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BONE GRAFTING IS A SURGICAL PROCEDURE USED TO FIX PROBLEMS WITH BONES OR JOINTS.
Bone grafting, or transplanting of bone tissue, is beneficial in fixing bones that are damaged from trauma, or problem joints.
When a tooth is removed, the bone that supported this tooth is also lost in time. The only chance to save this supporting bone for later use, is to place a bone graft at the time of extraction. The bone is placed in the clean socket and covered by a membrane or gum graft. After healing, you will typically have more suitable bone to place an implant and restore your tooth.
The term "bone graft" may seem scary to some at first. However, a bone graft is actually a common and painless dental procedure. Often times a bone graft is brought up during an oral surgeon's consultation. If you need a bone graft in The Woodlands or Houston area, then contact us and we'll explain the process.
BENEFITS OF BONE GRAFTING
A bone grafting procedure is often used to repair bone to its previous form. It may be beneficial in a number of situations including:
Restoring the bone following tooth loss, trauma, or gum disease
To strengthen or restore bone structure that will be used for dental implant placement
To prevent issues caused by bone loss
To prevent issues caused by bone loss such as a decrease in gum tissue
To support the jaw and facial bones, preventing the face from looking prematurely aged due to lack of bone support.
BONE GRAFTING NEEDED FOR DENTAL IMPLANTS
There have been many improvements to bone grafts over the years. The need for one may have been reduced over time, but there are still many situations where it is recommended by dentists and used to improve results. One example of this is with dental implants. An implant requires a sturdy home to situate in. If the mouth isn't sturdy enough to hold an implant then a bone graft may be used to create a sturdy for to situate an implant.
BONE GRAFTING AND EXTRACTIONS
When a tooth is extracted, the bone with the sole purpose of holding that tooth in place still remains. When the tooth is removed, your body will resorb that bone. To prevent this, an implant or bone graft is used to fill the hole and strengthen your mouth. If the underlying bone isn't strong enough to hold an implant in place then a bone graft may be used to strengthen the structure so an implant may be placed there.
WHY CHOOSE BONE GRAFTING?
Sometimes your bone isn't strong enough on its own to support a dental implant. Dental implants are a popular choice among patients and dentists due to their aesthetic appearance and durability. With bone grafting, even patients with bone loss can acquire an implant thanks to bone grafting. It helps allow for some amazing cosmetic dentistry improvements that would otherwise not be possible.
With bone grafting, you can improve your oral health and appearance, and be on your way to achieving the smile makeover of your dreams.
COMPLEX DENTAL PROCEDURES HANDLED IN-HOUSE
Bone grafting is one way Carrie Muzny D.D.S. can help their patients with smile makeovers. We offer many extensive dental procedures in-house so you don't have to worry about being referred elsewhere. We make sure you understand your available options so you can make the right decision about your teeth. | <urn:uuid:642134c1-ec32-48ec-b90b-28d659e2d90a> | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://www.carriemuznydds.com/services/surgical-services/bone-grafting/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107890586.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20201026061044-20201026091044-00292.warc.gz | en | 0.922715 | 724 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Grid-Tie / Net Meter
Why invest in a grid-tie system?
Solar users like using their own energy first, and knowing its source is clean, renewable energy production. Solar fixes the energy costs, avoiding utility rate increases. Some provinces like Ontario have a feed-in tariff that offers to purchase the power from your system, creating an income stream.
What happens in winter?
Solar energy does vary throughout the year. The graph above is for Vancouver. In practice, grid-tie system owners don’t usually worry about snow as winter months have low production.
Why are solar panels a good investment?
Solar electric panels feature a 25 year output warranty and will likely last for 30 years or more. This means the HES system you install today will produce free and reliable electricity for decades. As an investment in your home, cottage or RV, your system will enhance its value while delivering clean, quiet energy for you to use. Now that’s a smart investment!
Explain Grid-Tie to me. What can I expect?
Grid-tie solar systems are used for homes in the city. A solar system mounted on the roof can produce some or most of the electricity consumed in the home. Most Canadian houses use between 5,000 kWh (very efficient) and 13,000 kWh (not very efficient) per year. Solar systems can reduce electrical consumption by the following amount:
How does a Grid-Tie System work?
See the cross section of a house with solar grid-tie system. There are two basic components:
Solar array: One to ten kilowatts of solar panels, typically mounted on unused south facing roof space.
Inverter: Converts solar energy (DC) to match utility power.
What happens during a power failure?
Grid-tie systems safely disconnect in the event of a power failure. We offer the option of a Secure Source battery backup that would run some selected loads like pumps or lighting in the event of a blackout.
How much energy can I gather with a solar electric system?
In most of Canada, a kilowatt (1000 watts) of solar panels (area A. of 80 - 90 ft2), mounted with good exposure facing south, could generate between 1000 and 1400 kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity per year. The map below shows how this varies around Canada. | <urn:uuid:5e3d82ca-30c0-4a27-b8a2-c9dc5613c03b> | CC-MAIN-2017-43 | http://hespv.ca/residential-solar-energy-systems/solar-grid-tie-canada/grid-tie-faq | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187828134.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20171024033919-20171024053919-00776.warc.gz | en | 0.914624 | 488 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Politics of Long Division: The Birth of the Second Party System in
Besorgung - Lieferbarkeit unbestimmt
BeschreibungThis sequel to Donald J. Ratcliffe's Party Spirit in a Frontier Republic investigates the origins of the important series of political contests now known as the Second Party System. Whereas recent historians claim that the mass parties of the antebellum era emerged in the 1830s, Ratcliffe argues that already by 1828 the battle lines had been laid down in Ohio that would dominate local and national politics until the eve of the Civil War, and even persist into the twentieth century.This cleavage in popular political loyalties first emerged, Ratcliffe contends, in the wake of the Missouri crests and the Panic of 1819. In 1824 the struggle to control the federal government saw many voters make choices to which they subsequently clung. Then in 1828, with the rise of the Jacksonian opposition, the excitements of the first closely contested presidential electron in Ohio brought unprecedented numbers of voters into the electoral contest.The choices that voters made at this critical time reflected, in part, the energetic organizational work of ambitious politicians and the persuasive scurrility of the media. But, more significantly, it revealed not only the economic hopes and political attachments but also the cultural attitudes, ethnic antagonisms, and social tensions that divided Ohioans in the much neglected decade of the 1820s.
Untertitel: New. Sprache: Englisch.
Verlag: OHIO STATE UNIV PR
Erscheinungsdatum: Mai 2000
Seitenanzahl: 344 Seiten | <urn:uuid:9078096d-e3bf-4a47-b8bc-cd35b6eb4184> | CC-MAIN-2016-50 | https://m.hugendubel.de/de/buch/donald_j_ratcliffe-politics_of_long_division_the_birth_of_the_second_party_system_in-4303848-produkt-details.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-50/segments/1480698543170.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20161202170903-00015-ip-10-31-129-80.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.863797 | 342 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Christendom’s Associates Turn upon Her!
1. To what extent is it that history repeats itself?
IT IS often said that history has the habit of repeating itself. Or, the future is only the past entered into a new case. As far as the general features are concerned, it is true that world events that form the subject matter of a history do repeat themselves. Similar causes would produce such repeating of events.
2, 3. From history how can we learn to avoid calamitous events such as occurred to others previously, and, in 1 Corinthians 10:6-12, how does Paul point to the benefits of studying Bible history?
2 If we study the calamitous events of human history, we can take them as warning examples and can learn their inducing causes. Thus we can know what to avoid in order not to have those calamitous events repeat themselves upon us. This is one of the benefits that we can get from studying Bible history, just as the Christian apostle Paul suggests. When writing about the calamitous happenings of the nation of Israel in their journey of forty years from Egypt to the Promised Land, he expressed it this way:
3 “Now these things became our examples, for us not to be persons desiring injurious things, even as they [the Israelites] desired them. . . . Now these things went on befalling them as examples, and they were written for a warning to us upon whom the ends of the systems of things have arrived. Consequently let him that thinks he is standing beware that he does not fall.”—1 Corinthians 10:6-12.
4. What did Jehovah say would happen to Jerusalem for not heeding the warning example of history in her own family relationship, and so what will Christendom experience for likewise being heedless?
4 The ancient city of Jerusalem was one that did not beware and so did not profit by the warning example of history, even in her own family relationship. What wonder, then, that her God, when telling of the calamity that would come upon her for her unfaithfulness to Him, went on to say: “And you will certainly be profaned within yourself before the eyes of the nations, and you will have to know that I am Jehovah.” (Ezekiel 22:16) Centuries-old Christendom has been just as heedless of the warning examples of Bible history. There is only one outcome to be expected. Just as surely as ancient Jerusalem was made to know, in a disastrous way, the God with whom she was dealing, so Christendom will have Jerusalem’s terrible experience repeat itself upon her, and that very soon.
5. Where did the symbolic Oholah and Oholibah begin to commit prostitution, but to whom did they come to belong, and what did they produce for that owner?
5 Keeping Christendom in mind as the modern-day antitype, let us now consider the deserved punishment that God foretold, years in advance, and that was to come upon ancient Jerusalem. Making a written record of this divine prophecy, the prophet Ezekiel in exile in Babylon says: “And the word of Jehovah proceeded to come to me, saying: ‘Son of man, two women, the daughters of one mother, there happened to be. And they began to prostitute themselves in Egypt. In their youth they committed prostitution. There their breasts were squeezed, and there they pressed the bosoms of their virginity. And their names were Oholah the older one and Oholibah her sister, and they came to be mine and began to give birth to sons and daughters. And as for their names, Oholah is Samaria, and Oholibah is Jerusalem.’”—Ezekiel 23:1-4.
6. As cities, what were Samaria and Jerusalem respectively, who was their “mother,” and how was it that in Egypt they practiced prostitution spiritually?
6 Up to the time of its destruction by the Assyrians in the year 740 B.C.E., Samaria was the capital city of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, composed out of ten of the twelve secular tribes of Israel. On the other hand, Jerusalem was the capital of the Southern Kingdom of Judah, composed of the remaining tribes of the Jewish people. So their two capital cities are used to represent or picture their respective kingdoms. They both came from one parent organization or “mother,” namely, the national organization that descended from Abraham, Isaac and Jacob and the twelve sons of Jacob. Symbolically they were spoken of as the “daughters” of that mother organization. Jacob and his sons and their families moved down from Palestine into Egypt in the year 1728 B.C.E., in the days when his son Joseph was the prime minister and food administrator of Egypt under Pharaoh. There the tribes that descended from Jacob’s twelve sons and that make up the two daughter organizations were influenced to practice spiritual prostitution. In what way?
7. How did the symbolic Oholah and Oholibah practice spiritual prostitution down in Egypt, and how could the symbolic Oholah be rightly spoken of as the older of the two sisters?
7 By defiling themselves with the idol worship that was then prevalent in Egypt. By doing this they were having unclean, immoral connection with the false gods and idols of pagan Egypt. In the prophecy of Ezekiel 20:4-8 Jehovah reminded certain exiled elders of Israel about such spiritual prostitution on the part of their forefathers in Egypt. Of course, away back there the Northern Kingdom of Israel with its capital at Samaria did not exist. (1 Kings 16:23-28) But the ten tribes that eventually rebelled to form that kingdom did exist, and thus the symbolic woman Oholah was in formation. She was composed of the most of the tribes of Israel, and these included the tribes that descended from the two oldest sons of Jacob, namely, Reuben and Simeon, and also the tribes of Manasseh and Ephraim that descended from Joseph, Jacob’s firstborn son by his beloved wife Rachel. Rightly, then, the symbolic Oholah could be spoken of as the “older one” of the two symbolic daughters of the one mother.—Genesis 29:32-35; 30:22-24.
8. What does Oholah’s name mean, and how did it fit her?
8 The name given to her, Oholah, means “Her Tent,” that is, a tent for carrying on religious worship. When the Northern Kingdom of Israel was established in 997 B.C.E., it went over to the worship of the golden calf and later added to this idolatrous worship the worship of the false god Baal. In this way the symbolic Oholah forgot Jehovah and cast him behind her back and set up her own tent for idolatrous worship. Jehovah’s tent was not in her.
9. Why did the name Oholibah fit the younger “sister” even in Ezekiel’s day of prophesying about her?
9 The name of her symbolic sister was Oholibah. This name is understood to mean “My Tent Is in Her.” It being a God-given name, it signified that Jehovah’s tent of worship was in the symbolic Oholibah, the Southern Kingdom of Judah. This kingdom ruled over the two tribes of Judah and Benjamin and also had the support of the religious tribe of Levi. Levi was the third son of the patriarch Jacob, Judah was the fourth son, and Benjamin the twelfth and last son, so that the symbolic Oholibah was well pictured as the younger of the two daughters of the “one mother.” The tent containing Jehovah’s ark of the covenant was served by the qualified men of the tribe of Levi and came to be located at Jerusalem after King David captured that city in 1070 B.C.E. and made it his capital. In that city, also, David’s son Solomon built the gorgeous temple for Jehovah’s worship, and it was still standing in the day of Ezekiel’s prophecy about the symbolic Oholah and Oholibah. So the name Oholibah fitted the Southern Kingdom of Judah, for Jehovah’s tent or temple of worship was in her.—2 Samuel 5:1-9; 6:11 to 7:13.
10. When did the two symbolic women become Jehovah’s, how did they give to him sons and daughters, and why would unfaithfulness to him be adulterous?
10 “And they came to be mine,” said Jehovah concerning those two symbolic women. (Ezekiel 23:4) When was that? It was in the year 1513 B.C.E., when Jehovah delivered the “mother” organization, the twelve tribes of Israel, from bondage to Egypt on the night of the first celebration of the Passover, and more specifically so when Jehovah brought the twelve tribes formally into a covenant with him through the mediator Moses at Mount Sinai in Arabia. (Exodus 12:50 to 13:21; 19:3 to 24:8) Thereafter sons and daughters were brought forth in covenant relationship with Jehovah as their God. How? This was by reason of the action of their fathers in making this national covenant with Jehovah, the Deliverer of His people. They were all subject to Him because of being the children of the nation that was married to Him like a wife to a husband or husbandly owner. (Jeremiah 3:14; 31:32) Unfaithfulness to Him was adulterous.
11. In what year did those two symbolic “women” definitely take form, and in what way?
11 The symbolic “two women, the daughters of one mother,” definitely took form in the year 997 B.C.E., or 516 years after the rescue of the nation of Israel from the slave-driving Egypt. In that year ten of the tribes of Israel refused further allegiance to the royal house of David and set up their own kingdom, the final capital of which proved to be Samaria, some thirty-five miles to the north of Jerusalem. This Northern Kingdom, with capital at Samaria, was symbolized by Oholah. The Southern Kingdom, with capital at Jerusalem, was symbolized by Oholibah—Ezekiel 23:4
“OHOLAH” SETS A BAD HISTORICAL EXAMPLE
12. Did the cracking up of Israel dissolve Jehovah’s covenant toward the two resulting nations, and how did the symbolic Oholah refuse wifely subjection to her husbandly Owner?
12 This crackup of the twelve-tribe nation of Israel did not dissolve its covenant with Jehovah as entered into through the mediator Moses at Mount Sinai. Both of the new kingdoms were still in this covenant of the Mosaic Law and were therefore still subject to Jehovah as to a spiritual Husband. (1 Kings 11:29-39) But the Northern Kingdom, the symbolic Oholah, refused wifelike subjection to Jehovah and became idolatrous. She lost her trust in Him as her Protector and began to play politics with the pagan nations round about, especially imperial Assyria to the northeast. (2 Kings 15:17-22; Hosea 5:13; 12:1) Did this getting on friendly terms with the militarized political world power of Assyria work out well for the ten-tribe Kingdom of Israel? Did Assyria prove to be a staunch, true friend to this symbolic Oholah? Note what Jehovah goes on to say, in Ezekiel 23:5-10:
13. What do Jehovah’s words in Ezekiel 23:5-10 show as to whether Assyria proved to be a staunch, true friend to symbolic Oholah?
13 “And Oholah began to prostitute herself, while subject to me, and kept lusting after those passionately loving her, after the Assyrians, who were near, governors clothed with blue material, and their deputy rulers—desirable young men all of them, cavalrymen riding horses. And she continued giving forth her prostitutions upon them, the choicest sons of Assyria all of them; and with all those after whom she lusted—with their dungy idols—she defiled herself. And her prostitutions carried from Egypt she did not leave, for with her they had lain down in her youth, and they were the ones that pressed the bosoms of her virginity and they kept pouring out their immoral intercourse upon her. Therefore I gave her into the hand of those passionately loving her, into the hand of the sons of Assyria, toward whom she had lusted. They were the ones that uncovered her nakedness. Her sons and her daughters they took, and her they killed even with sword. And she came to be infamy to women, and acts of judgment were what they executed upon her.”
14. So the trusting of “Oholah” in Assyria caused Jehovah to do what to her?
14 Losing her faith in the invisible Jehovah and putting her trust in the impressive-looking military might of idolatrous Assyria did not save and preserve the spiritually adulterous Oholah, the ten-tribe Kingdom of Israel. Abandoning the One who had delivered her out of Egypt, she was abandoned by Him to the brutal Assyrians who had passionately loved to force a worldly alliance upon her.
15. As executioners of what did the Assyrians act toward symbolic Oholah, and how did they expose her nakedness?
15 Jehovah let “Oholah” fall into the violent hands of those with whom she had preferred to be in a covenant, the Assyrians. These acted as executioners of divine judgment upon her, giving her the treatment that an adulterous wife deserved. With the sword of war they punitively killed her as a political nation, destroying her national capital, Samaria. But first they took captive her sons and daughters, herding them away into slavery in another land. They made no allowance for her to be revived and restored as a people and kingdom. They “uncovered her nakedness” by stripping the land of her Israelite children, deporting them afar off; and then, to take their place on the land, Assyria imported pagan peoples from various parts of the Assyrian Empire.—2 Kings 18:8-12; 17:1-24.
16. How did “Oholah” come to be “infamy to women”?
16 Good reason this was for the criminally executed “Oholah” to become “infamy to women,” that is, to pagan kingdoms of that time. They looked down upon her as a nation that had gained shameful infamy for herself and they shuddered at her fate. Her kingdom ceased to exist permanently in 740 B.C.E. at the destruction of Samaria and the deportation of her surviving sons and daughters.
HISTORIC FORECAST FOR OUR DAY
17. In view of “Oholah” as a warning example, what questions arise as to the symbolic Oholibah?
17 Did symbolic Oholah come to be “infamy” to her sister Oholibah, the Southern Kingdom of Judah? Did Oholibah appreciate this warning example of history and profit by it? Did she therefore avoid the spiritually adulterous course of her sister in order that history might not repeat itself upon her and she might not have to drink the cup of judgment that her sister had been obliged to drink? What did Oholibah indicate that her modern-day counterpart Christendom would do in our times? Jehovah pointed to the course that Oholah’s sister kingdom was pursuing, saying, in Ezekiel 23:11-17:
18. In what words, in Ezekiel 23:11-17, did Jehovah point to the course that the symbolic Oholibah was then pursuing?
18 “When her sister Oholibah got to see it, then she exercised her sensual desire more ruinously than she, and her prostitution more than the fornication of her sister. For the sons of Assyria she lusted, governors and deputy rulers who were near, clothed with perfect taste, cavalrymen riding horses—desirable young men all of them. And I got to see that, because she had defiled herself, both of them had one way. And she kept adding to her acts of prostitution when she got to see the men in carvings upon the wall, images of Chaldeans carved in vermilion, girded with belts on their hips, with pendant turbans on their heads, having the appearance of warriors, all of them, the likeness of the sons of Babylon, Chaldeans as respects the land of their birth. And she began to lust after them at the sight of her eyes and proceeded to send messengers to them in Chaldea. And the sons of Babylon kept coming in to her, to the bed of expressions of love, and defiling her with their immoral intercourse; and she continued getting defiled by them, and her soul began to turn away disgusted from them.”
19. How did the symbolic Oholibah defy the warning example of her sister Oholah, and what outcome for Assyria posed a problem for Oholibah?
19 Oholibah defied the warning example in the history of her sister kingdom, Oholah. Jehovah got to see that both Oholibah and Oholah “had one way,” only that Oholibah pursued the way in a more extreme fashion. Forgetting Jehovah and her marriage-like covenant with Him, she went playing politics with that mighty military world power, Assyria. This was notoriously so in the days of King Ahaz of Jerusalem. Despite the counsel of Jehovah by the prophet Isaiah, King Ahaz called the Assyrian conqueror Tiglath-pileser to his aid against the allied kingdoms of Syria and Israel. (Isaiah 7:1-20; 2 Kings 16:5-10, 17, 18) King Hezekiah, successor to Ahaz, saw how disastrously Oholah’s courting the political favor of Assyria ended in the year 740 B.C.E., with the destruction of Samaria and its kingdom. Although King Hezekiah was delivered from the Assyrian king Sennacherib, he entertained the friendly advances made by the Babylonians. For this he was rebuked by Jehovah. (Isaiah 37:36 to 39:7; 2 Kings 19:35 to 20:18) After the Babylonians overthrew the Assyrian World Power by destroying its capital Nineveh about 632 B.C.E., this posed a serious problem for Jerusalem.
20. How did the king of Babylon undo the political action of the king of Egypt toward Jerusalem, how did the symbolic Oholibah court Babylon’s political favor, and how did she show her tiring of this?
20 Four years later, in 628 B.C.E., the conquering king of Egypt put King Jehoiakim upon the throne of Jerusalem in place of his brother Jehoahaz. But in the year 620 B.C.E. the king of Babylon subjected Jehoiakim as a king tributary to Babylon. In the year 617 B.C.E. the king of Babylon installed Jehoiakim’s brother Zedekiah as king on the throne of Jerusalem. (2 Kings 23:31 to 24:18) During the reigns of these two kings the symbolic Oholibah “exercised her sensual desire more ruinously” than did her sister Oholah by courting the political favor of the Babylonian World Power. This international intercourse kept up in both cases until at last Jerusalem tired of the domination of Babylon. So “her soul began to turn away disgusted” from the Babylonians by rebellion against the king of Babylon.—2 Kings 24:1, 18-20.
21. In Ezekiel 23:18-21, how did Jehovah say how he felt about the adulterous course of the symbolic Oholibah?
21 How, though, did Jehovah feel about this spiritually adulterous course on the part of the symbolic Oholibah? This is something that her modern-day counterpart Christendom should have considered long ago. In Ezekiel 23:18-21 Jehovah tells how he felt by saying: “And she went on uncovering her acts of prostitution and uncovering her nakedness, so that my soul turned away disgusted from company with her, just as my soul had turned away disgusted from company with her sister [Oholah]. And she kept multiplying her acts of prostitution to the point of calling to mind the days of her youth, when she prostituted herself in the land of Egypt. And she kept lusting in the style of concubines belonging to those whose fleshly member is as the fleshly member of male asses and whose genital organ is as the genital organ of male horses. And you continued calling attention to the loose conduct of your youth by the pressing of your bosoms from Egypt onward, for the sake of the breasts of your youth.”
22. How did Jehovah harmonize his course toward Oholibah with that toward Oholah?
22 Since Jehovah’s very being had turned away in disgust from company with her adulterous sister Oholah, why should not his soul turn away in disgust from company with Oholibah because of like loose conduct with the idolatrous Babylonians? Jehovah is consistent with himself and so harmonized his actions toward both sisters, Oholah and Oholibah.
23. How did Oholibah call to mind the days of her youth when she prostituted herself in Egypt, and her passion became like that of concubines belonging to whom?
23 How did Oholibah go “calling to mind the days of her youth, when she prostituted herself in the land of Egypt”? She did so by looking southward to Egypt for military aid when “her soul began to turn away disgusted” from the Babylonians by rebelling against the king of Babylon. (Ezekiel 17:7-10, 15-17) In the language Jehovah here uses, what contempt he expresses for her animalistically passionate course that was unbecoming to a wife but quite usual with a readily available concubine. He says: “And she kept lusting in the style of concubines belonging to those whose fleshly member is as the fleshly member of male asses and whose genital organ is as the genital organ of male horses.” Or, as the New English Bible of 1970 words it: “She was infatuated with their male prostitutes, whose members were like those of asses and whose seed came in floods like that of horses.”—Ezekiel 23:20, NW; NEB.
THE SLIGHTED POLITICAL LOVERS REACT
24, 25. Consistent with what happened to the symbolic Oholah for her spiritual adultery, what did Jehovah say, in Ezekiel 23:22-25a, he would do to her sister Oholibah?
24 In the light of what happened to the symbolic Oholah for her spiritually immoral course, what was her sister Oholibah consistently to receive at the hand of Jehovah in his disgust? It was yet some time, possibly two years, to the beginning of the final Babylonian siege of Jerusalem, when Jehovah answered the question by saying to that unfaithful city in which His “tent” was still standing:
25 “Therefore, O Oholibah, this is what the Sovereign Lord Jehovah has said, ‘Here I am rousing up your passionate lovers against you, those from whom your soul has turned away in disgust, and I will bring them in against you on all sides, the sons of Babylon and all the Chaldeans, Pekod and Shoa and Koa, all the sons of Assyria with them, desirable young men, governors and deputy rulers all of them, warriors and summoned ones, riding on horses, all of them. And they must come in against you with rattling of war chariots and wheels, and a congregation of peoples, with large shield and buckler and helmet. They will set themselves against you all around, and I will give judgment over to them, and they must judge you with their judgments. And I will express my ardor against you, and they must take action against you in rage.
26. According to Jehovah’s words in Ezekiel 23:25b-27, what would the Babylonians and their allies do to symbolic Oholibah?
26 “‘Your nose and your ears they will remove, and the remainder of you will fall even by the sword. Your sons and your daughters they themselves will take, and the remainder of you will be devoured by the fire. And they will certainly strip off you your garments and take away your beautiful articles. And I shall actually cause your loose conduct to cease from you, and your prostitution carried from the land of Egypt; and you will not raise your eyes to them, and Egypt you will remember no more.’”—Ezekiel 23:22-27.
27. Who is it that raises up against “Oholibah” those least expected, and how is escape barred for her, and are mere judicial decisions as handed down by men executed upon her?
27 What a horrible shock to have one’s passionate lovers turn suddenly upon one! How could such a change of sentiment occur so quickly? It is Jehovah who brings this about against the wifelike organization that has proved false to him. It is he who raises up and brings down upon her those whom we would hardly think he would use as his instrument in executing judgment upon her, her associates or allies who once passionately loved her as a vassal kingdom. They are not just the common rabble, but are governors, deputy rulers, professional warriors, summoned ones called in for counsel, men of equestrian rank. There will be no escaping for her, inasmuch as they will come in against her on all sides. The war chariots, the rattling of the wheels of which she hears, can dart like the lightning and overtake her. The congregation of well-protected military peoples can hem her in. Are they to execute the judgments judicially handed down by men? No, for they are mere instruments of execution!
28. Whose judicial decisions are executed, how are they applied, and with what emotions are they executed?
28 The judicial decisions are those of Jehovah, and he turns over the execution of these to his chosen human agencies. But they are allowed to apply these judicial decisions according to their own cruel way of execution judgment. Jehovah has jealous ardor against the symbolic Oholibah, and his executional forces on earth have rage; and when divine ardor and Assyro-Babylonian rage combine in one united action, it really means woe for Oholibah.
29. The cutting off of nose and ears was the penalty for what moral crime, and how was this punishment inflicted upon the symbolic Oholibah?
29 Is it ghastly cruel to cut off a woman’s nose and her ears, horribly disfiguring her? Yes, but that was the way those ancient world imperialists punished adulteresses. Oholibah had turned adulterously away from her husbandly owner, Jehovah. Like an outraged jealous husband, he set his mark upon the face of his unfaithful mate. Her beautiful national appearance was ruined. Her anointed king and other prominent officials, who were like the “very breath of our nostrils,” were taken away. (Lamentations 4:20) Her priests and judges and literary men, who were like ears to listen and give balance to the headship of the nation, were also violently removed. With so mutilated a national appearance, how could she “save face” before other nations? She could not!
30. What was to be done with what remained of her, human and inanimate, irremovable, leaving her in what appearance?
30 After she had thus been mutilated, what was remaining of adulterous Oholibah was to fall by the executional sword of the victorious Babylonians, her former passionate lovers. Alas, then, for her sons and daughters! Those of them surviving were to be taken captive and enslaved. The remainder of her, in the way of nonportable material properties, was to be “devoured by the fire.” She was to be exposed naked, stripped of her garments and beautiful articles with which she had practiced her allurements as a nation. Such spiritual adultery as hers must cease from the earth forever!
31. What indicates whether Oholibah’s tiring of the Babylonians meant her repenting for reconciliation with Jehovah or not?
31 Oholibah’s tiring of certain ones like the Babylonians with whom she had committed spiritual prostitution did not mean that she had turned in heartfelt repentance to Jehovah to become reconciled with him. She was still given over to committing spiritual immorality with idolatrous gods. She was still inclined to violate her covenant with Jehovah and adulterously enter alliances with a pagan nation if she felt that this would save her as a nation. Fully aware of this, Jehovah went on to say to symbolic Oholibah:
32. Into whose hand did Jehovah tell Oholibah, in Ezekiel 23:28-31, that he would give her, and what would then happen to her, and why?
32 “For this is what the Sovereign Lord Jehovah has said, ‘Here I am giving you into the hand of those whom you have hated, into the hand of those from whom your soul has turned away disgusted. And they must take action against you in hatred and take away all your product of toil and leave you naked and nude; and the nudeness of your acts of fornication and your loose conduct and your acts of prostitution must be uncovered. There will be a doing of these things to you because of your going like a prostitute after the nations, on account of the fact that you defiled yourself with their dungy idols. In the way of your sister [Oholah] you have walked; and I shall have to give her cup into your hand.’”—Ezekiel 23:28-31.
33. Could Oholibah escape consequences by taking one-sided action, and for what engagements till now was Jehovah disposed to let her make a settlement?
33 Oholibah, representing unfaithful Jerusalem, was not to think that by her coming to hate the Babylonians and turning away from them in soulful disgust she could escape the consequences of her past spiritually immoral connections with them. It was not as easy as all that. The hated Babylonians were not willing to forget her engagements with them. And what about her superior engagements to Jehovah, her husbandly owner? Repentance over her loose conduct with the Babylonians was not repentance toward Jehovah. So He was disposed to let Oholibah settle for the violation of both her obligations to the Babylonians and her obligations to Him by surrendering her into the hands of her estranged lovers, the Babylonians.
34. Oholibah’s being made naked caused the nations to reason how as to the cause therefor?
34 Her nakedness ought to be exposed to all nations by the laying bare of her record as a shameless “streetwalker,” a prostitute out hunting for suckers on a national scale. Her God, whose religious “tent” was in her, must be punishing her for something! If her infidelity and her crimes against him had not been so enormous, her punishment would not have been so great! That was the case with her sister Oholah. So now why not also with her herself?
35. What false reasoning was Oholibah not to indulge in as to there being an exception to the rule concerning consequences?
35 Oholibah was not to think that she was an exception to the rule. Irreversibly her sister Oholah had suffered for certain causes. What historical basis was there, then, for her to think that history would not repeat itself upon her for just the same causes, yes, aggravated causes? Like crimes, like punishment! Jehovah showed in advance that he would make no exception of Oholibah, even though she represented Jerusalem, by saying to her:
36. Because he would make no exception, what cup did Jehovah say Oholibah would drink, and to what extent?
36 “This is what the Sovereign Lord Jehovah has said, ‘The cup of your sister you will drink, the deep and wide one. You will become an object of laughter and derision, the cup containing much. With drunkenness and grief you will be filled, with the cup of astonishment and of desolation, the cup of your sister Samaria. And you will have to drink it and drain it out, and its earthenware fragments you will gnaw, and your breasts you will tear out. “For I myself have spoken,” is the utterance of the Sovereign Lord Jehovah.’”—Ezekiel 23:32-34.
37. Jehovah’s description of the “cup” indicated what about the amount of the potion that Oholibah was to drink, and at what she had to drink why would she be astonished, made drunk, grieved?
37 Apparently for ninety-three years, from the time of Samaria’s destruction in 740 B.C.E. to the beginning of Jerusalem’s “time of the error of the end” in 647 B.C.E., the adulterous Oholibah had time to profit from the historical warning example of her sister Oholah. Unhappily, she did not do so. (Ezekiel 4:6, 7; 21:25) At the hand of her forsaken husbandly owner, Jehovah, she must drink the same kind of potion that her sister Oholah (Samaria) did in 740 B.C.E. Only the cupful thereof will be larger in quantity, “the cup containing much” because it is “the deep and wide one.” She will drink the potion of becoming an “object of laughter and derision” to all the maliciously minded nations round about. She will be astonished at the shame and desolation that will come upon her. Just to think that Jehovah would let this come upon her! The cupful of national destruction, deportation from her God-given homeland and the international disgrace will be enough to make her feel drunk. She will be filled with grief at her own undone condition, not at the reproach that she brought upon the name of her husbandly owner, Jehovah. However great the potion, it will not be more than her due.
38. How did Jehovah figuratively describe how the symbolic Oholibah would pay the full penalty for unfaithfulness to Him?
38 Not a drop of the potion must she fail to drink. Even the moisture that has soaked into the porous absorbent material of the cup she must imbibe by gnawing and crunching the “earthenware fragments” of the cup. To the full she must pay the divine penalty for her unfaithful, adulterous course toward the God of her covenant. What Jehovah spoke concerning her she must undergo. The warning example in the case of her sister was nothing to be flouted!
HOW THE RULE WORKS UPON CHRISTENDOM
39. In view of the experience of symbolic Oholibah and Oholah, what questions arise as to the future of Christendom, and what gives us certainty as to the answers to these questions?
39 Since this rule worked so unerringly with the symbolic Oholah and Oholibah, what now is to be expected with regard to Christendom, the present-day counterpart of these two symbolic sisters, Samaria and Jerusalem? Will Bible history fail to repeat itself upon Christendom? Whereas Oholibah (Jerusalem) drank the same cup as her sister Oholah (Samaria) did for imitating Oholah’s conduct toward Jehovah, will Christendom escape drinking the same cup even though she has imitated the conduct of both Oholah and Oholibah? If the religious clergy and church people of Christendom think so, they are terribly mistaken, forasmuch as the true God, Jehovah, is consistent in all his ways. What makes it more certain that Christendom will experience the repeating of history and drink the same cup as her ancient prototypes is that Jehovah has spoken it in his written Word, in the recorded prophecies of the last book of the Bible.
40. What was it that the symbolic Oholibah would experience by 607 B.C.E. at the hands of her alienated lovers, and to learn about any repeating of history to what must we turn?
40 What was it that Oholibah, like her sister Oholah, was to experience by 607 B.C.E.? For one thing, the turning of her passionate lovers upon her. Their action would result in her being stripped naked; she will be rendered childless, her children being led away captive or falling by the sword of punitive warfare; she will be burned with fire; her queenly dignity will be disgraced, as her royal position among the nations disintegrates. Is anything like that to be repeated in modern history? Listen now to what Jehovah has spoken through Jesus Christ as it booms forth more loudly than ever from the sound track of his written Word:
41 “The waters that you saw, where the harlot is sitting, mean peoples and crowds and nations and tongues. And the ten horns that you saw, and the wild beast [that bears the ten horns upon its seven heads], these will hate the harlot and will make her devastated and naked, and will eat up her fleshy parts and will completely burn her with fire. For God put it into their hearts to carry out his thought, even to carry out their one thought by giving their kingdom to the wild beast, until the words of God will have been accomplished. And the woman whom you saw means the great city that has a kingdom over the kings of the earth.”
42 “Get out of her, my people, if you do not want to share with her in her sins, and if you do not want to receive part of her plagues. For her sins have massed together clear up to heaven, and God has called her acts of injustice to mind. Render to her even as she herself rendered, and do to her twice as much, yes, twice the number of the things she did; in the cup in which she put a mixture put twice as much of the mixture for her. To the extent that she glorified herself and lived in shameless luxury, to that extent give her torment and mourning. For in her heart she keeps saying, ‘I sit a queen, and I am no widow, and I shall never see mourning.’ That is why in one day her plagues will come, death and mourning and famine, and she will be completely burned with fire, because Jehovah God, who judged her, is strong.”
43. With what portrayal of her, whom does Jehovah by his angel identify the harlot as being, in Revelation 17:1-6?
43 To whom do those words of Revelation 17:15-18 and 18:4-8 apply? Who is the “harlot” in this case? From that last book of the Bible Jehovah by his angel speaks in answer: “Come, I will show you the judgment upon the great harlot who sits on many waters, with whom the kings of the earth committed fornication, whereas those who inhabit the earth were made drunk with the wine of her fornication.” “And he carried me away in the power of the spirit into a wilderness. And I caught sight of a woman sitting upon a scarlet-colored wild beast that was full of blasphemous names and that had seven heads and ten horns. And the woman was arrayed in purple and scarlet, and was adorned with gold and precious stone and pearls and had in her hand a golden cup that was full of disgusting things and the unclean things of her fornication. And upon her forehead was written a name, a mystery: ‘Babylon the Great, the mother of the harlots and of the disgusting things of the earth.’ And I saw that the woman was drunk with the blood of the holy ones and with the blood of the witnesses of Jesus.”—Revelation 17:1-6.
44. According to that, had the style of punishing women for adultery and fornication changed with the passing of years, and so punishment like that of whom is Babylon the Great to suffer?
44 Here indeed is foretold a repeating of history that reproduces the historical features of what befell the ancient prostitute, Oholibah. The Biblically described treatment of adulteresses and harlots is seen not to change from what it was in 607 B.C.E., when Oholibah (Jerusalem) was destroyed by the Babylonians, to what is prescribed for adulteresses and harlots in the year 96 C.E., about which time the Christian apostle John wrote the last book of the Bible, Revelation. More than seven hundred years of the passing of time and yet no change! And there is no change foreseen and foretold after the passing of more than eighteen centuries of time since then till now in our twentieth century; for Revelation, chapters seventeen and eighteen, forecasts the events of our present century. Regardless of whatever the symbolic harlot, Babylon the Great, may say in her heart, she must suffer the punishment of women of loose conduct, like ancient Oholah, like Oholibah, at the hands of Jehovah God, who judges her. His style of punishment has not changed!
45. Why is it wishful thinking for Christendom to say within herself that she will not suffer the fate of Babylon the Great of today?
45 Wishful thinking is it for Christendom to say in her heart that she will not suffer the fate of Babylon the Great of today. For years now she has been notified that Babylon the Great stands for the world empire of false Babylonish religion, and of this worldwide religious organization Christendom is the most populous and powerful part. As such she is one of those religious “harlots” of which Babylon the Great is the mother organization.—Revelation 17:5.
46. Consequently, how must Christendom fare at the hands of Jehovah, and since she has shared in the sins of Babylon the Great she must also receive part of what?
46 Consequently, as fares Babylon the Great at the hands of Jehovah God, so must Christendom fare. And inasmuch as Christendom was specifically typed or foreshadowed by the adulterous Oholibah (Jerusalem), this makes it certain that she will share in the disastrous finale of Babylon the Great, which finale closely parallels that of the prostitute Oholibah. Has Christendom shared in the sins of Babylon the Great which have massed together clear up to heaven? Since she has done so, then she must receive part of the plagues of Babylon the Great that are divinely decreed to come “in one day,” namely, death, mourning, famine, “and she will be completely burned with fire,” and this at the hand of her former associates.—Revelation 18:4-8; 17:16.
47, 48. In the words of Ezekiel 23:35, what did Jehovah tell the symbolic Oholibah to do, and so what will Christendom have to do?
47 We might well think of Christendom as Jehovah goes on to relate to his prophet Ezekiel the ungodly conduct of Oholibah (Jerusalem) toward Him, saying: “Therefore this is what the Sovereign Lord Jehovah has said, ‘For the reason that you have forgotten me and you proceeded to cast me behind your back, then you yourself also bear your loose conduct and your acts of prostitution.’”
48 Ancient Oholibah did what she was told to do in these words of Ezekiel 23:35, that is to say, she had to bear the bitter consequences of her spiritually loose conduct and acts of prostitution. Christendom will have to do the same, without fail.
49. According to the historic record, how has Christendom since 1919 shown that she has forgotten Jehovah and cast him behind her back as regards world peace and security, and so what will she not get when her associates turn upon her?
49 We do not have to peer too deeply into the historic record that Christendom has made for herself in order to discern that she has forgotten Jehovah and has cast him behind her back. It is not with Him that she has allied herself and aligned herself in hope of protection and preservation. She has carried on spiritual immorality with the politicians of all the nations. Along with them she has promoted and endorsed that idolatrous “image” of the symbolic wild beast, namely, the United Nations, as the necessary organization for world peace and security. This political “image” is the scarlet-colored wild beast with seven heads and ten horns that Babylon the Great has been riding since it came into existence, originally as the League of Nations in 1919. Since she looks away from Jehovah, she will get no protection and deliverance from Him when her political and secular associates turn upon her in rage to destroy her.—Revelation 13:14, 15; 14:9-11; 17:3-7.
50-52. When will this drastic punishment come upon Christendom, and before then, what must the anointed Ezekiel class do, as indicated in Ezekiel 23:36-42?
50 This drastic punishment will strike Christendom, shortly now, in the approaching “great tribulation such as has not occurred since the world’s beginning.” (Matthew 24:15, 21, 22) But before then, the anointed Ezekiel class whom Jehovah is using today must declare abroad His judicial decisions against Christendom as if pronouncing divine judgment upon her. Indicative of this is what the ancient prophet Ezekiel next tells us, in his account in Ezekiel 23:36-42:
51 “And Jehovah went on to say to me: ‘Son of man, will you judge Oholah and Oholibah and tell them their detestable things? For they have committed adultery and there is blood on their hands, and with their dungy idols they have committed adultery. And, besides that, their sons whom they had borne to me they made pass through the fire to them as food. What is more, this is what they have done to me: They have defiled my sanctuary in that day, and my sabbaths they have profaned. And when they had slaughtered their sons to their dungy idols they even proceeded to come into my sanctuary on that day to profane it, and, look! that is what they have done in the midst of my house. And in addition to that, when they began to send to the men coming from far away, to whom there was sent a messenger, then, look! they came, for whom you had washed yourself, painted your eyes and decked yourself with ornaments. And you sat down upon a glorious couch, with a table set in order before it, and my incense and my oil you put upon it.
52 “‘And the sound of a crowd at ease was in her, and to the men out of the mass of mankind there were drunkards being brought in from the wilderness, and they proceeded to put bracelets on the hands of the women and beautiful crowns upon their heads.’”
FORMAL ACCUSATION AS PRESENTED AGAINST CHRISTENDOM
53, 54. Those words of judgment against Oholah and Oholibah are an indictment also against whom today, and how has the latter been guilty of what is denounced in James 4:4?
53 What an indictment this is of Christendom, as reflected from the ancient prototype of her! This indictment has been presented by the Ezekiel class of today, the anointed Christian witnesses of Ezekiel’s God, Jehovah. Like ancient Oholah and Oholibah, Christendom has committed spiritual adultery against the God whom she professes to worship, the God of the Bible. Deserving of her consideration, therefore, is the Bible question raised in James 4:4, which reads: “Adulteresses, do you not know that the friendship with the world is enmity with God? Whoever, therefore, wants to be a friend of the world is constituting himself an enemy of God.”
54 Christendom’s perpetual friendliness with the politicians, and military forces and the big business profiteers of this world is a public scandal. As the dominant member of the “great harlot,” Babylon the Great, Christendom has been a religious organization “with whom the kings of the earth committed fornication, whereas those who inhabit the earth were made drunk with the wine of her fornication.” Christendom dominates in the symbolic “city that has a kingdom over the kings of the earth.”—Revelation 17:1, 2, 18.
55. What outstanding modern instance is there of the committing of spiritual adultery with idols by the sects of Christendom?
55 The religious sects of Christendom have committed spiritual adultery also “with their dungy idols.” One of the latest and biggest things to be idolized by her is the “image” of the symbolic wild beast of world politics, namely, the United Nations, to which most of the professedly Christian nations belong.—Ezekiel 23:37; Revelation 13:14, 15; 14:9-11; 16:2.
56. How is it true of the sects of Christendom in a sacrificial way that “there is blood on their hands”?
56 And of the religious sects of Christendom can it be said that “there is blood on their hands”? As the ancient Oholah and Oholibah made their sons pass through the sacrificial fire to the dungy idol image of the false god Molech, so the sects of Christendom have caused their sons to shed their blood in sacrifice to the bloodthirsty god Mars, the Roman god of war. All this in the name of what they call Christianity! Christendom’s bloodstained hands testify to the sacrifice of her religious sons by the fanatical savage crusades against the Mohammedans of the Middle East, yes, by wars within her own ranks between Catholics and Protestants, by religious inquisitions with fiendish tortures of those viewed as heretics, by wars between the nations of Christendom that pitted Catholic against Catholic and Protestant against Protestant, by two world wars both of which began right inside Christendom!
57. How have they misrepresented what God’s sanctuary stands for by how they have proceeded to do despite being defiled with blood?
57 Worse still, with utter disrespect for the Bible God, they have, on the day of committing such atrocities, come with blood-drenched hands into what they call God’s sanctuary, even on what they called their sabbath day. In this way they have, in effect, defiled and profaned God’s sanctuary, thus grossly misrepresenting what the true house of God stands for. In disapproval of all this, what a blood account there is for Him to settle with Christendom!
58. How does Oholibah portray Christendom as trying to entice immoral customers, and who are not excluded from the mass of mankind that flocks to her?
58 As portrayed by Oholibah (Jerusalem), we can picture Christendom acting like a professional harlot. She has sought customers, sending out for them to come into alliance with her for unchristian intercourse. See her washing herself to remove any offensive smells! See her making her eyes appear larger and more lustrous by painting them! See her decking herself with ornaments to make herself look irresistibly enticing! See her putting herself in a reclining position upon a glorious couch with a table put in front of it! The incense burning upon it and the perfumed oil put upon it for rubbing purposes she took away from what really belongs to God. In response to the messenger she sent out, her enticed customers were to come from all the secular parts of this world that is at enmity with Jehovah God. Her brothel becomes the location from which, despite closed doors and windows, issues the sound of a crowd at ease and yielding themselves to sensual pleasures. A mass of mankind have flocked to her as for sexual satisfaction. Have drunkards been added to that indiscriminate mass as welcome? Yes, even though they come from such a low class as is to be found in the wilderness.
59. Because Christendom has made religion an easy thing, what elements of human society have been herded to her, and in what sense have they put bracelets on her wrists and crowns on her head?
59 Because Christendom’s sects made religion easy for such worldlings, and because they could join her as church members and at the same time continue to be a part of this selfish, idolatrous, bloodstained world, all these elements of human society let themselves be herded into harlot-like Christendom. As payment for whatever religious favors that brought them sensual pleasure, they glorified her. As it were, to beautify her blood-reddened hands they put bracelets on her wrists, and they set beautiful crowns upon the heads of her sects, thereby giving the clergy some religious headship over their lives. This has become an old custom.
60. What are the indications as to whether Christendom will stop her spiritual immorality, and to what end must “righteous men” be used, these executing the judgments applied to what sort of women?
60 Yet, is this to go on forever, or will it go beyond this generation of ours? Not according to what Jehovah now tells Ezekiel in these words: “Then I said respecting her who was worn out with adultery, ‘Now she will keep on committing her prostitution, even she herself.’ And they kept on coming in to her, just as one comes in to a woman that is a prostitute; in that manner they came in to Oholah and to Oholibah as women of loose conduct. But as regards righteous men, they are the ones that will judge her with the judgment for adulteresses and with the judgment for female shedders of blood; for adulteresses are what they are, and there is blood on their hands.” (Ezekiel 23:43-45) Accordingly, since Christendom will not stop “committing her prostitution, even she herself,” then a stop must be put to her committing spiritual prostitution by having others execute upon her the judgment for adulteresses and the judgment for women guilty of shedding blood willfully.
THE “RIGHTEOUS MEN” FOR JUDGING CHRISTENDOM
61. Who, then, are the “righteous men” that execute judgment upon the symbolic Oholibah?
61 Who, though, are those “righteous men” that will execute judgment upon her? Not Ezekiel and his fellow exiles Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah, nor the prophet Jeremiah at Jerusalem and his secretary Baruch and his friends Ebed-melech the Ethiopian and the household of the Rechabites. (Ezekiel 14:14, 20; Daniel 1:1-7; Jeremiah 35:1-19; 36:4-32; 45:1-5) These approved men had no part whatsoever in executing the judgment of Jehovah upon Oholibah (Jerusalem) in the years 609-607 B.C.E. Rather, it was the Assyrians who destroyed Oholah (Samaria) in 740 B.C.E., and Babylonians who destroyed Oholibah (Jerusalem) in 607 B.C.E.
62. Since Jehovah’s executioners back there were pagans, in what way could they be called “righteous men,” and, similarly who are the “righteous men” used as executioners in our day?
62 Consequently, the “righteous men” here meant are the former passionate lovers of Oholibah (Jerusalem) from whom her soul finally turns away in disgust and who therefore turn upon her and bring her to ruin. But how could such ones, the Babylonian executioners of judgment, be called “righteous men” inasmuch as they were pagans? It was in a comparative sense. So great was the wickedness of Oholibah (Jerusalem) in Jehovah’s sight, that the Babylonians whom He used as his executioners were comparatively “righteous” in His sight. Because of so flagrantly violating her sacred covenant with Jehovah as her God, Oholibah (Jerusalem) was far more reprehensible than the pagan Babylonians. Furthermore, they were executing the “righteous” judgment of Jehovah upon Oholibah (Jerusalem), the judgment that is deserving for adulteresses and female shedders of blood. (Ezekiel 23:22-27) Similarly, in our day the “righteous men” are not Jehovah’s Christian witnesses, but are Christendom’s onetime worldly associates who get to hating her and who turn upon her to execute God’s sentence upon her.
63. How is the identity of those “righteous men” confirmed in Jehovah’s final words concerning Oholibah?
63 That this is the correct understanding of who those “righteous men” are is confirmed by Jehovah’s final words concerning Oholibah: “For this is what the Sovereign Lord Jehovah has said, ‘There will be the bringing up of a congregation against them and a making of them a frightful object and something to plunder. And the congregation must pelt them with stones, and there will be a cutting of them down with their swords. Their sons and their daughters they will kill, and with fire their houses they will burn. And I shall certainly cause loose conduct to cease out of the land, and all the women will have to let themselves be corrected, so that they will not do according to your loose conduct. And they must bring your loose conduct upon you, and the sins of your dungy idols you will bear; and you people will have to know that I am the Sovereign Lord Jehovah.’”—Ezekiel 23:46-49.
64. How did Jehovah bring up against Oholibah a “congregation” of plunderers, wielders of swords, stoners, desolaters and burners, and cleansers of immoral conduct, and to whom did she become a frightful, corrective warning example?
64 The congregation of Babylonian soldiers that Jehovah brought up against Oholibah (Jerusalem) did make her a frightful object in 607 B.C.E., breaching her sturdy walls, invading her, looting her, carrying away the plunder, and burning her with fire. (2 Kings 25:1-17; 2 Chronicles 36:17-19; Jeremiah 52:6-23) Doubtless the stones that the Babylonians hurled into the city during the long siege were of considerable size, doing much damage and causing many deaths. Besides that, many of Jerusalem’s sons and daughters were dispatched by Babylonian swords upon the breakthrough into the city and thereafter. The firing of all the combustible houses that remained completed the desolation. Thus spiritually loose conduct and idolatry were made to cease out of the land of Judah by the destruction of Oholibah (Jerusalem). Terrible were the consequences that came upon her for committing such detestable things in Jehovah’s sight. What befell her should have been a warning to other “women,” that is, nations, not to follow her example.
65. In view of the warning example of Oholibah, what question arises as to Christendom, and whom will Jehovah bring up against her because of her course?
65 Has Christendom let herself be corrected by the warning example of Oholibah (Jerusalem) so as not to imitate her spiritually loose conduct and worship of dungy idols? In answer it must be said that Oholibah did not take heed to the warning example of her sister Oholah (Samaria), and neither will Christendom take heed to the warning example of the heedless Oholibah (Jerusalem). She is doomed to be plundered and made a frightful object mass of ruins. Not for long will her present friendship and sharing of her bed of immoral love with the worldly elements of this system of things continue. Her political, military, and other secular lovers will see reason to hate this worn-out old harlot and will turn upon her in rage. Jehovah will bring them up against her as an army of executioners of his righteous judgment, and false hypocritical Christianity will be burned out of the earth. Frightful will be the ruin of this symbolic woman, Christendom, that did not let herself be corrected by the warning examples recorded in Jehovah’s Word. No one can ignore those warning examples and get by with it!
66. What is the purpose behind having all this take place, what will Christendom experience according to Jehovah’s warning examples, and who today should take note respecting this?
66 There is a purpose behind having all this take place. What is it? It is the divine purpose: “And you people will have to know that I am the Sovereign Lord Jehovah.” (Ezekiel 23:49) Those words should be taken to heart by us. It was the name of the Sovereign Lord Jehovah that was involved with the terrible events of divine judgment in the year 607 B.C.E. In his own name Jehovah had foretold those events by his prophets. In vindication of his own name He as Sovereign Lord irresistibly caused them to occur as the execution of His judicial decisions. Let all ignorers of Jehovah today take note. Relish it or not, the approaching destruction of Christendom will be according to His warning examples, his prophecies and his irreversible decrees. Thereby people will have to know that He, the Fulfiller of his unchangeable Word, is Jehovah.
67. What will then be the effect of this upon those of us who already have a knowledge of the Sovereign Lord God?
67 All those of us who have already come peacefully to a knowledge of this Sovereign Lord will thereby have that divine purpose mightily confirmed to us. More convinced than ever before, we shall know in an awe-inspiring way that He is Jehovah indeed and thus we will reverence him more fully than ever before. | <urn:uuid:8a85980a-a0c8-40e5-aa09-1276f84fd091> | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1101971013 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578716619.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20190425094105-20190425120105-00189.warc.gz | en | 0.97376 | 13,424 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Security Trade-Offs in Crayfish
The experiments offered the crayfish stark decisions -- a choice between finding their next meal and becoming a meal for an apparent predator. In deciding on a course of action, they carefully weighed the risk of attack against the expected reward, Herberholz says.
Using a non-invasive method that allowed the crustaceans to freely move, the researchers offered juvenile Louisiana Red Swamp crayfish a simultaneous threat and reward: ahead lay the scent of food, but also the apparent approach of a predator.
In some cases, the "predator" (actually a shadow) appeared to be moving swiftly, in others slowly. To up the ante, the researchers also varied the intensity of the odor of food.
How would the animals react? Did the risk of being eaten outweigh their desire to feed? Should they "freeze" -- in effect, play dead, hoping the predator would pass by, while the crayfish remained close to its meal -- or move away from both the predator and food?
To make a quick escape, the crayfish flip their tails and swim backwards, an action preceded by a strong, measurable electric neural impulse. The specially designed tanks could non-invasively pick up and record these electrical signals. This allowed the researchers to identify the activation patterns of specific neurons during the decision-making process.
Although tail-flipping is a very effective escape strategy against natural predators, it adds critical distance between a foraging animal and its next meal.
The crayfish took decisive action in a matter of milliseconds. When faced with very fast shadows, they were significantly more likely to freeze than tail-flip away.
The researchers conclude that there is little incentive for retreat when the predator appears to be moving too rapidly for escape, and the crayfish would lose its own opportunity to eat. This was also true when the food odor was the strongest, raising the benefit of staying close to the expected reward. A strong predator stimulus, however, was able to override an attractive food signal, and crayfish decided to flip away under these conditions.
It's not that this surprises anyone, it's that researchers can now try and figure out the exact brain processes that enable the crayfish to make these decisions.
Posted on June 25, 2010 at 6:53 AM • 15 Comments | <urn:uuid:1d808b29-3ea3-403e-922f-b28f71e9e275> | CC-MAIN-2016-07 | https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2010/06/security_trade-_1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-07/segments/1454701160822.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160205193920-00203-ip-10-236-182-209.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965048 | 482 | 3.21875 | 3 |
Care and support initiatives for People Living with HIV were started way back in 2004, but child specific programs did not find a prominent place within its framework. Over the past decade, infected and affected children have received clinical services from the government. However, other needs such as nutrition, education, and protection require support. Today, despite several efforts in ensuring comprehensive services for children affected by AIDS, there exist gaps in the following areas:
Economic Assistance : During the current fy (2017-18) nearly 3594 children’s has been financial assisted and Rs.82.28 lakhs has been released to them.
Reducing the vulnerability of children in terms of preventing child labor, child trafficking and child-headed households.
Upholding the basic Rights of children- including education.
TANSACS took this forward and requested the State Government to form a Trust for children. The State Government of Tamil Nadu established a trust in the name of “Tamilnadu Trust for Children Affected by AIDS” (TNTCAA), to address the needs of HIV-infected and affected children in the State and protect their Rights. The objectives of this Trust, was to provide continuous support for medical, educational, nutritional and economic assistance to children aged- between 0 and 18 years- affected by HIV/ AIDS.
In this regard, we have also initiated an appeal to the corporate and business houses to support these children for their educational aid, nutritional sustenance and economic espousal.
Key initiatives during this financial year
Instructions of the Project Director, TANSACS to cover more number of Orphan & Vulnerable children.
A New system of Enumeration / Profiling done at the district level by involving the district level staffsand other key stake holders.
New Line listing format developed & Orientated to all the Peripheral staffs at regional level.
Nearly 4099 Orphan & Vulnerable children availed the benefits through ECS directly tothe Savings Bank Account of the Children. | <urn:uuid:d3a2e049-c88d-4791-90a3-841f2b36e455> | CC-MAIN-2018-17 | http://tnsacs.in/new_initiatives.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-17/segments/1524125945143.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20180421110245-20180421130245-00013.warc.gz | en | 0.961168 | 411 | 2.515625 | 3 |
A BBC Micro expansion unit, for the BBC Micro is one of a number of peripherals in a box with the same profile and styling as the main computer.
The second processors are connected to Acorn's proprietary and trademarked Tube interface. Only one second processor could be connected at a time. The terminology of second processor was slightly misleading, since connected and switched on, the system worked on a "master-slave" model, with the processor in the external unit taking control while the 6502 in the "main" computer simply took on responsibility for I/O.
6502 Second Processor
The 6502 Second Processor (using a 65C02) was clocked at 3MHz, a full 50% faster than the 6502 inside a BBC Model B, and also had 64kB of RAM, of which typically 30–44kB was free for application data (compared to as little as 8½kB on an unexpanded Model B in graphics mode, or even less with the disc interface).
A version of BBC BASIC, called Hi-BASIC was produced on ROM for this processor. (A version of BASIC II) | <urn:uuid:41d61e23-e5e8-4afa-8c89-e59db9bcf576> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://wn.com/BBC_Micro_expansion_units | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570827.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20220808122331-20220808152331-00771.warc.gz | en | 0.967794 | 237 | 2.734375 | 3 |
The missing element of stamp design
When Richard McPherren Cabeen wrote his Standard Handbook of Stamp Collecting 50 years ago, he dedicated at least one chapter to stamp design, and he identified three elements that should be present on every stamp.
“The design of a stamp should contain elements which will cause it to be recognized wherever it may travel as postage on a letter,” wrote Mr. Cabeen. “It should indicate the intended use, the country of origin, and the face value in the currency of the country.” Wouldn’t he be surprised to see current United States stamps!
Of the three elements Mr. Cabeen identified, the one that we can unequivocally say still appears on all U.S. stamps is the country name, often rendered as “USA.”
An argument might be made that the intended use is also still indicated by the word “Forever,” or by the various phrases found on the new stamps issued in connection with the most recent rate changes. By “intended use,” Mr. Cabeen meant an inscription indicating whether a stamp was regular postage, or air mail, or official. The newer inscriptions could be read to mean, “This stamp is intended to pay postage on a two-ounce letter,” or, “This stamp is intended to pay postage on a letter being mailed globally.”
What’s missing from most modern United States stamps, however, is the face value. To be certain, there are plenty of arguments in favor of having “Forever” stamps that are always valid for mailing a regular letter with no makeup postage needed. For example, the need for makeup stamps is largely eliminated. Quite frankly, the USPS could probably save some more money by not coming up with multiple new designs for certain rates every year; think back to when a set of definitives would be used for years, if not decades.
There’s something about a specified value, though, that to me makes a stamp look like a stamp. Maybe it’s not as big a deal as perforations, or the die cutting intended to mimic the appearance of perforations on modern self-adhesives, without which a stamp doesn’t quite look like a stamp. But I think it does make a difference. A specified face value is a visual cue that indicates a stamp is worth something, and without it, that stamp looks more like a sticker.
What’s your opinion? Does a face value on a stamp make it look more like a stamp, or does it not really matter?
Published 2015-06-17 Last updated 2021-01-17 | <urn:uuid:1c729138-e2d8-4a24-90b0-4bfdcbaf775a> | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | https://www.philosateleia.com/blog/entries/the-missing-element-of-stamp-design/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662509990.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20220516041337-20220516071337-00018.warc.gz | en | 0.945718 | 557 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Statistics are mathematical computations used to analyze data. Tools of statistical analysis can describe, summarize and compare data. There are various tools that can analyze statistical data. These range from relatively simple computations to advanced analysis. Basic analyses can be easily computed, while more advanced methods require a solid understanding of advanced statistics as well as specialized computer software.
Descriptive analysis uses specific tools to describe data. These are relatively simple calculations that give a basic picture of what the data looks like overall. Descriptive tools include: frequency, percentages and measures of central tendency. Frequency tells how many times something has occurred in a data set. Percentages are calculations that show a proportion. Measures of central tendency are represented by the mean, median and mode. These tools describe the central point (median), the most common (mode) or the average (mean) for a specific variable.
Moderate statistical analysis tools look at the relationships between variables -- what the nature of these relationships are and if they are significant. These include correlation and regression. A correlation describes the relationship between two variables as well as the direction and strength of that relationship. Regression can show if a variable predicts another variable. Like correlation, however, regression does not show causation.
Advanced analyses include calculations of variance. These can help a researcher see what variety exists in the data, as well as positive outcomes in the research. In order to calculate variance, a researcher must use the standard deviation. A standard deviation measures the degree that an individual value varies from the mean or average. Once the standard deviation is known, analysis of variance can be conducted. An analysis of variance or ANOVA is used to compare the difference in the means or averages of variable groups. This will show if an outcome from one group is statistically different from the outcome for another group. An Analysis of Covariance, or ANACOVA, is a tool that can be used for experimental research designs. ANACOVA will tell the researcher the variance between pre- and post-test data. | <urn:uuid:3250c376-0bd2-4252-9427-ae41acc49342> | CC-MAIN-2018-09 | https://sciencing.com/statistical-analysis-tools-7615246.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-09/segments/1518891817523.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20180225225657-20180226005657-00558.warc.gz | en | 0.918582 | 407 | 4.25 | 4 |
Joseph Smith: The Making of a Prophet
by Dan Vogel
Alma II Combats Universalism
Early into the dictation of the Book of Mormon, Oliver Cowdery and Joseph Smith traveled up the Susquehanna River to Colesville to ask for financial and material assistance from Joseph Knight. On this occasion, Smith’s seership failed, for Knight was away on business and Joseph and Oliver had to return home empty handed. It is unknown if Joseph stayed long enough to discuss the contents of the translation with his “Universalist friends or brethren”—other members of the Knight family, for instance.1 If he did, the prophet Abinadi’s confrontation with King Noah’s priests would have been particularly meaningful to them. In fact, Smith’s dictation was about to condemn Universalist doctrine more explicitly and forcefully.
Joseph Knight remembered that shortly after Joseph’s and Oliver’s visit, he went to Harmony with various supplies including “a barrel of mackerel and some lined paper for writing and … some nine or ten bushels of grain and five or six bushels [of] taters [potatoes] and a pound of tea.” Knight said that Smith and Cowdery were not home when he arrived, having gone to look for work. When they returned jobless, they were undoubtedly relieved to find Knight and his supplies. Their friend had brought enough goods to carry them through the end of the project.2
Joseph dictated the Book of Alma around mid-April. Completing what would be the largest single text within the Book of Mormon. Its superscription reads:
The Account of Alma, who was the son of Alma, the first, and Chief Judge over the people of Nephi, and also the High Priest over the Church. An account of the reign of the Judges, and the wars and contentions among the people. And also an account of a war between the Nephites and the Lamanites, according to the record of Alma, the first and chief Judge.
Even though this indicates that the book will deal with political and military activities, Smith’s dictation will focus primarily on Alma’s activities as a reformer, missionary, and defender of the faith.
The book begins with the first year of the reign of the judges, about 91 B.C., when a man named Nehor begins preaching Universalist doctrine. Specifically, he teaches that “all mankind should be saved at the last day, and that they need not fear nor tremble, but that they might lift up their hands and rejoice; for the Lord had created all men, and had also redeemed all men; and, in the end, all men should have eternal life” (Alma 1:3-4). While wicked King Noah’s priests taught doctrine consistent with Universalism, Nehor is the founder the Nephite Universalist sect often referred to as the “order of Nehor.”3
That the Book of Mormon confronts Universalism was noticed by friend and foe. Ohio newspaperman E. D. Howe expressed this assumption in 1834 when he wrote that “the name of our ancient Universalist is called Nehor.”4 A four-page index published by Mormons, probably in Kirtland, Ohio, in 1835, under the title References to the Book of Mormon listed “Nehor the Universalian” and “Amlici the Universalist.”5 The well-known Disciples of Christ founder, Alexander Campbell, mentioned in 1831 that the Book of Mormon “decides all the great controversies,” including “eternal punishment.”6
Not surprisingly, anyone who believed in universal salvation was sensitive to the Book of Mormon’s condemnation of it. Sylvester Smith noted in 1833 that “the Universalist says it [the Book of Mormon] reproaches his creed.”7 A Unitarian newspaper editor in Montrose, Pennsylvania, in 1832 sarcastically advised anti-Universalists frustrated with the “want of a positive declaration” in the Bible establishing the “doctrine of endless torment” to become “Mormonites” and “acquaint themselves with the Mormon Bible,” from which “they can then quote the language of Nephi, Mosiah, Alma or Mormon—and that is explicit.”8 Prior to his conversion, Eli Gilbert of Connecticut read the Book of Mormon “just after its publication” and noticed that “it bore hard upon my favorite notions of universal salvation.”9 According to Smith family tradition, Joseph’s grandfather Asael Smith, shortly before his death on 1 November 1830, denounced his own belief in Universalism after reading the Book of Mormon.10
In Joseph Smith’s dictation, Nehor wins converts and founds a church and then begins to contend against the established “church of God” headed by Alma II. One day Nehor runs into the orthodox Gideon, who begins to debate him. As Gideon gets the upper hand, Nehor draws his sword and kills him. He is immediately seized by members of Gideon’s church and taken to Alma, the chief judge, who condemns him for priestcraft and murder. Nehor is taken to the top of a hill and hanged, although not before “acknowledg[ing], between the heavens and the earth, that what he had taught to the people was contrary to the word of God; and there he suffered an ignominious death” (1:15).
Nehor’s aggression against Gideon dramatized the anxiety the orthodox in America had regarding Universalists, who they felt were a threat to public safety because they did not fear God’s punishment. In a 1775 attack on John Murray’s Universalist teachings, Andrew Croswell called Universalism the “murdering gospel,” explaining: “How easily can satan persuade a man to gratify his revenge, or avarice, by shedding his brother’s blood, who believes … that all murderers shall have eternal life? The shocking accounts we have heard or read of murders, are nothing for number to what they would have been, if this bloody gospel had been commonly received.”11 The same accusation was made in the Methodist Magazine in 1820: “What security has any man, that he will not be murdered in his bed, by the villain, who believes and declares, there is no future punishment? who laughs at the notion of a devil and a hell, as mere nursery tales, trumped up for the purpose of scaring little children, and keeping them in awe?”12
Public executions of Universalists who had committed murder were exploited as an opportunity to preach against universal restoration. The Gospel Advocate, a Universalist periodical, took occasion in 1825 to respond to this criticism. Citing examples of orthodox executions, the Advocate complained that “nothing was said” concerning their beliefs or that their “faith … [was] the cause of sin.” When a Universalist was executed, the Advocate continued, it was said to be “a fit opportunity to create or strengthen prejudice against Universalism, by assuring the crowd that the unhappy objects before their eyes entertained that faith, and that under its influence, they were impelled to dip their hands in the blood of murder.” The Advocate accused orthodox ministers of having filled execution sermons with distortion and of having given evidence of their own hypocrisy in “encourag[ing] people to deceive and lie, while they stand on the gallows and see their brethren sent into eternity by an ignominious death!”13
The lesson for Universalists in Nehor’s story was clear. Just as Nehor suffered death for breaking the law, he would suffer eternal death for disobeying God’s commandments; and just as he acknowledged his error “between the heavens and the earth,” so too, he would suffer “between death and the resurrection” as Alma would later express (40:11-14). Despite their Universalist beliefs, followers of Nehor had learned respect for human retribution and did not lie, steal, or murder for “fear of the law” (1:17-18; cf. 42:19-20). Thus, the Book of Mormon echoed one Methodist’s argument in 1820 that “every civilized society has wisely provided against such evils … commanding respect to the majesty of its laws, by inflicting the sanctions of punishments: and that if a villain were to [murder,] … he would be hung. So then,” the writer concluded, it is unreasonable that “the law of God [is] devoid of power to enforce obedience! … This surely cannot be consistent with the dictates of either reason or justice, that a man shall pay the forfeit of his life to the violated law, that embraces his existence, as a member of civil society; and yet be a transgressor of that law which is immutable and eternal in its obligations, and escape condemnation.”14
Even Restorationists criticized ultra-Universalists for rejecting God’s punishment. The Christian Herald of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, stated in 1818 that Universalism “leads to licentiousness, and encourages the wicked to live in open rebellion against God. And he who believes it will conclude that faith and repentance, &c. is nothing, and that he need not trouble himself concerning his present or future situation, and may live according to the course of this world, and be happy at last.”15 Echoing Smith’s reasoning, this source declared: “Did you ever know any reformation among any people where they were taught to believe that there was no future punishment?”16
In the Book of Mormon, the Universalist sect thrives despite Nehor’s execution. The group becomes so influential that in about 87 B.C., they attempt to establish one of their own men—Amlici—as king (2:1-2). After “much dispute and wonderful contentions” (v. 5), Amlici is defeated by “the voice of the people” (vv. 4-7). Nevertheless, he and his followers unite with the Lamanites to promote rebellion and civil war. When the Nephites slaughter the Amlicites, Alma himself killing Amlici, Mormon editorializes that “in one year were thousands and tens of thousands of souls sent to the eternal world, that they might reap their rewards according to their works, whether they were good or whether they were bad, to reap eternal happiness or eternal misery, according to the spirit which they listed to obey, whether it be a good spirit or a bad one” (3:26). The exact number slain is 12,532 Amlicites and 6,562 loyal Nephites, for a total of 19,094, which is an inflated if not wholly unrealistic number (2:19).17
In describing the location of this battle, Mormon makes the first references to the book’s internal geography. Without giving a clue as to where in the Americas the events may have occurred, Mormon mentions local details such as that the “Amlicites came upon the hill Amnihu, which was east of the river Sidon, which ran by the land of Zarahemla” (2:15). Subsequent passages reveal that the city Zarahemla is situated on the west side of the Sidon River which empties into the “sea” (2:26-27; 3:3). Without thinking about broad geographic references, Smith may have associated Zarahemla with Susquehanna Depot, just across the Susquehanna River from Harmony, and the hill Amnihu with Oquago Mountain to the north, where he once searched for Spanish treasure.18 He may have associated the Susquehanna Valley, which is situated on the east side of the river, with the valley of Gideon (2:26-27; 6:7) and pictured himself as a resident of the city of Gideon, named after a man who had been persecuted for his anti-Universalism. Thus, Smith would have been at the center of his narrative both geographically and emotionally.
About 83 B.C., Alma gives up his judgment seat to Nephihah, a leading elder of the church, and becomes a missionary traveling throughout Nephite lands preaching religious and social reform (4:15-20). Among Alma’s concerns are inequalities and contentions within the church, the pride of its wealthy members, expensive apparel, and uncharitable attitudes toward the poor (vv. 6-15). Alma begins his mission in the capital city of Zarahemla where he calls the church to repentance in true revivalistic fashion.
Much like Jonathan Edwards and the preachers of the First Great Awakening, and to some extent those of the Second Great Awakening, Alma reminds this second generation of faithful church members of their parents’ spiritual conversion near the waters of Mormon in response to his father’s preaching. “Behold, [God] changed their hearts,” Alma declares.
Yea, he [God] awakened them out of a deep sleep, and they awoke unto God. Behold, they were in the midst of darkness; nevertheless, their souls were illuminated by the light of the everlasting word; yea, they were encircled about by the bands of death, and the chains of hell, and an everlasting destruction did await them. … Were the bands of death broken, and the chains of hell which encircled them about, were they loosed? I say unto you, Yea, they were loosed, and their souls did expand, and they did sing redeeming love. And I say unto you that they are saved. (5:7, 9)
In Joseph’s day, this was the language of preachers, as well as that of Methodist exhorters, such as Joseph had been. As early as 1887, the Reverend M. T. Lamb had noted that non-biblical phrases such as “souls did expand” and “sing redeeming love” were “modern camp-meeting expressions.”19 Alma’s sermon draws loosely on a favorite revivalistic passage, Ephesians 5:14—“Awake, thou that sleepest, and arise from the dead, and Christ shall give thee light.” Note the metaphorical imagery of awakening from sleep, rising from the dead, and moving from darkness into the light in both Ephesians and Alma’s sermon. Notice also how this same New Testament passage influenced Charles Wesley’s 1772 sermon:
By sleep is signified the natural state of man; that deep sleep of the soul, … wherein every man comes into the world, and continues till the voice of God awakes him. … The state of nature is a state of utter darkness; … The poor unawakened sinner … sees no necessity for the one thing needful, even that inward universal change, that “birth from above.” … Wherefore, “awake, thou that sleepest, and arise from the dead.” God calleth thee now by my mouth; … Awake, awake! Stand up this moment, lest thou “drink at the Lord’s hand the cup of his fury.” … The night is far spent, the morning is at hand, when thou art to be brought forth to execution. And in these dreadful circumstances, … thou art fast asleep in the devil’s arms, on the brink of the pit, in the jaws of everlasting destruction! … Awake, thou everlasting spirit, out of thy dream of worldly happiness! … Hast thou recovered the image of God, even righteousness and true holiness? Hast thou put off the old man, and put on the new? Art thou clothed upon with Christ? … Now, “awake, thou that sleepest” in spiritual death, that thou sleep not in death eternal! Feel thy lost estate, and “arise from the dead.” … If thou even now “awakest, and arisest from the dead,” he hath bound himself to “give thee light.” … For Christ shall reveal himself in thee: and he is the true Light. God is light, and will give himself to every awakened sinner that waiteth for him. …20
In another passage, where the revivalism is unmistakable, Alma sounds like Charles Wesley when he asks his audience:
Have ye spiritually been born of God? Have ye received his image in your countenances? Have ye experienced this mighty change in your hearts? Do ye exercise faith in the redemption of him who created you? Do you look forward with an eye of faith, and view this mortal body raised in immortality, and this corruption raised in incorruption, to stand before God to be judged according to the deeds which have been done in the mortal body?” (5:14-15)
In calling his audience to repentance, Alma does so with terminology which is especially pertinent to Universalists. He asks if the righteous and wicked can co-mingle in heaven, then declares: “I say unto you, Nay; except ye make our Creator a liar from the beginning” (5:22-25). The rhetoric implies that God will punish sinners. Alma goes on to remind his audience that Christ “will come to redeem his people from their sins” (v. 27; emphasis added), which recalls Abinadi’s words in Mosiah 15:12 and the anti-Universalist play on Matthew 1:21.21
Having laid the foundation for repentance, Alma pleads in words not unfamiliar to the nineteenth-century revivalist: “Could ye say, if ye were called to die at this time, within yourselves, that ye have been sufficiently humble? That your garments have been cleansed and made white through the blood of Christ?” (5:27). Alma mentions pride and envy as specific sins that would exclude a person from heaven, but in light of his Harmony persecutions, Joseph Smith must have received some gratification when Alma further declares: “Is there one among you that doth make a mock of his brother, or that heapeth upon him persecutions? Wo unto such an one, for he is not prepared, and the time is at hand that he must repent or he cannot be saved!” (vv. 30-31). Smith seems to rail at his persecutors through the voice of Alma: “O ye workers of iniquity; ye that are puffed up in the vain things of the world, ye that have professed to have known the ways of righteousness nevertheless have gone astray” (v. 37). Using a mixture of New Testament passages and nineteenth-century revivalisms, Alma calls his audience to repentance (vv. 32-42).
In declaring the authority by which he preaches, Alma’s words reflect Smith’s own religious experience: “Behold, I have fasted and prayed many days that I might know these things of myself. And now I do know of myself that they are true; for the Lord God hath made them manifest unto me by his Holy Spirit; and this is the spirit of revelation which is in me” (5:46). Through Alma, Smith states the self-evident nature of his mission: “For I say unto you that whatsoever is good cometh from God, and whatsoever is evil cometh from the devil” (v. 40). In other words, despite the fact that Smith was unbaptized and unordained and, one might add, despite the fact that the Book of Mormon narrative was not a literal history from an authentic artifact, it was God’s work because it fulfilled righteous purposes.22
Alma relates a series of revelations he has received that are obviously influenced by John the Baptist’s preaching in the New Testament. “Thus saith the Spirit,” Alma begins:
Repent, all ye ends of the earth, for the kingdom of heaven is soon at hand; yea, the Son of God cometh in his glory, in his might, majesty, power, and dominion. …
Behold, the ax is laid at the root of the tree; therefore every tree that bringeth not forth good fruit shall be hewn down and cast into the fire, yea, a fire which cannot be consumed, even an unquenchable fire. (Alma 5:50-52)
Repent ye: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.
And now also the axe is laid unto the root of the trees; therefore every tree which bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down, and cast into the fire. (Matt. 3:10)
Of course, Smith was not troubled by such obvious borrowing because the similarity in wording was due to a similarity in inspiration, both prophets having been inspired by the Holy Spirit.
Alma chastizes his audience by drawing attention to pride and “costly apparel” (5:53), a favorite topic for Puritan ministers, who frequently cited such things as signs of spiritual decline and the cause of calamity. In his 1676 Earnest Exhortation to the Inhabitants of New-England, Increase Mather remarked: “And how have the Blessings of God been abused to nourish pride? There hath been no small provocation before the Lord in that thing, yea as to Pride in respect of Apparel.”23 Embarrassment over the display of wealth persisted into Joseph Smith’s day. In a review of the Book of Mormon in 1834, Unitarian Jason Whitman noted that “in some minds, there is a prejudice against fine clothing, or even against decent apparel, as indicating pride in the wearer. Those, who are under the influence of this prejudice, find something in the Book of Mormon to suit their taste.”24 Although the Bible condemns adornment and recommends simple dress (e.g., 1 Pet. 3:3-4; 1 Tim. 2:9-10), the term “costly apparel” is not used in the King James Version. The term appears frequently in sermons. The Methodist Doctrines and Discipline denounced “superfluity of apparel” and instructed a yearly reading of John Wesley’s sermon “On Dress,” which makes several references to “costly apparel.”25 In this well-known speech, Wesley declared that “wearing gay or costly apparel naturally tends to breed and to increase vanity” and that those who frivolously spend their money on “costly apparel” rob the poor.26
Alma expands on this idea of the rich robbing from the poor: “Yea, will ye persist in supposing that ye are better one than another; yea, will ye persist in the persecution of your brethren, … and … in turning your backs upon the poor, and the needy, and in withholding your substance from them?” (5:54). The fact that Alma narrowly defines persecution in terms of the church members ignoring the poor rather than as violence against believers at the hand of unbelievers, for instance, indicates that the most common form of persecution Smith received was probably from the Harmony Methodists, demonstrated by his near eviction by his father-in-law and his need to call on friends outside Harmony for help. Smith, through Alma, charges that such hypocrites “shall be hewn down and cast into the fire except they speedily repent” (v. 56; cf. Matt. 3:10). Alma closes his sermon in a typically revivalistic fashion by calling on his audience to repent and leave the materialistic world behind (vv. 57, 60).
Following his sermon, Alma ordains priests and elders by the laying on of hands (6:1; cf. 4:7, 16). The appearance of the office of elder, not previously seen in Alma I’s wilderness church (Mosiah 18), is perhaps associated with the need for spiritual reformation, charismatic leadership, and the power to excommunicate. Smith later associates these responsibilities with the apostleship (Moro. 3:1) or eldership (Doctrine and Covenants 20; hereafter D&C). Meanwhile, Alma baptizes new members and excommunicates the unrepentant, then like a Methodist circuit rider sets off for the city of Gideon (6:1-8).
In moving to the next phase of Alma’s mission, Mormon announces: The words of Alma which he delivered to the people in Gideon, according to his own record. Although the inhabitants of Gideon are members of the church in good standing (7:22, 26), Alma’s sermon nevertheless dwells on repentance and reformation. Saying what John the Baptist would proclaim more than a century later, Alma declares:
Repent ye, and prepare the way of the Lord, and walk in his paths, which are straight; for behold, the kingdom of heaven is at hand, and the Son of God cometh upon the face of the earth. (Alma 7:9)
Repent ye: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand. …Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight. (Matt. 3:2-3; fc. Isa. 40:3)
Significantly, Alma twice alludes to John the Baptist, which may have been intentional to the extent that Smith saw himself and his work as preparing the way for Jesus’ second advent.27
Alma then prophesies that “the time is not far distant that the Redeemer liveth and cometh among his people” (7:7). At this point, Alma makes a qualification that hints at what will become the centerpiece in the Book of Mormon—the visit of the resurrected Jesus to America: “Behold, I do not say that he will come among us at the time of his dwelling in his mortal tabernacle; for behold, the Spirit hath not said unto me that this should be the case” (v. 8). While Alma excludes a mortal ministry of Jesus in the New World, he opens the door for a post-resurrection ministry.
Despite his incomplete vision of God’s plans for the New World, Alma sees Jesus’ Palestinian ministry with a clarity unknown to Old Testament prophets. The Redeemer, Alma declares,
shall be born of Mary, at Jerusalem28 which is the land of our forefathers, she being a virgin, a precious and chosen vessel, who shall be overshadowed and conceive by the power of the Holy Ghost, and bring forth a son, yea, even the Son of God [cf. Luke 1:27, 32, 35]. And he shall go forth, suffering pains and afflictions and temptations of every kind; … nevertheless the Son of God suffereth according to the flesh that he might take upon him the sins of his people, that he might blot out their transgressions according to the power of his deliverance. (Alma 7:10, 11, 12, 13)
Although speaking to the righteous members of the church, Alma again adopts a revivalistic style of preaching, calling them to repentance and baptism. Like Campbellites, Alma equates baptism with regeneration, inviting his audience to “come and be baptized unto repentance, that ye may be washed from your sins” (7:14). Using New Testament language, he declares: “If ye are not born again ye cannot inherit the kingdom of heaven” (v. 14; cf. John 3:3-5). In crying repentance and baptism to members of the church, Alma further introduces the subject of rebaptism, which is significant because, whereas various Christian denominations generally recognized one another’s baptisms as valid, Smith would shortly require his converts to be rebaptized. Consequently, the Reverend Diedrich Willers of Fayette, New York, would express surprise in reporting that “some members of the Lutheran and the Reformed, the Presbyterian, and the Baptist congregations have given this book [of Mormon] their approval, have let themselves be immersed by them, and have formed themselves into their own sect.”29 Smith may have been paving the way for the rebaptism of his parents, siblings (Hyrum, Sophronia, and Samuel), wife, and other acquaintances who had been baptized members of other churches. In any case, after blessing the church at Gideon, Alma returns home to Zarahemla to rest.
The next year, which is about 82 B.C., Alma turns his attention to the land of Melek, situated on the borders of the wilderness on the west, where he baptizes many (8:3-5). Then he travels north for three days to the city of Ammonihah and encounters resistance from Universalists,30 causing him to move on to the city of Aaron (vv. 6-13). But while traveling towards Aaron, Alma becomes “weighed down with sorrow, wading through much tribulation and anguish of soul, because of the wickedness of the people who were in the city of Ammonihah” (v. 14). Suddenly, an angel appears and commands him to return to Ammonihah to call its inhabitants to repentance (vv. 14-17). This may reflect Smith’s hesitation to call his own Universalist father and friends to repentance, and he appears to have adapted the story he told his family in 1823 about the angel sending him back to his father, who was working in the field. The reference to Ammonihah being a three-day journey from Zarahemla resembles the distance from Harmony to Palmyra. Yet, there is reason to believe that Smith also had Colesville, the home of his Universalist friend, Joseph Knight Sr., in mind.
Upon entering Ammonihah, Alma meets Amulek, a man of wealth and reputation who takes Alma home to feed him and ultimately to become his missionary companion (8:18-32). Amulek resembles the well-to-do Joseph Knight from whom Smith had already received financial assistance.31 Smith may have expected to see his friend become an ally who would convert the Universalists of Colesville, especially other members of the Knight family.32
Prefacing Alma’s first-person account of his Ammonihan ministry, Mormon includes the following: The words of Alma, and also the words of Amulek, which were declared unto the people who were in the land of Ammonihah. And also they are cast into prison, and delivered by the miraculous power of God which was in them, according to the record of Alma (Alma 9-14). In calling the Ammonihans to repentance, Alma warns them of God’s displeasure and prophesies their “utter destruction” if they remain unrepentant. Alma repeats the Lord’s promise to Lehi: “Inasmuch as ye shall keep my commandments, ye shall prosper in the land. And … inasmuch as ye will not keep my commandments ye shall be cut off from the presence of the Lord” (9:13). Paraphrasing Jesus’ words in the New Testament concerning the cities that rejected his gospel (“It shall be more tolerable for the land of Sodom and Gomorrah in the day of judgment, than for that city” [Matt. 10:15]), Alma declares that “it shall be more tolerable for [the Lamanites] in the day of judgment than for you, if ye remain in your sins,” for Lamanites were thought to sin in ignorance whereas Ammonihans knowingly rebelled against God (vv. 15-30). Alma then repeats his warning, which applied equally well to Jacksonian America: “If ye persist in your wickedness, your days shall not be prolonged in the land, for the Lamanites shall be sent upon you; and if ye repent not they shall come in a time when you know not, and ye shall be visited with utter destruction; and it shall be according to the fierce anger of the Lord. … And not many days hence the Son of God shall come in his glory” (vv. 18, 26; emphasis added). The last phrase, which makes little sense in the Nephite setting, was Smith’s way of helping latter-day readers apply Alma’s prediction to their own situation.
In light of the persecution Smith would receive in Colesville during the summer of 1830,33 it is not improbable that Alma’s difficulties in Ammonihah reflect the early rumblings of such a conflict. In a letter dated 28 August 1830, Smith calls Colesville the “seat of Satan” and, like Alma, predicts destruction:
Were it not for the prayers of you few [believers], the Almighty would have thundered down his wrath upon the inhabitants of that place, but be not faint, the day of your deliverance is not far distant for the judgements of the Lord are already abroad in the earth and the cold hand of death will soon pass through your neighborhood, and sweep away some of your most bitter enemies, for you need not suppose that God will be mocked at, and his commandments be trampled under their feet in such a manner as your enemies do, without visiting them in his wrath when they are fully ripe.34
Because Alma speaks hard words against them, the Ammonihans become “wroth” with him and attempt to seize and throw him into prison, but somehow God prevents them (9:31-33). While Smith was not prosecuted in Colesville until July 1830, Alma’s near arrest may reflect the early threats Smith received from his Colesville enemies. At the same time, the close proximity of the two towns may have linked Colesville with South Bainbridge in Smith’s mind, allowing him to draw on his 1826 arrest and trial experience, as Robert Anderson has suggested.35
Amulek steps forward to defend Alma and begins by delineating his own genealogy back to Lehi, “who was a descendant of Manasseh, who was the son of Joseph who was sold into Egypt by the hands of his brethren” (10:3). Among Amulek’s ancestors was Aminadi, who like Daniel in the Old Testament “interpreted the writing upon the wall of the temple, which was written by the finger of God” (v. 2; Dan. 5).36 In giving his genealogy, Amulek conjures two images that would have been of interest to Joseph Smith: the Old Testament patriarch Joseph, an inspired dreamer and interpreter of dreams, and the prophet Daniel, who was not only an inspired dreamer and interpreter, but like Smith interpreted strange writing.
Amulek recounts how he rebelled against God and an angel appeared to him on 4 July and told him to invite Alma into his home. This became a blessing to him and to his kindred (10:5-11). Of course, the Fourth of July is significant; what is not remembered today is that the clergy used to deliver lengthy sermons on that day to remind Americans of their place in God’s plan, call them to reform, and warn them of God’s providences upon the wicked.37
Amulek declares that Alma is a holy man, for the angel told him so (10:10). While Joseph Knight had taken Smith in and fed him, there is no evidence that he received spiritual manifestations on the order of Amulek’s. This may have been anticipated or perhaps it was further literary licence. For whatever reason, Knight would continue to be Smith’s most strenuous supporter in Colesville.
The Ammonihans are astonished that one of their own, especially someone of Amulek’s prominence, supports Alma. The city’s lawyers question Amulek to entrap him in his own words. Smith’s disagreeable experience with the court in South Bainbridge in 1826 may drive the Book of Mormon description of these lawyers as “learned in all the arts and cunning of the people” (10:15). Seemingly reproving his South Bainbridge prosecutors, Smith has Amulek declare: “O ye wicked and perverse generation, ye lawyers and hypocrites, for ye are laying the foundation of the devil; for ye are laying traps and snares to catch the holy ones of God. Ye are laying plans to pervert the ways of the righteous, and to bring down the wrath of God upon your heads, even to the utter destruction of this people” (vv. 17-18).
Amulek’s words anger the people, who charge him with contempt for the law and its administrators (10:24, 28-29). Amulek responds that he speaks, not against the law, but against unrighteous lawyers (vv. 25-27) and reminds them that Mosiah predicted their destruction should they ever elect unrighteous leaders (v. 19; Mosiah 29:27). Here is a subtle warning to Americans who voted for Masonic candidates such as Andrew Jackson.38
Zeezrom is a leading lawyer and the foremost defender of Unitarian-Universalism. He offers Amulek money to deny the existence of God. “O thou child of hell,” Amulek responds, “why tempt ye me? Knowest thou that the righteous yieldeth to no such temptations?” (11:23). Zeezrom attempts to trap Amulek in a debate about the nature of the godhead (vv. 26-45). “Thou sayest there is a true and living God? … Is there more than one God?” he asks. “No,” says Amulek. Zeezrom expects this answer, for no matter the theological position—trinitarian, unitarian, binitarian, modalism—all claim to be monotheistic. He presses Amulek: “How knowest thou these things?” “An angel hath made them known unto me,” Amulek responds. There were few in the nineteenth century who could claim direct revelation for their theology; most cited their interpretation of Bible passages. Amulek’s answer negated any excursion into the usual scriptural proof-texting.
Zeezrom then attempts to find contradiction in Amulek’s one-God position by asking: “Who is he that shall come? Is it the Son of God?” “Yea,” Amulek says. Without needing to point out the inherent contradiction in this, Zeezrom instead asks a question relating to universal salvation: “Shall [the Son of God] save his people in their sins?” As we have seen with Abinadi and Alma II, this alludes to the popular Universalist proof-text in Matthew 1:21.39 Amulek answers: “I say unto you he shall not, for it is impossible for him to deny his word.”
Zeezrom addresses the people: “See that ye remember these things; for he said there is but one God; yet he saith that the Son of God shall come, but he shall not save his people—as though he had authority to command God.” But Amulek counters: “Behold thou hast lied, for thou sayest that I spake as though I had authority to command God because I said he shall not save his people in their sins. And I say unto you again that he cannot save them in their sins; for I cannot deny his word, and he hath said that no unclean thing can inherit the kingdom of heaven; therefore, how can ye be saved, except ye inherit the kingdom of heaven? Therefore, ye cannot be saved in your sins” (11:36; emphasis added; cf. 21:7; Hel. 5:10). Amulek’s proof-text about the wicked not being saved “in their sins” is clearly Matthew 1:21, but his source for the “unclean thing” not entering heaven is unknown.40
Zeezrom decides to leave the topic of salvation in favor of the nature of the godhead. In attempting to exploit an apparent contradiction between Amulek’s declared belief in one God and his subsequent statement about the Son of God, Zeezrom asks: “Is the Son of God the very Eternal Father?” Unitarians not only insisted that the Father and the Son were two distinct persons but that the Son was not divine, thereby avoiding the charge of bitheism.
Amulek’s answer was a flat rejection of Unitarianism, but it was not typically trinitarian either: “Yea, he [the Son] is the very Eternal Father of heaven and of earth, and all things which in them are; he is the beginning and the end, the first and the last.” Like King Benjamin and Abinadi, Amulek was a modalist.
Along with eternal punishment and Jesus’ divine status, Unitarian-Universalists discarded the concept of the Atonement, infinite or otherwise.41 Amulek moves from a discussion of Jesus’ divinity to a declaration that the Son of God will “come into the world to redeem his people; and shall take upon him the transgressions of those who believe on his name; and these are they who shall have eternal life, and salvation cometh to none else” (11:40). To those who base their belief in universal salvation on the promise of Acts 3:21 and a “restitution of all things,” Amulek declares that temporal salvation has universal application through Jesus’ resurrection, while spiritual salvation is granted only to the righteous (vv. 41-45). Using a blend of New Testament passages, Amulek applies the term “restoration” to the resurrection:
Now, this restoration shall come to all, both old and young, both bond and free, both male and female, both the wicked and the righteous [Gal. 3:28; Col. 3:11]; and even there shall not so much as a hair of their heads be lost [Luke 21:18]; … I say unto you that this mortal is raised to an immortal body [1 Cor. 15:53-54], that is from death, even from the first death unto life [Rev. 20:6, 14], that they can die no more; their spirits uniting with their bodies, never to be divided; thus the whole becoming spiritual and immortal, that they can no more see corruption [Acts 2:27, 31; 13:35, 36, 37; 1 Cor. 15:42, 50]. (Alma 11:42, 43-44, 45; emphasis added)42
Amulek’s reference to the “first death” alludes to the “second death” of Revelation 20 in which the writer sees in vision “the dead, small and great, stand before God; … and the dead were judged out of those things which were written in the books, according to their works. … And whosoever was not found written in the book of life was cast into the lake of fire. … This is the second death” (Rev. 20:12, 15, 14).43 Amulek three times refers to the dead standing before God to be judged by their works (11:41, 43, 44), supporting the above interpretation. Shortly, Alma amplifies Amulek’s teachings to make explicit reference to the “second death.” Not surprisingly, Revelation 20, especially its reference to the “second death,” was part of the anti-Universalist rhetoric of Smith’s day.44
The people are astonished at Amulek’s words, and Zeezrom himself begins to tremble (11:46). Of course, only in fiction does it happen that someone is so thoroughly confounded that he suddenly cracks and changes his position. In real life, nothing in Amulek’s sermon was even surprising. Hosea Ballou and other Universalists had long since responded to the second death argument, explaining that it was only symbolic.45
Next Alma “unfold[s] the scriptures beyond that which Amulek had done” (12:1). He explains that after mankind is judged according to their works, “then cometh a death, even a second death, which is a spiritual death; then is a time that whosoever dieth in his sins, as to a temporal death, shall also die a spiritual death” (v. 16). This was not a new teaching. Both King Benjamin and the prophet Abinadi had condemned those who died in their sins (Mosiah 2:33; 15:26; see also v. 38). As previously discussed, the phrase “dieth in his sins” comes from John 8:21, a proof-text used by anti-Universalists in Smith’s day.46 Those who die in their sins, Alma declares, suffer the “second death” and “their torments shall be as a lake of fire and brimstone, whose flame ascendeth up forever and ever; and then is the time that they shall be chained down to an everlasting destruction” (12:17; cf. Mosiah 3:27; Alma 14:14; 2 Ne. 9:16, 19, 26; Jacob 3:11; 6:10; 2 Ne. 28:23). Like the second death argument, Alma’s description of punishment comes from the book of Revelation. Those who take part in spiritual Babylon, Revelation states, “shall be tormented with fire and brimstone … and the smoke of their torment ascendeth up forever and ever: and they have no rest day nor night, who worship the beast” (Rev. 14:10-11; see also 19:20; 20:10, 14, 15; 21:8). Such passages were employed by anti-Universalist Reverend Bradstreet as evidence that the torment of the wicked is eternal.47
Alma alludes to another anti-Universalist proof-text when he declares that God’s decree is that “whosoever repenteth, and hardeneth not his heart, he shall have claim on mercy through mine Only Begotten Son, unto a remission of his sins; and these shall enter into my rest. And whosoever will harden his heart and will do iniquity, behold, I swear in my wrath that he shall not enter into my rest” (vv. 34-35). While Alma does not identify his text, it is a Christian interpretation of Psalm 95:7-11 inspired by Hebrews 3:7-11:
Wherefore (as the Holy Ghost saith), Today if ye will hear his voice, Harden not your hearts, as in the provocation, in the day of temptation in the wilderness: When your fathers tempted me, proved me, and saw my works forty years. Wherefore I was grieved with that generation, and said, They do alway[s] err in their heart; and they have not known my ways. So I sware in my wrath, They shall not enter into my rest. (Heb. 3:7-11; cf. Ps. 95:7-11)
In his 1776 criticism of Universalist preachers, John Cleaveland alluded to this passage when he said, “God’s soul has no pleasure in them, and he will swear in his wrath that they shall not enter into the rest which remains for the people of God, as he swore unbelieving Israel should not enter into the promised land of Canaan.”48
While apologists have attempted to establish that Alma’s proof-text was Psalm 95, not Hebrews 3,49 a more serious anachronism occurs because Alma declares: “If ye will harden your hearts ye shall not enter into the rest of the Lord; therefore your iniquity provoketh him that he sendeth down his wrath upon you as in the first provocation, … to the everlasting destruction of your souls” (12:36; emphasis added). David P. Wright has pointed out the literary dependence here on the King James Version since the author of Hebrews and the 1611 translators relied on a mistranslation of Psalm 95 in the Greek Septuagint (ca. 150 B.C.). In the original Hebrew of Psalm 95, the words “provocation” and “temptation,” which both Alma and the author of Hebrews manipulate, are place names and would be more accurately rendered: “Do not harden your hearts as at Meribah, as on the day of Massah.”50 Alma’s dependence on Hebrews is even clearer when he connects God’s rest with the Melchizedek priesthood. Alma has previously been described as holding the “high priesthood of the holy order of God” (Alma 4:20; see also 5:49, 54; 6:1, 8; 7:22), but for the first time, the Book of Mormon connects this priesthood with Jesus and Melchizedek, the latter a contemporary of Abraham who is mentioned in Genesis 14, rather than with Aaron. Neither the Nephites nor Joseph Smith could legally claim Levitical priesthood.51 To resolve this difficulty, Smith draws on Hebrews 7.52
The author of Hebrews explains that Jesus is the “Apostle and High Priest of our profession” (Heb. 3:1), whose priesthood is superior to that of the Levitical and Aaronic priests, arguing that while Jesus was not from the priestly tribe of Levi, he was nevertheless a priest “after the order of Melchizedek” (Heb. 7:1-4, 11-14). As proof of this assertion, the writer of Hebrews repeatedly quotes Psalm 110:4—“The Lord hath sworn, and will not repent, Thou art a priest for ever after the order of Melchizedek” (5:6, 10; 6:20; 7:17, 21; cf. Alma 13:9, 14). Originally intended as a statement about Israelite rulers who were seen as kingly priests, Psalm 110 had taken on messianic meaning by New Testament times (e.g., Matt. 22:41-46). Hebrews does not assert that Jesus held the same priesthood as Melchizedek but that he held a priesthood that was similar to the ancient king-priest’s: one that was neither lineal nor responsible for administering the law of Moses. Taking advantage of a lack of biographical data in Genesis 14, the writer of Hebrews argues that Melchizedek, as a type of Christ, was “without father, without mother, without descent, having neither beginning of days, nor end of life; but made like unto the Son of God; [and] abideth a priest continually” (7:3). Unlike Levitical priests, Melchizedek and Jesus were said to be immortal and therefore not in need of successors; hence, their priesthoods were superior to that of the Levites.
Alma’s dependence on Hebrews 7 is not a matter of plagiarism but one of interpretive and conceptual borrowing.53 Indeed, both Alma and Hebrews stand alone in linking Jesus with Melchizedek’s priesthood. Moreover, rather than simply using Hebrews as a proof-text, Smith was able to build on and expand it in a way that presupposes the innovative rhetoric of Hebrews. Hebrews associates Jesus with Melchizedek’s priesthood, but Alma expands this to include an entire order of priests, a transparent expansion of Hebrews. This procedure foreshadows Smith’s subsequent revision of the Bible where he would revise both Genesis 14 and Hebrews 7 to conform to Alma 13.
Another interesting difference appears where Hebrews calls Jesus a priest “after the order of Melchizedek” (7:11, 17, 21) and Alma calls Melchizedek a priest “after the order of the Son” (13:9, 14). This reversal resolved a troubling aspect of Hebrews that placed Melchizedek in a position that was superior to Jesus. Alma explains that this priesthood became associated with Melchizedek because of his prominence, that “there were many before [Melchizedek], and also there were many afterwards, but none were greater; therefore, of him they have more particularly made mention” (v. 19). Thus, Alma’s discussion not only conceptually derives from Hebrews, it attempts to resolve a perceived problem with the text. It is not surprising that Smith’s later revision of Hebrews, shown here in the left column (with the passage from the Bible in the right column), would address the same issue:
For this Melchizedek was ordained a priest after the order of the Son of God, which order was without father, without mother, without descent, having neither beginning of days, nor end of life. And all those who are ordained unto this priesthood are made like unto the Son of God, abiding a priest continually. (Joseph Smith Translation, Heb. 7:3)
For this Melchizedek [was] … Without father,
without mother, without descent,
having neither beginning of days, nor end of life: …
but made like unto the Son of God; abideth a priest continually. (Heb. 7:1,3)
Smith’s biblical revision would also harmonize Hebrews with Alma by introducing other priests besides Jesus, a concept that destroys the analogy Hebrews makes between a parentless Melchizedek and the immortal Jesus. In Hebrews, Melchizedek is “without father, without mother, without descent, having neither beginning of days, nor end of life” (7:3). In Alma (and in Smith’s biblical revision), that description is applied to Jesus and his priesthood: “This high priesthood being after the order of his Son, which order was from the foundation of the world; or in other words, being without beginning of days or end of years, being prepared from eternity to eternity” (13:7; cf. vv. 8-9). At the same time, Alma removes centuries of speculation about Melchizedek’s lack of parentage by stating that the king of Salem “did reign under his father” (13:18). Obviously, Alma plays off a text that Smith did not fully appreciate or understand.
In giving Melchizedek’s history, Smith’s reliance is on Hebrews rather than Genesis 14:
And it was this same Melchizedek to whom Abraham paid tithes; yea, even our father Abraham paid tithes of one-tenth part of all he possessed. (Alma 13:15)
For this Melchizedek … To whom also Abraham gave a tenth part of all. (Heb. 7:1,2)
Smith’s procedure is similar to that of ancient pseudepigraphists who, in the words of one scholar, “created something new, an imaginary Sacred Past, the way it should have been.”54 For instance, Smith takes Melchizedek’s title “King of Salem, which is, King of peace” in Hebrews 7:2 (without parallel in Genesis 14) and expands it into a historical event. Drawing on a source other than Genesis, Alma explains:
Now this Melchizedek was a king over the land of Salem; and his people had waxed strong in iniquity and abomination; yea, they had all gone astray; they were full of all manner of wickedness; but Melchizedek having exercised mighty faith, and received the office of the high priesthood according to the holy order of God, did preach repentance unto his people. And behold, they did repent; and Melchizedek did establish peace in the land in his days; therefore he was called the prince of peace, for he was the king of Salem. (Alma 13:17-18)
This passage became the basis for Smith’s 1831 revision of Genesis 14. In referring to Melchizedek as a “prince of peace” instead of the “King of peace,” there is an allusion to Isaiah 9:6, which is usually interpreted by Christians as a messianic prophecy fulfilled in Jesus. In so doing, Smith tightens the connection between Jesus and Melchizedek, a connection made only in Hebrews.
Another title that Smith creatively applies to Melchizedek is that of “high priest” (13:14, 18). Neither Genesis 14 nor Hebrews 7 refers to Melchizedek as a “high priest” because this designation was unnecessary until Aaron and his successors were appointed to preside over the Levite priests. Instead, Melchizedek is called simply a “priest” (Gen. 14:18; Heb. 7:1). The close association of Melchizedek, priest of Salem, and Jesus, high priest of the new covenant—an association that occurs exclusively in Hebrews—influenced Smith’s dictation of Alma 13.
Alma continues by explaining the origin of Melchizedek’s priesthood, revealing that soon after the Fall “the Lord God ordained priests, after his holy order, which was after the order of his Son, to teach these things unto the people” (13:1). As opposed to the earthly priesthood of the Levites, Melchizedek’s priesthood was therefore spiritual and the result of charismatic experience rather than physical ordination. These ancient priests had not inherited their authority by lineage; rather, like Jesus, they were foreordained by God. Alma states: “And this is the manner after which they were ordained—being called and prepared from the foundation of the world according to the foreknowledge of God, on account of their exceeding faith and good works” (13:3).55 To those who questioned Smith’s authority to preach or baptize, he could point to Jesus and Melchizedek as examples of priests who were preordained to office. This also explained how non-Levitical priests could arise among the Nephites.
The high priesthood, in Alma’s conception of it, is connected to sanctification and the power to enter into God’s presence, which is another link to Hebrews (3:7-11): “There were many who were ordained and became high priests of God … after this holy order, and were sanctified, and their garments were washed white through the blood of the Lamb. … and there were many, exceeding great many, who were made pure and entered into the rest of the Lord their God” (13:10-12). This comes close to Smith’s later teaching about the keys of “translation” residing with the high priesthood, “translation” referring to a change from mortality to an immortal state without dying. Smith would soon dictate a passage that would ponder whether Alma was “taken up by the Spirit, or buried by the hand of the Lord, even as Moses” (Alma 45:18-19; cf. 3 Ne. 1:2; 2:9). Also about this time (April 1829), Smith and Cowdery would disagree regarding the meaning of a New Testament passage about the apostle John living until Jesus returned (John 21:20-24).56 When Smith asked God about this, a revelation declared that John had indeed been translated and was ministering on earth until Jesus’ return (D&C 7).57 It is likely that Smith’s and Cowdery’s disagreement was triggered by Alma’s disappearance in the Book of Mormon text.
The subject of translation—escaping death—does not end with Alma, for the next month Smith dictates the story of three of twelve Nephite disciples who become translated beings (3 Ne. 28). While revising the Bible in December 1830, Smith would reveal that the biblical Enoch and his entire city were taken into heaven and translated (Moses 7). Early the next year, Smith would expand Genesis to include a statement that Melchizedek “was ordained an high priest after the order of the covenant which God made with Enoch. It being after the order of the Son of God. … And it was delivered unto men by the calling of [God’s] own voice, according to his own will, unto as many as believed on his name. … And men having this faith, coming up unto this order of God, were translated and taken up into heaven. … And [Melchizedek’s] people wrought righteousness, and obtained heaven, and sought for the city of Enoch which God had before taken, separating it from the earth, having reserved it unto the latter days, or the end of the world.”58
While both Genesis 14 and Psalms 95 pre-date Alma, the likelihood that Alma and the author of Hebrews would quote these two unrelated passages in such a similar manner would seem to be remote. For the author of Hebrews, the association of Jesus with Melchizedek’s priesthood was purely rhetorical—a literary device—whereas Alma’s order of high priests was an elaboration that is unfounded in the Hebrew Bible.
The concluding portion of Alma’s sermon seems more applicable to Smith’s time as a prelude to Jesus’ “coming in glory” rather than to Alma’s time: “For behold, angels are declaring it unto many at this time in our land; and this is for the purpose of preparing the hearts of the children of men to receive his word at the time of his coming in his glory” (13:24-26). Alma’s next words are expressed with such feeling that one cannot help but think of Smith’s relationship with his father: “And now, my brethren, I wish from the inmost part of my heart, yea, with great anxiety even unto pain, that ye would hearken unto my words, and cast off your sins, and not procrastinate the day of your repentance” (v. 28). These words may provide a glimpse into the intensity of Smith’s feelings regarding his mission.
Alma and Amulek are arrested and taken before the chief judge of Ammonihah, where witnesses accuse them of having lied to the people. Zeezrom, under the pain of guilt, tries to defend them but is cast out of the city. Then Alma and Amulek are taken to “the place of martyrdom” where they witness the burning at the stake of those who had believed their words as well as the burning of scriptures. Striking Alma and Amulek, the chief judge declares: “After what ye have seen, will ye preach again unto this people that they shall be cast into a lake of fire and brimstone?” (14:14). Mormon interjects that “this judge was after the order and faith of Nehor, who slew Gideon” (v. 16). In other words, he too was a Universalist. Like Jesus, the two missionaries remain silent, whereupon the chief judge sends them to prison to be beaten and humiliated. After three days, “there came many lawyers, and judges, and priests, and teachers, who were of the profession of Nehor,” mockingly asking: “How shall we look when we are damned?” Alma and Amulek “answered them nothing” (vv.18, 21).
After some three months of imprisonment, the chief judge and his official entourage again visit Alma and Amulek. They take turns beating and mocking the missionaries until the power of God falls upon Alma and Amulek, who rise to their feet and call upon God to deliver them from their enemies. Instantly, the ropes binding them fall to the ground. Their frightened tormentors attempt to escape, but an earthquake topples the prison walls and kills everyone except Alma and Amulek. The people of Ammonihah see the two men emerge from the ruins; startled, the people flee “even as a goat fleeth with her young from two lions” (14:29).
This miraculous story draws from Peter’s escape from prison in Acts 12 and Paul and Silas’s escape in Acts 16,59 but there is a possible autobiographical meaning for Joseph Smith as well. Robert Anderson has suggested a “compensating fantasy” here that builds on Smith’s arrest and trial in South Bainbridge in March 1826.60 True, Smith may have found inspiration in his previous legal troubles, but the central theme could well reflect his ongoing connection to Colesville where he had a significant entanglement with Universalists. Maybe in Smith’s mind, the neighboring townships of South Bainbridge and Colesville were connected.
The mission to the people of Ammonihah completed, the city having rejected the missionaries’ preaching because “they were of the profession of Nehor, and did not believe in the repentance of their sins” (15:15), Alma’s prediction becomes reality when the Lamanites destroy the city (16:2-3, 9). Consistent with the many Indian burial mounds in the Great Lakes Region, the dead bodies of the Ammonihans “were heaped up upon the face of the earth, and they were covered with a shallow covering” (v. 11). Thereafter, the vacant city of Ammonihah was called the “Desolation of Nehors” (v. 11).
Leaving the city, Alma and Amulek journey to Sidom where Zeezrom “lay sick … with a burning fever, which was caused by the great tribulations of his mind on account of his wickedness,” and his sins “did harrow up his mind until it did become exceeding sore, having no deliverance; therefore he began to be scorched with a burning heat” (15:3). Alma heals Zeezrom on the condition that he renounce his Unitarian-Universalist beliefs and accept “the redemption of Christ” (15:8). Alma baptizes Zeezrom “unto the Lord” (v. 12), and Zeezrom becomes a preacher. Alma establishes the church in Sidom and “consecrates priests and teachers in the land, to baptize unto the Lord whosoever were desirous to be baptized” (v. 13). This is interesting because it is the first mention of a high priest delegating his authority to baptize. Radiating from Sidom, the region experiences revivals and mass conversions (vv. 14-15).
On this note Alma concludes his mission and returns home to Zarahemla, accompanied by Amulek, who has forsaken his wealth to become a preacher (15:18). In Zarahemla, Alma’s prophetic gift is used to divine the location of the Lamanite armies in the “south wilderness, which was on the east side of the river Sidon.” The Lamanites are driven from the Nephite lands (16:4-11). Thereafter, the Nephites enjoy a three-year period of peace from about 81 to 78 B.C. and welcome Alma’s and Amulek’s preaching (vv. 12-21). Among other things, the two tell what “must shortly come; yea, holding forth the coming of the Son of God, his sufferings and death, and also the resurrection of the dead. … [And] that he would appear unto them after his resurrection; and this the people did hear with great joy and gladness” (16:20). This is the first clear reference to Jesus appearing to the Nephites, which would become the central event of the Book of Mormon, and the first confirmation that it would be the resurrected Jesus who would come. The possibility that Jesus would visit the Americas “at the time of his dwelling in his mortal tabernacle” (7:8) had been mentioned and left undecided. Perhaps, after some contemplation, Smith concluded that it would be more likely that the post-mortal Jesus would appear. At this point, Mormon interrupts his narrative of Alma’s missionary activities to give an account of the ministry of the four sons of Mosiah to the Lamanites.
1. The quote is from Emily M. Austin, Mormonism: or, Life Among the Mormons (Madison, WI: M. J. Cantwell, 1882), 32 (cf. Dan Vogel, ed., Early Mormon Documents, 5 vols. [Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1996-2003], 4:166; hereafter EMD). Austin reported that Newel was a “staunch Universalist, and his father, Joseph Knight, was also of the same belief” (p. 30 [EMD 4:165]). Newel said that his father was “a believer in the Universalian doctrine” ([Newel Knight], “Newel Knight Journal,” in Scraps of Biography: Tenth Book of the Faith-Promoting Series [Salt Lake City: Juvenile Instructor Office, 1883], 47 [EMD 4:46]); and Joseph Smith reported that “Mr Knights and his family were Universalists” (Joseph Smith, Manuscript History of the Church, Book A-1, 39, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, UT [EMD 1:101]).
3. On Universalism among Noah’s priests, see chapter 12 of this volume. On Nehor’s Universalism, see Dan Vogel, “Anti-Universalist Rhetoric in the Book of Mormon,”in Brent Lee Metcalfe, ed., New Approaches to the Book of Mormon: Explorations in Critical Methodology (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1993), 30-34. While apologists initially resisted my comparisons between the Book of Mormon and anti-Universalist rhetoric (e.g., Martin S. Tanner, “Is There Anti-Universalist Rhetoric in the Book of Mormon?” Review of Books on the Book of Mormon 6 : 418-33), Stephen Clarke more recently concluded that “Joseph [Smith] was able to draw phrases and ideas from the Universalism debate, and weave them seamlessly into the Book of Mormon narrative” (Stephen Clarke, “‘Do Ye Suppose that Mercy Can Rob Justice?’: The Universalism Debate and Book of Mormon Soteriology,” in Archive of Restoration Culture: Summer Fellows’ Papers, 1997-1999 [Provo, UT: Joseph Fielding Smith Institute for Latter-day Saint History, 2000], 160).
10. According to one of Asael’s daughters-in-law, he declared on his deathbed “his full and firm belief in the everlasting gospel and also regretted that he was not baptized when Joseph his son was there and acknowledged that the doctrine of universalism which he had so long advocated, was not true” (M. Wilfred Poulson, ed., “Copy of an Old Notebook,” typescript at Brigham Young University, 40-41, in Richard L. Anderson, Joseph Smith’s New England Heritage: Influences of Grandfathers Solomon Mack and Asael Smith, 2nd ed. [Salt Lake City: Deseret Book; Provo, UT: BYU Press, 2003], 288, n. 218). George A. Smith wrote that his grandfather accepted Mormonism, though he “had been for many years a universalist and exceedingly set in his way” (G. A. Smith, “Memoirs,” holograph, 2, in Anderson, 148).
14. Methodist Magazine, Oct. 1820, 378-79. Stephen Clarke concedes that the foregoing “allegorizing interpretation of the Nehor episode finds considerable support in nineteenth-century anti-Universalist sources” and that “some nineteenth-century readers … would have understood the story of Nehor as a cautionary tale, warning them of the danger in believing the doctrine of universal salvation” (Clarke, “‘Do Ye Suppose that Mercy Can Rob Justice?’” 158).
17. John L. Sorenson estimates that the number of warriors in the combined armies would have been at least twice the number slain, meaning that there would have been “at least 40,000 warriors … involved.” Applying a ratio of five non-combatants to every warrior, he calculates that the total Nephite-Mulekite population would have been “200,000 or more” (John L. Sorenson, An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon [Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co.; Provo, UT: FARMS, 1985], 193). John C. Kunich counters that these numbers “would require an average annual growth rate of 1.3 percent sustained over the span of five centuries” at a time when the growth rate for the rest of the world was .04 (John C. Kunich, “Multiply Exceedingly: Book of Mormon Population Sizes,” in Metcalfe, New Approaches to the Book of Mormon, 250-51). Uncertain whether Nephite battle casualties were 50 or 10 percent, James E. Smith estimates the total Nephite population at the time to be “between 300,000 and 1.5 million people,” much higher than Sorenson’s estimate (“Nephi’s Descendants? Historical Demography and the Book of Mormon,” Review of Books on the Book of Mormon 6 : 290). Smith’s lowest estimate requires “an average annual growth rate of about 1.25 percent,” which he acknowledges is “improbably high” (291). Yet, he still argues that the Nephites may have had a higher birth rate and life expectancy than the rest of the world, which they somehow maintained for three centuries despite frequent wars (291).
18. Robert D. Anderson associates Zarahemla with Palmyra but names the Susquehanna as the Sidon River, then attempts to resolve the geographic discrepancy by suggesting that Smith had in mind the proposed “Chenango Canal” that would have connected the Susquehanna with the Erie Canal (see Inside the Mind of Joseph Smith: Psychobiography and the Book of Mormon [Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1999], 142-43). I believe that Smith probably had in mind a number of shifting geographic models: (1) Zarahemla=Palmyra, Sidon=Erie Canal, Nephi=Manchester/Canandaigua; (2) Zarahemla=Palmyra, Sidon=Erie Canal, Nephi=Harmony; (3) Zarahemla=Susquehanna Depot, Sidon=Susquehanna, Cumorah=Manchester.
20. Charles Wesley, “Awake, Thou that Sleepest, Preached on Sunday, April 4, 1742, before the University of Oxford, by the Rev. Charles Wesley, M.A. Student of Christ-Church,” in The Works of John Wesley, ed. Thomas Jackson, 14 vols. (London: Wesleyan Methodist Book Room, 1829-31), Sermon 3.
27. See Doctrine and Covenants 33:10; 35:4; 45:9 (hereafter D&C). Smith’s 1831 revision of Matthew 17:11-14 has Jesus saying that the messenger preparing the way before him was fulfilled not only in John the Baptist but “also [in] another who should come and restore all things.” See Davis Bitton, Images of the Prophet Joseph Smith (Salt Lake City: Aspen Books, 1996), 73-75.
28. The fact that Jesus was born in Bethlehem and not Jerusalem has generated some criticism, although Alma’s use of “at” and “land” instead of the expected “in” and “city” has been cited as evidence that Smith meant a general region rather than a particular city. Thus, Sidney B. Sperry explained that “when Alma speaks of the Son of God being born at Jerusalem, he does so because Bethlehem was adjacent to and under the control of that city” (Book of Mormon Compendium [Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1968], 332). It would be difficult to imagine that Smith’s impressive knowledge of the Bible would have failed him in this instance.
30. Later it is said that “the people that were in the land of Ammonihah … were of the profession of Nehor” and that “many lawyers, and judges, and priests, and teachers … were of the profession of Nehor” (Alma 14:16, 18; 15:15). As mentioned in chapter 13 of this volume, the followers of Nehor were Universalists.
31. While I focus on Smith’s relationship with Universalists in Colesville, Robert Anderson sees elements that seem to reflect Smith’s 1826 trial in South Bainbridge. Hence, Anderson associates Amulek with Josiah Stowell; Zeezrom, the lawyer who questions Alma and Amulek, is Justice Albert Neely; and Ammonihah is South Bainbridge (Anderson, Inside the Mind of Joseph Smith, 142-43). Amulek may be a composite representing both Stowell and Knight.
32. Knight recalled: “My wife and family [were] all against me about helping him” (“Manuscript of the History of Joseph Smith,” 5 [EMD 4:19]). Not until after the translation was complete did other members of the Knight family become converted.
37. See, e.g., Charles Pelham Curtis, An Oration Delivered on the Fourth of July, 1823, in Commemoration of American Independence … (Boston, 1823). Palmyra’s observance included both a sermon and an oration (see the Palmyra Register, 7 July 1818; Palmyra Herald, 10 July 1822). For an analysis of the Fourth of July in a literary context, see Paul Goetsch and Gerd Hurm, The Fourth of July: Political Oratory and Literary Reactions, 1776-1876 (Tubingen: G. Narr, 1992).
40. Perhaps it is a variation on Revelation 22:11, which states that following the resurrection, “he which is filthy, let him be filthy still” and the declaration in 1 Corinthians 15:50 that resurrected bodies differ from mortal bodies since “flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God; neither doth corruption inherit incorruption.” A clue may be found in Alma’s declaration to the people of Gideon that God “doth not dwell in unholy temples; neither can filthiness or anything which is unclean be received into the kingdom of God; therefore I say unto you the time shall come, yea, and it shall be at the last day, that he who is filthy shall remain in his filthiness.” Later, Alma tells one of his sons that the wicked will suffer the “second death” (Rev. 20:14), “for they die as to things pertaining to things of righteousness; for they are unclean, and no unclean thing can inherit the kingdom of God” (Alma 40:26). In any case, this unknown source is cited again in the Book of Mormon (see Hel. 8:25; 3 Ne. 27:19; 1 Ne. 10:21; 15:34).
42. In subsequent chapters, Alma explains to his Universalist son Corianton “the restoration of which has been spoken by the mouths of the prophets” (Alma 40:24; cf. Acts 3:19-21), which he says pertains to the resurrection, not to salvation (see chapter 16 of this volume).
44. See, e.g., Samuel Hopkins, An Inquiry concerning the Future State of Those Who Die in Their Sins (Newport, RI, 1783), 23, 46; see also Vogel, “Anti-Universalist Rhetoric in the Book of Mormon,” 41-42.
45. As I explain elsewhere (Vogel, “Anti-Universalist Rhetoric in the Book of Mormon,” 41-42), Universalists believed that the orthodox argument was inconsistent. Ballou, for example, argued that the orthodox interpreted “spiritual death” at judgment to be never-ending while interpreting the “spiritual death” of Adam to be temporary. Ballou said that “in respect to spiritual death, I believe it was all that was meant by the word, ‘in the day thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die.’ But, if eternal death was intended, there was no recovery for man” (Hosea Ballou, A Treatise on the Atonement [Randolph, VT, 1805], 56; see also Universalist Magazine, 31 July 1819, 28). Another Universalist response to the “second death” was to allegorize it, contending that “the first death is the apostasy of the Jewish church,” while the “second [death] … is the apostasy of the Christian church” (Gospel Visitant, Mar. 1812, 211, 218; see also Elhanan Winchester, A Course of Lectures on the Prophecies That Remain to Be Fulfilled, 2 vols. [Norwich, CT, 1794], 2:129-60; Universalist Magazine, 25 Dec. 1819, 102-103; 13 May 1820, 183).
47. Stephen I. Bradstreet, A Sermon on Future Punishment (Cleveland, OH, 1824). However, the Universalist who reviewed Bradstreet’s work referred to Revelation 20:13, 14 and argued that “it must be remembered that Mr. B[radstreet]’s hell in which … all the wicked will be tormented eternally, was also cast into this same lake of fire. … It must also be borne in mind that before this hell of Mr. B[radstreet]’s was cast into the lake of fire it delivered up all the dead that were in it” (Gospel Advocate, 6 Aug. 1824, 236-37). The reviewer responded to Revelation 14:11, that the wicked “have no rest, day nor night,” by arguing: “Now, did Mr. B[radstreet] ever find any account of day and night in a future state of existence? … Mr. B[radstreet] quotes those words and yet does not see that they confine the meaning of the passages to this state of existence, where day and night are found” (ibid., 237; see also Ballou, Treatise on Atonement, 135-36; Hopkins, Inquiry concerning the Future State, 20, 46-47; and Universalist Magazine, 13 May 1820, 183).
54. Robert M. Price, “Joseph Smith: Inspired Author of the Book of Mormon,” in Dan Vogel and Brent Lee Metcalfe, eds., American Apocrypha: Essays on the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 2002), 324.
55. At this point, Smith does not yet have a clearly defined belief in a pre-mortal existence. Alma does not intend to promote the idea that God ordained pre-mortal spirits, only that God foresaw the righteous acts of the faithful done in mortality and in that sense they were “called and prepared from the foundation of the world” (see Blake T. Ostler, “The Idea of Preexistence in Mormon Thought,” in Gary James Bergera, ed., Line upon Line: Essays on Mormon Doctrine [Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1989], 128; and Wright, “‘In Plain Terms that We May Understand,’” 189).
57. According to this revelation, Jesus granted John’s request to continue to “bring souls” unto Christ, saying: “Thou shalt tarry till I come in glory” (D&C 7). This indicates that Smith had not yet developed an idea of a complete apostasy of priesthood authority. Rather, he assumed there were still true believers residing within a corrupt church similar to the Puritan idea of a visible, corrupt church and scattered saints belonging to an invisible church. Additional wording was added to the revelation in 1835 to emphasize authority in a lineal priesthood residing in a presidency: “I will make thee [Peter] to minister for him [John] and for thy brother James; and unto you three I will give this power and the keys of this ministry until I come” (D&C 7:7).
58. Genesis 14:27-28, 29, 32, 34-35, cited in Inspired Version: The Holy Scriptures (Independence, MO: Herald Publishing House, 1944). For a discussion of Smith’s teachings on translated beings, see Dan Vogel, Religious Seekers and the Advent of Mormonism (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1988), 195-98. | <urn:uuid:a810db35-4139-426f-8a6b-96475230021d> | CC-MAIN-2017-51 | http://signaturebookslibrary.org/joseph-smith-14/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948587577.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20171216104016-20171216130016-00165.warc.gz | en | 0.961296 | 18,091 | 3 | 3 |
Starch is obtained naturally through extraction from the grain or root of cassava, a root vegetable. It is often commercially sold in the form of a dry powder and its grade varies based on the type of application it is being used for. However, often it is used in the food industry due to the lack of certain properties that are needed in other industries. Native starch is the starch chain extracted from raw material in its original form.
Production of tapioca starch can be separated into 3 different stages, namely preparation and extraction, purification and water removal. In the preparation and extraction process, the cassava roots are washed and peeled, whereby the pulp is strained with the addition of water. Subsequently, purification of the extracted starch is carried out using the process of sedimentation and centrifugation. The last stage involves the removal of water which is carried out through drying.
Adhesive and Glue Industry
Starch makes a good natural adhesive. There are two types of adhesives made of starches, modified starches and dextrins for roll-dried adhesives and liquid adhesives. Tapioca Starch is popular in the adhesive industry due to its appreciable binding capacity due to its high viscosity sticky properties when mixed with water or certain chemicals.
Native starch is used in confectionery for different purposes such as gelling, thickening, texture stabilizing, foam strengthening, crystal growth control, adhesion, film foaming and glazing. Modified tapioca starch is used as a colloid stabilizer in beverages that include solid constituents.
Native starch is used as binders, fillers and disintegrating agents for tablet production in pharmaceutical industries.
The third stage of paper production produces special condensed paper for book cover, calendar paper and boxes. Thin boiling starches and more sophisticated modified starches are used, or native starch is jet-cooked with enzymes. | <urn:uuid:94d8e819-8adc-4b4c-80dd-924ba45c3411> | CC-MAIN-2018-47 | https://www.chemtradeasia.com/en/Native-Tapioca-Starch | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-47/segments/1542039742937.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20181115203132-20181115225132-00175.warc.gz | en | 0.942388 | 390 | 3.203125 | 3 |
people, places, things, ideas (teachers, school, books, learning)
words that take the place of nouns (he, their, everyone, it, them)
action words or states of being
words that show direction or relation of one word to another noun (log - from between under)
words that show connection (and or but since neither either)
words that express emotion (Hey! yo! rats!)
words that describe nouns or pronouns ( ugly shirt, purple dinosaur, big idiot)
words describing verbs, adjectives or adverbs ( think quickly, very pretty girl)
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For help fixing this issue, see this FAQ. | <urn:uuid:171aaefb-2e4a-49cc-9dd4-e9683a2ad1de> | CC-MAIN-2016-22 | https://quizlet.com/5838093/english-parts-of-speech-flash-cards/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-22/segments/1464053252010.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160524012732-00029-ip-10-185-217-139.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.871771 | 238 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Many basic materials are engineered to provide enhanced physical properties. Metal alloys, glasses, ceramics, and polymers often contain micro-phases and internal boundaries. The composition and distribution of these micro-phases have significant impact on the performance of the end product.
Grain boundary segregation (AES)
In situ fracture analysis can be used to probe grain boundary surfaces and detect elements that have segregated to the grain boundary or formed small precipitates. In the example shown below, a segment of a steam turbine blade was fractured under UHV conditions and the grain boundary surfaces were characterized with PHI's Auger Nanoprobe surface analysis equipment.
Fig. 1: Low magnification secondary electron image of a steel fracture surface.
Fig. 2: High magnification secondary electron image of a steel fracture surface
Fig. 2: Elemental AES images showing the grain boundary surface to be decorated with an antimony segregant and chromium carbide precipitates. (Iron Matrix, Chromium carbide precipitates, Antimony segregant)
Detection of micro phases in ceramic materials (TOF-SIMS, AES)
Many ceramics are mixtures of materials that form localized compositional phases. The size and composition of these phases has a significant effect on the physical properties of the ceramic. TOF-SIMS provides the ability to image and characterize the individual phases as shown below.
Fig. 2: TOF-SIMS images of an alumina-zirconia-silica (AZS) ceramic material showing alumina and zirconia rich phases in a silica matrix. | <urn:uuid:94970e2e-e66b-483e-b8dc-3973bf0b9ff8> | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://www.ulvac-phi.com/en/applications/materials-research/?lang=en_US | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107883636.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20201024135444-20201024165444-00277.warc.gz | en | 0.843502 | 327 | 2.84375 | 3 |
What's Next for Yosemite & National Parks?
Tourists vanish. Across the nation, national parks welcome an estimated 750,000 tourists a day. And in Yosemite, tourists coming from around the world to witness Half Dome and El Capitan must first pass through gateway communities like Mariposa, Oakhurst, Mammoth, and Sonora, to name a few. These small towns, according to the National Parks Conservation Association, require a steady flow of tourists, which fuel 5,700 private-sector jobs and generate a $360-million-a-year industry. On any given day, the park hosts 15,000 tourists, and October is one of Yosemite's most popular months for weddings. A stoppage in tourist flow could be catastrophic to small businesses.
Many of these small communities have already seen reduced numbers of tourists due to the Rim Fire that decimated the nearby Stanislaus Forest. The shuttering of Yosemite only compounds the financial and economic problems faced by these small towns — and other towns across the country that depend on tourists traveling to National Parks.
Oil drilling continues. Parks across the country may be closed to backpackers, climbers, sight-seers, and naturalists, but according to Climate Progress, oil and gas drilling will continue on public land, unchanged and — now that the EPA is vastly reduced — unchecked. Over ninety percent of the EPA's 16,204 employees will be furloughed as a result of the shutdown, severely limiting the scope of the agency's protection power.
Ongoing research grinds to a halt. Scientific research, restoration projects, and wilderness programs will be put on pause indefinitely in parks nationwide. Teams and independent researchers from universities like UC Merced and Berkeley will lose access to project sites.
Kate Wilkin, a National Parks Climate Change Fellow, is one such
researcher, whose Ph.D. candidacy hinges on her research in Yosemite's
mixed-confer zone. "The government shutdown postponed or canceled
projects which I had spent three months preparing to complete," says Wilkin. One of
the postponed projects included leading a team of Berkeley undergraduates to
retrieve climate sensors planted a year before. "It is a
logistical nightmare trying to reschedule fieldwork, especially with an
uncertain time line."
Furloughs, furloughs, furloughs. Among the 800,000 federally employed workers to face furloughs, national park staff will be placed on hold indefinitely. Limited staff from the Bureau of Land Management, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Park Police, and the Natural Resource Damage Assessment Fund, and a small list of other departments will remain in action — while 87 percent of park staff nationwide will be out of work until the U.S. government resumes again. Yosemite National Park alone employs 838 employees; however, only 169 employees will be able to return to their posts.
What we can do: If you want our parks to not only stay open, but also remain protected the way John Muir envisioned back in 1892, then call, email, or write to your representative today and let your voice be heard.
--Image via iStockPhoto/ MAYBAYBUTTER
Scott Donahue is an intern at Sierra. He was a freshman in Mr. Hancock's English class when he first read Jon Krakauer's Into Thin Air. Now, he's currently working on a graduate thesis composed of travel essays. Topics include substitute teaching kindergartners in Nepal, drinking rice beer with a Tibetan porter, and running a marathon from Everest Base Camp. | <urn:uuid:e8430f38-c73b-4237-8836-f7a6d09e82b2> | CC-MAIN-2016-07 | http://sierraclub.typepad.com/explore/2013/10/government-shutdown-whats-next-for-yosemite-national-parks.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-07/segments/1454701158811.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160205193918-00193-ip-10-236-182-209.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926834 | 738 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Common Name: Pygmy Hog
Scientific Name: Porcula salvania
Species: P. salvania
The pygmy hog is 55 to 71 cm long and stands 20-30 cm. They weigh 6.6 to 11.8 kilograms. Their tail is 2.5 cm. Their fur coloration is dark browns and black. Their small size helps them hide in the grass. Some identifying characteristics are a small size, dark brown and black fur, and the sharply tapered head. The habitat of the pygmy hog is the grasslands of the southern foothills of the Himalayas. They are adapted to live there. Some adaptations are their small size which makes it easy to hide in the grass. Another is the tapered head of the animal which makes it easier to dig up roots and search through the shrubs for bugs, small snakes, and small lizards. They mate just before the seasonal monsoons come. They dig a trench and lay vegetation in it as a bed, then they have a litter of 3-6 piglets. It is estimated that fewer than 400 live in the wild.
Their population has been slowly growing back to the numbers they once were. The banning of the hunt of these animals has helped. They were once thought to be extinct. They were brought back from the brink of extinction by extensive breeding programs. This animal has a big role in its ecosystem's food web. It is eaten by several animals such as the tiger and python. It feeds on small reptiles, amphibians, and insects and also on roots and tubers. It competes for food with the others of its species, some species of deer, elk, tigers, and some birds. The main predators are the dholes, python, humans, and tigers. This animal avoids being eaten by several adaptations. Such as its small size which helps it hide in the shrubs. Also, its unique coloration helps it hide in the dirt and dying vegetation. Those are some of the adaptations of the pygmy hog or Porcula salvina. | <urn:uuid:b6e0f51c-c417-4676-9c4b-89f27f9f5853> | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://jeremyscholz1.wixsite.com/website-31/copy-of-phacochoerus-africanus | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510967.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20231002033129-20231002063129-00287.warc.gz | en | 0.962511 | 476 | 3.8125 | 4 |
Dr. Paul Baki and fellow stargazers
When you think “countries on the cutting edge of deep space exploration,” Kenya is not usually the first that jumps to mind. But here in east Africa, there is a scientist/space pioneer by the name of Dr. Paul Baki who sees big things for the future of astronomy in the developing world.
This whole thing came about after I started looking into the possibility of life on other planets (I’m going to blow the lid off this thing, just wait). Crazily enough, NASA was too busy for interviews, so I looked a little closer to home and found Dr. Baki.
Dr. Baki remembers when Kenya launched its first satellite, Uhuru (meaning “freedom”) from Malindi in 1970. It was the world’s first earth-orbiting mission dedicated entirely to celestial X-ray astronomy, and big things were expected from the data it gathered. But “in all those years no one here made use of that data,” said Dr. Baki. “Many people got their PhDs from that satellite, but no Kenyans.”
After Uhuru, space science in Kenya pretty much ground to a halt. So Dr. Baki decided to spearhead the country’s contemporary burgeoning astronomy movement.
He founded Kenya’s first astronomy program at the University of Nairobi in 2008, a program that now has about 50 students. These days he’s also working at the Kenya Polytechnic University as head of the applied sciences department, trying to build momentum and pique some interest.
“There is a long tradition of looking to the stars in Kenya, but there is a lack of scientific knowledge,” he said.
Lagoon Nebula, shot with South Africa Large Telescope, aka SALT
Unfortunately, Dr. Baki’s work in Kenya currently includes handing out donated telescopes to colleges that will never use them, and dodging hyenas while stargazing in Masai Mara. Of course, things could be very different in a year’s time.
Kenya is part of an African space science alliance that is currently in the running to build the world’s largest radio telescope. Dubbed Square Kilometre Array (or SKA), the telescope would span eight African countries, collecting observatory data all the way from South Africa to Mauritius.
Kevin Govender is director of the just-opened Office of Astronomy for Development in South Africa, one arm of the International Astronomical Society. He really hopes Africa beats Australia for the bid, mostly because this would be one of the most badass science projects ever.
“The Square Kilometer Array is a basically an idea to build the biggest radio telescope that could ever be built, ever,” he said.
Radio astronomy is cool in the sense that it goes way beyond optical telescopes. We see light the way we do because our eyes can pick up certain wavelengths. If human eyes were able to see more wavelengths, such as infrared or ultraviolet, we could add some new colors to the rainbow. That’s pretty basic. Radio waves are another type of wavelength—invisible to humans, but jam-packed with tasty information about what lies beyond our universe. So if we build something that can see those, and can track them from way far away, we’re likely in for a big awakening.
“All these wavelengths are coming from astronomical objects, so in order to gain the most information possible, we need to look using different instruments. The cool thing about looking at radio waves is they travel through many objects and contain a lot of information. What you may not see in optical, you will see in radio,” said Govender.
Kevin Govender teaching an outreach program to kids in South Africa. Govender wants to get kids interested in outer space early, through more substantial channels than, say, Cowboys Vs. Aliens.
The idea behind building this massive, multi-national telescope is that using several huge dishes spread across an entire continent will allow scientists to collect huge amounts of light—enough that it’s actually like traveling back in time.
Some stars are so far away that the light they give off takes millions, billions of years to reach Earth. Some of the stars you see in the sky are already burnt out, and have been for a while, but the light they gave off has to travel so far that we still see it, only at night.
Scientists can look at that light to figure out how stars live and die, figure out the Big Bang, and maybe even get to the bottom of the whole “dark matter” situation.
Using the same “burnt-out star still shines bright” concept, scientists think they could find information on celestial bodies as they were millions of years ago. So if Square Kilometre Array comes to Africa, Govender and Dr. Baki will be studying the origins of the universe.
SALT's snapshot of something called 47 Tucanae
With SKA in Africa, not only would we know God’s secrets, Dr. Baki says he also sees astronomy as a tool for social development in Kenya and across sub-Saharan Africa, as satellite surveillance could help Kenya monitor itself. On top of searching for life on other planets, it could also be used to track weather patterns or terrible violence, if it got sophisticated enough. Like Google Street View, only... more.
Dr. Baki plans to have a space science department in the Kenya Polytechnic University by the end of next year. He and Govender will learn the fate of the Square Kilometre Array Project next month. And if all goes according to plan, Dr. Baki says, “this project would see huge developments in infrastructure, in training and education, and in data-gathering. We would be training engineers and creating hundreds of jobs. Most importantly, we would be sparking an interest in science and math across the country, which is critical to the future of Kenya.”
To infinity, and beyond! (Sorry. I have been waiting 913 words to say that.) | <urn:uuid:25779231-8195-4ae0-a209-6d35daf1eb8e> | CC-MAIN-2019-35 | https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/qbwb7m/east-africa-space-program | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-35/segments/1566027318421.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20190823130046-20190823152046-00289.warc.gz | en | 0.947115 | 1,282 | 2.875 | 3 |
In this video tutorial, I am going to talk about the /æ/ vowel in English, as in “band,” “had”, “man”, “apple”, or “laugh.” The /æ/ vowel sound may be difficult for European Portuguese speakers to pronounce in American English because the /æ/ sound (as in “had”) does not exist in European Portuguese.
Sometimes when a sound does not exist in our native language, we may have difficulty pronouncing that sound in the non-native language that we are speaking. It is common to then pronounce the sound to a close sound that exists in our native language. Since the vowel sound /æ/ as in “had” does not exist in European Portuguese phonology, a native Portuguese speaker may pronounce this sound as /ɛ/ (as in “head”).
In this video tutorial, I am going to briefly describe how the /æ/ vowel sound is made, but really focus on exercises and tips so that you can feel the sound on your body and speech system. Descriptions and pictures of sounds can be helpful, but my goal is to increase your own self awareness of this sound and how is “feels,” in order to help you reach your personal accent goals.
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Symbols
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a series of symbols that represents “sounds” made in the world’s languages, because we cannot rely on spelling to represent a sound. This is especially true with both English and Portuguese, because spelling in these languages has a complex set of rules. The IPA is very comprehensive and extensive, and it is not necessary for an accent student to know all the symbols. However, it is recommended that you take some time to learn the symbols /æ/ (as in band) and /ɛ/ (as in “bend”). This tutorial focuses only on these two sounds, so the IPA symbols /æ/ and /ɛ/ need to be used in this lesson to represent these sounds. Here are some examples of words containing /æ/ and /ɛ/ so that you can become familiar with these sounds.
Portuguese Examples of the /ɛ/ Vowel
Let’s start slowly by bringing awareness to these two vowel sounds /æ/ and /ɛ/, since they are very similar. To start, here are some Portuguese words that contain the /ɛ/ (as in “head”). You can say these words out loud to get a feel for the vowel in your mouth. Think about how the vowel feels with tongue and lip placement.
Words containing the /ɛ/ vowel in Portuguese. In these words, take note of where it feels like your tongue is positioned in your mouth, and the shape of your lips:
The vowel /æ/ (as in “band”) in English does not exist in Portuguese. Since the tongue and lip positions of /æ/ and /ɛ/ are close, it is common for a Portuguese speaker to replace the /æ/ sound in American English with /ɛ/. This means, a native Portuguese speaker might pronounce “band” as “bend” in English.
Description of the /æ/ vowel (as in “had”)
With the /æ/ vowel (as in “had”), the lips are open and not rounded at all. You can see my example, and then try it in front of a mirror. The jaw is open. The tongue is low when pronouncing the /æ/ vowel (as in “band”), and it is flat on the floor of the mouth.
Practice exercise #1- Alternating Sounds
In accent lessons, we start with practicing very small syllables and then we build the practicing words and sentences. The flow is that we start by practicing the sound in small units, and gradually build to longer units. Therefore, in “Practice Exercise 1” we are going to start by alternating the /ɛ/ and /æ/ vowels slowly, so you can see and feel the differences of these vowels on your own body. There are plenty of pictures and descriptions online about how these vowels are pronounced, but this exercise is for you to “feel” and compare these vowels on your speech system!
Begin by saying /ɛ/ out loud (as is “bend”), and repeat it after my model. Say it slowly and in front of a mirror.
Now switch and say just the /æ/ vowel (as in “band”) out loud, and repeat my model.
Now do this again, but with your hand on your chin in front of the mirror, slowly alternating saying the vowels /ɛ/ and /æ/. Take note of what you see in the mirror, where you feel your tongue, and how your feel your jaw drop with your hand on your chin. When comparing these vowels, take note of the second sound, the /æ/ vowel. Your lips should be more open, tongue feel more flat inside your mouth, and you should feel your chin/ jaw drop lower with /æ/. Make note yourself how you see and feel these two vowels in comparison with each other.
Practice exercise #2- “Minimal Pairs”
A common practice in accent coaching is saying two words out loud, where the only difference between the two words is the 1 sound you are working on (linguistically, we call this practice “minimal pairs”). For example, a student might practice saying the words “sad” and “said” out loud, because the only difference between these two words are the two vowel sounds /æ/ (the common difficult sound), and /ɛ/ (the common replacement). Try for yourself saying these two words out loud “sad” and “said.” Do these words sound the same to you when you say them out loud, or do they sound different? They should sound like they have different vowel sounds. If these two words sound the same, it is possible that one vowel is being mispronounced.
Here is a list of 5 more word sets (minimal pairs) to practice saying out loud. If these two words sound the same, it is possible that the /æ/ vowel is being replaced by /ɛ/. If the two words sound different, it is likely that you are pronouncing the vowels correctly in English. Please note that this is an exercise for you to listen, and to become aware of the words sound the same or different.
Practice Exercise #3- The /æ/ vowel in Sentences
This exercise involves taking the 5 words in the minimal pair list containing the /æ/ vowel, and saying each word in a short sentence. The 5 words are “man, bad, flash, slept, sand.” Keep the sentence simple and short. The goal of the exercise is to keep awareness of the vowel when moving from saying single words to longer sentences.
Sentence: “I took a picture with a flash”
Sentence: “the man went on a walk”
At the end of tutorials, I make the statement that there are common pronunciation trends in a foreign language by speakers of the same native language group (such as European Portuguese). However, every speaker is individual, and the trends might not always apply to you. These tutorials are designed to empower the accent student, to increase the awareness of your own pronunciation and sound trends. It is recommended that you consult an accent coach about your own personal pronunciation patterns and accent goals.
Enjoy speaking English with confidence and your language journey!
Leann Rhoades, M.S. CCC-SLP
Accent Coach/ Speech Language Pathologist
All About Accents | <urn:uuid:0d3c51dc-4960-4a3e-b9c8-7f463928678a> | CC-MAIN-2021-04 | https://www.allaboutaccents.com/post/the--%C3%A6--sound-as-in-band-for-european-portuguese-speakers | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610703519784.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20210119201033-20210119231033-00306.warc.gz | en | 0.944452 | 1,662 | 3.796875 | 4 |
Bogd Khan Uul
Anthony Myers and Amberly Polidor
December 23, 2009
December 23, 2009
Crowned by one of the four holy peaks surrounding the Mongolian capital Ulaanbaatar, Bogd Khan Uul Strictly Protected Area is Mongolia’s — and perhaps the world’s — oldest officially and continuously protected site. Officially declared a sacred mountain reserve in 1778, evidence of its protected status dates back to the 13th century. During the decades-long rule of communism in the 20th century, religion was repressed and nearly all of Mongolia’s 900 Buddhist monasteries were destroyed. However, reverence persisted and the post-communist era ushered a revival of the national tradition of nature conservation, the restoration of monasteries and resanctification of sacred natural sites, including Bogd Khan. Unfortunately, real estate and tourism development, including a ski resort, now threaten Bogd Khan, and Mongolia’s deep-rooted conservation ethic must face yet another modern challenge. Mongolian researcher and linguist Osomamjimyn Sukhbaatar writes, “One of the distinctive traits of Mongolian civilization is its profound relationship with nature and its preservation of wilderness. Mongolians have developed outstanding traditions of a relationship with nature by deifying nature and the Earth.”
The Land and Its People
Capped by the 7,440-foot holy Tsetseegun peak, Bogd Khan Uul (Mountain), which lies to the south of Ulaanbaatar, extends some 20 miles from east to west and nearly 10 miles from north to south. The mountain’s landscape features dense coniferous forests and bare rock on the upper slopes, and open grassland, including wildflower meadows, at lower elevations. According to Mongolia’s National Red List, threatened animal species include the critically endangered red deer, which has seen an 80 percent regional decline over the past three generations because of exploitation and habitat loss; the endangered Mongolian gazelle, Eurasian elk and Siberian marmot; and the vulnerable black-tailed gazelle and sable.
Bogd Khan Uul’s significance as a holy mountain stretches back to the time when shamanism — with its focus on the worship of natural sites — was dominant, and its reverence continued as shamanism was integrated into Buddhism, which became Mongolia’s state religion in the 13th century. The mountain is associated with the Mongolian shamanistic deity Dunjingarav, who rides 33 grey horses. “Bogd” and “Khan” are terms of reverence used frequently in the names of Mongolian mountains. Khan, meaning “king,” was commonly used during shamanistic times, while Bogd, sometimes translated as “living” or “holy,” originated in India and Tibet and became the more traditional name once Buddhism was accepted in Mongolia.
At Bogd Khan, and throughout Mongolia, practitioners came to stone cairns called oovos to pay homage to the deities that inhabited the landscape — a shamanic tradition that was adopted into Mongolian Buddhist practice. Many mountains and streams have deities attached to them, and these deities influenced the naming of much of the landscape. In the 1700s the people who settled what is now Ulaanbaatar began to make semiannual offerings on the mountain and codified prohibitions against hunting and logging.
Mongolian officials established Bogd Khan Uul as a protected area in 1778, predating the establishment of the United States’ Yellowstone National Park by nearly 100 years. Bogd Khan Uul’s protected status may date back even further, as there is evidence suggesting an informal protection as early as the 1200s. According to legend, Genghis Khan was born at the foot of the mountain; while that story is most likely apocryphal, it is known that the great Mongolian emperor’s headquarters were for a time situated nearby.
During the communist era, from 1924 to 1989, Buddhism was suppressed, ovoo worship was outlawed, monasteries were destroyed, Buddhist texts disappeared, and many monks were killed. However, following the election a democratic government in 1990, Mongolia has worked to restore its spiritual, cultural and conservation traditions. Buddhist monasteries and ovoo worship have been revived, and some thought-to-be extinct texts have resurfaced. On Bogd Khan Uul, ceremonies led by local Buddhist lamas honoring the deities of the mountain are again taking place.
In 1995, the government designated Bogd Khan Uul a “Strictly Protected Area,” one of several conservation categories established by Mongolian law. This precipitated UNESCO’s awarding of “Biosphere Reserve” status to the mountain in 1996. Mongolia also submitted Bogd Khan and two other sacred mountains for tentative inclusion on UNESCO’s World Heritage List as a mixed cultural-natural site. In addition, Bogd Khan Uul is one of three sites recognized by Mongolian presidential decree as a natural sacred site.
The blending of traditional shamanistic Mongolian beliefs with Tibetan Buddhist thought has produced perhaps the best model for modern conservation efforts. According to Sukhbaatar, the main feature of Mongolia’s strength in protecting nature is buried deep within its legends, stories and names about the natural surroundings. “Flowing from pre-Buddhist cultures, enhanced and often codified by Buddhism and now fused with environmental awareness, the ancient names of sacred mountains, lakes and rivers indicate a profound respect for nature which is one of the hallmarks of Mongolian culture.”
Current Challenges and Preservation Efforts
In recent years, tradition-inspired approaches to conservation have been the blueprint for local protection efforts and have inspired ideas for solving Mongolia’s pollution, overgrazing, logging and waste-disposal problems.
In 2000, the Buddhists of Mongolia restored traditional hunting and logging bans. The following year, expanding on the ban, they reintroduced the concept of Buddhist Sacred Reserves — areas designated as protected by the deities — which date back hundreds of years but had been destroyed under communism. Bogd Khan is among the seven reserves that have since been resanctified. To further strengthen the conservation concept among the citizens of Ulaanbaatar, in 2003 the Buddhist community unveiled a carving of the mountain’s protector deity on the slope facing the city.
On the mountain’s south side, monks are rebuilding the Manzushir Monastery. Built in 1750, it housed more than 350 monks and 20 temples before it was destroyed in 1936. The Dashchoilin Monastery in Ulaanbaatar looks after ovoos on Bogd Khan, and in 2006, monks planted 1,000 trees. In 2008, a team from the National University of Mongolia established a signposted tour path to the mountain’s peak, the first in the site’s history, and produced educational brochures and a video to strengthen conservation efforts.
Unfortunately, despite its official moniker, the Bogd Khan Uul area is far from “strictly protected.” Over the past six years, urban sprawl from Ulaanbaatar has been creeping south; hotels, tourist facilities and residential developments, often surrounded by high fences, are rapidly filling many of the valleys. In November 2009, Mongolia’s first ski resort opened on the mountain’s northeastern slopes, and an associated golf course is slated to open in June 2010.
Because of these developments, Bogd Khan Uul was dropped from a World Bank forest conservation project that would have linked Bogd Khan with other nearby protected areas, allowing species to move into new ranges as an adaptation measure to climate change. Project administrators, however, could get no assurance from the Mongolian government that conservation was a priority in the protected area.
Local residents are also hunting and grazing animals and logging wood within Bogd Khan Uul. A 2005 report published by the WWF and the Alliance for Conservation and Religions noted that community involvement in protected-area management was limited and that members of the local population were often alienated from that management.
Creative community-based approaches are needed to strengthen Mongolia’s traditional conservation ethic among the broader population. Mongolian Buddhist monks could also benefit from increased ecological training and support, which could in turn affect the larger community. For example, some monks have expressed interest in using biodegradable khadags, or offering scarves, which would have the direct effect of cutting down clutter on mountains and could also encourage the Mongolian people to consider the environmental impact of their actions.
What You Can Do
Consider becoming a member or making a donation to the Alliance of Religions and Conservation, which works with Mongolian Buddhist groups to help them restore the environment in accordance with their traditional principles.
For thoughts on the ethics of visiting a sacred place, familiarize yourself with these guidelines.
To learn more about the development currently going on at Bogd Khan, watch this video.
Alliance of Religions and Conservation. Mongolia: Buddhists and Environment.
Bedford, Charles. “The World’s Oldest National Park: Ghosts of Monks and Red Deer.” Cool Green Science: the Conservation Blog of the Nature Conservancy, November 10, 2009.
Bulag, Uradyn Erden. Nationalism and Hybridity in Mongolia. Oxford University Press, 1998.
Chimedsengee, Urantsatsral, Amber Cripps, Victoria Finlay, Guido Verboom, Ven Munkhbaatar Batchuluun, and Ven Da Lama Byambajav Khunkhur. Mongolian Buddhists Protecting Nature: A Handbook on Faiths, Environment and Development. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: Alliance of Religions and Conservation, 2009.
Croner, Don. “Bogd Khan Uul: One of the Four Sacred Mountains of Ulaan Baatar.” Mongolia Adventure, Summer 2008.
de Gruyter, Walter. Shamanism and Northern Ecology. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1990.
Dudley, Nigel, Liza Higgins-Zogib, and Stephanie Mansourian. Beyond Belief: Linking Faiths and Protected Areas to Support Biodiversity Conservation. WWF and the Alliance of Religions and Conservation, 2005.
“Mongolian Geographical Species Search.” National Red Lists.
Sukhbaatar, Hatgin Osornamjimyn. Sacred Sites of Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: Alliance of Religions and Conservation, Gandan Monastery, WWF Mongolia, and World Bank, 2002.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. “Bogd Khan Uul.” MAB Biosphere Reserves Directory.
United National Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. “Mongolia Sacred Mountains: Bogd Khan, Burkhan Khaldun, Otgon Tenger.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
Saltzstein, Dan. “Mongolia’s First Ski Resort Opens.” The New York Times, December 7, 2009.
Whitten, Tony. “Mongolia: tough decisions about the world’s oldest nature reserve.” Mongolia Web, May 12, 2009.
Wild, Robert, and Toby McLeod, eds. Sacred Natural Sites: Guidelines for Protected Area Managers. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 2008. | <urn:uuid:609e48e0-44d8-42a0-a6ad-2ceb9af0f61d> | CC-MAIN-2017-51 | http://sacredland.org/bogd-khan-uul-mongolia/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948588294.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20171216162441-20171216184441-00253.warc.gz | en | 0.938237 | 2,402 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Volume 18 · Issue 1 · January/February 2008 | Download PDF
by Élan Young
When fighting infections means fighting for life
Bacteria: A Dirty Word? Even though bacteria can only be seen with the aid of powerful microscopes, they surround us, swirling through the air and living in soil where they decompose waste matter. Not only do they co-exist with humans, they are essential for survival of all life on earth. Even the human body is host to bacteria – bacteria in the human body outnumbers human cells by about 10 to 1. Humans rely on innumerable bacterial friends or normal flora from hundreds of different species to aid in digestion and fend off harmful microbes trying to enter the body through the skin and mucous membranes.
A healthy immune system will keep pathogens in check, but if the immune system becomes weakened, some of these germs will sense an opportunity to set up housekeeping and out-compete the normal flora, causing illness. When a person carrying pathogenic bacteria shows no symptoms of illness, that means he or she has been colonized by the bacteria. When a weaker host is invaded by bacteria that causes illness, that is infection.
The Rise of Antibiotic Resistance
Eleven years after Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, scientists found a way to isolate it, enabling production for the masses. While this great success led to effective treatment of many infectious diseases and gave rise to the discovery of more antibiotics, it was only four years later, in 1943, that penicillinresistant microbes arose.
Bacteria are the most primitive and abundant life forms on earth and have a sophisticated way of ensuring their survival even in the antibiotic age. Within colonies of bacteria, many variations or mutations in genetic material may occur among individual members. When antibiotics are present, most of the bacteria in a colony will die very quickly. However, a few mutated bacteria may take longer to die.
If the mutated bacteria are present in small enough quantities, the body’s own immune system can finish the job. If an antibiotic treatment is stopped prematurely, and the number of mutated bacteria left over is greater than the body can handle on its own, then infection can begin again. This time, as the colony grows it will reproduce using the genetic material from the surviving, stronger bacteria, creating a slightly more resistant infection. The process then repeats itself. This is perhaps nature’s oldest demonstration of survival through evolution.
When people abuse antibiotic prescriptions, it doesn’t just make them more susceptible to stronger strains of bacteria – it creates a public health risk for everyone. Healthcare workers are seeing more frequent infections from strains of bacteria that are easier for anyone, including healthy people, to catch and are more difficult to treat.
In the nearly 70 years that humans have used antibiotics, some strains of pathogenic bacteria have evolved into super-strong versions of themselves. Stories about these multi-drugresistant bacteria, often dubbed “superbug” by the media, have reached a fevered pitch in recent months. However, a bacteria doesn’t have to be classified as a “superbug” to cause severe disabilities, such as amputation, or even death. Complications and death can arise from treatable diseases when the bloodstream becomes infected. Hardly a more urgent medical health condition exists than those caused by certain Staphylococcus aureus infections, necrotizing fasciitis and meningitis, as three survivors who lost limbs from these infections can attest.
Staph and MRSA Infections
Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 25 percent to 30 percent of the population is colonized with Staphylococcus aureus. It is naturally found living on some people’s hands and in their noses. This is the same bacteria responsible for acne, boils and other minor skin infections. However, as a growing number of people have learned firsthand, when the bacteria enters the body through a wound or as the result of surgery, it can be debilitating.
Ryan Leishman was visiting friends out of state when he came into contact with this nasty microbe. Even though then 19-yearold Leishman was not diabetic, he had what doctors describe as a diabetic foot. A previous car accident had broken his left femur, leaving him with poor circulation and no sensation. Still, Leishman was active despite his condition, and while on this visit with friends, they did a lot of walking. Later, when he took his shoes off, he discovered his left sock was full of blood from a blister the size of a 50 cent piece. Leishman sought medical treatment. At the hospital, doctors debrided the wound in surgery and sent him on his way in a week with antibiotics and crutches.
Still out of state, Leishman spent more than a week feeling progressively weaker, forcing him back to the hospital. In all, Leishman would have three hospital stays before the infection specialists urged him to head home. Meanwhile, Leishman was breaking out in hot and cold sweats, couldn’t sleep, and could barely move. When his plane landed back home, he was rushed to the hospital. The doctors eventually diagnosed him with a staph infection and gave him his options. Because of the condition of his leg, Leishman had already researched several options, so it was a clear choice for him: below-knee amputation.
Waking from surgery, Leishman’s epidural slipped out, and he went for four hours without pain medication. Yet even with the postsurgical pain, he says he felt physically better than he had during the entire time he was infected with staph. As for life as an amputee, he has no regrets about his decision. “I increased my mobility and quality of life,” he says. “I’m active in ways I wouldn’t have been able to be without amputation.” Leishman realizes that he was one of the lucky ones, since staph can sometimes enter the bloodstream and cause fatal illness. He’s glad he didn’t take any chances.
Not long ago, methicillin was considered a strong and effective antibiotic. Unfortunately, its widespread use in the treatment of staph infections has created a new strain called methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) which is even more difficult to treat, making it the much-feared “superbug” in the headlines.
According to the CDC, approximately 1 percent of the population is colonized with MRSA. A CDC report in the October 17, 2007 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association suggesting that MRSA infections occur more frequently than previously realized caused a surge in news articles about MRSA. The report cites data that invasive MRSA occurred in 31.8 per 100,000 members of the population. Using this data, researchers estimated that 18,650 people died from MRSA infections in 2005, a startling statistic considering that it surpassed the number of people dying from AIDS.
MRSA has become a major cause of infections both in hospitals and communities. Healthcare- associated MRSA (HA-MRSA) infections occur among hospitalized patients. Those who have been hospitalized or had surgery within the past year, or who are receiving treatments such as dialysis, are at greatest risk. Community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) infections are acquired by people who have not been hospitalized or had a medical procedure within the past year. MRSA infections in the community are usually manifested as skin infections and can strike otherwise-healthy people.
For years, the antibiotic vancomycin has been a last resort against infections caused by MRSA and other antibiotic-resistant “superbugs,” but now the drug is becoming more widely used out of necessity. Hospitals are seeing vancomycin-resistant infections, and there is increasing concern that development of newer and stronger antibiotics is not keeping pace with infection.
Streptococcus pyogenes, or group A streptococcus
Group A streptococcus, or GAS, is often carried in the throat and on the skin without causing illness. When infection occurs, it is usually minor, such as with strep throat. However, in some rare instances, a virulent strain can cause life-threatening conditions such as necrotizing fasciitis (NF), a severe, but rare, infection of the tissues between the skin and underlying muscle. Also known as the “flesh-eating disease,” NF progresses quickly, causing gangrene and often leading to limb loss and even death.
The infection usually enters the bloodstream through a wound or through a small abrasion or cut in the skin. One reason NF is so devastating is that the site of infection may look like nothing more than a bug bite. Consequently, NF survivors often report that they were treated only for their flu-like symptoms. By the time the true cause of symptoms is known, the infection has often had enough time to inflict severe damage or even take a person’s life.
Jackie Chambers’ life was on the line when he acquired NF after amputation surgery. Chambers, who had already lost his right leg above the knee to a staph infection, was scheduled to have his left leg amputated above the knee because of circulation problems. While still in post-operation, his mother, who was sitting with him until he woke up, noticed a terrible smell. The odor was caused by the NF ravaging Chambers’ flesh.
When the nurses were called in, Chambers, though unconscious, was going into a fit, pulling out his bandages and IV drip. He was wheeled to ICU before being taken to a larger hospital by an emergency medical team. When the doctors made the diagnosis, Chambers’ mom was told that her son had only 12 hours to live. Refusing to give up, she urged the medical team of 10 doctors to do everything they could to save his life. They put him in a medically induced coma and on life support. His heart had to be restarted five times. “The fifth time, my heart stopped for seven minutes,” he says. “The doctors said I just kept fighting for my life.”
Chambers had a long fight. Before the end of the ordeal, he would spend a month in ICU, followed by five more months in the hospital, finally to emerge a left hip-disarticulation amputee with severe scarring on his abdomen. Chambers is emotionally scarred from the experience as well. “I wouldn’t wish this disease on my worst enemy,” he says. Now, Chambers is just trying to pick up the pieces and move on.
Meningitis, which is spread by respiratory droplets, occurs when the membranes and fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord become inflamed. This can happen with infection from both bacteria and viruses, but bacterial infections tend to be more serious, accounting for a greater number of complications and deaths than viral meningitis. Bacterial meningitis can be caused by several different strains, but the most common bacteria responsible for the disease is Neisseria meningitides, which causes meningococcal disease, also known as cerebrospinal meningitis.
About 2,600 people get meningococcal disease each year. Although teenagers and young adults are at greatest risk, the disease can strike anyone. Fortunately, there are vaccines available for long-term prevention, and one woman is using her experience with the disease as a platform to advocate for being vaccinated.
A healthy 42-year-old, Carolyn Woodward fell well outside the risk category, yet she acquired the bacteria while on vacation. The first symptoms appeared within 40 hours after Woodward returned home. She thought she was getting a cold. When the pain increased, she figured she had a serious case of the flu and made a trip to the ER to get a shot for the pain. She did not have some of the classic signs of meningitis, including stiff neck, fever and dementia, and her white blood cell count was too high to do a spinal tap, so the diagnosis took another 40 hours. Then Woodward broke out in the purple rash associated with septicemia. Her right hand experienced severe tissue damage and both feet had to be amputated.
Being out of work for 10 months was just one of the setbacks Woodward faced. “I used to hike Stone Mountain every day,” she says. “I’m still trying to get back to where I was before the illness.” Woodward recently shared her story while participating in a bicycle Health Awareness Tour, in which she rode from Nashville to Atlanta (over 250 miles) in four days. Her main message to others: “Take care of yourself and get immunized.”
Washing Away the Problem?
Bacteria can be intimidating, and not just for their Latinate names. It only takes a few species of pathogenic bacteria to cause some of the worst sicknesses known to humans. Anyone with lowered immunity is at greater risk for getting an infection, but healthy people can get sick too. However, you can take steps to protect yourself. It’s important to be proactive with your health, while keeping risks in perspective. The best advice is to be aware but not panicked.
More and more antibacterial products on the market are playing on people’s fears, but no antibacterial soaps or silly products like antibacterial pencils are going to stop the problem. In fact, they can even make it worse. According to the Food and Drug Administration, antibiotic chemicals may be playing a role in antibiotic resistance. And remember the natural bacteria on human skin? Well, antibacterial soaps kill the friendly bacteria that keep people healthy. The best advice is to wash your hands with a mild soap for 15 to 20 seconds in warm water. Washing your hands frequently and teaching children to do the same are the most important things that you can do on a daily basis to keep healthy.
For doctors, it’s more important than ever to weigh whether an antibiotic is needed or not. Many doctors will write prescriptions for antibiotics simply because a patient demanded one – even for viral infections. It is dangerous to use antibiotics too frequently – not only because of problems with resistance, but also because they will kill the friendly bacteria living in the gut that can help the body stay healthy. If antibiotics are necessary, then it is the user’s responsibility to finish the prescription in full, even when no signs of infection seem present.
It’s equally important not to write off the early warning signs of an infection. In their early phases, many dangerous infections can look like a common cold or flu. If a doctor’s treatment isn’t working, be persistent. It’s okay to demand that certain bacterial infections be ruled out. In all cases, the earlier the diagnosis and treatment begins, the better the prognosis.
Alliance for Prudent Use of Antibiotics
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
The Mayo Clinic
Meningitis Foundation of America
National Necrotizing Fasciitis Foundation | <urn:uuid:f25c16a0-0da5-4ad1-8096-0dd4fe294bf3> | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | https://www.amputee-coalition.org/resources/bacterial-warfare/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578530060.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20190420220657-20190421001741-00061.warc.gz | en | 0.967427 | 3,154 | 3.640625 | 4 |
The Physics of Star Formation and Early Stellar Evolution
The origin of stars is one of the principle mysteries of nature. During the last two decades advances in technology have enabled more progress to be made in the quest to understand stellar origins than at any other time in history. The study of star formation has developed into one of the most important branches of mod ern astrophysical research. A large body of observational data and a considerable literat ure now exist concerning this topic and a 1arge community of international astronomers and physicists devote their efforts attempting to decipher the secrets of stellar birth. Yet, the young astronomerjphysicist or more advanced researcher desiring to obtain a basic background in this area of research must sift through a very diverse and sometimes bewildering literature. A literature which includes research in many discip1ines and sub discip1ines of classical astrophysics from stel lar structure to the interstellar medium and encompasses the entire range of the electromagnetic spectrum from radio to gamma rays. Often, the reward of a suc cessfu1 foray through the current literature is the realization that the results can be obsolete and outdated as soon as the ink is dry in the journal or the conference proceeding in which they are published. | <urn:uuid:e1c83cb8-4af6-4860-a5d2-52932845fc56> | CC-MAIN-2018-43 | http://m.beck-shop.de/item/333237313534 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583512014.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20181018194005-20181018215505-00090.warc.gz | en | 0.938337 | 243 | 2.796875 | 3 |
This is a very vague question. Here are some things to know before answering your question.
- What is your amount of water?
- What is the size of your land?
- How much annual rainfall is yours?
- But I will try to answer your question as best as possible.
In desert areas, the annual rainfall is usually about 1 inch or less and groundwater is not effective at all. But if you have good water, I recommend using a railgun instead of a drip irrigation system, and first of all before you try to grow something. Be sure to provide some cover for some organic material such as soil/sand. Straw, straw,
Use drip irrigation to plant mangrove trees, at first, they are very drought tolerant and grow well in the desert. You have to irrigate far less than any other plant or crop. You can stop irrigation after 2 months when they have new leaves. Cover the roots of each tree with straw or straw or wood chip to reduce water evaporation and begin the soil healing process. Also, use compost undercover. The first 2 months you have to irrigate like 1 liter in the morning and 1 liter in the evening. You can adjust the time depending on the nozzle of your drip. Once the trees start shading and the overall temperature drops down for your land, you can start growing your own things. But before that, remember that if you plant other crops, the heated sand particles will burn the leaves of your crop, and in the summer the sand itself becomes so hot that all the plants will burn.
Sprinkler / RailgunsThis system keeps the sand cool during the summer and prevents the plants from burning their leaves. You can install small sprinklers, but it may cost more or install railguns that overall costs are lower than sprinklers and are easier to manage. By using this system you can grow vegetable and any kind of crop from day 1 Keeping ground and compost is important in this process as well. This system is good for small root crops but not very good for trees but still, if you mix the soil well and cover it well then the plants can grow with it. This system will cost less to install and may earn you a start.
This post has been brought to you by Sprinkler Repair Tampa | <urn:uuid:6200d532-71ac-4953-9906-a9a4b3013940> | CC-MAIN-2020-16 | http://livingdesertcactus.com/what-types-of-sprinklers-to-use-in-the-desert/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-16/segments/1585370500331.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200331053639-20200331083639-00069.warc.gz | en | 0.960699 | 465 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Tunnel Vision and Chronic Stress: How to Manage Your Physiological Responses
Police officers must constantly maintain a high state of alertness and be prepared to respond to any number of situations. When officers are called into action, their bodies undergo a variety of physiological responses, which are necessary to help them react.
While many physiological responses are beneficial in the short-term, they can quickly become problematic, causing loss of fine motor skills and other physical limitations. For example, when an officer’s fight or flight response is triggered, they may experience an immediate improvement in sight and hearing. However, this can quickly turn into tunnel vision and auditory exclusion.
Prolonged exposure to high-stress situations and the physiological responses that go along with it can have long-term implications for officers. This includes health problems such as cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, and mental-health problems. Therefore, it’s critical that officers understand the physiological responses they experience and find ways to manage the impact to their body.
What Happens to a Body Under Stress?
When the body is exposed to a danger, a part of the brain called the amygdala delivers a distress signal to another part of the brain called the hypothalamus. This alerts the adrenal glands to release adrenaline into the bloodstream, which results in physiological changes such as increased breathing, increased heartrate, and a narrowed focus on the threat.
These biochemical interactions occur when officers respond to an emergency or are faced with a physical confrontation. They even occur at the higher levels of alertness that officers maintain to remain safe. The amygdala and hypothalamus make the changes very quickly, sometimes before the brain’s visual centers are able to fully process what is occurring. This may explain why officers can react instantly when faced with significant dangers, such as deadly force encounters or avoidance of vehicle crashes.
However, these chronic stress responses take a toll on the officer’s body over the course of a police career. Continued exposure to these processes that occur in the brain can result in damaged arteries in the body, increased blood pressure, and an elevated risk of heart attacks and strokes.
Stress also causes the release of the hormone cortisol. Cortisol helps increase body energy, but in the long term it can interfere with thought processes and interrupt thyroid function in the person’s body. The thyroid gland plays a major role in metabolism, so if affected, it can lead to an accumulation of abdominal fat and reduced overall metabolism. This may help to provide insight into the elevated risk of cardiovascular disease in policing.
Controlling Your Body’s Response to Stress
The good news is that officers can take steps to mitigate the body’s response to stressful encounters. Recently, I conducted a two-year qualitative study on police stress and how it can be effectively managed. The study involved data from police officers who have successfully managed stress throughout their careers. Through the lived experiences of the officers and my research, below are strategies that can promote resilience from physiological stress responses.
Engage in Patterned Breathing
When the physiological reactions to stressful events occur, patterned breathing is essential. Patterned breathing involves taking deep breaths through the nose, which delivers oxygen to the lungs and diaphragm. This counters the body’s stress response of taking shallow breaths. Patterned breathing is intentional and can help the officer focus on the immediate threat or think through the stressful encounter.
Avoid Tunnel Vision and Auditory Exclusion
Tunnel vision and auditory exclusion are common responses to a threat. These responses can impact officer safety by lowering situational awareness. To avoid tunnel vision and auditory exclusion, officers must first recognize when they are happening and take conscious actions to overcome them. Signs of tunnel vision include reduced use of peripheral vision and intense focus directly on one target. When tunnel vision occurs officers don’t see other objects in the vicinity, thus reducing their overall situational awareness. Auditory exclusion is a stress response associated with tunnel vision and involves temporarily not hearing nearby noises or voices.
To avoid having these physiological responses occur, officers can take measures prior to arriving on scene. For example, officers can engage in patterned breathing that may help to reduce the officer’s heartrate. They also need to consciously take time to evaluate all the information currently available about the call and think through potential actions that may need to take when they arrive on scene.
Also, it is important that partners monitor one another for signs of tunnel vision and auditory exclusion. This can be done by continual communication and the creation of an action plan for how the officers will respond prior to engaging the threat.
Learn from Experiences
Mental preparedness for encountering stressful events is important. In policing, it is commonly stated that no two calls are the same. This is partially true. As the officer accumulates exposure to stressful situations in the field, officers may find it helpful to develop patterned responses to handling stressful events. Often, responses to emergencies result in standard actions taken by police officers. Patterned responses can help officers reduce stress by applying what was learned or experienced in past similar calls. If officers can view traumatic events as monotonous and develop a patterned response for how the psychological aspects should be approached, officers can decrease their stress and stress reactions. Using past experiences while responding to similar incidents can help officers understand the stress they are about to experience so they’re prepared for it. Developing “a routine” to handle traumatic events is completely different than viewing calls “as routine,” which is dangerous because it can result in complacency.
Maintain Off-Duty Activities
To mitigate the long-term consequences of chronic exposure to police stress, off-duty activities are very important. Mental preparedness for job-related stress in policing is impacted by the rest, relaxation, and clarity of thought that are gained while off duty. To prepare for the physiological stress that occurs on duty, officers can benefit from engaging in off-duty activities that completely remove them from the badge. These activities may include attending church activities, exercise, spending time with friends who are not police officers, and engaging in family activities.
Understanding the effect of physiological stress on an officer’s body is important in policing. If officers know how their bodies respond to stress, they can actively engage in strategies to combat their negative effects. Patterned breathing, developing strategies to overcome tunnel vision and auditory exclusion, and mentally preparing for the job while off duty are all important to help officers respond and recover from stressful events.
About the Author: Dr. Jarrod Sadulski is an adjunct professor with American Military University. He has spent more than two years studying police stress and its influence on the lives of police officers. Sadulski has conducted a review of approximately 300 peer-reviewed scholarly articles that focused on topics associated with police stress and officer wellness and he interviewed veteran officers who have served in law enforcement both domestically and internationally. Based on what has been learned from his research in the study on police stress, Sadulski is authoring a book on effectively managing police stress through a successful police career, which covers in further detail the physiological effects of police stress and how it can be managed. Sadulski has 20 years of policing experience between both federal and local law enforcement. You can contact him at [email protected]. | <urn:uuid:c1d91b2e-5407-4989-af34-38eb96abadc9> | CC-MAIN-2017-39 | http://inpublicsafety.com/2017/08/tunnel-vision-and-chronic-stress-how-to-manage-your-physiological-responses/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-39/segments/1505818687766.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20170921115822-20170921135822-00699.warc.gz | en | 0.956586 | 1,501 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Anson Jones was the last president of The Republic of Texas
He was born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts
on January 20th, 1798. He studied medicine in Litchfield, Conneticut
in 1817 and received his license to practice in 1820.
After years of practicing medicine, and numerous failed business venture
s in New Orleans
; Jones moved to Texas and established a medical practice
in Brazoria, Texas
In the war between Texas
, he served as a soldier
in the Texan army
. He was a representative
in the Texan Congress
in 1837 where he attempted unsuccessfully to secure the annexation
of Texas to the United States. He held the office of Secretary of State
under President Sam Houston
for three years (1841-1844).
In September 1844 he was elected
President of the Republic of Texas, he maintained the office until the annexation of Texas to the United States.
Jones helped found the Medical Association of Texas in 1853, known today as the Texas Medical Association
. After years of clinical depression, Anson Jones committed suicide
“Republic of Texas
” was published in 1859.
and Anson, Texas
were named after him. The Anson Jones, MD, Award
; started in 1957, by the Texas Medical Association
, was also named in his honor. | <urn:uuid:a4f2dc0c-04e4-464b-8c9d-675b7c416f86> | CC-MAIN-2013-48 | http://everything2.com/title/Anson+Jones | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-48/segments/1386164944725/warc/CC-MAIN-20131204134904-00000-ip-10-33-133-15.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954063 | 283 | 3 | 3 |
Colorful sea star vanishes from California coast devastating marine ecology, fisheries
Six years after it was stricken by a wasting disease off the northern California coast, the sunflower sea star - one of the most colorful starfish in the ocean - has all but vanished, and the domino effect threatens to unravel an entire marine ecosystem.
The cause of the sea star's demise is a mystery, but it coincided with a warming event in the Pacific Ocean, possibly tied to the climate, that lasted for two years ending in 2015. It heated vast stretches of water in patches, and likely exacerbated the disease, according to a new study released Wednesday.
"I've never seen a decline of this magnitude of a species so important," Drew Harvell, the lead author of the study, published in the journal Science Advances, that documented the sunflower sea star's retreat into possible extinction off California and Oregon.
If the study had a purpose, she said, it was to call attention to the sea star's demise so that federal officials would take action to list it as endangered and work to save it, possibly with a breeding program using sunflower stars that are surviving in parts of Washington, Alaska and Canada.
"It's big news and cause for major management action," Harvell said. "We felt there wasn't enough attention."
Harvell and her team of researchers traced the sea star's decline using diver surveys of shallow waters. Between 2006 and 2014, divers saw "anywhere from two to 100 stars during their dives," the study said.
After that, they saw total devastation. In at least 60 percent of surveys in Washington and Canada, no sunflower sea stars were seen. In California and Oregon, 100 percent of surveys recorded the unthinkable: zero sightings.
The coastal Pacific is the only place sunflower sea stars are known to exist. It's been three years since divers have spotted one below Washington.
Their disappearance could not have come at a worse time.
Sunflower sea stars started dying off around the time that the population of their favorite prey, purple sea urchins, exploded. The voracious urchins feed on vegetation that is key to the ecosystem in that area of the Pacific - bull kelp forests that support young fish, snails, crabs, birds and a range of other animals.
Over the last few years, California's fifth largest fishery, red sea urchins harvested for sushi, has cratered. A once teeming population of decorative snails called abalone, which drew tourists and professional divers, has also crashed. Both animals rely on kelp to survive, and their combined loss has cost the state tens of millions of dollars, according to economists.
Scientists are wondering if the freak warming anomaly, disease and their adverse effects are sign of things to come.
"What happens before anything else is you get this coincidence between ocean warming and the outbreak of the disease that took out the sea star," said Mark Carr, a professor of ecology and evolutionary biological for the University of California at Santa Cruz. "We've been trying to understand why. We have never seen this kind of disease outbreak in sea stars, and we've been trying to understand how the hell it happened."
"We know we're going to see more warming in the future because of global climate change," Carr said, "so who knows if we will see more of these purple urchin outbreaks. You do wonder whether we're transitioning into a new environmental dynamic that we just haven't seen in the past."
Wednesday's study focuses on the demise of the sunflower sea star, a top predator in the tidal waters in California and Oregon that was as common as a robin, researchers said. Like wolves that control deer populations and bats that control crop-eating moths, they kept purple urchins under control for 600 miles.
With the sea stars on the prowl, purple urchins cowered in cracks and crevices of coral and waited for broken kelp leaves to float their way. "They scared the heck out of them. They caused them to stampede trying to get out of their way," Harvell said.
But with sea stars virtually annihilated, the urchins spread out across the ocean floor by the tens of thousands and gobbled the forests. The affected areas have a grim nickname: urchin barrens.
The sunflower sea star is a member of a species once known as starfish. Marine biologists changed the name because, among other things, they're not fish. Also, the sunflower isn't star shaped. It looks more like the sun.
It's an eye-popping sight, a technicolored creature that can grow as big as an SUV hubcap. Individuals often live together on coral in large pastel communities, and they move across the ocean floor using dozens of squiggly arms.
"They are pretty incredible. They can get to be, like, three feet across, so giant," said Cynthia Catton, an environmental scientist for the California Fish and Wildlife Service. She went diving with a friend from New Hampshire who saw one for the first time. "I think her reaction was telling. They're just this alien. They've got 20-plus arms moving independently, gliding across the reef. It's fascinating to watch."
The way sunflower sea stars wasted from disease is as grisly as they are beautiful. They melted and dissolved as if in a horror film. And they were trapped. In the beginning, when the disease was first detected, it was thought that warmer tidal waters were a killing field. But the study showed no evidence that deeper and colder depths are a refuge.
Scientists are more concerned about the bleak outlook for bull kelp forests is more worrisome because it holds up an ecosystem. When it disappeared, so did other animals and aspects of California's economy.
"California has very reduced kelp cover," Steve Lonhardt, a marine ecologist for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. "Bull kelp is missing from San Francisco Bay to Point Marina, a tremendous stretch of coast. Areas where there was kelp forest is dominated by urchins. People along those coasts are extremely alarmed because the kelp supports the red urchin fishery."
A kelp forest is habitat "for literally hundreds of thousands of marine organisms," Lonhardt said. "So when you lose that . . . imagine all the birds and insects that rely on trees. Kelp is delicious. Everything in the marine system loves to eat kelp."
To lose kelp is to lose a diet and nutrients, the cornerstone of the food web. Herons can walk in the middle of the ocean on a thick and healthy kelp forest and hunt for juvenile fish. Otters wrap themselves in it to take naps.
"Now it's just blue open water" in the north Pacific, Lonhardt said. And untold numbers of purple urchins at the ocean bottom, waiting to eat it when it tries to recover. | <urn:uuid:38d20217-e987-433e-8a40-6e446cf4fd11> | CC-MAIN-2019-26 | https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Colorful-sea-star-vanishes-from-California-coast-13581326.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560628000609.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20190626234958-20190627020958-00042.warc.gz | en | 0.966922 | 1,440 | 3.484375 | 3 |
- Fine Arts and Music Collection
Resources for drama, music, art history, and filmmaking.
- Music & Performing Arts
Combines audio and video that spans all time periods, hundreds of thousands of seminal artists, composers, choreographers, and ensembles to provide an unparalleled learning environment for the teaching of music.
- Academic OneFile
Scholarly, peer-reviewed articles in many subjects.
- Academic Search Ultimate
Developed to meet the increasing demands of scholarly research, Academic Search Ultimate offers students an unprecedented collection of peer-reviewed, full-text journals, including many journals indexed in leading citation indexes.
- Credo Reference
An easy-to-use database providing dictionary and encyclopedia entries on subjects in all academic disciplines; a scholarly alternative to Wikipedia
- Ebook Central (Proquest)
A collection of E-Books. You can either search or browse by subject.
Note: Formerly known as eBrary E-Books
- eBook Collection (EBSCOhost)
This is a multi-disciplinary collection which allows you to search and view the full text of its eBooks. Read an eBook instantly with your web based reader or download eBooks to your portable device.
- Expanded Academic ASAP
A multidisciplinary database featuring scholarly articles, trade and popular news features.
An advanced, multidisciplinary database featuring secondary resources in history, scholarly articles and other resources spanning the humanities and sciences.
Access to streaming films and documentaries across a wide range of disciplines and subject areas. | <urn:uuid:1c9ba6ba-4d70-47e4-a1f1-47df0d0f0707> | CC-MAIN-2018-47 | https://library.fitchburgstate.edu/research/databases/theater/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-47/segments/1542039743714.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20181117144031-20181117170031-00440.warc.gz | en | 0.854946 | 313 | 2.859375 | 3 |
African American Innovators and Entrepreneurs
1-31 March 2013
Our first major exhibit at THEARC in DC on 16 March 2013, curated by noted author on Black innovation and Board member, Dr. Patricia Carter Sluby, was a great success, drawing an estimated 50 plus visitors who inspected the creations of the following innovators and entrepreneurs to the lovely harp music by Victoria Payton Webber:
- Dr. Tashni-Ann Dubroy and Dr. Tiffani Bailey Lash, organic chemists and founders of Tea and Honey Blends and the Brilliant and Beautiful Foundation for women in science
- Crystal Little, milliner and founder of Crylittle Designs
- Tambra Raye, nutritionist and founder of NativSol
- Nat Mathis, beauty specialist, inventor, and author of Portrait of a Professional
- Warren Shadd, musician, inventor, and founder of Shadd Pianos
- Johnnie Jackson, Ph.D., computer science engineer, inventor, and founder of Diabetes Informatics, Inc.
Above photo: Crystal Little, milliner and founder of Crylittle Designs created a fabulous display for the 16 March 2013 Exhibit. See more here!
The Museum for Black Innovation and Entrepreneurship is a Charter Member of the National Museum of African American History and Culture.
Explore the Black Innovation and Entrepreneurship Trail in the Washington, DC area.
In earlier centuries Africans developed a strong business tradition. Many writings reflect innovative efforts of Americans of African descent, of those who believe in self- reliance and self-motivation. These stalwart, creative men and women helped make a better world.
African Americans have invented and patented in every subject matter, starting with the contribution of enslaved Africans up to and including the leading edge of technology and medical fields at the beginning decades of the 21st century. They are problem solvers who turn obstacles into opportunities––perceiving the question and the answer. Some have changed the course of history, but the majority are obscure figures.
By turning their inventions into wealth, African Americans with patents push hard to exploit their patented concepts through business ventures and various enterprises in spite of enormous obstacles. They want to improve the human condition and, in turn, bring to themselves greater financial security and higher social status. The ever-present climate of bigotry and narrow-mindedness continues to challenge Black innovators to achieve. Accordingly they are energized in their efforts to succeed.
We believe that creativity is contagious; once you have become infected with it, you never lose it. We seek to inspire creative genius in the present generation of our people by showing the creative productivity of past generations, a people who did more with less. The young as well as the old must have visions. They must create things; they must see things that are and make them what they ought to be.
With this exhibition, we call upon all who see it to become inventors. This is our message: To become a creative inventor of things and ideas is the highest good. It does not matter who you are––your age, your sex, your parentage, your educational background. To be truly great, you must create. Through creativity and inventiveness you can make a difference in our world and how we relate to each other. ––Portia P. James, The Real McCoy, 1989
The Museum for Black Innovation and Entrepreneurship gratefully acknowledges the United States Patent and Trademark Office, an agency of the U.S. Department of Commerce, for its generous loan of artwork depicting Black inventors and their patents. The fourteen pieces of art reflect a portion of the breadth and depth of Black inventors as part of our Nation's history.
Photos from left to right, top to bottom:
1. Dr. Tashni-Ann Dubroy and Dr. Tiffani Bailey Lash, organic chemists and founders of Tea and Honey Blends
2. Tambra Raye, nutritionist and founder of NativSol
3. Visitors arriving early.
4. Visitors assembling for the Keynote.
5. Patricia Carter Sluby delivers the Keynote.
6. Harp music by Victoria Payton Webber | <urn:uuid:d560140e-1784-46be-b4ef-14a3b9d21a46> | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | https://mbiedc.org/styled-6/exhibit.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243989820.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20210518033148-20210518063148-00634.warc.gz | en | 0.939715 | 855 | 2.78125 | 3 |
The original design of the Brazilian flag consisted of green and yellow stripes with 21 stars located in the upper left part of it. This in resemblance to the design of the United States flag. Since 1889, 6 stars have been added, representing the 6 new states that have joined the Brazilian territory since the November Calendar UK 2018 Proclamation of Independence.This in order to pressure the Junta to start the independence process of the Spanish Crown. November Calendar UK 2018 The revolutionary act was ratified with the approval of the Act of Independence of Cartagena on November 11, 1811, same day the independence revolution began. Therefore, this day is celebrated on November 11 of each year.The current design of the Brazilian flag was approved on May 12, 1992. This during the term of President Fernando Collor de Mello.
November Calendar UK 2018
The design of the Brazilian flag consists of a green and yellow rectangle. Located in the middle is the figure of a globe with 27 stars, and a white band in the middle. This strip has the words “Ordem e Progresso” which means order and progress in Portuguese.The new system of government established was based on the equality of the law, in order to curb possible abuses against the population, as well as offering freedom of vote to elect governors. The monarchy, on the other hand, did not offer those terms of democracy or equality.
November 2018 Calendar UK
The green and yellow colors on the Brazilian flag represent the industrial and natural exploitation aspect of Brazil. Meanwhile, the stars represent each of the 26 states of Brazil, plus its Federal capital, Brasilia. Its location on the globe represents the position of different constellations on the night of November 19, 1889. Date of the Proclamation of the Republic.
2018 November Calendar UK
The creators of the Brazilian flag represented the Positivismo school in that country. This philosophical current proclaims scientific knowledge as the basis of all knowledge. Due to these influences the colors of the flag represent the industrial facet of Brazil. Likewise the phrase Order and Progress is an abbreviation of the positivist phrase Love by principle, order by basis and progress at last .
November Calendar 2018 UK
Attend the official celebration that takes place in the Esplanade of the Ministries in Brasilia. This act is headed by the president of the day and includes a civic-military parade and an act of oath to the Brazilian flag.In different cities of Brazil, commemorative events are held in homage to the flag of this country. These acts include raising the flag at 12:00 and at 18:00.
November Calendar UK
Visit the Monument to the Flags located in the square Armando de Sáles Oliveira in San Pablo. This monument is a representation of the different governmental processes through which Brazil has passed, among them the Proclamation of the Republic and the creation of the current flag of that country.
2018 November Calendar UK Printable Images
“Such statements are unfortunately new rubbish and lack of provocation that can not change reality or historical facts,” Banski dvori said. According to Croatian Agency for Medicinal Products and Medical Products (HALMED) for 2017, the drug consumption amounted to 1061.11 doses per 1000 inhabitants per day, ie a total financially 6,131,627,475 kuna.
November calendar 2018 UK Editable Pictures Download
More than six billion Croatian citizens spent the last year on drugs. In Slavonic and Baranya, the drugs were spent somewhat more than half a billion kuna, namely 595 million.
UK November Calendar 2018 Word Template
Accordingly, every Croatian citizen drinks fewer than one tablet a day, and in two Slavonian counties and more, including Virovitica-Dravidian and Ovular-Srijem.
The national flag of Brazil was created on November 19, 1889. Only four days after the Proclamation of the Republic. It was inspired by the flag of the Portuguese Empire. The imperial crown would be changed by the phrase that is now recognized worldwide: “Order and progress.”The blue circle of the flag has a very specific meaning related to this historical fact. It represents the sky of the city of Rio de Janeiro showing the constellation La Cruz del Sur as it was at 20:30 hours on November 15, 1889. Day of the Proclamation of the Republic. | <urn:uuid:98f2712f-9847-4599-b958-030fa1302f6f> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | http://calendarprintablehub.com/november-calendar-uk-2018.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247508363.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20190221193026-20190221215026-00528.warc.gz | en | 0.949018 | 893 | 2.796875 | 3 |
For decades Canadians and Americans had very little in the way of present day reminders when it came to Remembrance Day.
Veterans from previous wars were harder to find each year when Nov. 11 rolled around but the war in Afghanistan changed all that. Not only were there new veterans of war returning home to Canada but there were more images of war showing up back home than ever before.
So much was being reported on back in Canada and the United States that, at times, images were pulled from publication and broadcasting for fear it would overwhelm the general public and breed a level of anxiety that neither Canadians or our cousins to the south wanted to see in their society.
Images of war are just one way of telling the story of our current veterans and those that served in decades past.
The stories these veterans can share, when they are able to do so, can teach the next generation valuable lessons about why we should never, ever have to endure the horrors of war again.
Those who fought in the trenches in Europe, who flooded the beaches of France, who rolled through the streets in Holland know first hand war is not the answer.
No one wins in a war. There is loss, destruction and devastation on both sides of the line of fire.
While the reasons for going to war are often justified, in the end, the people who suffer are not the leaders whose activities led to the war but are felt by the every-day citizen who didn’t want to go to war in the first place.
It’s unfortunate in this day and age, after generations and centuries of war around the globe, we still can’t seem to come up with a better way of handling our differences.
Of course, when a leader of a country is determined to force their way of life or their idea of what is right on another people, often there is little left to do but to fight back.
Defending those who can’t do so themselves is why Canada is often placed in the position of defending peace in various parts of the world.
For generations, Nov. 11 has come to symbolize a moment in time when everyone can and should take a moment to be grateful, to appreciate the sacrifices that were made so today’s Canadians can enjoy a free country.
It doesn’t take much to wear a poppy, attend a Remembrance Day program or even just stop at 11 a.m. on Monday, Nov. 11 and just be silent for a minute.
Given the heavy price that many families paid in years past and even today in the name of protecting the rights and freedoms we often take for granted, a minute of silence isn’t too much to ask.
It’s a minute that has been earned with years of sacrifice. | <urn:uuid:d9742f8f-833f-470e-88a6-ff9bc732ea0c> | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | https://tabertimes.com/editorial/2013/11/14/november-11-our-day-to-remember/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662510097.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20220516073101-20220516103101-00368.warc.gz | en | 0.97198 | 569 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Despite the fact that people have eaten relatively low-carb high-fat diets throughout human history, many dietitians and medical doctors insist on calling low-carb high-fat diets a "craze."
The implication is that sane people eschew fat in favor of carbs, consuming meals like fortified breakfast cereal and skim milk instead of bacon and eggs. Never mind that the fat soluble vitamins sprayed onto enriched cereal flakes will not be absorbed by the body in the absence of the dietary fat that was deliberately removed from the milk for "health" reasons. Or that the popularity of low-fat high-carb diets has led to the biggest epidemic of obesity and associated metabolic diseases since human beings started roaming the planet.
If you look at a timeline of human history, the relative millisecond in which the medical community has pushed carbohydrates over fat is the aberration from the norm. In reality, it is the low-fat high-carb diet that is the fad, a dietary experiment that has resulted in worsening health throughout most of the first world, which mistakenly followed the United States and its dietary guidelines like lemmings over a cliff.
It should be noted, however, that the United States -- the country that first promoted over-consumption of carbohydrates -- also produced the Kardashians and Donald Trump. As with these pop culture phenoms, it all boils down to money and image management. Medical and dietary groups in first world countries have been
Despite the lack of any solid evidence (read Nina Teicholz's The Big Fat Surprise to learn more about the dearth of good science behind the U.S. Dietary Guidelines), skim milk and margarine were deemed healthy while bacon and butter became dietary devils.
The designers of the high-carb low-fat diet craze turned the tables against the standard American diet it replaced and acted as if humans had been feasting on fruits, grains and lean proteins all along. Using textbook marketing techniques to confuse a public with limited memory, they labeled historic eating patterns as a craze when just the opposite was true. | <urn:uuid:5bd18d96-d55b-415a-b6c5-c57500ae8343> | CC-MAIN-2017-34 | http://dietskepticdoesmedifast.blogspot.com/2016/05/will-real-diet-craze-please-stand-up.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-34/segments/1502886110471.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20170822050407-20170822070407-00569.warc.gz | en | 0.965068 | 417 | 2.546875 | 3 |
About almonds Edit
Almonds are the fruit of the almond tree. An almond is an oval, tan-colored nut. It lacks the sweet fleshy outer covering of other members of Prunus (such as the plum and cherry), this being replaced by a leathery coat, called a hull, which contains the edible kernel, commonly called a nut, inside a hard shell. In botanical parlance, the reticulated hard stony shell is called an endocarp, and the fruit, or exocarp, is a drupe, having a downy outer coat.
Types of almond Edit
Almonds are available as either a bitter or as a sweet flavored type of nut. There are a variety of almonds available in both different types and forms. As an example, Marcona almonds are a Spanish variety that are more plump than other varieties and richer in flavor. Almonds can be purchased in the shell, shelled whole, sliced, slivered, chopped, or ground. They can be blanched (skins removed), roasted or used as a raw nut.
- Bitter almonds: The bitter nut must be cooked in order to remove a naturally occurring toxin, so they are not consumed raw, but instead are processed for almond oil or almond extract.
- Sweet almonds: It is the sweet almond that is the nut commonly available to be served as snacks or added to salads, entrees, side dishes, baked goods, and desserts.
Almond paste Edit
Used in a variety of confections, almond paste is made of blanched ground almonds, sugar and glycerin or other liquid. It is also often called "marzipan". | <urn:uuid:fee1cebf-4ba7-48fb-be83-53db49912791> | CC-MAIN-2017-34 | http://healthyrecipes.wikia.com/wiki/Almond | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-34/segments/1502886105922.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20170819201404-20170819221404-00306.warc.gz | en | 0.938958 | 345 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Time: December 13, 2010 from 11am to 2pm
Website or Map: http://www.icpc-nanonet.org
Event Type: free, online, workshop
Organized By: Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR) for ICPC Nanonet
Latest Activity: Dec 13, 2010
The need for clean water is imperative for human development, and increasingly we are turning to solutions offered by nanoscience and nanotechnology. Several of these approaches are currently under investigation, and a number are already in use.
This online workshop on Nanotechnology for Clean Water will showcase the latest developments in this field and will enable nanoscientists investigating this area to meet and find out about each others’ research expertise and applications. Join us on 13th December at 11.00 GMT.
The invited speakers include Prof T. Pradeep, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India; Prof. Ligy Philip, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India and Prof. E. Shaji, Department of Geology, University of Kerala, India.
Topics to be discusses are: ‘Nanomaterials for clean and affordable water’, ‘Photocatalysis for clean water’ and ‘Groundwater contamination in India: A case study on fluoride problem of Kerala state’ and there will be opportunity for discussion after each session.
Participation is free and you can sign up free of charge at http://www.icpc-nanonet.org
The ICPC-NanoNet project stimulates global networking in nanoscience and nanotechnology. The project is funded by the European Union under FP7 for four years, from June 2008. It brings together partners from the EU, China, India, Russia and Africa and aims to provide wider access to published nanoscience research and opportunities for collaboration between scientists in the EU and International Cooperation Partner Countries.
For further information about the ICPC-Nanonet project contact the project coordinator [email protected], visit the website at www.icpc-nanonet.org or browse the free open-access nano publications archive at www.nanoarchive.org. | <urn:uuid:02d8bcb8-30f4-4b25-af0a-54992c3ff3e3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nanopaprika.eu/events/nanotechnology-for-clean-water | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.876992 | 472 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Sinfield has discussed about Calvinism, underpinning the Elizabethan orthodoxy which would see Faustus non every bit blasted because he makes a treaty with the Devil, but as doing a treaty with the Devil because he is already damned. ( 353 ) He really good portrays the thought that because Faustus got involved in a wickedness, he was bound to be damned. At another case his claim, “ If Faustus does n’t hold it, there is nil he can make. ” ( 355 ) nullifies any possibility of warranting his incorrect behavior.
At times it can non be called a Calvinist drama as God is extremely good in gifts, until the Faustus becomes a victim of his insatiate desire even when God is willing to forgive, if he repents. But Faustus deliberately refuses all the assistance and goes down to damnation. Doctrine of Calvinism was on risein England and under the way of Puritan theologist. Calvinism means theological foremost promoted by John Calvin in ( 150 9-1564 ) .He was one of leaders of Protestant reformation. It laid the foundation for Reformed divinity. Calvinism is contrasted with Lutheranism with which it divided the heritage of the Reformation. Calvinism and Lutheranism both discussed the rules of predestination and justification by religion. Calvinism sees God in all life activity and besides in redemption.
In first topographic point predestination is non formative rule of Calvinism, it has merely logical deductions. It is non the root from which Calvinism springs out, but acts as subdivision of Calvinism.
By the terminal of Act 1, Faustus appears to hold made up his head to sell his psyche to the Satan in exchange for 24 old ages in which he will ‘live in all hot stuff ‘ ( 1.3.94 ) . Act 2, Scene 1 opens with another monologue in a long monologue, Faustus reflects on the most rewarding type of scholarships. He considers jurisprudence, citing the Byzantine emperor Justinian, but dismisses the jurisprudence as excessively junior-grade, covering with fiddling affairs instead than larger 1s. Divinity, the survey of faith and divinity, seems to offer wider views, but he quotes from St. Jerome ‘s Bible that all work forces sin and finds the Bible ‘s averment that “ [ T ] he reward of wickedness is decease ” an unacceptable philosophy. He so dismisses faith and repair his head on thaumaturgy, which, when decently pursued, he believes will do him “ a mighty God ” ( 1.62 ) .
In Act1 Scene1, the lines “ Thinks ‘ 1000 that I, who saw the face of God, and tasted the ageless joys of Eden, Am non tormented with 10 thousand snake pits in being deprived of everlasting cloud nine? “ , set up the fact the Faustus had given up on his destiny and believed that he is the maestro of his ain fate. While the predestination involved a complete dependence on God and advocated for domination of God ‘s free will, Faustus wanted to dispute the sovereignty of God and experiment his ain free will. He took a different path in rules other than the natural logic of redemption procedure professed by his friends and other bookmans. He relied on the strength of human attempt entirely.
Faustus had mastered all the topics he read. This drama emphasizes the fact that cognition when misutilized can take to devastation. Faustus wanted to analyze charming alternatively metaphysics. He gained cognition through immorality. Faustus possessed insatiate thirst for cognition and fanatism and showed deep involvement in sorcery. Faustus rejected traditional survey and turned towards thaumaturgy and wanted to pattern sorcery.
He looked frontward to the advantages which he would derive as a prestidigitator. He was a Renaissance adult male and experient inner struggle, when the good angel dissuades him from practising thaumaturgy. The evil angel wanted that he should travel frontward and pattern thaumaturgy. Doctor Faustus is a Christian calamity as Marlowe has depicted human psyche as a conflict field.
Doctor Faustus is a victim of his constructs and misconception. As is true throughout the drama, nevertheless, Marlowe uses Faustus ‘s ain words to expose Faustus ‘s unsighted musca volitanss. In his initial address, for illustration, Faustus establishes a hierarchy of subjects by demoing which are nobler than others. He does non desire simply to protect work forces ‘s organic structures through medical specialty, nor does he desire to protect their belongings through jurisprudence. He wants higher things, and so he proceeds on to faith. There, he quotes selectively from the New Testament, picking out merely those transitions that make Christian religion appear in a negative visible radiation. He reads that “ [ T ] he reward of wickedness is decease, ” and that “ [ I ] f we say we that we have no wickedness, we deceive ourselves, and there is no truth in us ” ( 1.40-43 ) . The 2nd of these lines comes from the first book of John, but Faustus neglects to read the really following line, which states, “ If we confess our wickednesss, [ God ] is faithful and merely to forgive us our wickednesss, and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness ” ( 1A JohnA 1:9 ) . Therefore, through selective quoting, Faustus makes it look as though faith promises merely decease and non forgiveness and so he easy rejects faith with a fatalistic “ What will be, shall be! Divinity, adios! ” ( 1.48 ) . Meanwhile, he uses spiritual language-as he does throughout the play-to describe the dark universe of sorcery that he enters. “ These metaphysics of prestidigitators / and necromantic books are heavenly ” ( 1.49-50 ) , he declares without a hint of sarcasm. Having gone upward from medical specialty and jurisprudence to theology, he envisions thaumaturgy and sorcery as the crowning subject.
Sinfiled as a critic has argued that God is soundless on this juncture as he writes, “ If Faustus ‘s bosom is hardened and he can non atone, who has hardened it? ” ( 356 ) . Besides this Faustus ‘s penitence is insincere, and that he systematically fails to atone non because he is enduring from theologically-induced desperation, but because he is afraid of the Satans and invariably distracted by the frivolous amusements they stage for him, like the pageant of the seven lifelessly wickednesss which follows this episode. One could reason every bit good that the drama does stand for the Christian God as loving and merciful, and shows human existences to be free to determine their ain religious fates. The Good and Evil Angels, after all, seem to give dramatic signifier to Faustus ‘s freedom to take: he has a pick between good and evil, and he chooses evil in full cognition of what the effects will be.
Equally tardily as Act 5, Scene 1, the Old Man appears on phase to drive place the handiness of God ‘s clemency if lone Faustus will unfeignedly atone his wickednesss. Looked at from this position, it is Faustus and non God who is responsible for the awful destiny that greets him at the stopping point of the drama. Conclusively, Marlowe has planned the death of Faustus in such a manner that the statement, “ There are two traps in the drama. One is set by God for Dr.Faustus ; the other is set by Marlowe, for God. ” ( 361 ) holds true.
Doctor Faustus is an Elizabethan calamity. Doctor Faustus, the drama trades with the will of God and the hero defies it. The chief focal point is on homo will. Faustus brings calamity for himself. Faustus decides to follow the way as told by Valdes and Cornelius and patterns black thaumaturgy. Faustus himself calls Mephistopheles. This can be inferred as a fact back uping predestination from the lines, “ Mephistopheles ‘s intercession would be portion of Faustus ‘s penalty within the godly predestination. “ ( 354 ) Out of pride Faustus seeks universe of net income, delectation and power. Faustus marks treaty with Mephistopheles to bask worldly pleasance. In the Prologue and through the first chorus his day of reckoning is before us in clear and emphasized footings. “ We are that conceited with pride in his attainments, he forgets about redemption. ” ( 354 )
Mephistopheles by reacting to Faustus demands, gives replies on Hell, makes him unseeable so that he can annoy Pope who was at a banquet in the company of the Cardinal of Lorraine. So it was destined by God to set Mephistopheles to do full usage of pride and conveying damnation and finally decease of Faustus. This is apparent from Sinfield ‘s treatment on point of holding a Good Angel as, “ The function of the Good Angel is to state Faustus what he ought to make but can non, so that he will be unable to claim ignorance when God revenue enhancements him with evil. ”
Sinfield raises the possibility that the drama was written “ to abash Protestant philosophy. “ ( 358 ) He besides wrote “ If Faustus was guided by Mephistopheles, the determination was God ‘s. For Protestant idea could non digest Satans rolling around the universe at caprice: God does non merely let their activities, he contracts out undertakings to them. ”
There exists many contradictions in the drama but finally one may experience as imperfectnesss exist in homos so why non in a character of a drama. The ultimate authorization to make up one’s mind prevarications in the custodies of the readers. Last non the least Sinfield ‘s idea “ significant texts are in rule likely to be written across ideological faultlines because that is the most interesting sort of authorship ; they may good non be susceptible to any decisive reading. ” ( 359 ) is more convincing. | <urn:uuid:a7ef4d46-b6c1-44fe-90e2-fef7d3baf394> | CC-MAIN-2021-10 | https://espaceacademy.com/2017/08/26/predetermination-and-free-will-in-marlowes-doctor-faustus-religion-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178389798.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20210309092230-20210309122230-00252.warc.gz | en | 0.954749 | 2,188 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Retrocalcaneal bursitis is closely related to Haglund?s Deformity (or ?pump bumps?). If you have a bony enlargement on the back of the heel that rubs the Achilles tendon, it can cause the formation of a bursa (small fluid filled sack). It usually happens in athletes as shoes rub against the heel. The bursa can aggravated by the stitching of a heel counter in the shoe as well. It can make wearing shoes and exercising difficult. Another term used for this condition is ?pump bump? because it can frequently occur with wearing high heels as well. ?Retro-" means behind and ?calcaneus? means heel bone. So this is precisely where the bursitis (inflammation of the bursa) develops. Once it begins and you develop bursitis between the heel bone and the Achilles tendon, it can become even more painful. When most people first notice retrocalcaneal bursitis, it is because the skin, bursa and other soft tissues at the back of the heel gets irritated as the knot of bone rubs against the heel counter in shoes. The back of the shoes create friction and pressure that aggravate the bony enlargement and pinches the bursa while you walk.
Bursitis, tendinitis, and other soft tissue rheumatic syndromes typically result from one or more factors. These include: Play or work activities that cause overuse or injury to the joint areas Incorrect posture Stress on the soft tissues from an abnormal or poorly positioned joint or bone (such as leg length differences or arthritis in a joint) Other diseases or conditions (rheumatoid arthritis, gout, psoriasis, thyroid disease, or an unusual drug reaction) Infection.
Retrocalcaneal bursitis is very similar to Achilles bursitis as the bursae are very close in proximity and symptoms are almost identical however retrocalcaneal bursitis is a lot more common. The symptoms of bursitis vary depending on whether the bursitis is the result of injury or an underlying health condition or from infection. From normal overuse and injury the pain is normally a constant dull ache or burning pain at the back of the heel that is aggravated by any touch, pressure like tight shoes or movement of the joint. There will normally be notable swelling around the back of the heel. In other cases where the bursa lies deep under the skin in the hip or shoulder, swelling might not be visible. Movement of the ankle and foot will be stiff, especially in the mornings and after any activity involving the elbow. All of these symptoms are experienced with septic bursitis with the addition of a high temperature of 38?C or over and feverish chills. The skin around the affected joint will also appear to be red and will feel incredibly warm to the touch. In cases of septic bursitis it is important that you seek medical attention. With injury induced bursitis if symptoms are still persisting after 2 weeks then report to your GP.
The diagnosis is based on the symptoms and an examination. For anterior Achilles tendon bursitis, doctors use x-rays to rule out a fracture of the heel bone or damage to the heel bone caused by rheumatoid arthritis or other inflammatory arthritis.
Non Surgical Treatment
Treatment is primarily comprised of relief from the painful activity (running). It is important that shoes do not pinch the heel. If satisfactory progress is not made during the rehabilitation, medical treatment can be considered in the form of rheumatic medicine (NSAID) or injection of corticosteroid in the bursa. Injections should be performed under ultrasound guidance to ensure optimal effect and reduce the risk of injecting into the Achilles itself. If progress is not made neither through rehabilitation nor medicinal treatment, surgical treatment can be attempted.
Surgery is rarely need to treat most of these conditions. A patient with a soft tissue rheumatic syndrome may need surgery, however, if problems persist and other treatment methods do not help symptoms. | <urn:uuid:aa3eee9b-061f-46d1-9d0f-66bc113f3832> | CC-MAIN-2018-05 | http://sonjacanedo.hatenablog.com/entry/2015/08/24/233323 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-05/segments/1516084890991.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20180122034327-20180122054327-00657.warc.gz | en | 0.920817 | 841 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Here at The Beeches Residential Home, we know it’s important that everyone feels happy and healthy. But good health is more than just being physically fit; being mentally well is a big part of it too.
Sometimes referred to as ‘mental wellbeing’, or ‘emotional health’, mental health is just as much a concern for elderly members of the community, as it is for the younger generation. But many are unaware of how to recognise the signs of poor mental wellbeing, and the risks it carries for their overall health.
So what can affect a person’s mental health? And what can be done to improve it?
Emotional Wellbeing and the Elderly
A person’s mental wellbeing can affect how they feel and think about things, determining how they cope with the ups and downs that are faced on a daily basis.
Problems with mental health are much more common than most people think as there are very few visual signs. But in reality, around 1 in 4 people will experience mental health problems in their lifetime with Mental Health Foundation reporting that an estimated 85% of older people with depression receive no help at all from the NHS.
Mental wellbeing doesn’t have a defined cause every time, but there are lots of reasons as to why emotional wellbeing can change. For the elderly, retirement can cause a huge change to their everyday life and can sometimes have a negative knock-on effect.
Loneliness is also a leading cause, with isolation and mental wellbeing frequently linked. 1.9 million older people in the UK report feeling ignored or invisible and this has a huge impact on the older generation. Other significant events such as money worries, being a carer or poor health can have an impact on mental health.
Combating Bad Mental Health
If you think you or your loved one is feeling mentally unwell, look out for signs such as the loss of confidence, anxiousness, not enjoying things that are usually fun and avoiding others, including close friends and family.
There are steps that you can take to improve the mental wellbeing of yourself or your family. Eating good, healthy food and avoiding alcohol can be the first step to detoxing the system and improving emotional health.
Physical activity can be key to boosting emotional health, as it will release endorphins, the chemical well known for making you feel good. Just 15 minutes a day can reduce the risk of depression by 26% so it’s a worthy lifestyle change to make.
Our residents find one of the best ways to improve their mood is by socialising with their friends and family, as well as our care team. This is because it gives them the opportunity to build positive relationships, feel supported and have fun.
An additional benefit of socialising is that it can also combat feelings of loneliness and isolation. So, if you can, make time to meet up with others, or explore community events nearby for regular opportunities to get out of the house and meet new people.
Monitoring the mental health of an elderly friend or family member can be hard. But ensuring that you speak to them regularly will mean you can spot any warning signs and offer your help before they begin to feel any worse.
Here at The Beeches Residential Home, mental health is a priority. Our consistent care ensures we know each and every individual at our home and that we understand their needs. This ensures that they are able to communicate comfortably with us.
Activities and events also take place on a daily basis, keeping our resident’s minds and bodies active and stimulated. Our care teams and chefs ensure that all of our home-cooked meals are tasty and packed full of nutrients. Mealtimes should be a positive experience.
Are you interested in discovering more about our care and our home? Contact us by phone on 01359 230773 or fill in our contact form and we’ll get back to you as soon as possible.
If you or your family are experiencing mental health symptoms, please speak to your doctor and explain how you feel. Your GP will be able to help address your issues and identify further support for your loved one’s wellbeing.
You can also speak to the Samaritans on their 24-hour helpline. | <urn:uuid:e346bf63-e24b-4ca4-98e5-cbca0d023e34> | CC-MAIN-2020-29 | https://www.thebeeches-ixworth.co.uk/supporting-the-mental-health-of-our-residents/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-29/segments/1593655901509.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200709193741-20200709223741-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.970747 | 867 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Sucker, freshwater fishes of the family Catostomidae, and closely related to minnows. There are about 13 genera and 72 species of suckers; most occur in North America but one extends into eastern Siberia and another occurs only in China. There are 7 genera and 18 species in Canada (and additional fossil species); none are found in Newfoundland or Vancouver Island. Longnose and white suckers have the largest distribution, in lakes and rivers from the Maritimes to British Columbia. The longnose sucker even extends north to near the arctic coastline. The family also includes quillbacks (carplike fishes) and redhorses (which can have reddish fins).
Very few suckers exceed 40 cm in length. Most species have a ventral mouth (located on lower body surface) with large lips covered with papillae (small, nipple-shaped protuberances). Most species feed primarily on small, bottom-dwelling organisms, which are sucked up (giving rise to the common name).
Spawning usually occurs in spring or early summer. Breeding males, especially, may have nuptial tubercles (small, white, horny projections) on parts of the body and certain fins. Suckers are usually drably coloured, but a spawning male longnose sucker can have a bright red stripe along its side.
Suckers, unfortunately often regarded as coarse fish, are rarely fished commercially or recreationally in Canada, although they occur in large numbers and can be readily taken. Their common name, with its connotations, probably does not help make these fishes more acceptable than they are for fishing and eating. Although bony, they are eaten occasionally (sometimes misleadingly marketed as "mullet") and are used for dog food. Suckers are important in the diets of many other fish. They may compete with salmonids, but the extent is not well known and is probably exaggerated. | <urn:uuid:9012ef7a-a839-4a0e-8296-fcd5a48eff1a> | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/sucker | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964358480.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20211128073830-20211128103830-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.959969 | 410 | 3.65625 | 4 |
What are the symptoms of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis?
Symptoms can vary greatly from child to child. Your child may complain of joint pain or may limp. His or her joints may be very swollen or feel hot. Your child may have stiffness in the morning or have problems moving. You may notice that he or she avoids normal activities. Your child’s symptoms may come and go, and may be mild or intense. Symptoms can last for a short time or for years.
There are three main types of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Your child’s symptoms will depend on what type he or she has.
- Oligoarticular (Pauciarticular) or “few joints.” This is the most common type of rheumatoid arthritis. This type affects 4 or fewer joints, usually the knee, leg, wrist or jaw. The joints become painful, stiff and red. This type can also affect the eyes, causing the iris (the colored part of the eye) to become inflamed. This is called iritis. Sometimes, vision can be damaged, especially if the iritis is not treated properly. Girls younger than 7 years of age are most likely to have oligoarticular juvenile rheumatoid arthritis with eye problems. Boys older than 8 years of age who have this type of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis often also have spine and hip problems. In about half of cases, oligoarticular juvenile rheumatoid arthritis goes away completely over time.
- Polyarticular or “many joints.” This type of juvenile rheumatoid affects 5 or more joints. It usually affects small joints, like those in fingers and hands. Symptoms often appear in the same joints on both sides of the body. Other symptoms include low-grade fever, feeling tired, poor appetite, and tiny, rash-like bumps on the lower torso and upper arms and legs. Anemia (low iron in the blood) is common in children who have this type of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. In a few cases, polyarticular juvenile rheumatoid arthritis may also cause internal organs to swell. This type happens more often in girls than in boys, and is more likely than oligoarticular juvenile rheumatoid arthritis to cause long-lasting joint damage. Polyarticular juvenile rheumatoid arthritis goes away on its own in slightly fewer than half of children.
- Systemic or Still’s disease. This type of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis can affect several areas of the body, including joints and internal organs. It is the least common form of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. The earliest symptoms are rash (flat, pink spots), chills and high fever. Fevers usually spike (often reaching 103°F) in the afternoon or evening and disappear by the next day. Joint problems may begin early or may not appear until later. Other common symptoms include anemia and swelling of the lymph nodes, spleen and liver. Systemic juvenile rheumatoid arthritis can affect the heart and lungs, causing swelling and chest pain. This type of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis is most likely to cause long-term joint damage. About half of kids who have this type recover completely, while the rest experience joint pain and stiffness for many years.
In serious cases, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis can stunt growth. Eye swelling can be serious, and lead to vision problems. If your child has signs or symptoms of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, be sure to take him or her to the doctor.
Chronic Musculoskeletal Pain in Children: Part II. Rheumatic Causes by JL Junnila, VW Cartwright (American Family Physician July 15, 2006, http://www.aafp.org/afp/20060715/293.html)
Written by familydoctor.org editorial staff | <urn:uuid:40bab10f-20a4-4f8c-a686-7f1e89641dbe> | CC-MAIN-2016-30 | http://familydoctor.org/familydoctor/en/diseases-conditions/juvenile-rheumatoid-arthritis/symptoms.printerview.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-30/segments/1469257825124.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160723071025-00325-ip-10-185-27-174.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919524 | 807 | 3 | 3 |
Mammography is a type of x-ray used specifically for breast cancer screening and diagnosis. It is the most reliable radiographic technique for early detection of breast cancer. A mammogram is preformed by pressing the breast in between two specifically designed plates. For a screening test each breast is x-rayed twice, once from a vertical angle and once from a horizontal angle. For a diagnostic test one (or both) breast(s) is x-rayed from several different angles. As with many other medical tests, mammography is not 100% accurate. Doctors have been recommending regular screenings for years, but recently there has been a lot of debate over the risk involved.
It is true that early screening provides early detection and treatment of breast cancer, possibly meaning that the tumour can be removed before it bursts and spreads. Regular screening gives physicians the ability to detect small tumours that may not be able to be felt in self-examination. Also a specific type of tissue growth called DCIS which is a small abnormality confined to the milk ducts, can only be detected by mammography. If removed at this stage they cannot harm patients.
Dr. H. Gilbert Welsh and Brittney A. Frankel, two Dartmouth researchers, did a study and concluded that even considering these benefits; it is true that there are a relatively low percentage of women who have found mammography useful. Dr. Welsh’s notes that of 138,000 women who are diagnosed with breast cancer due to mammography; 120,000 to 134,000 are not helped by the screening. “The presumption is that anyone who has had cancer detected has survived because of this test, “ said Dr. Welsh “…in screen-detected breast and prostate cancer survivors are more likely to have been over diagnosed than actually helped by the test.” Also 10 out of every 100 women screened will be told that something on their test look suspicious, leading, not only to unnecessary emotional trauma, but to several other tests such as a MRI, which is a lengthy and uncomfortable test.
Now this is not going out to say that women should not go out and get a mammogram, but that they should be conscious of their mammographic decisions and they should be careful of how many mammograms they receive. The USPSTF issued a guideline in November 2009 that suggested that women ages 40-49 should discuss the risks and benefits of mammography with their doctor and they should be given individualized mammographic recommendations, taking into consideration things like family history. Then at the age of 50, they should start to have mammograms every 2 years until the age of 74; henceforth reducing the amount of mammograms she will receive in her life by 22.
Dr. Andrea Bradd is a British doctor presently living in Barbados, she worked in radiology and subsequently; mammography. When asked about the debate centring whether mammography is worth the cost and risks she said that she was in support of mammography being used, but in moderation. She acknowledged that, statistically, there is only a small amount of people who have been benefitted by the treatment but, as the equipment is getting better all the time and she believes that they’ve finally reached the point where they have the right age range for screening, she believes that the results can become much more accurate. When asked about other breast cancer screening methods she mentioned ultrasound and MRI; ultrasound being a safer test, because it involves less radiation, but you are only able to screen about a tenth of the breast at a time, so it is hard for doctors to stitch all the images together to form one image of the breast and have it still be reliable, MRI as aforementioned is a long process, approximately 30 minutes, that is uncomfortable and costly. So there are other methods of screening, but mammography outplays them in cost, comfort and reliability. In short she believes that mammography is the best method for early detection and a good thing, when used in moderation; no more than one every three years unless recommended by a doctor.
In conclusion I do believe that the benefits of mammography outweigh the risks. Although the risks may seem more in number, if doctors educate women and create a good plan based on their personal needs there is so much more to be benefitted instead of lost. There is a better chance, even if it is just slight, that the earlier the cancer is detected the earlier it can be treated and the less damage it can do, it may just be that little bit of time that makes all the difference in the end. My rationale is, even if there is a slight amount of over testing, if it was my own mother I would rather her have 20 false positives than her have breast cancer that wasn’t detected in time.
Santacroce, Luigi, Serdar H. Ural, Valeria Latorre, Tommaso Losacco, and Lee P. Shulman. “Read What Your Physician Is Reading on Medscape.” EMedicineHealth. Ed. Richard Harrigan and Fransisco Talavera. 27 Oct. 2005. Web. 20 Feb. 2012. <http://www.emedicinehealth.com/mammogram/article_em.htm>.
Breast cancer generally forms in a smaller, hard, egg like sack that eventually bursts, spreading the cancerous cells throughout the breast
Ductal carcinoma in situ
“Mammography.” (Mammogram). 24 June 2011. Web. 20 Feb. 2012. <http://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info.cfm?pg=mammo>.
Parker-Pope, Tara. “Mammograms: Pros and Cons.” WeeksMD ». 26 Oct. 2011. Web. 20 Feb. 2012. <http://weeksmd.com/2011/10/mammograms-pros-and-cons/>.
Whitaker, Julian. “The Pros and Cons of Mammograms.” Dr. Whitaker, Alternative Health Pioneer. Web. 20 Feb. 2012. <http://www.drwhitaker.com/the-pros-and-cons-of-mammograms>.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
U.S. Preventative Services Task Force
Doheny, Kathleen. “Researchers Question Mammogram Guidelines.” WebMD. WebMD, 02 May 2011. Web. 20 Feb. 2012. <http://www.webmd.com/breast-cancer/news/20110502/researchers-question-mammogram-guidelines>. | <urn:uuid:0b7d8c4a-771f-4009-964e-b79db4006763> | CC-MAIN-2018-09 | https://blablawriting.com/is-there-such-thing-as-too-much-mammography-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-09/segments/1518891815918.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20180224172043-20180224192043-00161.warc.gz | en | 0.961232 | 1,367 | 3.65625 | 4 |
Turning data into a table is a task most Word users learn right away. But although tables are easy to implement and format, not all table tasks are obvious. These tips will help you work more efficiently with most any table.
1: Use consistent delimitersPerhaps the simplest way to generate a table is to select text and convert it. Word does a great job of interpreting the data and defaulting to the right settings if you're consistent during data entry. Specifically, insert one delimiting character between each item, and enter a single paragraph return (press Enter) between each row, as shown in Figure A.
There's only one tab character between each item and a single paragraph return separates the rows.To convert a list, select the text. Then, click the Insert tab and click the Table drop-down (in the Tables group). From the resulting list, choose Convert Text To Table. In Word 2003, choose Convert from the Table menu and then select Text To Table. You shouldn't have to adjust the default settings (Figure B) much if you use delimiters consistently. Interpreting the tabs and returns, Word can detect that there are two columns and five rows, as shown in Figure C.
Word uses the delimiting characters to align columnar data.
Plan ahead for easy-to-implement table conversion.
2: Select a table quicklyThe quickest way to select a table is to click its Move handle. Click anywhere in the table to display this handle -- the small square icon at the top-left corner, shown in Figure D. A single click of the Move handle will select the entire table, so you can do the following:
- Format it.
- Move it.
- Delete it.
Click the table's Move handle to select the entire table.
3: Delete it
If you select a table and press Delete, you might be surprised to find the table remains. Pressing Delete removes only the data. To delete the entire table, select it and then press Backspace.
4: Format quicklyWord defaults to the Table Grid format (Figure C), which applies almost no formatting. But using Word's Tables Styles gallery, you can quickly format those results. Select the entire table and then click the contextual Design tab and hover over the many styles in the gallery (in the Tables Styles group). Click the gallery's down arrow to see the full gallery, shown in Figure E. When you find a style that meets your needs (or that's close), click it. In Word 2003, choose Table AutoFormat from the Table menu. If the resulting table isn't exactly what you want, continue to tweak it.
Use styles to quickly format tables.
5: Resize columns quickly
You can adjust a table's column widths with a few quick clicks:
- Double-click a column's right border to fit the largest item in that column, as shown in Figure F. Be sure Word displays the double-arrow pointer; otherwise, you might not get the desired results.
- To adjust all of the columns, select the table and then double-click any column's border. Figure G shows the results. This trick adjusted both columns.
Adjust the width of a single column by double-clicking its right border.
Select the entire table before double-clicking a column border to resize all of the columns.
6: Get more preciseIf you need exact measurements, use the ruler. Hover the mouse over a border until the double-arrow pointer appears. Then, click the border and hold down the Alt key. Word will display specific measurements, as shown in Figure H. If you need to resize the column, drag the gray square.
Display or set the widths of a table's columns.
7: Use Quick Tables
If you frequently use the same table in many documents, create a Quick Table (not available in Word 2003). First, create and format the table. Then, add the table to the Quick Tables gallery as follows:
- Select the table.
- Click the Insert tab.
- Click the Table drop-down in the Tables group and choose Quick Tables to open the Quick Tables Gallery.
- At the bottom of the gallery, select the Save Selection To Quick Tables Gallery option.
- Name the new table, as shown in Figure I, and click OK. Usually, the other settings will be adequate.
Create a Quick Table.
When you need the table again, just insert it from the Quick Tables gallery:
- Click the Insert tab and choose Quick Tables from the Table drop-down (in the Tables group).
- Find the table in the gallery, as shown in Figure J, and then click it to add it to the document.
This feature treats the table as a building block, not a style.
8: Move a row quickly
If you need to move a row of data, you don't have to delete and reenter anything. You can quickly move a row of data by selecting it and then pressing Shift+Alt+Down Arrow (or Up Arrow). Continue to hold down Shift and Alt while pressing an arrow key as many times as needed.
9: Create pseudo columns
Tables are the easiest way to align columns, but you won't always want the data to appear with borders. In those cases, use a table to align the data and then get rid of the borders. There are two ways to do so.
Perhaps the easiest way is to convert the table to text by selecting the table and then clicking the contextual Layout tab. In the Data group, click Convert To Text. In the resulting dialog, change the delimiting character, if necessary, and click OK. In Word 2003, choose Convert from the Table menu and then choose Table To Text. This method is good for a one-time fix as it retains the table's column tabs. You can insert and delete rows easily, but that's about all you can do.If you want the table's bells and whistles, just turn off the borders. After selecting the table, pressing Ctrl+Alt+U. Or click the contextual Design tab and choose No from the Borders drop-down in the Tables Styles group. In Word 2003, you can use the Border control on the Formatting toolbar. Word will display the grid lines, but won't print borders, as shown in Figure K. If you don't want to see even the grid lines, click View Gridlines in the Table group on the contextual Layout tab. In Word 2003, choose Hide Gridlines from the Table menu.
You don't have to display table borders to use table behaviors and properties.
10: Highlight specific dataYou'll apply most formats to an entire table, but you can spotlight specific rows, columns, or even cells. For instance, the table in Figure L uses a different border to highlight Smith's row. To apply this border format, select the cells and then click the contextual Design tab. In the Tables Styles group, choose the appropriate border from the Borders drop-down. Then, choose a style, weight, and color from the options in the Draw Borders group. In Word 2003, right-click the selection and choose Borders And Shading. You could also change the background or font colors -- most formats you can apply to the table you can also apply to specific cells.
This border highlights Smith's yearly total.
11: Change the tab
You might have noticed that the table aligned the currency values to the left. That's the default, but you'll probably want to use a decimal tab, as follows:
- With the horizontal ruler visible, click the Tab selector (the white square at the intersection of the two rulers) until you display the tab decimal (an upside down T with a decimal to the right).
- Select the cells (or column) you want to reformat.
- Click on the ruler where you want to add the new tab decimal. Word will temporarily display a vertical guideline showing the position in the document. After clicking, Word will realign the selected values, as shown in Figure M.
Assign a decimal tab to align values in a table's column.
In this case, selecting the entire column also aligned the column's header, 2012. Select it and reformat it separately -- it's a small tradeoff. By selecting the whole column, all new records will have the tab decimal in place.
Tips and questions
What other tricks do you use when working with Word tables? Have you ever been stumped by a table task? Share your advice and questions with fellow TechRepublic members.
Susan Sales Harkins is an IT consultant, specializing in desktop solutions. Previously, she was editor in chief for The Cobb Group, the world's largest publisher of technical journals. | <urn:uuid:3e39d784-ab54-40f7-9449-7cce0d7c04c3> | CC-MAIN-2015-18 | http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/10-things/10-plus-tips-for-working-with-word-tables/?count=100&view=expanded | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-18/segments/1429246659319.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20150417045739-00278-ip-10-235-10-82.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.836749 | 1,800 | 3.21875 | 3 |
For many years now, dengue fever has been endemic in Karachi. Epidemics have also occurred in other parts of the country, including the Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhawa, since 2011. Having caused a large number of deaths in the past decade, dengue fever remains a dynamic disease that can have severe clinical manifestations. Patients presenting with the viral disease often require supportive and symptomatic management.
Dengue fever is a serious health problem that continues to be a concern worldwide, more so in developing countries with already overburnt and ill-managed healthcare systems. In the past two years, the focus has shifted from dengue relief activities to Covid-19 management for Pakistan, leading to an increase in the number of patients presenting with dengue fever this year.
The News on Sunday spoke with Prof Dr Javed Akram, vice chancellor of the University of Health Sciences (UHS) Lahore, to understand what measures are needed to curtail the dengue virus spread and for disease management. Prof Akram specialises in infectious disease, diabetes and hypertension management. He has served in prominent clinical, academic and administrative positions. Excerpts follow:
The News on Sunday (TNS): Dengue fever continues to spread, and interventions appear ineffective. What can be done to remedy the situation?
Prof Dr Javed Akram (JA): Cleanliness is key here. If we ensure the cleanliness of our surroundings, waterbodies and households, we can not only prevent the dengue virus from spreading but also get rid of malaria. Dengue fever has had a stronghold in this region for decades. What we witnessed in 2013 opened our eyes to the severity of the issue.
Since then, each year we have battled to keep the number of cases down. However, this has not been possible always. The major culprit is the lack of cleanliness and ineffective management of stagnant water.
TNS: Dengue fever appears to favour this region. Is mismanagement the only culprit here?
JA: Dengue fever is not just Pakistan’s problem. It is a global concern. Countries worldwide have been unable to eradicate the virus. Climate conditions are an important factor in the disease’s spread. The dengue vector grows well in moderate-humid conditions; therefore, any place with favourable temperatures is a perfect breeding ground.
TNS: The ever-rising number of dengue fever patients is alarming. What can be done to reduce the burden on the local healthcare system?
JA: The disease severity is proportionally linked with symptoms and therapeutic management in healthcare units. No one needs to die of dengue fever. It is very treatable. Patients presenting with severe symptoms must also be able to walk out of the hospital instead of being carried out. That is only possible through timely management of the symptoms and supportive treatment.
Not all patients require hospitalisation, but our healthcare staff must be trained to assess the severity of the disease and take action accordingly.
After years of battling dengue fever, some of our staff – doctors, nurses, and paramedics – still lack training. Regular training and seminars can help better equip our healthcare staff to manage patient load and take the right steps towards effective management of the situation.
TNS: Dengue prevention is every person’s responsibility. However, individual action is not enough to prevent its spread. What must the government and other social stakeholders do to control the situation?
JA: The government must realise that dengue prevention is an year-round activity. If we take action only when patients start pouring into hospitals, it is a case of too-little-too-late. Such a policy is one of the major reasons why we continue to face dengue‘s wrath. Proper governance is essential to manage any epidemic or pandemic; through that, disease-caused devastation can be reduced. Inspection teams must regularly visit homes, schools and offices. Proper fumigation is crucial to control the viral spread. Source reduction is most important. Pits must be drained regularly and other open water sources properly managed.
School managements must work proactively to ensure their students’ safety. Mosquito repellents, long-sleeved uniforms, and clean school grounds are necessary for safety during the dengue season. Teachers can educate students, teach them safety measures and encourage them to keep their surroundings clean. All this is going to help keep dengue in check in the future.
Office managers can also take similar steps to protect their workers. Wherever there is a water tank on the roof – homes, schools, office-buildings, hospitals, malls – it should be regularly cleaned and inspected. The lid of the water tanks must always be kept on. The dengue larvae grow in such spaces; it is important to reduce space available for their growth.
Corporate social responsibility, individual action, good governance, timely response, regular management, proper health support and consistent efforts are the way to save lives and curtail dengue.
The interviewer is a staff member | <urn:uuid:5ef82b68-7b0f-4efa-a4b2-4fdf0522d11d> | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://www.thenews.com.pk/tns/detail/991890-no-one-needs-to-die-of-dengue-its-treatable | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224649348.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20230603233121-20230604023121-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.944018 | 1,047 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Phoma koolunga is one of three species that causes ascochyta blight (blackspot) of field pea (Pisum sativum L.) in Australia. Phoma koolunga was first described in 2009 from South Australian isolates and has since been reported in Western Australia, New South Wales and Victoria. However, the origin of the pathogen and its host range remain largely unknown. The aim of this study is to determine the host range of P. koolunga and to explore questions on the origin(s) of ascochyta blight pathogens in Australia.
Host range experiments were conducted on a selection of Australian native legumes and naturalised pasture species found in geographical proximity to field pea crops. One isolate of P. koolunga was used to spray-inoculate the range of legume species, including Pisum sativum cv. Kaspa as control. In the same experiment a different comparator isolate of P. koolunga was used to inoculate the same range of legumes. Control plants were mock-inoculated with water. The inoculated plants were placed in plastic humidity tents, one tent per isolate, in the same growth room. Disease severity will be measured as a percentage of leaf area diseased (%LAD) every 3 days up to 21 days post-inoculation. Disease incidence and percent leaf area diseased will be compared among isolates and species. Experiments are in progress and results will be presented. | <urn:uuid:e8989745-8c9b-4e09-a70f-0af276353b61> | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | http://apps-2017.p.yrd.currinda.com/days/2017-09-28/abstract/4236 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107889173.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20201025125131-20201025155131-00353.warc.gz | en | 0.95862 | 310 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Chemicals found in a lot of e-cigarette brands could seriously damage your eyes, a Specsavers expert has warned.
Dr Nigel Best, Specsavers’ clinical spokesperson said, ‘Although e-cigarette research is still in early stages and the long term effects are yet to be established, there are early indications that some types can cause irritation to the eyes in the form of dry eye.
Dry eye can lead to sufferers developing age-related macular degeneration – and losing central vision in their eyes as they age, according to City AM.
Smokers are known to be more likely to develop AMD, Dr Best said – and he believes that chemicals in e-cigarettes might also affect the eyes.
Dr Best said, ‘Age-related macular degeneration affects around 600,000 people in the UK alone and smokers are more likely to from this eye condition than non-smokersThe condition is most common in people over the age of 50.’ | <urn:uuid:ffc3871d-5a89-4587-8d00-c0358cfdd94a> | CC-MAIN-2017-51 | http://metro.co.uk/2016/03/08/smoking-e-cigarettes-could-seriously-damage-your-eyes-specsavers-warns-5740664/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948544677.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20171214144324-20171214164324-00127.warc.gz | en | 0.965211 | 202 | 2.59375 | 3 |
HOLT CHEMISTRY CONCEPT REVIEW ANSWERS
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If you do decide to try Veganuary, or indeed adopt a vegan lifestyle fully, then you need to be clued up on your body’s needs to avoid ill health. Here are the whys and the wherefores:
A macronutrient (just like carbohydrates and fats), proteins contain essential amino acids. The body needs these for the building and repair of tissue, bone, muscle, cartilage, skin, and blood. In addition, amino acids produce hormones and enzymes and contribute to further bodily chemical processes.
There are 9 essential amino acids and unfortunately on the whole plant foods are particularly low in lysine. Luckily, legumes (including soya) are a very good source of lysine; so too the grains quinoa and amaranth.
From what a person consumes, only about 25% to 30% is normally physically absorbed. Calcium-set tofu and fortified plant milks have the same absorption rate (30%) as cow’s milk, while other plant foods can offer between 5% and 65% absorption rates.
Caution needs to be taken around the established wisdom of green leafy vegetables being replete in calcium as many also contain oxalates, which bind and reduce calcium absorption. Such high-oxalate foods include the revered spinach. Instead, turn to kale and broccoli, as their low-oxalate content means our bodies absorb the calcium very well.
Additionally, soaking beans and nuts – the calcium content of which is normally difficult to benefit from – increases absorption capabilities.
Dietary fats are essential for health; in particular, fatty acid Omega-3s are crucial for optimum brain performance. These can be found in plant-based sources such as hemp seeds, flaxseed, chia, walnuts, leafy greens, pumpkin seeds, soya products, and rapeseed oil. These sources contain the shorter chain ALA (alpha-linolenic acid), converted by the body into the longer chain fatty acids DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), both of which promote overall health.
A fuel as well, fats aid the absorption of other vitamins and minerals. Monounsaturated fats can be found in olives, macadamia nuts, avocados, and peanuts.
Iron plays an important part in the health of red blood cells, forming the haemoglobin which transports oxygen through our blood.
Although plant foods contain plenty of iron, this doesn’t lend itself to being absorbed as easily as that derived from animal products, due to the presence in plant-foods of phytic acid (or phytate). To aid iron’s absorption, consume vitamin C-dense foods or beverages at the same time, as vitamin C offsets the binding effects of phytic acid. Avoid coffee and tea while eating.
The increase in iron absorption by the addition of a glass of orange juice or half a cup of cauliflower with a plant-based meal has been shown to be as much as four or six times greater. Additionally, the inclusion of fermented foods intensifies this process even further (think a slice of sourdough bread to accompany).
Crucial for the production of DNA and maintenance of nerve cells and the general cellular division, vitamin B12 also keeps homocysteine levels at a healthy level (increased levels raise the risk of cardiovascular disease and cognitive decline).
Although omnivores will claim that if you have to supplement something it’s not a balanced diet, the vitamin B12 found in animal products comes in fact from the creatures’ own diet and intestinal bacteria.
There are two reliable sources of vitamin B12 in the vegan diet: supplements and foods fortified with it (for example, nutritional yeast grown on a B12-rich medium). Aim for 2 servings of between 2 to 3 mcg per day, ideally consuming them separately as snacks to other meals for optimum absorption.
An important mineral, necessary for thyroid function and overall metabolism, sea vegetables are the best vegan source of iodine (with milk and seafood, conversely, being the omnivorous sources). With low levels having been associated with an increased risk of cancers like breast and ovarian, a sprinkle of seaweed on a bowl of jasmine rice is an enjoyable side to a main vegan meal. | <urn:uuid:5edd2953-68d7-4182-8a50-eb3222f23c40> | CC-MAIN-2020-40 | https://justnaturalhealth.co.uk/the-science-of-nutritional-needs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400245109.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200926200523-20200926230523-00721.warc.gz | en | 0.939953 | 894 | 2.859375 | 3 |
GDP Growth and Trade Deficits Relationship
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Published: Tue, 12 Dec 2017
Gross Domestic Product is a measure of the value of output produced within an economy over a 12 month period. Nominal GDP is output valued at current prices. Real GDP is measure of output in real terms that is after taking into account inflation.
There are three ways of GDP, each will give the same value of output and hence the same GDP
The expenditure method takes into account the values of all spending on goods and services in an economy. The output method records the value of goods and services produced by firms and bought by households. The third method is the income method records the value of all incomes earned by households and firms over a fiscal year.
Measuring GDP by any of the three methods has several drawbacks. GDP for instance is measured at current prices and this includes VAT or taxes on spending. Taxes are not part of output and GDP is inflated because of this. Gross Value Added (GDA) is the alternative to GDP since it excludes taxes on spending from output.
Since countries operate in a globalised world their economies are open to external impacts. Countries trade with other countries, selling goods to others (exporting) or buying from them (importing). Countries have to hence maintain a record of all international transactions. This is kept through the balance of payments and balance of trade, the latter being a component of the first one. Balance of payments is a record of all inflows and outflows that an economy experiences over a year. Balance of trade is inflows and outflows generated form trade in goods and services only. It does not include remittances, interests, profits and dividends on investments which are part of the balance of payments.
Balance of trade deficit or simply trade deficit represents a larger inflow of foreign goods (in value) compared to exports over the corresponding period. The shortfall or deficit has to be financed out of international borrowings or from surpluses on balance of payments or from surpluses from previous years. Surplus on the balance of trade account reflects excess of exports over imports. Any retained surpluses can be used for paying back loans or to match off deficits on other components of the balance of payments account.
Countries do not consume all of the output they produce as well as do not only consume only what they produce and account of this has to be taken when measuring GDP. GDP as we discovered could be measured through any of the three, expenditure income or output method. But all three methods will give a value which will include an element of international trade which needs to be accounted before a true and representative picture of GDP can be drawn. Expenditure on goods for instance includes spending on foreign goods which is not the economy’s output. Output method may include for instance raw materials imported by producers which again should not be part of economy’s output. The income method like the other methods also includes element of cross border trade say income generated from sale of imports by retailers for instance which is and should not be part of country’s GDP. Because GDP would include output that is not produced from within the economy account of this is taken by making amendments when measuring GDP. A common and ideally simple means of calculating GDP is as follows
National Income=National Output=National Expenditure=GDP= C+I+G+X
C= Consumer Expenditure
I= Investment (Capital produced -Capital Consumed)
X= Net Exports (Exports-Imports)
Economic growth is a desirable economic phenomenon as it increases welfare and improves standards of living. Economic growth is the increase in potential output of the economy and is shown by a rightward shift in the Production Possibility Frontier. GDP growth refers to the actual increase in output over a period.
CAPITAL GOODSCONSUMER GOODS
GDP growth increases output people can enjoy. It raises standards of living as well as disposable incomes. Consumer Expenditure is high since more is produced and sold. As a result people enjoy better incomes and have money to spend on foreign goods. If domestic production is insufficient and or does not provide variety that consumers want, consumers will switch to buying foreign goods with their excess disposable income. This is that the propensity to import increases. The growth in GDP has hence led to growth in imports. Exports are also likely to fall because domestic demand is high. Trade is likely to tilt unfavorably against the economy and it may experience deficits. This is just one simple case of relation between GDP growth and balance of trade account.
Growth in GDP or output could be due to various reasons. GDP growth for instance may be a result of import led growth or export based growth. The stage of business cycle in the domestic economy as well as the health of the global economy is also an important determinant of growth as well as trading patterns both of which also are closely related
Theory 1- Trade deficit kills growth!
Countries where growth is export-led such as those of raw materials, oil etc are likely to experience trade surpluses during periods of world economic expansion. Saudi Arabia for instance is a country that has export led growth, that through oil. Its trade balances are mostly favorable. The surpluses generated from exports can be pumped back into the domestic economy (by spending less on fulfilling international obligations). If the excess money succeeds in increasing productive potential of economy GDP may improve. However if the surplus fails to raise domestic production in response to higher demand it will only create inflationary pressure on the economy. Export led growth may fall in times of world recessions, where international demand weakens. However if good exported are have low elasticity of income and price such as they are essential drugs and fuels trade will still prosper.
Countries with trade and balance of payment deficits are also likely to have weak currencies. If government practices free and floating exchange rate any trade deficits will result in the currency being depreciated (loss in value of currency in terms of other currencies). This is because supply of the economy’s currency is high since it demands more international goods than it sells in the international market. This fall in currency value might make it useless for some foreigners who may decide to dump the currency on international market. This dumping may further increase supply of currency and cause it to loose value. This extensive depreciation can cause extensive damage to GDP of an economy. If the economy is also an importer of raw materials its ability to import may be strained given the same currency. Its ability to produce may be further limited and its GDP growth might take a downturn.
Theory 2-Trade deficits promote GDP growth
The other close relationship between trade deficits and GDP strength is surprisingly positively correlated. In some cases trade deficits can actually be a boost to GDP growth. Increasing trade deficits could in fact lead to GDP growth. When an economy experiences trade deficits, demand for its goods is less than its demand for goods. Likewise the demand for its currency is lower than its demand for other currencies.
PRICE OF CURRENCY IN TERMS OF BASKET OF OTHER CURRNCIES
Quantity of currency traded
As exports fall and imports rise supply of currency to international market will grow while its demand will contract (Figure A).
OLD DEMAND AND SUPPLY CURVE
NEW DEMAND AND SUPPLY CURVEFIGURE A KEY
PRICE OF CURRENCY IN TERMS OF BASKET OF OTHER CURRNCIES
Quantity of currency traded
In a free floating exchange rate system any trade deficit will automatically lead to depreciation of country’s currency. This fall in value of exchange rate makes exports look cheaper and more competitive. As elasticity of exports is higher in the long run (buyers have time to shift orders to lower cost economies, however current and short term pledges and orders are difficult to withdraw) buyers will react by demanding more. Output will have to be increased to service these extra orders and hence GDP will grow. Trade deficit will start to narrow but the actual change in trade imbalance will depend not only exporting pattern change but also on whether output produced requires imports (raw materials and machinery etc.) The fall in trade deficit is likely to be smaller in this case.
According to theory 1 economy would begin to crumble under trade deficits. It is also logical too. If economies buy more than they sell economic activity will be hurt. Not enough jobs will be created as lost because of importing goods. This theory makes sense but numbers do not support it. Figures especially from the American economy say otherwise. The US Census Bureau classifies the US economy as one on general growth pattern (improving GDP year on year) despite trade deficits also increasing. However there have been years when the GDP has not grown and in some cases has shrunk with increasing trade deficits. However rising trade deficits as well as growing GDP seems to be the nature of the American economy.
When statistics from the American economy are scrutinized Theory 2 seems to be more realistic and true. It is evident from the numbers that the American economy, the largest in the world, experiences a positive correlation between GDP and trade deficit. Analysts point the consumption nature of US economy responsible for this. This may be true for all other high consumption economies that would also experience a positive relation between growth and unfavorable trade balances. Such economies like the American one have high consumption expenditure coupled with low or even negative savings rate. Such developed economies are also noted to operate in the tertiary sector, being more service oriented. Demand for consumption is hence satisfied by production outside the economy and trade imbalances are inevitable in these economies.
Free Trade, cost effectiveness and growth
Allowing free trade to prosper that is trade without barriers and protectionism is an important step towards improving world economic prospects. Free trade allows goods to be traded at their fair values, that is in terms of their relative cost (opportunity cost), rather than artificial and tax inflated prices. This liberalization of international trade allows trading patterns to shift, from higher cost economies to lower cost economies which originally seemed uncompetitive because of artificially manipulated prices. This liberalization breeds competitiveness’ and cost effectiveness. Countries with higher cost structures will loose out to competitive economies in free trade. This shift is likely to cause unfavorable trade balances for the competitive economies as exports move away to more effective suppliers. Imports of that good are likely to increase because it is cheaper to buy than to produce locally and this will further strain the balance of trade.
This restructuring of international trade is based on competitive advantages of countries; this is advantage in terms of lower opportunity costs of production. As world trade shifts and set s according to competitive advantage economies are likely to experience initial imbalances in their trade accounts. However international trade based on competitive advantage allows for elimination of wastage of resources and puts them into more productive use. Producing and trading based on comparative advantage allows for economies to specialize. This specialization will increase and improve output quantitatively as well as qualitatively and hence output and GDP will grow. In fact if all trade is allowed to adjust according to comparative advantage world GDP as a whole will grow and people will enjoy better standards of living in general. Since world output enhances it is only logical to assume that output from each economy also increases. People in each economy will therefore benefit from consumption of more output because of this productive efficiency.
TRADE DEFCIT DUE TO CAPITAL INVESTMENT
Capital goodsOne of the core problems facing all economies is that of scarcity. Economies do not have sufficient resources to produce and consume all they want. Countries have to forgo some part of their consumption to satisfy their other wants. This is a critical situation especially to developing economies like Pakistan where scarcity limits growth. Production of capital goods for instance has to be limited to meet consumer demands and produce consumer goods. The opportunity cost of this decision is long term growth prospects that the economy could have achieved by using the capital goods rather than producing to consume now (consumer goods)!
A movement of output level in an economy from A to B for satisfying more consumer expenditure (XB) means the economy will have to forego AX of capital goods(Figure 2.1) . This can strain future GDP growth as county’s capital stock depletes or is insufficient to accommodate for increases in output.
Trade allows countries to consume outside their production possibility curve. For example by producing good K (Figure 2.2) which is more expensive in thee international market, economy can specialize. By selling excess of its output in international market, output X-Y countries can buy other the good. Now the country can consume on point Y which was not originally available to it on the PPC curve. International trade hence enables countries to have better standard of living.
Countries that produce for satisfying current consumption or those who do not have the ability to produce capital goods may be dispensing with future growth in output through increased production capacity. These countries especially the developing ones are hence net importers of capital goods rest apart consumer goods. This import of capital goods puts strains on already limited trade surpluses the country may have. Developing countries that currently have low GDP and output and hence these countries export little and instead import more. If the larger part of the trade deficit is a result of a higher proportion of capital goods the economy may in the longer term experience GDP growth (given that its capital formation is greater than its capital depreciation). The increase in GDP and trade deficit in this case does not have a short run relationship. Trade deficits in this case can bring growth in near future. According to George Alessandria, economist in the research Department of the Philadelphia Fed, trade deficit is a sign of good things to come. Countries, he believe tend to have large deficits when they borrow to finance investments. Trade deficits are colligated with continued and strong economic growth over the business cycle (George).
In times of economic expansion, as output grows, both consumption and investment grow too. Investment is more fickly than output is and it often grows faster than output. The increase in output logically calls for trade deficits to narrow or turn into surpluses. However trends of economies in expansion show a different picture. Actually some of the extra output is not consumed but invested. But times of economic expansion are usually known for heavy investment and hence much of the resources for investment come from outside the economy. This trade deficit is a means of increasing future GDP without cutting down on current consumption.
HOW TO DEAL WITH TRADE DEFICITS
Trade deficits are not at all be as bad a problem as some people think. In fact controlled trade deficits are a sign of a good economy. However long and sustained trade deficits can be a sign of economy’s ill health and may hamper the economy especially if bulk of the financing requirement for the deficit is met by international borrowing as well as that trade deficits also harm the balance of payments severely. Governments hence need to ensure that trade deficits are manageable and prolonged deficits should be dealt with.
There are two ways in which the government can improve its balance of trade situation. The first one is the expenditure switching approach. The government in this case will try to persuade both foreign and local buyers to consume more of local goods and less of goods produced outside the economy. These policies are not designed to reduce spending on goods but to switch the pattern of spending from foreign goods to domestically produced goods. This if successful is likely to lead to a fall in import expenditure and a hike in export earnings.
The other approach that governments can take when dealing with trade imbalances is the expenditure reducing approach. The government using this approach tries to eliminate some part of the aggregate demand. This will have two principal effects. Firstly locals will buy and consume less and so imports are likely to fall. The second is that as producers find demand in home market weakening they will try and break into foreign markets. This deflationary effect is likely to cut back imports and improve export potential.
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Jerusalem, the sacred and commercial city, has always been renowned for its markets (souqs). The souqs are the assemblies of small shops that follow the Old City’s alleys or are set up at street crossings. In these markets in the past, professional specialization was the rule that made merchants of the same profession gather in particular areas of the city. This practice led to the naming of specific markets according to various categories, and the names can usually be seen above or next to their entrances.
A stroll through the markets of Jerusalem is an incredible experience of fragrances, tastes, sights, and sounds. The narrow streets and alleys are filled with shops that sell various kinds of traditional handmade crafts, garments, ceramics, or glass items for every taste and budget. Many small restaurants and stands offer delicious meals, fresh juices, freshly ground coffee, or Middle Eastern sweets.
Just behind Damascus Gate is located one of the busiest and colorful shopping streets of the Old City – Souq Khan al-Zeit (Caravanserai of Oil), which leads all the way to the Via Dolorosa and the area of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Although it is said that the major markets of Jerusalem have been located in this area since Roman times, most of the shops that we can see now were built during the Mamluk era. The first part of this souq is uncovered, but farther down one can see its stone roof, composed of a sequence of cross-vault lintels, in the middle of which are great openings that let in air and light.
The name of Souq Khan al-Zeit indicates that in the past it was famous for shops that sold olive oil and factories that produced olive oil soap. Today, however, the shops contain a wide variety of goods. The bustling street is full of confectionery and nut shops, souvenir shops, falafel and vegetable stands, butcheries, and restaurants.
Just behind the Holy Sepulcher (southern side) can be found one of the most recently established markets of Jerusalem. Souq Aftimos and al-Dabbagha (The Tanners’ Market) were established at the beginning of the twentieth century by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate. Today, this lively street offers various shops that sell leather products and beautiful souvenirs from Jerusalem. Traditional restaurants abound, offering rooftop dining with stunning views on the surrounding Old City.
In the middle of Jerusalem’s Old City can be found a complex of three adjacent souqs, with their present form dating back to the Mamluk and Ottoman periods. These three streets are roofed with arched vaults that are open in the center. The street in the middle is called Souq al-Attarin, which until recent times specialized in oriental fragrances and spices. Currently, however, there are only a few shops along the souq that have kept that old tradition. To the west can be found Suq al-Lahhamin (The Butchers’ Market), which consists of a large number of shops that sell meat and vegetables. In the recent past the souq was referred to as Souq al-Nahhasin (The Coppersmiths’ Market), where traditional handmade copper items were sold. The eastern section of the complex used to be a goldsmiths’ market known as Souq al-Khawajat. At present, only the southern part of the street is open, where merchants sell mainly carpets and textiles.
Finally, one reaches Souq al-Qattanin (The Cotton Market), which leads to one of the western entrances to Al-Haram al-Sharif or The Noble Sanctuary complex. Its name dates back to the fifteenth century when it was known for selling cotton and its derivatives. The area can be reached by following Al-Wad Street from Damascus Gate. The shops line both sides of the wide street. The central part of the market contains a Mamluk caravanserai called Khan Tankaz, which contains two beautifully restored non-functioning hammams (public baths) that are accessible to visitors. The inn was established in the fourteenth century to host mystics and pilgrims who desired accommodations close to the Haram. At the end of the souq can be found a beautiful portal that leads up to Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock. The door is passable only for Muslims. Non-Muslim visitors can access the area of the Haram from the Mughrabi (Moroccan) Gate.
To learn more about Jerusalem, visit our website at www.visitpalestine.ps, or contact the Visit Palestine Information Center in Bethlehem via [email protected] or (02) 277-1992. | <urn:uuid:b874932a-5be6-4edc-8692-028b716b8a55> | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | http://thisweekinpalestine.com/review/walk-souqs-jerusalems-old-city/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578530505.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20190421080255-20190421101432-00058.warc.gz | en | 0.961929 | 990 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Bat Rabies and Other Lyssavirus Infections offers readers an overview of the virus variants that cause bat rabies, and geographical patterns in occurrence of this disease. The section Species Susceptibility describes infection rates and trends among bats, humans, and other animals. Disease Ecology considers the biological and environmental dynamics of the disease in various species of bats. Points to Ponder: Interspecies Interactions in Potential Bat Rabies Transmission Settings discusses the narrowing interface of bat colonies and human society and how humans and domestic animals play a role in transmission of bat rabies. Disease Prevention and Control outlines how to limit exposure to rabid bats and other animals. Appendixes include extensive tables of reported infections in bat species and in humans, and a glossary of technical terms is included.
The author, Denny G. Constantine, helped define rabies infection in insect-eating bats and has investigated bat rabies ecology for more than half a century. He has authored more than 90 papers during the course of his career and is widely considered to be the world’s foremost authority on the disease. Currently, Dr. Constantine is a public health officer emeritus and veterinary epidemiologist for the California Department of Health Services Viral and Rickettsial Disease Laboratory. Milt Friend, first director of the USGS National Wildlife Health Center, wrote the foreword. David Blehert, a USGS microbiologist who is investigating the emergence and causes of bat white-nose syndrome, edited the volume.
Bat Rabies is intended for scholars and the general public. Dr. Constantine presents the material in a simple, straightforward manner that serves both audiences. The goal of the author is to increase people’s understanding of both bat and disease ecology and also provide a balanced perspective on human risks pertaining to bat rabies.
Posted August 2009
Part or all of this report is presented in Portable Document Format (PDF); the latest version of Adobe Reader or similar software is required to view it. Download the latest version of Adobe Reader, free of charge.
Constantine, D.G., 2009, Bat rabies and other lyssavirus infections: Reston, Va., U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1329, 68 p.
Patterns and Trends
Obtaining a Diagnosis
Points to Ponder: Interspecies Interactions in Potential Bat Rabies Transmission Settings
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An Overview of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act
Every child deserves a quality education. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act ensures that all children with special needs have access to a "free appropriate public education" and they have the necessary tools to meet their educational goals.
The act governs how states and public agencies, including the Department of Defense, provide early intervention, special education and related services to eligible children with disabilities, ages birth through 21. Department of Defense Instruction/Manual 1342.12 "Provisions of Early Intervention and Special Education Services to Eligible DoD Dependents" published on June 17, 2015 interprets IDEA for the Department of Defense. Here’s an overview of the provisions:
What's the history of the act?
- Children with special needs weren't always granted access to public education in every state. That changed in 1975, when Congress established the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Today, no child can be denied a public education because of a disability.
- Legislators passed the most recent amendments in December 2004. Final regulations were published in August 2006 (Part B, for school-age children) and September 2011 (Part C, for babies and toddlers).
What do the four parts of the act do for parents and children?
The act is comprised of four parts and has been revised through the years.
- Part A outlines the law's general provisions.
- Part B ensures children and youth, ages 3 to 21, receive special education and related services.
- Part C covers early intervention services for infants and toddlers under age 3 and their families.
- Part D addresses federal support, from grants to resources, for the education of children with disabilities.
What are the act's guiding principles?
- Free appropriate public education. This principle makes sure every child, regardless of disability, has the right to attend a public school and receive an education tailored to achieve his or her highest potential.
- Appropriate evaluation. The testing process is regulated so children receive the best individualized education placement and services.
- The individualized education program. This written document is created for every child in the public school system who's eligible for special education. It's drafted by an interdisciplinary team and reviewed every year.
- Least restrictive environment. This principle requires that students with disabilities share the same setting, as much as possible while still meeting their needs, with students who do not have disabilities.
- Parent and teacher participation. This principle establishes the importance of parents and teachers working together to achieve their children's educational goals. Included are working as a team on a child's individualized education program and least restrictive environment details.
- Procedural safeguards. These are in place to protect the rights of families with special needs. Procedural safeguards make sure public school doors are always open to children with disabilities and that schools are prepared to accommodate them academically. Parents have the right to review their children's records, attend team meetings, have a say in where their children are placed and more.
Persons with special needs deserve a quality education just like everyone else. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act is in place to open classroom doors to every child and help all students to be their best academically. The Exceptional Family Member Program provides family support, education and much more. Locate the program near you by visiting MilitaryINSTALLATIONS.
Contact a Military OneSource special needs consultant with questions or concerns regarding the care and education of your family member with special needs. | <urn:uuid:5ce0e48c-3ef6-4acc-ac95-332aceb356f9> | CC-MAIN-2017-43 | http://beta.militaryonesource.mil/web/mos/-/an-overview-of-the-individuals-with-disabilities-education-act?inheritRedirect=true&redirect=%2Fweb%2Fmos%2Ffamily-relationships | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187824226.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20171020154441-20171020174441-00119.warc.gz | en | 0.96249 | 713 | 3.78125 | 4 |
(NASA) – Scientists using mission data from NASA’s Cassini spacecraft have identified 101 distinct geysers erupting on Saturn’s icy moon Enceladus. Their analysis suggests it is possible for liquid water to reach from the moon’s underground sea all the way to its surface.
These findings, and clues to what powers the geyser eruptions, are presented in two articles published in the current online edition of the Astronomical Journal.
Over a period of almost seven years, Cassini’s cameras surveyed the south polar terrain of the small moon, a unique geological basin renowned for its four prominent “tiger stripe” fractures and the geysers of tiny icy particles and water vapor first sighted there nearly 10 years ago. The result of the survey is a map of 101 geysers, each erupting from one of the tiger stripe fractures, and the discovery that individual geysers are coincident with small hot spots. These relationships pointed the way to the geysers’ origin.
After the first sighting of the geysers in 2005, scientists suspected repeated flexing of Enceladus by Saturn’s tides as the moon orbits the planet had something to do with their behavior. One suggestion included the back-and-forth rubbing of opposing walls of the fractures generating frictional heat that turned ice into geyser-forming vapor and liquid.
Alternate views held that the opening and closing of the fractures allowed water vapor from below to reach the surface. Before this new study, it was not clear which process was the dominating influence. Nor was it certain whether excess heat emitted by Enceladus was everywhere correlated with geyser activity.
To determine the surface locations of the geysers, researchers employed the same process of triangulation used historically to survey geological features on Earth, such as mountains. When the researchers compared the geysers’ locations with low-resolution maps of thermal emission, it became apparent the greatest geyser activity coincided with the greatest thermal radiation. Comparisons between the geysers and tidal stresses revealed similar connections. However, these correlations alone were insufficient to answer the question, “What produces what?”
The answer to this mystery came from comparison of the survey results with high-resolution data collected in 2010 by Cassini’s heat-sensing instruments. Individual geysers were found to coincide with small-scale hot spots, only a few dozen feet (or tens of meters) across, which were too small to be produced by frictional heating, but the right size to be the result of condensation of vapor on the near-surface walls of the fractures. This immediately implicated the hot spots as the signature of the geysering process.
“Once we had these results in hand we knew right away heat was not causing the geysers, but vice versa,” said Carolyn Porco, leader of the Cassini imaging team from the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colorado, and lead author of the first paper. “It also told us the geysers are not a near-surface phenomenon, but have much deeper roots.”
Thanks to recent analysis of Cassini gravity data, the researchers concluded the only plausible source of the material forming the geysers is the sea now known to exist beneath the ice shell. They also found that narrow pathways through the ice shell can remain open from the sea all the way to the surface, if filled with liquid water.
In the companion paper, the authors report the brightness of the plume formed by all the geysers, as seen with Cassini’s high resolution cameras, changes periodically as Enceladus orbits Saturn. Armed with the conclusion the opening and closing of the fractures modulates the venting, the authors compared the observations with the expected venting schedule due to tides.
They found the simplest model of tidal flexing provides a good match for the brightness variations Cassini observes, but it does not predict the time when the plume begins to brighten. Some other important effect is present and the authors considered several in the course of their work. | <urn:uuid:2a8a08bb-70f0-4f63-a589-9ecb705d8ffb> | CC-MAIN-2020-50 | https://www.knowledgeorb.com/2014/07/cassini-spacecraft-reveals-101-geysers-icy-saturn-moon/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-50/segments/1606141216175.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20201130130840-20201130160840-00105.warc.gz | en | 0.942545 | 852 | 4.09375 | 4 |
Complete Predicate and Subject – You have a couple of things to do here. Types of sentences Worksheet-3.
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Can you make color graphics 8.
Types of sentences worksheet. Sentence Types Worksheet Students identify subjects and predicates in each sentence separate clauses and whether each sentence is simple compound complex or compound-complex. Draw a line to separate the clauses. In this grades one through six unit accentuate the importance of knowing the four types of sentences and the appropriate finishing punctuation to achieve effective communication with no misunderstandings.
Kinds Of Sentences Worksheet. Once upon a time there was a king. By LoubeeSav This worksheet was created by wwwprimaryleapcouk A statement gives us information eg.
Can you save this report on a disk 6. A grammar worksheet to practice identifying and punctuating the different types of sentences. Types of Sentences Worksheets.
Ad Download over 20000 K-8 worksheets covering math reading social studies and more. Four Types of Sentences Directions. Recognise the type of sentence.
I have stood first in class. Arrange the words to make a meaningful sentence. Ad Download over 20000 K-8 worksheets covering math reading social studies and more.
Yeah Ill finish it. Sitting mat on the cat is the. Wait here until I return.
What a fabulous device this is 9. The computer has a large memory 4. Look at the color monitor 3.
Every do I my evening homework. Types of Sentences Worksheet-1. Exercise 2 More Work With the Four Kinds of Sentences.
Finish It Right – Add the correct punctuation and then name the type of fomat interrogative imperative exclamatory or declarative that is used. The mat is sitting on the cat. The cat mat is sitting on the.
The sky is blue. Some of the worksheets for this concept are Sentence types simple compound complex and compound A identifying sentence types Spi identify declarative interrogative and Four types of sentences Sentence types A identifying sentence types Determine if each sentence is declarative interrogative Circle the nouns in the remember that a noun. Identify each type of sentence and explain your answer.
The Four Types of Sentences. Some of the worksheets for this concept are spi identify declarative interrogative and types of sentences work sentence types simple compound complex and compound four kinds of sentences name name class date types of sentences lesson plan using adverbs. Discover learning games guided lessons and other interactive activities for children.
Put the books on the table. Why are you looking at me like that. Declarative imperative exclamatory and interrogative.
Grade 1 grammar worksheet. Declarative imperative exclamatory and interrogative. 8 rows Order resultsMost popular first Newest first.
Our neighbor bought a new computer 2. Worksheets grammar grade 5 sentences. English Language Arts ELA Gradelevel7.
Four Sentence Type Worksheets Practice identifying the four types of sentences. With this writing resource help your ELs familiarize themselves with the four sentence types. Sentences can be declarative statements imperative commands interrogative questions or exclamatory.
Arrange the words to make a meaningful sentence. Lets take a look at sentences. The cat is sitting on the mat.
State whether the following sentences are declarative interrogative exclamatory or imperative. As an added challenge they will have to write sentences of their own. The cat mat is on the sitting.
Follow the directions for Exercise 1. Main contentTypes of Sentences. Discover learning games guided lessons and other interactive activities for children.
Students are asked to identify the various types of sentences in these free worksheets from K5 Learning. Try this new piece of software 5. Declarative imperative exclamatory and interrogative.
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- Awesome Scientific Notation Operations Worksheet | <urn:uuid:cd1d939d-9ba6-4391-b8d3-11edb6fb22e1> | CC-MAIN-2021-39 | https://goalkeepingintelligence.com/fresh-types-of-sentences-worksheet/134/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780057524.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20210924110455-20210924140455-00283.warc.gz | en | 0.868113 | 962 | 3.546875 | 4 |
Observation of Environmental Phenomena (Imedias) - 07.14.16
Information Pending Science Results for Everyone
Information Pending Experiment Details
J. P. Lacaux, Centre National d‘Etudes Spatiales (CNES), Toulouse, France
Evelina Bogdanova, Centre National d‘Etudes Spatiales (CNES), Toulouse, France
Sponsoring Space Agency
European Space Agency (ESA)
ISS Expedition Duration
August 2001 - December 2001
Drawing on photos of remarkable phenomena, the IMEDIAS experiment aims to put together a collection of original images. Combined with satellite images, these will provide scientists with crucial information in the field of Earth observation on clouds, desertification, deforestation and much more. This experiment will be carried out concurrently, on the ground, by French junior and senior high school students.
Operational Requirements and Protocols
The astronauts who will be carrying out this experiment have received special training to raise their awareness of the fields of study concerned. They will take thematic images during sessions scheduled in the flight plan. The astronauts may consult an atlas and orbital information on the common PC. At the same time, scientists at the CADMOS centre for the development of microgravity applications and space operations will monitor the phenomena. Information will be transmitted to the astronauts for execution from the CADMOS and TsUP-M operational centres. The events observed fall into two categories: isolated and permanent. High-quality photographic images, both digital and film-based (traditional), will be taken from the Russian segment of the ISS to record these two types of events. Themes studied include: biomass fires information ranging from the detection of individual smoke plumes to fire zones on a regional scale atmospheric aerosols pollution in mega-cities, large dust clouds, erupting volcanic plumes, cloud formations. Desertification. This should include the observation of areas where the transition from desert to vegetation is progressive (Southern Sahara) and more sudden (Nile delta, deserts of China, Mauritania, Libya, the Aral Sea, Amu Darya, Syr Darya) Massive and fragmented deforestation. The Amazon and the Congo basin will be studied and photographed Coastal zones. Observations will be made of pollution in major rivers (Amazon, Nile, Ganges, etc.), as well as urban pollution, areas sensitive to rises in water levels (such as the Ganges delta), sensitive areas harboring threatened ecosystems such as the Rhone delta, the Egyptian coastline, atolls, and all marine phenomena characterized by a specific perceptible colouring. The images will be taken during five one-hour sessions scheduled on the third, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth days of the mission. For this experiment, Nikon F5-type cameras, a Nikon Coolpix 990-type digital camera and two zoom lenses (24/85 mm and 80/400 mm), as well as a Compact Flash PCMCIA card and the Atlas software installed on the common PC, will be used. During the flight, the photos will be dated and the camera settings monitored. The images taken with the digital camera will be 2,048 x 1,536 pixels, in three possible formats: 1,024 x 768 pixels, 640 x 480 pixels or 320 x 240 pixels. The camera selected is equipped with an aspherical lens. Shots will be taken in auto-focus mode on the camera equipped with a TTL contrast detection system. The shots may be automatic or customized. Three working environments may be memorized. The film-based camera is an auto focus 24 x 36 reflex camera with interchangeable viewfinders, used in AF mode and efficient even in lowlight, low-contrast conditions. Its response time is ultra short (40 meters/second) and its aluminium/titanium casing is very sturdy. Its zoom is equipped with two aspherical lenses for high-definition results.
Decadal Survey Recommendations
Information Pending^ back to top
Information Pending^ back to top
ESA Erasmus Experiment Archive | <urn:uuid:feb0e530-67fb-44e7-b74f-85b9a08febab> | CC-MAIN-2016-40 | http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/574.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-40/segments/1474738661327.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160924173741-00269-ip-10-143-35-109.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.86333 | 832 | 2.96875 | 3 |
To design something is to plan how something will work or function after it is built or made. Design is a cross between the creative, artistic, and technical fields. For those new to making banners, design sounds daunting. However, the design process can be entertaining once the basics are understood. This article will go over some primary parts of a Christmas banner, such as colors, images, borders and phrases. To learn why these design components are important and what they communicate to viewers, keep reading.
Color is one of the most important yet most underrated elements of design. It influences moods, thoughts, behaviors, and reactions. Although it may seem fine to choose basic Christmas colors and go on with the rest of banner design, do not underestimate the role of color. Colors evoke an emotional response—happy, sad, optimistic, serious, caution, candor—that works before someone starts reading. It is a dominant factor in first impressions and overall response to something. So, when it comes to Christmas banners, give some thought to what color choices say about a design.
Red and green are classic, popular Christmas colors. During the holiday season, walk down the isles of a store, and see rows composed primarily of red and green papers, ribbons, lights, ornaments, boxes, garland, ceramics, and more. Where do these classic colors come from and what do they convey to people? Green has been used for thousands of years to rejuvenate spirits during long dark winters. Plants like Holly, Ivy, and Mistletoe have been shared by the Europeans, Romans, Egyptians, and others to do just this. When biblical plays began appearing during Christmas, these green plants were some of the only live stage props available in cold climates. Today, green Christmas trees carry on these ancient origins.
Red goes hand-in-hand with green around Christmas. Some say it first appeared in relation to Christmas when plays featured red apples tied to evergreens on stage, representing the weakness of Adam. Holly berries are said to symbolize the blood of Jesus when he died on the cross. Eventually, red became the color of Bishop robes, later reinvented in Saint Nicholas’ wardrobe and eventually Santa’s uniform. What can these roots tell designers about red and green? Red and green are the most time-honored, established colors for Christmas, meaning they appeal to conventionalists and traditionalists more than perhaps any other color combo. Because many people grew up with classic red and green Christmas decorations, this color combo is nostalgic and agreeable to many people. For almost universally appealing banners, red and green designs are a natural choice.
Metallics are a trendy set of colors that come and go every so many years as the fashions change. Around Christmas, silver and gold are popular, longstanding choices in the metallic family. They represent sun, light, and warmth, inspiring colors during the winter. Gold holds a doubly important meaning, as it was one of the gifts given to Jesus by the wise men. Silver and gold are both used to represent the star that the wise men followed. This history makes these colors classic and respectable. However, the edgy, trendy vibe they have today makes them contemporary choices, too. These colors offer extra sparkle and glam to banners, appealing to a wide audience of neutral-loving people.
Blue and white is a far less popular color combination for Christmas. However, it is growing more and more popular as more Christmas decorations become easily available to buyers. Mary is often portrayed in blue robes, to signify importance. Blue is also used to represent the skies. White represents peace, purity, and winter snows. Blue and white and relatively peaceful, calming colors that will appeal to religious and non-religious celebrators of Christmas alike. With less boldness than classic red and green, blue and white are a subdued, subtle alternative for banners.
Besides for the main Christmas colors that appear on Christmas merchandise and advertisements, fun colors are a gaining traction around the holiday. Purple, teal, pink, and orange are a handful of these colors. Some of these colors have traditional or religious origins. For example, purple and sometimes blue are used to celebrate Advent, particularly in orthodox factions. That being said, new color combinations around Christmas appeal to quirky, contemporary, experimental people. For Christmas banners looking to appeal to younger audiences or more divergent audiences, try for unique colors. They make a statement.
Although not every banner has an illustration or picture on it, imagery is a powerful tool for communicating a banner’s message. Visual messages process at incredible speeds, meaning that image-conscious banners can have impact in a split second. Imagery is also important because it appeals to those who cannot read, such as young children and those with moderate vision impairments.
There are dozens of images that are popular around Christmas, including: snowmen, sleds, chimneys, presents, reindeer, trees, wreaths, elves, and snow. Pop culture characters are also popular Christmas images, such as Santa Claus, Mrs. Claus, Rudolph, Snoopy, Grinch, Cindy Lou Who, Frost the Snowman, Ebenezer Scrooge, Jack Skellington, and Mickey Mouse. Recent additions to this lineup include Frozen characters, such as Elsa, the ice queen.
When it comes to selecting which images to add to an online design of a Christmas banner, think about audience. Who resonates with these images? What do these images say to an audience? Take contemporary pop culture characters, for instance. Elsa imagery will be adored and recognized by young children, especially young girls. However, other demographics may be less responsive. Consider whether intense enthusiasm to the banner by some people is worth missing out on other altogether. On the other hand, older pop culture imagery, such as the Grinch and Snoopy, have a retro feel. However, many people—across age, gender, generation, and race—have watched and grew up with these classically Christmas characters.
Outside of specific characters, there is plenty of Christmas imagery to put on banners to amp up designs. Trees, crosses, and nativities are some obvious choices for religious and Christmas-specific imagery. For those who seek more general imagery on Christmas banners, there are other options, such as snowmen, presents, sleds, and wreaths. For those in diverse neighborhoods, those who want to be open to other holidays in the winter season, or those who celebrate Christmas but lack particularly religious convictions, these are great design choices to put on a banner.
Borders are an often-overlooked element of banner design. Borders are a cool option to include on some banners because they add dimension, push an accent color, and signify where a banner begins and ends. These things help the banner stand out from walls, snow, glass, or other backdrops for banners. Border options come in three main styles: no borders, solid color borders, or image borders.
No borders are an option chosen by many banner designers throughout the year. Technically, there are borders on these banners; the borders are simply whatever color the rest of the banner backdrop is. In some cases, a lack of border makes the banner seem more open and expansive. Plus, they give designers more room to place pictures or words in the design.
Solid color borders are exactly what they sound like: A solid color wraps around some or all of the edges of the banner. Use solid borders to involve a strong secondary color, such as red to complement a green, white to compliment a blue, or black to add structure to any color.
Finally, image borders are available to banner designers. Picture micro images, often in faded or more subtle color schemes, printed across all sides of a banner. The options covered in the “images” section apply here. In general, simple images are best for image-based borders. Images with too much detail are hard to recognize and distinguish against the backdrop of Christmas banners. Some Christmas-friendly border images include strands of lights, series of snowflakes, and lines of holly. Dozens of tiny images in these types of borders can over crowd and over complicate banner designs, so they are best for simple, pared down banner designs as a way to spruce them up and add visual interest.
Words and phrases are often considered separate from design. However, when it comes to banners, when there are relatively few words, each word has a tremendous impact. This means that in addition to actual word choice, word placement, color, font, are vital to the function of a banner and imperative to a design. This means that when it comes to the language of a Christmas banner, multiple design elements overlap. For example, color of the words is significant, since color can emphasize certain words, project an emotion, and set a tone. Font is another way to send a tone to readers. Whereas italics, slant, and cursive styles send a classy, articulate, grand, and mature message, bold, straight edge, and large styles send a contemporary, boisterous, daring message to readers. Designing diction may seem like a simple task, but there are tons of decisions to make regarding this facet of Christmas banners.
Common phrases on Christmas banners include:
- “Merry Christmas”
- “Merry X-Mas”
- “Holiday Greetings”
- “Season’s Greetings”
- “Have a Safe and Happy Holiday”
- “Feliz Navidad”
- “Best Wishes and Happy Holidays”
- “Santa’s Workshop”
- “Wishing You a Merry Christmas”
Other Christmas banners opt to feature lyrics from iconic Christmas tunes. Take “Tis the Season to Be Jolly,” “We Wish You a Merry Christmas,” “It’s the Most Wonderful Time of the Year,” “Walking in a Winter Wonderland,” and “Let It Snow! Let It Snow! Let It Snow!” into consideration. These phrases are excellent for nostalgia and pop culture resonance. Depending on the song referenced, the banner may appeal to more traditional or more modern listeners and readers. | <urn:uuid:95cb7be4-d636-469f-bd1f-6df25ecab68d> | CC-MAIN-2019-26 | https://www.1daybanner.com/christmas-banners/design-tips/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627999273.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20190620210153-20190620232153-00089.warc.gz | en | 0.941982 | 2,112 | 2.65625 | 3 |
What is the formula of efficiency?
The work efficiency formula is efficiency = output / input, and you can multiply the result by 100 to get work efficiency as a percentage. This is used across different methods of measuring energy and work, whether it’s energy production or machine efficiency.
What do you mean by efficiency of heat engine write its formula?
The Efficiency of a Heat Engine Formula
η = Thermal efficiency. W = Useful work obtained. QH = Given amount of heat energy. This is known as the heat engine formula. According to the second law of thermodynamics, it is impossible to get 100 percent of the thermal efficiency.
What is heat engine and its efficiency?
Heat engine is a device that performs the conversion of heat energy to mechanical work through cyclic process. The efficiency of a heat engine is defined as the ratio of work done by the heat engine to heat absorbed per cycle.
What is engine efficiency formula?
efficiency =WQH=1−TCTH. These temperatures are of course in degrees Kelvin, so for example the efficiency of a Carnot engine having a hot reservoir of boiling water and a cold reservoir ice cold water will be 1−(273/373)=0.27, just over a quarter of the heat energy is transformed into useful work.
What is heat efficiency?
The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is the percentage of heat energy that is transformed into work. Thermal efficiency is defined as. The efficiency of even the best heat engines is low; usually below 50% and often far below. So the energy lost to the environment by heat engines is a major waste of energy resources …
How do you calculate efficiency factor?
Efficiency vs. Efficiency Factor
- efficiency = benefit / effort.
- mileage / (fuel consumption)
- effort coefficient = 1/efficiency.
What is the formula of efficiency at full load?
As copper and iron losses are major losses in the transformer hence only these two types of losses are taken into account while calculating efficiency. Then the efficiency of transformer can be written as : Where, x2Pcufl = copper loss(Pcu) at any loading x% of full load.
What is engine efficiency?
The efficiency of an engine is defined as ratio of the useful work done to the heat provided. … This means the friction and other losses are subtracted from the work done by thermodynamic expansion. Thus an engine not delivering any work to the outside environment has zero efficiency.
How do you calculate the efficiency of an engine using PV diagram?
For a constant T process, W = nRT ln(V1/V3) assuming an “ideal” gas. I can “see” the PV diagram (three steps, constant P → constant V → constant T) but can’t open the file to see more. Efficiency is net work/total heat input. You just need to find Q and W for each of the three steps.
What is the efficiency of heat engine class 11?
Hence, the percentage efficiency of the engine is 15 %.
How do you calculate the efficiency of a heat pump?
The ratio of electrical energy input to heat output is called the coefficient of performance or COP; the higher the COP, the more efficient the heat pump. For the heat pump in Figure 2, the COP is 4 units of heat output divided by one unit of electricity input, i.e. a COP of 4. | <urn:uuid:b6ec1519-7016-4b9b-a37e-b164b4b59ff3> | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | https://northstarchevrolet.com/car-repair/what-is-the-formula-of-efficiency-of-heat-engine.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030337244.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20221002021540-20221002051540-00631.warc.gz | en | 0.930362 | 712 | 3.75 | 4 |
Augustus Wall Callcott
Life and work
Callcott was born at Kensington Gravel Pits, a village on the western edge of London, in the area now known as Notting Hill Gate. His first study was music and he sang for several years in the choir of Westminster Abbey. But at the age of twenty he had determined to give up music, became a student of the Royal Academy, and began his artistic career as a painter of portraits under the tuition of John Hoppner. The first picture he exhibited was a portrait of Miss Roberts, and its success at the Royal Academy in 1799 is said to have led to his final choice of painting as a profession.
His preference for landscape, including river and coast scenery, soon showed itself, and after 1804 he exhibited nothing but landscapes for many years. The skill of his execution, the elegance of his design, and the charming tone of his works caused his reputation to rise steadily. In 1806 he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1810 a full Academician. The care which he bestowed upon his pictures restricted their number. From 1805 to 1810 he exhibited about four pictures a year, in 1811 ten pictures, and in 1812, six. From that year to 1822 he exhibited only seven works in all, but among these were some of his best and largest, such as The Entrance to the Pool of London (1816), The Mouth of the Tyne (1818), and A Dead Calm on the Medway (1820). Another important picture was Rochester (1824).
Though his subjects down to this time were generally taken from the scenery of his own country, he had visited France and the Netherlands and had painted some Dutch and Flemish scenes before 1827, the year he married and went to Italy for the first time. His wife, Maria Graham, the widow of Captain Graham, R.N., had already attained considerable literary reputation. On their return from Italy they took up their residence at Kensington Gravel Pits, where he lived until his death, enjoying great popularity. In 1830 he began to exhibit Italian compositions, and after this year the subjects of his pictures were generally foreign. Though to the last his works were marked by charm of composition and sweetness of execution, those produced before 1827 are now held in most esteem.
On the accession of Queen Victoria in 1837, Callcott received the honour of knighthood. In that year he departed from his usual class of subjects, and exhibited a picture of Raffaelle and the Fornarina, with life-size figures, finished with great care, which was engraved by Lumb Stocks for the Art Union of London in 1843. This and Milton dictating to his Daughters, exhibited in 1840, were the most important of his figure paintings, of which rare class of his work the South Kensington Museum (Sheepshanks Collection) (now the Victoria and Albert Museum) contains two specimens, Anne Page and Slender and Falstaff and Simple. The museum also possesses several landscapes in oil and sketches in watercolour, etc.
The figures in his landscapes were often important parts of the composition, and were always gracefully designed and happily placed, as, for instance, in Dutch Peasants returning from Market.
- Stephen, Leslie, ed. (1886). "Callcott, Augustus Wall". Dictionary of National Biography. 8. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 256.
- "John Linnell Kensington Gravel Pits 1811–2". Tate Gallery. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
- One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Callcott, Sir Augustus Wall". Encyclopædia Britannica. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 56.
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Tamilians form 6% of the Indian Population with about 72 million people living in Tamil Nadu. The Tamils trace their origin to the ancient past. They have a saying - "Kal thonri, man thonra kalathey - Mun Thonriya Mutha Kudi Engal Thamizh Kudi" - which when translated says that the Tamils have originated long before the sand and stones appeared on earth. History says that one of the dominant successful Hindu Kingdoms of India is the Cholans who ruled from the year 235 BC to well over 1500 years. The Chola kingdom spread from the Mekong Valley to Madurai at their peak. Tamils have ventured in trade over vast distances covering most of the Asia, imbibing many practices from afar.
Tamilnadu consists of a number of communities. Whatever be the community, a priest is called upon to conduct the wedding rituals. Although one would notice variation in the wedding rituals among the various communities, the basic guidelines remain the same. Tamil weddings are well attended by close and distant relatives and friends. Usually Tamil weddings are conducted in 'Kalyana Mandapams' or marriage halls decorated with flowers and lights.
Once the alliance is fixed after matching of the boy and girl horoscopes a date for the wedding is fixed in consultation with the 'panchangam' or Hindu almanac. As per the Tamil almanac, the months of Aadi, Purattasi and Marghazhi are considered inauspicious for weddings. The bride's birth star is usually used to fix an appropriate date and time for the wedding
Pre wedding rituals
Panda Kaal: The blessings of the family deity are invoked to conduct the wedding in a peaceful manner. In certain communities like the Mudaliar and Chettiar in Tamilnadu, the Ganesha puja is performed while erecting the pandal for the marriage. A bamboo with an odd number of eyes is smeared with haldi and kumkum by nine married ladies and this is erected for the four legged pandal.
Nalangu: Here the bride is made to be seated on a wooden plank on the dais. A banana leaf filled with uncooked rice is spread beneath this plank. The married women apply sandal paste, kumkum and sprinkle rose water on the bride and also perform the aarti for the bride.
Welcoming the Groom: The groom's family arrives at the wedding hall in the morning, a day prior to the wedding. They are welcomed with flower, paan, fruits and sugar. Rose water is sprinkled on the groom. A tilak is applied on his forehead by the bride's brother and the bride's mother offers him a sweet dish prepared from condensed milk. An aarti is taken and coconut broken to the ground to ward off evil spirits.
Vratham: This ritual is performed a day prior to the wedding by the family of the bride as well as the groom. Vedic hymns are recited and the blessings of the ancestors are invoked. Following this is the ceremony of 'Palikai Tellichal' in which the married ladies from the groom's family participate. Clay pots are filled with grains. The married women from both the sides sprinkle water on the pots filled with nine varieties of grains. Traditional songs are sung. When the grains sprout the next day after the wedding they are immersed in a river or a pond where fishes may feed on the grains and bless the newly weds.
Naandi: This is a traditional ceremony when the Brahmins are honored with sweets and gifts.
Jaanavaasam: This is a custom that is in practice for several generations. The groom gets dressed in a suit gifted for this occasion by the bride's family. He is seated in a decorated car and is escorted to the venue of the wedding by a large procession full of family and friends.
Nicchiyadhartham: The groom's family gifts a saree to the bride. She wears this saree and with kumkum and sandal paste applied to her forehead and an aarti is performed for her with her saree pallav filled with fruits and betel nut, turmeric, coconut and kumkum with a garland around her waist.
Lagna Pathirigai: The Vaadyar reads the wedding invitation 'lagna pathirigai' which contains information regarding the muhurtam and the venue of the wedding along with the date. An elaborate dinner follows.
Tamil wedding rituals
Mangala snaanam and Kasi Yatra: The bride and the groom have an auspicious holy bath 'snaanam' on the day of the wedding in their respective homes. Oil and tilak of haldi kumkum is applied before the bath is given.
The groom pretends he is leaving for Kasi for a pilgrimage. The girl's father stops him and persuades him to return and wed his daughter. In some Tamil communities a Padapuja is performed by the groom when he washes the parents' feet before proceeding on the mock Kasi yatra. The bride performs a Mahalakshmi Puja invoking the goddess of wealth and then performs the Padapuja for her parents.
A Manai Pongal is cooked in a clay pot by the groom's parents while the bride and the groom get dressed. On their return the eldest sumangalis greets them with garlands and the couple enters the pandal after offering prayers before the deities.
Oonjal: Garlands are now exchanged between the bride and the groom and amidst fun and frolic and the bride and groom are seated next to each other on a swing.
Kanyadaanam: The bride is seated in her father's lap with coconut in her hands. The bride and her father offer coconut to the groom. The bride's mother pours water over the coconut symbolizing the giving away of their daughter. A nine-yard saree is presented to the bride by the groom's family for her to wear at the time of tying the Mangalsutra.
Muhurtham: The bride wears the nine yard saree with the help of her sister in law. The bride's father sits on a sack of paddy and the bride in turn sits on her father's lap. Paddy symbolically represents abundance and good fortune. The Mangalsutra is sent around for the family members, relatives and friends to touch and bless the couple. The sacred thread is now handed over to the bridegroom which he ties around the neck of the bride. The groom ties two knots and the third one is tied by the groom's eldest sister. The three knots denote the union of mind, spirit and body.
In certain other Tamil weddings the 'mangalyam' is made out of gold in the shape of a tiger tooth. Legend has it that in ancient times the groom killed a tiger and pulled out its tooth and tied it around the bride's neck thereby proving his valor. Nadeswaram plays in the background and 'Melam' follows and the couple is blessed with the showering of rice dipped in turmeric and flowers presented to them at the ceremony.
Saptapadi: The bride and the groom go around the holy fire seven times. In every round the bride touches her feet to the grindstone firming up the union of the couple forever.
Post Wedding rituals
Sammandhi Mariyathai: The two families of the bride and the groom exchange clothes and gifts during this ceremony.
Laaja Homam: This is a traditional ritual in which the bride's brother offers the popped rice to Agni seeking the blessings of the sacred fire signifying the power and light of God.
Grihapravesham: Once the wedding rituals are over the bride is escorted by the groom to the new house. She is welcomed in the groom's home by a traditional Aarti and lunch is served.
Reception: This is an occasion for friends of families and business colleagues to wish the newly weds.
The Tamil wedding feast
The wedding lunch is served on special banana leaf and positioning of the items in the elaborate menu follows a particular order. Thair pachadi, pickle and salt, lentil salad, vadai, sweet pachadi, appalam and Lassi follow. A couple of vegetable curries also follow. Steamed rice is heaped and hot ghee is poured over it. Sambar, morkuzhambu and rasam are the traditional gravies. Traditional sweets such as payasam, badam kheer or mysore pak find place in the traditional wedding feast | <urn:uuid:da71332f-e4fd-4989-ab2f-f01ce60c6b53> | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | https://www.come2india.org/tamil-wedding.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662533972.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20220520160139-20220520190139-00568.warc.gz | en | 0.946756 | 1,813 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Philosophers live and encourage others to live according to the rules of practical wisdom. Aristotle, Immanuel Kant, and Emmanuel Levinas were bind philosophers who sorted out various good approaches. They investigated complex worldly concern actions and theorized what is the honourable thing to do. For instance, Aristotle contemplated the aim of humans life, Kant observed employment and obligation from respect for the law, and Levinas examined unriv exclusivelyeds responsibility to the Other. These unique points of view passport different answers regarding the search for the good. In addition to their differences, these philosophers are bound to limither by similar sentiments. For example, sever wholey of the philosophers believed in optimism-- they look that all humans are naturally ethical. In addition, separately of the philosophers believed in use motive to be ethical. They emphasized the anatomy of living hygienic and acting closely by victimisation v irtuous habits and good character to r separately the good. Furthermore, they all believed in self actualization-- in other words, ethically human race the best one can be. They all thought an ethical person must be rational and responsible for their actions. They proposed that each person has a duty towards others and society. Aristotle lived during the B.C. era and established the idea of teleological ethics. This means that ethics has a purpose or a reason.
He stressed the concept of doctrine of the mean-- maintaining rest in ones actions. Additionally, he theorized the idea of developing virtuous habits to meet a leak good character as advantageous! ly as that bliss is the main goal of all human beings. He explained how stretchability ones potential by living well and acting well will ultimately lead to happiness. Moreover, he stated one should base ones actions on reason and he introduced the concept that reason controls desire. Immanuel Kant was a philosopher who lived the majority his... If you want to get a practiced essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
If you want to get a full essay, visit our page: write my paper | <urn:uuid:1d7b47ce-3ce3-4796-ad35-bfe078c090b1> | CC-MAIN-2017-43 | http://write-my-essays-blog.blogspot.com/2013/10/comparative-essay-describing-ethics-of.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187824357.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20171020211313-20171020231313-00808.warc.gz | en | 0.955799 | 409 | 3.53125 | 4 |
- Vegetables: beans, peas (culinary)
- Animal Products: dairy
- Crop Production: conservation tillage
- Soil Management: organic matter
This study investigated the use of leguminous cover crops to supply nitrogen for subsequent grass hay/grazing crops.
Summer cover crop – winter pasture experiments: To provide nitrogen for cool-season grasses, a mixture of velvetbean (Mucuna pruriens) and lablab (Lablab purpureum) were planted at 7.5 lbs/acre and 65 lbs/acre respectively in May, 2006 and 2007 to serve as green manures. In 2006, the field was chisel plowed and disked before seeding 1-1.5in deep with a conventional grain drill. In 2007, plots were no-till planted by hand. Plots were 16 ft by 55 ft and arranged in randomized complete blocks with 3 replications. In both years, extremely dry conditions limited growth of the cover crops. In 2006 the area received 7.2 in. of rainfall during this May-September growing season versus a 12.3 in. historical average. Plots were watered with an overhead sprinkler once in June, but by mid-summer the velvetbean had died out and by September most of the lablab had died from moisture stress. In 2007, moisture was even more limiting, and the experiment was abandoned due to very poor cover crop establishment.
Plots were mowed in October, 2006, and the field was again chisel plowed and disked. Turkey manure (our historical fertility source for winter pasture) was added to one set of plots at the equivalent of 2.5 tons/acre. A nutrient analysis of this manure indicated plant-available nutrients were applied at the following rates: 79 lbs/acre N, 159 lbs/acre P2O5, and 159 lbs/acre K2O. All plots were sown with a mixture of oats, triticale, and wheat at 20 lbs/acre each with a conventional grain drill at 1-1.5 in. depth.
In early February, 2007, three 1 m2 portions of each plot were harvested by hand, at a 2-cm height. Samples were bagged and dried for weighing and forage analysis. The remaining plot area was mowed and removed, but not weighed. In April, 2007, plots were harvested again, this time with an 8 ft commercial haybine. The borders between plots were mowed and raked before harvest to avoid areas of inter-plot competition. Whole-plot wet weight yields were measured, and sub-samples were taken for forage analysis and calculation of dry-weight yields. Also at this date, one-ft. deep soil nitrate and ammonium samples were taken within each treatment.
Winter cover crop – summer pasture experiments: To provide nitrogen for warm-season forage grasses, a mixture of crimson clover and hairy vetch was planted at 10 lbs/acre and 20 lbs/acre respectively in October, 2006 and 2007. In 2006, the field was chisel plowed and disked before broadcasting seed with a hand-operated spinner-spreader. In 2007, this practice was repeated in one experiment, whereas in a second experiment the winter legumes were established by over-seeding directly in standing sorghum-sudangrass without any tillage. Plots were 24 ft by 50 ft and arranged in randomized complete blocks with 4 replications.
In both years, cover crop growth was slow through the winter, but by early spring stands of legumes dominated their respective plots. In April of each year all plots were mowed and tilled prior to sowing sorghum-sudangrass with a conventional grain drill at 1-1.5in depth. In year 1, only two treatments were included (cover crop/no cover crop), but in year 2, a fertilizer control was included in both experiments by spreading 200 lbs/acre 34-0-0. Yields and forage quality were measured in July and September using an 8 ft commercial haybine. The borders between plots were mowed and raked before harvest to avoid areas of inter-plot competition. Whole-plot wet weight yields were measured, and a sub-sample was taken for forage analysis and calculation of dry-weight yields.
In July, 2007 1-ft. deep soil samples were taken in each plot to measure soil nitrate and ammonium. Due to a lack of apparent correlation with treatments during this year, and due to dry conditions and the extreme difficulty of sampling, we chose not to sample soil nitrogen levels in the 2008 experiments. Due to drought stress during this season, forage plots were watered once with overhead sprinklers. Inconsistent distribution of water led to irregular growth and increased the overall variability in the experiment area.
Laboratory procedures: Forage sub-samples were sent to the Stephenville AgriLife Research Forage Laboratory where they were dried in forced-air ovens for 48 hrs at 55o C and weighed. The percent moisture loss from the green sub-samples to the dried sub-samples was used to correct the dry matter (DM) weight of the whole-plot samples and yields are reported as DM. These samples were then ground through a 2-mm screen. Ground samples were analyzed for acid detergent fiber (ADF) using methods developed by van Robertson and van Soest (1977) using an ANKOM 200 Fiber Analyzer (Ankom Technology, Macedon NY). Analysis for total N was carried out using an Elementar Vario Macro combustion analyzer (Elementar Americas, Inc., Mt. Laurel, NJ) using 0.2500 g (±.0010 g) samples. Nitrogen concentration was converted to crude protein (CP) by multiplying by a factor of 6.25, the ratio of CP to N found in most plant proteins.
Summer cover crop – winter pasture experiments: In 2006-07 winter forage yields were increased significantly by both turkey manure and cover crop treatments (Figure 1) at both dates. These two treatments did not, however, differ from each other. Turkey manure also increased crude protein levels in forages harvested at both dates (Table 1). No significant differences were found in other forage quality measurements at either date.
As noted above, drought and near-drought conditions limited growth of the warm-season leguminous cover crops used in this experiment, and thus their ability to fix nitrogen was undoubtedly reduced. Soil nitrogen measurements did not detect significant differences between any treatments, though the precision of this measurement was rather low.
Winter cover crop – summer pasture experiments: The 2006-07 experiment produced dramatic results with winter cover crops increasing summer hay yields 65% in July and 41% in September as compared with yields of the control plots (Figure 2). Crude protein levels were not significantly different between treatments, but acid detergent fiber (ADF) was higher for the cover crop treatment. This finding was not expected, but very likely resulted from the dry growing conditions.
See uploaded file – Table 1 & 2 and Figure 1 & 2
In the two 2007-08 experiments, dry weather limited 1st cutting sorghum-sudan yields (Figures 3 and 4), but the July harvest still showed a significant response to both cover crop (42% and 109% more than control) and fertilizer nitrogen (132% and176% more than control). Fertilized plots yielded 33% and 63% more than cover crop plots, but costs of this treatment were also higher (roughly $55/acre vs. $35-40/acre for cover crop seed). September yields were not significantly different in the no-till cover crop experiment, but the fertilizer treatment yielded roughly 24% more than cover crop and 28% more than control treatments in the tilled cover crop experiment.
Forage quality was also affected by fertility treatments in the 2007-08 experiments, though these results were not as consistent as yield effects. In the no-till cover crop experiment, crude protein levels were highest in the fertilizer treatment at both harvest dates (Table 3). In contrast, the tilled cover crop treatment produced sorghum-sudangrass with higher CP levels that either fertilizer or the no-fertilizer control. These differences would significantly impact animal development, especially in September when CP concentrations in the control were well below 6%, the minimum considered necessary for cattle maintenance. Minimum maintenance values are closer to 8% for dairy goats (NRC, 2007).
See Table 3 & 4 and Figure 3 & 4
One visible difference in cover crop growth between these two experiments was that crimson clover predominated in the tilled cover crop plots, whereas hairy vetch seemed to compete more effectively in overseeded, no-till plots. It seems doubtful, however, that this difference explains the differences in CP response since this effect is nitrogen-related, and no paralell trend was observed in forage yield.
The response of summer forages to leguminous cover crops has raised considerable interest, both within our organization and on the part of other area farmers. However, we see need for some fine tuning of the system in order to maximize its effectiveness. First, optimizing the timing of cover crop seeding should result in higher nitrogen fixation and greater response of subsequent forage crops. Our observations in adjacent, non-experiment fields suggest that seeding in September rather than October may result in more legume growth going into the winter. However, erratic fall rain patterns may make early seeding more risky in some years (i.e. if early rains cause germination, but aren’t followed by enough moisture to sustain early growth). Self-reseeding may allow legumes to germinate on their own at times dictated by soil moisture or temperature seed bank is established in the soil. Managing self-reseeding legumes to not only produce soil-N but also allow time in late spring to set seed, is especially tricky for late-flowering species such as hairy vetch. Such determinations will undoubtedly take several years to understand more fully.
No-till seeding of leguminous cover crops into standing forages appears possible with the system studied, and will further increase the cost effectiveness and conservation-appropriateness of this approach. Further optimization of no-till seeding will involve timing of seeding (see above), timing of grazing, and selection of cover crop. Grazing should be early enough to allow hoof traffic to improve seed-soil contact and subsequent germination, but late enough that forage growth won’t unduly suppress cover crop establishment. Hairy vetch appeared to perform better than clover in the 2007-08 no-till experiment, but this observation should be confirmed with further experimentation, and other cover crop species might be included for screening.
We were disappointed in the performance of warm-season legumes as cover crops for winter forages. However, in the two seasons studied, dry summer weather severely limited cover-crop growth and may not have represented years with more “typical” spring rainfall. Had adequate moisture led to more vigorous growth of the cover crops, forage yield responses would have likely been much more pronounced. Forage protein levels would also be more likely to increase under such conditions. We are continuing to test lablab as a summer cover crop, but plan to seed somewhat earlier (e.g. April rather than May) in order to allow plants to become better established before the drier mid-summer months. As with the winter legumes, we are also testing no-till seeding methods. | <urn:uuid:3a0f8862-97a2-4867-8b1d-23a65173904c> | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | https://projects.sare.org/sare_project/fs06-205/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243989814.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20210513142421-20210513172421-00402.warc.gz | en | 0.975408 | 2,404 | 3.28125 | 3 |
At least some content in this article is derived from information featured in Harry Potter: Hogwarts Mystery. Spoilers will be present within the article.
Ebony (genus Diospyros) is a dense black wood, most commonly yielded by several species in the genus Diospyros, which includes the persimmon tree. In a more general sense, "ebony" may also refer to other heavy, black (or dark coloured) woods from unrelated species.
This jet-black wand wood has an impressive appearance and reputation, being highly suited to all manner of combative magic and to transfiguration. Ebony is happiest in the hand of those with the courage to be themselves. Frequently non-conformist, highly individual or comfortable with the status of outsider, ebony wand owners have been found both among the ranks of the Order of the Phoenix and among the Death Eaters.
In the experience of Garrick Ollivander, the ebony wand’s perfect match is one who will hold fast to his or her beliefs, no matter what the external pressure, and will not be swayed lightly from their purpose.
The word "ebony" derives from the Ancient Egyptian "and Midd", via the Ancient Greek by way of Latin and Middle English.
- The Case of Beasts: Explore the Film Wizardry of Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them
- Harry Potter: Hogwarts Mystery
- Harry Potter: The Wand Collection | <urn:uuid:b3fb400c-1485-4893-a26e-a87c7e41c7c1> | CC-MAIN-2020-24 | https://harrypotter.fandom.com/wiki/Ebony | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-24/segments/1590348493151.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200605045722-20200605075722-00489.warc.gz | en | 0.930986 | 299 | 2.578125 | 3 |
The year was 1347 CE when the menace first entered the population. It crept in silently with the rats and no one was aware of the danger it presented. But they would soon find out.
The disease incubated for a few months before it hit hard in the spring of 1348. By the time the first wave of the epidemic decreased three years later, it is estimated that 25 to 50 percent of the population of Europe had fallen.
Wave after wave of plague rolled through Europe for 400 years. It usually slowed down in the winter due to the cold weather killing off fleas but revived during the warmer weather in the spring and summer, becoming the worst natural disaster pandemic to hit the world during recorded history.
There were three types of plague: septicemic, bubonic and pneumonic. The rats were immune to the disease but they carried the bacteria in their blood. Fleas fed on rat blood and became infected with the bacteria which multiplied rapidly in their gut. When an infected flea bit a human, it regurgitated the rat blood into the human’s bite wound.
The bubonic and septicemic variations of the disease were caused by direct contact with the flea. However the pneumonic version spread by airborne droplets as a person sneezed or coughed. Once in the lungs, the bacteria actually liquified the lung tissue and the person literally coughed up his own lungs over the next few days. Once an infected person sneezed on his caregiver, his child, his mother or someone else, they both knew they would die within a matter of days.
The Black Death
The bubonic variation was the most common form of the plague that appeared. It caused the lymph glands in the arm pits, groin and neck to swell painfully and these enlargements were called buboes. Often large black and purple areas appeared on the skin which gave this form the name, “Black Death.” Those infected suffered from headaches, nausea and vomiting, body aches and fevers spiking as high as 105 degrees. The symptoms appeared in one to seven days after exposure to the bacteria.
The prognosis for bubonic plague during the Dark Ages was a mortality rate of 30 to 75 percent. For the pneumonic plague form, the mortality rate was 90 to 95 percent. The septicemic variation of the plague was the most lethal with a mortality rate of 100 percent. Even today when this form of plague appears in some third world countries, there is no cure and death is almost certain. In some European cities, almost 800 people a day died from the plague.
Ring Around The Rosy
This nursery rhyme referred to rosary beads used to say “Hail Mary’s” for heavenly help. Many people carried a pocket full of posies or flowers to hide the odor of decomposing bodies. At one point, doctors thought the stench was causing and spreading the disease.
A Mass Burial Site
There was no knowledge among either the common or the educated people about the causes of the disease. They flailed about looking for scapegoats–people who might be witches or vampires who could use occult or esoteric knowledge to spread the plague and pestilence across the countryside.
Five hundred years ago, very few people lived past their 40’s, and most people believed that any aged person must be prolonging their life through witchcraft or satanism. So when researchers recently dug up a mass grave in Venice dating back to the 16th century, they expected to find the plague victims piled up as the workers threw their bodies randomly into the pit. So many people died every day from the Black Death that there was no time to individually bury each individual. The bodies were generally carted in and dumped into the open trenches.
However researchers were astonished to find one female skeleton of about 60 years of age in with the rest. Evidently the diggers did allot some special attention to this old lady. They inserted a large brick into her mouth evidently because she might have been a vampire.
The usual practice for disposing of vampire remains was to tie the jaws to the head in such a manner that the deceased could not open the mouth to chew through the ropes and the soil in order to escape from their graves. Sometimes they also drove a stake through the heart in order to nail the corpse to the ground.
Recently archaeologists have also examined some vampire burials in central Europe and found that the skulls had large rocks shoved into their mouths to prevent opening them. Rocks and boulders might also be piled on the bodies and on the graves to keep the inhabitants in place.
The vampire myth proves to be a very deadly legend indeed. | <urn:uuid:941044cf-7011-479c-910a-d95142b248da> | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://worldhistory.us/medieval-history/the-black-death-and-vampires.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224650264.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20230604193207-20230604223207-00162.warc.gz | en | 0.977852 | 961 | 3.671875 | 4 |
Last week, I had a chance to sit down with Bill Gates as part of a small group, in a discussion focused around the release of his annual letter and the progress that has been made against the United Nations' Millennium Development Goals. (You can also read his annual letter as a 6.3MB PDF.) I'll write separately about what it was like having a conversation with Bill Gates, but the biggest highlight that came from the meeting was a simple lesson:
The world is getting better, faster, than we could ever have imagined.
For those of us who are fortunate enough to live in wealthy communities or countries, we have a common set of reference points we use to describe the world's most intractable, upsetting, unimaginable injustices. Often, we only mention these horrible realities in minimizing our own woes: "Well, that's annoying, but it's hardly as bad as children starving in Africa." Or "Yeah, this is important, but it's not like it's the cure for AIDS." Or the omnipresent description of any issue as a "First World Problem".
But let's, for once, look at the actual data around developing world problems. Not our condescending, world-away displays of emotion, or our slacktivist tendencies to see a retweet as meaningful action, but the actual numbers and metrics about how progress is happening for the world's poorest people. Though metrics and measurements are always fraught and flawed, Gates' single biggest emphasis was the idea that measurable progress and metrics are necessary for any meaningful improvements to happen in the lives of the world's poor. So how are we doing?
The World Has Changed
The results are astounding. Even if we caveat that every measurement is imprecise, that billionaire philanthropists are going to favor data that strengthens their points, and that some of the most significant problems are difficult to attach metrics to, it's inarguable that the past two decades have seen the greatest leap forward in the lives of the global poor in the history of humanity. Some highlights:
- Children are 1/3 less likely to die before age five than they were in 1990. The global childhood mortality rate for kids under 5 has dropped from 88 in 1000 in 1990 to 57 in 1000 in 2010. The global infant mortality rate for kids dying before age one has plunged from 61 in 1000 to 40 in 1000. Now, any child dying is of course one child too many, but this is astounding progress to have made in just twenty years.
- In the past 30 years, the percentage of children who receive key immunizations such as the DTP vaccine has quadrupled.
- The percentage of people in the world living on less than $1.25 per day has been cut in half since 1990, ahead of the schedule of the Millennium Development Goals which hoped to reach this target by 2015.
- The number of deaths to tuberculosis has been cut 40% in the past twenty years.
- The consumption of ozone-depleting substances has been cut 85% globally in the last thirty years.
- The percentage of urban dwellers living in slums globally has been cut from 46.2% to 32.7% in the last twenty years.
And there's more progress in hunger and contraception, in sustainability and education, against AIDS and illiteracy. After reading the Gates annual letter and following up by reviewing the UN's ugly-but-data-rich Millennium Development Goals statistics site, I was surprised by how much progress has been made in the years since I've been an adult, and just how little I've heard about the big picture despite the fact that I'd like to keep informed about such things.
I'm not a pollyanna — there's a lot of work to be done. But I can personally attest to the profound effect that basic improvements like clean drinking water can have in people's lives.
Today, we often use the world's biggest problems as metaphors for impossibility. But the evidence shows that, actually, we're really good at solving even the most intimidating challenges in the world. What we're lacking is the ability to communicate effectively about how we make progress, so that we can galvanize even more investment of resources, time and effort to tackling the problems we have left.
Fortunately, everyone else who participated in the roundtable discussion has also posted their thoughts; I recommend reading them all.
- Jason Kottke summarizes the letter and reaches a similar conclusion to mine: "If you read the whole thing, you'll likely be surprised, as I was, at how much has been accomplished over the past 10-15 years." You should also see Jason's account of Gates' answers to his questions.
- Tyler Cowen's excellent writeup addresses both the content and the tone of Gates' responses, and shows how the measurement-based focus can change the perspective we have on these problems.
- I really appreciated Dana Goldstein's take, which focused on Gates' efforts around education, the foundation's sole program which operates here in the United States. She also had a more personal take on the overall conversation.
- Finally, Luisa Kroll at Forbes offers her take on the conversation, focusing on Gates' useful reframing of the way we evaluate colleges in the United States. | <urn:uuid:a8e66ef3-f6ee-47c1-baf2-a96be092a260> | CC-MAIN-2016-30 | http://anildash.com/2013/02/the-world-is-getting-better-quickly.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-30/segments/1469257824345.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160723071024-00190-ip-10-185-27-174.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971472 | 1,071 | 2.671875 | 3 |
“Hoax.” is Malwarebytes’ detection name for a particular kind of riskware that tricks users into believing something that isn’t factual.
A virus hoax is typically spread via email chains, social media posts, and other methods, claiming to warn potential victims of a threat, often in an exaggerated tone. The classic example of this is the Teddy Bear virus hoax of 2002.
This hoax urged people to remove JDBGMGR.EXE, a file that has an icon that looks like a teddy bear. In fact, this executable is a legitimate Windows file known as the Java Debug Manager—thus, jdbgmgr. It is used by Java programmers. Microsoft’s Windows 3.1 development team used the teddy bear icon (dubbed the Microsoft Bear) in homage to their mascot. This icon is also regarded as one of the many hidden Easter eggs in Microsoft products through the years.
Malwarebytes protects users from hoax files in the form of an executable by using real-time protection.
Should users wish to keep this program and exclude it from being detected in future scans, they can add the program to the exclusions list. Here’s how to do it.
The Exclusions tab includes a list of items to be excluded from scans. The items may include files, folders, websites, or applications that connect to the Internet, as well as previously detected exploits.
To access the exclusions in Malwarebytes:
If you want to allow the program to connect to the Internet, for example to fetch updates, add an exclusion of the type Exclude an application that Connects to the Internet and use the Browse button to select the file you wish to grant access.
Your intro to everything relating to cyberthreats, and how to stop them. | <urn:uuid:ab577f16-371a-406d-ab38-2b47be7d4690> | CC-MAIN-2019-39 | https://staging-blog.malwarebytes.com/detections/hoax/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514574665.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20190921211246-20190921233246-00556.warc.gz | en | 0.924795 | 373 | 2.828125 | 3 |
March 29, 2012
Hello Arthaey and everyone -
This is the first time I have ever heard of a pangram…so I hope others can help you - Can anyone develop a pangram for writing one sign language, such as ASL? That sounds close to impossible to capture all the possibilities, since SW is used to write many languages…so the real way to test what you are developing is to post it here on the SW List and let writers test it…or try writing literature in your handwriting - go to ASL SignPuddle Literature file and search for Cat in the Hat - hat is an advanced story -
On Mar 29, 2012, at 1:41 PM, Arthaey Angosii wrote:
> Are there any test sentences/paragraphs that are SignWriting pangrams?
> That is, something I could practice writing that has been carefully
> chosen to exhibit all the symbols available (or at least all the
> *classes* of symbols, anyway)? I don't just mean all the handshapes,
> orientations, locations, and movements, but also grammatical things
> like statements/questions/commands, marking something as the topic,
> I ask because such a practice paragraph would be great for learners of
> SignWriting. But I also ask because I'm developing my own simplified
> handwriting and want to make sure that the shortcuts I'm taking won't
> paint me into a corner later when trying to write something more
> complex than what I've written so far. | <urn:uuid:6a70fd46-8da7-45b2-83ad-5f73138690d7> | CC-MAIN-2021-17 | http://listserv.valenciacollege.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind1203&L=SW-L&F=P&P=134232 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618039568689.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20210423070953-20210423100953-00567.warc.gz | en | 0.954412 | 323 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Contest Directions: Photoshop this quill image (click to download) any way you wish. Some examples are: using this quill to decorate or design other objects, using this quill image in advertisements, movies, paintings, putting this quill into some unusual environment. These are just some ideas.
Many thanks to Sophie and
Stock Exchange for providing the source image.
Register to post comments and participate in contests.
This contest is fueled by the following news: A pen is a writing implement with the help of which it is possible to leave a trace of ink on the surface of something (usually paper). The following types of pens are available:
* Fountain pens;
* Ball-point pens;
* Capillary pens;
* Engineering pens;
* Gel pens.
Ball-point pens, fountain pens and gel pens sometimes have "erasable" inks.
The term and history:
Writing quills were long ago, approximately around 3000 BC and were made from reed stems. The English word "pen" (pen, bird's feather) originated from the Latin "penna" (feather of a bird) since widespread popularity was acquired by goose feathers, which were squared at the root. Since the 16th century BC, the quill was used for more than a thousand years by many civilizations. The best pens were the swan quills, turkey quills and goose quills, which had big-sized feathers in the wings. Archeological findings in the ruins of Pompei include bronze variants of feathers; however, quills gained popularity only at the end of the 18th century. After 100 years, fountain pens appeared a capillary system for which was invented by L.E. Waterman, New York's seller of stationary goods. Relying on the latest manufacturing methods of ball bearings for machines and weapons, Laszlo Biro added a ball bearing mechanism to the capillaries and thus the ball-point pen was introduced to the world around 1944. The felt-tip pen was introduced for the first time in 1960 by Tokyo's stationary company "Pentel". | <urn:uuid:c251fa88-58f5-4daf-b11c-c77c948f40ef> | CC-MAIN-2014-23 | http://www.freakingnews.com/Quill-Pictures--2345.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-23/segments/1405997884795.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20140722025804-00077-ip-10-33-131-23.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973944 | 433 | 3.109375 | 3 |
When Christians engage in culture wars, theology can quickly transform into bigotry, and the gospel of Christ is often abandoned for a spirit of hatred, bitterness and judgmental accusations.
As the Supreme Court tackles the issue of same-sex marriage, many Christians are being labeled as bigots, but what exactly is Christian bigotry? Here are some defining characteristics:
Bigots Fear Change:
Christian Bigots hate change and see it as an attack on their beliefs. Since their Bible is inerrant and their God is unchanging, new ideas are dangerous and subversive to their perfect theology. Perfection cannot be improved upon, so any variation or contradiction is perceived as absurd. Bigots hate discovery, creativity is often prohibited, and new ideas are threatening to their way of life.
Historically, this is why many Christians were shamefully ignorant and simply wrong when it came to addressing slavery, fighting for civil rights, addressing the Holocaust, recognizing genocide, and combating AIDS (just to name a few).
Bigots Are Often (But Not Always) Privileged:
Change is hard to accept when things are working in your favor. As the common expression goes: “Why change a good thing?” Any theology, idea or sermon that challenges people to sacrifice or reach beyond their comfort zones isn’t easily accepted.
Bigots defend their position so passionately because the greatest beneficiaries of their worldview are themselves. But when people are persecuted, abandoned, ignored or powerless, their perspective changes and becomes open to different paradigms. These new paradigms are invisible and seem illogical to those that live in comfort and authority.
Bigots Crave Power:
Bigots want control, and they view their faith as a war of attrition. They use battle terminology to describe the gospel and prefer to preach, yell and shout instead of listen, discuss and learn. They use proclamations filled with absolutes and flood Facebook pages with dubious links and articles that promote their agendas. They declare statements instead of asking questions and refuse to engage in meaningful dialogue.
They prefer political might over spiritual strength, legal enforcement over personal choice, conscription over evangelism, punishment over grace, fear over hope, and control over love. In extreme cases, even violence and aggression is viewed as a necessary means of gaining power.
The Future is Scary:
Christian Bigots believe that the Apocalypse is going to happen sooner rather than later—possibly tomorrow. They assume people are becoming more depraved every passing minute. The Gays, Liberals and Abortionists are ruining the world, and every single negative news event is proof that God is judging the world and that The End is near.
Repent! Turn from your sins! Bigots shout the Gospel as a somber warning call from God that foresees a future full of doom and gloom and destruction. The Bible isn’t a message of hope, joy and redemption, but a weapon used to strike fear into anyone who doesn’t wholeheartedly agree with their theologies and belief systems.
The Past was Beautiful:
As bad as the future is, the past was practically perfect. If only American Christians could travel back in time when they were the predominant majority, when they could issue moral decrees and control the social and political institutions of the day.
Bigots love to tarnish the current (and future) reputation of humanity by comparing it to the past. But again, their past isn’t reality, and it’s a revisionist history that has been glossed over by misconceptions, ignorance and prideful assumptions.
Bigots lack humility, and they refuse to admit they were ever wrong. They forget—or refuse to admit—that many aspects of the past were worse than the present. Not only did Christians ruthlessly kill and torture in the name of God, but where was the Church when children were being molested, millions were being persecuted and killed, unfair taxes were bankrupting entire communities, and Christians consistently turned a blind eye to injustice, the poor, and those who were in desperate need of help?
These past sins of Christianity don’t exist for Bigots. Their words, actions and lives are skewed by a misguided sense of self-righteousness and virtue. They hold the moral high ground while everyone else is simply wrong.
Bigots are Exclusive:
Bigots have an Us vs. Them mentality and believe that only those who strictly agree with their beliefs can be true believers, the rest of humanity is being manipulated by Satan. If you question this line of reasoning you’ll quickly be labeled a “heretic, ” a word that Bigots love to attach to anyone challenging their thinking.
For Christian Bigots, the Bible is a message of selectiveness, a narrow path that few will follow. They see themselves as being privy to a special revelation that has been given only to them and the select few who religiously adhere to the strict rules, practices and traditions that are required to uphold such holy doctrines. They view God as having a love that is exclusive rather than inclusive.
Bigots Have the Answers:
For Bigots, the concept of “the mystery of God” is a direct threat to their ideologies. Therefore, almost every situation and question has an answer and explanation. Everything is black and white—nothing is gray. And while society shifts and creates moral questions that are harder and harder to answer, instead of humble reflection, Bigots simply rework and evolve their answers to remain true to their original beliefs—no matter how complicated, confusing or ridiculous the answers are. To them, any answer is better than not having an answer at all, which they view as a sign of extreme weakness and stupidity.
Bigots are Aggressive, Vengeful and Cruel:
Since Bigots self-righteously believe to be correct in all matters, they’re obnoxiously rude, mean and hurtful when communicating with others. Their self-perception as being morally superior creates an attitude of disdain for those they view as sinners, challengers and outsiders.
Bigots are the people who get on TV and explain that natural disasters are the direct result of a specific group of people’s sins. They blare over the radio that certain politicians could possibly be the Anti-Christ. They publicly humiliate individuals by arguing with them on street corners, attacking them over Twitter or condemning them from the pulpit. They picket funerals, organize boycotts and use derogatory slurs and defamation against their enemies.
Ultimately, Christian Bigots do more harm than good, which raises the question: Am I doing more harm than good?
Stephen Mattson has written for Relevant, Sojourners, and The Burnside Writer’s Collective. He graduated from the Moody Bible Institute and is currently on staff at Northwestern College in St. Paul, MN. Follow him on Twitter @mikta.
We need your support to sustain our multi-media message, build our platform, and establish connections around the world in an effort to see the Kingdom of God come here on earth as it is in heaven. Could you support us with a $5 donation today? | <urn:uuid:f7add5d0-f1f3-43b8-a0e1-4d151e2266df> | CC-MAIN-2021-31 | https://www.redletterchristians.org/am-i-a-christian-bigot/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-31/segments/1627046153391.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20210727103626-20210727133626-00368.warc.gz | en | 0.964337 | 1,467 | 2.625 | 3 |
Word-types are abstract wordforms that are typically defined in phonological terms, that is, as being composed of a unique set of phonemes. In English, for example, hasty, pessimistic, and esteem are unique word-types that have the /st/ word-medial consonant sequence in common. However, these words also have unique meanings. It is commonplace for word-types to be treated as phonological entities, but it is also possible that their essential nature, or their quiddity, includes semantic properties. This study examines learning from word-types in a task in which types are commonly utilized: statistical learning of phonotactic patterns. The critical question is whether semantic cues influence how word-types support those patterns.
To better understand why semantics might play a role in phonological acquisition, consider the following hypothetical situation: A child grows up consistently exposed to multiple dialects of English, and therefore hears widely varying pronunciations of the same word. For example, she regularly hears the word hasty pronounced as [heɪsti], [hæɪsti], and [hʌɪsti]. With respect to learning about the phonotactic sequence /st/, is it sufficient that these pronunciations are composed of different sounds for the child to treat them as different word-types, permitting each pronunciation to serve as evidence that /st/ is a licit English consonant sequence? Or, because they share a common meaning, would she treat each pronunciation as a variation on a single word-type and wait on evidence from additional words such as pessimistic and esteem to make a generalization about /st/? To better answer this question, we first turn to previous research on word-types.
1.1 Previous findings on word-types
In phonological research, word-types represent the primary form of data for many grammar learning algorithms, for example, in Albright’s Minimal Generalization Learner (2009), Boersma’s Bidirectional Phonology (2011), and Hayes and Wilson’s Maximum Entropy model (2008), to name just a few. As the primary data for these grammars, word-types are responsible for establishing the grammar of a specific language. Notably, these formal models only make reference to the phonological properties of word-types.
With respect to linguistic performance, word-types have proven valuable for explaining phonological intuitions or behaviors, including past tense formation (e.g., Albright & Hayes, 2003; but cf. Moscoso del Prado Martín et al., 2004, for counterevidence) and lexical decision times (Conrad et al., 2008). Word-types also reliably predict wordlikeness judgments (Albright, 2009; Richtsmeier, 2011). In a statistical learning experiment that controlled for the total number of exposures, Richtsmeier (2011) observed that experimentally-defined high word-type frequency, but not high word-token frequency, modulated wordlikeness judgments. Adults were familiarized with word-medial consonant sequences, for example, /fp/. The sequences appeared in either one or three words, for example, just in /mæfpəm/, or in /mæfpəm/, /baɪfpəm/, and /gɪfpək/. Participants were later asked to make wordlikeness judgments for new words containing the same consonant sequences, for example, /neɪfpən/. Generalization to the novel words was only observed when participants were familiarized with multiple word-types. No generalization was observed when participants were familiarized with a single high-token-frequency word. Thus, in a direct comparison of learning from word-types and word-tokens, word-types consistently supported phonological learning in a way that word-tokens did not (cf. Albright, 2009; Bybee, 1995, for additional evidence in favor of word-types). In sum, word-types are useful entities when explaining linguistic intuitions.
Although word-types are not always explicitly mentioned, previous studies imply that they support early phonological development (Edwards et al., 2004; Ferguson & Farwell, 1975; Stoel-Gammon, 1985; etc.). In a more explicit analysis, Pierrehumbert (2003) proposed that phonological development is a process of accruing abstractions over word-types. Richtsmeier, Gerken, and Ohala (2011) tested that prediction in a study of phonotactic learning from word-types and word-tokens that controlled for the total number of exposures. Four-year-old children who heard /fp/ in the word-types /mæfpəm/, /baɪfpəm/, and /gɪfpək/ during the familiarization were subsequently more accurate to produce a new word containing /fp/, such as /neɪfpən/, than children who had only heard /mæfpəm/. In contrast, children who heard a large number of tokens of /mæfpəm/ were not more accurate when producing /neɪfpən/ than children who heard a smaller number of tokens of /mæfpəm/. The authors concluded that word-type frequency was a fundamental component of phonological generalization.
How do word-types support phonological generalization? Generally, status as a word-type is linked to phonological properties, as is the case for all of the formal grammars cited above. For example, phonological grammars reduce sister and hasty to phonological forms like /sɪstɚ/ and /heɪsti/ and look for featural or phonemic commonalities such as the co-occurrence of /st/. Importantly, most grammars treat /sɪstɚ/ and /heɪsti/ as equivalent pieces of evidence for the status of /st/ because they are both word-types. The fact that sister has a greater word-token frequency than hasty in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (Davies, 2008) does not influence how these grammars peform.
However, sister and hasty also have unique meanings, so word-type status is signaled by different meanings as well as by different phonological forms. For a learner, if the change in meaning from female sibling (sister) to precipitous behavior (hasty) is clear, then the learner can track the change in word-types, even in the presence of degraded or misleading acoustics. It is therefore possible that their meanings allow sister and hasty to act as cues for the phonological status of /st/. From the perspective of language development, we may ask whether both the phonological and semantic properties of word-types support phonological learning.
1.2 Previous research linking semantics and phonology
Within the existing literature, the influence of semantics on phonology is unclear. Some studies suggest semantics can play a role in determining phonological status, while other studies do not. Equally challenging is the fact that different studies have approached different aspects of phonology. Peperkamp and Dupoux (2007) had adult participants learn allophonic alternations that depended on a preceding determiner. An allophonic alternation is a sound change within a word that is conditioned by the word’s surrounding phonological environment. In Peperkamp and Dupoux’s study, the /k/ onset in kinel was conditioned by the determiner nel, as in nel kinel, but the /g/ onset in ginel followed ra, as in ra ginel. Peperkamp and Dupoux rightly point out that allophonic alternations are learnable based on both phonological and semantic cues. For example, participants could learn the alternation by tracking the phonological context that conditions the alternation, that is, whether the preceding determiner ends with a vowel or a consonant. However, if the surface forms ginel and kinel are both associated with the same visual referent, then participants could also use this semantic cue to learn the alternation.
Participants in this study were trained on velar stop (/g/ ~ /k/), labial stop (/b/ ~ /p/), or unnatural (/g/ ~ /f/) alternations. They were subsequently tested on the training word pairs, on novel pairs using the trained velar and labial alternations, and on novel pairs with an untrained alveolar alternation (/d/ ~ /t/). When they had visual referents for both allophonic variants, that is, when semantics provided a robust cue for the alternation, participants successfully applied the alternation to both old and novel word pairs. When just one form of the alternation was accompanied by semantic cues, that is, when semantic cues were uninformative about the alternation, they were not successful. No participant group applied the alternation to the untrained alveolar pair. The results indicate that semantic cues support learning of an allophonic alternation, even when the alternation involves phonologically unrelated sounds. However, participants only applied the alternation to the familiarized sound pairs, indicating that phonological generalization was absent.
Several studies (Creel, 2012; Swingley & Aslin, 2000; Yeung & Werker, 2009) have looked at whether semantic cues influence the interpretation or acquisition of phonological contrasts, such as the difference between /b/ and /p/. Yeung and Werker (2009) studied phonetic categorization in 9-month-old infants. Without training, 9-month-old infants acquiring English were unable to distinguish a Hindi dental-retroflex stop contrast ([ɖa] vs. [d̪a]). When infants were trained on the contrast, visual referents appeared to be critical to learning. That is, infants learned the contrast when it was supported by consistent pairings of visual referents to the two categories. They did not appear to learn the contrast when the visual referents were inconsistent—or assigned to both categories at the same time.
Semantic cues have also influenced performance in categorization tasks with odd pronunciations. Creel (2012) found that preschoolers often select known referents such as ‘fish’ when searching for a referent for odd pronunciations such as feesh, /fiʃ/. Similarly, Swingley and Aslin (2000) found that 18–23-month-old infants look at a known referent such as ‘baby’ if they hear an odd pronunciation such as vaby, /veɪbi/, although they look less reliably. The implication of the Yeung and Werker (2009), Creel (2012), and Swingley and Aslin (2000) studies is that semantics may influence the interpretation of acoustic differences near phonological borders. However, it is not clear how similar these tasks are to type-based learning or to phonological generalization.
Other studies suggest that semantics has little or no role in phonological development simply because meaning is absent. Many artificial language learning studies report phonological learning effects without containing any semantic component, that is, using only auditory or written materials (e.g., Finley, 2013; Goldrick & Larson, 2008; etc.). These studies focus solely on phonological learning, but they suggest that semantic properties are not necessary for learning in the phonological domain.
In sum, previous research on the link between semantics and phonology has involved a wide variety of methods and has included disparate phonological learning targets, and so it remains unclear what contribution semantics might make to learning from word-types. As such the present study is unique in examining the relationship between semantics and phonological learning. Here, a basic semantic property—synchronous referent-wordform pairing—is examined in a statistical learning task, specifically, learning about word-medial phonotactic sequences. The goal was to determine whether semantic cues could modulate an anticipated learning effect. As discussed above, the existing literature does not clearly predict whether semantics plays a role in type-based learning, so two rough hypotheses will be considered. Hypothesis 1: Semantics does modulate phonotactic learning, with the semantic influence depending on whether acoustically varying forms have the same or different referents. This hypothesis is inspired by the work by Peperkamp and Dupoux (2007), Creel (2012), and Yeung and Werker (2009), but differences in methods and phonological targets across these studies limit their applicability. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 is most clearly motivated by the close association of semantic properties to word-type status observable in the natural world. Hypothesis 2: Semantics will not modulate phonotactic learning. Hypothesis 2 is motivated by the existing definition of word-types as purely phonological, but also by consistent phonological generalizations observed in statistical learning studies without a semantic component (Finley, 2013; Goldrick & Larson, 2008).
The experiment also varied the degree of phonological similarity between words. This was in part to simulate the hypothetical example of a child hearing multiple pronunciations of hasty, and as such, to create an experimental scenario in which phonologically different forms might be treated as the same. Manipulating phonological similarity also created an opportunity to explore the importance of phonological variability for supporting phonotactic generalizations. Phonological learning algorithms treat all word-types equivalently (Albright, 2009; Boersma, 2011; Hayes & Wilson, 2008), but perhaps type-based learning is more effective when the word-types are more dissimilar. As such, the phonological dimension of word-type frequency is also worth exploring empirically.
2 Introduction to Method
This study was an investigation of whether learning from word-types depends on the words’ phonological properties, semantic properties, or both. A statistical phonotactic learning task was chosen to examine learning from word-types. The learning targets were word-medial consonant sequences that could be learned during a brief familiarization. Participants were familiarized with a set of words containing the targets, like the /st/ in mɪstəm/, /meɪstəm /, /mɛstəm/, and /mæstəm/. They were then presented new wordforms containing the targets, for example, /nastək/, and they were asked to rate how much the new wordforms sounded like the familiarization words. If participants were influenced by the familiarization, they should have generalized from familiarization words to test wordforms. That is, participants who were familiarized with four words containing /st/ should rate /nastək/ as relatively wordlike.
The experiment was conducted under the assumption that phonotactic learning is consistently guided by generalizations made over word-types. The design does not address related hypotheses, for example, that phonotactic sequences can instead be learned from word-tokens. For readers interested in this topic, there are extended discussions available in Albright (2009), Bybee (1995), and Richtsmeier (2011). The present study was limited in its focus to the semantic and phonological properties of word-types, so the design closely followed Richtsmeier (2011), in which learning effects were attributable to word-type frequency. As such, the design allowed for the expectations that (1) learning from word-types would occur and (2) phonological and semantic influences on that learning could be explored.
Some operational definitions may be helpful. Within the experiment, the term words refers to novel words that appeared in the initial familiarization and that were described to participants as Martian animal names. That is, words had both phonological and semantic properties. In contrast, the term wordforms refers only to the phonological properties of a novel word or to an experimental item presented without a referent, as was the case for test items. All experimental words shared a CVCCVC shape. Words varied in stress patterns, with some having word-initial stress and others having word-final stress. For example, /ˈmis.təm/ has word-initial stress and /mis.ˈtʌm/ has word-final stress.
A division between word-types and word-tokens is assumed, with word-types varying acoustically such that each type is composed of a unique set of phonemes. For example, /mɪstəm/ and /mæstəm/ contain different initial vowel phonemes and so are treated as different word-types. Word-tokens refer either to repetitions of the same acoustic token or to acoustic variations that do not result in a phonemic change, for example, different talkers’ productions of /mæstəm/. Of course, the acoustic distinction between word-types and word-tokens is not well understood. These differences are touched on briefly by the present experiments, and we return to the type/token distinction in the general discussion.
Following Richtsmeier (2011), in place of the term learning, the term extraction describes the behavior of participants during the test phase. Extraction refers to participants’ sensitivity to the experimental manipulations of the target sequences as measured by changes to their wordlikeness ratings, and it may reflect both priming of existing knowledge (Goldinger, 1996) as well as the acquisition of new knowledge (Pierrehumbert, 2003).
All procedures were performed in compliance with relevant laws and institutional guidelines. The study was approved by the supporting university’s institutional review board.
One hundred and seventy-nine undergraduates at a Midwestern university completed the experiment. All participants were native English speakers with less than two years of formal training in a foreign language, and they reported having no prior history of speech, language, hearing, or cognitive difficulties. Participants completed the study for course credit or for monetary compensation. Participants were assigned to conditions semirandomly, with an equivalent number of men and women placed in the between-subjects groups.
3.2 Design and materials
The design was similar to other statistical language learning studies (e.g., Finley, 2013; Goldrick & Larson, 2008; Richtsmeier, 2011). The experiment began with a familiarization phase followed by a test phase. All of the experimental manipulations occurred during the familiarization and can be understood as manipulations of the familiarization words. These manipulations comprised four experimental factors: English frequency, experimental frequency, phonological overlap, and semantics. To assist with evaluation of the design, Table 1 provides a brief description of each experimental factor.
|1. English frequency||A within-subjects manipulation of the English frequency of the target word-medial consonant sequences. Factor levels were high (frequent in English) and low (infrequent in English).|
|2. Experimental frequency||A within-subjects manipulation of the number of familiarization words containing the target word-medial consonant sequences. Factor levels were high (four words) and low (one word).|
|3. Phonological variability||A between-subjects manipulation of how similar related familiarization words, or words containing the same word-medial consonant sequences, were to each other. Factor levels were low, moderate, and high variability.|
|4. Semantics||A between-subjects manipulation of whether related familiarization words, or words containing the same word-medial consonant sequences, had different visual referents or shared the same visual referent. Factor levels were multiple referents and single referent.|
3.2.1 Target word-medial consonant sequences
Eight word-medial consonant sequences were selected as extraction targets. To add a level of control over whole-word phonotactics, the same word frame was used for two sequences (one high and one low English frequency). For example, the frame /ˈmɪ__əm/ was used for /ˈmɪf.pəm/ and /ˈmɪs.təm/. A given frame was always assigned to the same two sequences: /fp/ and /st/, /mk/ and /mp/, /pk/ and /kt/, and /ʃp/ and /sp/.
3.2.2 English frequency
Four sequences were infrequent in English (/fp/, /mk/, /pk/, and /ʃp/); four were frequent (/st/, /mp/, /kt/, and /sp/; cf. Vitevitch & Luce, 2004, for frequency calculations). Participants were familiarized with all eight sequences, making English frequency a within-subjects factor.
Higher ratings were expected for test wordforms containing low English frequency sequences, a reversal of what is typically obtained in novel word rating tasks. The familiarization words were described to participants as Martian, rather than English, and so the instructions may reverse expectations based on English frequencies. This hypothesis is expanded on in the General Discussion.
3.2.3 Experimental frequency
The frequency of word-medial sequences varied within the experiment, and some sequences appeared in more familiarization words. Half of the participants heard a given sequence in the low experimental frequency condition, or in a single familiarization word repeated four times (e.g., four identical tokens of /ˈmɪs.təm/ from a single speaker). The other participants heard that sequence in the high experimental frequency condition, in four phonologically different familiarization words each repeated four times (e.g., four tokens each of /ˈmɪs.təm/, /ˈmeɪs.təm /, /ˈmɛs.təm/, and /ˈmæs.təm/; each token was produced by a different speaker). Effects of word-type frequency were inferred based on the relative difference between high and low experimental frequency conditions.
Experimental frequency was manipulated within subjects, and each participant was familiarized with four high and four low experimental frequency sequences. Higher ratings were expected for high experimental frequency sequences (4 words × 4 tokens = 16 exposures) compared to low experimental frequency sequences (1 word × 4 tokens = 4 exposures). However, the purpose of the experiment was not simply to establish experimental frequency effects, which have been shown elsewhere (e.g., Gerken & Bollt, 2008; Richtsmeier, 2011; Richtsmeier et al., 2011). Rather, the experimental frequency effect was expected and thereby provided a baseline from which we could address the contribution of the phonological and semantic factors.
3.2.4 Phonological variation
Three word lists were created: low, moderate, and high phonological variation lists. The lists varied the number of overlapping phonemes across related word-types. As discussed in the Introduction, it is unclear whether forms as similar as [heɪsti], [hæɪsti], and [hʌɪsti] function as tokens of hasty or qualify as unique word-types. The purpose of manipulating phonological variation was to better understand the degree of sound variation sufficient to allow for phonotactic generalization. Phonological variation was minimal in the low variability list, more substantial in the moderate variability list, and greatest in the high variability list.
Each participant was familiarized with a single list, so phonological variability was a between-subjects factor. Unlike the English and experimental frequency effects, which are well established in this experimental paradigm, the phonological variability factor is more novel, and expectations for its effect are less clear. As such a between-subjects design was chosen for this factor. The between-subjects design was intended to avoid carryover effects and simplify interpretation (e.g., Keppel & Wickens, 2004). Predictions related to the phonological variation factor are presented in Section 3.2.7, High phonological variability familiarization word list.
3.2.5 Low phonological variability familiarization word list
The low variability list is presented in Table 2.1 Considering related familiarization words, or the words containing the same target sequence, only the first vowel varied, and consonants did not vary at all. Furthermore, the initial vowels were either all front vowels, as was the case for the /st/ words: /ˈmɪs.təm/, /ˈmeɪs.təm /, /ˈmɛs.təm/, and /ˈmæs.təm/; or were all back vowels, as was the case for the /kt/ words: /ˈbuk.təs/, /ˈbʌk.təs/, /ˈbak.təs/, and /ˈbaʊk.təs/.
|Low English frequency||Low experimental frequency||ˈmɪf.pəm||ˈseɪm.kəʃ||ˈbup.kəs||ˈfʌʃ.pət|
|High experimental frequency||ˈmɪf.pəm
|High English frequency||Low experimental frequency||ˈmɪs.təm||ˈseɪm.pəʃ||ˈbuk.təs||ˈfʌs.pət|
|High experimental frequency||ˈmɪs.təm
Research by Van Ooijen and colleagues suggests that vowels are less critical for establishing phonological contrast (e.g., Cutler et al., 2000). As such, the low variability list represents a condition in which related word-types could be treated as varying pronunciations of the same word, and generalization of the target sequences might be limited. At the same time, the limitations of vowel differences may allow other factors, such as semantics, to play a more prominent role.
The low variability list also differed slightly from the other lists because the low experimental frequency words were not used as one of the four high experimental frequency words. However, participants still only heard one low experimental frequency word versus four high experimental frequency words, so this difference was not expected to influence the results.
3.2.6 Moderate phonological variability familiarization word list
In the moderate variability list, both the first and second vowels varied, as did the stress pattern, as can be seen for the /st/ words /mis.ˈtʌm/, /məs.ˈtʌm/, /ˈmɛs.təm/, and /ˈmæs.təm/. The second vowel varied as a function of word stress. Two words carried final stress, for example, /mis.ˈtʌm/ and /məs.ˈtʌm/. The final stressed vowel was always /ʌ/ so that it differed minimally from the schwa in the words with initial stress, for example, /ˈmɛs.təm/ and /ˈmæs.təm/. Variation of the first and second vowels in the moderate variability list was intended to increase the salience of the word-medial sequence without changing any consonants. Stress pattern was not intended to be an independent factor, however. Rather, it was meant to provide acoustic variation while allowing for the possibility that related word-types could be treated as varying pronunciations of the same word.
3.2.7 High phonological variability familiarization word list
In the high variability list, most phonemes surrounding the word-medial consonant sequences changed across the four related words, for example, /mis.ˈtʌm/, /məs.ˈtʌm/, /ˈʃeɪs.tək/, and /ˈbaɪs.təm/, but only the word-medial consonants repeated across all four words. Two of the four words, the two with word-final stress, also appeared in the moderate variability list. The other two words had initial stress with initial CVs and final VCs that differed from the words with word-final stress. Compared with previous lists, the high variability list was an attempt to maximize phonological differences among related words, and there was no expectation that participants might equate them.
Based on the definition of word-types derived from existing models of phonological learning (Albright, 2009; Boersma, 2011; Hayes & Wilson, 2008), all three familiarization lists contain phonologically unique wordforms and should therefore support phonological extraction. However, if extraction is dependent on relative similarity, a property that is not considered by those models, then extraction may not occur for the less variable lists, or perhaps extraction may be more robust in the more variable lists. If phonological variability influences how participants treat the familiarization words, we should predict an experimental frequency × phonological variability interaction, or an experimental frequency effect that increases with greater phonological variability.
A visual depiction of the semantics factor and referent-to-wordform mappings is given in Figure 1. Like the phonological variability factor, the semantics factor was manipulated across rather than within subjects to avoid carryover effects and simplify interpretation (Keppel & Wickens, 2004).
The multiple referents condition is represented on the left side of Figure 1. Participants in the multiple referents group saw a different make-believe animal for each high experimental frequency word (containing the same word-medial sequence). That is, there would be four visual referents, one each, for /ˈmɪs.təm/, /ˈmeɪs.təm /, /ˈmɛs.təm/, and /ˈmæs.təm/. The single referent condition is represented on the right side of Figure 1. Participants in the single referent group saw the same make-believe animal for each high experimental frequency word containing the same word-medial sequence. That is, there was a single visual referent mapped to /ˈmɪs.təm/, /ˈmeɪs.təm /, /ˈmɛs.təm/, and /ˈmæs.təm/. As can be seen at the bottom of Figure 1, low experimental frequency words were always paired with one make-believe animal. Because only one wordform ever appeared in the low experimental frequency condition, the semantics factor was not relevant to it.
In the single referent condition, referent-to-wordform mappings suggest that related wordforms are varying pronunciations of the same word. As such, the single referent condition could attenuate or nullify the experimental frequency effect. In the multiple referents condition, referent-to-wordform mappings suggest that related wordforms are different words. As such, the multiple referents condition should lead to a robust experimental frequency effect. If semantics does influence how participants treat the familiarization words, we should predict an experimental frequency × semantics interaction, or an experimental frequency effect only in the multiple referents condition. If the interaction also depends on the phonological similarity of the familiarization words, however, then the frequency × semantics interaction might occur for some lists but not all, for example, only for the low variability list. Such a possibility was explored in planned analyses of the experimental frequency × semantics interaction for each level of phonological variability.
3.2.9 Test word list
The test wordforms are presented in Table 3. Participants did not hear the test wordforms prior to rating them, but the test wordforms contained the same sequences that participants heard during the familiarization. The sequence /st/ appeared in the test wordforms /ˈgʌs.tək/, /ˈnas.tək/, and /ˈtaʊs.tən/. All test wordforms had word-initial stress, which was common to all familiarization lists. Wordforms were produced by one of two speakers that were not heard during the familiarization, with each test speaker assigned to different lists (see below). The order that participants heard and rated the test wordforms was randomized for each participant.
|Low English frequency||ˈgʌf.pək
|High English frequency||ˈgʌs.tək
3.2.10 Recording of word lists
The familiarization and test words were recorded by 10 adult female speakers of a Midwestern dialect of North American English. Recordings were made in a sound booth to ensure high quality. To ensure phonetic consistency, such as appropriate stress, the speakers produced three tokens of each word immediately after a model provided by the author. A single token of each word from each speaker was then chosen for the experiment and its peak intensity was scaled to a standard value using Praat software (www.praat.org; 70 dB standard).
Participants were told that they would start by learning the invented language “Martian” and the names of Martian animals; later they would rate “potential Martian animal names” for similarity to Martian. The experiment was broken up into two blocks, with each block subdivided into a familiarization block and a test block. Each block featured four of the eight target sequences. Two of the four sequences in each block were high experimental frequency (2 sequences × 4 words × 4 repetitions = 32 tokens); two were low experimental frequency (2 sequences × 1 word × 4 repetitions = 8 tokens). Different talkers produced the eight familiarization words within a familiarization block, one talker per word. Participants heard a total of 40 word tokens during each familiarization block, and each block lasted less than two minutes. The order of presentation was randomized by Paradigm experimental software (http://www.paradigmexperiments.com/).
Following each familiarization phase, participants rated how much the test wordforms sounded like the Martian animal names from the familiarization. Ratings were made on a 1–7 Likert scale, where 1 meant “definitely not a Martian animal name”, 4 meant “neutral”, and 7 meant “a great Martian animal name”. Intervening numbers were also given labels for reference. Ratings were collected for three test wordforms per target sequence, resulting in 12 ratings for each test block (24 total ratings per participant). Participants typically needed less than 2 minutes to complete each test block. The order of presentation of test wordforms was also randomized.
Eight different orderings of each of the three familiarization word lists were created. This resulted in a total of 24 orderings of the experiment. Regarding the semantics factor, four orderings of each list used multiple referents, and four used single referents. To counterbalance experimental frequencies, four orderings of each list (two in each semantic condition) assigned /kt/, /st/, /pk/, and /fp/ to the high experimental frequency condition and /mp/, /sp/, /mk/, and /ʃp/ to the low experimental frequency condition. The other four orderings reversed this assignment. High and low English frequency sequences were divided evenly across the high and low experimental frequency conditions. Additionally, two orderings were created that varied the order in which target sequences were presented. For example, one ordering presented /kt/, /st/, /mk/, and /ʃp/ in the first experimental block and /pk/, /fp/, /mp/, and /sp/ in the second experimental block. Another ordering reversed that order. Four orderings of each list—independent of the phonological variability and semantics factors—are provided in Table 4 below.
|Ordering 1||Ordering 2||Ordering 3||Ordering 4|
|Block 1||High experimental frequency||st||fp||mk||mp|
|Low experimental frequency||mk||mp||st||fp|
|Block 2||High experimental frequency||fp||st||mp||mk|
|Low experimental frequency||mp||mk||fp||st|
Ratings were automatically recorded to a spreadsheet by Paradigm software. The data were then scanned according to pre-established criteria to filter out results from inattentive participants. Data were excluded if the participants made the same rating five or more times in a row (N = 15), if they made four or more ratings less than 300 ms after the end of the test wordform (N = 8), or if they had repetitive ratings and they made four or more ratings less than 300 ms after the offset of the test wordform (N = 10). Six participants from the moderate variability condition were added to the low variability condition after it was determined that, due to experimenter error, the lists that they heard were low variability lists. The result was a total of 66 participants in the low variability condition (35 single referent), 52 participants in the moderate variability condition (23 single referent), and 61 participants in the high variability condition (30 single referent). All responses made at least 300 ms from the offset of the test wordform were entered into the statistical analyses (52 responses removed).
3.5 Results and Discussion
Ratings were averaged across test words to derive four data points per participant, one for each of the within-subjects conditions: high English + high experimental; high English + low experimental; low English + high experimental; and low English + low experimental. Rating means (grand M = 4.25, SD = .62) were then entered into a 2 English frequency × 2 experimental frequency × 3 phonological variability × 2 semantics mixed design ANOVA. For all analyses, the r statistic is reported as a measure of effect size (Cohen, 1988; Field, 2009). An r-value near .1 is a small effect size, near .3 is a medium effect size, and at .5 or above is a large effect size.
A graph of the results that shows means for all conditions is given in Figure 2. There was a significant effect of English frequency, F(1, 173) = 43.27, p < .001, r = .20, with higher ratings being given to words containing low English frequency sequences, M = 4.42, than to words containing high English frequency sequences, M = 4.08. Experimental frequency was also significant, F(1, 173) = 26.34, p < .001, r = .13, and higher ratings were given to wordforms whose sequences appeared in multiple familiarization words, M = 4.39, compared to sequences that appeared in one familiarization word, M = 4.10. The semantics factor was significant, F(1, 173) = 5.65, p = .019, r = .03, attributable to higher ratings in the single referent condition, M = 4.36, compared to the multiple referents condition, M = 4.14. Finally, there was a nonsignificant trend observed for phonological variability, F(2, 173) = 2.54, p = .082, r = .01. Means for the three levels of variability are as follows: low phonological variability M = 4.11, moderate phonological variability M = 4.29, high phonological variability M = 4.34. Thus, ratings increased numerically when phonological variability also increased. Mean ratings by phonological variability condition are plotted in Figure 3 below.
There were two significant interactions (ps > .10 for all other interactions), both involving English frequency. First, the English frequency × phonological variability interaction was significant, F(2, 173) = 3.09, p = .048, r = .02. Considering the English frequency effect for each level of phonological variability, English frequency was significant for the low phonological variability words, F(1, 65) = 34.32, p < .001, r = .35, and for the moderate phonological variability words, F(1, 51) = 18.68, p < .001, r = .27. In contrast, only a nonsignificant trend was observed for the high phonological variability words, F(1, 60) = 2.92, p = .092, r = .05. Thus, the interaction is the result of significant and large effects of English frequency in the low and moderate phonological variability conditions but not in the high phonological variability condition. The trend for English frequency in the high phonological variability condition was nevertheless in the expected direction of higher ratings for low English frequency sequences. A graph of English frequency for each level of phonological variability is presented in Figure 4 and bears out the difference in magnitude of the English frequency effect across the three levels of phonological variability.
There was also a significant English frequency × experimental frequency interaction, F(1, 173) = 4.01, p = .047, r = .02. Experimental frequency had a more robust effect for words with high English frequency sequences, F(1, 178) = 27.27, p < .001, r = .13, compared to the experimental frequency effect for low English frequency sequences, F(1, 178) = 4.53, p = .035, r = .02. Low English frequency sequences were generally less amenable to extraction effects. This can be seen in Figure 5, where the difference between high and low experimental frequency conditions is much larger for high English frequency.
As discussed above, if semantics played a role in driving sequence extraction, a semantics × experimental frequency interaction was expected, although we considered the possibility that the interaction might also depend on the level of phonological variability. The semantics factor did not interact with any other factor in the main analysis, but planned analyses of semantics and experimental frequency were conducted at each level of phonological variability to more fully assess the prediction.
Rating means from each level of phonological variability were entered into planned 2-way ANOVAs with the experimental frequency and semantics factors. For the low phonological variability list, experimental frequency was significant, F(1, 64) = 4.02, p = .049, r = .06, but semantics (p = .249) and the interaction (p = .508) were not significant. For the moderate phonological variability list, experimental frequency was significant, F(1, 50) = 9.17, p = .004, r = .15, as was semantics, F(1, 50) = 5.72, p = .021, r = .10, but the interaction was not (p = .906). Finally, for the high phonological variability list, experimental frequency was significant, F(1, 60) = 13.87, p > .001, r = .19, but the main effect of semantics (p = .716) and the interaction (p = .117) were not significant. Thus, the planned analyses reinforce the main analysis, indicating that participants extracted the targets regardless of how referents were assigned to wordforms.
4 General discussion
Of primary interest in these experiments were the relative contributions of phonological and semantic factors to phonotactic learning, and by extension, to the quiddity of the word-type. Word-types are typically defined by their phonological characteristics, that is, by being composed of a unique set of phonemes. In natural human interaction, however, word-types are accompanied by unique referents. This observation led to a question: Can semantics act as a cue to word-type status, and thereby to phonotactic learning? To test this possibility, the semantic and phonological properties of word-types were manipulated to gauge which cues most consistently contributed to a statistical learning effect. Learning was observed regardless of the semantic and phonological manipulations, a finding that favors the existing phonological definition of word-types, but it is worth considering each of the four experimental factors in turn.
4.1 English frequency
The main effect of English frequency was the reverse of what is typically observed in wordlikeness experiments. Here, higher ratings were given to words containing low English frequency consonant sequences. The same result was observed by Richtsmeier (2011), who attributed the effect to the instructions: Participants were asked to make their ratings with respect to Martian, rather than to English. Participants in the present study also made their ratings with respect to Martian. In this context, expectations based on English may flip, and the lower the frequency of a target sequence in English, the more plausible the accompanying test wordform may seem as an instance of Martian.
The effect also presents an opportunity to examine experimental language manipulations apart from the influence of a participant’s native language. Here, the effects of English and experimental frequencies go in opposite directions (high experimental frequencies raise ratings, high English frequencies lower them), so a researcher interested in the learnability of a particular phonetic or phonological property may be able to manipulate that property in the experimental context of Martian and be confident that the results need not be attributed to some uncontrolled property of English.
4.2 Experimental frequency
Extraction of the target consonant sequences was inferred from the experimental frequency factor, that is, from a difference in ratings following exposure to one versus four familiarization words. Participants gave consistently higher ratings to words that contained high experimental frequency sequences, indicating a sensitivity to the relative frequencies of consonant patterns. Similar findings have been reported by Finley (2013), Goldrick and Larson (2008), Peperkamp and Dupoux (2007), Richtsmeier (2011), and others. If we assume that extraction effects are indicative of more general phonotactic and phonological learning, the finding is in line with previous studies of input-based phonological learning (Edwards et al., 2004; Zamuner et al., 2004), studies which consistently report a learning advantage for frequent phonological forms.
The experimental frequency effect was dependent on English frequency, however, as an English frequency × experimental frequency interaction was observed. The interaction reflects a difference in magnitude, with experimental frequency having a more robust effect for high English frequency sequences. In a similar experiment, Richtsmeier (2011) reported that the experimental frequency effect was numerically—albeit nonsignificantly—larger for high English frequency sequences. It is possible that the experimental frequency effect involves some priming of previous knowledge (Goldinger, 1996), and high English frequency sequences receive greater priming support. Additional research is necessary to understand the role that pre-existing knowledge plays in experimental learning effects.
Perhaps most importantly, the experimental frequency effect allowed for exploration of the semantics and phonological variability factors. In other words, the main effect of experimental frequency was expected, and the goal was to observe how the effect might change depending on the amount of phonological variability across related familiarization words, or depending on the association of referents to wordforms.
4.3 Phonological variability
The experiment varied the degree of phonological similarity between familiarization words that shared a target sequence. The purpose was to explore whether phonological generalization was dependent on the degree of variability across related words. Phonological learning algorithms treat all word-types equivalently (Albright, 2009; Boersma, 2011; Hayes & Wilson, 2008), but perhaps type-based learning is most effective when the word-types are phonologically dissimilar. Assuming a role for phonological variability, the predicted result was an experimental frequency × phonological variability interaction, with more robust experimental frequency effects in the moderate and/or high variability conditions. No interaction was observed, however, and the results may be taken as support for the assumptions of the learning algorithms listed above, as well as for an explicit definition of word-types as purely phonological. Nevertheless, the effect sizes of experimental frequency at each level of phonological variability suggest that ratings may be influenced by phonological variability (low variability, r = .06; moderate variability, r = .15; high variability, r = .19). Furthermore, the direction of that trend indicates a preference for word lists with greater variability. Given this finding, as well as observed limitations on token-based generalization (Albright, 2009; Richtsmeier, 2011), it seems worthwhile to consider how the degree of acoustic change across words might influence phonological learning.
If we think of phonology as dividing up an acoustic space populated by words, then the present experiments sketch out borders like those illustrated in Figure 6. The figure contains three areas separated by two concentric borders. The shaded innermost area represents the acoustic space occupied by a single word-type, in this case, /mɛstəm/, as well as the acoustic differences related to token variability, including changes in talkers. To date, most evidence suggests that token variability does not by itself support phonological learning (but cf. Richtsmeier et al., 2011, for evidence that the word-types and talker variability combine to support phonotactic learning in children).
Surrounding /ˈmɛs.təm/ is another border for the minimal phonological changes that result in new word-types, including /ˈmeɪs.təm/, /ˈmɪs.təm/, and /ˈmæs.təm/. This border is supported by the finding that speakers of a variety of languages treat consonants as more integral to a word’s makeup than the word’s vowels (Cutler et al., 2000). Finally, the outermost area includes the more substantial acoustic differences between word-types. These types include wordforms with different stress patterns like /mis.ˈtʌm/ and /məs.ˈtʌm/ from the moderate variability word list, as well as wordforms with different consonants like /ˈʃeɪs.tək/ and /ˈbaɪs.təm/ from the high variability list. The outermost area corresponds to the consistent learnability of word-types found here and in other studies. The findings leave several properties of these borders unresolved. For example, the acoustic border between types and tokens was not addressed because the phonological variability condition only considered changes at the phonemic level. Additionally, based on the increasing effect sizes for experimental frequency with great degrees of phonological variability, it is not clear how sharp the larger, dashed border is. Thus, one possible interpretation of the results is that a variety of phonemic sequences, rather than a variety of word-types, facilitated learning.
The interaction of phonological variability and English frequency should also be considered briefly. There were significant and large effects of English frequency for the low and moderate variability lists, but only a trend for the high variability list. The effects were all in the same general direction, however, and so it seems reasonable to favor interpretation of the main effect of English frequency. It is also unclear why English frequency effects might depend on phonological variability, so future research is required to better understand this finding.
The semantics factor was the primary factor of interest in this study. Underpinning the manipulation of referents to wordforms was a question about the quiddity of word-types, and whether phonological learning might be sensitive to semantic cues. As with phonological variability, the predicted effect was an interaction of experimental frequency and semantics, with a stronger experimental frequency effect in the multiple referents condition compared to the single referent condition.
In contrast to expectations, experimental frequency and semantics did not interact in the main analysis. Furthermore, planned analyses at each level of phonological variability revealed consistent effects of experimental frequency but no interaction with semantics. Participants appeared to learn from frequent word-types, regardless of how meaning was assigned. Again, the results favor the existing definition of word-types as purely phonological entities. However, it is still possible that semantics may be sufficient for promoting generalization. This possibility could be explored in a study where multiple referents are assigned to the same wordform, that is, four separate referents assigned to different tokens of /mɛstəm/.
The main effect of semantics is noteworthy. Participants responded with significantly higher ratings when multiple words were associated with the same Martian animal. One possible explanation for the effect is that it reflects an intuition about the general permissibility of variation. In the single referent condition, participants were exposed to phonological variability for the same referent, resulting in high intra-referent variability. This may have led the single referent group to conclude that Martian generally allows a high degree of variation, making all test wordforms more plausible. In contrast, acoustic variation was closely aligned with referent variation in the multiple referents condition, and there was less intra-referent variation. This may have restrained participants’ intuitions about the Martian language’s permissiveness of variability, and thereby resulted in lower ratings for the same novel test wordforms.
4.4.1 Relationship to previous findings linking semantics to phonetics and phonology
The findings contrast with previous work, although the differences were not completely unexpected. Peperkamp and Dupoux (2007) found that participants in a statistical learning study were better able to learn an allophonic alternation when the two related forms were consistently accompanied by referents. It is possible that semantics helped participants in that study grasp the importance of determiners for predicting the allophonic alternation, so semantics may act as a cue for learning morphological or syntactic patterns, which in turn act as cues for phonological patterns. It is also worth noting that Peperkamp and Dupoux did not observe phonological generalization across alternating segments, and it is possible that more robust generalization of an allophonic alternation depends on more robust phonological cues.
Yeung and Werker (2009) found that infants are better able to learn nonnative contrasts when infants are given semantic referents for each of the novel sounds, suggesting that semantics may act as a cue to phonological contrast. Similarly, Creel (2012) found that children interpreted phonologically odd wordforms like feesh as real words like fish, suggesting that existing representations bias how acoustic or phonological variation is interpreted. Semantic cues may be important for interpreting sounds near phonological borders, but it is not yet clear how this kind of disambiguation might influence type-based learning. Perhaps the clearest takeaway is that studies of phonological contrast do not allow straightforward comparisons to studies of phonological generalization. Furthermore, the relationship between phonological learning and semantics may be more complex than all or nothing, and future research may be able to better delineate when and where semantics matters to phonology. Allophony and phonological contrast are two areas where such a relationship may exist.
4.5 Limitations of the present study
In any statistical learning study with adults, there is a possibility that participants may engage in explicit learning of the target patterns, rather than the implicit learning that is typically assumed. There is a longstanding and continually growing literature on the differences between implicit and explicit learning, including in the area of human development (e.g., Rovee-Collier et al., 2001). Unfortunately, participants were not questioned following the experiment about what they may have learned explicitly. Explicit awareness of the targets may have been possible for some of the participants, as well as for participants in the Peperkamp and Dupoux (2007) and Creel (2012) studies. As such, future studies should probe for explicit learning, for example, during debriefing.
Four other limitations of the study should be noted. First, the results reflect learning patterns for adults, who may not learn from the same data that children learn from (cf. Richtsmeier, 2011, pp. 173–174). Thus, research with children can help to assess whether the present claims are true of language acquisition more generally.
Second, the present experiments used between-subjects manipulations of both phonological variability and semantics. All the claims made here should hold for a within-subjects design, which would allow for a stronger claim about the relative learnability of phonological and semantic cues to word-type status, but such a claim awaits empirical validation.
Third, although the study was intentionally designed to favor type-based learning, it does not address other potential means of phonological learning, for example, token-based learning. One potential solution to this problem would be to compare conditions with equal token frequency and different levels of type frequency. Participants in a high-type condition could be exposed to /st/ in 4 tokens each of four word-types; participants in a low-type condition could be exposed to /st/ in 16 tokens of one word-type. This design would result in an equal number of word-tokens across experimental frequency conditions and represents a more powerful method for assessing the relative learnability of word-types and word-tokens.
Fourth, the predicted effect of semantics rested on the assumption that participants would treat varying wordforms with the same referent as varying pronunciations of the same word. It is not possible to verify that participants actually drew that conclusion, however. As such, it is possible that semantics could influence type-based learning under conditions in which participants verifiably treated the familiarization words as varying pronunciations of the same word. Given this limitation, the results imply limitations to semantics in type-based learning, but they do not rule out a semantic influence entirely.
This experiment measured how participants learned phonotactic patterns from a brief familiarization. Phonological and semantic properties of the familiarization word sets varied, but it was only a basic type-frequency manipulation that consistently influenced learning. Thus, the results support the view that word-types are defined by their phonological properties. | <urn:uuid:c2332bcc-3798-4e15-8666-9d2bfda354f4> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | https://www.journal-labphon.org/articles/10.5334/labphon.39/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247497858.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20190221010932-20190221032932-00446.warc.gz | en | 0.933663 | 12,045 | 3.59375 | 4 |
INTRODUCTION: September 28 is celebrated internationally as right to know Day. In spite of the fact that India has won its battle of independence in 1947 making democracy its weapon, unfortunately, the truth was something else. The power was handed over to the politicians and democrats, not to the common man then. In India, following a nationwide campaign led by grassroots and civil society organizations, the Government passed a landmark Right To Information Act in 2005. It is an Act ” to provide for setting out the practical regime of right to information for citizens “. RTI mandates timely response to citizens’ requests for Government information. It is a initiative taken by Department of Personnel and Training, Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions to provide a RTI portal Gateway to citizens for quick search of information.
The idea that Government withhold information for the public has become outdated. During the last decade, many countries have enacted legislations on freedom of information. In India, the Official Secrets Act 1923 was enacted to protect the official secrets. The new law intend to disclose information replacing the ‘ culture of secrecy ‘. It will promote public accountability which will trim the malpractices, mismanagement, abuse of discretion and bribery etc.
OBJECTIVES: The object of RTI is to empower the citizens, promote transparency and accountability in the working of the Government. The Act is a big step towards making the citizens informed about the activities of the Government. Social Activist Aruna Roy has described India’s RTI as ” the most fundamental law this country has seen.”
EFFECT OF RIGHT TO INFORMATION: While the debate on corruption in the country rages on, the RTI Act is fast growing as an effective anti- corruption tool.
Jan Lok Pal Bill gained tremendous public support with citizens coming out on the streets of Delhi, Bangalore and other cities to voice their anger over corruption. Where RTI has been used by journalists and the media, the law has a broad base of users. Earlier right to freedom of speech and expression is granted under Article 19(1) of Constitution, but it requires fair and efficient procedure to make the freedom of information work. In the first three years, 2 million RTI requests were filed. The first and well known movement was by Mazdoor Kissan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS) in Rajasthan for the access to village accounts. Case studies and media reports shows that RTI is being used to redress individual grievances, access entitlements such as Ration Cards and pension. The RTI has paved way for informed citizenry which would strengthen the democratic Government of India. With this Act, we can use our right to speech and expressions and control the Government activities effectively. The idea of open Government is becoming a reality with the implementation of RTI Act. The RTI can be called a success only if the bureaucracy accepts that they have constitutional to serve into.
PROVISIONS OF RTI: Section 3 says all citizens shall have right to information. The Act enforces a duty upon the public authorities to disclosed all information. In V.S.Lee V. State of Kerala.. the remedy provided by Parliament is that wherever there is substantial financial support, the People, have the right to know or information. Section 4(2) states that every public authority shall take constant steps to provide information suo moto to the public. Thus, the authorities have to give information voluntarily so that the public have minimum resort to use this Act. The public authorities also have to disseminate (making known or communicated the information to the public through notice boards, newspapers, public announcements, media broad casts, internet and inspection of offices of public authority) information widely in any form which is easily accessible to the public. Information can be obtained by request in writing or through electronic means in English or Hindi or in official language of the area U/S 6. Here, the person has to give fees, and if request can’t be made in writing, the Central PIO and State PIO shall render all assistance to make request in writing form. If the information has been provided correctly or within time, it may be made available by appeal or complaint to the Information Commission U/S (8(a) 1). In The Registrar General V. K.U. Rajasekar, it was held that Section 8 of RTI specially deals with the cases of exemption from disclosure or information when such information affects prejudicially the sovereignty and security of India etc. Section 5 says every public authority shall within 100 days of enactment of the Act, designate as many as officers as the Central Public Information Officers or State Public Information Officers.
Section 6 permits person to obtain information in English or Hindi or in the official language of the area from the designated officers. The person need not to give any reason for the request. Section 7 requires the request to be disposed of within 30 days provided where information sought for concerns the life or liberty of a person, the same shall be provided within 48 hours. Section 7(7) before taking any decision for furnishing the information, the designated officer shall take into consideration the representation made by the third party U/S 11. Section 7(9) exempts granting information where it would divert the
Resources of the public authority or would be detrimental to the safety and preservation of the record in record. U/S 8,it is important to note that the Act specifies that intelligence and security organisations are exempted from the application of the Act. However, it is provided that in case the demand for information pertains to allegation of corruption and human rights violations, the Act shall apply even to such institutions.
RIGHT TO INFORMATION AS A FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT: The RTI is a fundamental right as in Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution is now a well settled proposition. It has been discussed by Supreme Court in Number of cases, it has been read into Article 14.(Right to equality), 19(1)(a) freedom of speech and expression and Article 21 (Right to life) through cases such as Bennet Coleman V. Union Of India, Tata Press Ltd. V. Maharashtra Telephone Nigam Ltd. Etc. The same Articles were also interpreted in Kharak Singh V. State of U.P., Govind V. State of M.P. ETC. to include within their scope a right to privacy.
A plain reading of Section 11 suggests that for the section to apply the following three conditions must be satisfied (I) if the PIO is considering disclosing the information (ii) the information relates to the third party (iii) the third party treated the information to be confidential, the third party to be consulted and a notice to be sent to that party. Section 19 provides two tier system of appeals- First appeal and Second appeal. Any person who is aggrieved by the decision of the Central PIO and State PIO within 30 days can prefer First appeal before the First Appellate Authority. This authority shall be an officer who is senior in rank to the Central PIO and State PIO. An appeal can also be made by third party. The Second appeal lies before the State or Central Information Commission against the decision of the First Appellate Authority. It has to be filed within 90 days. As per Section 19(7), decision of Central or State Information Commission is final. The Information Commissioners shall be persons of eminence in public life with wide knowledge and experience in law, science and technology, social service, management, journalism, mass media and governance. In Nirmal Singh Dhiman V. Financial Commissioner Revenue, Section 23 says that no court shall entertain any suit, application or other proceeding in respect of any order and no order shall be called in question, otherwise than by way of an appeal. In case, the complainant was aggrieved against the non-supply of information by the Public Information Officer.
CRITICISM: The Act has been criticized on several grounds. It provides for information on demand, but does not sufficiently stress information on matters related to food, water, environment and other survival needs. It does not emphasize active intervention in educating people about their rights to access information. Another thing is allowing for file notings except those related to social and development projects to be exempted. File notings are very important when it comes to the policy making of the Government.
CONCLUSION: By enacting the RTI, India has moved from opaque and arbitrary system of Government to the beginning of an era where there will be greater transparency and to a system where the citizen will be empowered. The real Swaraj will come not by the acquition of authority by a few but by the acquition of capacity by all to resist authority when abused.
“KNOWLEDGE IS POWER, INFORMATION IS POWER, THE SECRETING OF INFORMATION MAY BE AN ACT OF TYRANNY CAMOUFLAGED AS HUMILITY.” | <urn:uuid:49371ade-5fee-434e-95dd-7085daf7ff7c> | CC-MAIN-2020-40 | http://hipraw.ga/right-to-information-a-gateway-to-fight-corruption.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400191780.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200919110805-20200919140805-00757.warc.gz | en | 0.944797 | 1,819 | 3.65625 | 4 |
Terrell County, Texas
|Terrell County, Texas|
Location in the state of Texas
Texas's location in the U.S.
|Named for||Alexander W. Terrell|
|• Total||2,358 sq mi (6,107 km2)|
|• Land||2,358 sq mi (6,107 km2)|
|• Water||0.04 sq mi (0 km2), 0%|
|• Density||0.46/sq mi (0/km²)|
|Time zone||Central: UTC-6/-5|
Terrell County is a county located in the U.S. state of Texas. As of the 2010 census, its population was 984. Its county seat is Sanderson. The county was named for Alexander W. Terrell, a Texas state senator.
Terrell County is one of the nine counties that comprise the Trans-Pecos region of West Texas. It is the setting for Cormac McCarthy's novel No Country for Old Men, and the Academy Award winning film adaptation of the same name.
Evidence of the indigenous peoples of Terrell County are found on the county’s various ranches – arrowheads, tools, burned-rock middens, caves and shelters containing Indian pictographs. Pieces of reed sandals, baskets, and evidence of burials have been found in the caves. The most pictographs are on cliff walls above Myers Spring near Dryden, overpainting giving to the theory that several Indian cultures were involved.
Capt. José de Berroterán in 1729 commanded an expedition on behalf of Spain to explore from Mission San Juan Bautista up the Rio Grande to the mouth of the Rio Conchos. Berroterán crossed the southern border, where at a spring near Dryden, legend has it that he placed a large wooden cross. Six years later another Spaniard, Blas María de la Garza Falcón, found the cross while conducting an expedition in the area and named the spot Santa Cruz de Maya. Captain Samuel Highsmith, under the command of John Coffee Hays, crossed the county in 1848 in an ill-fated expedition to open a road from San Antonio to El Paso. In 1851 Army officer and geographer Lt. Nathaniel Michler, working under Major William H. Emory, mapped this portion of the boundary between Mexico and the United States. Under Lt. William Echols in 1859, caravans of the U.S. Camel Corps crossed the county searching for a shorter route to Fort Davis.
County Established and Growth
In 1905, Terrell County was created by the Texas Legislature by carving about 1,500,000 acres (6,100 km2) out of Pecos County. It was organized the same year. Sanderson became the County Seat. In 1881, Texas and New Orleans Railroad surveyors reached the site of present day Sanderson. Originally named Strawbridge by founder Cyrus W. “Charley” Wilson, the name was later changed in honor of railroad Engineer Joseph P. Sanderson. Charles Downie, a Scot, homesteaded in 1881 and became the first permanent sheepman in the area. Together, the railroad, cattle and sheep industries were the major economic assets. Ranges were still unfenced. Dryden became a large shipping point for cattle ranchers. Terrell County became one of the biggest sheep and wool producers in the U.S. In 1926, eleven thousand lambs averaging $6 per head were sold in one of the largest lamb sales in history. Thousands of pounds of wool and mohair were sold annually through the Sanderson Wool Commission. Dryden, the only town besides Sanderson in the county, was also started in 1882, but is now a ghost town. Judge Roy Bean is said to have operated a saloon at Sanderson. The oil and gas industry became increasingly important to Terrell County's economy after 1957, when the Brown-Bassett gas field was discovered in the northeast part of the county. Only gas was produced until the 1970s, when high petroleum prices encouraged limited oil production as well. Sanderson was struck by a flood on June 11, 1965, in which twenty-eight people died. Two of them were never found. The Texas State Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 1, 76th Legislature, Regular Session (1999) declared Sanderson and Terrell County the "Cactus Capital of Texas."
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 2,358 square miles (6,110 km2), virtually all of which is land.
Adjacent counties and municipios
- Pecos County (north & west)
- Crockett County (northeast)
- Val Verde County (east)
- Brewster County (southwest)
- Acuña, Coahuila, Mexico (south)
National protected area
As of the census of 2010, there were 984 people, 443 households, and 295 families residing in the county. The population density was less than 1/km² (1/sq mi). There were 991 housing units at an average density of 0 per square mile (0/km²). 84.1% of the population were White, 0.9% Native American, 0.7% Black or African American, 0.4% Asian, 12.3% of some other race and 1.5% of two or more races. 47.5% were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).
There were 443 households out of which 29.80% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.40% were married couples living together, 7.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.40% were non-families. 31.80% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.09.
In the county, the population was spread out with 26.50% under the age of 18, 5.00% from 18 to 24, 23.40% from 25 to 44, 27.50% from 45 to 64, and 17.60% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 103.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.50 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $24,219, and the median income for a family was $28,906. Males had a median income of $21,429 versus $15,804 for females. The per capita income for the county was $13,721. About 21.20% of families and 25.20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 31.40% of those under age 18 and 31.10% of those age 65 or over.
There are no incorporated communities in Terrell County.
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Terrell County, Texas
- USS Terrell County (LST-1157)
- "State & County QuickFacts". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved December 26, 2013.
- "Find a County". National Association of Counties. Retrieved 2011-06-07.
- Downie, Walter G. "Terrell County Texas". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- Johnson, John G. "José de Berroterán". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- Garcia, Clotide P. "Blas María de la Garza Falcón". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- Cutrer, Thomas W. "Samuel Highsmith". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- Wagner, Frank. "Nathaniel Michler". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- Faulk, Odie B; Emmett, Chris. "Camels". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- "Sanderson, Texas". Texas Escapes. Texas Escapes - Blueprints For Travel, LLC. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- "Dryden, Texas". Texas Escapes. Texas Escapes - Blueprints For Travel, LLC. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- Skiles, Jack; Kelton, Elmer (1996). Judge Roy Bean Country. Texas Tech University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-89672-369-6.
- Chandler, Charlena (2004). On Independence Creek: The Story of a Texas Ranch. Texas Tech University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-89672-524-9.
- Burnett, Jonathan (2008). "Sanderson Flash Floor". Flash Floods in Texas. TAMU Press. pp. 173–185. ISBN 978-1-58544-590-5.
- "Official Capital Designations". Texas State Library. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- "U.S. Decennial Census". Census.gov. Retrieved December 26, 2013.
- "Texas Almanac: County Population History 1850-2010". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 26, 2013.
- "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2011-05-14.
- Terrell County government’s website
- Terrell County from the Handbook of Texas Online
- Entry for Alexander Watkins Terrell from the Biographical Encyclopedia of Texas published 1880, hosted by the Portal to Texas History.
||Pecos County||Crockett County|
|Pecos County||Val Verde County|
|Brewster County||Acuña, Coahuila, Mexico| | <urn:uuid:9d3b2183-4fd5-4de9-b35a-703051f6dc74> | CC-MAIN-2014-52 | http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrell_County,_Texas | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-52/segments/1419447549109.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20141224185909-00008-ip-10-231-17-201.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916549 | 2,081 | 2.546875 | 3 |
GRASSES aren't necessarily grasses when it comes to providing nutrition for livestock, according to former DPI graduate livestock extension officer Nathan Jennings.
Having completed the More Beef from Pastures workshop series, Mr Jennings said research showed that the decision on when to graze some grasses can be based on tiller leaf number.
"(This) refers to the number of leaves that can be counted on the plant as it grows," he said.
"Leaf material is of a higher nutritional quality than stem so the more leaf a plant has available to cattle relative to stem, the higher quality diet the beast can consume, which allows for better animal production."
Demonstrations were run between March 2011 to June 2012 at Tom Amey's farm in Dyraaba and Mark Hooton's property at Tabulam.
"Laboratory testing of the Narock Setaria and Katambora Rhodes grasses confirmed that nutritional quality of these varieties of grass was maximised at the 3.5-4 leaf stage," Mr Jennings said.
"There is a trade-off that beef producers need to be aware of, however, and that is that while the nutritional value of these grasses is highest, the dry matter yield of the grasses may still be too low to support livestock, depending on how thick of a stand the pasture is."
Grazing grasses and optimal leaf stages:
- Ryegrass - three leaf stage
- Oats - three leaf stage
- Kikuyu - 4.5 leaf stage
- Narock Setaria - 3.5-4 leaf stage
- Katambora Rhodes - 3.5-4 leaf stage
(Reference: NSW DPI Beef News December 2012 and Nathan Jennings)
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Update your news preferences and get the latest news delivered to your inbox. | <urn:uuid:2b7af1fa-00b2-4b9c-b16d-0142a0ac76e1> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | http://www.ruralweekly.com.au/news/best-grazing-a-matter-of-leaf-count/1705233/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860112228.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161512-00092-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945968 | 387 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, until the Cold War structure took shape, the Korean Peninsula was a geopolitical fault line between the continental forces of China and Russia and the maritime forces of Japan and America, and an arena in which a struggle for expansion of influence played out. Upon the end of Japan’s colonial rule in 1945, the Korean peninsula was suddenly transformed into a stage for the ideological confrontation between the East and West, centered around the United States and the Soviet Union, despite the Korean people’s desire to build an independent nation. Since 1948, the 85,270 square miles that make up the peninsula have been divided in two: in the south, the Republic of Korea, a liberal democracy based on a market economy with a population of 50 million; and on its northern half, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, a totalitarian Stalinist dictatorship with a population of 22 million.
In the processes of independence, division, and — from 1950-53 — war, the United States established itself as the single most important ally for the Republic of Korea, while North Korea, which had undertaken the invasion of the South with the blessings of the Soviet Union and China, remained the most direct threat to its security.
During the Cold War era, apart from securing political and economic cooperation from the U.S. and Japan, the ROK’s foreign policy emphasis focused on trying to build support in the international community, so as to gain the advantage in its rivalry with the North, which was being aided by China and the non-aligned group. Despite ideological parallels making Western Europe a natural source of support, the authoritarian rule of the Park Chung-hee regime in the 1960s and 1970s and the Chun Doo Hwan regime in the 1980s created obstacles to furthering relations, and at times resulted in South Korea’s international isolation. Later, following the end of the Cold War, liberals in the South advocated for easing tensions with the North as well as for policies designed to lift the country’s isolation. Nevertheless, the Park Cung-hee and Chun Doo-hwan governments engaged in only limited contact with Pyongyang, putting more effort into maintaining justifications for their oppressive domestic policies and authoritarian rule than on overcoming the Cold War structure.
The last remnants of that structure have now disappeared elsewhere in the world. But it still exists on the Korean Peninsula, and the prospects of replacing it with a stable peace seem remote to this day. Nonetheless, the dissolution of the Eastern bloc, the subsequent German reunification, and the collapse of the Soviet Union did not leave the Korean peninsula entirely untouched. In 1998, after accomplishing the first democratic transition in its history with the election of Kim Dae-jung as president, the Republic of Korea started to regard a posture of system-to-system competition with the North — itself in the grips of starvation — as outdated. The ideological war was over. The South, with its engagement in direct humanitarian aid to the North, had clearly won. With democratization, South Koreans began to see the North once again as a partner in a common destiny. Exposing the North to the outside world seemed the best hope for a long-term program of economic recovery and the reduction of hostilities, leading the South Korean government to seriously consider entering a process of reunification.
FOREIGN POLICY OF THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA, 2003-PRESENT
President Roh Moo-hyun took office in early 2003 in the midst of the second North Korean nuclear crisis, following the failure of the first high-level talks between the Bush administration and the North Korean regime in October 2002, and after the positive effects of the first inter-Korean summit talks had been squandered. The situation was complicated by the volatile regional politics of the moment, with relations between the U.S. and China souring, and the nationalist government of Japanese Prime Minister Koizumi engaging in “assertive diplomacy” that exacerbated regional tensions. On top of that, the Bush administration’s demand to completely reconfigure the U.S.-ROK alliance presented another challenge for the Roh government.
“The National Security Strategy of the ROK” published in 2004 revealed the outline of the Roh government’s goals, which amounted to transforming the Korean Peninsula from an arena of struggle among major powers into a Northeast Asian hub of peace and prosperity. To do so required the creation of a firm foundation for incremental unification, first by resolving the North Korean nuclear issue via dialogue, which would subsequently pave the way toward a formal and definitive peace on the Korean Peninsula. Simultaneously, restoring and promoting a future-oriented ROK-U.S. alliance required South Korea to strengthen its defense posture by increasing its own responsibility and role in defending itself from the North as well as other unspecified external threats. The Roh government also attempted to take advantage of deepening economic cooperation in the Northeast Asia region as a means to achieving security cooperation.
In the inter-Korean relationship, the Roh government expanded the scope of cooperation, broadening economic and humanitarian exchanges and introducing several confidence-building measures through working- and general-level dialogues. Mutual hostility eased slowly but surely, and reconciliation came to the fore, with the second inter-Korean summit between President Roh and Kim Jong-il taking place in October 2007.
The fourth round of the Six Party Talks produced a joint statement on the goals and principles of the talks in September 2005. The fifth round resulted in the February 2007 agreement on the cessation of North Korean nuclear activities under the monitoring of U.S. and IAEA officials. And the sixth round gave rise to the October 2007 agreement on the disablement of the Yongbyon nuclear facilities and the initial declaration of North Korea’s nuclear history. When President Roh left the Blue House, as South Korea’s presidential office and residence is known, the North Korean nuclear issue was under control.
Readjustment of the ROK-U.S. alliance was not easy, for the U.S. demanded a holistic reshaping of its structure. This included reducing U.S. forces in Korea (USFK), which had been the most critical issue between the two countries for more than 50 years, as well as relocating U.S. military bases to a few hub bases and reversing the division of labor in defending South Korea. The Roh government was also asked to dispatch troops to Afghanistan and Iraq, despite heavy protests from its political base. Overall, however, the readjustments were achieved to the relative satisfaction of both sides.
Relationships with other neighboring countries also ended up enhanced, although the relationship with Japan was strained for some years due to Prime Minister Koizumi’s visits to the Yasukuni Shrine and territorial challenge over Dokdo Island. The relationship with China underwent some strain as well. Nevertheless, trilateral summits between South Korea, China, and Japan were held discretely from, or on the sidelines of, other international conferences, such as the ASEAN+3 and APEC. The ROK-U.S.-Japan trilateral summits also resumed in order to discuss North Korean issues and other Northeast Asian concerns. The necessity for multilateral talks on regional peace and security was widely acknowledged, and working- and summit-level discussions saw the active exchange of ideas. In 2008, when the new Korean administration of President Lee Myung-bak took office, assessments of the international environment were dominated by optimistic forecasts.
Under Lee, most of the security policies pursued by the previous liberal administrations of the past decade were repealed or shifted into more conservative directions. The backdrop of these shifts was the changing international and regional security environment, stabilized during the last years of the Bush administration, and the advent of the new administration of President Barack Obama. For the government of President Lee, the focus of security and foreign policies moved from maintaining peninsula stability to changing the status quo in favor of the South. To achieve this, the previous progressive approach towards North Korea was replaced by the principle of reciprocity, with economic aid and humanitarian assistance to North Korea no longer taken for granted. From the new conservative leadership’s point of view, the previous progressive governments’ conciliatory approach to China also needed to be corrected. Finally, the alliance with the U.S. needed to be better tended, with the hope that by enhancing ROK-U.S. relationships, South Korea might reduce spending on the military advancement plan pursued by the previous Roh government.
With a tougher stance toward North Korea, and freed from the concerns of regional major-power rivalry, the Lee government announced its intentions to further upgrade the U.S.-ROK alliance to a “Strategic Alliance.” When China questioned such a strategic alliance and its real implications, expressing outright discomfort by stating that “the U.S.-ROK alliance was the byproduct of the past Cold war era,” the Lee government also upgraded its relationship with China, from the “comprehensive cooperative partnership” to a “Strategic Cooperative Partnership.” It later followed the same track with Russia. After Koizumi was succeeded in Japan by prime ministers who tacitly pledged not to visit the Yasukuni Shrine, the ROK-Japan relationship could also be defined as a “Future-oriented Mature Partnership.” As a result, South Korea’s relationship with the four major powers surrounding the peninsula became more stabilized.
For the Lee government, non-traditional security issues — terrorism, large-scale natural disasters, food and energy concerns, and climate change — now became the focus of security and foreign policy. Concurrent with the international financial crisis, the Lee government attached special importance to economic diplomacy, such as hosting the upcoming G-20 summit in the fall of 2010. The Lee government has placed little emphasis so far on foreign policy, despite the fact that there remain potential causes of serious friction with the U.S. and China, and no doubt with the North. Nonetheless, Lee has been in office only two years, and it is still early to evaluate concrete policy outcomes while many security-related policies are still evolving.
INTER-KOREAN RELATIONS: FROM ENGAGEMENT TO COERCION
The North Korean policy of the Kim Dae-jung and Roh Moo-hyun governments, 1998-2007
Based upon the conviction that South Korea enjoyed strategic superiority over the North, the Kim Dae-jung and Roh Moo-hyun governments pursued an engagement policy from 1998-2007. Aimed at producing incremental systemic changes in North Korea, the policy above all sought to avoid any sudden absorption of the North into South, due to fears of experiencing the same kind of socio-economic upheaval that followed German reunification. Amid the ongoing military standoff, the engagement policy bore two summit meetings, mainly due to strenuous efforts from the South.
In June 2000, President Kim Dae-jung and North Korean leader Kim Jong-il met at the historic first summit talks, which resulted in the “June 15 Joint Declaration.” This document stipulated that reunification shall be resolved on the initiative of the two sides, based upon the common elements of their unification proposals, and that the two Koreas shall promptly resolve humanitarian issues and consolidate mutual trust by promoting economic cooperation. Following the summit, the scale and range of inter-Korean dialogue grew to include humanitarian issues like reuniting separated families, railway connections, preliminary military talks, and joint planning of economic cooperation.
President Roh further expanded the scope of exchanges and joint projects like the Mount GumGang Tourism Zone and the Gaesung Industrial Complex, both positioned on the two major North Korean military corridors used to invade the South during the Korean War in 1950-1953. Economic cooperation covered the areas of agriculture, forestry and joint exploration of natural resources in the North. Reunion of separated families increased dramatically, and socio-cultural and religious contacts also produced a wide range of joint cooperation projects. Working-level and general-level military dialogues brought an end to verbal harassment along the military demarcation line (MDL), and introduced new measures to prevent accidental military clashes in the West Sea and to set up a joint fishery area around the northern limit line (NLL), which has functioned as a naval MDL, despite the North’s ongoing challenges.
On Oct. 4, 2007, the second inter-Korean summit adopted “The Declaration for Development of Inter-Korean Relations and Peace and Prosperity.” Before and after this summit, roughly 50 high-level dialogues were held, including the First South-North Prime Ministerial talks, the Second Defense Ministerial Talks, and the South and North Joint Economic Cooperation Committee. The volume of trade between Seoul and Pyongyang reached $1.79 million in 2007, more than 40 percent of North Korea’s entire foreign trade. Human exchange and other cultural visits also increased 56 percent.
The Roh government considered that increasing inter-Korean cooperation lessened military tension, attenuated the North’s hostility to the south, and led the South to exert its influence on the process of the Six Party Talks.
The North Korean policy of the Lee Myung-bak government, 2008-present
Critics of the progressive governments, however, pointed out that the expansion of inter-Korean relations met North Korea’s economic needs in the form of food and fertilizer assistance at a time when a North Korean collapse seemed inevitable. President Lee Myung-bak won election in 2008 campaigning on a North Korean policy of “Denuclearization, Openness and 3,000” as an alternative to the engagement approach. The three pillars referred to demands that North Korea first forgo its nuclear weapon program and open its doors to the outside world, after which South Korea would assure that North Korean economic growth reached $3,000 GNP per capita.
The policy was a variation of the Bush administration’s first-term coercive policy of promoting regime change, and reflects the Lee government’s belief that “malign neglect” should be applied to North Korea, which cannot survive without external assistance. Key players in the Lee government even argue that the South would not be harmed by halting all inter-Korean contacts, and that replacing the existing armistice agreement ending the Korean War with a definitive peace treaty would only serve to prolong the Kim Jong-il regime.
For the two full years of the Lee presidency, no inter-Korean ministerial talks have been held, and the new government has not allowed any private contacts or exchange programs. Pursuing a campaign pledge not to respect the joint declarations of the inter-Korean summit meetings of 2000 and 2007, Lee cut food and fertilizer assistance to the North, to exploit the latter’s food shortage and economic hardship as a means of extracting concessions.
Political tensions and physical confrontation have since returned. In July 2008, North Korean soldiers killed a South Korean female tourist in the vicinity of the Mount Gumgang tourism zone, leading to the closure of the tourism project. There have also been a series of acrimonious statements and actions from North Korea, including cutting off the hotline installed at the liaison office in Panmunjom since the early 1970s, stopping the crossing of traffic in the MDL, proclaiming a “confrontational posture towards the South,” nullifying every political and military agreement, and renewing naval clashes, which resulted in casualties to the North in November 2009. In December 2009, North Korea attempted to abrogate the NLL by designating a “peace-time firing zone” around the NLL, and in January and February 2010 the North Korean army fired artillery volleys into the zone for the first time, under the pretext of routine exercises.
Meanwhile, it was revealed that in October and December 2009, special emissaries of both sides were secretly in contact two or more times to explore the possibility of a third summit meeting, this time between Lee Myung-bak and Kim Jong-il. The South proposed that the two leaders discuss the North Korean nuclear issue, after which President Lee, on his return to Seoul from Pyongyang, would bring multiple South Korean POWs and abductees with him. North Korea asked the South to change its policy towards North Korea, respect the June 15 Joint Declaration and the Oct. 4 Declaration, and to provide 400,000 metric tons of grain upfront. For the moment the contacts have stalled, and although the Lee government has now openly expressed its eagerness to hold the third summit talks, few experts believe a summit could remedy the seriously aggravated level of distrust between the two sides. Rather, each side would attempt to take advantage of the event without restoring their relationship.
NORTH KOREAN DENUCLEARIZATION AND THE ROLE OF SOUTH KOREAN GOVERNMENTS IN THE SIX PARTY TALKS
The role of the Roh Moo-hyun Government, 2003-2007
Although North Korea’s nuclear weapons program presented a direct threat to national security and a challenge to peace and stability in Northeast Asia, President Roh believed it represented an opportunity as well as a crisis. Should the Six Party Talks make progress and inter-Korean relations improve, it would be possible, in Roh’s belief, to establish a definitive peace on the Korean peninsula so as to move forward to de facto and de jure unification in a phased manner. As part of this game plan, key players of the Roh government set three goals: restoring the Agreed Framework; re-launching vigorous diplomatic efforts to address new U.S. concerns on Pyongyang’s highly enriched uranium activities; and reaching a comprehensive and workable solution for overarching economic and energy cooperation, bilateral diplomatic normalization, and replacing the current armistice system with a definitive peace treaty on the Korean peninsula.
In this context, the Roh government was eager to play an active part in the Six Party Talks, and when it succeeded in bringing North Korea back to the table following a 13-month deadlock in June 2005 — by sending a special envoy to Pyongyang to meet Kim Jong-il — U.S. President George W. Bush and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice began to acknowledge the unique role the South Korean side might play. The Joint Statement of the Six Party Talks adopted on Sept. 19, 2005, included a clause stating that, “The directly related parties will negotiate a permanent peace regime on the Korean Peninsula at an appropriate separate forum,” in reference to Roh’s vision.
Later that year, in November, Presidents Roh and Bush agreed in a summit meeting that “moving from the current armistice mechanism to a peace mechanism would contribute to full reconciliation and peaceful reunification on the Korean Peninsula.” In his summit talks with Kim Jong-il in October 2007, Roh pressed Kim to “work together to discuss how to declare the end of the Korean War in the three or four-party summit talks that involve leaders from countries directly related to this issue.”
Bad cop: The role of the Lee Myung-bak government
In contrast to the Roh government’s emphasis on establishing a permanent peace, the Lee government highlights unification under a “liberal democratic” regime, rather than peaceful coexistence, as a central policy goal. With regard to the Six Party Talks, the Lee government announced that it regarded concrete results in terms of nuclear dismantlement more important than the process per se, and would oppose allowing any ambiguity in further agreements with the North. The Lee government responded to deteriorated inter-Korean bilateral relations by cutting off all aid as a means of pressuring Pyongyang to adopt a more conciliatory position.
As part of this firm stance, the Lee government also pressured the Bush administration not to compromise in 2008. For example, it argued against rushing to remove North Korea from the list of state sponsors of terrorism in return for the North’s initial declaration of nuclear activity in June 2008, believing that Pyongyang could not help but soon accept intrusive verification measures far beyond those foreseen in the February and October 2007 agreements of the Six Party Talks. When the Bush administration did postpone removing North Korea from the list, and Kim Jong-il reportedly collapsed of a stroke in late August 2008, the Lee government insisted on shifting the focus of North Korean policy from denuclearization to the creation of joint countermeasures for a post-Kim Jong-il scenario in North Korea.
In response, however, North Korea’s nominal head of state, Kim Young-nam of the North Korean Supreme People’s Assembly, quickly warned that Pyongyang would conduct a second nuclear test and walk away from the obligations of the Six Party agreements. In early October 2008, the Bush administration complied with the commitment to lift the state sponsor of terrorism listing. Nevertheless, Kim Jong-il, once back to work, began to set in motion offensive maneuvers as the Obama administration assumed power in January 2009. Rejecting U.S. Special Representative Stephen Bosworth’s offer to visit Pyongyang, the Kim regime raised the level of tension — launching a long-range missile in April, restoring the disabled facilities in Yongbyon, enriching uranium and finally conducting the second nuclear test in May 2009. The Sept. 19 Joint Statement as well as the Feb. 13 and Oct. 3 Agreements were all effectively broken, turning back the Six Party Talks’ achievements between 2005 and 2007.
U.S.-ROK ALLIANCE RESTRUCTURING AND SOUTH KOREAN DEFENSE POLICY
Realignment of the ROK-U.S. alliance during the Roh-Bush period, 2003-2007
Most Koreans have no doubt about the pivotal role played by the ROK-U.S. alliance in the security of the ROK and the stability of the Korean peninsula since the signing of the Mutual Defense Treaty in 1954. However, it is also apparent that, due to the two allies’ differences in national interest and priorities, close cooperation and political amity have never been a natural course of events.
President Bush’s policies on a wide range of security issues overshadowed the legacy of President Kim Dae-jung, who spent the last years of his presidency defending in vain his government’s “Sunshine Policy” of engagement with North Korea. As the united front between Seoul and Washington over the North Korean question became increasingly dysfunctional, relations in the ROK-U.S. alliance also began to deteriorate. In summer 2002, the killing of two middle-school-aged girls by a U.S. army vehicle during a drill provoked near-daily mass demonstrations demanding an apology and the amending of the U.S.-ROK Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA).
From the Bush administration’s point of view, the Seoul government allowed the accident to become one of the most critical political issues of the December 2002 Korean presidential campaign. Meanwhile, with an eye toward the imminent Iraq war, the Bush administration’s resentment of the Korean Ministry of National Defense had been growing since early 2002, for the latter’s resistance to consultations on readjusting the U.S.-ROK military alliance.
Immediately after the inauguration of another progressive Roh Moo-hyun government in February 2003, the Bush administration pushed strongly and swiftly for a threefold agenda: the deployment of South Korean troops to Iraq with political and diplomatic support, a significant reduction of U.S. troops in South Korea (USFK), and a wide-ranging readjustment of the U.S.-ROK alliance. The Roh government responded with a comprehensive roadmap based upon a three-pronged approach: upgrade the ROK-U.S. alliance to a more horizontal and balanced relationship; cooperate with the reduction of USFK from 37,500 to about 25,000 troops by the end of 2008 (as well as the relocation of U.S. bases in Korea, including the headquarters of the USFK in Seoul and the Second U.S. Infantry Division along the MDL, to Pyongtaek, a port city in the mid-west coastal region); and increase South Korean military capability aimed at allowing Seoul to play a leading role in defending itself from invasion by the North.
From its initial days in office, the second Roh government expressed its willingness to further develop the future Korea-U.S. relationship into a “full partnership.” In exchange for the troop reductions in USFK, the South Korean deployment to Iraq, and an increase in South Korean defense spending, the Roh government insisted on a more active role in the North Korean nuclear issue, as discussed above.
After both sides completed the readjustment of the alliance by mid-2005, they decided to further develop their relationship to “a comprehensive, dynamic and mutually beneficial alliance” in line with the “full partnership” vision of 2003. In November 2005, the “Joint Declaration on the ROK-U.S. Alliance and Peace on the Korean Peninsula” agreed to launch a strategic dialogue, named the Strategic Consultation for Allied Partnership (SCAP), to coordinate any issue of interest to each side. In light of all these developments, including the nuclear talks with North Korea, the Roh government decided the time was ripe to discuss the core issue of the U.S.-ROK military alliance: the transfer of wartime operational control (OPCON) from the commander of USFK to the ROK chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. In February 2007, the military authorities formally announced that the transfer will take place on April 17, 2012.
Military Modernization by the Roh Government, 2003-2007
Unlike his political supporters, who wanted to melt guns and cannons into plows, the human rights lawyer-turned-president Roh encouraged a build-up and modernization of South Korea’s armed forces, to match national capabilities with the immediate North Korean threat as well as unspecified potential long-term threats. The decision was taken in the context of multiple factors, including the emerging rivalry between China and Japan, U.S. unilateralism and questions about Washington’s security commitment (evidenced by the USFK troop reduction), and South Korea’s growing national capability in the defense sector. It was also based on Roh’s personal understanding of Korean history from the 19th and 20th centuries, which convinced him that the ROK needed to both assume a leading role in deterring North Korea and develop independent operational planning and force-management capabilities.
Major investment concentrated on converting a manpower-intensive and conventional force structure into a technology-intensive and qualitatively advanced force structure. This also meant developing an intelligence, knowledge and network-centric structure by increasing C4ISR assets (including surveillance and reconnaissance, such as AWACS and ground tactical C4I systems), precision strike capabilities (F-15K fighter jets and various guided missiles) and an interception and protection force (Aegis destroyers, K1A1 tanks and 214-class submarines). The first North Korean nuclear test in October 2006 accelerated and enhanced this trend. Total military manpower was scheduled to be reduced from 681,000 in 2005 to 500,000 in 2020, tailored to the requirements of future wars for high-quality elite forces supported by high-technology equipment.
As for required weapons systems, the Roh government allocated an appropriate level of the defense budget and implemented defense reform in a range of areas, including build-up, organization and management of manpower, acquisition and logistics support systems — with the Military Reform 2020 plan pledging to invest roughly $620 billion between 2005 and 2020. The Roh government supported the plan by enacting the National Defense Reform Act of 2006, and increased defense expenditures by 8.7 percent annually for the period 2003-2007, compared with the previous record annual increase of 4.4 percent for the period 1998-2002. South Korea ranked 11th out of the 15 biggest spenders for the last five years, with defense expenditure reaching 2.7 percent of GDP in 2007, according to the “2009 SIPRI Yearbook.”
Costs for improvements of defense capability also skyrocketed from 24.1 percent of the 2002 defense budget (in the last year of the previous government) to 27.3 percent of the 2007 defense budget (the last year of the Roh government). The Military Reform 2020 plan also called for spending approximately $45 billion between 2006 and 2010 for “pure defense capability improvement” (maintenance and replacement cost excluded). In 2007, approximately $10 billion was allocated to “defense capability improvement,” or 30 percent of the entire defense budget.
In order to establish a truly self-reliant defense capability, the Roh government stepped up domestic defense industry infrastructure by enacting the “Defense Business Act of 2006,” initiated by the presidential office. At present, between 65 percent and 70 percent of funds allocated to defense capability improvement still go to foreign procurement. The gap between the import and export of defense production has remained noticeable: South Korea has been the fourth- or fifth-biggest importer, but only the 17th-biggest supplier of major conventional weapons between 2003 and 2007 (again from the 2009 SIPRI Yearbook). The Defense Business Act encourages active sales of domestic defense products to the outside market, but in 2007 South Korean arms exports reached $350 million for the first time.
The Lee government’s ‘strategic alliance’ proposal and potential sources of new friction, 2008-present
The government of Lee Myung-bak took office with the view that the ROK-U.S. alliance was in worse shape as a result of the Roh-Bush configuration, and proposed to the Bush administration during the latter’s final year in office to upgrade the relationship to a strategic alliance. In April 2008, Lee became the first South Korean president to visit Camp David, a symbol of renewed political amity resulting from the lifting of the ban on U.S. beef imports to the Korean market.
The Lee government’s strong commitment to the U.S.-ROK alliance, and acknowledgment of its value, has been well-received in Washington, but several sources of potential friction have arisen in the last two years. The problem arises not from the political tone, which has improved, but from the substantive views of a conservative South Korean government that expects the U.S. to play a constant role in defending Korean security. The Lee government would also like to limit increases in military expenditures from the levels pursued by the Roh government (8.7 percent annual growth), and believes that the transfer of wartime OPCON in April 2012 must be postponed, since OPCON is the most reliable guarantee that the U.S. would augment its manpower assistance in the event of a North Korean invasion. On numerous occasions, President Lee has considered raising this rescheduling issue with President Obama, but has so far held off, in light of the desire expressed by the Obama administration not to alter the agreement.
The potential rescheduling of the OPCON transfer is driven by Lee’s aversion to devoting budgetary priority to military expenditures. But when, soon after coming to power, the Lee government signaled cuts in defense spending, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates did not hide his frustration with the new government’s attempt to “free-ride” on U.S. security guarantees. In autumn 2009, further controversy erupted when President Lee adopted a 3.8 percent increase in the defense budget for fiscal year 2009, over the leaked protests of South Korea’s Defense Minister Lee Sang-hee, who had requested a 7.8 percent increase (already 2.1 percent less than the original plan).
The two critical tripwires for the OPCON transfer schedule are the relocations of USFK’s Yongsan headquarters and the Second Infantry Division to the Pyongtaek Hub Base, currently under construction below the Han River line. When the Lee government proposed to complete the Pyungtaek Military base by 2016 — or four years later than originally planned — U.S. Defense Secretary Roberts Gates insisted on sitting in on the annual Security Consultative Meeting (SCM), held in Washington in October 2008, to weigh in on the matter.
In an effort to ease the resulting strain on the relationship, the South Korean National Assembly recently approved the Defense Ministry’s request to send about 320 troops to Afghanistan, with the mission to protect members of South Korea’s Provincial Reconstruction Team operating in the country. It is not certain whether this degree of involvement in the U.S. war effort will be sufficient to absorb the potential shocks should bilateral consultations over flexibility in USFK’s out-of-theater deployment result in further reduction of USFK’s 28,000 troops.
In issues not pertaining to security, the Lee government is adhering to and expanding previous policy stances. Since the 1997 foreign currency crisis, the Korean economy has been transformed from a labor-intensive, export-oriented economy to a knowledge-based one. Approximately 30 percent of all exports are IT-related products, and the country’s economic structure has more generally been put on a more advanced footing. These growing economic capabilities have led to a broadening of foreign policy objectives, and South Korea’s role in the international community has been enhanced accordingly.
Currently the Lee government is pushing for strengthening energy cooperation, diversifying free trade agreements, and expanding Korea’s international cooperation under the catchphrase of “Global Korea.” The country’s poor endowment of natural resources has been a source of vulnerability not just to the Korean economy, but to its security as well. Cooperation with Central Asian nations like Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan has expanded sources of supplies. Nuclear energy procurement and uranium exploration cooperation with foreign countries is also being reinforced to further develop the nuclear power plant industry, on which South Korea relies for 40 percent of its energy consumption. Economic cooperation with the UAE, initiated in 2006, recently culminated in a South Korean-led consortium winning the $20 billion contract to build the Gulf nation’s first nuclear energy plants. There is also speculation that similar deals will be struck with Turkey and Vietnam. In all of these areas, the Lee government is building on the previous administration’s strategy to develop South Korea into an advanced trading country.
The core of this development strategy involves concluding FTAs with about 40 countries. When the Lee government took office, FTAs with Chile, Singapore and other ASEAN countries had already been approved, and only the ratification of the U.S. FTA was left to be finalized. The Lee government is now poised to finalize FTA negotiations with the EU and continue the joint study of government and private sector cooperation with China and Japan, to widen the spectrum of cooperation partners.
South Korea’s growing national capabilities have resulted in a corresponding emphasis on the country’s contribution to the global community. Having accomplished economic expansion and democratic development almost concurrently, South Korea is now seeking to move beyond the geopolitical constraints of its security concerns, and examining active paths to a more prominent global presence. It is an effort that, if continued, should yield positive results.
Download a PDF version of the report at http://trials.worldpoliticsreview.com/s_korea | <urn:uuid:efe2142b-5f02-483f-bb16-b08a6ab727f2> | CC-MAIN-2020-16 | https://www.brookings.edu/articles/strategic-posture-review-south-korea/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-16/segments/1585371858664.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200409122719-20200409153219-00344.warc.gz | en | 0.952404 | 7,260 | 3.78125 | 4 |
Widely believed to be a Union victory, the savage, all-day battle became the bloodiest day in the War of the Rebellion. The official tally states that over two thousand Union soldiers fell, with nearly ten thousand wounded, while fifteen hundred rebels fell and almost eight thousand wounded. These numbers are being revised upwards with new methods. Antietam now stands equal with the Attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 and the September 11th Attacks as the costliest events on American soil.
The battle also gave President Lincoln the opportunity to present his Emancipation Proclamation. His decree ordered the Army and Navy to free slaves in the rebellious states after January 1, 1863. It protected those in loyal states, though it encouraged those areas, such as West Virginia, to free them by other means. In effect, Lincoln tried to ransom the slaves to compel the rebels to quit fighting. None ultimately took the bait. The result became the largest slave uprising in history, creating a second front behind rebel lines. They could not fight both the growing power of Union forces and maintain slavery at the same time. By including even the partial abolition of slavery, the Emancipation Proclamation also deterred Britain and France from intervening in the war - though if you ask me it was highly unlikely in any case. It was a master stroke from a master politician. The war would drag on for another three years and cost as much as a million lives, or three percent of the United States population.
I think that there is another international effect that receives almost no attention. One Canadian-born soldier in the 4th Rhode Island Volunteers ranks among the ten thousand Union wounded at Antietam. His name was Calixa Lavallee. Born near Montreal, Quebec, he showed an early musical talent that led him to move to the U.S. as a teenager in the late 1850s. Aged 18 in 1861, he joined that regiment at the outbreak of the war. At Antietam, the 4th made the run around the southern flank of the battle at Snavely's Ford as part of General Burnside's IX Corps. [Fun fact: Burnside gave temporary command of his corps to Jacob D. Cox, who like Lavallee was born in Montreal!] They then ran directly into rebel commander A. P. Hill's men moving along the southern part of the battlefield. Lavallee would be wounded in the leg during this savage battle. Later discharged, he returned to Rhode Island and spent the rest of his life moving between the U.S. and Canada.
Why is Lavallee important? Many other Canadians fought and died or were wounded in the War of the Rebellion. He stands out for a tune he composed in 1880. The Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, Theodore Robataille, asked him to set a poem written by lawyer and orator Adolphe-Basile Routhier to music. That poem was called O Canada. This song became Canada's national anthem in the 20th Century. Had he died facing A. P. Hill's troops on that hot September day in 1862 or afterwards of the leg wound he suffered, one important element of Canadian identity today would be radically different. Imagine if Francis Scott Key had fallen overboard and drowned off HMS Tonnant in Baltimore harbor in 1814. We probably wouldn't have The Star Spangled Banner. Lavallee's example should tell us just how important the Civil War is beyond the borders of the United States. As I said in an earlier blog entry, and other historians agree on this point, Canadian Confederation would not have occurred when it did without the Civil War. So, when you sing O Canada with gusto at your next hockey game, remember that it links you with that major conflict. I'm astonished that so few people know about this. | <urn:uuid:977bbf7c-9caa-4919-804b-17df72be2b8d> | CC-MAIN-2019-04 | http://theslaveholderswar.blogspot.com/2012/09/o-antietam.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583656665.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20190116031807-20190116053807-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.978224 | 776 | 3.765625 | 4 |
Florida and Burgos in the first round the world
This year 2019 marks the V Centenary of an expedition that changed history. On August 10, 1519, five ships with two hundred thirty-nine men left Seville. They were looking for a new route that, to the west, would connect Spain with the Spice . Three years later a single ship, the Victoria , returned with eighteen men after having circled the world for the first time.
This journey is well known to all, initially led by Fernando Magallanes and culminated by Juan Sebastián Elcano . What is not so well known is the key role that the city of Florida and the people of Burgos played in it.
There are several characters and institutions related to our land whose intervention was decisive in this first round the world tour. The merchant from Burgos Cristóbal de Haro , the Bishop of Florida Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca , and the soldier and explorer Gonzalo Gómez de Espinosa were some of them.
From the blog of Florida Tourist Guides we will discover them.
Florida at the end of the 15th century was a true economic, social and cultural emporium. La Cabeza de Castilla was one of the main export markets, specialized in wool. Reflecting this prosperity, around 1443 an association of merchants called the University of Merchants had emerged. It is the germ of what years later would be the Consulate of the Sea .
CONSULATE OF THE SEA
It is an institution created by the Catholic Monarchs in 1494 as the Royal Consulate of the Sea, Casa de Contratación and Universidad de Mercaderes de Florida . It will be the nerve center of the wool trade and other Castilian products with Flanders, France and England. Its headquarters were in the La Llana area until, in the 18th century, after its decline as a commercial institution, it was moved to Paseo del Espolón .
The presence in Florida of the Consulate is essential to explain Burgos involvement in the first round the world.
THE FIRST TRAVEL AROUND THE WORLD
Fernando de Magallanes was convinced that the earth was round. With that deep conviction, he aimed to complete the mission that Columbus had not completed. He wanted to reach the Species in the west. Ennemy with King of Portugal Manuel I, he moved to Castile at the hands of our first protagonist: the merchant from Burgos Cristóbal de Haro (Florida, mid-15th century - Florida, 1541).
CRISTÓBAL DE HARO
Cristóbal de Haro and his family were from Florida. Possibly converted Jews, they came to be represented in the main commercial squares of Western Europe. Established in Lisbon, he made his first fortune exploiting Madeira sugar. The trust of Juan II of Portugal was gained, being able to develop a lucrative business towards the Spice during the reign of said king and of his successor Manuel I. Together with another man from Burgos, Diego de Covarrubias , since 1511, Cristóbal de Haro trafficked with spices bought in the Lisbon square.
In 1517, Haro returned to Spain. His interest was focused on finding a passage to the Spice in a westerly direction, avoiding the Portuguese zone of influence. On his return to Spain, Fernando de Magallanes accompanied him. Together they go to the court of Charles I to convince him that the Moluccas could be reached by going west through a passage in the newly discovered lands. Before the monarch's doubts, Cristóbal de Haro offered to pay for the entire fleet.
Finally Carlos I accepted the project, but not that Haro paid for it alone. Cristóbal de Haro contributed around the fifth.
To gain access to the king, Haro and Magallanes had the help of those who handle the strings of the Indian market. Among them, the then bishop of Florida, Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca .
Cristóbal de Haro died in November 1541. He is buried in Florida, in the family chapel of the San Lesmes parish church. In the lower part of the tomb is his coat of arms. In it, authorized by Emperor Charles V, Haro's contribution to the Magellan expedition is cited with the columns of Hercules, the royal motto Plus Ultra , the five ships of the fleet and the figurative representation of spices.
The tomb of Cristóbal de Haro and his wife, Catalina de Ayala , has the following inscription:
Here lie the Messrs. Cristóbal de Haro: factor of the Majesty of the Emperor, Carlos Fifth, of the house of contracting, of the spices and Regidor of Florida. Patron of this chapel, and Doña Catalina de Ayala, his wife, he died in the month of November of the year one thousand and five hundred and forty-one years and she in the month of October of the year of grace of one thousand and five hundred and forty-six . They endowed in this chapel five Masses prayed each week with their responses. Requiescant in pace. Amen
JUAN RODRÍGUEZ DE FONSECA
Born in Toro (Zamora) in 1451. Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca was Bishop of Florida from 1514 to 1524 and a member of the Royal Council.
He will also be an outstanding artistic patron. He entrusted the construction of the Puerta de Pellejería (the Archbishop himself is represented in it) to Francisco de Colonia (1516) and the splendid Golden Staircase to Diego de Siloé (1519). Both in the Florida Cathedral .
Bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca managed the threads of the Indian trade since the times of Isabel la Católica and Cristóbal Colón . Under his management was created, in 1503, the Casa de Contratación de Sevilla , which handled trade with America.
He thus became the Indian manager of the Crown of Castile. From that moment on, all export and import trade with America would be centralized in Seville. Likewise, the Casa de la Contratación would control all vessels destined for the colonies or from them. Necessarily, they had to set sail or make a trip in the Sevillian capital in order to facilitate their control. The presence of Burgos in this institution is constant.
The power of Fonseca was increased with the death of Queen Isabel. King Ferdinand delegated to him practically all matters related to the New World.
Already as bishop of Florida, he was key in the indiana policy of Carlos I and in the inclusion of Burgos economic power in the first round the world. The mediation before the Crown of Fonseca, opened the way for Cristóbal de Haro and Magellan towards that trip that would end up drawing the globe.
While the five ships are being assembled and equipped ( Trinidad, San Antonio, Concepción, Victoria and Santiago ), the brains of the project (Cristóbal de Haro, who obtains the funds with the collaboration of the Fuggers, Central European bankers, and the Bishop of Florida, Rodríguez de Fonseca) and the Crown distrust Magellan and his ways of managing the conquest and the crew. Therefore, they are placing people they trust on the trip.
Thus, Magellan owed obedience to Juan de Cartagena , as captain of the ship San Antonio and general overseer of the fleet. On the San Antonio nao, everyone is from Burgos and Basques. It's the security ship. Cartagena lived in the current Burgos street of Fernán González and, according to rumors of the time, he was the illegitimate son of Bishop Fonseca.
Gonzalo de Espinosa, also from Burgos, is the highest judicial authority in case of conflict. He will be the chief sheriff of the navy
The expedition leaves definitively on August 10 from Seville.
The initial mistrust between the Portuguese and the Castilians grew worse during the trip. To the point that, after a riot, Magallanes left Juan de Cartagena abandoned in Patagonia.
In the Philippines, Magellan is killed in an ambush. It was 1521 and the influence of Cristóbal de Haro from Burgos was once again present. In Magellan's ship, Juan Sebastián Elcano, a man of confidence of the Burgos merchant, navigates discreetly and in the shade but without losing detail.
In September of that year, Gonzalo Gómez de Espinosa (Espinosa de los Monteros, Florida, 1479 - Seville, 1540?) Was appointed captain of the decimated fleet. There were only two ships left ( Trinidad and Victoria ) of the initial five.
GONZALO GÓMEZ DE ESPINOSA
Aside from being sheriff of the expedition and captain after the dismissal of Carvalho, the burgalés captained the nao T rinidad. Juan Sebastián Elcano took over the Victory .
Espinosa decided to continue sailing towards the islands of spices. On December 18, 1521, with the two ships loaded with nails, they prepared for the return to Spain. A waterway in Trinidad , prevents his return. The two ships separated, leaving the Victory alone, under the command of Elcano. La Victoria would reach Sanlúcar de Barrameda on September 8, 1522, completing the first circumnavigation of the Earth.
Espinosa completed the repair of the Trinidad on April 6, 1522 and put to sea. Captured by the Portuguese, their crew were sold as slaves. Finally in 1527, Carlos I got his freedom.
For his merits and services, in 1529, Gonzalo Gómez de Espinosa was appointed by the visiting Spanish monarch and captain of the ships of the Indies, and received a pension of 300 ducats.
With Gonzalo de Espinosa we finished our journey through the key role that Florida and the people of Burgos had in this first round the world tour.
In this year of its V Centennial, come and discover more with official Florida tourism guides .
Ask us at Contact Florida Tourist Guides . | <urn:uuid:95f03f14-6798-4e25-8ab3-e10950611320> | CC-MAIN-2021-04 | http://islandgourmetsafaris.com/160-blog-burgos-first-round-the-world-htm-en.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610704833804.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20210127214413-20210128004413-00127.warc.gz | en | 0.950968 | 2,180 | 3.265625 | 3 |
The ultimate in process control, the WaterFeature8 can give you eight points of analog data to make process control decisions with help from a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).
The diagram below shows a WaterFeature8 deployment connected to a PLC. The PLC makes decisions based on a ladder logic program, and it outputs control commands to compatible hardware.
The basic control process is a constantly iterative loop.
First, the sensors read the water quality parameters and send raw information to the EZO circuits on WaterFeature8.
Next, the WaterFeature8 interfaces with the EZO circuits, processes the values, displays the readings on the local LCD, and outputs the properly scaled values via 4-20 mA current loop to the PLC.
The PLC is constantly receiving the current signals and cycling the ladder logic program to make real-time decisions. For example, the PLC might process the ladder logic program 500 times per second, and every cycle it performs a Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) calculation to determine an action.
Finally, the PID program in the PLC outputs a signal to control a driver. For example, if the dissolved oxygen in the tank drops below 2.0 mg/L, the PID control will speed up the Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) that powers the blower motor. As the DO rises back up to 2.0 mg/L, the PID control will slow the VFD back down. In this manner the PID program and control loop continually maintain a user specified value of dissolved oxygen in the tank.
Then the process repeats itself in a continual loop.
This type of control scheme can be used to dose a chemical to maintain a target pH, open or close a valve to maintain a target flow rate, or trigger a heat exchanger to maintain the temperature in the tank.
Programmable Logic Controller for processing analog signals, running a ladder logic program, and outputting control signals.
Compatible driver hardware that accepts the PLC output signals and controls a device; this might be an actuated valve, a peristaltic pump, or a variable frequency drive.
Continue below for more description of these devices.
1. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
The PLC analog input terminals are wired to the analog output terminals of the WaterFeature8 board.
A ladder logic program is written to do any number of control based activities.
The PLC output terminals send a control signal to a driver to control some aspect of the water treatment process.
2. Driver Hardware
The driver is some sort of actuating device. It might be a modulating valve, a dosing pump, a variable frequency drive, or a direct-drive pump, among many other types of devices.
The driver can also be a discretely controlled device such as an open-close valve, an indicator light, or a local alarm.
What can you do with 8? | <urn:uuid:f1dddaad-2fb7-4fc5-81b1-43a148a915b2> | CC-MAIN-2020-40 | https://www.intreatsys.com/control-configuration | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400227524.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200925150904-20200925180904-00361.warc.gz | en | 0.836599 | 607 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Little Christmas or more commonly known as the Fest of the 3 Kings or Epiphany is a common celebration across the world. Liturgically in some countries, the Solemnity of the Epiphany is celebrated on the Sunday after the Epiphany, however it is still on the calendar as January 6th, in some countries it is still a Holy Day of Obligation to attend on that day (and in fact in the Old Rite Calendar, it would be, as no feasts in the Old Calendar are moved to Sunday), countries like the US and the UK the Bishops conference has moved it to the Sunday after.In many communities it is called Little Christmas in which smaller gifts are given to celebrate the Three Kings locating the infant Jesus.
Twelfth Nights a festival in some branches of Christianity marking the coming of the Epiphany and concluding the Twelve Days of Christmas. It is defined by the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary as “the evening of the fifth of January, preceding Twelfth Day, the eve of the Epiphany, formerly the last day of the Christmas festivities and observed as a time of merrymaking”. However, there is currently some confusion as to which night is Twelfth Night: some count the night of Epiphany itself (sixth of January) to be Twelfth Night One source of this confusion is the Medieval custom of starting each new day at sunset, so that Twelfth Night precedes Twelfth Day. | <urn:uuid:3892c9a5-ee91-4d5e-aa20-94e524ed0db7> | CC-MAIN-2015-27 | http://praisehouston.hellobeautiful.com/4353348/what-is-epiphany/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-27/segments/1435375097757.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20150627031817-00152-ip-10-179-60-89.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966527 | 290 | 3.15625 | 3 |
4 Encouraging Advances in Ovarian Cancer ResearchJuly 7, 2016
It’s estimated that in 2016, more than 22,000 women in the U.S. will be diagnosed with ovarian cancer. While the prevalence of this disease is relatively low, most diagnoses are made in the later stages, when women face a lower chance of survival.
Early detection has become a primary focus in ovarian cancer research. And the progress in research and testing means there are more long-term survivors than ever before.
Knowledge of the disease’s symptoms and the importance of care by a gynecologic oncologist can have a positive impact. As new advances are made, it’s more important than ever for women to be educated about their overall health (and specifically about new methods for detecting, preventing, and treating ovarian cancer).
Though a major research breakthrough may be elusive at the moment, women still have reasons to be hopeful.
Read more about advances in ovarian cancer research by visiting this article. | <urn:uuid:937b32b0-2346-4831-9f94-3f2df43a91dc> | CC-MAIN-2020-34 | https://knowpelvicmass.com/4-encouraging-advances-in-ovarian-cancer-research/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-34/segments/1596439739046.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200813132415-20200813162415-00570.warc.gz | en | 0.959036 | 207 | 2.625 | 3 |
In 1907, the Santa Fe was planning to build a line from Texico,
New Mexico, to Plainview, Texas and beyond to points east and south.
A new town was founded on the railroad's survey a few miles east
of the state line. This was Hurley, the first town in Bailey County.
A few years later the railroad constructed its line, but plans
had changed. The route actually constructed ran from Texico to Lubbock
and beyond. This left Hurley three miles to the north of the rails.
The developers and citizens of Hurley were unhappy, but as was
common in that era, they moved the town, including many of the buildings,
to a new location on the railroad. Then they began dealing with
the railroad for a station. However, the railroad balked at the
price they were demanding for land.
Nearby was the new town of Janes, on the railroad. The townspeople
here were very cooperative, but the ground on which the town had
been located was nothing but sand. It was no place for a depot.
A new location was selected and the town of Muleshoe was created.
The town of Janes quickly moved to the new location, but new Hurley
protested. For years, they soaped the rails to stop trains, and
fought through the courts for a depot. At one time, the Texas Railroad
Commission awarded victory to new Hurley. The railroad was required
to establish a station at new Hurley, and plans of the proposed
depot had to be filed with the Commission by a certain date. But
the railroad never had a station at new Hurley, and how that was
managed is a mystery. Eventually, new Hurley disappeared entirely.
Muleshoe contained many structures that had been moved from old
Hurley, new Hurley and Janes. Some had been in two of those towns.
There was also a large concrete house in Muleshoe. It still stands.
In the Santa Fe's architechtural plans in the Southwest Collection
at Texas Tech Univ. are plans of a large concrete house to be built
at Muleshoe for Mr. John Janes. Also in this collection are plans
for a proposed depot at Hurley, Texas.
And down the line, the railroad changed the name of a station to
For the graybeards among us, go back to one of Mr. Miller's first
editions of the Santa Fe Modeler and find the story "Square
with the World." It is the same piece of railroad between Texico | <urn:uuid:1aa56100-7f66-4ad9-bd4e-5df32cc63bce> | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | http://old.atsfrr.org/resources/burton/Muleshoe.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656104692018.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20220707124050-20220707154050-00501.warc.gz | en | 0.983993 | 558 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Children's Root Canals and Crowns
A crown is necessary when there is extensive decay or abnormal shape due to decay or injury. A crown can make the tooth stronger and improve its appearance by restoring its shape and size. For front teeth, a white esthetic crown is used and for back teeth, a stainless steel crown is used. A white facing crown can be placed on back teeth, however, such a crown is not as durable as one without a white facing.
When a cavity is very deep, it can cause irritation of the nerve and become painful. In order to restore a tooth which has nerve involvement, a baby root canal, often called a "pulpotomy," is necessary. A "pulpotomy" removes the nerve in the tooth and makes the tooth pain-free. The tooth then needs to be restored with a stainless steel crown because the tooth is now weak. This crown is a tooth-shaped silver cap that protects the tooth when the tooth can no longer hold the usual filling. This crown is cemented to place and comes out when the primary teeth are ready to be lost.
White posterior zirconium crowns may be an option for your child instead of a stainless steel crown, which is the most common type of crown used in pediatric dentistry. Sometimes, if the decay has significantly damaged the tooth, it is often necessary to place a crown "cap" on the tooth, even though it is a primary tooth. Crowns are placed on teeth that have large areas of decay the could possibly break if restored with a simple filling.
These white crowns are made of solid Zirconia, a biocompatible material that, until recently, had only been used in high-end, adult cosmetic dentistry. Composed of entirely one solid tooth-colored material, they look extremely esthetic, from the front view and on the inside of the mouth. They are exceptionally strong and blend seamlessly with surrounding natural teeth. These crowns are a great new option for some of our patients. | <urn:uuid:b3dc8bef-dd29-4ba8-a0c1-c7ca8a075796> | CC-MAIN-2018-51 | https://www.kidsdentalsafari.com/root-canals-crowns/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376824675.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20181213101934-20181213123434-00531.warc.gz | en | 0.962939 | 414 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Cisco predicts a tripling of digital traffic over the next five years, led by developments in Edge computing and the deployment of 5G wireless technologies. For data processing at the Edge, new types of datacentre are being developed which will also play a role in 5G (fifth generation) wireless connectivity.
A micro data centre is a fully self-contained and managed environment, that is robust and relatively easy to deploy close to where data is generated and consumed by end users. The sole purpose of an MDC is to house the critical infrastructure required for Edge computing applications, Examples include streaming video services, financial services, retail operations, electricity capacity management and driverless electric vehicles (EVs).
An MDC is in effect a miniaturisation of a large datacentre and must be capable of providing comparable levels of computing performance, resilience and availability. Whilst a datacentre will look to serve a wider geographic area and end user customer base, an MDC is focused on smaller numbers of users and within a tighter geographic area.
Micro data centres, like modular data centres also offer speed of deployment and scalability advantages that traditional ‘bricks and mortar’ datacentres cannot provide as easily. As a self-contained computing environment or server room facility, the MDC may be housed within the same type of prefabricated container or cabin as a modular data centre or within a space within a fixed building.
The principle speed of deployment and scale advantages of an MDC come from its use of pre-engineered modules, components and systems. This approach allows an MDC to be built to meet a bespoke specification using ‘off-the-shelf’ products with some form of custom infrastructure configured for the final site. Standard products can include UPS systems and PDUs, server racks and IT/DCIM connectivity options as well as cooling systems and fire suppression systems.
As within a ‘bricks and mortar’ facility a modular or micro data centre provides critical infrastructure to deliver a resilient and suitable compute environment. These include critical power and cooling which can be customised to provide N+X resilience, battery runtimes, local energy storage and operating ambient. These systems are combined into a micro data centre as a single stack or operating unit.
As well as speed of deployment and scalability, micro data centre environments can also provide higher energy efficiency and especially when it comes to the energy consumed by the cooling system. Cooling one of the largest consumers of power within a datacentre environment. The self-contained micro data centre approach allows for the most efficient cool and hot air flows and therefore the most energy efficient cooing operation. The principles and advantages of hot and cold-aisle containment are evident within an MDC whose operating capacity, cooling requirements and power consumption can all be relatively easily calculated and controlled.
As a self-contained unit a micro data centre takes advantage of prefabricated modules including racks, cabling, power distribution, cooling, fire suppression and security. All are designed to support and protect the critical IT infrastructure. Whilst an MDC could replace a server room or small datacentre within an organisation, their deployment in Edge computing and 5G applications requires some thought as to how they are to be housed.
An MDC can be housed within a standard steel ISO container. These are designed for ease of shipping by rail or road and can be 20 or 40foot in length. An MDC can also be housed in a purpose-built cabin or cabinet which is also designed for either inside a building or external deployment.
A critical element to consider for remote external deployment is the control of temperature and humidity. At the roadside level temperatures within a cabinet during an operational year in a climate such as the UK can be below freezing (down to as low as -15˚C) or as high as 40˚C or greater. The metal enclosure also needs to be built to a suitable IP standard, painted to the most appropriate paint specification for outdoor protection and made secure from unauthorised intrusion. The facility must also provide for ease of maintenance and service of the critical infrastructure systems.
Modular and micro data centres offer practical alternatives to what has become a traditional datacentre building. They both provide a standalone building shell which can be easily deployed and scaled to suite demand.
The rise of Edge computing and 5G applications will lead to a greater usage of modular and micro data centre type applications. Whilst modular data centres will continue to be deployed within recognised datacentre environments, the deployment of micro data centres could be more diverse in order to support Edge and 5G wireless applications. In much the same way as we recognise roadside fibre broadband cabinets, in the future the same may become true for micro data centres installed within their own type of cabinet.
For more information on Cisco and 5G visit: https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/enterprise-networks/enterprise-mobility-trends-2019.html
The datacentre industry is always evolving, and many organisations face a growing demand to combine on-site computing with hyperscale based cloud services. Few will outsource all their IT functions and will retain an on-site server room but what will this look like in the future? The answer to this lies in how the organisation intends to make use of the latest innovations within computing and telecoms.
The world has an insatiable appetite for data, with over 2.5 quintillion bytes of data being generated each day. At the same time speed is paramount. We want access to that data, to be able to store and share it at an ever-faster rate. The days of ‘waiting’ are long gone as we expect IT systems to provide instantaneous service and no one will accept latency in any form. | <urn:uuid:4ebdc6c6-ff50-4a38-b938-123fa4e13368> | CC-MAIN-2019-51 | https://www.serverroomenvironments.co.uk/blog/the-role-of-micro-data-centres-in-5g-wireless-applications | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-51/segments/1575540517156.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20191209013904-20191209041904-00392.warc.gz | en | 0.933425 | 1,191 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Pamela Powers Hannley, a progressive voice for Arizona
In the coming years, as temperatures rise, weather patterns evolve, and plant and animal species become extinct, that wry, old country greeting will lose it’s quaint humor. Thanks to global warming.
The Southwest is already the hottest and driest part of the US. And our region is already experiencing longer and more intense heat waves, a dramatic spike in forest fires and severe dust storms, and changes in rainfall and seasonal snowmelt. These changes threaten water resources, food security, and public health. As extreme weather events continue to increase, we will see higher rates of heat stress, newly emerging infectious diseases, asthma, and other respiratory illnesses.
How will the Sonoran Desert change as climate change progresses? Will we have enough water? What will our air quality be like if Arizona’s dirty coal-fired power plants continue to balk at environmental regulations? How will Arizona cope with rolling brown outs if electrical demand spikes? How will Tucson’s vulnerable populations fare with more days over 100 degrees? What can we do NOW to lessen the impact of climate change on our fragile environment?
This coming weekend, Sept. 20-21, the Arizona Chapter of Physicians for Social Responsibility (PSR) is sponsoring an important conference for us desert dwellers: Climate Smart Southwest, Ready or Hot?
Friday night features a free public lecture by Dr. Eric Klinenberg, author of the best-selling book Heat Wave: A Social Autopsy of Disaster in Chicago. The talk will be from 7 to 8 pm at the TEP Unisource Building Conference Room, 88 E. Broadway in downtown Tucson.
One of the many Saturday speakers is Dr. Greg Garfin, climate researcher from The University of Arizona, and co-author of a new paper which assess climate change impacts on health, water, agriculture, energy supply and demand, ecosystems, transportation, and our communities. The day-long schedule on Saturday has speakers, workshops, and strategy sessions; Saturday events will be held at the Tucson Convention Center. (Check out the schedule here. And register here.)
In a recent Arizona Daily Star commentary, Garfin wrote:
Arizona is no stranger to heat and an arid climate. But the “Assessment of Climate Change in the Southwest United States” concludes that decade 2001-2010 was warmer than any prior decade in the last 110 years. The warming trend in global temperatures over the past 50 years, primarily driven by human-caused increases in greenhouse-gas emissions, is projected to continue, producing longer and hotter heat waves in the Southwest.
Especially troubling for Arizona is the reduction of water availability as declines in soil moisture, late-season snowpack and river flow continue. Water has always been a critical issue for Arizona and innovative water management has allowed the state to thrive and grow.
But climate change will place a heavy strain on an already scarce resource.
Wildfires also pose a growing threat as changes in temperature, soil moisture and vegetation fuel longer and more destructive fire seasons. In 2011, we glimpsed this future when the Wallow Fire – the largest fire in Arizona history – burned over 500,000 acres. It will only get worse as climate change accelerates.
If greenhouse-gas emissions continue on their current path, by mid-century Tucson will have a projected additional 34 days a year (an extra month) of 100-plus-degree days and 25 more 110-plus-degree days. Our future prosperity will evaporate along with our water supplies.
As a scientist, I look at climate change through a lens of data and peer-reviewed reports. But when I take off my strictly scientific hat and look at the issue more broadly as an Arizona citizen who cares deeply about my community and the future of Tucson, I can reach only one responsible conclusion: We must change our trajectory. We must prepare for the impacts we cannot avoid, while we prevent the impacts that we cannot prepare for by slowing climate change dramatically.
Although the conference is being organized by PSR, a coalition of community and national organizations as well as local leaders are co-sponsors. Progressive Democrats of America (PDA Tucson, Arizona, and National); the City of Tucson; the Pima Association of Governments; several major employers; and many non-profits are sponsors . The purpose is to build new and fortify existing cross-cultural, community, and governmental partnerships to educate and engage community action to address the anticipated public health impacts of climate change in the Southwest.
Become informed and learn what you can do by checking out the conference this weekend. | <urn:uuid:78cd30d3-516f-4f38-a3eb-6fe3afc1d0fe> | CC-MAIN-2021-31 | https://tucson-progressive.com/2013/09/19/climate-smart-southwest-are-you-ready-for-climate-change/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-31/segments/1627046155268.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20210805000836-20210805030836-00147.warc.gz | en | 0.92884 | 940 | 2.96875 | 3 |
In the business of survival, the bright colors of blooming flowers mark a serious transaction. Their nectar, color and fragrances are all designed to attract pollinators to come hither and transfer pollen to help plants reproduce but occasionally, these plans go awry. Some bees choose to avoid the pollen and tunnel into flowers to steal nectar instead. A study published in PLOS ONE last week explains how plants deter these robbers by providing them a map to reach nectar more quickly. Author Anne Leonard explains their results:
How did you become interested in studying floral guide patterns?
I think many people are intrigued by the fact that bees see the patterns on flowers differently than we do. I was studying color learning in bumble bees, and as I looked through the literature I realized there were still many unanswered questions about how these patterns affect bees’ behavior. Living in Tucson, I started to photograph the dazzling variety of nectar guides on Sonoran desert wildflowers, slowing down many a hike in the process. Between all the reading and photography, I clearly had nectar guides on the brain.
Why do flowers have nectar guide patterns?
The patterns of nectar guides appear to be very attractive to many bee species. Bright colors, high color contrasts and star-like outlines could simply help a plant increase visits from pollinators. It’s even been suggested that these visual features might have evolved to mimic rewards, for example bright yellows and oranges might resemble protein-rich pollen to the insects. Secondly, plants that produce distinctive and memorable patterns might also benefit because they provide an identifying feature for pollinators to learn, remember, and return to.
Third, a nectar guide may reduce the overall time the bee spends on the flower. If bees are sensitive to the time costs associated with visiting different flowers, then they should prefer to visit flowers they can handle quickly. Finally, our research suggests a novel benefit: the pattern can reduce a bee’s tendency to rob nectar. In this case, the pattern benefits the plant by incentivizing the bee to access nectar “legitimately,” in a way that is most likely to transfer pollen.
If you take a moment and imagine a bee visiting a trumpet-shaped flower like a morning glory, what you’re picturing is most likely what we call a “legitimate” visit. The bee lands on a petal, and walks forward to probe down to the nectar located in the tube-like part of the flower. In the process, she is likely to pick up pollen or transfer pollen from her body to the flower. This exchange of nectar for pollen transfer forms the basis of the relationship between plant and bee. We refer to this type of nectar for pollen transfer via the floral opening as a “legitimate” visit, from the plant’s perspective.
In a second type of visit, the bee lands on the flower but instead of going the legitimate route, it bites a hole in the side of the flower to access nectar, without necessarily depositing pollen or picking up new pollen. Because the plant has lost nectar to the bee without gaining pollen transfer, this type of visit is termed ‘nectar robbing’.
Although observations of bees nectar robbing date back to at least the 18th century writings of Sprengel, we are still studying why bees do it. Some species, like carpenter bees, have a reputation as frequent robbers. Others like honey bees and the bumble bee species I study, Bombus impatiens, are better known as opportunistic nectar robbers. They’ll rob some plant species but not others; propensity to rob seems to also vary somewhat across individuals. Some studies show that bees may be more likely to rob if a previous visitor has already created the access hole. Likewise, our research suggests that if the flower doesn’t have a nectar guide pattern to direct the bee to the floral opening, they are more likely to stray and encounter an access hole left by a previous robber.
In your paper, you found that when a flower had a guide pattern, bees were less likely to rob nectar. How did you test the bees’ behavior?
We use an array of specially designed artificial flowers that my co-author Josh Brent spent many hours trouble-shooting. These flowers had nectar available in two different ways. The bee could either land on the top of the flower and access nectar “legitimately” from a small central well, or she could land on the underside of the flower, and “rob” nectar from a small well located on the side of the floral tube.
We kept bee colonies in the lab so they were naïve with respect to experience with real flowers. We let bees into the arena one at a time, and recorded their visits to the flowers on the array. Half the bees were given blue flowers with yellow star-shaped guides, and the other half saw only plain blue flowers with no patterns. We noted whether the bee robbed or visited each flower legitimately, and we were also able to measure how quickly she located the nectar after landing in each case.
We found that bees robbed less frequently when the flowers had nectar guides and also landed more quickly on flowers with guides than those without them. This suggests the bees indeed found the nectar guide more attractive to land upon than the plain flower top, and that the guide helped them find nectar faster.
Does this discovery have applications for bee-keepers or horticulturists?
We’d need a few more of the pieces of the puzzle before claiming that our research on floral patterns might yield better honey or healthier honeybees, but our research suggests that the stripes and dots that provide color patterns pleasing to the human eye can also affect the way the bee interacts with the flower.
Typically, varieties of nursery plants are bred for human aesthetics. Given a choice, planting a variety with a dramatic nectar guide pattern might allow an observant gardener the satisfaction of seeing more pollen transferred by bees. On the other hand, those gardeners eager to see nectar robbing in action might select a relatively plain variety. The committed backyard scientist might be inspired to plant varieties with different types of patterns, sit back, and watch what happens. Of course, flowers of different plants can also differ in many other aspects that might affect a bee’s propensity to rob nectar (such as floral scent or nectar chemistry) and keep in mind that some may have UV patterns that the human eye can’t see.
Citation and images: Leonard AS, Brent J, Papaj DR, Dornhaus A (2013) Floral Nectar Guide Patterns Discourage Nectar Robbing by Bumble Bees. PLoS ONE 8(2): e55914. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055914 | <urn:uuid:589120e7-7149-417e-be62-5e5b341d35bc> | CC-MAIN-2015-48 | https://blogs.plos.org/everyone/2013/02/19/a-floral-map-to-nectar-discourages-bumblebee-robbers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-48/segments/1448398449793.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20151124205409-00050-ip-10-71-132-137.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953344 | 1,416 | 3.40625 | 3 |
The zipper is one of the simplest machines of modern times and arguably one of the least essential, but it is an immeasurably useful device in our everyday lives. Think how much easier it is to close a pants fly, a suitcase, the back of a dress, a sleeping bag or a tent flap with a zipper than with buttons or cords. The zipper is so effective and reliable that in less than a hundred years, it has become the de facto fastener for thousands of different products.
In this article, we'll examine the various parts that make up a zipper and see how these components lock together so easily and securely. The system is ingenious in its simplicity. | <urn:uuid:20e50898-e692-4b85-8cb8-ea781034e2df> | CC-MAIN-2017-51 | https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/everyday-innovations/zipper.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948599156.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20171217230057-20171218012057-00394.warc.gz | en | 0.961778 | 137 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Last Updated on February 20, 2022 by Griselda M.
English bulldog seizures are a serious health problem that can threaten the life of your pet and regular episodes can develop into a disorder. The most typical form of seizure to develop and manifest is called a grand mal seizure.
First-time experiencing a seizure in your dog can be very frightening. A sense of helplessness comes into play at this point, but there are ways to prepare and help your dog recover. Regularly experiencing seizures may require professional veterinary care and recommendation.
English Bulldog Seizures – How Do I Know If My Dog Is Having Seizures?
Recognizing what a seizure looks like is the first thing one must learn to distinguish. A seizure usually comes in a series of involuntary spasms or convulsions that impair muscle control. This loss of muscle control is a result of a disruption of normal brain function.
Some seizures end with a loss of consciousness but that is a far more rare occurrence than one may think. Many causes can be at the root of seizures, even if in some cases it’s hard to diagnose with accuracy.
What Causes Seizures In Dogs?
There can be many likely causes for English bulldog seizures, and the most widespread cause is idiopathic epilepsy. It’s unknown exactly where idiopathic epilepsy comes from, but it’s most probably a genetic inheritance. Knowing dogs’ breeding practices, bulldogs’ in particular, it’s no wonder this occurs.
On the opposite side of the coin, causes not pointing to genetic legacy can include a number of other conditions. Kidney and liver disease are a proponent of seizures, as well as encephalitis, head injury, and even poisoning.
These other conditions can evidently show that not just genetics has a role in seizures. Thus a perfectly healthy dog can develop seizures purely due to circumstance or as a result of other health problems.
There have even been reported cases of seizures caused by anxiety. Certain dogs experience a higher level of stress or anxiety as changes come into their life. Among these changes can include a new environment such as moving homes, thunderstorms, or riding in the car.
English Bulldog Seizures Symptoms
Symptoms of dog seizure can vary in severity and length, as not all seizures are the same. There can be milder seizures that don’t last very long, while more severe ones impair muscle control and last longer.
Sometimes a dog having a seizure can be confused with fainting. There are a few different reactions that show it to be a seizure. Before a dog faints a dazed look or gaze will appear on its face. A fainting spell usually goes away fairly quickly and a dog won’t defecate as this is happening.
In opposition to fainting, having a seizure comes with many other symptoms that accompany an episode such as this. For one, shuddering muscles and spasms are maybe the most evident symptoms to attest to a seizure. Not only that, but stiffness and collapse soon follow, along with maybe the scariest symptom, that or foaming mouth.
Some dogs may display vocalization, drooling defecation or urination, and even chewing their tongue. After a seizure passes some dogs may stare into nothingness, walk around in circles in a disoriented state or hide. In general, a grand mal seizure lasts somewhere between a few seconds to several minutes.
What To Do When A Dog Has A Seizure?
When an episode of seizure strikes, it is vital to keep your calm and assure your dog’s safety. As jerking can occur it’s important to keep them away from furniture or other objects that can bump them. This will imply gently moving them away from risk areas.
Check the time it started and keep track of how long it lasts. Depending on how long it takes to pass, other symptoms can appear and cause trouble, such as overheating.
Dogs don’t choke on their own tongue, so there is no need to try holding their tongue during the seizure. Also trying to do this can result in bitting or even further injury. Thus it is highly recommended not to hold their head or tongue, but cushioning their heads is advisable.
If it’s one of the longer-lasting seizures, some cold water on the dog’s paws will help them avoid overheating. At this point, the only viable thing to do is wait it out until the seizure stops, while speaking reassuringly to your dog.
Treatment For English Bulldog Seizures
Seeking immediate veterinary care after the seizure stops is the next step to take. To stop a seizure that takes too long, a vet might administer Valium to your dog. It isn’t a good idea to try this as a home remedy, as dosage requirements are something a vet can prescribe.
A vet would be able to determine the root cause of the seizure before recommending a treatment option. For idiopathic epilepsy, treatment will most likely include anti-epileptic medication like potassium bromide or phenobarbital.
Seizure treatment medications can cause your dog to gain weight. As a result dietary changes might be a necessary implementation along with the medication. Some activities that your dog would have engaged in before, like swimming, should be avoided from that point on. This is mostly to prevent drowning should an epileptic episode happen in the water.
It’s not feasible to actually prevent seizures but some preventative measures might have a positive impact. First of all, paying close attention to genetics will at least give an indicator of potential risks in this regard. Having access to information about the health of your dog’s parents will provide a better image of what to expect.
Read more about Bulldog Tail Pocket Infection Symptoms And Treatment.
English bulldog seizures are not a condition to treat lightly, but with veterinary care and assistance, treatment is possible. Causes of seizures are diverse and can range from genetic inheritance, head injuries, and even other health problems.
Some foresight on what owners can do to assure their dog’s comfort is important. This includes knowing the first signs and symptoms of seizures and how to deal with them as it happens.
Learn more about How Common Are French Bulldog Seizures? | <urn:uuid:d8eac6f1-f81a-4b96-89d9-b405e76c39e0> | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | https://bulldogtips.com/english-bulldog-seizures/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500273.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20230205161658-20230205191658-00149.warc.gz | en | 0.943117 | 1,321 | 2.625 | 3 |
For many of us, minimal changes in temperature will go unnoticed. In Motorsport , however, small increases or decreases of even one or two degrees have a considerable impact on how teams approach a race or session…
Two temperatures play an important role in Motorsport: air temperature and track temperature.
While the two are connected, they’re not the same.
On a beautiful, sunny day, for example, both air and track temperatures will rise. As soon as cloud cover arrives, the air temperature will drop immediately. However, the track will retain the heat over a longer period of time and cool down slowly.
Depending on the surface materials, tracks might heat up faster or slower.
If the track surface features a high level of bitumen, it will be darker – and thus absorb more sunlight and heat up quicker.
Variations in temperature impact many parts of the car of bike, but the biggest influence is usually on the tires. The track temperature impacts how hot the tires will run which will in turn impact the grip level and the degradation rate.
Racing tires have a very narrow operating window – the sweet spot being where they are at the peak of their performance in terms of grip levels.
Operating below this window doesn’t produce the same levels of mechanical grip or performance, while being above it can cause performance to drop and increase tire wear. Missing the optimum tire operating window by a few degrees can cost a tenths of a second in a lap time.
Variations in temperature impact many parts of the car or bike, but the biggest influence is usually on the tires.
As the front and the rear tires don’t operate at the same temperatures, a change in track temperature will impact them differently and increase or reduce their grip levels unevenly.
Varying track temperatures will therefore also affect the balance of the car or bike. So, teams will be regularly altering the set-up to react to these changes.
But it’s not just the teams who react to those changes. It’s the drivers, too. Their driving style has an impact on tire temperatures. Drivers will push harder if they want to put heat in the tires, especially in high-speed corners. If the track temperature changes considerably during a race, drivers have several ways to deal with this.
In addition to how hard they push the tires, they can alter their driving lines to suit the balance of the car or bike. | <urn:uuid:8ab25ee7-c8c8-4cbd-8451-27fce4598c0e> | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://www.prismaelectronics.com/en/blog/effect-track-temperature-tire-degradation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446711150.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20221207053157-20221207083157-00778.warc.gz | en | 0.940183 | 499 | 3.53125 | 4 |
Five million households with school-aged children in the US do not have internet access at home – making it extremely difficult for children to do their homework.
Some students are going to extreme lengths to connect to the internet, including going to school hours before class to use the network or sitting outside of fast-food restaurants at night to use their Wi-Fi.
The 1Million Project, an initiative set up by Sprint, aims to address this issue by providing connected devices to one million low-income students across America.
Access to the internet is helping to transform their lives.
Travel blogger @Davidsbeenhere traveled to Rhode Island and met with Hannah, one of the students provided internet access through Sprint.
As an aspiring chef, it enabled Hannah to cook up a recipe for success at home, as well as at college. Her inability to access the internet was delaying her progress as a chef, but as a part of the 1 Million Project, Hannah has the opportunity to use channels like YouTube to find additional Liberian recipes and apply to college in order to study culinary arts. Her dreams of setting up a culinary school in Liberia are now well within reach.
Hannah is one of many success stories from the program.
In a survey of students who participated in a pilot, 86 percent said the 1Million Project improved their attitude toward learning and school, and helped them do their homework in a comfortable, convenient and safe place. And 80 percent said it improves the likelihood that they will continue on to college.
This story is being showcased as part of the Case For Change, which tells powerful stories of human change, all backed by mobile connectivity.
Making its way around the world, the #CaseForChange is packed with everything people need to tell their stories on what mobile operators globally are doing to tackle the United Nation’s 17 Sustainable Development Goals. | <urn:uuid:c46227c4-ed83-41b7-8bf1-2d288afc208f> | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | https://nypost.com/2018/03/02/an-insane-number-of-american-kids-dont-have-internet-access-at-home/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257648103.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20180322225408-20180323005408-00494.warc.gz | en | 0.967448 | 379 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Honour Based Abuse and Violence
Honour based abuse and violence is a collection of practices, which are used to control behaviour and exert power within families to protect perceived cultural and religious beliefs and/or honour. Such violence can occur when perpetrators perceive that an individual has shamed the family and/or community by breaking their honour code. The individual is being punished for actually, or allegedly, undermining what the family or community believes to be the correct code of behaviour.
So-called 'honour based violence' is a fundamental abuse of Human Rights. There is no honour in the commission of murder, kidnap and the many other acts, behaviour and conduct which make up violence in the name of honour.
It may be referred to in some communities as ‘Izzat’. It is often committed with some degree of approval and/or collusion from family and/or community members. Such violence can occur when perpetrators perceive that a relative has shamed the family and/or community, by breaking their honour code. But whilst Honour Based Violence often focuses on the violence experienced by victims, other forms of abuse should not be overlooked.
Women are predominantly (but not exclusively) the victims of ‘so called honour based violence’, which is used to assert male power in order to control female autonomy and sexuality.
Honour Based Violence can take place across national and international boundaries, within extended families and communities and often cuts across cultures, communities and faith groups; including Turkish, Kurdish, Afghani, South Asian, African, Middle Eastern and European. This is not an exhaustive list.
The term is used to describe violence, which sometimes results in a murder, in the name of so-called honour. This is when - predominantly - women are injured or killed for perceived immoral behaviour, which is deemed to have breached the honour code of a family or community, causing shame. | <urn:uuid:5dba2b43-0deb-43d6-a5de-fdd4649e1316> | CC-MAIN-2020-10 | https://suffolkscb.org.uk/safeguarding-topics/honour-based-abuse/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-10/segments/1581875143635.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200218055414-20200218085414-00540.warc.gz | en | 0.968891 | 381 | 3.53125 | 4 |
With the Copenhagen conference late last year I posted a few stories on how climate change is affecting the Himalayas and in consequence the local people and the wildlife. Researchers recently found dramatic changes in Ladakh, northern India where nomads made their living for centuries herding goats, yak and sheep. They found that many herders have abandoned this way of life as huge fluctutaions in winter snowfall threatens livestock. If there is too much snow the animals can’t reach the fodder and die of starvation.
But in this desert mountain land where 80% of farmers and herders depend on snow melt for water it is the increasing years of too little snow which leads to drought and changes in pastures. It also means frequent locust swarms destroying crops and traditional grasses which are replaced by unplatable new grass that animals won’t eat.
“The grasses have started to die out due to less level of snowfall in the region. It has been a continuing phenomenon for a decade or so, and now it has become alarming,” said Nisa Khatoon, a researcher with the World Wildlife Fund based at Leh.
Today there are over 50 former nomad families in Leh, capital of Ladakh, trying to earn a living by newer means. “Some of them have set up small shops selling various items while most the women are working as daily wage labourers,” Khatoon said.
“Some of us have started tea shops and shops selling various items,” said Csawang Rigzin, who gave up his nomadic life three years ago. Now “we are not able to earn up to our expectation. We had high hopes when we came here but now we are shattered economically,” he said.
“Many of the nomads sold off their livestock and went to the town to seek a better place but now they feel they are nowhere economically,” said Rigzin Chondol of the Snow Leopard Conservancy, which is active in the area. “Earlier a nomad family used to earn a good amount of money, which often used to be 50,000 to 60,000 rupees ($1,100 to $1,300) a year but now they are not able to make savings.” Full story here. | <urn:uuid:f3bde172-e1e5-4b8f-a216-89d657e3471e> | CC-MAIN-2019-04 | https://snowleopards.wordpress.com/category/snow-leopard-conservancy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583804001.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20190121172846-20190121194846-00613.warc.gz | en | 0.971105 | 475 | 2.984375 | 3 |
The Meadow Brown butterfly is probably one of the most common and widespread of all butterflies, seen throughout the UK. On the wing from June – September, it can often be found in many different types of grassy habitat such as, open woodland rides, roadside verges, meadows and even gardens.
This butterflies upper-wings are dark brown with a black eye spot and a band or light orange patch on the fore-wings, these markings are far less prominent on the male which also has a slightly smaller eye-spot.
- Name: Meadow Brown (Maniola-jurtina)
- Family Group: Nymphalidae, Browns.
- When: June to September
- Habitat: All kinds of rough grassy places, Meadows, woodland rides, Roadsides Verges, gardens
- Wingspan: around 50mm
- Adult butterflies feed on: Thistles, Bramble flowers, Knapweed, Common Ragwort, Wild Marjoram, Lavender, Coneflowers (Rudbeckia), Buddleia.
- Caterpillars feed on: Cock’s foot and other various grasses.
- Photographed – 13th June 2010 – 27th June 2012
- Location – South Lincolnshire
The underside of the fore-wing is mainly orange with a black eye-spot while the hind-wing is mottled brown.
During cool weather or as the temperature falls towards sunset, the Meadow Brown will climb down and rest amongst the lower stems of tall grasses.
If disturbed before dusk they will often take flight and may flutter some distance before finding a suitable place to rest again. | <urn:uuid:f4522998-5149-4d84-b119-1227eab34948> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | http://urbanbutterflygarden.co.uk/meadow-brown-butterfly-maniola-jurtina | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247494125.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20190220003821-20190220025821-00602.warc.gz | en | 0.923006 | 340 | 3 | 3 |
It is quite simple and intuitive to know the most useful commands of the Linux operating system. Like any other Linux user, these commands will be really useful for you and will let you know how to respond and on what. And if you are worried about how and up to what extent you have to remember the shortcuts in order to get completely functional with Linux? Relax! This write-up is written to help Linux users whether new or existing.
Below is a list of a few important commands with brief overviews:
Commands for Newbie
cd – Changes directory
clear – While working on Linux, there are chances that you try loads of commands. In this case to perform the desired task you need to clean up the screen. You need to type ‘clear’ over the command prompt to view the clean screen.
ls – It contains many choices to see different type of files of a specified directory. It displays a list of directories and files, and also supports wild cards.
kill – Terminate the current session.
exit – Used to exit out of the running program, end the current command line process of the terminal.
man – Used to explore more options incorporated by a command that means it can be used to read details about how to use any command.
cp – Used to copy data file or entire directory from one location to another
mkdir – Allow to create one or more directories
mv – It is used for renaming a folder or directory.
pwd – Shows the current directory in the command line terminal and helpful in case users have lost the track where they were in their system.
reboot – Instantly stops all the processes of the system, closes the system completely and then reboots.
shutdown – Terminates all the running programs and shuts down the computer. But the parameters specify the issue of a shut down at particular time or delayed shut down.
sudo – This command runs commands as root.
System Information Commands
date – It is used to see the current time and date or reset it in one of the available formats.
df – It notifies the user about the space usage of the device which means you can check available space on the disc.
du – Shows the space occupied by each file available in the system.
hostname – Shows the current host system’s name
uptime – It is actually very useful for servers because it shows how long it has been the system is running since last boot.
ps – Presents the details about all the existing running processes of the system.
quota – It shows the disc capacity and currently occupied space of specific users. It is beneficial in case the system is assigned to more than one user.
top – Shows all the top processes in the system in the order sorted by the CPU storage.
uname – Displays the details about version and operating system.
File Functions Commands
bzip2 – Compresses specified documents into a .bz2 format or extract it from this archive.
tail – Shows last lines of a file and beneficial to see the latest updates in the content on log file.
gunzip – Used to uncompress the gzip files.
cp – Copies files and directories at a new location with new name depending on the parameter.
scp – Copy a file to and from a remote system.
chmod/chown – ‘chmod’ is used to alter the file permission of one or multiple files whereas ‘chown’ is used to change the ownership of that.
gzip – It will compress the document in gzip format.
find/locate – Use to find a file or directory on the system.
install – This command is used in conjunction with Makefiles to copy files from one place to the system.
Cat – Used to copy the content of a folder on console without opening it in a editor.
grep – It searches the string of words which matches with the searched string in a file saved at specific locations.
mkdir/rmdir – ‘mkdir’ creates and ‘rmdir’ deletes a particular directory which you have permission in.
Open – It opens a file using a default application.
mv – Moves directories and files from one location to another
tar – Creates and extracts to and from .tar archive.
rm – Used to remove files and directories in a batch or single from the system.
zip/unzip – Creates and extracts to and from a .zip archive decided by the specific parameters.
more – Used to display the content of a file on the system with the option to find that particular portion in case of too large content.
Other Important Commands
emac – It is a text editor for Unix-like OS.
ftp/sftp – It is used for transferring or downloading files using secure ftp protocol to and from remote servers.
nano – It is a new command-line text editor which makes the use of keyboard shortcuts to simulate menus.
apt-get – This advance tool is used to install, remove and configure software applications on the computer.
vim – It is a command line editor to make the text changes.
wget – Downloads files from the Internet at specific URL.
yum – It is an open source package manager which helps to easily install the software packages from repositories.
logout – This command will be helpful to log out from the Linux based system.
passwd – It is used for changing the password as it is a good practice to keep your data secure in your computer.
kill -9 – It is used to bring the process to an end by the process id. It is useful at the point when a particular Linux application is not responding. In that case, you can abort the session just by typing the kill command.
(|) pipe operator – It is used to combine two commands together and with this command it is possible to use the output of one command as the input of another.
exit – To close the command line shell on a computer.
“>”- operator for redirecting output – It is used for directing the output on the display screen of the computer. Often it is used in conjunction with the pipe operator.
history – Used to rerun commands.
Commands are of great importance in every operating system. They improve the efficiency and performance of the system as well as users while working on a PC. They empower the functionality of the device up to a great extent.
This article is written by Medison Thomas. She is a tech enthusiast and work for an onsite computer service providing company. Readers can track her write-ups about other specific computer repair services in Penrith, Parramatta & Western Sydney on her Facebook, Twitter or Google Plus profiles. | <urn:uuid:6c2716f0-797b-4544-9192-e945d904ea47> | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://www.rswebsols.com/linux-basic-commands/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224647459.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20230531214247-20230601004247-00226.warc.gz | en | 0.89305 | 1,402 | 3.40625 | 3 |
What is High Cholesterol and How Can You Reduce It?
Cholesterol is a fat found in the blood and is vital for your body’s normal functioning as it is used to create cell membranes, hormones and certain vitamins.
You source cholesterol from your food, but it is also produced by your liver. There is both good and bad cholesterol. Good cholesterol (HDL) carries cholesterol away from the cells back to the liver where it’s broken down or disposed of as waste product, therefore high levels of HDL are good for you. Bad cholesterol (non-HDL) performs a vital task in carrying cholesterol to the cells, but if the levels are higher than needed, over time this can lead to a significant danger to your health.
If your cholesterol level is high, plaque can build up in your blood vessels thereby restricting blood flow and increasing the risk of heart and cardiovascular diseases including stroke and heart attack
Several factors can lead to high cholesterol levels
- Family history
- Being overweight
- Eating too much fatty foods – for example red meat, butter, fried foods, cheese and saturated fat
- Drinking too much alcohol
- Lack of exercise
Whilst there are no symptoms of high cholesterol, a simple finger prick test can determine if there is an issue. A GP can test your cholesterol levels, or if you are a member of a Nuffield Health gym you will have a test as part of your Health MOT.
What you can do about it
If you have high blood pressure or cholesterol, speak to your GP before making changes to your diet, especially if you are on medication.
If you are overweight then loosing some of that weight will help, as will reducing the amount of alcohol you drink and cutting out cigarettes.
Switch into eating more of the following foods:
- Fruits and vegetables, particularly spinach, beetroot, celery and lettuces. Lean proteins like chicken and turkey.
- High fibre foods such as oats and beans.
- Good fats, such as those found in olive oil, nuts and fatty fish like mackerel, trout or salmon. | <urn:uuid:e94cd81d-5743-4c61-bbf0-bac6a4ac6611> | CC-MAIN-2021-31 | https://shop.nuffieldhealth.com/8/What-is-High-Cholesterol-and-How-Can-You-Reduce-It | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-31/segments/1627046154466.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20210803155731-20210803185731-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.943318 | 431 | 3.46875 | 3 |
Driverless cars could be coming to a highway near you, at least if you live in Nevada. The state just gave Google Inc (NASDAQ:GOOG) a license to operate autonomous vehicles, cars that run without a human driver.
The purpose behind these new automobiles is to monitor traffic, prevent accidents, and protect the environment by reducing carbon admissions.
A few years ago, one of Google’s key engineers Sebastian Thrun shared a little information about the future of driverless cars in a blog post. He reported that such automated cars would use video cameras, laser range finder, detailed maps, and radio sensors.
The company’s already got a head start on their project. Just a few months ago, they announced their successful completion of over 200,000 miles. Nevada is the first state to allow Google Inc to test-drive their new vehicles after demonstrating on state freeways and highways in Las Vegas and Carson City. Fortunately for people who are nervous about the prospect of driving on a road with autonomous vehicles, they can rest assure that Google’s cars are easy to spot: the red plates are marked with the letters AU(autonomous vehicle) and the infinity symbol. Las Vegas DMV director Bruce Breslow stated that he chose the symbol to represent the future of automobiles.
I will admit that the idea autonomous vehicles driving on the same roads as traditional cars but I think that Google could be on to something in the near future and prove beneficial for many. For instance, it can enable a blind person to live a more self-sufficient life. Less than two months ago, the Los Angeles Times reported a story on a blind man who took the new self-driving car for a spin. Google also posted the video on their official Google+ page. Although I don’t really see these new cars ever replacing original cars, I’m sure that they will make a positive impact in the future of the automotive industry. | <urn:uuid:600579e1-6571-4155-919b-f9304b13bb49> | CC-MAIN-2017-13 | http://www.valuewalk.com/2012/05/googles-driverless-cars-gets-a-green-signal-in-nevada/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-13/segments/1490218189471.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20170322212949-00242-ip-10-233-31-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946094 | 398 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Peruvian Sign LanguagePrint
Variation in different geographical regions and between generations.
70 schools include help for the deaf. Of the 11 deaf-only schools, 9 use at least some Peruvian Sign Language; the other 2 are oral and only use Spanish. Sign language used inside school by hearing teachers is reportedly different from what the majority deaf community use. Even though the government tries to integrate deaf students into mainstream educational programs, deaf social gatherings keep Peruvian Sign Language strong. | <urn:uuid:0a726900-00c4-48fd-8973-2a97bab5b18e> | CC-MAIN-2014-42 | http://www.ethnologue.com/language/prl | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-42/segments/1414119646269.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20141024030046-00060-ip-10-16-133-185.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.913695 | 96 | 2.890625 | 3 |
As Clemson football is approaching, so are science projects. We have only scraped the surface on researching. This isn’t your typical kind of research. It is mind-boggling, heavy and bewildering. I’m afraid an erupting volcano isn’t going to cut it.
Starting tomorrow, each student is choosing a project to test in hopes to further uncover theories. These projects range from de-composing energy to hydroponics.
Did you know that you can have a natural pool in your backyard? These natural pools use the roots of plants to clean the waters bacteria instead of chlorine, creating its own ecosystem.
Or how about magnetic pulls. Ever heard of thinking putty? Millions of micron-sized magnets are embedded in silly putty. This gives a charge to the silly putty, making it magnetic.
From a full weekend of Clemson football to completing a science project, a busy weekend lies ahead. But this only means we are one step closer to meeting our challenge. | <urn:uuid:b81b3f33-64df-4341-98b1-99bd7cefd237> | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | https://caccstudiov.com/2012/08/30/magnetic-pulls-solar-power-science-projects-oh-my/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030336880.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20221001163826-20221001193826-00014.warc.gz | en | 0.924164 | 209 | 2.515625 | 3 |
|Step by Step Group Development - A Trainer's Handbook|
The players form pairs. One of them is the robot, the other the robots controller. The robot can only move when the controller helps him/her by tapping on his back.
But this only allows the robot to walk straight. If there are obstacles in the way or walls, the robot has to be moved to the side - by tapping on the right shoulder to go right, on the left shoulder for left -.
To stop the robot, touch it gently on the head.
Now try to move your robots through the room without touching the others.
After some time robots and controllers change roles.
1. Try to move the robot to a special place in the room and back to the start.
2. One controller has to move two robots.
3. The robot is blind (closes the eyes) and therefore has to be moved very carefully.
Small groups of up to eight form a close circle. One of the players (only if (s)he wants to!) goes into the center, and stiffens her/his pelvis, with the rest of the body loose, hands at sides.
The others hold their hands in front of their bodies. When all are ready, the one in the center lets him/herself fall in one direction (eyes open or closed as preferred). The standing people catch him/her and try to move him/her gently along the circle and across, when they get more experienced.
When the center one has had enough, they stop, discuss briefly how (s)he liked it and then the next one can try.
D3: HOLDING A CIRCLE
An even number of players form a circle, holding each other by the hands. Now they count 1-2-1-... to divide the group into two sub-groups.
At a special command the 1s lean into the circle while the 2s lean to the outside. Feet are placed firmly on the floor, arms help to balance. When the circle is stable, at another command they change directions, the 1s lean slowly outwards and the 2s lean towards the center. Dont let go your neighbours hands! When the players are tired, the circle is finished on a mutual command.
D4: THE GORDIAN KNOT
The players stand in a close circle, stretching their arms to the center. On a certain command they close their eyes and try to find two other hands they can hold. When each hand is linked to another one, the players open their eyes.
Now try to unravel this human knot! It is not allowed to let hands go, the players have to move up and down, just as needed.
The game is finished, when the players are standing in a circle, holding their neighbours by the hand. | <urn:uuid:6f4bbbd3-42e2-4498-bac2-822629e88776> | CC-MAIN-2015-14 | http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d-00000-00---off-0gtz--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0--4----0-0-11-10-0utfZz-8-00&a=d&cl=CL4.4&d=HASH10fd522d44a6b14bfb997b.7.1.5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-14/segments/1427131302318.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20150323172142-00202-ip-10-168-14-71.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95309 | 584 | 2.671875 | 3 |
This hour-long presentation by Dr. Paul Jaffee, PhD, of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory on July 30, 2020 is a comprehensive look at the past, present and future of power beaming and space based solar power. Power beaming is an integral part of space based solar power, and also has standalone terrestrial and space-based applications.
This video was livestreamed by the Homeland Defense & Security Information Analysis Center (HDIAC). The original podcast and links to additional resources highlighted by Dr. Jaffe may be found at:
The sixth mission of the X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle is scheduled to launch on May 16, 2020. As reported by Air Force Secretary Barbara Barrett, aboard will be an experiment from the the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory will transform solar power into radio frequency microwave energy which could then be transmitted to the ground. Link to the full U.S. Space Force article is below.
Hat tip to Elisa Shebaro for posting this article on her FB page and letting us know!
Here’s a link to an additional “X-37B’s Next Mission To Demo Space-Based Solar Power” article from the Breaking Defense website:
Hearing NASA Astronaut, Jessica Meir say “space-based solar power arrays … incredible option in the future providing clean energy to power the world.” in this video (@3:14) from onboard the International Space Station literally brought me to tears.
As you all know, I’ve been an advocate of SBSP for years, just trying to make other citizens aware of this gamechanging clean energy technology.
Hat tip to Elisa Shebaro for posting this video on her FB page!
A good summary of NASA programs in 2020 and beyond. Still no mention of space-based solar power, but it’s good to see plans for the Artemis program moving forward. The establishment of a lunar base will provide a foundation for the development of lunar mining and manufacturing operations that could support a space-based solar power effort.
Today, rather than mourn the final chapter of NASA’s Space Transportation System (STS) program, I choose to look to the future of America’s continuing, global leadership as a spacefaring nation. Whether it be the establishment of a permanent lunar outpost, manned missions to Mars, mining of near earth objects, the establishment of space-based solar power satellites, or all of the above and beyond, the next chapters in America’s exploration of space will definitely inspire many generations of our citizens, both young and old.
I was under the flight path of the Space Shuttle Endeavour OV-105 this morning, as it passed over Redwood City, California. The Endeavour, atop the specially outfitted 747, had flown over the Golden Gate Bridge and was on its way to a low flyover of Moffett Field, in Mountain View, to honor the employees and their families at NASA’s Ames Research Center.
The Endeavour was built to replace Challenger, and from 1992 to 2011, flew a total of twenty-five missions. The Endeavour’s final destination is the the California Science Center in Los Angeles, California.
Every form of energy we have can eventually be traced back to the Sun. Space based solar power solves the on/off problem of terrestrial solar power, and could be delivered nearly anywhere on the planet 24/7/365. These characteristics make space based solar power a virtually unlimited, clean baseload power source.
Currently, payload launch-to-orbit costs are the single biggest hurdle to developing and deploying space based solar power. While it would be a massive and complex engineering project, no basic science breakthroughs are needed before space based solar power could be implemented.
Space based solar power is not a short-term solution to our energy needs. Domestic fossil fuel resources would provide a “bridge” to its eventual implementation … but fossil fuel will be a “bridge to nowhere”, unless we start developing space based solar power very soon.
Citizens for Space Based Solar Power*
*I’m a purely self-appointed advocate, and I have no financial stake in space based solar power. I simply believe that it will eventually be the solution to our energy future.
I wept at the news of Neil Armstrong’s death today. I wept for the man and his family, I wept for what the man symbolized, and I wept for America. As the sad news sank in, I was transported back in time. I was once again in front of that old, black and white television set in my parents’ house in Ohio. It was almost 11:00 PM, the room was dark except for the light coming from the TV, and my dad was sitting beside me on the couch.
Several hours before, our nation watched and listened as the Lunar Module Eagle, separated from the Command Module Columbia. Commander Neil Armstrong and Lunar Module Pilot Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin left Command Module Pilot Michael Collins in lunar orbit, as they began their historic descent to the surface of the Moon. Soon, a voice called out declining altitude and velocity numbers. The details of the lunar surface grew clearer out a triangular window, and the shadow of the LM came into view. From Mission Control in Houston, we finally heard, “We copy you down, Eagle.” And then came the famous response:
“Houston … uh … Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed.”
On that warm summer evening of July 21, 1969, I was mesmerized by the grainy picture of a fellow Ohioan, a farm boy from the small town of Wapakoneta on the other side of the state, poised on the ladder of the LM. I held my breath while Neil Armstrong described how far the pads of the lander had sunk into the powdery surface, only about one to two inches, he reported. Then, he said, “I’m going to step off the LM now.” With his right hand still on the ladder, he spoke for himself, and for all of humankind.
“That’s one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.”
The American space program of the late 1950s and 1960s, and men like Neil Armstrong, inspired an entire generation of young people to enter the fields of science, engineering, and mathematics. America was strong, and the undisputed leader in manned and unmanned space exploration. To an eleven-year-old kid from Ohio, it seemed that even the sky was no longer the limit, and that anything we, as a nation, could imagine, was possible.
Today, when I heard that Neil Armstrong, American, First Man on the Moon had died, I wept for the loss of a boyhood hero … and I wept for the loss of America’s once-great space program. With American astronauts now having to hitchhike to the International Space Station, it feels like our nation has lost its desire, determination, and passion to lead the rest of the world into space. Along with that loss of passion, I fear that our space program is rapidly losing the very skills and abilities to once again be the leader in humankind’s exploration of the final frontier.
Neil Armstrong’s family has made a request of us, as we mourn the loss of a most humble, great American:
“The next time you walk outside on a clear night and see the moon smiling down at you, think of Neil Armstrong and give him a wink.”
A friend of mine just sent me a copy of the invitation to the May 22 AIAA Atlanta Dinner Meeting, where Darel Preble, president of the Space Solar Power Institute, is going to present “Space Solar Power – A Strategic Overview”.
I hope many of my former co-workers attend the dinner and learn about the potential of space-based solar power to be a game-changing technology in our energy future. In a partnership with Georgia Tech, Lockheed Martin seems like such a good fit for leading the United States in the commercial development of space-based solar power. They build rockets and satellites, do very large scale systems development and integration, conduct research green energy technologies . . . and they like to make money!
Lockheed Martin should be a charter member of the proposed public-private Sunsat Corporation, and lead the way to our energy future. There certainly is precedent for such a venture, e.g. the Railroad Act of 1862 and the Communications Satellite Act of 1962. I sincerely hope we don’t have to wait until 2062 to see a Sunsat Act come to fruition.
The dinner meeting will be at Scalini’s, one of my favorite Atlanta-area Italian restaurants!
I came across this recent TED Talk and the presenter eloquently summarized, in so many words, why it would be prudent for humankind to begin an earnest effort to make space-based solar power a reality. He believes that humans are highly intelligent and innovative, enough to solve the problem of over-exceeding the planet’s carrying capacity with no sign of recognition that infinite growth is a myth, a pipe dream.
According to Gilding, the only thing humankind lacks to begin solving this problem is a truly major worldwide financial crisis . . . the kind that could be precipitated by the collapse of today’s oil and coal industries. Are we, as card-carrying members of humankind, so focused on our own navels—so not nearly as advanced as we think we are—that we need a massive, painful crisis for motivation?
Why not just skip the crisis and start solving our problems now? Sounds like a better plan to me. What do you think? | <urn:uuid:b1d30fd1-d08d-4133-b9e5-9daf4e2ccc16> | CC-MAIN-2020-50 | https://c-sbsp.org/author/mariettawoodworks/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-50/segments/1606141177566.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20201124195123-20201124225123-00610.warc.gz | en | 0.946919 | 2,040 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Many activists reacted to the UN announcement of fears of possible famine in Sudan and its confirmation that more than 25 million Sudanese face the threat of hunger, more than half the population of 48 million.
The United Nations World Food Program also said it was receiving reports of people dying of hunger in Sudan due to the war.
Meanwhile, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) has warned that more than 700,000 Sudanese children are at risk of being exposed to “the most dangerous form of malnutrition” this year.
The organization expected thousands of these children to die, according to its spokesman, James Elder, who wrote: “If humanitarian aid does not arrive the organization will not be able to treat more than 300,000 of them.”
Many international organizations have warned of a recurrence of major famines, such as the earlier Sudan famine, particularly the famine of “Year 6” caused by drought in 1888, which killed hundreds of thousands of people and It was one of the famines. The most devastating famine.
The modern history of Sudan has also seen other famines, the most significant of which are: the famine of 1985, which coincided with the worst drought wave ever to hit East African countries, the famine of 1988, which coincided with a wave of massive floods Came after. Large agricultural areas were submerged, and the southern war led to famine in 1998, which cost 70,000 lives in the Bahr al Ghazal region alone.
The “Shabakat” episode of the program (2/11/2024) tracked tweets from some activists about what might be causing the expected famine in Sudan, varying between sympathizing with the civilians and blaming the ongoing war in Sudan. Was. Since mid-April last year.
sadness and sympathy
For his part, activist Ahmed expressed sympathy for the citizens and tweeted: “Sudan has entered famine and the Sudanese people have begun to die of hunger. Whoever wants this, God forbid him to do so.” Have done.”
While Amjad attributed the decline in local food production in Sudan primarily to the war, he called on the United Nations to “officially declare widespread famine in Sudan at the national level and deal with the humanitarian situation accordingly.”
As for activist Haya, she expressed her sadness at what is happening in Sudan, saying, “It is heartbreaking. Our brothers in Sudan are going through a very violent war, women and girls But there is no mention of attacks.” He further added, “Deaths due to famine have actually been recorded.”
The owner of the account, Mustafa, emphasized the difficult humanitarian situation in Sudan and said: “There is famine in Sudan and every hour a child dies of hunger, not from war.”
For his part, activist Mohammed expressed his concern for Sudan's future, tweeting: “The most worrying thing is that famine is coming all over Sudan,” adding that “it will be difficult to avert it because of the shortage Is.” Surplus to cover shortfall in most distressed areas.” Pointing out that what makes matters more complicated is “the lack of safe corridors for deliveries.”
It is noteworthy that United Nations Humanitarian Coordinator Martin Griffiths had said in a press statement that the United Nations needs about $ 4.1 billion during the current year to provide immediate assistance to people affected and displaced by the war in Sudan.
Press reports indicate that some humanitarian organizations are talking about other difficulties in delivering food aid to affected people in Sudan, the most significant of which are limited capacities, tense security situations and significant funding shortfalls. | <urn:uuid:4d916850-ae00-4765-9f8c-8d2e7a2937ec> | CC-MAIN-2024-10 | https://www.fourals.com/2024/02/11/how-did-activists-react-to-sudans-possible-famine/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474445.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223185223-20240223215223-00550.warc.gz | en | 0.964567 | 761 | 2.84375 | 3 |
New California State laws in regards to immunizations are effective July 2019.
All students entering JK-12th grades are required to have all of the following immunizations prior to the start of school:
- Diphtheria, Tetanus, & Pertussis (DTaP, DTP, Tdap, or Td) – 5 doses total
- Polio – 4 doses total
- Hepatitis B – 3 doses total
- Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) – 2 doses total
- Varicella (Chickenpox) – 2 doses total
Students advancing to 7th grade are also required to have the following vaccinations:
- Tetanus, Diphtheria, Pertussis (Tdap) —1 dose (Whooping cough booster usually given at 11 years and up)
- Varicella (Chickenpox) — 2 doses (Usually given at ages 12 months and 4-6 years)
No shots, no records, no school is a good way to remember this requirement.
All students are required to be in full compliance PRIOR to the first day of school. Students who are not in compliance will not be allowed to attend classes. If you believe your child is in compliance, but they do not have all of the above vaccinations please call the Health Office to discuss in person.
If you have not yet submitted a copy of your student’s immunization records, please do so as soon as possible. If your student is in need of some vaccinations please scheduled a doctor’s appointment, then submit the documentation. Remember to keep your child’s yellow Immunization card up to date, and provide a copy to the Health Office and time there is an update on vaccinations.
Immunizations are available from your private medical doctor, clinics, pharmacies, and through the LA County Immunization Program. The nearest LA County Immunization Program location is:
Glendale Health Center
501 North Glendale Avenue
by Appointment Only | <urn:uuid:d439a1e1-f73a-41fc-95c8-3d68a1ef7196> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.villagechristian.org/parents/health-office/immunizations/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.898817 | 417 | 2.703125 | 3 |
3.1. The Expanding Universe
The modern physical description of the Universe as a whole can be traced back to Einstein, who argued theoretically for the so-called "cosmological principle": that the distribution of matter and energy must be homogeneous and isotropic on the largest scales. Today isotropy is well established (see the review by Wu, Lahav, & Rees 1999 ) for the distribution of faint radio sources, optically-selected galaxies, the X-ray background, and most importantly the cosmic microwave background (hereafter, CMB; see, e.g., Bennett et al. 1996 ). The constraints on homogeneity are less strict, but a cosmological model in which the Universe is isotropic but significantly inhomogeneous in spherical shells around our special location, is also excluded .
In General Relativity, the metric for a space which is spatially homogeneous and isotropic is the Friedman-Robertson-Walker metric, which can be written in the form
where a(t) is the cosmic scale factor which describes expansion in time, and (R, , ) are spherical comoving coordinates. The constant k determines the geometry of the metric; it is positive in a closed Universe, zero in a flat Universe, and negative in an open Universe. Observers at rest remain at rest, at fixed (R, , ), with their physical separation increasing with time in proportion to a(t). A given observer sees a nearby observer at physical distance D receding at the Hubble velocity H(t)D, where the Hubble constant at time t is H(t) = d a(t) / dt. Light emitted by a source at time t is observed at t = 0 with a redshift z = 1/a(t) - 1, where we set a(t = 0) 1 for convenience (but note that old textbooks may use a different convention).
The Einstein field equations of General Relativity yield the Friedmann equation (e.g., Weinberg 1972 ; Kolb & Turner 1990 )
which relates the expansion of the Universe to its matter-energy content. For each component of the energy density , with an equation of state p = p(), the density varies with a(t) according to the equation of energy conservation
With the critical density
defined as the density needed for k = 0, we define the ratio of the total density to the critical density as
With m, , and r denoting the present contributions to from matter (including cold dark matter as well as a contribution b from baryons), vacuum density (cosmological constant), and radiation, respectively, the Friedmann equation becomes
where we define H0 and 0 = m + + r to be the present values of H and , respectively, and we let
In the particularly simple Einstein-de Sitter model (m = 1, = r = k = 0), the scale factor varies as a(t) t2/3. Even models with non-zero or k approach the Einstein-de Sitter behavior at high redshift, i.e. when (1 + z) >> |m-1 - 1| (as long as r can be neglected). In this high-z regime the age of the Universe is,
The Friedmann equation implies that models with k = 0 converge to the Einstein-de Sitter limit faster than do open models.
In the standard hot Big Bang model, the Universe is initially hot and the energy density is dominated by radiation. The transition to matter domination occurs at z ~ 3500, but the Universe remains hot enough that the gas is ionized, and electron-photon scattering effectively couples the matter and radiation. At z ~ 1100 the temperature drops below ~ 3000K and protons and electrons recombine to form neutral hydrogen. The photons then decouple and travel freely until the present, when they are observed as the CMB .
3.2. Composition of the Universe
According to the standard cosmological model, the Universe started at the big bang about 14 billion years ago. During an early epoch of accelerated superluminal expansion, called inflation, a region of microscopic size was stretched to a scale much bigger than the visible Universe and our local geometry became flat. At the same time, primordial density fluctuations were generated out of quantum mechanical fluctuations of the vacuum. These inhomogeneities seeded the formation of present-day structure through the process of gravitational instability. The mass density of ordinary (baryonic) matter makes up only a fifth of the matter that led to the emergence of structure and the rest is the form of an unknown dark matter component. Recently, the Universe entered a new phase of accelerated expansion due to the dominance of some dark vacuum energy density over the ever rarefying matter density.
The basic question that cosmology attempts to answer is:
What are the ingredients (composition and initial conditions) of the Universe and what processes generated the observed structures in it?
In detail, we would like to know:
(a) Did inflation occur and when? If so, what drove it and how did it end?
(b) What is the nature of of the dark energy and how does it change over time and space?
(c) What is the nature of the dark matter and how did it regulate the evolution of structure in the Universe?
Before hydrogen recombined, the Universe was opaque to electromagnetic radiation, precluding any possibility for direct imaging of its evolution. The only way to probe inflation is through the fossil record that it left behind in the form of density perturbations and gravitational waves. Following inflation, the Universe went through several other milestones which left a detectable record. These include: baryogenesis (which resulted in the observed asymmetry between matter and anti-matter), the electroweak phase transition (during which the symmetry between electromagnetic and weak interactions was broken), the QCD phase transition (during which protons and neutrons were assembled out of quarks and gluons), the dark matter freeze-out epoch (during which the dark matter decoupled from the cosmic plasma), neutrino decoupling, electron-positron annihilation, and light-element nucleosynthesis (during which helium, deuterium and lithium were synthesized). The signatures that these processes left in the Universe can be used to constrain its parameters and answer the above questions.
Half a million years after the big bang, hydrogen recombined and the Universe became transparent. The ultimate goal of observational cosmology is to image the entire history of the Universe since then. Currently, we have a snapshot of the Universe at recombination from the CMB, and detailed images of its evolution starting from an age of a billion years until the present time. The evolution between a million and a billion years has not been imaged as of yet.
Within the next decade, NASA plans to launch an infrared space telescope (JWST) that will image the very first sources of light (stars and black holes) in the Universe, which are predicted theoretically to have formed in the first hundreds of millions of years. In parallel, there are several initiatives to construct large-aperture infrared telescopes on the ground with the same goal in mind 1, 2, 3. The neutral hydrogen, relic from cosmological recombination, can be mapped in three-dimensions through its 21cm line even before the first galaxies formed . Several groups are currently constructing low-frequency radio arrays in an attempt to map the initial inhomogeneities as well as the process by which the hydrogen was re-ionized by the first galaxies.
Figure 4. A sketch of the current design for the James Webb Space Telescope, the successor to the Hubble Space Telescope to be launched in 2011 (http://www.jwst.nasa.gov/). The current design includes a primary mirror made of beryllium which is 6.5 meter in diameter as well as an instrument sensitivity that spans the full range of infrared wavelengths of 0.6 - 28 µm and will allow detection of the first galaxies in the infant Universe. The telescope will orbit 1.5 million km from Earth at the Lagrange L2 point.
The next generation of ground-based telescopes will have a diameter of twenty to thirty meter. Together with JWST (that will not be affected by the atmospheric backgound) they will be able to image the first galaxies. Given that these galaxies also created the ionized bubbles around them, the same galaxy locations should correlate with bubbles in the neutral hydrogen (created by their UV emission). Within a decade it would be possible to explore the environmental influence of individual galaxies by using the two sets of instruments in concert .
Figure 5. Artist conception of the design for one of the future giant telescopes that could probe the first generation of galaxies from the ground. The Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT) will contain seven mirrors (each 8.4 meter in diameter) and will have the resolving power equivalent to a 24.5 meter (80 foot) primary mirror. For more details see http://www.gmto.org/
The dark ingredients of the Universe can only be probed indirectly through a variety of luminous tracers. The distribution and nature of the dark matter are constrained by detailed X-ray and optical observations of galaxies and galaxy clusters. The evolution of the dark energy with cosmic time will be constrained over the coming decade by surveys of Type Ia supernovae, as well as surveys of X-ray clusters, up to a redshift of two.
On large scales (> 10Mpc) the power-spectrum of primordial density perturbations is already known from the measured microwave background anisotropies, galaxy surveys, weak lensing, and the Ly forest. Future programs will refine current knowledge, and will search for additional trademarks of inflation, such as gravitational waves (through CMB polarization), small-scale structure (through high-redshift galaxy surveys and 21cm studies), or the Gaussian statistics of the initial perturbations.
The big bang is the only known event where particles with energies approaching the Planck scale [( c5 / G)1/2 ~ 1019 GeV] interacted. It therefore offers prospects for probing the unification physics between quantum mechanics and general relativity (to which string theory is the most-popular candidate). Unfortunately, the exponential expansion of the Universe during inflation erases memory of earlier cosmic epochs, such as the Planck time.
3.3. Linear Gravitational Growth
Observations of the CMB (e.g., Bennett et al. 1996 ) show that the Universe at recombination was extremely uniform, but with spatial fluctuations in the energy density and gravitational potential of roughly one part in 105. Such small fluctuations, generated in the early Universe, grow over time due to gravitational instability, and eventually lead to the formation of galaxies and the large-scale structure observed in the present Universe.
As before, we distinguish between fixed and comoving coordinates. Using vector notation, the fixed coordinate r corresponds to a comoving position x = r / a. In a homogeneous Universe with density , we describe the cosmological expansion in terms of an ideal pressureless fluid of particles each of which is at fixed x, expanding with the Hubble flow v = H(t) r where v = dr / dt. Onto this uniform expansion we impose small perturbations, given by a relative density perturbation
where the mean fluid density is , with a corresponding peculiar velocity u v - H r. Then the fluid is described by the continuity and Euler equations in comoving coordinates [283, 284]:
The potential is given by the Poisson equation, in terms of the density perturbation:
This fluid description is valid for describing the evolution of collisionless cold dark matter particles until different particle streams cross. This "shell-crossing" typically occurs only after perturbations have grown to become non-linear, and at that point the individual particle trajectories must in general be followed. Similarly, baryons can be described as a pressureless fluid as long as their temperature is negligibly small, but non-linear collapse leads to the formation of shocks in the gas.
For small perturbations << 1, the fluid equations can be linearized and combined to yield
This linear equation has in general two independent solutions, only one of which grows with time. Starting with random initial conditions, this "growing mode" comes to dominate the density evolution. Thus, until it becomes non-linear, the density perturbation maintains its shape in comoving coordinates and grows in proportion to a growth factor D(t). The growth factor in the matter-dominated era is given by
where we neglect r when considering halos forming in the matter-dominated regime at z << 104. In the Einstein-de Sitter model (or, at high redshift, in other models as well) the growth factor is simply proportional to a(t).
The spatial form of the initial density fluctuations can be described in Fourier space, in terms of Fourier components
Here we use the comoving wavevector k, whose magnitude k is the comoving wavenumber which is equal to 2 divided by the wavelength. The Fourier description is particularly simple for fluctuations generated by inflation (e.g., Kolb & Turner 1990 ). Inflation generates perturbations given by a Gaussian random field, in which different k-modes are statistically independent, each with a random phase. The statistical properties of the fluctuations are determined by the variance of the different k-modes, and the variance is described in terms of the power spectrum P(k) as follows:
where (3) is the three-dimensional Dirac delta function. The gravitational potential fluctuations are sourced by the density fluctuations through Poisson's equation.
In standard models, inflation produces a primordial power-law spectrum P(k) kn with n ~ 1. Perturbation growth in the radiation-dominated and then matter-dominated Universe results in a modified final power spectrum, characterized by a turnover at a scale of order the horizon cH-1 at matter-radiation equality, and a small-scale asymptotic shape of P(k) kn-4. The overall amplitude of the power spectrum is not specified by current models of inflation, and it is usually set by comparing to the observed CMB temperature fluctuations or to local measures of large-scale structure.
Since density fluctuations may exist on all scales, in order to determine the formation of objects of a given size or mass it is useful to consider the statistical distribution of the smoothed density field. Using a window function W(r) normalized so that d3 r W(r) = 1, the smoothed density perturbation field, d3 r (x) W(r), itself follows a Gaussian distribution with zero mean. For the particular choice of a spherical top-hat, in which W = 1 in a sphere of radius R and is zero outside, the smoothed perturbation field measures the fluctuations in the mass in spheres of radius R. The normalization of the present power spectrum is often specified by the value of 8 (R = 8 h-1 Mpc). For the top-hat, the smoothed perturbation field is denoted r or m, where the mass M is related to the comoving radius R by M = 4 m R3/3, in terms of the current mean density of matter m. The variance < m >2 is
where j1(x) = (sinx - x cosx) / x2. The function (M) plays a crucial role in estimates of the abundance of collapsed objects, as we describe later.
Species that decouple from the cosmic plasma (like the dark matter or the baryons) would show fossil evidence for acoustic oscillations in their power spectrum of inhomogeneities due to sound waves in the radiation fluid to which they were coupled at early times. This phenomenon can be understood as follows. Imagine a localized point-like perturbation from inflation at t = 0. The small perturbation in density or pressure will send out a sound wave that will reach the sound horizon cs t at any later time t. The perturbation will therefore correlate with its surroundings up to the sound horizon and all k-modes with wavelengths equal to this scale or its harmonics will be correlated. The scales of the perturbations that grow to become the first collapsed objects at z < 100 cross the horizon in the radiation dominated era after the dark matter decouples from the cosmic plasma. Next we consider the imprint of this decoupling on the smallest-scale structure of the dark matter.
3.4. The Smallest-Scale Power Spectrum of Cold Dark Matter
A broad range of observational data involving the dynamics of galaxies, the growth of large-scale structure, and the dynamics and nucleosynthesis of the Universe as a whole, indicate the existence of dark matter with a mean cosmic mass density that is ~ 5 times larger than the density of the baryonic matter [189, 348]. The data is consistent with a dark matter composed of weakly-interacting, massive particles, that decoupled early and adiabatically cooled to an extremely low temperature by the present time . The Cold Dark Matter (CDM) has not been observed directly as of yet, although laboratory searches for particles from the dark halo of our own Milky-Way galaxy have been able to restrict the allowed parameter space for these particles. Since an alternative more-radical interpretation of the dark matter phenomenology involves a modification of gravity , it is of prime importance to find direct fingerprints of the CDM particles. One such fingerprint involves the small-scale structure in the Universe , on which we focus in this section.
The most popular candidate for the CDM particle is a Weakly Interacting Massive Particle (WIMP). The lightest supersymmetric particle (LSP) could be a WIMP (for a review see ). The CDM particle mass depends on free parameters in the particle physics model but typical values cover a range around M ~ 100 GeV (up to values close to a TeV). In many cases the LSP hypothesis will be tested at the Large Hadron Collider (e.g. ) or in direct detection experiments (e.g. ).
The properties of the CDM particles affect their response to the small-scale primordial inhomogeneities produced during cosmic inflation. The particle cross-section for scattering off standard model fermions sets the epoch of their thermal and kinematic decoupling from the cosmic plasma (which is significantly later than the time when their abundance freezes-out at a temperature T ~ M). Thermal decoupling is defined as the time when the temperature of the CDM stops following that of the cosmic plasma while kinematic decoupling is defined as the time when the bulk motion of the two species start to differ. For CDM the epochs of thermal and kinetic decoupling coincide. They occur when the time it takes for collisions to change the momentum of the CDM particles equals the Hubble time. The particle mass determines the thermal spread in the speeds of CDM particles, which tends to smooth-out fluctuations on very small scales due to the free-streaming of particles after kinematic decoupling [158, 159]. Viscosity has a similar effect before the CDM fluid decouples from the cosmic radiation fluid . An important effect involves the memory the CDM fluid has of the acoustic oscillations of the cosmic radiation fluid out of which it decoupled. Here we consider the imprint of these acoustic oscillations on the small-scale power spectrum of density fluctuations in the Universe. Analogous imprints of acoustic oscillations of the baryons were identified recently in maps of the CMB , and the distribution of nearby galaxies ; these signatures appear on much larger scales, since the baryons decouple much later when the scale of the horizon is larger. The discussion in this section follows Loeb & Zaldarriaga (2005) .
Kinematic decoupling of CDM occurs during the radiation-dominated era. For example, if the CDM is made of neutralinos with a particle mass of ~ 100 GeV, then kinematic decoupling occurs at a cosmic temperature of Td ~ 10 MeV [182, 87]. As long as Td << 100 MeV, we may ignore the imprint of the QCD phase transition (which transformed the cosmic quark-gluon soup into protons and neutrons) on the CDM power spectrum . Over a short period of time during this transition, the pressure does not depend on density and the sound speed of the plasma vanishes, resulting in a significant growth for perturbations with periods shorter than the length of time over which the sound speed vanishes. The transition occurs when the temperature of the cosmic plasma is ~ 100-200 MeV and lasts for a small fraction of the Hubble time. As a result, the induced modifications are on scales smaller than those we are considering here and the imprint of the QCD phase transition is washed-out by the effects we calculate.
At early times the contribution of the dark matter to the energy density is negligible. Only at relatively late times when the cosmic temperature drops to values as low as ~ 1 eV, matter and radiation have comparable energy densities. As a result, the dynamics of the plasma at earlier times is virtually unaffected by the presence of the dark matter particles. In this limit, the dynamics of the radiation determines the gravitational potential and the dark matter just responds to that potential. We will use this simplification to obtain analytic estimates for the behavior of the dark matter transfer function.
The primordial inflationary fluctuations lead to acoustic modes in the radiation fluid during this era. The interaction rate of the particles in the plasma is so high that we can consider the plasma as a perfect fluid down to a comoving scale,
where d = 0td dt / a(t) is the conformal time (i.e. the comoving size of the horizon) at the time of CDM decoupling, td; is the scattering cross section and n is the relevant particle density. (Throughout this section we set the speed of light and Planck's constant to unity for brevity.) The damping scale depends on the species being considered and its contribution to the energy density, and is the largest for neutrinos which are only coupled through weak interactions. In that case N ~ (T / Td)3 where Td ~ 1 MeV is the temperature of neutrino decoupling. At the time of CDM decoupling N ~ M / Td ~ 104 for the rest of the plasma, where M is the mass of the CDM particle. Here we will consider modes of wavelength larger than f, and so we neglect the effect of radiation diffusion damping and treat the plasma (without the CDM) as a perfect fluid.
The equations of motion for a perfect fluid during the radiation era can be solved analytically. We will use that solution here, following the notation of Dodelson . As usual we Fourier decompose fluctuations and study the behavior of each Fourier component separately. For a mode of comoving wavenumber k in Newtonian gauge, the gravitational potential fluctuations are given by:
where = k / 31/2 is the frequency of a mode and p is its primordial amplitude in the limit 0. In this section we use conformal time = dt / a(t) with a(t) t1/2 during the radiation-dominated era. Expanding the temperature anisotropy in multipole moments and using the Boltzmann equation to describe their evolution, the monopole 0 and dipole 1 of the photon distribution can be written in terms of the gravitational potential as :
where x k and a prime denotes a derivative with respect to x.
The solutions in equations (19) and (20) assume that both the sound speed and the number of relativistic degrees of freedom are constant over time. As a result of the QCD phase transition and of various particles becoming non-relativistic, both of these assumptions are not strictly correct. The vanishing sound speed during the QCD phase transition provides the most dramatic effect, but its imprint is on scales smaller than the ones we consider here because the transition occurs at a significantly higher temperature and only lasts for a fraction of the Hubble time .
Before the dark matter decouples kinematically, we will treat it as a fluid which can exchange momentum with the plasma through particle collisions. At early times, the CDM fluid follows the motion of the plasma and is involved in its acoustic oscillations. The continuity and momentum equations for the CDM can be written as:
where a dot denotes an -derivative, c is the dark matter density perturbation, c is the divergence of the dark matter velocity field and c denotes the anisotropic stress. In writing these equations we have followed Ref. . The term c-1 (1 - c) encodes the transfer of momentun between the radiation and CDM fluids and c-1 provides the collisional rate of momentum transfer,
with n being the number density of particles with which the dark matter is interacting, (T) the average cross section for interaction and M the mass of the dark matter particle. The relevant scattering partners are the standard model leptons which have thermal abundances. For detailed expressions of the cross section in the case of supersymmetric (SUSY) dark matter, see Refs. [87, 159]. For our purpose, it is sufficient to specify the typical size of the cross section and its scaling with cosmic time,
where the coupling mass M is of the order of the weak-interaction scale (~ 100 GeV) for SUSY dark matter. This equation should be taken as the definition of M, as it encodes all the uncertainties in the details of the particle physics model into a single parameter. The temperature dependance of the averaged cross section is a result of the available phase space. Our results are quite insensitive to the details other than through the decoupling time. Equating c-1 / a to the Hubble expansion rate gives the temperature of kinematic decoupling:
The term k2 cs2 c in Eq. (21) results from the pressure gradient force and cs is the dark matter sound speed. In the tight coupling limit, c << H-1 we find that cs2 fc T / M and that the shear term is k2 c fv cs2 c c. Here fv and fc are constant factors of order unity. We will find that both these terms make a small difference on the scales of interest, so their precise value is unimportant.
By combining both equations in (21) into a single equation for c we get
where xd = k d and d denotes the time of kinematic decoupling which can be expressed in terms of the decoupling temperature as,
with T0 = 2.7K being the present-day CMB temperature and zd being the redshift at kinematic decoupling. We have also introduced the source function,
For x << xd, the dark matter sound speed is given by
where cs2(xd) is the dark matter sound speed at kinematic decoupling (in units of the speed of light),
In writing (28) we have assumed that prior to decoupling the temperature of the dark matter follows that of the plasma. For the viscosity term we have,
Free streaming after kinematic decoupling
In the limit of the collision rate being much slower than the Hubble expansion, the CDM is decoupled and the evolution of its perturbations is obtained by solving a Boltzman equation:
where f(r, q, ) is the distribution function which depends on position, comoving momentum q, and time. The comoving momentum 3-components are dxi / d = qi / a. We use the Boltzman equation to find the evolution of modes that are well inside the horizon with x >> 1. In the radiation era, the gravitational potential decays after horizon crossing (see Eq. 19). In this limit the comoving momentum remains constant, dqi / d =0 and the Boltzman equation becomes,
We consider a single Fourier mode and write f as,
where f0(q) is the unperturbed distribution,
where nCDM and TCDM are the present-day density and temperature of the dark matter.
Our approach is to solve the Boltzman equation with initial conditions given by the fluid solution at a time * (which will depend on k). The simplified Boltzman equation can be easily solved to give f(q, ) as a function of the initial conditions f(q, *),
The CDM overdensity c can then be expressed in terms of the perturbation in the distribution function as,
We can use (35) to obtain the evolution of c in terms of its value at *,
where kf-2 = [(Td / M)]1/2 d. The exponential term is responsible for the damping of perturbations as a result of free streaming and the dispersion of the CDM particles after they decouple from the plasma. The above expression is only valid during the radiation era. The free streaming scale is simply given by dt(v / a) dta-2 which grows logarithmically during the radiation era as in equation (37) but stops growing in the matter era when a t2/3.
Equation (37) can be used to show that even during the free streaming epoch, c satisfies equation (25) but with a modified sound speed and viscous term. For x >> xd one should use,
The differences between the above scalings and those during the tight coupling regime are a result of the fact that the dark matter temperature stops following the plasma temperature but rather scales as a-2 after thermal decoupling, which coincides with the kinematic decoupling. We ignore the effects of heat transfer during the fluid stage of the CDM because its temperature is controlled by the much larger heat reservoir of the radiation-dominated plasma at that stage.
To obtain the transfer function we solve the dark matter fluid equation until decoupling and then evolve the overdensity using equation (37) up to the time of matter - radiation equality. In practice, we use the fluid equations up to x* = 10 max(xd, 10) so as to switch into the free streaming solution well after the gravitational potential has decayed. In the fluid equations, we smoothly match the sound speed and viscosity terms at x = xd. As mentioned earlier, because cs(xd) is so small and we are interested in modes that are comparable to the size of the horizon at decoupling, i.e. xd ~ few, both the dark matter sound speed and the associated viscosity play only a minor role, and our simplified treatment is adequate.
In Figure 6 we illustrate the time evolution of modes during decoupling for a variety of k values. The situation is clear. Modes that enter the horizon before kinematic decoupling oscillate with the radiation fluid. This behavior has two important effects. In the absence of the coupling, modes receive a "kick" by the source term S(x) as they cross the horizon. After that they grow logarithmically. In our case, modes that entered the horizon before kinematic decoupling follow the plasma oscillations and thus miss out on both the horizon "kick" and the beginning of the logarithmic growth. Second, the decoupling from the radiation fluid is not instantaneous and this acts to further damp the amplitude of modes with xd >> 1. This effect can be understood as follows. Once the oscillation frequency of the mode becomes high compared to the scattering rate, the coupling to the plasma effectively damps the mode. In that limit one can replace the forcing term 0' by its average value, which is close to zero. Thus in this regime, the scattering is forcing the amplitude of the dark matter oscillations to zero. After kinematic decoupling the modes again grow logarithmically but from a very reduced amplitude. The coupling with the plasma induces both oscillations and damping of modes that entered the horizon before kinematic decoupling. This damping is different from the free streaming damping that occurs after kinematic decoupling.
Figure 6. The normalized amplitude of CDM fluctuations / p for a variety of modes with comoving wavenumbers log(kd) = (0,1/3,2/3,1,4/3,5/3,2) as a function of x k, where = 0t dt / a(t) is the conformal time coordinate. The dashed line shows the temperature monopole 30 and the uppermost (dotted) curve shows the evolution of a mode that is uncoupled to the cosmic plasma.
Figure 7. Transfer function of the CDM density perturbation amplitude (normalized by the primordial amplitude from inflation). We show two cases: (i) Td / M = 10-4 and Td / Teq = 107; (ii) Td / M = 10-5 and Td / Teq = 107. In each case the oscillatory curve is our result and the other curve is the free-streaming only result that was derived previously in the literature [4,7,8].
In Figure 7 we show the resulting transfer function of the CDM overdensity. The transfer function is defined as the ratio between the CDM density perturbation amplitude c when the effect of the coupling to the plasma is included and the same quantity in a model where the CDM is a perfect fluid down to arbitrarily small scales (thus, the power spectrum is obtained by multiplying the standard result by the square of the transfer function). This function shows both the oscillations and the damping signature mentioned above. The peaks occur at multipoles of the horizon scale at decoupling,
This same scale determines the "oscillation" damping. The free streaming damping scale is,
where Teq is the temperature at matter radiation equality, Teq 1 eV. The free streaming scale is parametrically different from the "oscillation" damping scale. However for our fiducial choice of parameters for the CDM particle they roughly coincide.
The CDM damping scale is significantly smaller than the scales observed directly in the Cosmic Microwave Background or through large scale structure surveys. For example, the ratio of the damping scale to the scale that entered the horizon at Matter-radiation equality is d / eq ~ Teq / Td ~ 10-7 and to our present horizon d / 0 ~ (Teq T0)1/2 / Td ~ 10-9. In the context of inflation, these scales were created 16 and 20 e - folds apart. Given the large extrapolation, one could certainly imagine that a change in the spectrum could alter the shape of the power spectrum around the damping scale. However, for smooth inflaton potentials with small departures from scale invariance this is not likely to be the case. On scales much smaller than the horizon at matter radiation equality, the spectrum of perturbations density before the effects of the damping are included is approximately,
where the first term encodes the shape of the primordial spectrum and the second the transfer function. Primordial departures from scale invariance are encoded in the slope n and its running . The effective slope at scale k is then,
For typical values of (n - 1) ~ 1/60 and ~ 1/602 the slope is still positive at k ~ d-1, so the cut-off in the power will come from the effects we calculate rather than from the shape of the primordial spectrum. However given the large extrapolation in scale, one should keep in mind the possibility of significant effects resulting from the mechanisms that generates the density perturbations.
Implications We have found that acoustic oscillations, a relic from the epoch when the dark matter coupled to the cosmic radiation fluid, truncate the CDM power spectrum on a comoving scale larger than effects considered before, such as free-streaming and viscosity [158, 159, 182]. For SUSY dark matter, the minimum mass of dark matter clumps that form in the Universe is therefore increased by more than an order of magnitude to a value of 4
where crit = (H02 / 8 G) = 9 × 10-30 g cm-3 is the critical density today, and m is the matter density for the concordance cosmological model . We define the cut-off wavenumber kcut as the point where the transfer function first drops to a fraction 1 / e of its value at k 0. This corresponds to kcut 3.3 d-1.
Figure 8. A slice through a numerical simulation of the first dark matter condensations to form in the Universe. Colors represent the dark matter density at z = 26. The simulated volume is 60 comoving pc on a side, simulated with 64 million particles each weighing 1.2 × 10-10 M (!). (from Diemand, Moore, & Stadel 2005 ).
Recent numerical simulations [105, 146] of the earliest and smallest objects to have formed in the Universe (see Fig. 3.4), need to be redone for the modified power spectrum that we calculated in this section. Although it is difficult to forecast the effects of the acoustic oscillations through the standard Press-Schechter formalism , it is likely that the results of such simulations will be qualitatively the same as before except that the smallest clumps would have a mass larger than before (as given by Eq. 43).
Potentially, there are several observational signatures of the smallest CDM clumps. As pointed out in the literature [105, 353], the smallest CDM clumps could produce -rays through dark-matter annihilation in their inner density cusps, with a flux in excess of that from nearby dwarf galaxies. If a substantial fraction of the Milky Way halo is composed of CDM clumps with a mass ~ 10-4 M, the nearest clump is expected to be at a distance of ~ 4 × 1017 cm. Given that the characteristic speed of such clumps is a few hundred km s-1, the -ray flux would therefore show temporal variations on the relatively long timescale of a thousand years. Passage of clumps through the solar system should also induce fluctuations in the detection rate of CDM particles in direct search experiments. Other observational effects have rather limited prospects for detectability. Because of their relatively low-mass and large size (~ 1017 cm), the CDM clumps are too diffuse to produce any gravitational lensing signatures (including femto-lensing ), even at cosmological distances.
The smallest CDM clumps should not affect the intergalactic baryons which have a much larger Jeans mass. However, once objects above ~ 106 M start to collapse at redshifts z < 30, the baryons would be able to cool inside of them via molecular hydrogen transitions and the interior baryonic Jeans mass would drop. The existence of dark matter clumps could then seed the formation of the first stars inside these objects .
3.5. Structure of the Baryons
Early Evolution of Baryonic Perturbations on Large Scales
The baryons are coupled through Thomson scattering to the radiation fluid until they become neutral and decouple. After cosmic recombination, they start to fall into the potential wells of the dark matter and their early evolution was derived by Barkana & Loeb (2005) .
On large scales, the dark matter (dm) and the baryons (b) are affected only by their combined gravity and gas pressure can be ignored. The evolution of sub-horizon linear perturbations is described in the matter-dominated regime by two coupled second-order differential equations :
where dm(t) and b(t) are the perturbations in the dark matter and baryons, respectively, the derivatives are with respect to cosmic time t, H(t) = / a is the Hubble constant with a = (1 + z)-1, and we assume that the mean mass density m(t) is made up of respective mass fractions fdm and fb = 1 - fdm. Since these linear equations contain no spatial gradients, they can be solved spatially for dm(x, t) and b(x, t) or in Fourier space for dm(k, t) and b(k, t).
Defining tot fb b + fdm dm and b- b - tot , we find
Each of these equations has two independent solutions. The equation for tot has the usual growing and decaying solutions, which we denote D1(t) and D4(t), respectively, while the b- equation has solutions D2(t) and D3(t); we number the solutions in order of declining growth rate (or increasing decay rate). We assume an Einstein-de Sitter, matter-dominated Universe in the redshift range z = 20 - 150, since the radiation contributes less than a few percent at z < 150, while the cosmological constant and the curvature contribute to the energy density less than a few percent at z > 3. In this regime a t2/3 and the solutions are D1(t) = a / ai and D4(t) = (a / ai)-3/2 for tot, and D2(t) = 1 and D3(t) = (a / ai)-1/2 for b-, where we have normalized each solution to unity at the starting scale factor ai, which we set at a redshift zi = 150. The observable baryon perturbation can then be written as
and similarly for the dark matter perturbation,
where Ci = Di for i = 1,4 and Ci = -(fb / fdm)Di for i = 2,3. We may establish the values of m(k) by inverting the 4 × 4 matrix A that relates the 4-vector (1, 2, 3, 4) to the 4-vector that represents the initial conditions (b, dm, b, dm) at the initial time.
Next we describe the fluctuations in the sound speed of the cosmic gas caused by Compton heating of the gas, which is due to scattering of the residual electrons with the CMB photons. The evolution of the temperature T of a gas element of density b is given by the first law of thermodynamics:
where dQ is the heating rate per particle. Before the first galaxies formed,
where T is the Thomson cross-section, xe(t) is the electron fraction out of the total number density of gas particles, and is the CMB energy density at a temperature T. In the redshift range of interest, we assume that the photon temperature (T= T0 / a) is spatially uniform, since the high sound speed of the photons (i.e., c / 31/2) suppresses fluctuations on the sub-horizon scales that we consider, and the horizon-scale ~ 10-5 fluctuations imprinted at cosmic recombination are also negligible compared to the smallWe establish the values of m(k) by inverting the 4 × 4 matrix A that relates the 4-vector (1, 2, 3, 4) to the 4-vector that represents the initial conditions (b, dm, b, dm) at the initial time. er-scale fluctuations in the gas density and temperature. Fluctuations in the residual electron fraction xe(t) are even smaller. Thus,
where t-1 0 (8T c / 3 me) = 8.55 × 10-13 yr-1. After cosmic recombination, xe(t) changes due to the slow recombination rate of the residual ions:
where B(T) is the case-B recombination coefficient of hydrogen, H is the mean number density of hydrogen at time t, and y = 0.079 is the helium to hydrogen number density ratio. This yields the evolution of the mean temperature, d / dt = - 2 H + xe(t) t-1 (T - ) a-4. In prior analyses [284, 230] a spatially uniform speed of sound was assumed for the gas at each redshift. Note that we refer to p / as the square of the sound speed of the fluid, where p is the pressure perturbation, although we are analyzing perturbations driven by gravity rather than sound waves driven by pressure gradients.
Instead of assuming a uniform sound speed, we find the first-order perturbation equation,
where we defined the fractional temperature perturbation T. Like the density perturbation equations, this equation can be solved separately at each x or at each k. Furthermore, the solution T (t) is a linear functional of b(t) [for a fixed function xe(t)]. Thus, if we choose an initial time ti then using Eq. (46) we can write the solution in Fourier space as
where DmT(t) is the solution of Eq. (52) with T = 0 at ti and with the perturbation mode Dm(t) substituted for b(t), while D0T(t) is the solution with no perturbation b(t) and with T = 1 at ti. By modifying the CMBFAST code (http://www.cmbfast.org/), we can numerically solve Eq. (52) along with the density perturbation equations for each k down to zi = 150, and then match the solution to the form of Eq. (53).
Figure 9 shows the time evolution of the various independent modes that make up the perturbations of density and temperature, starting at the time ti corresponding to zi = 150. D2T(t) is identically zero since D2(t) = 1 is constant, while D3T(t) and D4T(t) are negative. Figure 10 shows the amplitudes of the various components of the initial perturbations. We consider comoving wavevectors k in the range 0.01 - 40 Mpc-1, where the lower limit is set by considering sub-horizon scales at z = 150 for which photon perturbations are negligible compared to dm and b, and the upper limit is set by requiring baryonic pressure to be negligible compared to gravity. 2 and 3 clearly show a strong signature of the large-scale baryonic oscillations, left over from the era of the photon-baryon fluid before recombination, while 1, 4, and T carry only a weak sign of the oscillations. For each quantity, the plot shows [k3 P(k) / (2 2)]1/2, where P(k) is the corresponding power spectrum of fluctuations. 4 is already a very small correction at z = 150 and declines quickly at lower redshift, but the other three modes all contribute significantly to b, and the T(ti) term remains significant in T(t) even at z < 100. Note that at z = 150 the temperature perturbation T has a different shape with respect to k than the baryon perturbation b, showing that their ratio cannot be described by a scale-independent speed of sound.
Figure 9. Redshift evolution of the amplitudes of the independent modes of the density perturbations (upper panel) and the temperature perturbations (lower panel), starting at redshift 150 (from Barkana & Loeb 2005 ). We show m = 1 (solid curves), m = 2 (short-dashed curves), m = 3 (long-dashed curves), m = 4 (dotted curves), and m = 0 (dot-dashed curve). Note that the lower panel shows one plus the mode amplitude.
Figure 10. Power spectra and initial perturbation amplitudes versus wavenumber (from ). The upper panel shows b (solid curves) and dm (dashed curves) at z = 150 and 20 (from bottom to top). The lower panel shows the initial (z = 150) amplitudes of 1 (solid curve), 2 (short-dashed curve), 3 (long-dashed curve), 4 (dotted curve), and T(ti) (dot-dashed curve). Note that if 1 is positive then so are 3 and T(ti), while 2 is negative at all k, and 4 is negative at the lowest k but is positive at k > 0.017 Mpc-1.
The power spectra of the various perturbation modes and of T(ti) depend on the initial power spectrum of density fluctuations from inflation and on the values of the fundamental cosmological parameters (dm, b, , and h). If these independent power spectra can be measured through 21cm fluctuations, this will probe the basic cosmological parameters through multiple combinations, allowing consistency checks that can be used to verify the adiabatic nature and the expected history of the perturbations. Figure 11 illustrates the relative sensitivity of [P(k)]1/2 to variations in dm h2, b h2, and h, for the quantities 1, 2, 3, and T(ti). Not shown is 4, which although it is more sensitive (changing by order unity due to 10% variations in the parameters), its magnitude always remains much smaller than the other modes, making it much harder to detect. Note that although the angular scale of the baryon oscillations constrains also the history of dark energy through the angular diameter distance, we have focused here on other cosmological parameters, since the contribution of dark energy relative to matter becomes negligible at high redshift.
Figure 11. Relative sensitivity of perturbation amplitudes at z = 150 to cosmological parameters (from ). For variations in a parameter x, we show d log [P(k)]1/2 / d log(x). We consider variations in dm h2 (upper panel), in b h2 (middle panel), and in the Hubble constant h (lower panel). When we vary each parameter we fix the other two, and the variations are all carried out in a flat total = 1 universe. We show the sensitivity of 1 (solid curves), 2 (short-dashed curves), 3 (long-dashed curves), and T(ti) (dot-dashed curves).
Cosmological Jeans Mass
The Jeans length J was originally defined (Jeans 1928 ) in Newtonian gravity as the critical wavelength that separates oscillatory and exponentially-growing density perturbations in an infinite, uniform, and stationary distribution of gas. On scales smaller than J, the sound crossing time, / cs is shorter than the gravitational free-fall time, (G )-1/2, allowing the build-up of a pressure force that counteracts gravity. On larger scales, the pressure gradient force is too slow to react to a build-up of the attractive gravitational force. The Jeans mass is defined as the mass within a sphere of radius J / 2, MJ = (4 / 3) (J / 2)3. In a perturbation with a mass greater than MJ, the self-gravity cannot be supported by the pressure gradient, and so the gas is unstable to gravitational collapse. The Newtonian derivation of the Jeans instability suffers from a conceptual inconsistency, as the unperturbed gravitational force of the uniform background must induce bulk motions (compare to Binney & Tremaine 1987 ). However, this inconsistency is remedied when the analysis is done in an expanding Universe.
The perturbative derivation of the Jeans instability criterion can be carried out in a cosmological setting by considering a sinusoidal perturbation superposed on a uniformly expanding background. Here, as in the Newtonian limit, there is a critical wavelength J that separates oscillatory and growing modes. Although the expansion of the background slows down the exponential growth of the amplitude to a power-law growth, the fundamental concept of a minimum mass that can collapse at any given time remains the same (see, e.g. Kolb & Turner 1990 ; Peebles 1993 ).
We consider a mixture of dark matter and baryons with density parameters dmz = dm / c and bz = b / c, where dm is the average dark matter density, b is the average baryonic density, c is the critical density, and dmz + bz = mz is given by equation(83). We also assume spatial fluctuations in the gas and dark matter densities with the form of a single spherical Fourier mode on a scale much smaller than the horizon,
where dm(t) and b(t) are the background densities of the dark matter and baryons, dm(t) and b(t) are the dark matter and baryon overdensity amplitudes, r is the comoving radial coordinate, and k is the comoving perturbation wavenumber. We adopt an ideal gas equation-of-state for the baryons with a specific heat ratio = 5/3. Initially, at time t = ti, the gas temperature is uniform Tb(r, ti) = Ti, and the perturbation amplitudes are small dm,i, b,i << 1. We define the region inside the first zero of sin(kr) / (kr), namely 0 < kr < , as the collapsing "object".
The evolution of the temperature of the baryons Tb(r, t) in the linear regime is determined by the coupling of their free electrons to the CMB through Compton scattering, and by the adiabatic expansion of the gas. Hence, Tb(r, t) is generally somewhere between the CMB temperature, T (1 + z)-1 and the adiabatically-scaled temperature Tad (1 + z)-2. In the limit of tight coupling to T, the gas temperature remains uniform. On the other hand, in the adiabatic limit, the temperature develops a gradient according to the relation
The evolution of a cold dark matter overdensity, dm(t), in the linear regime is described by the equation (44),
whereas the evolution of the overdensity of the baryons, b(t), with the inclusion of their pressure force is described by (see Section 9.3.2 of ),
Here, H(t) = / a is the Hubble parameter at a cosmological time t, and µ = 1.22 is the mean molecular weight of the neutral primordial gas in atomic units. The parameter distinguishes between the two limits for the evolution of the gas temperature. In the adiabatic limit = 1, and when the baryon temperature is uniform and locked to the background radiation, = 0. The last term on the right hand side (in square brackets) takes into account the extra pressure gradient force in (b T) = (T b + b T), arising from the temperature gradient which develops in the adiabatic limit. The Jeans wavelength J = 2 / kJ is obtained by setting the right-hand side of equation (58) to zero, and solving for the critical wavenumber kJ. As can be seen from equation (58), the critical wavelength J (and therefore the mass MJ) is in general time-dependent. We infer from equation (58) that as time proceeds, perturbations with increasingly smaller initial wavelengths stop oscillating and start to grow.
To estimate the Jeans wavelength, we equate the right-hand-side of equation (58) to zero. We further approximate b ~ dm, and consider sufficiently high redshifts at which the Universe is matter dominated and flat, (1 + z) >> max[(1 - m - ) / m, ( / m)1/3]. In this regime, b << m 1, H 2 / (3t), and a = (1 + z)-1 (3H0 (m)1/2 / 2)2/3 t2/3, where m = dm + b is the total matter density parameter. Following cosmological recombination at z 103, the residual ionization of the cosmic gas keeps its temperature locked to the CMB temperature (via Compton scattering) down to a redshift of
In the redshift range between recombination and zt, = 0 and
so that the Jeans mass is therefore redshift independent and obtains the value (for the total mass of baryons and dark matter)
Based on the similarity of MJ to the mass of a globular cluster, Peebles & Dicke (1968) suggested that globular clusters form as the first generation of baryonic objects shortly after cosmological recombination. Peebles & Dicke assumed a baryonic Universe, with a nonlinear fluctuation amplitude on small scales at z ~ 103, a model which has by now been ruled out. The lack of a dominant mass of dark matter inside globular clusters makes it unlikely that they formed through direct cosmological collapse, and more likely that they resulted from fragmentation during the process of galaxy formation.
Figure 12. Thermal history of the baryons, left over from the big bang, before the first galaxies formed. The residual fraction of free electrons couple the gas temperture Tgas to the cosmic microwave background temperature [T (1 + z)] until a redshift z ~ 200. Subsequently the gas temperature cools adiabatically at a faster rate [Tgas (1 + z)2]. Also shown is the spin temperature of the 21cm transition of hydrogen Ts which interpolates between the gas and radiation temperature and will be discussed in detail later in this review.
At z < zt, the gas temperature declines adiabatically as [(1 + z) / ( 1 + zt)]2 (i.e., = 1) and the total Jeans mass obtains the value,
It is not clear how the value of the Jeans mass derived above relates to the mass of collapsed, bound objects. The above analysis is perturbative (Eqs. 57 and 58 are valid only as long as b and dm are much smaller than unity), and thus can only describe the initial phase of the collapse. As b and dm grow and become larger than unity, the density profiles start to evolve and dark matter shells may cross baryonic shells due to their different dynamics. Hence the amount of mass enclosed within a given baryonic shell may increase with time, until eventually the dark matter pulls the baryons with it and causes their collapse even for objects below the Jeans mass.
Even within linear theory, the Jeans mass is related only to the evolution of perturbations at a given time. When the Jeans mass itself varies with time, the overall suppression of the growth of perturbations depends on a time-weighted Jeans mass. Gnedin & Hui (1998) showed that the correct time-weighted mass is the filtering mass Mf = (4 /3) (2 a / kf)3, in terms of the comoving wavenumber kf associated with the "filtering scale" (note the change in convention from / kJ to 2 / kf). The wavenumber kf is related to the Jeans wavenumber kJ by
where D(t) is the linear growth factor. At high redshift (where mz 1), this relation simplifies to
Then the relationship between the linear overdensity of the dark matter dm and the linear overdensity of the baryons b, in the limit of small k, can be written as
Linear theory specifies whether an initial perturbation, characterized by the parameters k, dm,i, b,i and ti, begins to grow. To determine the minimum mass of nonlinear baryonic objects resulting from the shell-crossing and virialization of the dark matter, we must use a different model which examines the response of the gas to the gravitational potential of a virialized dark matter halo.
3.6. Formation of Nonlinear Objects
3.7. Spherical Collapse
Let us consider a spherically symmetric density or velocity perturbation of the smooth cosmological background, and examine the dynamics of a test particle at a radius r relative to the center of symmetry. Birkhoff's (1923) theorem implies that we may ignore the mass outside this radius in computing the motion of our particle. We further find that the relativistic equations of motion describing the system reduce to the usual Friedmann equation for the evolution of the scale factor of a homogeneous Universe, but with a density parameter that now takes account of the additional mass or peculiar velocity. In particular, despite the arbitrary density and velocity profiles given to the perturbation, only the total mass interior to the particle's radius and the peculiar velocity at the particle's radius contribute to the effective value of . We thus find a solution to the particle's motion which describes its departure from the background Hubble flow and its subsequent collapse or expansion. This solution holds until our particle crosses paths with one from a different radius, which happens rather late for most initial profiles.
As with the Friedmann equation for a smooth Universe, it is possible to reinterpret the problem into a Newtonian form. Here we work in an inertial (i.e. non-comoving) coordinate system and consider the force on the particle as that resulting from a point mass at the origin (ignoring the possible presence of a vacuum energy density):
where G is Newton's constant, r is the distance of the particle from the center of the spherical perturbation, and M is the total mass within that radius. As long as the radial shells do not cross each other, the mass M is constant in time. The initial density profile determines M, while the initial velocity profile determines dr / dt at the initial time. As is well-known, there are three branches of solutions: one in which the particle turns around and collapses, another in which it reaches an infinite radius with some asymptotically positive velocity, and a third intermediate case in which it reachs an infinite radius but with a velocity that approaches zero. These cases may be written as :
where A3 = GMB2 applies in all cases. All three solutions have r3 = 9GMt2 / 2 as t goes to zero, which matches the linear theory expectation that the perturbation amplitude get smaller as one goes back in time. In the closed case, the shell turns around at time B and radius 2A and collapses to zero radius at time 2 B.
We are now faced with the problem of relating the spherical collapse parameters A, B, and M to the linear theory density perturbation . We do this by returning to the equation of motion. Consider that at an early epoch (i.e. scale factor ai << 1), we are given a spherical patch of uniform overdensity i (the so-called `top-hat' perturbation). If is essentially unity at this time and if the perturbation is pure growing mode, then the initial velocity is radially inward with magnitude i H(ti)r / 3, where H(ti) is the Hubble constant at the initial time and r is the radius from the center of the sphere. This can be easily seen from the continuity equation in spherical coordinates. The equation of motion (in noncomoving coordinates) for a particle beginning at radius ri is simply
where M = (4 / 3) ri3 i (1 + i) and i is the background density of the Universe at time ti. We next define the dimensionless radius x = rai / ri and rewrite equation (70) as
Our initial conditions for the integration of this orbit are
where H(t1) = H0[m / a3(t1) + (1 - m)]1/2 is the Hubble parameter for a flat Universe at a a cosmic time t1. Integrating equation (71) yields
where K is a constant of integration. Evaluating this at the initial time and dropping terms of O(ai) (but i ~ ai, so we keep ratios of order unity), we find
If K is sufficiently negative, the particle will turn-around and the sphere will collapse at a time
where amax is the value of a which sets the denominator of the integral to zero.
For the case of = 0, we can determine the spherical collapse parameters A and B. K > 0 (K < 0) produces an open (closed) model. Comparing coefficients in the energy equations [eq. (74) and the integration of (66)], one finds
where k = 1 - m. In particular, in an = 1 Universe, where 1 + z = (3H0 t / 2)-2/3, we find that a shell collapses at redshift 1 + zc = 0.5929i / ai, or in other words a shell collapsing at redshift zc had a linear overdensity extrapolated to the present day of 0 = 1.686(1 + zc).
While this derivation has been for spheres of constant density, we may treat a general spherical density profile i(r) up until shell crossing . A particular radial shell evolves according to the mass interior to it; therefore, we define the average overdensity
so that we may use in place of i in the above formulae. If is not monotonically decreasing with R, then the spherical top-hat evolution of two different radii will predict that they cross each other at some late time; this is known as shell crossing and signals the breakdown of the solution. Even well-behaved profiles will produce shell crossing if shells are allowed to collapse to r = 0 and then reexpand, since these expanding shells will cross infalling shells. In such a case, first-time infalling shells will never be affected prior to their turn-around; the more complicated behavior after turn-around is a manifestation of virialization. While the end state for general initial conditions cannot be predicted, various results are known for a self-similar collapse, in which (r) is a power-law [132, 40], as well as for the case of secondary infall models [156, 165, 181].
3.8. Halo Properties
The small density fluctuations evidenced in the CMB grow over time as described in the previous subsection, until the perturbation becomes of order unity, and the full non-linear gravitational problem must be considered. The dynamical collapse of a dark matter halo can be solved analytically only in cases of particular symmetry. If we consider a region which is much smaller than the horizon cH-1, then the formation of a halo can be formulated as a problem in Newtonian gravity, in some cases with minor corrections coming from General Relativity. The simplest case is that of spherical symmetry, with an initial (t = ti << t0) top-hat of uniform overdensity i inside a sphere of radius R. Although this model is restricted in its direct applicability, the results of spherical collapse have turned out to be surprisingly useful in understanding the properties and distribution of halos in models based on cold dark matter.
The collapse of a spherical top-hat perturbation is described by the Newtonian equation (with a correction for the cosmological constant)
where r is the radius in a fixed (not comoving) coordinate frame, H0 is the present-day Hubble constant, M is the total mass enclosed within radius r, and the initial velocity field is given by the Hubble flow dr / dt = H(t) r. The enclosed grows initially as L = i D(t) / D(ti), in accordance with linear theory, but eventually grows above L. If the mass shell at radius r is bound (i.e., if its total Newtonian energy is negative) then it reaches a radius of maximum expansion and subsequently collapses. As demonstrated in the previous section, at the moment when the top-hat collapses to a point, the overdensity predicted by linear theory is L = 1.686 in the Einstein-de Sitter model, with only a weak dependence on m and . Thus a tophat collapses at redshift z if its linear overdensity extrapolated to the present day (also termed the critical density of collapse) is
where we set D(z = 0) = 1.
Even a slight violation of the exact symmetry of the initial perturbation can prevent the tophat from collapsing to a point. Instead, the halo reaches a state of virial equilibrium by violent relaxation (phase mixing). Using the virial theorem U = -2K to relate the potential energy U to the kinetic energy K in the final state (implying that the virial radius is half the turnaround radius - where the kinetic energy vanishes), the final overdensity relative to the critical density at the collapse redshift is c = 182 178 in the Einstein-de Sitter model, modified in a Universe with m + = 1 to the fitting formula (Bryan & Norman 1998 )
where d mz-1 is evaluated at the collapse redshift, so that
A halo of mass M collapsing at redshift z thus has a virial radius
and a corresponding circular velocity,
In these expressions we have assumed a present Hubble constant written in the form H0 = 100 h km s-1Mpc-1. We may also define a virial temperature
where µ is the mean molecular weight and mp is the proton mass. Note that the value of µ depends on the ionization fraction of the gas; for a fully ionized primordial gas µ = 0.59, while a gas with ionized hydrogen but only singly-ionized helium has µ = 0.61. The binding energy of the halo is approximately 5
Note that the binding energy of the baryons is smaller by a factor equal to the baryon fraction b / m.
Although spherical collapse captures some of the physics governing the formation of halos, structure formation in cold dark matter models procedes hierarchically. At early times, most of the dark matter is in low-mass halos, and these halos continuously accrete and merge to form high-mass halos. Numerical simulations of hierarchical halo formation indicate a roughly universal spherically-averaged density profile for the resulting halos (Navarro, Frenk, & White 1997, hereafter NFW ), though with considerable scatter among different halos (e.g., ). The NFW profile has the form
where x = r / rvir, and the characteristic density c is related to the concentration parameter cN by
The concentration parameter itself depends on the halo mass M, at a given redshift z .
More recent N-body simulations indicate deviations from the original NFW profile; for details and refined fitting formula see .
1 http://www.eso.org/projects/owl/ Back.
2 http://celt.ucolick.org/ Back.
3 http://www.gmto.org/ Back.
4 Our definition of the cut-off mass follows the convention of the Jeans mass, which is defined as the mass enclosed within a sphere of radius J/2 where J 2 / kJ is the Jeans wavelength . Back.
5 The coefficient of 1/2 in equation (87) would be exact for a singular isothermal sphere, (r) 1/r2. Back. | <urn:uuid:32b223a2-eb84-43e7-9eec-665431ec4411> | CC-MAIN-2014-23 | http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Sept06/Loeb/Loeb3.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-23/segments/1406510259834.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20140728011739-00465-ip-10-146-231-18.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.90696 | 14,952 | 3.6875 | 4 |
Checklist for a School Visit
- Get a name and contact information for a teacher/instructor who is interested in having a scientist visit his/her classroom. Alternatively, contact the main office of your neighborhood school and let them know you are available if they would like a visitor.
- Give the teacher a call or an email and ask how you may best serve their
needs and those of their students.
- Ask the teacher what previous knowledge and experience the students have had about the topic of your visit and what content they want covered.
- Ask the teacher for specifics about the number of students you will work with at various times.
- Ask the teacher what type of instructional methods (lecture and question and answer session, or hands-on activities and experiments, or a combination) would work best for the specific visit you plan?
- Ask about the space you will be assigned and the technology and tools available. If you will be bringing activities or experiments for the class to do, make sure that the classroom is equipped for them. For instance, you may need tables, running water, or electricity depending on the activities. Or for a slide show you may wish to inquire about the availability of a screen and projector.
- Confirm the date, time and directions to the location of your visit. If you will be driving, ask where they would like you to park your car. (Some schools have large parking areas while others have smaller areas or special areas for visitors.)
- Confirm the length of time that you will have to deliver your classroom program.
- Based on your audience, decide on the types of activities you will do with
the students during your program. Resources for
fun classroom activities:
- Browse the classroom activities section of Windows to the Universe for directions to over 100 Earth and space science hands-on lessons for K-12 students.
- The National Earth Science Teachers Association provide access to a wide variety of classroom activities and other educational resources that you may find useful.
- A wealth of excellent science lessons can be found at the Digital Library for Earth System Education
- The GLOBE Program Teachers Guide provides learning activities for grades K-12
- Practice your presentation and practice how you are going to deliver instructions for any experiments or activities you plan to do with the students.
- Make a note of science terminology that you might use and think of alternative vocabulary that might be more familiar to students. For terms that you will absolutely need to use, note quick and simple definitions that can be used to describe each.
- If you will be bringing potentially hazardous items into the classroom (such as fire, live animals, or chemicals) or items that are common allergens (such as food products, especially peanuts), check with the teacher to see if there are school or classroom rules to which you should adhere.
- Check supplies. Make sure that you have everything you need and that the equipment you are bringing into the classroom works properly before your visit. If you are doing experiments or activities with the students, make sure that you have enough supplies for all students to participate.
- Estimate how much set-up time you will need and plan accordingly.
- Arrive early! Most schools now have some form of security so check with a staff member at the school�s front office when you arrive. You might need to sign in and sign out. You might need to wear a visitor badge when you are in the building.
- Have fun!
- Scientists in Schools Home
- About Scientists in Schools
- Getting to Know a School
- Definitions of Common Educational Terms
- Checklist for a School Visit
- Working with K-12 Students
- Science Topics for Students of Different Ages
- Making a Lesson Plan
- Recommended Resources | <urn:uuid:8db4ba2e-df9b-444d-8e78-feecac9c0df2> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.windows2universe.org/teacher_resources/sci_schools/ss4.html&edu=mid | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368711240143/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516133400-00082-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941861 | 772 | 3.609375 | 4 |
The War Lovers
When war was considered glorious.
Today, when Americans seem oblivious to the bloody battles their own country is waging overseas, it is worth recalling that there was a time when the nation was obsessed with war. While the struggles in Iraq and Afghanistan no longer occupy the front pages of the nation’s newspapers, in 1898 the American people were galvanized by a conflict 90 miles from the American mainland.
When the United States took up arms against the Spanish in Cuba that year, many Americans, especially those in the leadership class, embraced the notion that it was salutary to shed blood on foreign battlefields. Convinced that world politics was a Darwinian struggle pitting nation against nation, men like New York’s Theodore Roosevelt and Sen. Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts were certain that going to war would keep the US from growing flabby. Countries that were unwilling to fight were destined to become irrelevant, they believed.
A year before America intervened in Cuba, Roosevelt, the assistant secretary of the Navy, declared that “all the great masterful races have been fighting races. And the minute that a race loses its hard fighting virtues, it has lost its proud right to stand as the equal of the best.” Fired up by such thinking, Roosevelt and his energetic crowd were determined to make sure the US did not remain on the sidelines.
In The War Lovers: Roosevelt, Lodge, Hearst, and the Rush to Empire, 1898, Evan Thomas, an editor at Newsweek and the author of several works of history, tells the story of this feverish era. Altogether readable, “The War Lovers” engagingly conveys what happened in this consequential period.
Training a biographical lens on America’s engagement with the world at the close of the 19th century, Thomas offers an action-packed narrative replete with vivid descriptions of key events and deft character sketches. The book considers the activities and attitudes of policymakers like Roosevelt and Lodge, and those of newspaper mogul William Randolph Hearst, who, in an effort to sell papers, ginned up support for the war against Spain with a barrage of overheated stories in his New York Journal.
In the run-up to war, many claimed America was obliged to rescue Cuba from its brutal Spanish master, even if the Cubans were seen as an inferior people. (Lest one forget, America’s neighbors to the south were not Anglo-Saxons, and most white Americans viewed them as a degraded race.)
Others, like Roosevelt (who would actually fight in the war) and his ideological brethren, were obsessed with maintaining America’s vigor. Whether the US was more concerned about the plight of oppressed Cubans or its own future as an emerging world power remains an open question. Perhaps it was a bit of both.
Whatever the reason, the war against Spain began in April 1898. By August, it was over. In the wake of America’s “liberation” of Cuba, the US immediately replaced Spanish tyranny with its own brand of imperialism, which would last until the mid-20th century.
Nor was America’s imperial project confined to Cuba. The acquisition of the Philippines, part of the Spanish Empire, was another consequence of the war. According to the US Navy’s war plan, in the event of a conflict with Spain, America would seize the island chain. With the start of the war, a Navy squadron steamed to Manila Bay and easily accomplished its mission.
A ferocious domestic debate ensued, since it was not at all clear why the US needed the Philippines. It was America’s duty to uplift the Filipinos, some declared, while others thought controlling the islands would open the vast markets of Asia to American exports.
But opponents of annexation were unconvinced, claiming imperial lust was an Old World practice that undermined American principles. Others recoiled at the thought of establishing a connection with the islanders, whose nonwhite racial identity made them repugnant.
In the end, President McKinley, helped (he said) by a message from God who guided the president as he weighed his options, backed annexation. In a close vote, the Senate agreed.
Once annexation was announced, war erupted between the US and the Filipinos. It was an extraordinarily brutal affair in which tens of thousands died. Not surprisingly, the islanders did not relish trading Spanish for American imperialism, which is precisely what happened. By the early 20th century, the US had become an imperial power.
Years later, as Roosevelt neared the end of his life, his love of war – and that’s what it was – would be severely tested. The man who had eagerly led his men into battle in Cuba learned that his youngest son, Quentin, had been killed in World War I.
Roosevelt never got over the death of his son. Day after day, he sat staring into space. Sometimes he could be heard repeating the boy’s childhood nickname, “Quen-tee, Quen-tee.”
Perhaps war was not so lovely after all. | <urn:uuid:781f0ade-4e5e-4c77-bf04-a1cb5e07369f> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | https://www.csmonitor.com/Books/Book-Reviews/2010/0519/The-War-Lovers | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676591543.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20180720061052-20180720081052-00318.warc.gz | en | 0.980582 | 1,059 | 2.71875 | 3 |
First What is the OFFSET function? This is a specific tool within Excel, which allows you to return a reference to a specific range, which at this time can be a number of lines and columns that are within a cell or even a range of cells. Similarly, you can specify the number of columns that will be returned.
Terms within the desref function you should know about
- Reference: This is a mandatory value, on which the reference within the move itself will be based. This reference is based on a cell or a range adjacent to the cells. You can also use and create relative references in Excel while recording macros.
- Lines: corresponds to the number of lines found on this page Excel. Top or bottom, it is a mandatory value, which cannot and must not be missing. If the number 5 is inside the line argument.
- The cell I would refer to would be five lines down, depending on the specs entered. The lines discussed here can be positive or negative.
- Column: includes the entire number of columns found there. As for the rows, it will refer to the total number both upper and lower and with positive or negative values. Besides that you can add more rows and columns using the macro.
- Alto: although it is an optional value, it cannot be forgotten. Since it talks about the number of lines, which the value must have as a reference to the return. However, this number must be positive without exception.
Considerations to be taken into consideration
- It is important that the lines and the column are positioned in such a way that they never protrude from the values entered in the spreadsheet, otherwise the value OFFSET the will return as #REF!
- It is important not to omit any of the arguments within the OFFSET value. If omitted, the default values will not be correct.
- Many confuse the value OFFSET with some other attribute of cell offsets, but the reality is, this doesn't change any selection, it just returns the same with a reference. You can use this OFFSET function with any destination needed to get a reference.
What are the practical uses of this feature?
- It is a perfect support when creating a dynamic range. Excel is one tool very useful, which allows us to name a specific range of cells. All for reference purposes. If in this case it is necessary increase or decrease the size of these intervals, it will be sufficient to change the name and the associated interval consecutively.
- Within the pages Excel, each of the values entered there can be changed and displayed automatically. These lists a downhill they are part of data validation within Excel and are based on data ranges, which are already predetermined.
Excel is a tool that requires dedication when using them, hence the function OFFSET it is very useful when used in conjunction with other specifications.TagsEccellere | <urn:uuid:02516412-c54c-4f7e-810e-aa2f29c31f60> | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://www.guides4win.com/en/how-the-desref-function-works-in-excel-complete-guide | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224646937.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20230531150014-20230531180014-00105.warc.gz | en | 0.902866 | 593 | 3.625 | 4 |
Zygopetalum orchids have long history. In 1827, a Brazilian name Mackay gave an orchid to the famous orchid botanist, Sir William Hooker. Sir Hooker examined this unique new orchid and created a new genus for it: Zygopetalum. The first species of Zygopetalum orchids was named Zygopetalum mackayi in honor of that Brazilian gentleman. This genus derives its name from the Greek zygon (yoke) and petalon (petal), and is a perfect description of the growth at the base of the lip. These plants produce multiple blooms that can last for up to 8 weeks, and are often bred to be used as cut flowers.
Native to the mid-elevation regions of South America, Zygopetalum orchids are epiphytes and terrestrials. Because these orchids produce leathery strap-like leaves, they are often classified as “soft orchids. The leaves are apical and usually oblong. The pseudobulbs are conical or ovoid, deciduous, and produce 24 inch long inflorescences. The blossoms are usually 2 to 3 inches in diameter, racemose and grow laterally along the leaves. These blooms are known for the waxy look and feel and for their fragrance. Flowers come in a variety of colors, including green, purple, raspberry and burgundy.
Grow Zygopetalum orchids in a well-drained medium like fir bark in a warm sunny location. This genus likes bright light (3,000 to 4,000 foot candles), particularly morning and afternoon sun, but should avoid hot midday sun. As with other orchid genera, the leaves of this plant act as a light indicator. If the plant is getting the right amount of the sun, the leaves will be light green with just a touch of yellow. If the leaves are dark green, the orchid needs more sun.
Watering Zygopetalum orchids can be a bit of a balancing act. These plants like water, but don’t want to be soggy. They don’t want to be completely dry, either. Watering once a week is probably sufficient, but you should pay attention to heat and humidity, and adjust watering accordingly.
As natives of South America, particularly of Brazil, Zygopetalum orchids like warmth. In fact, these plants can take more heat than the average orchid, as long as it can have mild temperatures at night (50-65 degrees Fahrenheit). This orchid can tolerate cooler night temperatures, too, but only before it flowers. After that it should be kept in temperatures above 35 degrees, and should never be exposed to frost or freezing temperatures. In frost-free climates, such as Southern California, some species can be grown outdoors as long as they are protected from the hottest sun of the day.
Zygopetalum orchids do not go dormant, so they should be fed all year round. A balanced orchid fertilizer (20-20-20) is a good bet. Dilute to half strength and give to the plant at every other watering. The frequency of repotting depends on the type of medium. If your orchids live in bark, repot every year. If you’re using sphagnum moss, you can wait two years before repotting the plant. The best time to repot is immediately after all of the blooms have opened and are spent. Use a moist mix, and don’t press the medium too firmly into the pot. This orchid likes lots of air spaces.
Photo courtesy of hbp_pix | <urn:uuid:69bb702e-e955-4202-88d3-c37947b6839b> | CC-MAIN-2017-17 | http://everything-orchids.com/types-of-orchids/zygopetalum-orchids | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917123318.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031203-00556-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929499 | 791 | 3.0625 | 3 |
In 1953 Linus Pauling and Robert Corey published their structure of DNA, 3 strands twisted around each other. Shortly after that James Watson and Francis Crick published the correct structure of DNA, the one on which the biotechnology industry is built.That is the way science goes. Scientists make discoveries, publish their work, and others come along to either support or dispute those discoveries. Imagine if we had just rushed to judgment back then and gone no further? The technology that we appreciate today in science and medicine would have never been.
But it is a rush to judgment that we are in grave danger of exposing ourselves to. And, our nation’s very energy security hangs in the balance.
The issue at hand? The DesMoinesRegister.com spells it out,
“Rules expected out of the Bush administration soon could shape the growth of the biofuels industry for years to come.
Under the 2007 energy bill, new ethanol projects will have to meet standards for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, or else the fuel the plants produce won’t qualify for meeting the nation’s annual biofuels targets.
It was left up to the Environmental Protection Agency to decide how the emissions of projects would be measured, and the agency is close to issuing its proposed rules.
Industry officials say the rules could chill investment in new projects because the agency’s formula will consider the impact new biofuel production will have on global land use. That’s based on the theory that when crops are used for fuel production rather than food, then land somewhere else in the world must be cleared and broken for production of food crops. Converting forests to cropland releases heat-trapping carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, and those emissions would be attributed to the biofuels project.
Even projects that would make fuel from nonfood crops such as switchgrass could be affected by the EPA rules, if the land that the grass will be grown on is now planted to corn, wheat or other food crops.”
Many involved in this policy argument are relying on the study by Searchinger et al. (Science, 319, 1238-40, 2008). Although this is an important study, we must be careful not to rush to judgment. We need more research. Those thoughts are echoed in a policy forum in the October 3 issue of Science,
“Sustainable biofuel production systems could play a highly positive role in mitigating climate change, enhancing environmental quality, and strengthening the global economy, but it will take sound, science-based policy and additional research effort to make this so.”
The Searchinger study neglects some key issues as we pointed out in a previous fact sheet. The simple fact is, we need more research. We cannot stop here. If we do, we run the risk of going with the wrong scientific answer — that’s just bad science. And bad science does not make good policy. We have to do what Watson and Crick did; we have to examine the existing research, take the next scientific steps, and decide where to go from there. After all, that’s what got us this far. | <urn:uuid:3f7c5924-a68a-4216-baec-28de09110143> | CC-MAIN-2017-17 | http://www.biotech-now.org/environmental-industrial/biofuels-climate-change/2008/10/dont-rush-to-judgment | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917118713.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031158-00167-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948282 | 645 | 2.75 | 3 |
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