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wiki20220301en020_101927	Dullah Omar	Government minister In 1994, Omar became Minister of Justice in South Africa in Nelson Mandela's ANC government, and was the first cabinet minister appointed Acting President in the absence of both the President and Deputy President from South Africa. He played a major role in transforming the South African justice system. One of his principal actions was the promulgation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in July 1995 to look into the crimes committed during apartheid and offer platforms for victims and/or their families to confront the perpetrators, who would in turn be offered amnesty for coming forward. The model served as an inspiration for other post-conflict societies in places such as Sierra Leonne and Rwanda. In 1999, following the election of Thabo Mbeki as President, Omar became the Minister of Transport, a post that he held until his death from cancer.	Dullah Omar. Government minister In 1994, Omar became Minister of Justice in South Africa in Nelson Mandela's ANC government, and was the first cabinet minister appointed Acting President in the absence of both the President and Deputy President from South Africa. He played a major role in transforming the South African justice system. One of his principal actions was the promulgation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in July 1995 to look into the crimes committed during apartheid and offer platforms for victims and/or their families to confront the perpetrators, who would in turn be offered amnesty for coming forward. The model served as an inspiration for other post-conflict societies in places such as Sierra Leonne and Rwanda. In 1999, following the election of Thabo Mbeki as President, Omar became the Minister of Transport, a post that he held until his death from cancer.	523581
wiki20220301en020_101928	Dullah Omar	In 1999, following the election of Thabo Mbeki as President, Omar became the Minister of Transport, a post that he held until his death from cancer. Of Indian descent and a lifelong resident of the Western Cape, he was married with three children, and was buried with official honours, and in accordance with Muslim tradition on the day of his death. References External links A biography of Dullah Omar An ANC profile of Omar 1934 births 2004 deaths South African democracy activists South African Muslims South African politicians of Indian descent University of Cape Town alumni Deaths from cancer in South Africa African National Congress politicians Members of the National Assembly of South Africa Justice ministers of South Africa South African people of Gujarati descent Alumni of Trafalgar High School (Cape Town) Members of the Order of Luthuli	Dullah Omar. In 1999, following the election of Thabo Mbeki as President, Omar became the Minister of Transport, a post that he held until his death from cancer. Of Indian descent and a lifelong resident of the Western Cape, he was married with three children, and was buried with official honours, and in accordance with Muslim tradition on the day of his death. References External links A biography of Dullah Omar An ANC profile of Omar 1934 births 2004 deaths South African democracy activists South African Muslims South African politicians of Indian descent University of Cape Town alumni Deaths from cancer in South Africa African National Congress politicians Members of the National Assembly of South Africa Justice ministers of South Africa South African people of Gujarati descent Alumni of Trafalgar High School (Cape Town) Members of the Order of Luthuli	523581
wiki20220301en020_101929	Acco (Senones)	Acco was a chief of the Senones in Gaul, who induced his countrymen to revolt against Julius Caesar in 53 BC. On the conclusion of the war, and after a conference at Durocortorum, Caesar had Acco tried and convicted on charges of treason. As punishment, he was flogged to death in the full sight of the other leaders of that people. References Barbarian people of the Gallic Wars Celtic warriors Gaulish rulers Celts 53 BC deaths Senones 1st-century BC rulers in Europe Year of birth unknown	Acco (Senones). Acco was a chief of the Senones in Gaul, who induced his countrymen to revolt against Julius Caesar in 53 BC. On the conclusion of the war, and after a conference at Durocortorum, Caesar had Acco tried and convicted on charges of treason. As punishment, he was flogged to death in the full sight of the other leaders of that people. References Barbarian people of the Gallic Wars Celtic warriors Gaulish rulers Celts 53 BC deaths Senones 1st-century BC rulers in Europe Year of birth unknown	523586
wiki20220301en020_101930	David McLetchie	David William McLetchie CBE (6 August 1952 – 12 August 2013) was a Scottish politician who served as Leader of the Scottish Conservative Party from 1999 to 2005. He was Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for the Edinburgh Pentlands constituency from 2003 to 2011 and the Lothian region from 1999 to 2003 and 2011 to 2013. Early life and career Born in Edinburgh, McLetchie attended Leith Academy and George Heriot's School and graduated from the University of Edinburgh with a degree in Law in 1974. He trained as a solicitor with Shepherd and Wedderburn, before joining Tods Murray where he was assumed a partner. He specialised in tax, trusts, and estate planning. In 1979, he contested the Edinburgh Central seat for the Conservatives, but lost to Robin Cook of the Labour Party. Member of the Scottish Parliament	David McLetchie. David William McLetchie CBE (6 August 1952 – 12 August 2013) was a Scottish politician who served as Leader of the Scottish Conservative Party from 1999 to 2005. He was Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for the Edinburgh Pentlands constituency from 2003 to 2011 and the Lothian region from 1999 to 2003 and 2011 to 2013. Early life and career Born in Edinburgh, McLetchie attended Leith Academy and George Heriot's School and graduated from the University of Edinburgh with a degree in Law in 1974. He trained as a solicitor with Shepherd and Wedderburn, before joining Tods Murray where he was assumed a partner. He specialised in tax, trusts, and estate planning. In 1979, he contested the Edinburgh Central seat for the Conservatives, but lost to Robin Cook of the Labour Party. Member of the Scottish Parliament	523604
wiki20220301en020_101931	David McLetchie	Member of the Scottish Parliament Leader of the Scottish Conservative Party McLetchie became Leader of the Scottish Conservative Party upon the creation of the Scottish Parliament in 1999, having been elected in the 1998 Scottish Conservative Party leadership election. He was forced to resign as Scottish Conservative leader following a scandal over his expense claims in 2005. Resignation McLetchie announced his resignation as Scottish Conservative Party leader on 31 October 2005, after it was revealed he had spent £11,500 of taxpayers' money on taxi fares, more than any other MSP. The problem was not so much the large bill, but that he had used taxis for Conservative party business (as opposed to constituency business). His successor as leader was Annabel Goldie.	David McLetchie. Member of the Scottish Parliament Leader of the Scottish Conservative Party McLetchie became Leader of the Scottish Conservative Party upon the creation of the Scottish Parliament in 1999, having been elected in the 1998 Scottish Conservative Party leadership election. He was forced to resign as Scottish Conservative leader following a scandal over his expense claims in 2005. Resignation McLetchie announced his resignation as Scottish Conservative Party leader on 31 October 2005, after it was revealed he had spent £11,500 of taxpayers' money on taxi fares, more than any other MSP. The problem was not so much the large bill, but that he had used taxis for Conservative party business (as opposed to constituency business). His successor as leader was Annabel Goldie.	523604
wiki20220301en020_101932	David McLetchie	Backbencher McLetchie was elected as an additional member for the Lothians region in 1999 and the Edinburgh Pentlands constituency in 2003. Following his resignation as leader, he had a short spell as a backbencher in the Parliament though he remained a prominent figure, his major successes from this period include his campaigns on free personal care and road pricing. McLetchie was re-elected in Edinburgh Pentlands in 2007 with an increased share of the vote and his majority doubled. On his return, he was made Conservative Chief Whip and business manager, a role which was set to be more important than ever before; given the minority SNP administration. However, he lost his seat to Gordon MacDonald of the SNP in 2011. Although not re-elected in Pentlands, he was returned to Parliament as a "list" MSP for the Lothian region. Personal life McLetchie was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2013 Birthday Honours. He died of cancer on 12 August 2013.	David McLetchie. Backbencher McLetchie was elected as an additional member for the Lothians region in 1999 and the Edinburgh Pentlands constituency in 2003. Following his resignation as leader, he had a short spell as a backbencher in the Parliament though he remained a prominent figure, his major successes from this period include his campaigns on free personal care and road pricing. McLetchie was re-elected in Edinburgh Pentlands in 2007 with an increased share of the vote and his majority doubled. On his return, he was made Conservative Chief Whip and business manager, a role which was set to be more important than ever before; given the minority SNP administration. However, he lost his seat to Gordon MacDonald of the SNP in 2011. Although not re-elected in Pentlands, he was returned to Parliament as a "list" MSP for the Lothian region. Personal life McLetchie was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2013 Birthday Honours. He died of cancer on 12 August 2013.	523604
wiki20220301en020_101933	David McLetchie	Personal life McLetchie was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2013 Birthday Honours. He died of cancer on 12 August 2013. Notes References External links Biography from the Scottish Conservative website 1952 births 2013 deaths Members of the Scottish Parliament for Edinburgh constituencies People educated at Leith Academy People educated at George Heriot's School Leaders of the Scottish Conservative Party Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Conservative MSPs Scottish solicitors Alumni of the University of Edinburgh School of Law Members of the Scottish Parliament 1999–2003 Members of the Scottish Parliament 2003–2007 Members of the Scottish Parliament 2007–2011 Members of the Scottish Parliament 2011–2016 Deaths from cancer in Scotland Scottish Conservative Party parliamentary candidates Scottish Freemasons	David McLetchie. Personal life McLetchie was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2013 Birthday Honours. He died of cancer on 12 August 2013. Notes References External links Biography from the Scottish Conservative website 1952 births 2013 deaths Members of the Scottish Parliament for Edinburgh constituencies People educated at Leith Academy People educated at George Heriot's School Leaders of the Scottish Conservative Party Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Conservative MSPs Scottish solicitors Alumni of the University of Edinburgh School of Law Members of the Scottish Parliament 1999–2003 Members of the Scottish Parliament 2003–2007 Members of the Scottish Parliament 2007–2011 Members of the Scottish Parliament 2011–2016 Deaths from cancer in Scotland Scottish Conservative Party parliamentary candidates Scottish Freemasons	523604
wiki20220301en020_101934	Benjamin Baillaud	Édouard Benjamin Baillaud (14 February 1848 – 8 July 1934) was a French astronomer. Biography Born in Chalon-sur-Saône, Baillaud studied at the École Normale Supérieure (1866-1869) and the University of Paris. He worked as an assistant at the Paris Observatory beginning in 1872. Later he was director of the Toulouse Observatory from 1878 to 1907, during much of this time serving as Dean of the University of Toulouse Faculty of Science. He greatly expanded the observatory and enthusiastically supported the Carte du Ciel project. He specialized in celestial mechanics, in particular the motions of the satellites of Saturn.	Benjamin Baillaud. Édouard Benjamin Baillaud (14 February 1848 – 8 July 1934) was a French astronomer. Biography Born in Chalon-sur-Saône, Baillaud studied at the École Normale Supérieure (1866-1869) and the University of Paris. He worked as an assistant at the Paris Observatory beginning in 1872. Later he was director of the Toulouse Observatory from 1878 to 1907, during much of this time serving as Dean of the University of Toulouse Faculty of Science. He greatly expanded the observatory and enthusiastically supported the Carte du Ciel project. He specialized in celestial mechanics, in particular the motions of the satellites of Saturn.	523607
wiki20220301en020_101935	Benjamin Baillaud	He greatly expanded the observatory and enthusiastically supported the Carte du Ciel project. He specialized in celestial mechanics, in particular the motions of the satellites of Saturn. In 1903, the observatory took over a facility on the Pic du Midi in the Pyrenees that had been founded by amateurs in the 1850s with the goal of putting a telescope there. However, the height of 2865 metres (9400 feet) posed formidable logistical challenges and the ambition had remained unrealised though a meteorological observatory had operated from 1873 to 1880. Baillaud organised a team of soldiers to erect a 0.5 metre (20 inch) reflecting telescope, and 0.25 metre refracting telescope on the summit.	Benjamin Baillaud. He greatly expanded the observatory and enthusiastically supported the Carte du Ciel project. He specialized in celestial mechanics, in particular the motions of the satellites of Saturn. In 1903, the observatory took over a facility on the Pic du Midi in the Pyrenees that had been founded by amateurs in the 1850s with the goal of putting a telescope there. However, the height of 2865 metres (9400 feet) posed formidable logistical challenges and the ambition had remained unrealised though a meteorological observatory had operated from 1873 to 1880. Baillaud organised a team of soldiers to erect a 0.5 metre (20 inch) reflecting telescope, and 0.25 metre refracting telescope on the summit.	523607
wiki20220301en020_101936	Benjamin Baillaud	In 1907, he became director of the Paris Observatory where he immediately set to work to relaunch the stalled Carte du Ciel project with a conference held at the observatory, entertained by singers from the Paris Opera and refreshed by wine provided by the director of the Bordeaux Observatory. Though the French government agreed to fund the project, it was becoming increasingly clear that its objectives were hopelessly unrealistic. Baillaud was the President of the Société astronomique de France (SAF), the French astronomical society, from 1909 to 1911.	Benjamin Baillaud. In 1907, he became director of the Paris Observatory where he immediately set to work to relaunch the stalled Carte du Ciel project with a conference held at the observatory, entertained by singers from the Paris Opera and refreshed by wine provided by the director of the Bordeaux Observatory. Though the French government agreed to fund the project, it was becoming increasingly clear that its objectives were hopelessly unrealistic. Baillaud was the President of the Société astronomique de France (SAF), the French astronomical society, from 1909 to 1911.	523607
wiki20220301en020_101937	Benjamin Baillaud	Baillaud was the President of the Société astronomique de France (SAF), the French astronomical society, from 1909 to 1911. Baillaud was active in time standardisation, becoming the founding president of the International Time Bureau and initiating the transmission of a time signal from the Eiffel Tower. Baillaud maintained the observatory and the time signal throughout World War I, even though the German howitzer Big Bertha was targeted on the nominal co-ordinates of Paris, the location of the observatory! Baillaud's concern for the astronomical time standard led him to be an outspoken opponent of daylight saving time. Baillaud became founding president of the International Astronomical Union in 1919 and served in this position until 1922. He retired as director of the Paris Observatory in 1926. He was a regular academician in the astronomy section of the Académie des Sciences. He won the Bruce Medal in 1923.	Benjamin Baillaud. Baillaud was the President of the Société astronomique de France (SAF), the French astronomical society, from 1909 to 1911. Baillaud was active in time standardisation, becoming the founding president of the International Time Bureau and initiating the transmission of a time signal from the Eiffel Tower. Baillaud maintained the observatory and the time signal throughout World War I, even though the German howitzer Big Bertha was targeted on the nominal co-ordinates of Paris, the location of the observatory! Baillaud's concern for the astronomical time standard led him to be an outspoken opponent of daylight saving time. Baillaud became founding president of the International Astronomical Union in 1919 and served in this position until 1922. He retired as director of the Paris Observatory in 1926. He was a regular academician in the astronomy section of the Académie des Sciences. He won the Bruce Medal in 1923.	523607
wiki20220301en020_101938	Benjamin Baillaud	He was a regular academician in the astronomy section of the Académie des Sciences. He won the Bruce Medal in 1923. The crater Baillaud on the Moon is named after him, and so are asteroids 11764 Benbaillaud and 1280 Baillauda. Bibliography	Benjamin Baillaud. He was a regular academician in the astronomy section of the Académie des Sciences. He won the Bruce Medal in 1923. The crater Baillaud on the Moon is named after him, and so are asteroids 11764 Benbaillaud and 1280 Baillauda. Bibliography	523607
wiki20220301en020_101939	Benjamin Baillaud	Distribution des prix du lycée de Saint-Quentin. Discours prononcé par M. B. Baillaud,... impr. de J. Vidallet, (1871) - 16 pages Thèses présentées à la Faculté des sciences de Paris pour obtenir le grade de docteur ès sciences mathématiques, par M. B. Baillaud,... Exposition de la méthode de M. Gylden pour le développement des perturbations des cometes... Éd. Gauthier-Villars, (1876) - 47 pages Theses de mathematiques, L. et J.-M. Douladoure (1876) - 108 Pages Sur la méthode de Hansen pour la détermination des perturbations absolues des petites planètes. 4 pages (1878) Sur une transformation trigonométrique employée par Hansen dans la théorie des perturbations, 7 pages (1878) Détermination des éléments des orbites des cinq satellites intérieurs de Saturne. Éd. Gauthier-Villars (1886) Sur le calcul numérique des intégrales définies. Éd.Gauthier-Villar (1886) Recherches complémentaires sur le développement de la fonction pertubatrice. (1888)	Benjamin Baillaud. Distribution des prix du lycée de Saint-Quentin. Discours prononcé par M. B. Baillaud,... impr. de J. Vidallet, (1871) - 16 pages Thèses présentées à la Faculté des sciences de Paris pour obtenir le grade de docteur ès sciences mathématiques, par M. B. Baillaud,... Exposition de la méthode de M. Gylden pour le développement des perturbations des cometes... Éd. Gauthier-Villars, (1876) - 47 pages Theses de mathematiques, L. et J.-M. Douladoure (1876) - 108 Pages Sur la méthode de Hansen pour la détermination des perturbations absolues des petites planètes. 4 pages (1878) Sur une transformation trigonométrique employée par Hansen dans la théorie des perturbations, 7 pages (1878) Détermination des éléments des orbites des cinq satellites intérieurs de Saturne. Éd. Gauthier-Villars (1886) Sur le calcul numérique des intégrales définies. Éd.Gauthier-Villar (1886) Recherches complémentaires sur le développement de la fonction pertubatrice. (1888)	523607
wiki20220301en020_101940	Benjamin Baillaud	Sur le calcul numérique des intégrales définies. Éd.Gauthier-Villar (1886) Recherches complémentaires sur le développement de la fonction pertubatrice. (1888) Cours d'astronomie à l'usage des étudiants des facultés des sciences, Éd. Gauthier-Villars 1ère partie (1893), 2ème partie (1896) Discours: prononcé à la séance générale du Congrès, le 8.4.1899, Imprimerie nationale (1899) - 22 pages Congrès des sociétés savantes à Toulouse, Imprimerie nationale (1899) - 64 pages Mémoire sur les quadratures mécaniques de rangs quelconques. Éd. Gauthier-Villars, 38 pages (1899) Étude du climat de Toulouse de 1863 à 1900. (1902) - 444 pages Comparaison des catalogues méridiens de Toulouse et de Leipzig ; Congres de Montauban (1902) Climat de Toulouse. Extrait des 'Comptes rendus de l'Association française pour l'avancement des sciences', congrès de Montauban, 1902. Hôtel des sociétés savantes (1902)	Benjamin Baillaud. Sur le calcul numérique des intégrales définies. Éd.Gauthier-Villar (1886) Recherches complémentaires sur le développement de la fonction pertubatrice. (1888) Cours d'astronomie à l'usage des étudiants des facultés des sciences, Éd. Gauthier-Villars 1ère partie (1893), 2ème partie (1896) Discours: prononcé à la séance générale du Congrès, le 8.4.1899, Imprimerie nationale (1899) - 22 pages Congrès des sociétés savantes à Toulouse, Imprimerie nationale (1899) - 64 pages Mémoire sur les quadratures mécaniques de rangs quelconques. Éd. Gauthier-Villars, 38 pages (1899) Étude du climat de Toulouse de 1863 à 1900. (1902) - 444 pages Comparaison des catalogues méridiens de Toulouse et de Leipzig ; Congres de Montauban (1902) Climat de Toulouse. Extrait des 'Comptes rendus de l'Association française pour l'avancement des sciences', congrès de Montauban, 1902. Hôtel des sociétés savantes (1902)	523607
wiki20220301en020_101941	Benjamin Baillaud	Climat de Toulouse. Extrait des 'Comptes rendus de l'Association française pour l'avancement des sciences', congrès de Montauban, 1902. Hôtel des sociétés savantes (1902) Application du photometer à coin à la détermination des grandeurs photographiques des pléiades. Extrait des 'Comptes rendus de l'Association française pour l'avancement des sciences'. Congrès de Montauban, 1902 Cartes autographiées, Université de Toulouse. Observatoire, F. Rossard, L. Montangerand, Benjamin Baillaud, Douladoure-Privat, (1904) - 3 pages. secrétariat de l'Association (1903) Correspondence d'Hermite et de Stieltjes, Éd. Gauthier-Villars, (1905) - Mathematiques 8 Novembre 1882 - 22 Juillet 1889, collaboration, Éd. Gauthier-Villars, (1905) - 477 pages 18 Octobre 1889 - 15 Décembre 1894, collaboration, Éd. Gauthier-Villars, (1905) - 464 pages Notice sur les travaux scientifiques de M. B. Baillaud, E. Privat, 1907 Annales de l'Observatoire de Paris, collaboration, Éd. Gauthier-Villars, (1908)	Benjamin Baillaud. Climat de Toulouse. Extrait des 'Comptes rendus de l'Association française pour l'avancement des sciences', congrès de Montauban, 1902. Hôtel des sociétés savantes (1902) Application du photometer à coin à la détermination des grandeurs photographiques des pléiades. Extrait des 'Comptes rendus de l'Association française pour l'avancement des sciences'. Congrès de Montauban, 1902 Cartes autographiées, Université de Toulouse. Observatoire, F. Rossard, L. Montangerand, Benjamin Baillaud, Douladoure-Privat, (1904) - 3 pages. secrétariat de l'Association (1903) Correspondence d'Hermite et de Stieltjes, Éd. Gauthier-Villars, (1905) - Mathematiques 8 Novembre 1882 - 22 Juillet 1889, collaboration, Éd. Gauthier-Villars, (1905) - 477 pages 18 Octobre 1889 - 15 Décembre 1894, collaboration, Éd. Gauthier-Villars, (1905) - 464 pages Notice sur les travaux scientifiques de M. B. Baillaud, E. Privat, 1907 Annales de l'Observatoire de Paris, collaboration, Éd. Gauthier-Villars, (1908)	523607
wiki20220301en020_101942	Benjamin Baillaud	Notice sur les travaux scientifiques de M. B. Baillaud, E. Privat, 1907 Annales de l'Observatoire de Paris, collaboration, Éd. Gauthier-Villars, (1908) Revue scientifique (Revue rose) (1910), 617 pages L'Astronomie, par B. Baillaud. Larousse (1915) - 41 pages Un demi-siècle de civilisation française (1870–1915), Éd. Hachette et cie, (1916) - Voyage - 472 pages Rapport relatif aux signaux horaires émis de L'Observatoire de Paris. Imprimerie Gauthier-Villars - 132 pages (1918) De la méthode dans les sciences, Baillaud, Borel... Librairie Félix Alcan (1919) Rapport adressé au conseil dans sa séance du 3 mars 1921 sur la nécessité de la création d'une succursale de l'Observatoire en dehors de la ville. Impr. Nationale, 28 pages(1920) Inauguration du monument de l'amiral Mouchez, membre de l'Académie des sciences, au Havre, le dimanche 17 juillet 1921. Gauthier-Villars (1921) - 8 pages Henri Andoyer, 1862–1929. Journal des observateurs, (1929) - 6 pages	Benjamin Baillaud. Notice sur les travaux scientifiques de M. B. Baillaud, E. Privat, 1907 Annales de l'Observatoire de Paris, collaboration, Éd. Gauthier-Villars, (1908) Revue scientifique (Revue rose) (1910), 617 pages L'Astronomie, par B. Baillaud. Larousse (1915) - 41 pages Un demi-siècle de civilisation française (1870–1915), Éd. Hachette et cie, (1916) - Voyage - 472 pages Rapport relatif aux signaux horaires émis de L'Observatoire de Paris. Imprimerie Gauthier-Villars - 132 pages (1918) De la méthode dans les sciences, Baillaud, Borel... Librairie Félix Alcan (1919) Rapport adressé au conseil dans sa séance du 3 mars 1921 sur la nécessité de la création d'une succursale de l'Observatoire en dehors de la ville. Impr. Nationale, 28 pages(1920) Inauguration du monument de l'amiral Mouchez, membre de l'Académie des sciences, au Havre, le dimanche 17 juillet 1921. Gauthier-Villars (1921) - 8 pages Henri Andoyer, 1862–1929. Journal des observateurs, (1929) - 6 pages	523607
wiki20220301en020_101943	Benjamin Baillaud	Henri Andoyer, 1862–1929. Journal des observateurs, (1929) - 6 pages Histoire de l'astronomie de position (1933) Application de la méthode de MM. P. et Pr. Henry à la réduction des clichés photographiques du catalogue international à l'Observatoire de Toulouse, Impr. de Douladoure-Privat, 21 pages	Benjamin Baillaud. Henri Andoyer, 1862–1929. Journal des observateurs, (1929) - 6 pages Histoire de l'astronomie de position (1933) Application de la méthode de MM. P. et Pr. Henry à la réduction des clichés photographiques du catalogue international à l'Observatoire de Toulouse, Impr. de Douladoure-Privat, 21 pages	523607
wiki20220301en020_101944	Benjamin Baillaud	See also Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero – 1st president of the International Committee for Weights and Measures References Obituaries AN 253 (1934) 15/16 (one sentence, in German) MNRAS 95 (1935) 334 Obs 57 (1934) 308 PASP 46 (1934) 242 (one paragraph) External links Bruce Medal page Awarding of Bruce Medal Biography by Joseph S. Tenn 1848 births 1934 deaths Members of the French Academy of Sciences Recipients of the Bruce Medal Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences École Normale Supérieure alumni University of Paris alumni University of Toulouse faculty People from Chalon-sur-Saône 19th-century French astronomers 20th-century French astronomers	Benjamin Baillaud. See also Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero – 1st president of the International Committee for Weights and Measures References Obituaries AN 253 (1934) 15/16 (one sentence, in German) MNRAS 95 (1935) 334 Obs 57 (1934) 308 PASP 46 (1934) 242 (one paragraph) External links Bruce Medal page Awarding of Bruce Medal Biography by Joseph S. Tenn 1848 births 1934 deaths Members of the French Academy of Sciences Recipients of the Bruce Medal Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences École Normale Supérieure alumni University of Paris alumni University of Toulouse faculty People from Chalon-sur-Saône 19th-century French astronomers 20th-century French astronomers	523607
wiki20220301en020_101945	Charles Simon Favart	Charles Simon Favart (13 November 1710 – 12 May 1792) was a French playwright and theatre director. The Salle Favart in Paris is named after him. Biography Born in Paris, the son of a pastry-cook, he was educated at the college of Louis-le-Grand, and after his father's death he carried on the business for a time. His first success in literature was La France delivrée par la Pucelle d'Orléans, a poem about Joan of Arc which obtained a prize of the Académie des Jeux Floraux. After the production of his first vaudeville, Les Deux Jumelles (1734), circumstances enabled him to relinquish business and devote himself entirely to the drama. He provided many pieces anonymously for the lesser theatres, and first put his name to La Chercheuse d'esprit, which was produced in 1741.	Charles Simon Favart. Charles Simon Favart (13 November 1710 – 12 May 1792) was a French playwright and theatre director. The Salle Favart in Paris is named after him. Biography Born in Paris, the son of a pastry-cook, he was educated at the college of Louis-le-Grand, and after his father's death he carried on the business for a time. His first success in literature was La France delivrée par la Pucelle d'Orléans, a poem about Joan of Arc which obtained a prize of the Académie des Jeux Floraux. After the production of his first vaudeville, Les Deux Jumelles (1734), circumstances enabled him to relinquish business and devote himself entirely to the drama. He provided many pieces anonymously for the lesser theatres, and first put his name to La Chercheuse d'esprit, which was produced in 1741.	523608
wiki20220301en020_101946	Charles Simon Favart	Among his most successful works were Annette et Lubin; Le Coq du milage (1743); Les Vendanges de Tempé (1745), later reworked as La Vallée de Montmorency (1752); Ninette à la cour (1753); Les Trois Sultanes (1761) and L'Anglais de Bordeaux (1763). Favart became director of the Opéra-Comique, and in 1745 married Marie Justine Benoîte Duronceray, a beautiful young dancer, singer and actress, who as "Mlle Chantilly" had made a successful début the year before. By their united talents and labours, the Opéra-Comique rose to such a height of success that it aroused the jealousy of the rival Comédie-Française and was suppressed.	Charles Simon Favart. Among his most successful works were Annette et Lubin; Le Coq du milage (1743); Les Vendanges de Tempé (1745), later reworked as La Vallée de Montmorency (1752); Ninette à la cour (1753); Les Trois Sultanes (1761) and L'Anglais de Bordeaux (1763). Favart became director of the Opéra-Comique, and in 1745 married Marie Justine Benoîte Duronceray, a beautiful young dancer, singer and actress, who as "Mlle Chantilly" had made a successful début the year before. By their united talents and labours, the Opéra-Comique rose to such a height of success that it aroused the jealousy of the rival Comédie-Française and was suppressed.	523608
wiki20220301en020_101947	Charles Simon Favart	Favart, left thus without resources, accepted the proposal of Maurice, comte de Saxe, and became director of a troupe of comedians which was to accompany Maurice's army into Flanders. It was part of his duty to compose from time to time impromptu verses on the events of the campaign, amusing and stimulating the spirits of the men. So popular were Favart and his troupe that the enemy became desirous of hearing his company and sharing his services, and permission was given to gratify them, battles and comedies thus curiously alternating with each other. The marshal, an admirer of Mme Favart, began to pay her unwanted attentions. To escape him she went to Paris, and the wrath of Saxe fell upon the husband. A lettre de cachet was issued against him, but he fled to Strasbourg and found concealment in a cellar.	Charles Simon Favart. Favart, left thus without resources, accepted the proposal of Maurice, comte de Saxe, and became director of a troupe of comedians which was to accompany Maurice's army into Flanders. It was part of his duty to compose from time to time impromptu verses on the events of the campaign, amusing and stimulating the spirits of the men. So popular were Favart and his troupe that the enemy became desirous of hearing his company and sharing his services, and permission was given to gratify them, battles and comedies thus curiously alternating with each other. The marshal, an admirer of Mme Favart, began to pay her unwanted attentions. To escape him she went to Paris, and the wrath of Saxe fell upon the husband. A lettre de cachet was issued against him, but he fled to Strasbourg and found concealment in a cellar.	523608
wiki20220301en020_101948	Charles Simon Favart	Favart survived his wife by twenty years. After the marshal's death in 1750 he returned to Paris and resumed his pursuits as a dramatist. It was at this time that he became friendly with the abbé de Voisenon, who helped him with his work, to what extent is uncertain. He had grown nearly blind in his last days, and died in Paris. The Favrts' second son, Charles Nicolas Favart was also an actor and dramatist. His plays have been republished in various editions and selections (1763-1772, 12 vols.; 1810, 3 vols.; 1813; 1853). His correspondence (1759-1763) with Count Durazzo, director of theatres at Vienna, was published in 1808 as . It furnishes valuable information on the state of the literary and theatrical worlds in the 18th century.	Charles Simon Favart. Favart survived his wife by twenty years. After the marshal's death in 1750 he returned to Paris and resumed his pursuits as a dramatist. It was at this time that he became friendly with the abbé de Voisenon, who helped him with his work, to what extent is uncertain. He had grown nearly blind in his last days, and died in Paris. The Favrts' second son, Charles Nicolas Favart was also an actor and dramatist. His plays have been republished in various editions and selections (1763-1772, 12 vols.; 1810, 3 vols.; 1813; 1853). His correspondence (1759-1763) with Count Durazzo, director of theatres at Vienna, was published in 1808 as . It furnishes valuable information on the state of the literary and theatrical worlds in the 18th century.	523608
wiki20220301en020_101949	Charles Simon Favart	Favart's plays are also known to have inspired his close friend, the artist François Boucher, to create numerous paintings featuring Favart's characters of "the little Shepherd" and the shepherdess "Lisette." These include Boucher's The Agreeable Lesson (also known as The Flute Players) of 1748 and An Autumn Pastoral (also known as The Grape Eaters) of 1749. In turn, these paintings inspired artists of the Sèvres Porcelain Manufactory to create a pair of figurines showing the two characters in poses imitating the characters of the play.	Charles Simon Favart. Favart's plays are also known to have inspired his close friend, the artist François Boucher, to create numerous paintings featuring Favart's characters of "the little Shepherd" and the shepherdess "Lisette." These include Boucher's The Agreeable Lesson (also known as The Flute Players) of 1748 and An Autumn Pastoral (also known as The Grape Eaters) of 1749. In turn, these paintings inspired artists of the Sèvres Porcelain Manufactory to create a pair of figurines showing the two characters in poses imitating the characters of the play.	523608
wiki20220301en020_101950	Charles Simon Favart	Works Some 60 of the c. 150 plays that he composed (essentially comedies and opéras-comiques) were published in his lifetime, in 10 volumes, under the title Théâtre de M. Favart, Paris, Duchesne (later Veuve Duchesne), 1763–1772. Reprint in fac-simile, Geneva, Slatkine, 1971, 10 t. Availabable on Gallica. 1732: Polichinelle comte de Paonfier 1734: Les Deux Jumelles 1735: La Foire de Bezons 1738: Le Bal bourgeois 1739: Moulinet premier, parody 1740: La Servante justifiée 1741: La Chercheuse d'esprit, opéra-comique 1741: La Fête de Saint-Cloud 1742: Le Prix de Cyhtère, opéra comique 1742: Hippolyte et Aricie, parody 1743: Le Coq de village, opéra comique 1744: Acajou, opéra comique 1744: Le Bal de Strasbourg, ballet 1745: Les Vendanges de Tempé 1747: Les Nymphes de Diane 1747: Les Amours grivois 1748: Cythère assiégée 1750: Zéphire et Fleurette 1751: Les Indes dansantes, parody of Indes galantes 1753: Raton et Rosette	Charles Simon Favart. Works Some 60 of the c. 150 plays that he composed (essentially comedies and opéras-comiques) were published in his lifetime, in 10 volumes, under the title Théâtre de M. Favart, Paris, Duchesne (later Veuve Duchesne), 1763–1772. Reprint in fac-simile, Geneva, Slatkine, 1971, 10 t. Availabable on Gallica. 1732: Polichinelle comte de Paonfier 1734: Les Deux Jumelles 1735: La Foire de Bezons 1738: Le Bal bourgeois 1739: Moulinet premier, parody 1740: La Servante justifiée 1741: La Chercheuse d'esprit, opéra-comique 1741: La Fête de Saint-Cloud 1742: Le Prix de Cyhtère, opéra comique 1742: Hippolyte et Aricie, parody 1743: Le Coq de village, opéra comique 1744: Acajou, opéra comique 1744: Le Bal de Strasbourg, ballet 1745: Les Vendanges de Tempé 1747: Les Nymphes de Diane 1747: Les Amours grivois 1748: Cythère assiégée 1750: Zéphire et Fleurette 1751: Les Indes dansantes, parody of Indes galantes 1753: Raton et Rosette	523608
wiki20220301en020_101951	Charles Simon Favart	1747: Les Nymphes de Diane 1747: Les Amours grivois 1748: Cythère assiégée 1750: Zéphire et Fleurette 1751: Les Indes dansantes, parody of Indes galantes 1753: Raton et Rosette 1753: Les Amours de Bastien et Bastienne, parody of Devin du village 1755: La Servante maîtresse, parody of La serva padrona by Giovanni Battista Pergolesi. 1755: Ninette à la cour, opéra comique 1761: Les Trois Sultanes ou Soliman Second 1762: Annette et Lubin, opéra comique 1763: L'Anglais à Bordeaux 1765: La Fée Urgèle ou Ce qui plaît aux dames, opéra-comique 1769: La Rosière de Salency, opéra comique 1773: La Belle Arsène, opéra comique	Charles Simon Favart. 1747: Les Nymphes de Diane 1747: Les Amours grivois 1748: Cythère assiégée 1750: Zéphire et Fleurette 1751: Les Indes dansantes, parody of Indes galantes 1753: Raton et Rosette 1753: Les Amours de Bastien et Bastienne, parody of Devin du village 1755: La Servante maîtresse, parody of La serva padrona by Giovanni Battista Pergolesi. 1755: Ninette à la cour, opéra comique 1761: Les Trois Sultanes ou Soliman Second 1762: Annette et Lubin, opéra comique 1763: L'Anglais à Bordeaux 1765: La Fée Urgèle ou Ce qui plaît aux dames, opéra-comique 1769: La Rosière de Salency, opéra comique 1773: La Belle Arsène, opéra comique	523608
wiki20220301en020_101952	Charles Simon Favart	Favart also left Mémoires, published in 1808 by his grandson. Trivia Favart and his wife appeared in fictionalised form in Offenbach's 1878 opéra comique, Madame Favart Favart reworked Rinaldo di Capua's La Zingara as La Bohemienne. Favart's Hippolyte et Aricie (1742) is a parody of the opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau bearing the same name. References External links Charles-Simon Favart on Data.bnf.fr 18th-century French dramatists and playwrights 18th-century French writers 18th-century French male writers 18th-century French male actors French male stage actors French opera librettists Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni Directors of La Monnaie Writers from Paris 1710 births 1792 deaths	Charles Simon Favart. Favart also left Mémoires, published in 1808 by his grandson. Trivia Favart and his wife appeared in fictionalised form in Offenbach's 1878 opéra comique, Madame Favart Favart reworked Rinaldo di Capua's La Zingara as La Bohemienne. Favart's Hippolyte et Aricie (1742) is a parody of the opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau bearing the same name. References External links Charles-Simon Favart on Data.bnf.fr 18th-century French dramatists and playwrights 18th-century French writers 18th-century French male writers 18th-century French male actors French male stage actors French opera librettists Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni Directors of La Monnaie Writers from Paris 1710 births 1792 deaths	523608
wiki20220301en020_101953	Treaty of Nöteborg	The Treaty of Nöteborg, also known as the Treaty of Oreshek (, Russian: Ореховский мир, ), is a conventional name for the peace treaty signed at Oreshek (, ) on 12 August 1323. It was the first settlement between Sweden and the Novgorod Republic regulating their border. Three years later, Novgorod signed the Treaty of Novgorod with the Norwegians. Name The treaty had no special name at the time, as it was just called a "permanent peace" between the parties. Modern English language publications most often use the name "Treaty of Nöteborg" for it, which is a direct translation of Nöteborgsfreden by which the treaty has conventionally been referred to in the Swedish language literature. "Treaty of Oreshek" is a similar translation from the Russian Ореховский мир. Both "Nöteborg" and "Oreshek" are old names of a fortress in Shlisselburg, used respectively in Swedish and Russian.	Treaty of Nöteborg. The Treaty of Nöteborg, also known as the Treaty of Oreshek (, Russian: Ореховский мир, ), is a conventional name for the peace treaty signed at Oreshek (, ) on 12 August 1323. It was the first settlement between Sweden and the Novgorod Republic regulating their border. Three years later, Novgorod signed the Treaty of Novgorod with the Norwegians. Name The treaty had no special name at the time, as it was just called a "permanent peace" between the parties. Modern English language publications most often use the name "Treaty of Nöteborg" for it, which is a direct translation of Nöteborgsfreden by which the treaty has conventionally been referred to in the Swedish language literature. "Treaty of Oreshek" is a similar translation from the Russian Ореховский мир. Both "Nöteborg" and "Oreshek" are old names of a fortress in Shlisselburg, used respectively in Swedish and Russian.	523615
wiki20220301en020_101954	Treaty of Nöteborg	Recently, the name "Treaty of Pähkinäsaari" has appeared in some of the English language literature, as a direct translation of the contemporary Finnish name of the treaty, Pähkinäsaaren rauha. "Pähkinäsaari" was and is the Finnish name for the island on which the fortress was built. The Finnish name means literally 'nut island', and is cognate with the Swedish name ('nöt' meaning nut). Contents The original text of the treaty has been lost. It has survived in partial copies in Russian, Swedish, and Latin, which are somewhat conflicting. The treaty was negotiated with the help of Hanseatic merchants in order to conclude the Swedish-Novgorodian Wars. As a token of goodwill, Novgorod ceded three Karelian parishes to Sweden; Sweden would in turn stay out of any conflict between Novgorod and Narva. Both sides would also promise to refrain from building castles on the new border.	Treaty of Nöteborg. Recently, the name "Treaty of Pähkinäsaari" has appeared in some of the English language literature, as a direct translation of the contemporary Finnish name of the treaty, Pähkinäsaaren rauha. "Pähkinäsaari" was and is the Finnish name for the island on which the fortress was built. The Finnish name means literally 'nut island', and is cognate with the Swedish name ('nöt' meaning nut). Contents The original text of the treaty has been lost. It has survived in partial copies in Russian, Swedish, and Latin, which are somewhat conflicting. The treaty was negotiated with the help of Hanseatic merchants in order to conclude the Swedish-Novgorodian Wars. As a token of goodwill, Novgorod ceded three Karelian parishes to Sweden; Sweden would in turn stay out of any conflict between Novgorod and Narva. Both sides would also promise to refrain from building castles on the new border.	523615
wiki20220301en020_101955	Treaty of Nöteborg	The treaty defined the border as beginning east and north of Viborg Castle, running along the Sestra and Volchya Rivers, splitting the Karelian Isthmus in half, running across Savonia and, according to traditional interpretations, ending in the Gulf of Bothnia near the Pyhäjoki River. However the wording "the sea in the north" can as well mean the Arctic Ocean. Only the southern part of the border, close to Viborg, was actually considered important and clearly defined in the treaty. Borders in the wilderness were defined very roughly, and presumably considered less important than the line across the Karelian Isthmus. It has also been suggested that the treaty would have originally given both Sweden and Novgorod joint rights to northern Ostrobothnia and Lappland.	Treaty of Nöteborg. The treaty defined the border as beginning east and north of Viborg Castle, running along the Sestra and Volchya Rivers, splitting the Karelian Isthmus in half, running across Savonia and, according to traditional interpretations, ending in the Gulf of Bothnia near the Pyhäjoki River. However the wording "the sea in the north" can as well mean the Arctic Ocean. Only the southern part of the border, close to Viborg, was actually considered important and clearly defined in the treaty. Borders in the wilderness were defined very roughly, and presumably considered less important than the line across the Karelian Isthmus. It has also been suggested that the treaty would have originally given both Sweden and Novgorod joint rights to northern Ostrobothnia and Lappland.	523615
wiki20220301en020_101956	Treaty of Nöteborg	Aftermath Finnic tribes living on both sides of the border, mainly Karelians, Finns, and Tavastians, had no say in the treaty. Sweden and Novgorod had already de facto established their areas of influence in eastern Fennoscandia, with Karelians under Russian rule and other tribes in the west under Swedish rule. The treaty established international approval for that structure, but the concept of "permanent peace" did not have much effect on the long-term conflict between Novgorod and Sweden. The northern part of the border crossed wide stretches of wilderness in which the Hansa and its diplomats were not interested, but these areas became a bone of contention between Sweden and Novgorod soon thereafter. Within five years after the treaty was signed, Swedish colonists started making inroads into northern Ostrobothnia. Sweden also established castles at Uleåborg around 1375 and Olofsborg in 1475, clearly on the Novgorodian side of the border.	Treaty of Nöteborg. Aftermath Finnic tribes living on both sides of the border, mainly Karelians, Finns, and Tavastians, had no say in the treaty. Sweden and Novgorod had already de facto established their areas of influence in eastern Fennoscandia, with Karelians under Russian rule and other tribes in the west under Swedish rule. The treaty established international approval for that structure, but the concept of "permanent peace" did not have much effect on the long-term conflict between Novgorod and Sweden. The northern part of the border crossed wide stretches of wilderness in which the Hansa and its diplomats were not interested, but these areas became a bone of contention between Sweden and Novgorod soon thereafter. Within five years after the treaty was signed, Swedish colonists started making inroads into northern Ostrobothnia. Sweden also established castles at Uleåborg around 1375 and Olofsborg in 1475, clearly on the Novgorodian side of the border.	523615
wiki20220301en020_101957	Treaty of Nöteborg	In 1595, the Treaty of Teusina acknowledged the Swedish text as the correct one. However, long before that, Sweden had succeeded in permanently taking over large areas on the Novgorod side of the original border, including Ostrobothnia and Savonia. Eventually, the territory west of the border, along with the expanse to the north, evolved into the country known today as Finland. See also Birkarls List of treaties References Other sources Jarl Gallén, John Lind (1968) Nöteborgsfreden och Finlands medeltida östgräns (Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland) Ingrid Bohn Finland: From the Origins to Our Times (Riva Publishers) External links Nöteborgsfreden och Finlands medeltida östgräns. Andra delen (Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland, Nr 427:2, VIII + s. 239-509. Jarl Gallén, John Lind. 1991) Noteborg Noteborg 14th century in Finland 1323 in Europe History of the Karelian Isthmus Noteborg Treaties of the Novgorod Republic	Treaty of Nöteborg. In 1595, the Treaty of Teusina acknowledged the Swedish text as the correct one. However, long before that, Sweden had succeeded in permanently taking over large areas on the Novgorod side of the original border, including Ostrobothnia and Savonia. Eventually, the territory west of the border, along with the expanse to the north, evolved into the country known today as Finland. See also Birkarls List of treaties References Other sources Jarl Gallén, John Lind (1968) Nöteborgsfreden och Finlands medeltida östgräns (Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland) Ingrid Bohn Finland: From the Origins to Our Times (Riva Publishers) External links Nöteborgsfreden och Finlands medeltida östgräns. Andra delen (Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland, Nr 427:2, VIII + s. 239-509. Jarl Gallén, John Lind. 1991) Noteborg Noteborg 14th century in Finland 1323 in Europe History of the Karelian Isthmus Noteborg Treaties of the Novgorod Republic	523615
wiki20220301en020_101958	Seiza	Seiza ( or , literally "proper sitting") is the formal, traditional way of sitting in Japan.	Seiza. Seiza ( or , literally "proper sitting") is the formal, traditional way of sitting in Japan.	523617
wiki20220301en020_101959	Seiza	Form To sit seiza-style, one must first be kneeling on the floor, folding one's legs underneath one's thighs, while resting the buttocks on the heels. The ankles are turned outward as the tops of the feet are lowered so that, in a slight "V" shape, the tops of the feet are flat on the floor and big toes overlapped, the right always on top of the left, and the buttocks are finally lowered all the way down. Depending on the circumstances, the hands are folded modestly in the lap, or are placed palm down on the upper thighs with the fingers close together, or are placed on the floor next to the hips, with the knuckles rounded and touching the floor. The back is kept straight, though not unnaturally stiff. Traditionally, women sit with the knees together while men separate them slightly. Some martial arts, notably kendō, aikidō, and iaidō, may prescribe up to two fist widths of distance between the knees for men.	Seiza. Form To sit seiza-style, one must first be kneeling on the floor, folding one's legs underneath one's thighs, while resting the buttocks on the heels. The ankles are turned outward as the tops of the feet are lowered so that, in a slight "V" shape, the tops of the feet are flat on the floor and big toes overlapped, the right always on top of the left, and the buttocks are finally lowered all the way down. Depending on the circumstances, the hands are folded modestly in the lap, or are placed palm down on the upper thighs with the fingers close together, or are placed on the floor next to the hips, with the knuckles rounded and touching the floor. The back is kept straight, though not unnaturally stiff. Traditionally, women sit with the knees together while men separate them slightly. Some martial arts, notably kendō, aikidō, and iaidō, may prescribe up to two fist widths of distance between the knees for men.	523617
wiki20220301en020_101960	Seiza	Stepping into and out of seiza is performed mindfully. There are codified traditional methods of entering and exiting the sitting position depending on occasion and type of clothing worn. History Prior to the Edo period, there were no standard postures for sitting on the floor. During this time, seiza referred to "correct sitting", which took various forms such as sitting cross-legged (胡坐, agura), sitting with one knee raised (立て膝, tatehiza), or sitting to the side (割座, wariza), while the posture commonly known as seiza today was called kiza.	Seiza. Stepping into and out of seiza is performed mindfully. There are codified traditional methods of entering and exiting the sitting position depending on occasion and type of clothing worn. History Prior to the Edo period, there were no standard postures for sitting on the floor. During this time, seiza referred to "correct sitting", which took various forms such as sitting cross-legged (胡坐, agura), sitting with one knee raised (立て膝, tatehiza), or sitting to the side (割座, wariza), while the posture commonly known as seiza today was called kiza.	523617
wiki20220301en020_101961	Seiza	People's social circumstances, clothing styles, and the places where they sat naturally brought about their manners of sitting. The development, in the Muromachi period, of Japanese architecture in which the floors were completely covered with tatami (thick straw mats), combined with the strict formalities of the ruling warrior class for which this style of architecture was principally designed, heralded the adoption of the sitting posture known today as seiza as the respectful way to sit. By the middle of the Edo period, it had become a convention for samurai to sit in this manner when meeting authority figures such as the Shogun as a symbol of obedience and loyalty. However, it probably was not until around the years surrounding the turn of the 18th century (the Genroku to Kyōhō eras in Japanese history) that the Japanese generally adopted this manner of sitting in their everyday lives and during the Meiji era, it had become firmly established as the proper sitting posture, as part	Seiza. People's social circumstances, clothing styles, and the places where they sat naturally brought about their manners of sitting. The development, in the Muromachi period, of Japanese architecture in which the floors were completely covered with tatami (thick straw mats), combined with the strict formalities of the ruling warrior class for which this style of architecture was principally designed, heralded the adoption of the sitting posture known today as seiza as the respectful way to sit. By the middle of the Edo period, it had become a convention for samurai to sit in this manner when meeting authority figures such as the Shogun as a symbol of obedience and loyalty. However, it probably was not until around the years surrounding the turn of the 18th century (the Genroku to Kyōhō eras in Japanese history) that the Japanese generally adopted this manner of sitting in their everyday lives and during the Meiji era, it had become firmly established as the proper sitting posture, as part	523617
wiki20220301en020_101962	Seiza	Japanese history) that the Japanese generally adopted this manner of sitting in their everyday lives and during the Meiji era, it had become firmly established as the proper sitting posture, as part of the "Japanese culture and tradition" purposefully created during this time.	Seiza. Japanese history) that the Japanese generally adopted this manner of sitting in their everyday lives and during the Meiji era, it had become firmly established as the proper sitting posture, as part of the "Japanese culture and tradition" purposefully created during this time.	523617
wiki20220301en020_101963	Seiza	The posture serves as the standard floor sitting posture for most traditional formal occasions, and it is generally considered the respectful way to sit in the presence of superiors or elders unless otherwise permitted. There is a similar sitting posture in India called vajrasana. It would be done during a form of yoga and practiced during visiting temples and doing prayer in temples. Indians believe that this posture has health benefits.	Seiza. The posture serves as the standard floor sitting posture for most traditional formal occasions, and it is generally considered the respectful way to sit in the presence of superiors or elders unless otherwise permitted. There is a similar sitting posture in India called vajrasana. It would be done during a form of yoga and practiced during visiting temples and doing prayer in temples. Indians believe that this posture has health benefits.	523617
wiki20220301en020_101964	Seiza	Floor Seiza involves sitting down on the floor and not on a chair. In traditional Japanese architecture, floors in various rooms designed for comfort have tatami floors. Seiza thus is closely connected with tatami flooring. There are circumstances, however, when people sit seiza-style on carpeted and hardwood floors. In many martial arts, for instance, this sitting position generally takes place on hardwood floors. Depending on the formality of the occasion, the setting, and the relative status of the person, it is sometimes acceptable to sit on a special cushion called a zabuton (literally a "sitting futon"). Difficulties	Seiza. Floor Seiza involves sitting down on the floor and not on a chair. In traditional Japanese architecture, floors in various rooms designed for comfort have tatami floors. Seiza thus is closely connected with tatami flooring. There are circumstances, however, when people sit seiza-style on carpeted and hardwood floors. In many martial arts, for instance, this sitting position generally takes place on hardwood floors. Depending on the formality of the occasion, the setting, and the relative status of the person, it is sometimes acceptable to sit on a special cushion called a zabuton (literally a "sitting futon"). Difficulties	523617
wiki20220301en020_101965	Seiza	Difficulties Sometimes stools are provided for elderly or injured people even when others are expected to sit seiza-style. It is advisable, particularly in formal situations, to at least try to sit seiza-style. Non-Japanese who have not grown up sitting in this posture may, however, have difficulty assuming it at all. Those unfamiliar with seiza will likely find that maintaining it for more than a minute or two tends to lead to paresthesia, whereby the compression of the nerves causes a loss of their blood flow, with the accompanying "pins and needles" feeling, followed by painful burning sensations, and then eventually complete numbness in the legs. However, the physical discomfort lessens with experience as the circulation of the blood improves. Experienced seiza practitioners can maintain the posture for forty minutes or more with minimal discomfort. Certain knee problems are made worse when assuming this position, specifically Osgood-Schlatter disease.	Seiza. Difficulties Sometimes stools are provided for elderly or injured people even when others are expected to sit seiza-style. It is advisable, particularly in formal situations, to at least try to sit seiza-style. Non-Japanese who have not grown up sitting in this posture may, however, have difficulty assuming it at all. Those unfamiliar with seiza will likely find that maintaining it for more than a minute or two tends to lead to paresthesia, whereby the compression of the nerves causes a loss of their blood flow, with the accompanying "pins and needles" feeling, followed by painful burning sensations, and then eventually complete numbness in the legs. However, the physical discomfort lessens with experience as the circulation of the blood improves. Experienced seiza practitioners can maintain the posture for forty minutes or more with minimal discomfort. Certain knee problems are made worse when assuming this position, specifically Osgood-Schlatter disease.	523617
wiki20220301en020_101966	Seiza	Special seiza stools are available in Japan. They are folding stools, small enough to be carried in a handbag, which are placed between the feet and on which one rests the buttocks when sitting seiza-style. They allow one to maintain the appearance of sitting seiza while discreetly taking pressure off the heels and feet. A new law coming into effect in April 2020 recognizes seiza for extended periods of time as a morally unacceptable form of punishment according to Japan's Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Use in traditional arts Doing seiza is an integral and required part of several traditional Japanese arts, such as certain Japanese martial arts and tea ceremony (a table-style version of tea ceremony known as ryūrei was invented in the 19th century). Seiza is also the traditional way of sitting while doing other arts such as shodō (calligraphy) and ikebana (flower arranging), though with the increasing use of western-style furniture it is not always necessary nowadays.	Seiza. Special seiza stools are available in Japan. They are folding stools, small enough to be carried in a handbag, which are placed between the feet and on which one rests the buttocks when sitting seiza-style. They allow one to maintain the appearance of sitting seiza while discreetly taking pressure off the heels and feet. A new law coming into effect in April 2020 recognizes seiza for extended periods of time as a morally unacceptable form of punishment according to Japan's Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Use in traditional arts Doing seiza is an integral and required part of several traditional Japanese arts, such as certain Japanese martial arts and tea ceremony (a table-style version of tea ceremony known as ryūrei was invented in the 19th century). Seiza is also the traditional way of sitting while doing other arts such as shodō (calligraphy) and ikebana (flower arranging), though with the increasing use of western-style furniture it is not always necessary nowadays.	523617