are the 34. Which is mismatched? Plasmodium - causes Chagas disease 35. All of the following are helminths except 36. Which of the following does not pertain to helminths? in kingdom Protista 37. Larvae and eggs are developmental forms of 38. Both fish and humans develop neurological symptoms and bloody skin lesions due to a sudden "bloom" of this algae. 39. The stacks of thylakoids in a chloroplast are called 40. In order to reproduce sexually, diploid cells must produce _________ gametes through ________. 41. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum functions in synthesis of ___________. 42. Which of the following are present in viruses? 43. On what basis are fungi classified as Fungi Imperfecti, or Deuteromycota? Based on if the fungus lacks a sexual state. 44. Which of the following is the cause of malaria? 45. Sources for human infection with worms are all of the following except 46. All of the following are correct about helminthes except 47. The organelle involved in intracellular digestion of food particles is the 48. Which of the following is in the correct order? metaphase, anaphase, cytokinesis, telophase 49. Chromosomes are not visible in the nucleus unless the cell is undergoing nuclear division. True False 50. Eukaryotic mitochondria have their own 70S ribosomes and circular DNA. True False 51. The eukaryotic cell membrane is a bilayer of sterols. True False 52. Infections caused by fungi are called mycoses. True False 53. The only Division of fungi that contains human pathogens is the Deuteromycota. True False 54. All fungi have hyphae. True False 55. All algae have chloroplasts. True False 56. Algae are classified into Divisions based principally on their type of motility. True False 57. Plankton are floating communities of helminths. True False 58. Fungi are autotrophic. True False 59. Biologists have found evidence that eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic organisms by a process of intracellular _____. 60. There are nine peripheral pairs and one central pair of _____ found inside eukaryotic flagella and cilia. 61. The passageways in the nuclear envelope for movement of substances to and from the nucleus and cytoplasm are called nuclear _____. 62. Proteins associated with DNA in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells are called _______. 63. A _____ originates from the Golgi apparatus as one type of vesicle that contains a variety of enzymes for intracellular digestion. 64. Chloroplasts are composed of membranous sacs called _____ that carry chlorophyll. Surrounding these sacs is a ground substance called _____. 65. In eukaryotic cells, ribosomes have two locations: scattered in the _____, and on the surface of _____. cytoplasm, rough er 66. The long, thread-like branching cells of molds are called _____. 67. During unfavorable growth conditions, many protozoa can convert to a resistant, dormant stage called a _____.
Once addition has been explored a bit, it leads pretty naturally to a new question: if there are three bricks in a pile, how many bricks do I need to add to it so that there will be five in the pile? Our addition problems were all phrased using a pattern like number + number = what? and the question above rearranges it a bit: number + what? = number what? + number = number This question is usually asked as “What is the difference between what we have and our goal?”, which is much more compact and cleaner sounding than my introductory question above. This way of asking the question introduces a more sophisticated idea than addition. Instead of looking at two piles of physical objects and contemplating joining them, we are looking at two piles and trying to use a number to describe what makes them different, their “difference”. Subtraction is the arithmetic operation used to find a quantitative difference. Instead of writing the above problem as a sum with a missing piece, we can write it as a subtraction problem which is read as either “what is the difference between 10 and 3?” or “10 take away 3”. The answers to the addition and subtraction versions of the problem above will be the same, since both are descriptions of the same problem. This leads to some interesting insights: - Algebra provides more than one way of describing this problem - Using English to describe problems with the unknown quantity in the middle (as occurs in the first three above) can be awkward. A phrase seems easier to follow, when said aloud, when the unknown quantity is all by itself on one side of the equal sign. Properties of subtraction Subtraction provides a slightly more convenient way of describing this problem than addition does. Let’s investigate how subtraction works a bit, to see if the insights we gained about addition will work here too. Is subtraction associative? If it is, then the following quantities should all be equal: The first, evaluating it from left to right , produces a result of 1. The second also produces a result of 1, and note that it had us performing the computations in exactly the same order as the first one. The third one produces a different result of 5. Note that it is the only one that had us compute things in a different order… so order matters with subtraction, and the “Order of Operations” requirement that “in the event of a tie we compute from left to right” is most necessary here. Since we did not end up with the same result in all cases above, as we played around with associating different quantities in a subtraction problem, subtraction is not associative. Is subtraction commutative? If it is, then the following quantities should all be equal: Evaluating them all from left to right, the results are: 1, 1, -7, -7, -5, -5. While some results are the same, others are not. So, we cannot move the numbers around in a subtraction problem without risk of changing the answer. Subtraction is not commutative. Compared to addition, subtraction is inflexible. The rule about evaluating things “from left to right” in the order of operations must be followed to arrive at the intended answer when working on subtraction problems. Furthermore, something interesting happened above as we investigated whether subtraction is commutative or not. Even though our problem started out with nice simple counting numbers like 6, 3, and 2 (just as our earlier addition problems did) the answers to these subtraction problems have forced us to invent new numbers that we never needed when playing with addition: 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, etc. These numbers do not correspond to anything we saw or thought of while joining piles of bricks (adding). What do they mean, and can we make use of them? And finally, the word “difference” does not mean exactly the same thing as “subtract”. If you ask ten people on a street corner to find the difference between 10 and 3, or between 3 and 10, they will probably all answer “seven” – no matter which way the question was phrased. Yet when asked to subtract 10 from 3 they will all answer “negative seven”, and when asked to subtract 3 from 10 they will all answer “seven”. When asked to find a difference we intuitively expect a positive number, the amount by which two quantities differ, as the answer. So, we feel free (outside of math class) to arrange and solve the problem in such a way that it will produce a positive result. However, when asked to subtract one number from another, we have no flexibility in how we set up the problem – there is only one way to carry out the task. Choose your words carefully! Yet, the phrasing of problems in a math text will often refer to something like “the difference between two and five”, and expect us to treat it like we would subtraction: start with a value of two then take away five, ending up with a negative three. Posts that continue this series: Algebra Intro 3: Subtraction Algebra Intro 4: Negative Numbers, Zero, Absolute Values, and Opposites Algebra Intro 5: Addition, Subtraction, and Terms Algebra Intro 6: Multiplication Algebra Intro 7: Properties of Multiplication Algebra Intro 8: Division Algebra Intro 9: Fractions, Reciprocals, and Properties of Division Algebra Intro 10: Fractions and Multiplication Algebra Intro 11: Dividing Fractions, Equivalent Fractions Algebra Intro 12: Adding and Subtracting Fractions
Creep strength (also known as creep limit) is a measurement of the resistance to creep that a material exhibits. Before examining creep strength in detail, it’s important to understand exactly what creep is, how it occurs and the problems that creep deformation may cause. What is creep? Creep is the natural tendency of a material to gradually move or permanently deform as a result of mechanical stress. When materials are subject to increasingly high-stress levels over a long period, but not exceeding the yield strength, creep can become severe. This especially applies to materials that are frequently exposed to high heat and can even permanently deform materials as temperatures reach the melting point. Types of creep deformation The type of deformation depends on the material and structure. On a railway track for instance, continuously welded rail heated in direct sunshine can buckle. This is caused by increasing stress in the steel and the resultant creep. Concrete may crack under moderate levels of creep, but sometimes this is desirable as it can reduce tensile stresses in the structure. Creep strength in alloys Alloys, particularly aluminium alloys, are prone to creep-fatigue and fracture, due to their low melting point. However, there are other factors that affect the creep strength of alloys, as follows: - Substructure composition a stable substructure that has uniform dislocations provides resistance to creep-fatigue. However, a substructure that coarsens under strain will result in reduced creep strength. Nickel-based alloys are a good example of this phenomenon. A fine grain size within the structure can also increase creep strength. - Heat treatment - heat treatment leads to the creation of austenites. Some of these, such as bainite, help to increase creep strength. - Solid solution strengthening - lessens movement and deformation through the lattice structure. E.g. molybdenum increases creep strength significantly. - Hard precipitate quantity and dispersion - carbides and intermetallics such as VC (Vanadium Carbide), when dispersed finely and evenly in an alloy reduce movement and creep. Therefore, the creep strength inherent in an alloy differs considerably depending on the chemical composition, the spacing of particles in the material, and the treatment or strengthening of the metal. Measurement of creep strength Creep strength is measured using a creep-testing machine; a device that measures the distortion of a material at various stress levels. It can be used to plot how much stress and strain a material can take, with temperature or loading as variables. The resulting graph will show three distinct stages of creep: - Primary creep: creep which rises rapidly at first over a short space of time but then slowly decreases. - Steady-state creep: a constant rise in creep, at a less rapid pace than the primary stage, shown as a straight line on the graph. - Tertiary creep: the final stage of creep, as the material reaches its fracture point. This is normally a very steep upward curve on the graph as the stress and creep escalate rapidly towards breaking point. The graph can be assessed to pinpoint the temperature and time interval for the various stages of creep. The creep strength or creep limit can thus be ascertained from the tertiary creep stage of the graph.
In phonetics, downdrift is the cumulative lowering of pitch over time due to interactions among tones, called downstep, in a tonal language. It is distinct from the general lowering of the pitch during prosodic contours of a tonal or non-tonal language. Two basic types of downdrift are found. In one, called discrete downdrift, when downstep occurs all tones shift downward, so that their relative difference in pitch remains constant; in the other, called tone terracing, the pitch of the low tone remains at the lower end of the speaker's vocal range, while the other tones shift downward, so that their difference in pitch narrows. It is very common for only the low tone to cause a downstep in pitch, whether the result is that all tones, including subsequent low tones, are downstepped, or whether only non-low tones are. Pitch reset is required in the first instance because the tones approach the lower end of the speaker's comfort range, and in the second because the tonal distinctions of the language start being lost. - Downdrift, Downstep, and Declination (Bruce Connell, 2001) \|This phonetics article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|
The suite of protocols that allows different computer platforms using different operating systems (such as Windows, MacOS, or UNIX) or different software applications to communicate. Although TCP and IP are two distinct protocols, each of which serves a specific communicational purpose, the term TCP/IP is used to refer to a set of protocols, including Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), and many others. This set of protocols allows computers on the Internet to exchange different types of information using different applications. Internet protocols that every Internet user and every Internet server uses to communicate and transfer data over networks. TCP packages data into packets that are sent over the Internet and are reassembled at their destinations. IP handles the addressing and routing of each data packet so it is sent to the correct destination.
TITLE: crystal (physics)SECTION: The Dutch physicist Johannes D. van der Waals first proposed the force that binds molecular solids. Any two atoms or molecules have a force of attraction (F) that varies according to the inverse seventh power of the distance R between the centres of the atoms or molecules: F = −C/R7, where C is a constant. The force, known as the van der Waals force, declines... molecule, generally a protein, that receives signals for a cell. Small molecules, such as hormones outside the cell or second messengers inside the cell, bind tightly and specifically to their receptors. Binding is a critical element in effecting a cellular response to a signal and is influenced by a cell’s ability to express only certain receptor genes.
Why restore peatlands? Restoration of human-disturbed natural ecosystems has long been recognized by the world community as a most important activity towards sustainable development. This activity alley provides solutions of problems that are associated with adverse effects of human activities and have a common goal – to restore the original or near-original status of natural ecosystems and, thus, to give the society a possibility to use these ecosystems for economic, cultural, and nature conservation purposes. Peatland restoration does not only contribute to the replenishment of world’s wetland resources, but also promotes biodiversity conservation and a favorable carbon balance. In doing so, it meets objectives of many international initiatives, including the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, Convention on Biological Diversity and Agenda 21, as well as the Kioto Protocol of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. Over the last three years, a set of documents has been adopted under the UN FCCC that consider peatland restoration an activity which reduces anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and, hence, can be financed through carbon units sales. However, practical implementation of international agreements and global strategies depends on how they are reflected in national program documents and development plans, and how international legal standards are incorporated in national legislation. The peatland restoration technique that we refer to as “ecological restoration” has not yet been incorporated in the Russian legislation as a rehabilitation technique for disturbed lands, neither has it been developed methodically or methodologically, and nor has it received a unanimous support from stakeholders. Following the fires of 2002 and 2010 in many areas of Russia, people are generally willing to cooperate in restoration of peatland hydrology as a fire protection measure. However, restoration of peatland ecosystems has not been regarded as a priority. Reduction of fire hazard and revegetation of peatlands for forestry or agriculture are some examples of objectives that find acceptance. Nevertheless, this is huge progress compared with a zero tolerance to the idea of peatland restoration steadily expressed in opinion polls from 1994 to 2004. This is why we decided to develop a methodology of ecological restoration of peatlands, which degraded as a result of drainage and exploitation, in the temperate climate zone of European Russia. The restoration of peatland ecosystems will only succeed if all local social-economic and legal aspects are given proper consideration.
Agriculture now produces more than enough calories to meet basic human dietary needs worldwide. Despite this seeming abundance, one out of eight people do not have access to sufficient food. A new study, "Realizing Resilient Food Systems," published in the journal Bioscience May 4, 2016 and led by Meagan Schipanski, assistant professor of soil and crop sciences at Colorado State University, presents a set of strategies to address these complex challenges of producing food for a growing global population, while reducing environmental impacts and increasing resilience in the face of climate change. Schipanski led a collaborative team of researchers from the U.S. and Canada to produce the study, which was supported by funding from the U.S. Department of Agriculture and CSU's School of Global Environmental Sustainability. "Addressing our food system challenges requires so much more than increasing food production," Schipanski said. "We hope that highlighting real world examples that connect food production with positive outcomes for human health will encourage more work across traditional disciplinary lines and direct engagement with communities." Food systems include consideration of how food is produced, how it is distributed, what is consumed, and who influences these different activities. Food access disparities Although there have been significant increases in global crop production, the number of undernourished people in undeveloped countries has not declined. Food prices are more variable in less developed countries, and there are simultaneous diet-related health challenges of malnutrition and overconsumption both within the U.S. and around the world. The root causes of many of these challenges are often less about having enough food and more about poverty and access to resources, particularly women's access to education and resources. Global case studies Using case studies from Africa, India, and Brazil, the study highlights the importance of integrated food system strategies. For example, efforts in Malawi have improved human nutrition by integrating more legumes in crop production practices with health and nutrition education. Brazil implemented national programs in 2003 that link rural producers to low-income urban consumers, improving farmer incomes and access to nutritious foods in urban areas. In India, increasing women's access to land and other resources has resulted in benefits for family health and education. "Meagan's food system study is a clear example of global knowledge converging from the three dimensions of sustainability: economics, society and the environment. It is a novel and useful effort by her integrating team," said Diana Wall, director of the School of Global Environmental Sustainability and a professor in CSU's Department of Biology. Explore further: Fuel or food? Study sees increasing competition for land, water resources Meagan E. Schipanski et al, Realizing Resilient Food Systems, BioScience (2016). DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biw052
That is why we have encouraged programs to combat diseases caused by contaminated food and thus give consumers the tools to combat them. Summarizing them in four major steps: - Clean: Wash hands and surfaces continuously - Separate: Avoid cross-contamination - Kitchen: Cooking to proper temperatures - Freeze: refrigerate immediately Bacteria can spread throughout the kitchen through the hands and utensils. To fight bacteria should always: - Wash your gentle soap and warm water for 20 seconds before handling food and after using the bathroom, changing diapers, or handling pets. - Wash all the utensils you use to cook. - Consider using paper towels to clean surfaces in the kitchen and if you use cloth towels sure to wash them in the hot cycle. Cross contamination is the way in which bacteria are transferred from one food to another when a raw food juices are mixed with cooked food. When you're handling raw meat, poultry, seafood and eggs, you should keep them separate from each other and always remember to work on a clean surface. The Partnership for Food Safety Education and its government of the United States Department of Agriculture and the Food and Drug Administration of theUnited States, conducted a national survey on food security and indicated that 64% of adults know the importance follow the procedures on food safety. But very few people understand and follow the procedures for the proper handling of food. Only 15% of the population uses the food thermometer to know if the food is perfectly cooked. The food is properly cooked when the internal temperature reaches needed to kill bacteria that can cause disease. Use thermometers temperature is the best way to kill these bacteria. By measuring the internal temperature of the foods that can be considered high risk should follow the following table of temperatures: \|Ground meat and meat mixtures\| \|Beef, pork, veal, lamb\|\|160 ° F\| \|Turkey and bench\|\|165 ° F\| \|Fresh meat, veal, lamb and pork\| \|Medium rare\|\|145 ° F with 3 minutes rest\| \|Medium\|\|160 ° F\| \|Well done\|\|170 ° F\| \|Chicken and Turkey\|\|165 ° F\| \|Poultry cuts\|\|165 ° F\| \|Turkeys and Geese\|\|165 ° F\| \|Stuffing (cooked alone or in bird)\|\|165 ° F\| \|Egg and egg dishes\| \|Eggs\|\|Cook until yolk and white are firm\| \|Egg dishes\|\|160 ° F\| \|Fins\|\|145 ° F The flesh is opaque\| \|Shrimp, lobster and crabs\|\|The meat looks pearly and opaque\| \|Clams, oysters and mussels\|\|Open deposits during cooking\| \|Scallops\|\|Appearance milky white or opaque firm\| \|Leftovers and Casseroles\|\|165 ° F\| Then rapidly cools food cooler temperatures and slow down growth of harmful bacteria. But remember not to saturate the refrigerator because cold air must circulate to keep food safe. Be sure to keep the refrigerator temperature at 40 ° F or less and use a thermometer to make a constant check. The freezer temperature should be 0 ° F or less. Consumers show a growing interest in learning more about the food they eat and how they should be treated to prevent diseases. Constantly seeking to know how they can implement food safety instructions for the purchase of food, conservation, preparation and cooking, as well as many others related to the handling of specific foods like eggs for vulnerable groups such as children, pregnant women and seniors. Enjoy this article? You might also like
In animals, the lungs are the area where gas exchange takes place. Without gas exchange, oxygen would not pass into the blood from the lungs so the body cells would not be able to receive the oxygen needed for respiration. The alveoli are moist to allow oxygen to move from the lung through the alveoli into blood vessels and red blood cells. Carbon dioxide passes from the blood into the alveoli. The oxygen-filled blood goes back to the heart and the carbon dioxide in the alveoli is pushed out of the lungs and into the air we breathe out. Bird lung[change \| change source] Birds lungs do not have alveoli, instead they have millions of para-bronchi. These para-bronchi end up in tiny capillaries or very small blood vessels and they pass close to the body's blood vessels, so diffusion can occur and the oxygen and carbon dioxide is exchanged. The oxygen and carbon dioxide in birds lungs are continuously diffused into and out of the blood, not like in mammals where diffusion can only happen in the alveoli. Reptile lung[change \| change source] Reptile lungs open and close because of the ribs surrounding them pressing down on them and then opening up with the help of muscles. The liver is also attached to the bottom of the lungs and when a muscle which is attached to the liver pulls, the liver moves away from the lungs and pulls them, making them bigger. Amphibian lung[change \| change source] Frog lungs are very simple compared to most other lungs, they are simply balloons, with moist outsides allowing for diffusion. But frogs do not move around much and so do not need lots of oxygen, but they can also take in oxygen through their moist outer skin if a big demand of oxygen is needed (e.g. Fight or Flight).
Here's a learning activity for children to participate in once they've read Charlotte's Web. The Aim of this Activity Based On Charlotte's Web ... is for children to identify the main characters in the story and match up relevant statements. To Prepare the Activity: 2. Paste or glue the first two pages together so that they make one page. 3. Cut out the individual statements contained in the table on page 3. Your child can then: - Draw a picture of each character. Encourage them to add features specific to each character (e.g., sharp teeth for Templeton, eight legs for Charlotte, etc.) - Read (with help as necessary) each of the statements. Work out which statement applies to which character and then paste the statement in the appropriate box. The Benefits Of This Charlotte's Web Activity During this activity, your child will engage: - fine motor skills (small muscles) used to draw - creativity to design and draw pictures - cognitive (intellectual) abilities to work out how to draw the characters - which shapes and lines to use - as well as to match the correct statements with the different story characters and - memory recall used to remember details about story and characters. We hope you enjoy this activity. We did this activity some weeks after we'd finished reading Charlotte's Web. It was encouraging to see how much the boys remembered of the story. They even asked if we could loan Charlotte's Web from the library again and re-read it. When children make such requests, you can rest assured that they really did enjoy the story. Have fun completing this activity for Charlotte's Web with your child. Free Printable: Story Extension Activity for Charlotte's Web Return to Children's Book Reviews.
What is Polio? Polio is also known by other name which is commonly known as poliomyelitis, which comes from the Greek term for grey and marrow that refers to the spinal cord. Poliomyelitis, condensed, became polio. For a time, polio was known as infantile paralysis, although it did not affect only the young. Polio is a contagious viral illness that in its most unadorned form causes paralysis, difficulty breathing and sometimes death. Today, despite a concerted global eradication operation, poliovirus continues to disturb children and adults. Polio (poliomyelitis) is a highly infectious disease caused by a virus. It attacks the nervous system and can be a cause for irreversible paralysis in a matter of hours. Polio can strike at any age, but it mostly affects children under the age of five years old mostly comes under this virus. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guides taking safety measures to protect against polio if you’re traveling anywhere there’s a risk of polio. If you are a previously vaccinated adult who is planning to travel to an area where polio is occurring, you should collect a booster dose of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV). Immunity after a booster dose lasts a lifetime. Polio, or poliomyelitis, is a crippling and possibly deadly infectious disease. It is caused by the poliovirus. The virus mostly spreads from person to person and can attack an infected person’s brain and spinal cord, causing paralysis (can’t move parts of the body). Causes of Polio The poliovirus resides only in humans and enters the environment in the feces of someone who’s already infected. Poliovirus spreads primarily through the fecal-oral route, especially in areas where cleanliness is insufficient. Poliovirus can be transmitted through contaminated water and food or through direct contact with somebody already infected with the virus. Polio is so spreadable that anyone living with a recently infected person is likely to become sick, too. People carrying the poliovirus can spread the virus for weeks in their feces. In paralytic polio, the virus leaves the gastrointestinal tract, enters the bloodstream, and then attacks nerve cells. Less than one to two percent of people who contract polio become paralyzed. In mostly cases, the throat and chest might be paralyzed. Death might result if the patient does not get artificial breathing support. Symptoms of Non paralytic Polio • Back pain or stiffness • Neck pain or stiffness • Sore throat • Pain or stiffness in the arms or legs • Muscle weakness or tenderness Symptoms of Paralytic Polio • Loss of reflexes • Unadorned muscle aches or weakness • Loose and floppy limbs habitually inferior on one side of the body Symptoms of Post-Polio Syndrome • Liberal muscle or weakness of joint and pain • General fatigue and tiredness after minimal activity • Muscle atrophy • Breathing or swallowing difficulties • Sleep-related breathing sicknesses, such as sleep apnea • Decreased lenience of cold temperatures • Cognitive difficulties, such as concentration and memory problems • Depression or mood strikes Treatments of Polio Since no cure for polio exists, the focus is on increasing comfort, speeding retrieval and preventing problems. Supportive treatments comprise: • Massaging with Oil • Pain relievers • Movable ventilators to contribution breathing • Reasonable exercise to prevent malformation and loss of muscle function • Bed rest • A healthful diet full of nutrients Polio can be stopped through vaccination. Polio vaccine, given multiple times, almost always protects a child for life. Our Products used for the treatment of polio are as follows: Ambery Tel – (http://www.amariapharmacy.in/shop/male-health/ambery-tel/) Ambery Lal Tel – (http://www.amariapharmacy.in/shop/children-health/ambery-lal-tel/) Ambery Paralysis Oil – (http://www.amberyoil.com/shop/body-care/special-treatment/ambery-paralysis-oil/)

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