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Alfonso Cuarón | Career | Career |
Alfonso Cuarón | 1990–1999: Rise to prominence | 1990–1999: Rise to prominence
thumb|left|250px|Cuarón at the Guadalajara International Film Festival in 1998.
Cuarón began working on television in Mexico, first as a technician and then as a director. His television work led to assignments as an assistant director for several film productions including La Gran Fiesta (1985), Gaby: A True Story (1987) and Romero (1989). In 1991 he landed his first big-screen directorial assignment, Sólo con tu pareja, a sex comedy about a womanizing businessman (played by Daniel Giménez Cacho) who, after having sex with an attractive nurse, is fooled into believing he's contracted AIDS. In addition to writing, producing and directing, Cuarón co-edited the film with Luis Patlán. The film, which also starred cabaret singer Astrid Hadad and model/actress Claudia Ramírez (with whom Cuarón was linked between 1989 and 1993) was a big hit in Mexico. After this success, director Sydney Pollack hired Cuarón to direct an episode of Fallen Angels, a series of neo-noir stories produced for the Showtime premium cable network in 1993; other directors who worked on the series included Steven Soderbergh, Jonathan Kaplan, Peter Bogdanovich, and Tom Hanks. The episode was entitled, "Murder, Obliquely" (1993) starring Laura Dern, Alan Rickman, and Diane Lane.
In 1995, Cuarón released his first feature film produced in the United States, A Little Princess, an adaptation of Frances Hodgson Burnett's classic 1905 novel of the same name. The film received critical acclaim with Janet Maslin of The New York Times declaring, "[the film] is a bright, beautiful and enchantingly childlike vision", one that "draw[s] its audience into the wittily heightened reality of a fairy tale" and "takes enough liberties to re-invent rather than embalm Miss Burnett's assiduously beloved story". The film went on to receive two Academy Award nominations for Best Cinematography and Best Production Design. Cuarón's next feature was also a literary adaptation, a modernized version of Charles Dickens's Great Expectations starring Ethan Hawke, Gwyneth Paltrow, and Robert De Niro. The film received mixed reviews to negative reviews. Russell Smith of The Austin Chronicle did however praise the film writing, ". What's truly intriguing about this film, though, is the stylishness with which Cuaron (A Little Princess) reinvents Dickens' hoary, often-remade tale. This Great Expectations has a seductive, enchanting feel that has nothing to do with sweet, gauzy sentiments or calculatedly “magical” Hollywood imagery". |
Alfonso Cuarón | 2000–2009: Career breakthrough and success | 2000–2009: Career breakthrough and success
right|thumb|250px|Cuarón and Clive Owen, who worked together on Children of Men.
In 2001, Cuarón found himself returning to Mexico with a Spanish-speaking cast to film Y tu mamá también, starring Gael García Bernal, Diego Luna and Maribel Verdú. It was a provocative and controversial road comedy about two sexually obsessed teenagers who take an extended road trip with an attractive married woman who is much older than they. The film's open portrayal of sexuality and frequent rude humor, as well as the politically and socially relevant asides, made the film an international hit and a major success with critics. The film was distributed through IFC in America allowing the film to collect $13.8 million in the United States, unparalleled at the time for Latin American films.Alvaray, Luisela. 2008. "National, Regional, and Global: New Waves of Latin American Cinema." Cinema Journal 47 (3): 48-65. https://doi.org/10.1353/cj.0.0002. Critic Roger Ebert of The Chicago Sun-Times wrote, "It is clear Cuaron is a gifted director, and here he does his best work to date." Cuarón shared an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Screenplay with co-writer and brother Carlos Cuarón.
In 2004, Cuarón directed the third film in the successful Harry Potter series, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. Cuarón faced criticism at the time from some Harry Potter fans for his approach to the film, notably its tendency to take more creative liberties with the source material than its predecessors. However, author J. K. Rowling, who had seen and loved Cuarón's film Y tu mamá también, said that it was her personal favorite from the series so far.J.K. Rowling Accessed 17 January 2007. Critically, the film was also better received than the first two installments, with some critics remarking its new tone and for being the first Harry Potter film to truly capture the essence of the novels. It has been subsequently rated by audience polls and critics as the best of the movie franchise series. The film earned two Academy Award nominations for Best Visual Effects and Best Original Score for John Williams.
In 2006, Cuarón's feature Children of Men, an adaptation of the P. D. James novel starring Clive Owen, Julianne Moore, and Michael Caine, received wide critical acclaim including three Academy Award nominations. Cuarón himself received two nominations for his work on the film, in Best Film Editing (with Alex Rodríguez) and Best Adapted Screenplay (with several collaborators).
He created the production and distribution company Esperanto Filmoj ("Esperanto Films", named because of his support for the international language EsperantoInterview by Sam Green with Cuarón.), which has credits in the films Duck Season, Pan's Labyrinth, and Gravity. Cuarón also directed the controversial public service announcement I Am Autism (2009) for Autism Speaks that was criticized by disability rights groups for its negative portrayal of autism. |
Alfonso Cuarón | 2010–present: Awards recognition | 2010–present: Awards recognition
thumb|250px|left|Cuaron at the 72nd Venice International Film Festival
In 2010, Cuarón began to develop the film Gravity, a drama set in space. He was joined by producer David Heyman, with whom Cuarón worked on Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. Starring Sandra Bullock and George Clooney, the film opened the 70th Venice International Film Festival in August. The film was then released in America in October 2013. The film became a financial success, earning 723.2 million at the box office against a budget of 130 million. The film also received many awards nominations. For the film, he received the Golden Globe Award in the category of Best Director. The film received ten Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture and Best Director. Cuarón won for Best Directing, becoming the first Latin American to win the award, while he and Mark Sanger received the award for Best Film Editing.
thumb|right|Cuarón in 2013
In 2013, Cuarón created Believe, a science fiction/fantasy/adventure series that was broadcast as part of the 2013–14 United States network television schedule on NBC as a mid-season entry. The series was created by Cuarón for Bad Robot and Warner Bros. Television. In 2014, Time placed him in its list of "100 Most Influential People in the World" – Pioneers.
In May 2015, Cuarón was announced as the president of the jury for the 72nd Venice International Film Festival.
Production began in fall 2016 for Cuarón's eighth film, Roma, a tale of a housekeeper for a middle class Mexican family in 1970s Mexico City, based on the life of his family's longtime maid, Liboria Rodríguez. The project was produced by Cuarón, Gabriela Rodríguez and Nicolás Celis and starred Yalitza Aparicio and Marina de Tavira both of whom received Oscar nominations. The film debuted at the 75th Venice International Film Festival, where it won the Golden Lion, and was distributed to select Mexican and American theaters before its online release on Netflix. Roma was highly acclaimed upon release; among its accolades are two Golden Globes (Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film and Best Director for Cuarón) and three Academy Awards (Best Director, Best Foreign Language Film, and Best Cinematography for Cuarón) out of a leading ten nominations.
In 2019, Cuaron signed an overall TV deal at Apple. His first series for Apple was the psychological thriller Disclaimer, starring Cate Blanchett, Kevin Kline, Louis Partridge and Sasha Baron Cohen; it is based on the eponymous novel by Renée Knight, with Cuaron writing and directing every episode. |
Alfonso Cuarón | Style | Style
Cuaron's style is a mix of several mainstream Hollywood conventions while breaking from that dominant influence by taking an unorthodox approach that uses voiceover narration and by unconventionally lengthy shots. These longer cuts, narration, and often, moving cameras are more typical of documentary film.
In his first feature film the average shot length is around six seconds, and ten years later for Y Tu Mama Tambien the average increased to 19.6 seconds. The Prisoner of Azkaban had an average of seconds, while the subsequent Children of Men had an extraordinary average of 16 seconds between cuts. A typical Hollywood movie cuts every two seconds.Udden, James. 2009. "Child of the Long Take: Alfonso Cuaron's Film Aesthetics in the Shadow of Globalization." Style (University Park,PA) 43 (1): 26-44. Cuarón's career shows mainstream Hollywood influences, which has spilled over to less mainstream films made outside of Hollywood. Children of Men was influenced by disaster and science fiction movie conventions. The Prisoner of Azkaban was a continuation of Cuarón's take on the coming-of-age genre after Y, Tu Mama Tambien.Baer, Hester, and Ryan Long. "Transnational Cinema and the Mexican State in Alfonso Cuarón's 'Y Tu Mamá También." South Central Review 21, no. 3 (2004): 150-68. That film is in the form of an American road movie, along with teen movie elements.Tierney, Dolores, "From Hollywood and Back: Alfonso Cuarón Adventures in Genre," in New Transnationalisms in Contemporary Latin America Cinemas (Edinburgh University Press, 2018), 76. Voice-over narration adds a documentary feel. The narration, interjected by a non-diagetic voice not belonging to any character, highlights the socioeconomic state of not only the main characters, but also minor characters who otherwise seem irrelevant to the overall narrative. |
Alfonso Cuarón | Themes | Themes
As mentioned above, the voice-over narration in Y Tu Mama Tambien contains political messages. In the aforementioned film Cuarón tackles Mexican identity and sovereignty. With the backdrop of the 1990s and the advent of NAFTA and neoliberalism in Mexico, Cuarón critiques Mexico for the path they are heading towards a globalized economy and world.Saldaña-Portillo, Maria Josefina. "In the Shadow of NAFTA: Y Tu Mamá También Revisits the National Allegory of Mexican Sovereignty." American Quarterly 57, no. 3 (2005): 751-77. Cuarón also addresses Mexican history such as colonialism and the long unfulfilled promises of the Mexican Revolution of 1910. Using the same film as an example the narrator states that a new political party is in power, but hints that no real change will come about. This is also supported with one of the main characters, Julio, sharing a last name with the Mexican Revolutionary Emiliano Zapata, yet the name does not push Julio into action or in other words he lacks the initiative and interest in the country.Hind, Emily “"Provincia in Recent Mexican Cinema, 1989-2004," Discourse 26, no. 1 & 2 (2004): 26. These same themes of identity and history, particularly of Mexico, were first addressed in his first feature film Solo con tu pareja. In both films Cuarón uses allegory that ties into a national identity and/or history. On top of these themes he also tackles class, but that can be considered a subcategory of economics or politics in which he already grapples with. |
Alfonso Cuarón | Personal life | Personal life
Cuarón's first marriage was to Mariana Elizondo with whom he has a son, Jonás Cuarón, born in 1981. Jonás is also a film director, known for Year of the Nail and Desierto. Alfonso's second marriage, from 2001 to 2008, was to Italian actress and freelance journalist Annalisa Bugliani, with whom he has two children.
He has publicly shown his fascination for the Esperanto language and his support for the Esperanto movement. He called his production company Esperanto Filmoj. In October 2023, Cuarón signed an open letter from artists to US President Joe Biden calling for a ceasefire of Israeli bombardment in Gaza.
Cuarón is a vegetarian and has been living in London since 2000.Baftas 2014: Alfonso Cuarón wins best director for Gravity | Film . theguardian.com. Retrieved on 2014-05-22. |
Alfonso Cuarón | Filmography | Filmography
+Directed features Year Title Distributor 1991 Sólo con tu pareja Warner Bros. 1995 A Little Princess 1998 Great Expectations 20th Century Fox 2001 Y tu mamá también IFC Films 2004 Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban Warner Bros. Pictures 2006 Children of Men Universal Pictures 2013 Gravity Warner Bros. Pictures 2018 Roma Netflix |
Alfonso Cuarón | Awards and nominations | Awards and nominations
+ Awards and nominations received by Cuaron's films Year Title Academy Awards BAFTA Awards Golden Globe Awards Nominations Wins Nominations Wins Nominations Wins1995A Little Princess22001Y tu mamá también1212004Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban242006Children of Men3322013Gravity107116412018Roma1037432Total2810271283 |
Alfonso Cuarón | See also | See also
Esperanto Filmoj
Cha Cha Cha Films
Cinema of Mexico
List of Academy Award records |
Alfonso Cuarón | References | References |
Alfonso Cuarón | External links | External links
Alfonso Cuarón: A Life in Pictures, BAFTA webcast, 27 July 2007
Category:1961 births
Category:Living people
Category:Best Cinematographer Academy Award winners
Category:Best Cinematography BAFTA Award winners
Category:Best Directing Academy Award winners
Category:Best Director AACTA International Award winners
Category:Best Director BAFTA Award winners
Category:Best Director Golden Globe winners
Category:Best Film Editing Academy Award winners
Category:Directors Guild of America Award winners
Category:Directors of Best Foreign Language Film Academy Award winners
Category:Directors of Golden Lion winners
Category:English-language film directors
Category:Fantasy film directors
Category:Filmmakers who won the Best Film BAFTA Award
Category:Filmmakers who won the Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award
Category:Film directors from Mexico City
Category:Hugo Award–winning writers
Category:Mexican cinematographers
Category:Mexican Esperantists
Category:Mexican expatriates in the United Kingdom
Category:Mexican film producers
Category:Mexican film directors
Category:Mexican people of Spanish descent
Category:Mexican screenwriters
Category:Mexican television directors
Category:Mexican television producers
Category:Mexican television writers
Category:National Autonomous University of Mexico alumni
Category:Nebula Award winners
Category:Science fiction film directors
Category:Spanish-language film directors
Category:Writers from Mexico City |
Alfonso Cuarón | Table of Content | short description, Early life and education, Career, 1990–1999: Rise to prominence, 2000–2009: Career breakthrough and success, 2010–present: Awards recognition, Style, Themes, Personal life, Filmography, Awards and nominations, See also, References, External links |
Arianism | Short description | Arianism (, ) is a Christological doctrine which rejects the traditional notion of the Trinity and considers Jesus to be a creation of God, and therefore distinct from God. It is named after its major proponent, Arius (). It is considered heretical by most modern mainstream branches of Christianity. It is held by a minority of modern denominations, although some of these denominations hold related doctrines such as Socinianism, and some shy away from use of the term Arian due to the term's historically negative connotations. Modern sects sometimes connected to the teaching include Jehovah's Witnesses, some individual churches within the Churches of Christ (including the movement's founder Barton W. Stone), as well as some Hebrew Roots Christians and Messianic Jews (although many Messianic Jews also follow Nicene Christianity).
It is first attributed to Arius (), a Christian presbyter who preached and studied in Alexandria, Egypt, although it developed out of various pre-existing strands of Christianity which differed from later Nicene Christianity in their view of Christology. Arian theology holds that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, who was begotten by God the Father with the difference that the Son of God did not always exist but was begotten/made before time by God the Father; therefore, Jesus was not coeternal with God the Father, but nonetheless Jesus began to exist outside time.
Arius' trinitarian theology, later given an extreme form by Aetius and his disciple Eunomius and called anomoean ('dissimilar'), asserts a total dissimilarity between the Son and the Father. Arianism holds that the Son is distinct from the Father and therefore subordinate to him. The term Arian is derived from the name Arius; it was not what the followers of Arius' teachings called themselves, but rather a term used by outsiders. The nature of Arius's and his supporters' teachings were opposed to the theological doctrines held by Homoousian Christians regarding the nature of the Trinity and the nature of Christ. Homoousianism and Arianism were contending interpretations of Jesus's divinity, both based upon the trinitarian theological orthodoxy of the time.
Homoousianism was formally affirmed by the first two ecumenical councils; since then, Arianism has been condemned as "the heresy or sect of Arius". Trinitarian (Homoousian) doctrines were vigorously upheld by Patriarch Athanasius of Alexandria, who insisted that Jesus (God the Son) was "same in being" or "same in essence" with God the Father. Arius dissented: "If the Father begat the Son, then he who was begotten had a beginning in existence, and from this it follows there was a time when the Son was not." The ecumenical First Council of Nicaea of 325 declared Arianism to be a heresy. According to Everett Ferguson, "The great majority of Christians had no clear views about the nature of the Trinity and they did not understand what was at stake in the issues that surrounded it."
Arianism is also used to refer to other nontrinitarian theological systems of the 4th century, which regarded Jesus Christ—the Son of God, the Logos—as either a begotten creature of a similar or different substance to that of the Father, but not identical (as Homoiousian and Anomoeanism) or as neither uncreated nor created in the sense other beings are created (as in semi-Arianism). |
Arianism | Origin | Origin
Some early Christians whose beliefs would have fallen under 'orthodoxy' in the third and fourth centuries denied the eternal generation of the Son; they viewed the Son as having been begotten in time. These include Tertullian and Justin Martyr. Tertullian is considered a pre-Arian. Among the other church fathers, Origen was accused of Arianism for using terms like "second God", and Patriarch Dionysius of Alexandria was denounced at Rome for saying that Son is a work and creature of God (i.e., a created being). However, the subordinationism of Origen is not identical to Arianism, and it has been generally viewed as closer to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan view of the Trinity.
Controversy over Arianism arose in the late 3rd century and persisted throughout most of the 4th century. It involved most church members—from simple believers, priests, and monks to bishops, emperors, and members of Rome's imperial family. Two Roman emperors, Constantius II and Valens, became Arians or semi-Arians, as did prominent Gothic, Vandal, and Lombard warlords both before and after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The antipopes Felix II and Ursinus were Arian, and Pope Liberius was forced to sign the Arian Creed of Sirmium of 357—though the letter says he willingly agreed with Arianism. Such a deep controversy within the early Church during this period could not have materialized without significant historical influences providing a basis for the Arian doctrines.
thumb|250px|An imagined portrait of Arius. Detail of a Cretan School icon, c. 1591, depicting the First Council of Nicaea
Arius had been a pupil of Lucian of Antioch at Lucian's private academy in Antioch and inherited from him a modified form of the teachings of Paul of Samosata. Arius taught that God the Father and the Son of God did not always exist together eternally. |
Arianism | Beliefs | Beliefs
Little of Arius's own work survives except in quotations selected for polemical purposes by his opponents, and there is no certainty about what theological and philosophical traditions formed his thought. The influence from the One of Neoplatonism was widespread throughout the Eastern Roman Empire, and this influenced Arius.
Arius's basic premise is that only God is independent of existing. Since the Son is dependent, he must, therefore, be called a creature. Arians put forward a question for their belief: "Has God birthed Jesus willingly or unwillingly?" This question was used to argue that Jesus is dependent for his existence since Jesus exists only because God wants him to be.
Arianism taught that the Logos was a divine being created by God the Father before the world's creation, serving as the medium for creation, and that the Son of God is subordinate to the Father. The concept of the Logos refers to an inner attribute of God associated with wisdom. Jesus is identified as the Logos due to a supposed resemblance to this inner aspect of God's nature.
A verse from Proverbs was used, according to Arianism, the creation of the Son by God, "The Lord created me at the beginning of his work." Therefore, they posited, the Son was rather the very first and the most perfect of God's creatures, and he was called "God" only by the Father's permission and power. The term "Son" is ambiguous, as Arians use adoptionist theology to support the belief that Jesus was created ex nihilo by the Father.
Arians do not believe in the traditional doctrine of the Trinity. The letter of the Arian bishop Auxentius of Durostorum regarding the Arian missionary Ulfilas (–383) gives an overview of Arian beliefs. Ulfilas, ordained by Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, became a missionary to the Goths and believed that God the Father, the "unbegotten" Almighty, is the only true God. According to Auxentius, Ulfilas believed the Son of God, Jesus, the "only-begotten god", was begotten before time began., , The Holy Spirit, he wrote, is the illuminating and sanctifying power of God. Using 1 Corinthians 8:5–6 as a proof text:
The creed of Ulfilas, which concludes the letter mentioned above, distinguishes God the Father ("unbegotten"), who is the only true God, from the Son of God ("only-begotten") and the Holy Spirit, the illuminating and sanctifying power, which is neither God the Father nor the God the Son:
A letter from Arius to the Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia (died 341) states the core beliefs of the Arians:
Principally, the dispute between Trinitarianism and Arianism was about two questions:
has the Son always existed eternally with the Father, or was the Son begotten at a certain time in the past?
is the Son equal to the Father or subordinate to the Father?
For Constantine, these were minor theological points that stood in the way of uniting the Empire, but for the theologians, it was of huge importance; for them, it was a matter of salvation.
For the theologians of the 19th century, it was already obvious that, in fact, Arius and Alexander/Athanasius did not have much to quarrel about; the difference between their views was very small, and the end of the fight was by no means clear during their quarrel, both Arius and Athanasius suffering a great deal for their own views. Arius was the father of Homoiousianism, and Alexander was the father of Homoousianism, which Athanasius championed. For those theologians, it was clear that Arius, Alexander, and Athanasius were far from a true doctrine of the Trinity, which developed later, historically speaking.
Guido M. Berndt and Roland Steinacher state clearly that the beliefs of Arius were acceptable ("not especially unusual") to a huge number of orthodox clergy; this is the reason why such a major conflict was able to develop inside the Church since Arius's theology received widespread sympathy (or at least was not considered to be overly controversial) and could not be dismissed outright as individual heresy. |
Arianism | Homoian Arianism | Homoian Arianism
Arianism had several different variants, including Eunomianism and Homoian Arianism. Homoian Arianism is associated with Acacius and Eudoxius. Homoian Arianism avoided the use of the word ousia to describe the relation of Father to Son, and described these as "like" each other. Hanson lists twelve creeds that reflect the Homoian faith:
The Second Sirmian Creed of 357
The Creed of Nice (Constantinople) 360
The creed put forward by Acacius at Seleucia, 359
The Rule of Faith of Ulfilas
The creed uttered by Ulfilas on his deathbed, 383
The creed attributed to Eudoxius
The Creed of Auxentius of Milan, 364
The Creed of Germinius professed in correspondence with Ursacius of Singidunum and Valens of Mursa
Palladius's rule of faith
Three credal statements found in fragments, subordinating the Son to the Father |
Arianism | Struggles with orthodoxy | Struggles with orthodoxy |
Arianism | First Council of Nicaea | First Council of Nicaea
thumb|upright=1.1|Constantine burning Arian books, illustration from a compendium of canon law,
In 321, Arius was denounced by a synod at Alexandria for teaching a heterodox view of the relationship of Jesus to God the Father. Because Arius and his followers had great influence in the schools of Alexandria—counterparts to modern universities or seminaries—their theological views spread, especially in the eastern Mediterranean.
By 325, the controversy had become significant enough that the Emperor Constantine called an assembly of bishops, the First Council of Nicaea, which condemned Arius's doctrine and formulated the original Nicene Creed of 325. The Nicene Creed's central term, used to describe the relationship between the Father and the Son, is Homoousios (), or Consubstantiality, meaning "of the same substance" or "of one being". The Athanasian Creed is less often used but is a more overtly anti-Arian statement on the Trinity.
The focus of the Council of Nicaea was the nature of the Son of God and his precise relationship to God the Father. (See Paul of Samosata and the Synods of Antioch.) Arius taught that Jesus Christ was divine or holy and was sent to Earth for the salvation of mankind, but that Jesus Christ was not equal to God the Father (infinite, primordial origin) in rank, and that God the Father and the Son of God were not equal to the Holy Spirit. Under Arianism, Christ was instead not consubstantial with God the Father since both the Father and the Son under Arius were made of "like" essence or being (see homoiousia) but not of the same essence or being (see homoousia).
In the Arian view, God the Father is a deity and is divine; the Son of God is not a deity, but is still divine. God the Father sent Jesus to earth for salvation of mankind. Ousia is essence or being, in Eastern Christianity, and is the aspect of God that is completely incomprehensible to mankind and human perception. It is all that subsists by itself and which has not its being in another, God the Father and God the Son and God the Holy Spirit all being uncreated.
According to the teaching of Arius, the preexistent Logos and thus the incarnate Jesus Christ was a begotten being; only the Son was directly begotten by God the Father, before ages, but was of a distinct, though similar, essence or substance from the Creator. His opponents argued that this would make Jesus less than God and that this was heretical. Much of the distinction between the differing factions was over the phrasing that Christ expressed in the New Testament to express submission to God the Father. The theological term for this submission is kenosis. This ecumenical council declared that Jesus Christ was true God, co-eternal and consubstantial (i.e., of the same substance) with God the Father.
Constantine is believed to have exiled those who refused to accept the Nicaean Creed—Arius himself, the deacon Euzoios, and the Libyan bishops Theonas of Marmarica and Secundus of Ptolemais, along with the bishops who signed the creed but refused to join in condemnation of Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nicaea. The emperor also ordered all copies of the Thalia, the book in which Arius had expressed his teachings, to be burned. However, there is no evidence that his son and ultimate successor, Constantius II, a Semi-Arian Christian, was exiled.
Although he was committed to maintaining what the Great Church had defined at Nicaea, Constantine was also bent on pacifying the situation and eventually became more lenient toward those condemned and exiled at the council. First, he allowed Eusebius of Nicomedia, who was a protégé of his sister, and Theognis to return once they had signed an ambiguous statement of faith. The two, and other friends of Arius, worked for Arius's rehabilitation.
At the First Synod of Tyre in AD 335, they brought accusations against Athanasius, now bishop of Alexandria, the primary opponent of Arius. After this, Constantine had Athanasius banished since he considered him an impediment to reconciliation. In the same year, the Synod of Jerusalem under Constantine's direction readmitted Arius to communion in 336. Arius died on the way to this event in Constantinople. Some scholars suggest that Arius may have been poisoned by his opponents. Eusebius and Theognis remained in the Emperor's favor; when Constantine -who had been a catechumen much of his adult life- accepted baptism on his deathbed, it was from Eusebius of Nicomedia. |
Arianism | Condemnation by the Council of Nicaea | Condemnation by the Council of Nicaea
Emperor Constantine the Great summoned the First Council of Nicaea, which defined the dogmatic fundaments of Christianity; these definitions served to rebut the questions posed by Arians. Since Arius was not a bishop, he was not allowed to sit on the council, and it was Eusebius of Nicomedia who spoke for him and the position he represented. All the bishops who were there were in agreement with the major theological points of the proto-orthodoxy, since at that time all other forms of Christianity "had by this time already been displaced, suppressed, reformed, or destroyed".
Although the proto-orthodox won the previous disputes, due to the more precise defining of orthodoxy, they were vanquished with their own weapons, ultimately being declared heretics, not because they would have fought against ideas regarded as theologically correct, but because their positions lacked the precision and refinement needed by the fusion of several contradictory theses accepted at the same time by later orthodox theologians.
Of the roughly 300 bishops in attendance at the Council of Nicaea, two bishops did not sign the Nicene Creed that condemned Arianism. Constantine the Great also ordered a penalty of death for those who refused to surrender the Arian writings:
Ten years after the Council of Nicaea, Constantine the Great, who was himself later baptized by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia in 337 AD, convened another gathering of church leaders at the regional First Synod of Tyre in 335, attended by 310 bishops, to address various charges mounted against Athanasius by his detractors, such as "murder, illegal taxation, sorcery, and treason", following his refusal to readmit Arius into fellowship. Athanasius was exiled to Trier (in modern Germany) following his conviction at Tyre of conspiracy, and Arius was, effectively, exonerated.Socrates of Constantinople, Church History, book 1, chapter 33. Anthony F. Beavers, Chronology of the Arian Controversy.
Athanasius eventually returned to Alexandria in 346, after the deaths of both Arius and Constantine. Though Arianism had spread, Athanasius and other Nicene Christian church leaders crusaded against Arian theology, and Arius was anathemised and condemned as a heretic once more at the ecumenical First Council of Constantinople of 381, attended by 150 bishops. The Roman Emperors Constantius II (337–361) and Valens (364–378) were Arians or Semi-Arians, as was the first King of Italy, Odoacer (433?–493), and the Lombards were also Arians or Semi-Arians until the 7th century. The ruling elite of Visigothic Spain was Arian until 589. Many Goths adopted Arian beliefs upon their conversion to Christianity. The Vandals actively spread Arianism in North Africa. |
Arianism | Aftermath of Nicaea | Aftermath of Nicaea
thumb|Once the orthodox Trinitarians succeeded in defeating Arianism, they censored any signs that the perceived heresy left behind. This mosaic in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna has had images of the Arian king, Theoderic, and his court removed. On some columns their hands remain.
The First Council of Nicaea did not end the controversy, as many bishops of the Eastern provinces disputed the homoousios, the central term of the Nicene Creed, as it had been used by Paul of Samosata, who had advocated a monarchianist Christology. Both the man and his teaching, including the term homoousios, had been condemned by the Synods of Antioch in 269.
Hence, after Constantine's death in 337, open dispute resumed again. Constantine's son Constantius II, who had become emperor of the eastern part of the Roman Empire, actually encouraged the Arians and set out to reverse the Nicene Creed. His advisor in these affairs was Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had already at the Council of Nicaea been the head of the Arian party, and was made the bishop of Constantinople.
Constantius used his power to exile bishops adhering to the Nicene Creed, especially St Athanasius of Alexandria, who fled to Rome. In 355 Constantius became the sole Roman emperor and extended his pro-Arian policy toward the western provinces, frequently using force to push through his creed, even exiling Pope Liberius and installing Antipope Felix II.
The Third Council of Sirmium in 357 was the high point of Arianism. The Seventh Arian Confession (Second Sirmium Confession) held that both homoousios (of one substance) and homoiousios (of similar substance) were unbiblical and that the Father is greater than the Son. This confession was later known as the Blasphemy of Sirmium.
But since many persons are disturbed by questions concerning what is called in Latin substantia, but in Greek ousia, that is, to make it understood more exactly, as to 'coessential,' or what is called, 'like-in-essence,' there ought to be no mention of any of these at all, nor exposition of them in the Church, for this reason and for this consideration, that in divine Scripture nothing is written about them, and that they are above men's knowledge and above men's understanding;
As debates raged in an attempt to come up with a new formula, three camps evolved among the opponents of the Nicene Creed. The first group mainly opposed the Nicene terminology and preferred the term homoiousios (alike in substance) to the Nicene homoousios, while they rejected Arius and his teaching and accepted the equality and co-eternality of the persons of the Trinity. Because of this centrist position, and despite their rejection of Arius, they were called "Semi-Arians" by their opponents.
The second group also avoided invoking the name of Arius, but in large part followed Arius's teachings and, in another attempted compromise wording, described the Son as being like (homoios) the Father. A third group explicitly called upon Arius and described the Son as unlike (anhomoios) the Father. Constantius wavered in his support between the first and the second party, while harshly persecuting the third.
Epiphanius of Salamis labeled the party of Basil of Ancyra in 358 "Semi-Arianism". This is considered unfair by Kelly who states that some members of the group were virtually orthodox from the start but disliked the adjective homoousios while others had moved in that direction after the out-and-out Arians had come into the open.
The debates among these groups resulted in numerous synods, among them the Council of Serdica in 343, the Fourth Council of Sirmium in 358 and the double Council of Rimini and Seleucia in 359, and no fewer than fourteen further creed formulas between 340 and 360. This lead the pagan observer Ammianus Marcellinus to comment sarcastically: "The highways were covered with galloping bishops." None of these attempts was acceptable to the defenders of Nicene orthodoxy. Writing about the latter councils, Saint Jerome remarked that the world "awoke with a groan to find itself Arian."
After Constantius's death in 361, his successor Julian, a devotee of Rome's pagan gods, declared that he would no longer attempt to favor one church faction over another, and allowed all exiled bishops to return. This increased dissension among Nicene Christians. The emperor Valens, however, revived Constantius's policy and supported the "Homoian" party, exiling bishops and often using force. During this persecution many bishops were exiled to the other ends of the Roman Empire, e.g., Saint Hilary of Poitiers to the eastern provinces. These contacts and their common plight led to a rapprochement between the western supporters of the Nicene Creed and the homoousios and the eastern Semi-Arians. |
Arianism | Council of Constantinople | Council of Constantinople
It was not until the co-reigns of Gratian and Theodosius that Arianism was effectively wiped out among the ruling class and elite of the Eastern Empire. Valens died in the Battle of Adrianople in 378 and was succeeded by Theodosius I, who adhered to the Nicene Creed. This allowed for settling the dispute. Theodosius's wife St Flacilla was instrumental in his campaign to end Arianism.
Two days after Theodosius arrived in Constantinople, 24 November 380, he expelled the Arian bishop, Demophilus of Constantinople, and surrendered the churches of that city to Gregory of Nazianzus, the Homoiousian leader of the rather small Nicene community there, an act which provoked rioting. Theodosius had just been baptized, by bishop Acholius of Thessalonica, during a severe illness, as was common in the early Christian world. In February he and Gratian had published an edict that all their subjects should profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria (i.e., the Nicene faith), or be handed over for punishment for not doing so.
Although much of the church hierarchy in the East had opposed the Nicene Creed in the decades leading up to Theodosius's accession, he managed to achieve unity on the basis of the Nicene Creed. In 381, at the Second Ecumenical Council in Constantinople, a group of mainly Eastern bishops assembled and accepted the Nicene Creed of 381,The text of this version of the Nicene Creed is available at which was supplemented in regard to the Holy Spirit, as well as some other changes: see Comparison of Nicene Creeds of 325 and 381. This is generally considered the end of the dispute about the Trinity and the end of Arianism among the Roman, non-Germanic peoples. |
Arianism | Among medieval Germanic tribes | Among medieval Germanic tribes
thumb|250x250px|The ceiling mosaic of the Arian Baptistery, built in Ravenna by the Ostrogothic King Theodoric the Great.
During the time of Arianism's flowering in Constantinople, the Gothic convert and Arian bishop Ulfilas (later the subject of the letter of Auxentius cited above) was sent as a missionary to the Gothic tribes across the Danube, a mission favored for political reasons by the Emperor Constantius II. The Homoians in the Danubian provinces played a major role in the conversion of the Goths to Arianism.
Ulfilas's translation of the Bible into Gothic language and his initial success in converting the Goths to Arianism was strengthened by later events. The conversion of Goths led to a widespread diffusion of Arianism among other Germanic tribes as well, the Vandals, Langobards, Svevi, and Burgundians. When the Germanic peoples entered the provinces of the Western Roman Empire and began founding their own kingdoms there, most of them were Arian Christians.
The conflict in the 4th century had seen Arian and Nicene factions struggling for control of Western Europe. In contrast, among the Arian German kingdoms established in the collapsing Western Empire in the 5th century, there existed entirely separate Arian and Nicene Churches with parallel hierarchies, each serving different sets of believers. The Germanic elites were Arians, and the Romance-majority population was Nicene.
The Arian Germanic tribes were generally tolerant towards Nicene Christians and other religious minorities, including the Jews.
The apparent resurgence of Arianism after Nicaea was more an anti-Nicene reaction exploited by Arian sympathizers than a pro-Arian development. By the end of the 4th century it had surrendered its remaining ground to Trinitarianism. In Western Europe, Arianism, which had been taught by Ulfilas, the Arian missionary to the Germanic tribes, was dominant among the Goths, Langobards and Vandals. By the 8th century, it had ceased to be the tribes' mainstream belief as the tribal rulers gradually came to adopt Nicene orthodoxy. This trend began in 496 with Clovis I of the Franks, then Reccared I of the Visigoths in 587 and Aripert I of the Lombards in 653.
The Franks and the Anglo-Saxons were unlike the other Germanic peoples in that they entered the Western Roman Empire as Pagans and were converted to Chalcedonian Christianity, led by their kings, Clovis I of the Franks, and Æthelberht of Kent and others in Britain. See also Christianity in Gaul and Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England.Frassetto, Michael, Encyclopedia of barbarian Europe, (ABC-Clio, 2003), p. 128.
The remaining tribes – the Vandals and the Ostrogoths – did not convert as a people nor did they maintain territorial cohesion. Having been militarily defeated by the armies of Emperor Justinian I, the remnants were dispersed to the fringes of the empire and became lost to history. The Vandalic War of 533–534 dispersed the defeated Vandals.Procopius, Secret Histories, Chapter 11, 18 Following their final defeat at the Battle of Mons Lactarius in 553, the Ostrogoths went back north and re-settled in south Austria. |
Arianism | From the 5th to the 7th century | From the 5th to the 7th century
thumb|upright=1.4|Arian and Chalcedonian kingdoms in 495
Much of south-eastern Europe and central Europe, including many of the Goths and Vandals respectively, had embraced Arianism (the Visigoths converted to Arian Christianity in 376 through their bishop Wulfila), which led to Arianism being a religious factor in various wars in the Roman Empire.
In the west, organized Arianism survived in North Africa, in Hispania, and parts of Italy until it was suppressed in the 6th and 7th centuries. Visigothic Spain converted to Nicene Christianity through their king Reccared I at the Third Council of Toledo in 589. Grimoald, King of the Lombards (662–671), and his young son and successor Garibald (671), were the last Arian kings in Europe. |
Arianism | From the 16th to the 19th century | From the 16th to the 19th century
Following the Protestant Reformation from 1517, it did not take long for Arian and other nontrinitarian views to resurface. The first recorded English antitrinitarian was John Assheton, who was forced to recant before Thomas Cranmer in 1548. At the Anabaptist Council of Venice 1550, the early Italian instigators of the Radical Reformation committed to the views of Michael Servetus,-who was burned alive by the orders of John Calvin in 1553- were promulgated by Giorgio Biandrata and others into Poland and Transylvania.Roland Bainton, Hunted Heretic. The Life and Death of Michael Servetus
The anti trinitarian wing of the Polish Reformation separated from the Calvinist ecclesia maior to form the ecclesia minor or Polish Brethren. These were commonly referred to as "Arians" due to their rejection of the Trinity, though in fact the Socinians, as they were later known, went further than Arius to the position of Photinus. The epithet "Arian" was also applied to the early Unitarians such as John Biddle; though in denial of the pre-existence of Christ they were again largely Socinians, not Arians.George Huntston Williams. The Radical Reformation, 3rd edition. Volume 15 of Sixteenth Century Essays and Studies. Ann Arbor, MI: Edwards Brothers, 1992
In 1683, when Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, lay dying in Amsterdam—driven into exile by his outspoken opposition to King Charles II—he spoke to the minister Robert Ferguson, and professed himself an Arian.
In the 18th century the "dominant trend" in Britain, particularly in Latitudinarianism, was toward Arianism, with which Samuel Clarke, Benjamin Hoadly, William Whiston and Isaac Newton are associated.William Gibson, Robert G. Ingram Religious identities in Britain, 1660–1832 p. 92 To quote the Encyclopædia Britannica article on Arianism: "In modern times some Unitarians are virtually Arians in that they are unwilling either to reduce Christ to a mere human being or to attribute to him a divine nature identical with that of the Father.""Arianism." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica 2007 Deluxe Edition. Chicago: 2007. |
Arianism | Today | Today
The teachings of the first two ecumenical councils that entirely reject Arianism include: the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Assyrian Church of the East; almost all historic Protestant churches including Lutheran, Reformed, Presbyterian, Continental Reformed, Congregationalist, Anglican, Methodist, Baptist, and Free Evangelical; all entirely reject the teachings associated with Arianism.
Modern groups that currently appear to embrace some of the principles of Arianism include Unitarians and Jehovah's Witnesses. Although the origins of their beliefs are not necessarily attributed to the teachings of Arius, many of the core beliefs of Unitarians and Jehovah's Witnesses are very similar to them. |
Arianism | Jehovah's Witnesses | Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses are often referred to as "modern-day Arians",Institute for Metaphysical Studies – The Arian Christian Bible – Metaphysical Institute, 2010. p. 209. Retrieved 10 June 2014.Adam Bourque – Ten Things You Didn't Know about Jehovah's Witnesses. Michigan Skeptics Association. Retrieved 10 June 2014. usually by their opponents, although Jehovah's Witnesses themselves have denied these claims. Significant similarities in doctrine include the identification of the Father as the only true God and of Jesus Christ as the first creation of God and the intermediate agent in the creation of all other things. They also deny the personhood of the Holy Spirit, which some Arians historically affirmed. Jehovah's Witnesses exclusively worship and pray to God the Father, or Jehovah, only through Jesus (the Son) as a mediator. |
Arianism | Iglesia ni Cristo | Iglesia ni Cristo
Iglesia ni Cristo's Christology has parallels with Arianism in that it affirms that the Father is the only true God, but it denies the preexistence of Christ. Thus, Iglesia ni Cristo is Socinian rather than Arian in its Christology. |
Arianism | Other Socinian groups | Other Socinian groups
Other Biblical Unitarians such as the ChristadelphiansPearce F. Jesus: God the Son or Son of God? CMPA and Church of God General Conference are also typically Socinian rather than Arian in their Christology. |
Arianism | The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints | The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) teaches a nontrinitarian theology concerning the nature of the Godhead. Similarities between LDS doctrines and Arianism were alleged as early as 1846.Mattison, Hiram. A Scriptural Defence of the Doctrine of the Trinity: Or a Check to Modern Arianism as Taught by Campbellites, Hicksites, New Lights, Universalists and Mormons, and Especially by a Sect Calling Themselves "Christians". L. Colby, 1846. There are a number of key differences between Arianism and Latter-day Saint theology. Whereas Arianism is a unitarian Christian form of classical theism, Latter-day Saint theology is a non-trinitarian (but not unitarian) form of Christianity outside of classical theism. Arianism also teaches that God is eternal, was never a man, and could not incarnate as a man; in contrast, the LDS Church teaches that "God Himself is an exalted man, perfected, enthroned, and supreme."
Whereas Arianism denies that humans can become gods, the LDS Church affirms that humans can become gods through exaltation. Whereas Arianism teaches that the Son was created, the LDS Church also teaches that the Son was procreated as a literal spirit child of the Heavenly Father and the Heavenly Mother and denies any form of creation ex nihilo; the creation of Christ ex nihilo is, in contrast, a fundamental premise of Arianism.
The LDS church, in contrast to the Arian teaching that God is incorporeal, also teaches that God has a tangible body: "The Father has a body of flesh and bones as tangible as man's; the Son also; but the Holy Ghost has not a body of flesh and bones, but is a personage of Spirit. Were it not so, the Holy Ghost could not dwell in us." Arianism traditionally taught that God is incomprehensible even to the Son. In contrast, the LDS Church rejects the doctrine that God is incomprehensible. Though Arianism teaches that Christ is ontologically inferior and subordinate to the Father, the LDS Church teaches that Christ is equal in power and glory with the Father.
The LDS Church teaches that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are three separate beings united in purpose: "the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost)[...] are three physically separate beings, but fully one in love, purpose and will", as illustrated in Jesus' Farewell Prayer, his baptism at the hands of John the Baptist, his transfiguration, and the martyrdom of Stephen. Thus, the church's first Article of Faith states: "We believe in God, the Eternal Father, and in His Son, Jesus Christ, and in the Holy Ghost."
Latter-day Saints believe that the three are collectively "one eternal God" but reject the Nicene definition of the Trinity, that the three are consubstantial. In some respects, Latter-day Saint theology is more similar to social trinitarianism than to Arianism. |
Arianism | Spiritism | Spiritism
According to the reincarnationist religion of Spiritism started by French educator Allan Kardec in the 19th century, Jesus is the highest-order of spirit that has ever incarnated on Earth and is distinct from God, by whom he was created. Jesus is not considered God or part of God as in Nicene Christianity, but is nonetheless the ultimate model of human love, intelligence, and forgiveness, often cited as the governor of Earth. |
Arianism | See also | See also |
Arianism | References | References |
Arianism | Notes | Notes |
Arianism | Citations | Citations |
Arianism | Sources | Sources
|
Arianism | Further reading | Further reading
|
Arianism | External links | External links
Documents of the Early Arian Controversy Chronological survey of the sources
English translations of all extant letters relating to early Arianism
A map of early sympathizers with Arius
Jewish Encyclopedia: Arianism
Concordia Cyclopedia: Arianism (page 1) (page 2) (page 3)
Concise Summary of the Arian Controversy
Arianism Today
Category:Christian denominations established in the 3rd century
Category:Christian terminology
Category:Christian theological movements
Category:Nature of Jesus Christ
Category:Nontrinitarian denominations |
Arianism | Table of Content | Short description, Origin, Beliefs, Homoian Arianism, Struggles with orthodoxy, First Council of Nicaea, Condemnation by the Council of Nicaea, Aftermath of Nicaea, Council of Constantinople, Among medieval Germanic tribes, From the 5th to the 7th century, From the 16th to the 19th century, Today, Jehovah's Witnesses, Iglesia ni Cristo, Other Socinian groups, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Spiritism, See also, References, Notes, Citations, Sources, Further reading, External links |
August 1 | for | |
August 1 | Events | Events |
August 1 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
30 BC – Octavian (later known as Augustus) enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman Republic.
AD 69 – Batavian rebellion: The Batavians in Germania Inferior (Netherlands) revolt under the leadership of Gaius Julius Civilis.
527 – Justinian I becomes the sole ruler of the Byzantine Empire.
607 – Ono no Imoko is dispatched as envoy to the Sui court in China (Traditional Japanese date: July 3, 607).
902 – Taormina, the last Byzantine stronghold in Sicily, is captured by the Aghlabid army, concluding the Muslim conquest of Sicily.
1203 – Isaac II Angelos, restored Byzantine Emperor, declares his son Alexios IV Angelos co-emperor after pressure from the forces of the Fourth Crusade.
1291 – The Old Swiss Confederacy is formed with the signature of the Federal Charter.
1469 – Louis XI of France founds the chivalric order called the Order of Saint Michael in Amboise.
1498 – Christopher Columbus becomes the first European to visit what is now Venezuela.
1571 – The Ottoman conquest of Cyprus is concluded, by the surrender of Famagusta. |
August 1 | 1601–1900 | 1601–1900
1620 – Speedwell leaves Delfshaven to bring pilgrims to America by way of England.
1664 – Ottoman forces are defeated in the battle of Saint Gotthard by an Austrian army led by Raimondo Montecuccoli, resulting in the Peace of Vasvár.
1714 – George, Elector of Hanover, becomes King George I of Great Britain, marking the beginning of the Georgian era of British history.
1759 – Seven Years' War: The Battle of Minden, an allied Anglo-German army victory over the French. In Britain this was one of a number of events that constituted the Annus Mirabilis of 1759 and is celebrated as Minden Day by certain British Army regiments.
1774 – British scientist Joseph Priestley discovers oxygen gas, corroborating the prior discovery of this element by German-Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele.
1798 – French Revolutionary Wars: Battle of the Nile (Battle of Aboukir Bay): Battle begins when a British fleet engages the French Revolutionary Navy fleet in an unusual night action.
1800 – The Acts of Union 1800 are passed which merge the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
1801 – First Barbary War: The American schooner captures the Tripolitan polacca Tripoli in a single-ship action off the coast of modern-day Libya.
1834 – Slavery is abolished in the British Empire as the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 comes into force, although it remains legal in the possessions of the East India Company until the passage of the Indian Slavery Act, 1843.
1834 – Construction begins on the Wilberforce Monument in Kingston Upon Hull.
1842 – The Lombard Street riot erupts in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States.
1849 – Joven Daniel wrecks at the coast of Araucanía, Chile, leading to allegations that local Mapuche tribes murdered survivors and kidnapped Elisa Bravo.
1855 – The first ascent of Monte Rosa, the second highest summit in the Alps.
1863 – At the suggestion of Senator J. V. Snellman and the order of Emperor Alexander II, full rights are promised to the Finnish language by a language regulation in the Grand Duchy of Finland.
1876 – Colorado is admitted as the 38th U.S. state.
1893 – Henry Perky patents shredded wheat.
1894 – The Empire of Japan and Qing China declare war on each other after a week of fighting over Korea, formally inaugurating the First Sino-Japanese War. |
August 1 | 1901–present | 1901–present
1907 – The start of the first Scout camp on Brownsea Island, the origin of the worldwide Scouting movement.
1911 – Harriet Quimby takes her pilot's test and becomes the first U.S. woman to earn an Aero Club of America aviator's certificate.
1914 – World War I: The German Empire declares war on the Russian Empire.
1914 – World War I: The Swiss Army mobilizes because of World War I.
1915 – Patrick Pearse gives his famous speech "Ireland unfree shall never be at peace" at O'Donovan Rossa's funeral in Dublin.
1927 – The Nanchang Uprising marks the first significant battle in the Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang and Chinese Communist Party. This day is commemorated as the anniversary of the founding of the People's Liberation Army.
1933 – Anti-Fascist activists Bruno Tesch, Walter Möller, Karl Wolff and August Lütgens are executed by the Nazi regime in Altona.
1936 – The Olympics opened in Berlin with a ceremony presided over by Adolf Hitler.
1937 – Josip Broz Tito reads the resolution "Manifesto of constitutional congress of KPH" to the constitutive congress of KPH (Croatian Communist Party) in woods near Samobor.
1943 – World War II: Operation Tidal Wave also known as "Black Sunday", was a failed American attempt to destroy Romanian oil fields.
1944 – World War II: The Warsaw Uprising against the Nazi German occupation breaks out in Warsaw, Poland.
1946 – Leaders of the Russian Liberation Army, a force of Russian prisoners of war that collaborated with Nazi Germany, are executed in Moscow, Soviet Union for treason.
1950 – Guam is organized as an unincorporated territory of the United States as the President Harry S. Truman signs the Guam Organic Act.
1957 – The United States and Canada form the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD).
1960 – Dahomey (later renamed Benin) declares independence from France.
1960 – Islamabad is declared the federal capital of the Government of Pakistan.
1961 – U.S. Defense Secretary Robert McNamara orders the creation of the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), the nation's first centralized military espionage organization.
1964 – The former Belgian Congo is renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
1965 – Frank Herbert's novel, Dune was published for the first time. It was named as the world's best-selling science fiction novel in 2003.
1966 – Charles Whitman kills 15 people at the University of Texas at Austin before being killed by the police.
1966 – Purges of intellectuals and imperialists becomes official China policy at the beginning of the Cultural Revolution.
1968 – The coronation of Hassanal Bolkiah, the 29th Sultan of Brunei, is held.
1971 – The Concert for Bangladesh, organized by former Beatle George Harrison, is held at Madison Square Garden in New York City.
1974 – Cyprus dispute: The United Nations Security Council authorizes the UNFICYP to create the "Green Line", dividing Cyprus into two zones.
1976 – Niki Lauda has a severe accident that almost claims his life at the German Grand Prix at Nürburgring.
1980 – Vigdís Finnbogadóttir is elected President of Iceland and becomes the world's first democratically elected female head of state.
1980 – A train crash kills 18 people and injures over 170 more in County Cork, Ireland.
1981 – MTV begins broadcasting in the United States and airs its first video, "Video Killed the Radio Star" by The Buggles.
1984 – Commercial peat-cutters discover the preserved bog body of a man, called Lindow Man, at Lindow Moss, Cheshire, England.
1988 – A British soldier was killed in the Inglis Barracks bombing in London, England.
1990 – A plane crash in the Karabakh Range kills 46 people.
1993 – The Great Mississippi and Missouri Rivers Flood of 1993 comes to a peak.
1998 – Puntland, an autonomous state in northeastern Somalia, was officially established following a constitutional conference in Garowe, Issims and tribal chiefs agreed to create a self-declared government until Somalia recovered.
2004 – A supermarket fire kills 396 people and injures 500 others in Asunción, Paraguay.
2007 – The I-35W Mississippi River bridge spanning the Mississippi River in Minneapolis, Minnesota, collapses during the evening rush hour, killing 13 people and injuring 145.
2008 – The Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Railway begins operation as the fastest commuter rail system in the world.
2008 – Eleven mountaineers from international expeditions died on K2, the second-highest mountain on Earth in the worst single accident in the history of K2 mountaineering.
2017 – A suicide attack on a mosque in Herat, Afghanistan kills 20 people.
2023 – Former US President Donald Trump is indicted for his role in the January 6 United States Capitol attack, his third indictment in 2023. |
August 1 | Births | Births |
August 1 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
10 BC – Claudius, Roman emperor (d. 54)
126 – Pertinax, Roman emperor (d. 193)
845 – Sugawara no Michizane, Japanese scholar and politician (d. 903)
992 – Hyeonjong of Goryeo, Korean king (d. 1031)
1068 – Emperor Taizu of Jin, Chinese emperor (d. 1123)
1313 – Kōgon, Japanese emperor (d. 1364)
1377 – Go-Komatsu, Japanese emperor (d. 1433)
1385 – John Fitzalan, 6th Earl of Arundel (d. 1421)
1410 – John IV, Count of Nassau-Siegen, German count (d. 1475)
1492 – Wolfgang, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen, German prince (d. 1566)
1520 – Sigismund II, Polish king (d. 1572)
1545 – Andrew Melville, Scottish theologian and scholar (d. 1622)
1555 – Edward Kelley, English spirit medium (d. 1597)
1579 – Luis Vélez de Guevara, Spanish author and playwright (d. 1644) |
August 1 | 1601–1900 | 1601–1900
1626 – Sabbatai Zevi, Montenegrin rabbi and theorist (d. 1676)
1630 – Thomas Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford of Chudleigh, English politician, Lord High Treasurer (d. 1673)
1659 – Sebastiano Ricci, Italian painter (d. 1734)
1713 – Charles I, German duke and prince (d. 1780)
1714 – Richard Wilson, Welsh painter and academic (d. 1782)
1738 – Jacques François Dugommier, French general (d. 1794)
1744 – Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, French soldier, biologist, and academic (d. 1829)
1770 – William Clark, American soldier, explorer, and politician, 4th Governor of Missouri Territory (d. 1838)
1779 – Francis Scott Key, American lawyer, author, and poet (d. 1843)
1779 – Lorenz Oken, German-Swiss botanist, biologist, and ornithologist (d. 1851)
1809 – William B. Travis, American colonel and lawyer (d. 1836)
1815 – Richard Henry Dana Jr., American lawyer and politician (d. 1882)
1818 – Maria Mitchell, American astronomer and academic (d. 1889)
1819 – Herman Melville, American novelist, short story writer, and poet (d. 1891)
1831 – Antonio Cotogni, Italian opera singer and educator (d. 1918)
1843 – Robert Todd Lincoln, American lawyer and politician, 35th United States Secretary of War (d. 1926)
1856 – George Coulthard, Australian footballer and cricketer (d. 1883)
1858 – Gaston Doumergue, French lawyer and politician, 13th President of France (d. 1937)
1858 – Hans Rott, Austrian organist and composer (d. 1884)
1860 – Bazil Assan, Romanian engineer and explorer (d. 1918)
1861 – Sammy Jones, Australian cricketer (d. 1951)
1865 – Isobel Lilian Gloag, English painter (d. 1917)
1871 – John Lester, American cricketer and soccer player (d. 1969)
1877 – George Hackenschmidt, Estonian-English wrestler and strongman (d. 1968)
1878 – Konstantinos Logothetopoulos, Greek physician and politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1961)
1881 – Otto Toeplitz, German mathematician and academic (d. 1940)
1885 – George de Hevesy, Hungarian-German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1966)
1889 – Walter Gerlach, German physicist and academic (d. 1979)
1891 – Karl Kobelt, Swiss lawyer and politician, 52nd President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1968)
1893 – Alexander of Greece (d. 1920)
1894 – Ottavio Bottecchia, Italian cyclist (d. 1927)
1898 – Morris Stoloff, American composer and musical director (d. 1980)
1899 – Raymond Mays, English race car driver and businessman (d. 1980)
1900 – Otto Nothling, Australian cricketer and rugby player (d. 1965) |
August 1 | 1901–present | 1901–present
1901 – Francisco Guilledo, Filipino boxer (d. 1925)
1903 – Paul Horgan, American historian, author, and academic (d. 1995)
1905 – Helen Sawyer Hogg, American-Canadian astronomer and academic (d. 1993)
1907 – Eric Shipton, Sri Lankan-English mountaineer and explorer (d. 1977)
1910 – James Henry Govier, English painter and illustrator (d. 1974)
1910 – Walter Scharf, American pianist and composer (d. 2003)
1910 – Gerda Taro, German war photographer (d. 1937)
1911 – Jackie Ormes, American journalist and cartoonist (d. 1985)
1912 – David Brand, Australian politician, 19th Premier of Western Australia (d. 1979)
1912 – Gego, German-Venezuelan sculptor and academic (d. 1994)
1912 – Henry Jones, American actor (d. 1999)
1914 – Jack Delano, American photographer and composer (d. 1997)
1914 – Alan Moore, Australian painter and educator (d. 2015)
1914 – J. Lee Thompson, English-Canadian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2002)
1916 – Fiorenzo Angelini, Italian cardinal (d. 2014)
1916 – Anne Hébert, Canadian author and poet (d. 2000)
1918 – T. J. Jemison, American minister and activist (d. 2013)
1919 – Stanley Middleton, English author (d. 2009)
1920 – Raul Renter, Estonian economist and chess player (d. 1992)
1920 – James Mourilyan Tanner, British paediatric endocrinologist (d. 2010)
1921 – Jack Kramer, American tennis player, sailor, and sportscaster (d. 2009)
1921 – Pat McDonald, Australian actress (d. 1990)
1922 – Arthur Hill, Canadian-American actor (d. 2006)
1924 – Abdullah of Saudi Arabia (d. 2015)
1924 – Frank Havens, American canoeist (d. 2018)
1924 – Marcia Mae Jones, American actress and singer (d. 2007)
1924 – Frank Worrell, Barbadian cricketer (d. 1967)
1925 – Ernst Jandl, Austrian poet and author (d. 2000)
1926 – George Habash, Palestinian politician, founder of the PFLP (d. 2008)
1926 – George Hauptfuhrer, American basketball player and lawyer (d. 2013)
1926 – Hannah Hauxwell, English TV personality (d. 2018)
1927 – María Teresa López Boegeholz, Chilean oceanographer (d. 2006)
1927 – Anthony G. Bosco, American bishop (d. 2013)
1928 – Jack Shea, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013)
1929 – Leila Abashidze, Georgian actress (d. 2018)
1929 – Hafizullah Amin, Afghan educator and politician, Afghan Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1979)
1929 – Ann Calvello, American roller derby racer (d. 2006)
1930 – Lionel Bart, English composer (d. 1999)
1930 – Pierre Bourdieu, French sociologist, anthropologist, and philosopher (d. 2002)
1930 – Julie Bovasso, American actress and writer (d. 1991)
1930 – Lawrence Eagleburger, American lieutenant and politician, 62nd United States Secretary of State (d. 2011)
1930 – Károly Grósz, Hungarian politician, 51st Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1996)
1930 – Geoffrey Holder, Trinidadian-American actor, singer, dancer, and choreographer (d. 2014)
1931 – Ramblin' Jack Elliott, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1931 – Trevor Goddard, South African cricketer (d. 2016)
1932 – Meir Kahane, American-Israeli rabbi and activist, founded the Jewish Defense League (d. 1990)
1933 – Dom DeLuise, American actor, singer, director, and producer (d. 2009)
1933 – Masaichi Kaneda, Japanese baseball player and manager (d. 2019)
1933 – Meena Kumari, Indian actress (d. 1972)
1933 – Teri Shields, American actress, producer, and agent (d. 2012)
1933 – Dušan Třeštík, Czech historian and author (d. 2007)
1934 – John Beck, New Zealand cricketer (d. 2000)
1934 – Derek Birdsall, English graphic designer (d. 2024)
1935 – Geoff Pullar, English cricketer (d. 2014)
1936 – W. D. Hamilton, British biologist, psychologist, and academic (d. 2000)
1936 – Yves Saint Laurent, Algerian-French fashion designer, co-founded Yves Saint Laurent (d. 2008)
1936 – Laurie Taylor, English sociologist, radio host, and academic
1937 – Al D'Amato, American lawyer and politician
1939 – Bob Frankford, English-Canadian physician and politician (d. 2015)
1939 – Terry Kiser, American actor
1939 – Stephen Sykes, English bishop and theologian (d. 2014)
1939 – Robert James Waller, American author and photographer (d. 2017)
1940 – Mahmoud Dowlatabadi, Iranian writer and actor
1940 – Mervyn Kitchen, English cricketer and umpire
1940 – Henry Silverman, American businessman, founded Cendant
1941 – Ron Brown, American captain and politician, 30th United States Secretary of Commerce (d. 1996)
1941 – Étienne Roda-Gil, French songwriter and screenwriter (d. 2004)
1942 – Jerry Garcia, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1995)
1942 – Giancarlo Giannini, Italian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
1944 – Dmitry Nikolayevich Filippov, Russian banker and politician (d. 1998)
1945 – Douglas Osheroff, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
1946 – Boz Burrell, English singer-songwriter, bass player, and guitarist (d. 2006)
1946 – Rick Coonce, American drummer (d. 2011)
1946 – Richard O. Covey, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut
1946 – Fiona Stanley, Australian epidemiologist and academic
1947 – Lorna Goodison, Jamaican poet and author
1947 – Chantal Montellier, French comics creator and artist
1948 – Avi Arad, Israeli-American screenwriter and producer, founded Marvel Studios
1948 – Cliff Branch, American football player (d. 2019)
1948 – David Gemmell, English journalist and author (d. 2006)
1949 – Bettina Arndt, Australian writer and commentator
1949 – Kurmanbek Bakiyev, Kyrgyzstani politician, 2nd President of Kyrgyzstan
1949 – Jim Carroll, American poet, author, and musician (d. 2009)
1949 – Ray Nettles, American football player (d. 2009)
1950 – Roy Williams, American basketball player and coach
1951 – Tim Bachman, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2023)
1951 – Tommy Bolin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1976)
1951 – Pete Mackanin, American baseball player, coach, and manager
1952 – Zoran Đinđić, Serbian philosopher and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Serbia (d. 2003)
1953 – Robert Cray, American blues singer-songwriter and guitarist
1953 – Howard Kurtz, American journalist and author
1954 – Trevor Berbick, Jamaican-Canadian boxer (d. 2006)
1954 – James Gleick, American journalist and author
1954 – Benno Möhlmann, German footballer and manager
1957 – Anne-Marie Hutchinson, British lawyer (d. 2020)
1957 – Taylor Negron, American actor and screenwriter (d. 2015)
1958 – Rob Buck, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2000)
1958 – Michael Penn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1958 – Kiki Vandeweghe, American basketball player and coach
1959 – Joe Elliott, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
1960 – Chuck D, American rapper and songwriter
1960 – Suzi Gardner, American rock singer-songwriter and guitarist
1962 – Jacob Matlala, South African boxer (d. 2013)
1963 – Demián Bichir, Mexican-American actor and producer
1963 – Coolio, American rapper, producer, and actor (d. 2022)
1963 – John Carroll Lynch, American actor
1963 – Koichi Wakata, Japanese astronaut and engineer
1963 – Dean Wareham, New Zealand singer-songwriter and guitarist
1964 – Adam Duritz, American singer-songwriter and producer
1964 – Fiona Hyslop, Scottish businesswoman and politician
1965 – Brandt Jobe, American golfer
1965 – Sam Mendes, English director and producer
1966 – James St. James, American club promoter and author
1967 – Gregg Jefferies, American baseball player and coach
1967 – José Padilha, Brazilian director, producer and screenwriter
1968 – Stacey Augmon, American basketball player and coach
1968 – Dan Donegan, American heavy metal guitarist and songwriter
1968 – Shigetoshi Hasegawa, Japanese baseball player and sportscaster
1969 – Andrei Borissov, Estonian footballer and manager
1969 – Kevin Jarvis, American baseball player and scout
1969 – Graham Thorpe, English cricketer and journalist (d. 2024)
1970 – Quentin Coryatt, American football player
1970 – David James, English footballer and manager
1970 – Eugenie van Leeuwen, Dutch cricketer
1972 – Nicke Andersson, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist
1972 – Christer Basma, Norwegian footballer and coach
1972 – Todd Bouman, American football player and coach
1972 – Thomas Woods, American historian, economist, and academic
1973 – Gregg Berhalter, American soccer player and coach
1973 – Tempestt Bledsoe, American actress
1973 – Veerle Dejaeghere, Belgian runner
1973 – Edurne Pasaban, Spanish mountaineer
1974 – Cher Calvin, American journalist
1974 – Marek Galiński, Polish cyclist (d. 2014)
1974 – Tyron Henderson, South African cricketer
1974 – Dennis Lawrence, Trinidadian footballer and coach
1974 – Beckie Scott, Canadian skier
1975 – Vhrsti, Czech author and illustrator
1976 – Don Hertzfeldt, American animator, producer, screenwriter, and voice actor
1976 – Søren Jochumsen, Danish footballer
1976 – Nwankwo Kanu, Nigerian footballer
1976 – David Nemirovsky, Canadian ice hockey player
1976 – Hasan Şaş, Turkish footballer and manager
1976 – Cristian Stoica, Romanian-Italian rugby player
1977 – Marc Denis, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster
1977 – Haspop, French-Moroccan dancer, choreographer, and actor
1977 – Darnerien McCants, American-Canadian football player
1977 – Damien Saez, French singer-songwriter and guitarist
1977 – Yoshi Tatsu, Japanese wrestler and boxer
1978 – Andy Blignaut, Zimbabwean cricketer
1978 – Björn Ferry, Swedish biathlete
1978 – Dhani Harrison, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
1978 – Chris Iwelumo, Scottish footballer
1978 – Edgerrin James, American football player
1979 – Junior Agogo, Ghanaian footballer (d. 2019)
1979 – Nathan Fien, Australian-New Zealand rugby league player
1979 – Jason Momoa, American actor, director, and producer
1979 – Grant Wooden, Australian rugby league player
1980 – Mancini, Brazilian footballer
1980 – Romain Barras, French decathlete
1980 – Esteban Paredes, Chilean footballer
1981 – Dean Cox, Australian footballer
1981 – Pia Haraldsen, Norwegian journalist and author
1981 – Christofer Heimeroth, German footballer
1981 – Stephen Hunt, Irish footballer
1981 – Jamie Jones-Buchanan, English rugby player
1982 – Basem Fathi, Jordanian footballer
1982 – Montserrat Lombard, English actress, director, and screenwriter
1983 – Bobby Carpenter, American football player
1983 – Craig Clarke, New Zealand rugby player
1983 – Julien Faubert, French footballer
1983 – David Gervasi, Swiss decathlete
1984 – Steve Feak, American game designer
1984 – Francesco Gavazzi, Italian cyclist
1984 – Brandon Kintzler, American baseball player
1984 – Bastian Schweinsteiger, German footballer
1985 – Stuart Holden, Scottish-American soccer player
1985 – Adam Jones, American baseball player
1985 – Cole Kimball, American baseball player
1985 – Tendai Mtawarira, South African rugby player
1985 – Kris Stadsgaard, Danish footballer
1985 – Dušan Švento, Slovak footballer
1986 – Damien Allen, English footballer
1986 – Anton Strålman, Swedish ice hockey player
1986 – Andrew Taylor, English footballer
1986 – Elena Vesnina, Russian tennis player
1986 – Mike Wallace, American football player
1987 – Iago Aspas, Spanish footballer
1987 – Karen Carney, English women's footballer
1987 – Taapsee Pannu, Indian actress
1987 – Sébastien Pocognoli, Belgian footballer
1987 – Lee Wallace, Scottish footballer
1988 – Mustafa Abdellaoue, Norwegian footballer
1988 – Travis Boak, Australian footballer
1988 – Patryk Małecki, Polish footballer
1988 – Nemanja Matić, Serbian footballer
1988 – Bodene Thompson, New Zealand rugby league player
1989 – Madison Bumgarner, American baseball player
1989 – Tiffany Young, Korean American singer, songwriter, and actress
1990 – Aledmys Díaz, Cuban baseball player
1990 – Elton Jantjies, South African rugby player
1991 – Piotr Malarczyk, Polish footballer
1991 – Marco Puntoriere, Italian footballer
1992 – Austin Rivers, American basketball player
1992 – Mrunal Thakur, Indian actress
1993 – Álex Abrines, Spanish basketball player
1993 – Leon Thomas III, American actor and singer
1993 – Saleh Gomaa, Egyptian footballer
1994 – Sergeal Petersen, South African rugby player
1994 – Ayaka Wada, Japanese singer
1995 – Madison Cawthorn, American politician
1996 – Katie Boulter, British tennis player
2000 – Kim Chaewon, South Korean singer
2001 – Scottie Barnes, American basketball player
2001 – Park Si-eun, South Korean actress
2001 – Ben Trbojevic, Australian rugby league player
2003 – Joseph Sua'ali'i, Australian-Samoan rugby league player |
August 1 | Deaths | Deaths |
August 1 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
30 BC – Mark Antony, Roman general and politician (b. 83 BC)
371 – Eusebius of Vercelli, Italian bishop and saint (b. 283)
527 – Justin I, Byzantine emperor (b. 450)
690s – Jonatus, abbot and saint: "the dates of his death (1 August) and his translation (8 April) were recorded in liturgical sources from Marchiennes."
873 – Thachulf, duke of Thuringia
946 – Ali ibn Isa al-Jarrah, Abbasid vizier (b. 859)
946 – Lady Xu Xinyue, Chinese queen (b. 902)
953 – Yingtian, Chinese Khitan empress (b. 879)
984 – Æthelwold, bishop of Winchester
1098 – Adhemar of Le Puy, French papal legate
1137 – Louis VI, king of France (b. 1081)
1146 – Vsevolod II of Kiev, Russian princeDimnik, Martin. The Dynasty of Chernigov, 1146–1246, 2003
1227 – Shimazu Tadahisa, Japanese warlord (b. 1179)
1252 – Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, Italian archbishop and explorer (b. 1180)
1299 – Conrad de Lichtenberg, Bishop of Strasbourg (b. 1240)
1402 – Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, English politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b. 1341)
1457 – Lorenzo Valla, Italian author and educator (b. 1406)
1464 – Cosimo de' Medici, Italian ruler (b. 1386)
1494 – Giovanni Santi, artist and father of Raphael (b. c. 1435)
1541 – Simon Grynaeus, German theologian and scholar (b. 1493)
1543 – Magnus I, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (b. 1488)
1546 – Peter Faber, French Jesuit theologian (b. 1506)
1557 – Olaus Magnus, Swedish archbishop, historian, and cartographer (b. 1490)
1580 – Albrecht Giese, Polish-German politician and diplomat (b. 1524)
1589 – Jacques Clément, French assassin of Henry III of France (b. 1567) |
August 1 | 1601–1900 | 1601–1900
1603 – Matthew Browne, English politician (b. 1563)
1714 – Anne, Queen of Great Britain (b. 1665)
1787 – Alphonsus Maria de' Liguori, Italian bishop and saint (b. 1696)
1795 – Clas Bjerkander, Swedish meteorologist, botanist, and entomologist (b. 1735)
1796 – Sir Robert Pigot, 2nd Baronet, English colonel and politician (b. 1720)
1797 – Emanuel Granberg, Finnish church painter (b. 1754)
1798 – François-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers, French admiral (b. 1753)
1807 – John Boorman, English cricketer (b. c. 1754)
1807 – John Walker, English actor, philologist, and lexicographer (b. 1732)
1808 – Lady Diana Beauclerk, English painter and illustrator (b. 1734)
1812 – Yakov Kulnev, Russian general (b. 1763)
1851 – William Joseph Behr, German publicist and academic (b. 1775)
1863 – Jind Kaur Majarani (Regent) of the Sikh Empire (b. 1817)
1866 – John Ross, American tribal chief (b. 1790)
1869 – Richard Dry, Australian politician, 7th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1815)
1869 – Peter Julian Eymard, French Priest and founder of the Congregation of the Blessed Sacrament (b. 1811) |
August 1 | 1901–present | 1901–present
1903 – Calamity Jane, American frontierswoman and scout (b. 1853)
1905 – Henrik Sjöberg, Swedish gymnast and medical student (b. 1875)"Henrik Sjöberg". Olympedia. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
1911 – Edwin Austin Abbey, American painter and illustrator (b. 1852)
1911 – Samuel Arza Davenport, American lawyer and politician (b. 1843)
1918 – John Riley Banister, American cowboy and police officer (b. 1854)
1920 – Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Indian freedom fighter, lawyer and journalist (b. 1856)
1921 – T.J. Ryan, Australian politician, 19th Premier of Queensland (b. 1876)
1922 – Donát Bánki, Hungarian engineer (b. 1856)
1929 – Syd Gregory, Australian cricketer (b. 1870)
1938 – Edmund C. Tarbell, American painter and academic (b. 1862)
1943 – Lydia Litvyak, Soviet lieutenant and pilot (b. 1921)
1944 – Manuel L. Quezon, Filipino soldier, lawyer, and politician, 2nd President of the Philippines (b. 1878)
1957 – Rose Fyleman, English writer and poet (b. 1877)
1959 – Jean Behra, French race car driver (b. 1921)
1963 – Theodore Roethke, American poet (b. 1908)
1966 – Charles Whitman, American mass murderer (b. 1941)
1967 – Richard Kuhn, Austrian-German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize Laureate (b. 1900)
1970 – Frances Farmer, American actress (b. 1913)
1970 – Doris Fleeson, American journalist (b. 1901)
1970 – Otto Heinrich Warburg, German physician and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1883)
1973 – Gian Francesco Malipiero, Italian composer and educator (b. 1882)
1973 – Walter Ulbricht, German soldier and politician (b. 1893)
1974 – Ildebrando Antoniutti, Italian cardinal (b. 1898)
1977 – Francis Gary Powers, American captain and pilot (b. 1929)
1980 – Patrick Depailler, French race car driver (b. 1944)
1980 – Strother Martin, American actor (b. 1919)
1981 – Paddy Chayefsky, American author, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1923)
1981 – Kevin Lynch, Irish Republican, Hunger Striker
1982 – T. Thirunavukarasu, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (b. 1933)
1989 – John Ogdon, English pianist and composer (b. 1937)
1990 – Norbert Elias, German-Dutch sociologist, author, and academic (b. 1897)
1996 – Tadeusz Reichstein, Polish-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1897)
1996 – Lucille Teasdale-Corti, Canadian physician and surgeon (b. 1929)
1998 – Eva Bartok, Hungarian-British actress (b. 1927)
2001 – Korey Stringer, American football player (b. 1974)
2003 – Guy Thys, Belgian footballer, coach, and manager (b. 1922)
2003 – Marie Trintignant, French actress and screenwriter (b. 1962)
2004 – Philip Abelson, American physicist and author (b. 1913)
2005 – Al Aronowitz, American journalist (b. 1928)
2005 – Wim Boost, Dutch cartoonist and educator (b. 1918)
2005 – Constant Nieuwenhuys, Dutch painter and sculptor (b. 1920)
2005 – Fahd of Saudi Arabia (b. 1923)
2006 – Bob Thaves, American illustrator (b. 1924)
2006 – Iris Marion Young, American political scientist and activist (b. 1949)
2007 – Tommy Makem, Irish singer-songwriter and banjo player (b. 1932)
2008 – Gertan Klauber, Czech-English actor (b. 1932)
2008 – Harkishan Singh Surjeet, Indian lawyer and politician (b. 1916)
2009 – Corazon Aquino, Filipino politician, 11th President of the Philippines (b. 1933)
2010 – Lolita Lebrón, Puerto Rican-American activist (b. 1919)
2010 – Eric Tindill, New Zealand rugby player and cricketer (b. 1910)
2012 – Aldo Maldera, Italian footballer and agent (b. 1953)
2012 – Douglas Townsend, American composer and musicologist (b. 1921)
2012 – Barry Trapnell, English cricketer and academic (b. 1924)
2013 – John Amis, English journalist and critic (b. 1922)
2013 – Gail Kobe, American actress and producer (b. 1932)
2013 – Babe Martin, American baseball player (b. 1920)
2013 – Toby Saks, American cellist and educator (b. 1942)
2013 – Wilford White, American football player (b. 1928)
2014 – Valyantsin Byalkevich, Belarusian footballer and manager (b. 1973)
2014 – Jan Roar Leikvoll, Norwegian author (b. 1974)
2014 – Charles T. Payne, American soldier (b. 1925)
2014 – Mike Smith, English radio and television host (b. 1955)
2015 – Stephan Beckenbauer, German footballer and manager (b. 1968)
2015 – Cilla Black, English singer and actress (b. 1943)
2015 – Bernard d'Espagnat, French physicist, philosopher, and author (b. 1921)
2015 – Bob Frankford, English-Canadian physician and politician (b. 1939)
2015 – Hong Yuanshuo, Chinese footballer and manager (b. 1948)
2016 – Queen Anne of Romania (b. 1923)
2020 – Wilford Brimley, American actor and singer (b. 1934)
2020 – Rickey Dixon, American professional football player (b. 1966)
2020 – Rodney H. Pardey, American poker player (b. 1945)
2021 – Abdalqadir as-Sufi, Scottish Islamic scholar and writer (b. 1930)
2021 – Jerry Ziesmer, American assistant director, production manager and occasional actor (b. 1939)
2024 – Joyce Brabner, American writer and artist (b. 1952) |
August 1 | Holidays and observances | Holidays and observances
Armed Forces Day (Lebanon)
Armed Forces Day (China) or Anniversary of the Founding of the People's Liberation Army (People's Republic of China)
Azerbaijani Language and Alphabet Day (Azerbaijan)
Emancipation Day is commemorated in many parts of the former British Empire, which marks the day the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 came into effect which abolished chattel slavery in the British Empire:
Emancipation Day is a public holiday in Barbados, Bermuda, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago
Christian feast day:
Abgar V of Edessa (Syrian Church)
Alphonsus Maria de' Liguori
Æthelwold of Winchester
Bernard Võ Văn Duệ (one of Vietnamese Martyrs)
Blessed Gerhard Hirschfelder
Eusebius of Vercelli
Exuperius of Bayeux
Felix of Girona
Peter Apostle in Chains
Procession of the Cross and the beginning of Dormition Fast (Eastern Orthodoxy)
The Holy Maccabees
August 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Minden Day (United Kingdom)
National Day, celebrates the independence of Benin from France in 1960.
Official Birthday and Coronation Day of the King of Tonga (Tonga)
Parents' Day (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
Statehood Day (Colorado)
Swiss National Day, commemorates Switzerland becoming a single unit in 1291.
The beginning of autumn observances in the Northern hemisphere and spring observances in the Southern hemisphere (Neopagan Wheel of the Year):
Lughnasadh in the Northern hemisphere, Imbolc in the Southern hemisphere; traditionally begins on the eve of August 1. (Gaels, Ireland, Scotland, Neopagans)
Lammas (England, Scotland, Neopagans)
Pachamama Raymi (Quechuan in Ecuador and Peru)
Victory Day (Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam)
World Scout Scarf Day
Yorkshire Day (Yorkshire, England) |
August 1 | References | References |
August 1 | External links | External links
Category:Days of August |
August 1 | Table of Content | for, Events, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Births, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Deaths, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Holidays and observances, References, External links |
Astronomical Units | # | Redirect Astronomical unit |
Astronomical Units | Table of Content | # |
Antoninus Pius | Short description | upright=1.35|thumb|Denarius, struck 140 AD with portrait of Antoninus Pius (obverse) and his adoptive son Marcus Aurelius (reverse). Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG PIVS P. P., TR. P., CO[N]S. III / AVRELIVS CAES. AVG. PII F. CO[N]S.
Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius (; ; 19 September 86 – 7 March 161) was Roman emperor from AD 138 to 161. He was the fourth of the Five Good Emperors from the Nerva–Antonine dynasty.
Born into a senatorial family, Antoninus held various offices during the reign of Emperor Hadrian. He married Hadrian's niece Faustina, and Hadrian adopted him as his son and successor shortly before his death. Antoninus acquired the cognomen Pius after his accession to the throne, either because he compelled the Senate to deify his adoptive father, or because he had saved senators sentenced to death by Hadrian in his later years. His reign is notable for the peaceful state of the Empire, with no major revolts or military incursions during this time. A successful military campaign in southern Scotland early in his reign resulted in the construction of the Antonine Wall.
Antoninus was an effective administrator, leaving his successors a large surplus in the treasury, expanding free access to drinking water throughout the Empire, encouraging legal conformity, and facilitating the enfranchisement of freed slaves. He died of illness in AD 161 and was succeeded by his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as co-emperors. |
Antoninus Pius | Early life | Early life |
Antoninus Pius | Childhood and family | Childhood and family
Antoninus Pius was born Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Antoninus in 86, near Lanuvium (modern-day Lanuvio) in Italy to Titus Aurelius Fulvus, consul in 89, and wife Arria Fadilla.Kienast 1990: 134. The Aurelii Fulvi were an Aurelian family settled in Nemausus (modern Nîmes). Titus Aurelius Fulvus was the son of a senator of the same name, who, as legate of Legio III Gallica, had supported Vespasian in his bid to the Imperial office and been rewarded with a suffect consulship, plus an ordinary one under Domitian in 85. The Aurelii Fulvi were therefore a relatively new senatorial family from Gallia Narbonensis whose rise to prominence was supported by the Flavians. The link between Antoninus's family and their home province explains the increasing importance of the post of proconsul of Gallia Narbonensis during the late second century.
Antoninus's father had no other children and died shortly after his 89 ordinary consulship. Antoninus was raised by his maternal grandfather Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus, reputed by contemporaries to be a man of integrity and culture and a friend of Pliny the Younger. The Arrii Antonini were an older senatorial family from Italy, very influential during Nerva's reign. Arria Fadilla, Antoninus's mother, married afterwards Publius Julius Lupus, suffect consul in 98; from that marriage came two daughters, Arria Lupula and Julia Fadilla. |
Antoninus Pius | Marriage and children | Marriage and children
thumb|Statue of Faustina the Elder in the Getty Villa
Some time between 110 and 115, Antoninus married Annia Galeria Faustina the Elder.Weigel, Antoninus Pius They are believed to have enjoyed a happy marriage. Faustina was the daughter of consul Marcus Annius Verus (II) and Rupilia Faustina (often thought to be a step-sister to the Empress Vibia SabinaRupilius. Strachan stemma. or more likely a granddaughter of the emperor Vitellius.) Faustina was a beautiful woman, and despite rumours about her character, it is clear that Antoninus cared for her deeply.
Faustina bore Antoninus four children, two sons and two daughters. They were:
Marcus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (died before 138); his sepulchral inscription has been found at the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome.Magie, David, Historia Augusta (1921), Life of Antoninus Pius, Note 6Kienast 1990: 135.
Marcus Galerius Aurelius Antoninus (died before 138); his sepulchral inscription has been found at the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome. His name appears on a Greek Imperial coin.
Aurelia Fadilla (died in 135); she married Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus, consul 145. She appeared to have no children with her husband; and her sepulchral inscription has been found in Italy.Magie, David, Historia Augusta (1921), Life of Antoninus Pius, Note 7Kienast 1990: 135, who refers to Aurelia Fadilla's husband as Aelius Lamia Silvanus.
Annia Galeria Faustina Minor or Faustina the Younger (between 125 and 130–175), a future Roman Empress, married her maternal cousin Marcus Aurelius in 146.
When Faustina died in 141, Antoninus was greatly distressed. In honour of her memory, he asked the Senate to deify her as a goddess, and authorised the construction of a temple to be built in the Roman Forum in her name, with priestesses serving in her temple. He had various coins with her portrait struck in her honor. These coins were scripted "DIVA FAUSTINA" and were elaborately decorated. He further founded a charity, calling it Puellae Faustinianae or Girls of Faustina, which assisted destitute girls of good family. Finally, Antoninus created a new alimenta, a Roman welfare programme, as part of Cura Annonae.
The emperor never remarried. Instead, he lived with Galeria Lysistrate,Anise K. Strong: Prostitutes and Matrons in the Roman World Faustina's freedwoman. Concubinage was a form of female companionship sometimes chosen by powerful men in Ancient Rome, especially widowers like Vespasian, and Marcus Aurelius. Their union could not produce any legitimate offspring who could threaten any heirs, such as those of Antoninus. Also, as one could not have a wife and an official concubine (or two concubines) at the same time, Antoninus avoided being pressed into a marriage with a noblewoman from another family. (Later, Marcus Aurelius would also reject the advances of his former fiancée Ceionia Fabia, Lucius Verus's sister, on the grounds of protecting his children from a stepmother, and took a concubine instead.) |
Antoninus Pius | Favour with Hadrian | Favour with Hadrian
thumb|left| Marble bust of Antoninus Pius (138–161); British Museum, London
Having filled the offices of quaestor and praetor with more than usual success,Traver, Andrew G., From polis to empire, the ancient world, c. 800 B.C. – A.D. 500, (2002) p. 33; Historia Augusta, Life of Antoninus Pius 2:9 he obtained the consulship in 120 having as his colleague Lucius Catilius Severus.E.E. Bryant, The Reign of Antoninus Pius. Cambridge University Press, 1895, p. 12 He was next appointed by the Emperor Hadrian as one of the four proconsuls to administer Italia, his district including Etruria, where he had estates.Bryant, p. 15 He then greatly increased his reputation by his conduct as proconsul of Asia, probably during 134–135.
He acquired much favor with Hadrian, who adopted him as his son and successor on 25 February 138, after the death of his first adopted son Lucius Aelius, on the condition that Antoninus would in turn adopt Marcus Annius Verus, the son of his wife's brother, and Lucius, son of Lucius Aelius, who afterwards became the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. He also adopted (briefly) the name Imperator Titus Aelius Caesar Antoninus, in preparation for his rule. There seems to have been some opposition to Antoninus's appointment on the part of other potential claimants, among them his former consular colleague Lucius Catilius Severus, then prefect of the city. Nevertheless, Antoninus assumed power without opposition.Grant, Michael, The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition, (1996), Routledge, , pp. 10–11 |
Antoninus Pius | Emperor | Emperor
thumb|The Roman Empire during the reign of Antoninus Pius
On his accession, Antoninus's name and style became Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus. One of his first acts as emperor was to persuade the Senate to grant divine honours to Hadrian, which they had at first refused; his efforts to persuade the Senate to grant these honours is the most likely reason given for his title of Pius (dutiful in affection; compare pietas). Two other reasons for this title are that he would support his aged father-in-law with his hand at Senate meetings and that he had saved those men that Hadrian, during his period of ill health, had condemned to death.
Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus's betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus's daughter instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus, Marcus's future co-emperor, would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus's proposal.HA Marcus 6.2; Verus 2.3–4
Antoninus built temples, theaters, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of rhetoric and philosophy. Antoninus made few initial changes when he became emperor, leaving the arrangements instituted by Hadrian as undisturbed as possible. Epigraphical and prosopographical research has revealed that Antoninus's imperial ruling team centered around a group of closely knit senatorial families, most of them members of the priestly congregation for the cult of Hadrian, the sodales Hadrianales. According to the German historian H.-G. Pflaum, prosopographical research of Antoninus's ruling team allows us to grasp the deeply conservative character of the ruling senatorial caste.H.-G. Pflaum, "Les prêtres du culte impérial sous le règne d'Antonin le Pieux". In: Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 111e année, N. 2, 1967. pp. 194–209. Available at . Accessed 27 January 2016
He owned palatial villas near Lanuvium and Villa Magna (Latium) and his ancestral estate at Lorium (Etruria).Eutropius, Breviarium ab Urbe condita, VIII, 8 |
Antoninus Pius | Lack of warfare | Lack of warfare
thumb|The temple of Antoninus and Faustina in the Roman Forum (now the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda). The emperor and his Augusta were deified after their death by Marcus Aurelius.
There are no records of his involvement in military acts during his tenure, with J. J. Wilkes noting that he likely never saw or commanded a Roman army and was never within five hundred miles of a legion throughout his twenty-three-year reign.J.J. Wilkes, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. LXXV 19 book , p. 242.
His reign was the most peaceful in the entire history of the Principate, even though there were several military disturbances in the Empire in his time. Such disturbances happened in Mauretania, where a senator was named as governor of Mauretania Tingitana in place of the usual equestrian procuratorRené Rebuffat, '"Enceintes urbaines et insécurité en Maurétanie Tingitane" In: Mélanges de l'École française de Rome, Antiquité, tome 86, n°1. 1974. pp. 501–522. Available at . Accessed 26 December 2015 and cavalry reinforcements from Pannonia were brought in,Michel Christol, "L'armée des provinces pannoniennes et la pacification des révoltes maures sous Antonin le Pieux". In: Antiquités africaines, 17, 1981. pp. 133–141. towns such as Sala and Tipasa being fortified.Michael Grant, The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition. Abingdon: Routledge, 1996, , p. 17; Rebuffat "Enceintes urbaines" Similar disturbances took place in Judea, and amongst the Brigantes in Britannia; however, these were considered less serious than prior (and later) revolts among both. It was however in Britain that Antoninus decided to follow a new, more aggressive path, with the appointment of a new governor in 139, Quintus Lollius Urbicus, a native of Numidia and previously governor of Germania InferiorSalway, A History of Roman Britain. Oxford University Press: 2001, , p. 149 as well as a new man.Birley, Anthony (2005), The Roman Government of Britain. Oxford U.P., , p. 137
Under instructions from the emperor, Lollius undertook an invasion of southern Scotland, winning some significant victories and constructing the Antonine Wall from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde. However, the wall was soon gradually decommissioned during the mid-150s and eventually abandoned late during the reign (early 160s) for reasons that are still unclear.David Colin Arthur Shotter, Roman Britain, Abingdon: Routledge, 2004, , p. 49 Antonine's Wall is mentioned in just one literary source, Antoninus's biography in the Historia Augusta. Pausanias makes a brief and confused mention of a war in Britain. In one inscription honouring Antoninus, erected by Legio II Augusta, which participated in the building of the Wall, a relief showing four naked prisoners, one of them beheaded, seems to stand for some actual warfare.Jean-Louis Voisin, "Les Romains, chasseurs de têtes". In: Du châtiment dans la cité. Supplices corporels et peine de mort dans le monde antique. Table ronde de Rome (9–11 novembre 1982) Rome: École Française de Rome, 1984. pp. 241–293. Available at . Accessed 14 January 2016
thumb|left|Statue of Antoninus Pius in military garb and muscle cuirass, from the Museo Chiaramonti (Vatican Museums)
Although Antonine's Wall was, in principle, much shorter (37 miles in length as opposed to 73) and, at first sight, more defensible than Hadrian's Wall, the additional area that it enclosed within the Empire was barren, with land use for grazing already in decay.W. E. Boyd (1984),"Environmental change and Iron Age land management in the area of the Antonine Wall, central Scotland: a summary".Glasgow Archaeological Journal, Volume 11 Issue 1, pp. 75–81 This meant that supply lines to the wall were strained enough such that the costs of maintaining the additional territory outweighed the benefits of doing so.Peter Spring, Great Walls and Linear Barriers. Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2015, , p. 75 Also, in the absence of urban development and the ensuing Romanization process, the rear of the wall could not be lastingly pacified.Edward Luttwak, The grand Strategy of the Roman Empire. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979, , p. 88
It has been speculated that the invasion of Lowland Scotland and the building of the wall had to do mostly with internal politics, that is, offering Antoninus an opportunity to gain some modicum of necessary military prestige at the start of his reign. An Imperial salutation followed the campaign in Britannia—that is, Antoninus formally took for the second (and last) time the title of Imperator in 142.David J. Breeze, Roman Frontiers in Britain. London: Bloomsbury, 2013, , p. 53 The fact that around the same time coins were struck announcing a victory in Britain points to Antoninus's need to publicise his achievements.Salway, 149 The orator Fronto was later to say that, although Antoninus bestowed the direction of the British campaign to others, he should be regarded as the helmsman who directed the voyage, whose glory, therefore, belonged to him.Birley, Anthony (2012). Marcus Aurelius, London: Routledge, 2012, , p. 61
That this quest for some military achievement responded to an actual need is proved by the fact that, although generally peaceful, Antoninus's reign was not free from attempts at usurpation: Historia Augusta mentions two, made by the senators Cornelius Priscianus ("for disturbing the peace of Spain";Simon Hornblower, Antony Spawforth, Esther Eidinow (2014): The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. , entry "Antoninus Pius" Priscianus had also been Lollius Urbicus's successor as governor of Britain) and Atilius Rufius Titianus (possibly a troublemaker already exiled under HadrianHerbert W. Benario (1980), A Commentary on the Vita Hadriani in the Historia Augusta. Scholars Press, , p. 103). Both attempts are confirmed by the Fasti Ostienses and by the erasing of Priscianus' name from an inscription.Albino Garzetti, From Tiberius to the Antonines: A History of the Roman Empire AD 14–192. London: Routledge, 2014, , p. 447; Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain, Paris: Seuil, 2005, , p. 28, footnote 61; Salway, 149 In both cases, Antoninus was not in formal charge of the ensuing repression: Priscianus committed suicide and Titianus was found guilty by the Senate, with Antoninus abstaining from sequestering their families' properties.Marta García Morcillo, Las ventas por subasta en el mundo romano: la esfera privada. Edicions Universitat Barcelona, 2005, , p. 301
thumb|A coin of Antoninus Pius showing a subdued Parthia (PAR-TH-IA on the reverse) handing the crown to him, an empty claim that Parthia was still subject to Rome after the events surrounding Parthamaspates
There were also some troubles in Dacia Inferior, which required the granting of additional powers to the procurator governor and the dispatch of additional soldiers to the province. On the northern Black Sea coast, the Greek city of Olbia was held against the Scythians.Gocha R. Tsetskhladze, ed., North Pontic Archaeology: Recent Discoveries and Studies. Leiden: Brill, 2001, , p. 425 Also during his reign the governor of Upper Germany, probably Gaius Popillius Carus Pedo, built new fortifications in the Agri Decumates, advancing the Limes Germanicus fifteen miles forward in his province and neighboring Raetia. In the East, Roman suzerainty over Armenia was retained by the choice in AD 140 of Arsacid scion Sohaemus as client king.Rouben Paul Adalian, Historical Dictionary of Armenia, Lanham: Scarecrow, 2010, , entry "Arshakuni/Arsacid", p. 174
Nevertheless, Antoninus was virtually unique among emperors in that he dealt with these crises without leaving Italy once during his reign,Speidel, Michael P., Riding for Caesar: The Roman Emperors' Horse Guards, Harvard University Press, 1997, p. 50 but instead dealt with provincial matters of war and peace through their governors or through imperial letters to the cities such as Ephesus (of which some were publicly displayed). His contemporaries and later generations highly praised this style of government.See Victor, 15:3
Antoninus was the last Roman Emperor recognised by the Indian Kingdoms, especially the Kushan Empire. Raoul McLaughlin quotes Aurelius Victor as saying, "The Indians, the Bactrians, and the Hyrcanians all sent ambassadors to Antoninus. They had all heard about the spirit of justice held by this great emperor, justice that was heightened by his handsome and grave countenance, and his slim and vigorous figure." Due to the outbreak of the Antonine epidemic and wars against northern Germanic tribes, the reign of Marcus Aurelius was forced to alter the focus of foreign policies, and matters relating to the Far East were increasingly abandoned in favour of those directly concerning the Empire's survival. |
Antoninus Pius | Economy and administration | Economy and administration
thumb|An aureus of Antoninus Pius, 145 AD. Inscription: ANTONINVS PIVS / IIII
Antoninus was regarded as a skilled administrator and builder. Despite an extensive building directive—the free access of the people of Rome to drinking water was expanded with the construction of aqueducts, not only in Rome but throughout the Empire, as well as bridges and roads—the emperor still managed to leave behind a sizable public treasury of around 2.7 billion sesterces. Rome would not witness another Emperor leaving his successor with a surplus for a long time, but the treasury was depleted almost immediately after Antoninus's reign due to the Antonine Plague brought back by soldiers after the Parthian victory.
The Emperor also famously suspended the collection of taxes from multiple cities affected by natural disasters, such as when fires struck Rome and Narbona, and earthquakes affected Rhodes and the Province of Asia. He offered hefty financial grants for rebuilding and recovery of various Greek cities after two serious earthquakes: the first, , which mainly affected Rhodes and other islands; the second, in 152, which hit Cyzicus (where the huge and newly built Temple to Hadrian was destroyedBarbara Burrell. Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. Leiden: Brill, 2004, , p. 87), Ephesus, and Smyrna. Antoninus's financial help earned him praise from Greek writers such as Aelius Aristides and Pausanias.E.E. Bryant, The Reign of Antoninus Pius. Cambridge University Press: 1895, pp. 45–46, 68. These cities received the usual honorific accolades from Antoninus, such as when he commanded that all governors of Asia should enter the province when taking office through Ephesus.Conrad Gempf, ed., The Book of Acts in Its Graeco-Roman Setting. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1994, , p. 305 Ephesus was especially favoured by Antoninus, who confirmed and upheld its distinction of having two temples for the imperial cult (neocorate), therefore having first place in the list of imperial honor titles, surpassing both Smyrna and Pergamon.Emmanuelle Collas-Heddeland, "Le culte impérial dans la compétition des titres sous le Haut-Empire. Une lettre d'Antonin aux Éphésiens". In: Revue des Études Grecques, tome 108, Juillet-décembre 1995. pp. 410–429. Available at . Retrieved 22 January 2016; Edmund Thomas,(2007): Monumentality and the Roman Empire: Architecture in the Antonine Age. Oxford U. Press, , p. 133
In his dealings with Greek-speaking cities, Antoninus followed the policy adopted by Hadrian of ingratiating himself with local elites, especially with local intellectuals: philosophers, teachers of literature, rhetoricians, and physicians were explicitly exempted from any duties involving private spending for civic purposes, a privilege granted by Hadrian that Antoninus confirmed by means of an edict preserved in the Digest (27.1.6.8).Philip A. Harland, ed., Greco-Roman Associations: Texts, translations and commentaries. II: North Coast of the Black Sea, Asia Minor . Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2014, , p. 381 Antoninus also created a chair for the teaching of rhetoric in Athens.Paul Graindor, "Antonin le Pieux et Athènes". Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire, tome 6, fasc. 3–4, 1927. pp. 753–756. Available at . Retrieved 22 January 2016
Antoninus was known as an avid observer of rites of religion and formal celebrations, both Roman and foreign. He is known for having increasingly formalized the official cult offered to the Great Mother, which from his reign onwards included a bull sacrifice, a taurobolium, formerly only a private ritual, now being also performed for the sake of the Emperor's welfare.Gary Forsythe, Time in Roman Religion: One Thousand Years of Religious History. London: Routledge, 2012, , p. 92 Antoninus also offered patronage to the worship of Mithras, to whom he erected a temple in Ostia.Samuel Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius. Library of Alexandria, s.d.g. In 148, he presided over the celebrations of the 900th anniversary of the founding of Rome. |
Antoninus Pius | Legal reforms | Legal reforms
thumb|Copy inscribed in marble of a letter from Antoninus to the Ephesians, from the Bouleuterion at Ephesus, 140–144 AD, explaining how the emperor resolved a dispute between the Roman cities of Ephesus and Smyrna. British Museum, London.
Antoninus tried to portray himself as a magistrate of the res publica, no matter how extended and ill-defined his competencies were. He is credited with splitting the imperial treasury, the fiscus. This splitting had to do with the division of imperial properties into two parts. Firstly, the fiscus itself, or patrimonium, meaning the properties of the "Crown", the hereditary properties of each succeeding person that sat on the throne, transmitted to his successors in office,Oxford Classical Dictionary, London: 2012, , entry "Patrimonium". regardless of their previous membership in the imperial family.After the death of Nero, the personal properties of the Julio-Claudian dynasty had been appropriated by the Flavians, and therefore turned into public properties: Carrié & Roussele, 586 Secondly, the res privata, the "private" properties tied to the personal maintenance of the emperor and his family,Carrié & Rousselle, 586 something like a Privy Purse. An anecdote in the Historia Augusta biography, where Antoninus replies to Faustina (who complained about his stinginess) that "we have gained an empire [and] lost even what we had before," possibly relates to Antoninus's actual concerns at the creation of the res privata.The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 11: The High Empire, AD 70–192. Cambridge U.P., 2009, , p. 150 While still a private citizen, Antoninus had increased his personal fortune significantly using various legacies, the consequence of his caring scrupulously for his relatives.Edward Champlin, Final Judgments: Duty and Emotion in Roman Wills, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991, , p. 98 Also, Antoninus left behind him a reputation for stinginess and was probably determined not to leave his personal property to be "swallowed up by the demands of the imperial throne".
The res privata lands could be sold and/or given away, while the patrimonium properties were regarded as public.David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay. London: Routledge, 2014, , p. 49 It was a way of pretending that the Imperial function—and most properties attached to it—was a public one, formally subject to the authority of the Senate and the Roman people.Heinz Bellen, "Die 'Verstaatlichung' des Privatvermögens der römische Kaiser". Hildegard Temporini, ed., Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1974, , p. 112 That the distinction played no part in subsequent political history—that the personal power of the princeps absorbed his role as office-holder—proves that the autocratic logic of the imperial order had already subsumed the old republican institutions.Aloys Winterling, Politics and Society in Imperial Rome. Malden, MA: John Wiley & sons, 2009, , pp. 73–75
Of the public transactions of this period, there is only the scantiest of information. However, to judge by what is extant, those twenty-two years were not remarkably eventful compared to those before and after the reign. However, Antoninus did take a great interest in the revision and practice of the law throughout the empire. One of his chief concerns was to having local communities conform their legal procedures to existing Roman norms: in a case concerning the repression of banditry by local police officers ("irenarchs", Greek for "peacekeepers") in Asia Minor, Antoninus ordered that these officers should not treat suspects as already condemned, and also keep a detailed copy of their interrogations, to be used in the possibility of an appeal to the Roman governor.Clifford Ando, Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press, 2012, , p. 91 Also, although Antoninus was not an innovator, he would not always follow the absolute letter of the law. Rather, he was driven by concerns over humanity and equality and introduced into Roman law many important new principles based upon this notion.
In this, the emperor was assisted by five chief lawyers: Lucius Fulvius Aburnius Valens, an author of legal treatises;John Anthony Crook, Consilium Principis: Imperial Councils and Counsellors from Augustus to Diocletian. Cambridge U.P.: 1955, p. 67 Lucius Ulpius Marcellus, a prolific writer; and three others. Of these three, the most prominent was Lucius Volusius Maecianus, a former military officer turned by Antoninus into a civil procurator, and who, given his subsequent career (discovered on the basis of epigraphical and prosopographic research), was the emperor's most important legal adviser.A. Arthur Schiller, Roman Law: Mechanisms of Development. The Hague: Mouton, 1978, , p. 477 Maecianus would eventually be chosen to occupy various prefectures (see below) as well as to conduct the legal studies of Marcus Aurelius. He also authored an extensive work on Fidei commissa (Testamentary Trusts). As a hallmark of the increased connection between jurists and the imperial government,George Mousourakis, Roman Law and the Origins of the Civil Law Tradition, Heidelberg: Springer, , p. 79 Antoninus's reign also saw the appearance of the Institutes of Gaius, an elementary legal textbook for beginners.
thumb|Gold aureus of Antoninus, 153 AD. ANTONINVS AVG PIVS PP TR P XVII
Antoninus passed measures to facilitate the enfranchisement of slaves. Mostly, he favoured the principle of favor libertatis, giving the putative freedman the benefit of the doubt when the claim to freedom was not clear-cut.Keith Bradley, Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge University Press: 1994, , p. 162 Also, he punished the killing of a slave by their master without previous trialAubert, Jean-Jacques. "L'esclave en droit romain ou l'impossible réification de l'homme". Esclavage et travail forcé, Cahiers de la Recherche sur les droits fondamentaux (CRDF). Vol. 10. 2012. and determined that slaves could be forcibly sold to another master by a proconsul in cases of consistent mistreatment.Anastasia Serghidou, ed. Fear of slaves, fear of enslavement in the ancient Mediterranean. Presses Univ. Franche-Comté, 2007 , p. 159 Antoninus upheld the enforcement of contracts for selling of female slaves forbidding their further employment in prostitution.Jean-Michel Carrié & Aline Rousselle, L'Empire Romain en Mutation, des Sévères à Constantin, 192–337. Paris: Seuil 1999, , p. 290 In criminal law, Antoninus introduced the important principle of the presumption of innocence—namely, that accused persons are not to be treated as guilty before trial, as in the case of the irenarchs (see above). Antoninus also asserted the principle that the trial was to be held and the punishment inflicted in the place where the crime had been committed. He mitigated the use of torture in examining slaves by certain limitations. Thus, he prohibited the application of torture to children under fourteen years, though this rule had exceptions. However, it must be stressed that Antoninus extended, using a rescript, the use of torture as a means of obtaining evidence to pecuniary cases, when it had been applied up until then only in criminal cases.Digest, 48.18.9, as quoted by Edward Peters, Torture, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996, , p. 29 Also, already at the time torture of free men of low status (humiliores) had become legal, as proved by the fact that Antoninus exempted town councillors expressly from it, and also free men of high rank (honestiores) in general.Grant, pp. 154–155.
One highlight during his reign occurred in 148, with the 900th anniversary of the foundation of Rome being celebrated by hosting magnificent games in the city. It lasted many days, and a host of exotic animals were killed, including elephants, giraffes, tigers, rhinoceroses, crocodiles and hippopotamuses. While this increased Antoninus's popularity, the frugal emperor had to debase the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 89% to 83.5, the actual silver weight dropping from 2.88 grams to 2.68 grams.Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate"
Antoninus is a likely candidate for the Antoninus named multiple times in the Talmud as a friend of Rabbi Judah Ha-Nasi. In the Talmudic tractate Avodah Zarah 10a–b, Rabbi Judah—exceptionally wealthy and highly revered in Rome—shared a close friendship with a man named Antoninus (possibly Antoninus Pius), who frequently sought his counsel on spiritual (in this context, Jewish), philosophical, and governance matters.A. Mischcon, Abodah Zara, p.10a Soncino, 1988. Mischcon cites various sources, "SJ Rappaport... is of opinion that our Antoninus is Antoninus Pius." Other opinions cited suggest "Antoninus" was Caracalla, Lucius Verus, or Alexander Severus. |
Antoninus Pius | Diplomatic mission to China | Diplomatic mission to China
thumb|Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 AD) tomb, Guangxi, China
The first group of people claiming to be an ambassadorial mission of Romans to China was recorded in 166 AD by the Hou Hanshu. Harper (2017) states that the embassy was likely to be a group of merchants, as many Roman merchants traveled to India and some might have gone beyond, while there are no records of official ambassadors of Rome travelling as far east. The group came to Emperor Huan of Han China and claimed to be an embassy from "Andun" (; for Anton-inus), "king of Daqin" (Rome)."... 其王常欲通使于汉，而安息欲以汉缯彩与之交市，故遮阂不得自达。至桓帝延熹九年，大秦王安敦遣使自日南徼外献象牙、犀角、瑇瑁，始乃一通焉。其所表贡，并无珍异，疑传者过焉。" 《后汉书·西域传》Translation:"... The king of this state always wanted to enter into diplomatic relations with the Han. But Anxi wanted to trade with them in Han silk and so put obstacles in their way, so that they could never have direct relations [with Han]. This continued until the ninth year of the Yanxi (延熹) reign period of Emperor Huan (桓) (A.D. 166), when Andun 安敦, king of Da Qin, sent an envoy from beyond the frontier of Rinan (日南) who offered elephant tusk, rhinoceros horn, and tortoise shell. It was only then that for the first time communication was established [between the two states]." "Xiyu Zhuan" of the Hou Hanshu (ch. 88)in .Chinese original: As Antoninus Pius died in 161, leaving the empire to his adoptive son Marcus Aurelius (Antoninus), and the envoy arrived in 166, confusion remains about who sent the mission, given that both emperors were named "Antoninus". The Roman mission came from the south (therefore probably by sea), entering China by the frontier province of Jiaozhi at Rinan or Tonkin (present-day northern Vietnam). It brought presents of rhinoceros horns, ivory, and tortoise shell, probably acquired in South Asia.Hill (2009), p. 27 and nn. 12.18 and 12.20. The text states explicitly that it was the first time there had been direct contact between the two countries.For a full translation of that passage, see: Hill (2009), p. 27.
Furthermore, a piece of Republican-era Roman glassware has been found at a Western Han tomb in Guangzhou along the South China Sea, dated to the early 1st century BC. Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus Pius and perhaps even Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi. This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy () as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e., Malay Peninsula).For further information on Oc Eo, see Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been discovered in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the significantly greater amount of Roman coins unearthed in India suggest the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centered there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through ancient Iran. |
Antoninus Pius | Death and legacy | Death and legacy
thumb|Ruins of the triumphal arch of Antoninus Pius outside the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore in Eleusis, Greece, imitating Hadrian's Arch in Athens
In 156, Antoninus Pius turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions.
Marcus Aurelius had already been created consul with Antoninus in 140, receiving the title of Caesar, i.e., heir apparent.Geoffrey William Adams, Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013, , pp. 74–75. As Antoninus aged, Marcus took on more administrative duties. Marcus's administrative duties increased again after the death, in 156 or 157, of one of Antoninus's most trusted advisers, Marcus Gavius Maximus.
For twenty years, Gavius Maximus had been praetorian prefect, an office that was as much secretarial as military.Grant, The Antonines, 14 Gavius Maximus had been awarded with the consular insignia and the honours due a senator.Michael Petrus Josephus Van Den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto. Leiden: Brill, 199, , p. 389 He had a reputation as a most strict disciplinarian (vir severissimus, according to Historia Augusta) and some fellow equestrian procurators held lasting grudges against him. A procurator named Gaius Censorius Niger died while Gavius Maximus was alive. In his will, Censorius Niger vilified Maximus, creating serious embarrassment for one of the heirs, the orator Fronto.Champlin, Final Judgments, 16
Gavius Maximus's death initiated a change in the ruling team. It has been speculated that it was the legal adviser Lucius Volusius Maecianus who assumed the role of grey eminence. Maecianus was briefly Praefect of Egypt, and subsequently Praefectus annonae in Rome. If it was Maecianus who rose to prominence, he may have risen precisely in order to prepare the incoming—and unprecedented—joint succession.Michel Christol, "Préfecture du prétoire et haute administration équestre à la fin du règne d'Antonin le Pieux et au début du règne de Marc Aurèle". In: Cahiers du Centre Gustave Glotz, 18, 2007. pp. 115–140. Available at . Accessed 27 January 2016 In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Perhaps Antoninus was already ill; in any case, he died before the year was out, probably on 7 March.
thumb|left|The bust of Antoninus Pius at the Museo del Prado, Madrid
Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at Lorium, in Etruria, about from Rome.Victor, 15:7 He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered: when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password, he responded, "aequanimitas" (equanimity). He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died.HA Antoninus Pius 12.4–8 His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus (surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months). His record for the second-longest reign would be unbeaten for 168 years, until 329 when it was surpassed by Constantine the Great.
Antoninus Pius' funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, "elaborate".HA Marcus 7.10, tr. David Magie, cited in If his funeral followed the pattern of past funerals, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, while his spirit would rise to the gods' home in the heavens. However, it seems that this was not the case: according to his Historia Augusta biography (which seems to reproduce an earlier, detailed report) Antoninus's body (and not his ashes) was buried in Hadrian's mausoleum. After a seven-day interval (justitium), Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification.Robert Turcan, "Origines et sens de l'inhumation à l'époque impériale". In: Revue des Études Anciennes. Tome 60, 1958, n°3–4. pp. 323–347. Available at . Accessed 14 January 2016 In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus's campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A flamen, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Antoninus, now Divus Antoninus.
A column was dedicated to Antoninus on the Campus Martius, and the temple he had built in the Forum in 141 to his deified wife Faustina was rededicated to the deified Faustina and the deified Antoninus. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda. |
Antoninus Pius | Historiography | Historiography
thumb|Arch of Antoninus Pius in Sbeïtla, Tunisia
thumb|Statue of Antoninus Pius, Palazzo Altemps, Rome
The only intact account of his life handed down to us is that of the Augustan History, an unreliable and mostly fabricated work. Nevertheless, it still contains information that is considered reasonably sound; for instance, it is the only source that mentions the erection of the Antonine Wall in Britain.Historia Augusta, Life of Antoninus Pius 5:4
Antoninus in many ways was the ideal of the landed gentleman praised not only by ancient Romans, but also by later scholars of classical history, such as Edward Gibbon or the author of the article on Antoninus Pius in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.
Some historians have a less positive view of his reign. According to the historian J. B. Bury,
German historian Ernst Kornemann has had it in his Römische Geschichte [2 vols., ed. by H. Bengtson, Stuttgart 1954] that the reign of Antoninus comprised "a succession of grossly wasted opportunities", given the upheavals that were to come. There is more to this argument, given that the Parthians in the East were themselves soon to make no small amount of mischief after Antoninus's death. Kornemann's brief is that Antoninus might have waged preventive wars to head off these outsiders. Michael Grant agrees that it is possible that had Antoninus acted decisively sooner (it appears that, on his death bed, he was preparing a large-scale action against the Parthians), the Parthians might have been unable to choose their own time, but current evidence is not conclusive. Grant opines that Antoninus and his officers did act in a resolute manner dealing with frontier disturbances of his time, although conditions for long-lasting peace were not created. On the whole, according to Grant, Marcus Aurelius's eulogistic picture of Antoninus seems deserved, and Antoninus appears to have been a conservative and nationalistic (although he respected and followed Hadrian's example of Philhellenism moderately) emperor who was not tainted by the blood of either citizen or foe, combined and maintained Numa Pompilius's good fortune, pacific dutifulness and religious scrupulousness, and whose laws removed anomalies and softened harshnesses.
Krzysztof Ulanowski argues that the claims of military inability are exaggerated, considering that although the sources praise Antoninus's love for peace and his efforts "rather to defend, than enlarge the provinces", he could hardly be considered a pacifist, as shown by the conquest of the Lowlands, the building of the Antonine Wall and the expansion of Germania Superior. Ulanowski also praises Antoninus for being successful in deterrence by diplomatic means. |
Antoninus Pius | Descendants | Descendants
Although only one of his four children survived to adulthood, Antoninus came to be ancestor to four generations of prominent Romans, including the Emperor Commodus. Hans-Georg Pflaum has identified five direct descendants of Antoninus and Faustina who were consuls in the first half of the third century.Pflaum, "Les gendres de Marc-Aurèle" , Journal des savants (1961), pp. 28–41
Marcus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (died before 138), died young without issue
Marcus Galerius Aurelius Antoninus (died before 138), died young without issue
Aurelia Fadilla (died in 135), who married Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus, suffect consul in 145;Ronald Syme, "Antonine Relatives: Ceionii and Vettuleni", Athenaeum, 35 (1957), p. 309 no children known for certain.
Annia Galeria Faustina the Younger (21 September between 125 and 130–175), had several children; those who had children were:Based on Table F, "The Children of Faustina II" in
Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (7 March 150–182?), whose children included:
Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus
Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina (151–?), whose children included:
Tiberius Claudius Severus Proculus
Empress Annia Faustina, Elagabalus's third wife
Annia Aurelia Fadilla (159 – after 211)
Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (160–213) |
Antoninus Pius | References | References |
Antoninus Pius | Sources | Sources
Primary sources
Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 70, English translation
Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus", English translation
Historia Augusta, The Life of Antoninus Pius, English translation. Note that the Historia Augusta includes pseudohistorical elements.
Secondary sources
Kienast, Dietmar, Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie, Darmstadt, 1990.
This source lists:
Bossart-Mueller, Zur Geschichte des Kaisers A. (1868)
Bryant, The Reign of Antonine (Cambridge Historical Essays, 1895)
Lacour-Gayet, A. le Pieux et son Temps (1888)
|
Antoninus Pius | Further reading | Further reading
Hund, Ragnar (2017). Studien zur Außenpolitik der Kaiser Antoninus Pius und Marc Aurel im Schatten der Markomannenkriege [Studies on the foreign policy of the emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius in the shadow of the Marcomannic Wars]. Pharos, vol. 40. Rahden: Verlag Marie Leidorf, .
Michels, Christoph (2018). Antoninus Pius und die Rollenbilder des römischen Princeps. Herrscherliches Handeln und seine Repräsentation in der Hohen Kaiserzeit [Antoninus Pius and the role models of the Roman Princeps. Imperial activity and its representation in the High Imperial Age]. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter, .
Rémy, Bernard (2005). Antonine le Pieux, 138–161. Le siècle d’or de Rome [Antoninus Pius, 138–161. The Golden Age of Rome]. Paris: Fayard, . |
Antoninus Pius | External links | External links
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Category:161 deaths
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Antoninus Pius | Table of Content | Short description, Early life, Childhood and family, Marriage and children, Favour with Hadrian, Emperor, Lack of warfare, Economy and administration, Legal reforms, Diplomatic mission to China, Death and legacy, Historiography, Descendants, References, Sources, Further reading, External links |
August 3 | pp-pc1 | |
August 3 | Events | Events |
August 3 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
8 – Roman Empire general Tiberius defeats the Dalmatae on the river Bosna.
435 – Deposed Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Nestorius, considered the originator of Nestorianism, is exiled by Roman Emperor Theodosius II to a monastery in Egypt.
881 – Battle of Saucourt-en-Vimeu: Louis III of France defeats the Vikings, an event celebrated in the poem Ludwigslied.
908 – Battle of Eisenach: An invading Hungarian force defeats an East Frankish army under Duke Burchard of Thuringia.
1031 – Olaf II of Norway is canonized as Saint Olaf by Grimketel, the English Bishop of Selsey.
1057 – Frederick of Lorraine elected as Pope Stephen IX.
1342 – The Siege of Algeciras commences during the Spanish Reconquista.
1492 – Christopher Columbus sets sail from Palos de la Frontera, Spain.
1527 – The first known letter from North America is sent by John Rut while at St. John's, Newfoundland. |
August 3 | 1601–1900 | 1601–1900
1601 – Long War: Austria captures Transylvania in the Battle of Goroszló.
1645 – Thirty Years' War: The Second Battle of Nördlingen sees French forces defeating those of the Holy Roman Empire.
1678 – Robert LaSalle builds the Le Griffon, the first known ship built on the Great Lakes.
1778 – The theatre La Scala in Milan is inaugurated with the première of Antonio Salieri's Europa riconosciuta.
1795 – Treaty of Greenville is signed, ending the Northwest Indian War in the Ohio Country.
1811 – First ascent of Jungfrau, third highest summit in the Bernese Alps by brothers Johann Rudolf and Hieronymus Meyer.
1829 – The Treaty of Lewistown is signed by the Shawnee and Seneca peoples, exchanging land in Ohio for land west of the Mississippi River.
1852 – Harvard University wins the first Boat Race between Yale University and Harvard. The race is also known as the first ever American intercollegiate athletic event.
1859 – The American Dental Association is founded in Niagara Falls, New York.
1900 – The Firestone Tire and Rubber Company is founded. |
August 3 | 1901–present | 1901–present
1903 – Macedonian rebels in Kruševo proclaim the Kruševo Republic, which exists for only ten days before Ottoman Turks lay waste to the town.
1907 – Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis fines Standard Oil of Indiana a record $29.4 million for illegal rebating to freight carriers; the conviction and fine are later reversed on appeal.
1914 – World War I: Germany declares war against France, while Romania declares its neutrality.
1921 – Major League Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis confirms the ban of the eight Chicago Black Sox, the day after they were acquitted by a Chicago court.
1936 – Jesse Owens wins the 100 metre dash, defeating Ralph Metcalfe, at the Berlin Olympics.
1936 – A fire wipes out Kursha-2 in the Meshchera Lowlands, Ryazan Oblast, Russia, killing 1,200 and leaving only 20 survivors.
1940 – World War II: Italian forces begin the invasion of British Somaliland.
1946 – Santa Claus Land, the world's first themed amusement park, opens in Santa Claus, Indiana, United States.
1948 – Whittaker Chambers accuses Alger Hiss of being a communist and a spy for the Soviet Union.
1949 – The Basketball Association of America and the National Basketball League finalize the merger that would create the National Basketball Association.
1958 – The world's first nuclear submarine, the USS Nautilus, becomes the first vessel to complete a submerged transit of the geographical North Pole.
1959 – Portugal's state police force PIDE fires upon striking workers in Bissau, Portuguese Guinea, killing over 50 people.
1960 – Niger gains independence from France.
1972 – The United States Senate ratifies the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.
1975 – A privately chartered Boeing 707 strikes a mountain peak and crashes near Agadir, Morocco, killing 188.
1977 – Tandy Corporation announces the TRS-80, one of the world's first mass-produced personal computers.
1981 – Senegalese opposition parties, under the leadership of Mamadou Dia, launch the Antiimperialist Action Front – Suxxali Reew Mi.
1997 – Oued El-Had and Mezouara massacre in Algeria: A total of 116 villagers killed, 40 in Oued El-Had and 76 in Mezouara.
1997 – The tallest free-standing structure in the Southern Hemisphere, Sky Tower in downtown Auckland, New Zealand, opens after two-and-a-half years of construction.
2004 – The pedestal of the Statue of Liberty reopens after being closed since the September 11 attacks.
2005 – President of Mauritania Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya is overthrown in a military coup while attending the funeral of King Fahd in Saudi Arabia.
2007 – Former deputy director of the Chilean secret police Raúl Iturriaga is captured after having been on the run following a conviction for kidnapping.
2010 – Widespread rioting erupts in Karachi, Pakistan, after the assassination of a local politician, leaving at least 85 dead and at least 17 billion Pakistani rupees (US$200 million) in damage.
2014 – A 6.1 magnitude earthquake kills at least 617 people and injures more than 2,400 in Yunnan, China.
2014 – The genocide of Yazidis by ISIL begins.
2018 – Two burka-clad men kill 29 people and injure more than 80 in a suicide attack on a Shia mosque in eastern Afghanistan.
2019 – Six hundred protesters, including opposition leader Lyubov Sobol, are arrested in an election protest in Moscow, Russia.
2019 – Twenty-three people are killed and 22 injured in a mass shooting in El Paso, Texas.
2023 – Worst floods hit major parts of Slovenia. |
August 3 | Births | Births |
August 3 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
1442 – Galeotto I Pico, Duke of Mirandola (d. 1499)
1486 – Imperia Cognati, Italian courtesan (d. 1512)
1491 – Maria of Jülich-Berg, German noblewoman (d. 1543)
1509 – Étienne Dolet, French scholar and translator (d. 1546) |
August 3 | 1601–1900 | 1601–1900
1622 – Wolfgang Julius, Count of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein, German field marshal (d. 1698)
1692 – John Henley, English minister and poet (d. 1759)
1724 – Alvise Foscari, Venetian admiral (d. 1790)
1766 – Aaron Chorin, Hungarian rabbi and author (d. 1844)
1770 – Frederick William III of Prussia (d. 1840)
1803 – Joseph Paxton, English gardener and architect, designed The Crystal Palace (d. 1865)
1808 – Hamilton Fish, American lawyer and politician, 26th United States Secretary of State (d. 1893)
1811 – Elisha Otis, American businessman, founded the Otis Elevator Company (d. 1861)
1817 – Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen (d. 1895)
1823 – Thomas Francis Meagher, Irish-American revolutionary and military leader, territorial governor of Montana (d. 1867)
1832 – Ivan Zajc, Croatian composer, conductor, and director (d. 1914)
1837 – Julien Reverchon, French botanist (d. 1905)
1840 – John Bigham, 1st Viscount Mersey, English jurist and politician (d. 1929)
1850 – Reginald Heber Roe, English-Australian swimmer, tennis player, and academic (d. 1926)
1856 – Alfred Deakin, Australian lawyer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1919)
1860 – William Kennedy Dickson, French-Scottish actor, director, and producer (d. 1935)
1863 – Géza Gárdonyi, Hungarian author and journalist (d. 1922)
1867 – Stanley Baldwin, English businessman and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1947)
1871 – Vernon Louis Parrington, American historian and scholar (d. 1929)
1872 – Haakon VII of Norway (d. 1957)
1886 – Maithili Sharan Gupt, Indian poet and playwright (d. 1964)
1887 – Rupert Brooke, English poet (d. 1915)
1887 – August Wesley, Finnish journalist, trade unionist, and revolutionary (d. ?)
1890 – Konstantin Melnikov, Russian architect, designed the Rusakov Workers' Club (d. 1974)
1894 – Harry Heilmann, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 1951)
1895 – Allen Bathurst, Lord Apsley, English politician (d. 1942)
1896 – Ralph Horween, American football player and coach (d. 1997)
1899 – Louis Chiron, Monegasque race car driver (d. 1979)
1900 – Ernie Pyle, American soldier and journalist (d. 1945)
1900 – John T. Scopes, American educator (d. 1970) |
August 3 | 1901–present | 1901–present
1901 – John C. Stennis, American lawyer and politician (d. 1995)
1901 – Stefan Wyszyński, Polish cardinal (d. 1981)
1902 – Regina Jonas, German rabbi (d. 1944)
1902 – David Buttolph, American film composer (d. 1983)
1903 – Habib Bourguiba, Tunisian journalist and politician, 1st President of the Republic of Tunisia (d. 2000)
1904 – Dolores del Río, Mexican actress (d. 1983)
1904 – Clifford D. Simak, American journalist and author (d. 1988)
1905 – Franz König, Austrian cardinal (d. 2004)
1907 – Lawrence Brown, American trombonist and composer (d. 1988)
1907 – Ernesto Geisel, Brazilian general and politician, 29th President of Brazil (d. 1996)
1907 – Yang Shangkun, Chinese politician, and 4th President of China (d. 1998)
1909 – Walter Van Tilburg Clark, American author and educator (d. 1971)
1911 – Alex McCrindle, Scottish actor and producer (d. 1990)
1912 – Fritz Hellwig, German politician (d. 2017)
1913 – Mel Tolkin, Ukrainian-American screenwriter and producer (d. 2007)
1916 – Shakeel Badayuni, Indian poet and songwriter (d. 1970)
1916 – José Manuel Moreno, Argentinian footballer and manager (d. 1978)
1917 – Les Elgart, American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 1995)
1918 – James MacGregor Burns, American historian, political scientist, and author (d. 2014)
1918 – Sidney Gottlieb, American chemist and theorist (d. 1999)
1918 – Larry Haines, American actor (d. 2008)
1918 – Eddie Jefferson, American singer-songwriter (d. 1979)
1920 – Norman Dewis, English test driver and engineer (d. 2019)
1920 – Max Fatchen, Australian journalist and author (d. 2012)
1920 – P. D. James, English author (d. 2014)
1920 – Charlie Shavers, American trumpet player and composer (d. 1971)
1920 – Elmar Tampõld, Estonian-Canadian architect (d. 2013)
1921 – Richard Adler, American composer and producer (d. 2012)
1921 – Hayden Carruth, American poet and critic (d. 2008)
1921 – Marilyn Maxwell, American actress (d. 1972)
1922 – John Eisenhower, American historian, general, and diplomat, 45th United States Ambassador to Belgium (d. 2013)
1923 – Jean Hagen, American actress (d. 1977)
1923 – Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria (d. 2012)
1924 – Connie Converse, American musician and singer-songwriter
1924 – Leon Uris, American soldier and author (d. 2003)
1925 – Marv Levy, American-Canadian football player, coach, and manager
1925 – Lewis Rowland, American neurologist (d. 2017)
1926 – Rona Anderson, Scottish actress (d. 2013)
1926 – Tony Bennett, American singer and actor (d. 2023)
1926 – Anthony Sampson, English journalist and author (d. 2004)
1926 – Gordon Scott, American actor (d. 2007)
1926 – Rushdy Abaza, Egyptian actor (d. 1980)
1928 – Cécile Aubry, French actress, director, and screenwriter (d. 2010)
1928 – Henning Moritzen, Danish actor (d. 2012)
1930 – James Komack, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1997)
1933 – Pat Crawford, Australian cricketer (d. 2009)
1934 – Haystacks Calhoun, American wrestler and actor (d. 1989)
1934 – Michael Chapman, English bassoon player (d. 2005)
1934 – Jonas Savimbi, Angolan general, founded UNITA (d. 2002)
1935 – John Erman, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2021)
1935 – Georgy Shonin, Ukrainian-Russian general, pilot, and cosmonaut (d. 1997)
1935 – Vic Vogel, Canadian pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 2019)
1936 – Jerry G. Bishop, American radio and television host (d. 2013)
1936 – Edward Petherbridge, English actor
1937 – Steven Berkoff, English actor, director, and playwright
1937 – Roland Burris, American lawyer and politician, 39th Illinois Attorney General
1937 – Duncan Sharpe, Pakistani-Australian cricketer
1938 – Terry Wogan, Irish radio and television host (d. 2016)
1939 – Jimmie Nicol, English drummer
1939 – Apoorva Sengupta, Indian general and cricketer (d. 2013)
1940 – Lance Alworth, American football player
1940 – Martin Sheen, American actor and producer
1940 – James Tyler, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2010)
1941 – Beverly Lee, American singer
1941 – Martha Stewart, American businesswoman, publisher, and author, founded Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia
1943 – Béla Bollobás, Hungarian-English mathematician and academic
1943 – Princess Christina, Mrs. Magnuson of Sweden
1943 – Steven Millhauser, American novelist and short story writer
1944 – Morris Berman, American historian and social critic LCNAF: Library of Congress Name Authority Files
1944 – Nino Bravo, Spanish singer (d. 1973)
1945 – Eamon Dunphy, Irish footballer and journalist
1946 – Robert Ayling, English businessman
1946 – Jack Straw, English lawyer and politician, Shadow Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
1946 – John York, American bass player, songwriter, and producer
1947 – Ralph Wright, English footballer (d. 2020)
1948 – Jean-Pierre Raffarin, French lawyer and politician, 166th Prime Minister of France
1949 – Philip Casnoff, American actor and director
1949 – B. B. Dickerson, American bass player and songwriter (d. 2021)
1949 – Sue Slipman, English politician
1950 – Linda Howard, American author
1950 – John Landis, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
1950 – Jo Marie Payton, American actress and singer
1950 – Ernesto Samper, Colombian economist and politician, 29th President of Colombia
1951 – Marcel Dionne, Canadian ice hockey player
1951 – Jay North, American actor (d. 2025)
1952 – Osvaldo Ardiles, Argentinian footballer and manager
1953 – Ian Bairnson, Scottish saxophonist and keyboard player (d. 2023)
1953 – Marlene Dumas, South African painter
1954 – Michael Arthur, English physician and academic
1954 – Gary Peters, English footballer and manager
1956 – Kirk Brandon, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
1956 – Todd Christensen, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2013)
1956 – Dave Cloud, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2015)
1956 – Balwinder Sandhu, Indian cricketer and coach
1957 – Bodo Rudwaleit, German footballer and manager
1957 – Kate Wilkinson, New Zealand lawyer and politician, 11th New Zealand Minister of Conservation
1958 – Lindsey Hilsum, English journalist and author
1958 – Ana Kokkinos, Australian director and screenwriter
1959 – Martin Atkins, English drummer and producer
1959 – Mike Gminski, American basketball player and sportscaster
1959 – John C. McGinley, American actor and producer
1959 – Koichi Tanaka, Japanese chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate
1960 – Tim Mayotte, American tennis player and coach
1960 – Gopal Sharma, Indian cricketer
1961 – Molly Hagan, American actress
1961 – Nick Harvey, English politician, Minister of State for the Armed Forces
1961 – Lee Rocker, American bassist
1963 – Tasmin Archer, English pop singer
1963 – Frano Botica, New Zealand rugby player and coach
1963 – James Hetfield, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1963 – David Knox, Australian rugby player
1963 – Ed Roland, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
1963 – Lisa Ann Walter, American actress, producer, and screenwriter
1963 – Isaiah Washington, American actor and producer
1964 – Lucky Dube, South African singer and keyboard player (d. 2007)
1964 – Ralph Knibbs, British rugby union player
1964 – Nate McMillan, American basketball player and coach
1964 – Kevin Sumlin, American football player and coach
1964 – Abhisit Vejjajiva, English-Thai economist and politician, 27th Prime Minister of Thailand
1966 – Brent Butt, Canadian actor, producer, and screenwriter
1966 – Gizz Butt, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
1966 – Eric Esch, American wrestler, boxer, and mixed martial artist
1966 – Robert Laimer, Austrian politician
1967 – Mathieu Kassovitz, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
1967 – Skin, English singer and guitarist
1968 – Rod Beck, American baseball player (d. 2007)
1969 – Doug Overton, American basketball player and coach
1970 – Stephen Carpenter, American guitarist and songwriter
1970 – Gina G, Australian singer-songwriter
1970 – Masahiro Sakurai, Japanese video game designer
1971 – Forbes Johnston, Scottish footballer (d. 2007)
1971 – DJ Spinderella, American DJ, rapper, producer, and actress
1972 – Sandis Ozoliņš, Latvian ice hockey player and politician
1973 – Jay Cutler, American bodybuilder
1973 – Nikos Dabizas, Greek footballer
1973 – Michael Ealy, American actor
1973 – Chris Murphy, American politician
1975 – Wael Gomaa, Egyptian footballer
1975 – Argyro Strataki, Greek heptathlete
1976 – Troy Glaus, American baseball player
1977 – Tom Brady, American football player
1977 – Justin Lehr, American baseball player
1977 – Óscar Pereiro, Spanish cyclist and footballer
1978 – Joi Chua, Singaporean singer-songwriter and actress
1978 – Mariusz Jop, Polish footballer
1978 – Jenny Tinmouth, English motorcycle racer
1978 – Dimitrios Zografakis, Greek footballer
1979 – Evangeline Lilly, Canadian actress
1980 – Nadia Ali, Libyan-American singer-songwriter
1980 – Dominic Moore, Canadian ice hockey player
1980 – Tony Pashos, American football player
1980 – Brandan Schieppati, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1980 – Hannah Simone, Canadian television host and actress
1981 – Fikirte Addis, Ethiopian fashion designer
1981 – Travis Bowyer, American baseball player
1981 – Pablo Ibáñez, Spanish footballer
1982 – Kaspar Kokk, Estonian skier
1982 – Jesse Lumsden, Canadian bobsledder and football player
1982 – Damien Sandow, American wrestler
1983 – Ryan Carter, American ice hockey player
1983 – Mark Reynolds, American baseball player
1984 – Yasin Avcı, Turkish footballer
1984 – Sunil Chhetri, Indian footballer
1984 – Matt Joyce, American baseball player
1984 – Ryan Lochte, American swimmer
1984 – Chris Maurer, former bassist of ska band Suburban Legends
1985 – Georgina Haig, Australian actress
1985 – Brent Kutzle, American bass player and producer
1985 – Ats Purje, Estonian footballer
1985 – Sonny Bill Williams, New Zealand rugby player and boxer
1986 – Charlotte Casiraghi, Monégasque journalist, co-founded Ever Manifesto
1986 – Darya Domracheva, Belarusian biathlete
1987 – Kim Hyung-jun, South Korean singer and dancer
1987 – Chris McQueen, Australian-English rugby league player
1988 – Denny Cardin, Italian footballer
1988 – Leigh Tiffin, American football player
1988 – Sven Ulreich, German footballer
1989 – Jules Bianchi, French race car driver (d. 2015)
1989 – Sam Hutchinson, English footballer
1989 – Tyrod Taylor, American football player
1989 – Nick Viergever, Dutch footballer
1990 – Jourdan Dunn, English model
1990 – Kang Min-kyung, South Korean singer
1992 – Gamze Bulut, Turkish runner
1992 – Gesa Felicitas Krause, German runner
1992 – Diāna Marcinkēviča, Latvian tennis player
1992 – Aljon Mariano, Filipino basketball player
1992 – Lum Rexhepi, Finnish footballer
1992 – Karlie Kloss, American fashion model
1993 – Ola Abidogun, English sprinter
1993 – Yurina Kumai, Japanese singer
1994 – Kwon Alexander, American football player
1994 – Manaia Cherrington, New Zealand rugby league player
1994 – Esther Earl, American author, vlogger, and online personality. (d. 2010) Celebrated annually as Esther day
1994 – Todd Gurley, American football player
1994 – Younghoe Koo, South Korean-born American football player
1995 – Zac Gallen, American baseball player
1995 – Victoria Kan, Russian tennis player
1996 – Alec Bohm, American baseball player
1996 – Bokondji Imama, Canadian ice hockey player
1996 – Derwin James, American football player
1997 – Luis Robert Jr., Cuban baseball player
1999 – Zach Wilson, American football player
1999 – Brahim Díaz, Spanish-Moroccan footballer
1999 – Yoo Yeon-jung, South Korean singer |
August 3 | Deaths | Deaths |
August 3 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
908 – Burchard, duke of Thuringia
908 – Egino, duke of Thuringia
908 – Rudolf I, bishop of Würzburg
925 – Cao, Chinese empress dowager
979 – Thietmar, margrave of Meissen
1003 – At-Ta'i, Abbasid caliph (b. 929)
1355 – Bartholomew de Burghersh, 1st Baron Burghersh, English nobleman
1460 – James II, king of Scotland (b. 1430)
1527 – Scaramuccia Trivulzio, Italian cardinal
1530 – Francesco Ferruccio, Italian captain (b. 1489)
1546 – Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Italian architect, designed the Apostolic Palace (b. 1484)
1546 – Étienne Dolet, French scholar and translator (b. 1509) |
August 3 | 1601–1900 | 1601–1900
1604 – Bernardino de Mendoza, Spanish commander and diplomat (b. 1540)
1621 – Guillaume du Vair, French lawyer and author (b. 1556)
1712 – Joshua Barnes, English historian and scholar (b. 1654)
1720 – Anthonie Heinsius, Dutch politician (b. 1641)
1721 – Grinling Gibbons, Dutch-English sculptor and woodcarver (b. 1648)
1761 – Johann Matthias Gesner, German scholar and academic (b. 1691)
1773 – Stanisław Konarski, Polish poet and playwright (b. 1700)
1780 – Étienne Bonnot de Condillac, French epistemologist and philosopher (b. 1715)
1792 – Richard Arkwright, English engineer and businessman (b. 1732)
1797 – Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst, English field marshal and politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia (b. 1717)
1805 – Christopher Anstey, English author and poet (b. 1724)
1835 – Wenzel Müller, Austrian composer and conductor (b. 1767)
1839 – Dorothea von Schlegel, German author and translator (b. 1763)
1857 – Eugène Sue, French author and politician (b. 1804)
1866 – Gábor Klauzál, Hungarian politician, Hungarian Minister of Agriculture (b. 1804)
1867 – Philipp August Böckh, German historian and scholar (b. 1785)
1877 – William B. Ogden, American businessman and politician, 1st Mayor of Chicago (b. 1805)
1879 – Joseph Severn, English painter (b. 1793)
1894 – George Inness, American painter (b. 1825) |
August 3 | 1901–present | 1901–present
1913 – William Lyne, Australian politician, 13th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1844)
1916 – Roger Casement, Irish poet and activist (b. 1864)
1917 – Ferdinand Georg Frobenius, German mathematician and academic (b. 1849)
1920 – Peeter Süda, Estonian organist and composer (b. 1883)
1922 – Ture Malmgren, Swedish journalist and politician (b. 1851)
1924 – Joseph Conrad, British novelist (b. 1857)
1925 – William Bruce, Australian cricketer (b. 1864)
1929 – Emile Berliner, German-American inventor and businessman, invented the phonograph (b. 1851)
1929 – Thorstein Veblen, American economist and sociologist (b. 1857)
1936 – Konstantin Konik, Estonian surgeon and politician, 19th Estonian Minister of Education (b. 1873)
1942 – Richard Willstätter, German-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1872)
1943 – Frumka Płotnicka, Polish resistance fighter during World War II (b. 1914)
1949 – Ignotus, Hungarian poet and author (b. 1869)
1954 – Colette, French novelist and journalist (b. 1873)
1958 – Peter Collins, English race car driver (b. 1931)
1959 – Herb Byrne, Australian footballer (b. 1887)
1961 – Hilda Rix Nicholas, Australian artist (b. 1884)
1964 – Flannery O'Connor, American short story writer and novelist (b. 1925)
1966 – Lenny Bruce, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b. 1925)
1968 – Konstantin Rokossovsky, Marshal of the Soviet Union during World War II (b. 1896)
1969 – Alexander Mair, Australian politician, 26th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1889)
1972 – Giannis Papaioannou, Turkish-Greek composer (b. 1913)
1973 – Richard Marshall, American general (b. 1895)
1974 – Edgar Johan Kuusik, Estonian architect and interior designer (b. 1888)
1975 – Andreas Embirikos, Greek poet and photographer (b. 1901)
1977 – Makarios III, Cypriot archbishop and politician, 1st President of the Republic of Cyprus (b. 1913)
1977 – Alfred Lunt, American actor and director (b. 1892)
1979 – Bertil Ohlin, Swedish economist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1899)
1979 – Angelos Terzakis, Greek author and playwright (b. 1907)
1983 – Carolyn Jones, American actress (b. 1930)
1992 – Wang Hongwen, Chinese labor activist and politician, member of the Gang of Four (b. 1935)
1995 – Ida Lupino, English-American actress and director (b. 1918)
1995 – Edward Whittemore, American soldier and author (b. 1933)
1996 – Jørgen Garde, Danish admiral (b. 1939)
1997 – Pietro Rizzuto, Italian-Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1934)
1998 – Alfred Schnittke, Russian composer and journalist (b. 1934)
1999 – Rod Ansell, Australian hunter (b. 1953)
1999 – Byron Farwell, American historian and author (b. 1921)
2000 – Joann Lõssov, Estonian basketball player and coach (b. 1921)
2001 – Christopher Hewett, English actor and director (b. 1922)
2003 – Roger Voudouris, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1954)
2004 – Henri Cartier-Bresson, French photographer and painter (b. 1908)
2005 – Françoise d'Eaubonne, French author and poet (b. 1920)
2006 – Arthur Lee, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1945)
2006 – Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, German-English soprano and actress (b. 1915)
2007 – John Gardner, English author (b. 1926)
2007 – Peter Thorup, Danish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1948)
2008 – Skip Caray, American sportscaster (b. 1939)
2008 – Erik Darling, American singer-songwriter (b. 1933)
2008 – Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Russian novelist, dramatist and historian, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1918)
2009 – Nikolaos Makarezos, Greek soldier and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1919)
2010 – Bobby Hebb, American singer-songwriter (b. 1938)
2011 – William Sleator, American author (b. 1945)
2011 – Bubba Smith, American football player and actor (b. 1945)
2012 – Frank Evans, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1921)
2012 – Martin Fleischmann, Czech-English chemist and academic (b. 1927)
2012 – Paul McCracken, American economist and academic (b. 1915)
2012 – John Pritchard, American basketball player (b. 1927)
2012 – George Shanard, American politician and agribusinessman (b. 1926)
2013 – John Coombs, English-Monegasque race car driver and businessman (b. 1922)
2013 – Jack English Hightower, American lawyer and politician (b. 1926)
2013 – Jack Hynes, Scottish-American soccer player and manager (b. 1920)
2014 – Miangul Aurangzeb, Pakistani captain and politician, 19th Governor of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (b. 1928)
2014 – Edward Clancy, Australian cardinal (b. 1923)
2014 – Dorothy Salisbury Davis, American author (b. 1916)
2014 – Kenny Drew, Jr., American pianist and composer (b. 1958)
2014 – Lydia Yu-Jose, Filipino political scientist and academic (b. 1944)
2015 – Robert Conquest, English-American historian, poet, and academic (b. 1917)
2015 – Mel Farr, American football player and businessman (b. 1944)
2015 – Coleen Gray, American actress (b. 1922)
2015 – Margot Loyola, Chilean singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1918)
2015 – Johanna Quandt, German businesswoman (b. 1926)
2015 – Jef Murray, American artist and author (b. 1960)
2020 – John Hume, Northern Irish politician (b. 1937)
2022 – Jackie Walorski, American politician (b. 1963)
2023 – Mark Margolis, American actor (b. 1939)
2023 – Bram Moolenaar, Dutch software engineer (b. 1961)
2024 – Yamini Krishnamurthy, Indian dancer (b. 1940) |
August 3 | Holidays and observances | Holidays and observances
Anniversary of the Killing of Pidjiguiti (Guinea-Bissau)
Armed Forces Day (Equatorial Guinea)
Christian feast day:
George Freeman Bragg, W. E. B. Du Bois (Episcopal Church)
Lydia of Thyatira
Myrrhbearers (Lutheran Church)
Nicodemus
Olaf II of Norway (Translation of the relic)
Stephen (Discovery of the relic)
Waltheof of Melrose
August 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Flag Day (Venezuela)
Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Niger from France in 1960.
Arbor Day (Niger)
National Guard Day (Venezuela) |
August 3 | References | References |
August 3 | External links | External links
Category:Days of August |
August 3 | Table of Content | pp-pc1, Events, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Births, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Deaths, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Holidays and observances, References, External links |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Short description | The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), also known by its original name Rijndael (), is a specification for the encryption of electronic data established by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001.
AES is a variant of the Rijndael block cipher developed by two Belgian cryptographers, Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen, who submitted a proposal to NIST during the AES selection process. Rijndael is a family of ciphers with different key and block sizes. For AES, NIST selected three members of the Rijndael family, each with a block size of 128 bits, but three different key lengths: 128, 192 and 256 bits.
AES has been adopted by the U.S. government. It supersedes the Data Encryption Standard (DES), which was published in 1977. The algorithm described by AES is a symmetric-key algorithm, meaning the same key is used for both encrypting and decrypting the data.
In the United States, AES was announced by the NIST as U.S. FIPS PUB 197 (FIPS 197) on November 26, 2001. This announcement followed a five-year standardization process in which fifteen competing designs were presented and evaluated, before the Rijndael cipher was selected as the most suitable.See Advanced Encryption Standard process for more details.
AES is included in the ISO/IEC 18033-3 standard. AES became effective as a U.S. federal government standard on May 26, 2002, after approval by U.S. Secretary of Commerce Donald Evans. AES is available in many different encryption packages, and is the first (and only) publicly accessible cipher approved by the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) for top secret information when used in an NSA approved cryptographic module.See Security of AES below. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Definitive standards | Definitive standards
The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is defined in each of:
FIPS PUB 197: Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
ISO/IEC 18033-3: Block ciphers |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Description of the ciphers | Description of the ciphers
AES is based on a design principle known as a substitution–permutation network, and is efficient in both software and hardware. Unlike its predecessor DES, AES does not use a Feistel network. AES is a variant of Rijndael, with a fixed block size of 128 bits, and a key size of 128, 192, or 256 bits. By contrast, Rijndael per se is specified with block and key sizes that may be any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 and a maximum of 256 bits. Most AES calculations are done in a particular finite field.
AES operates on a 4 × 4 column-major order array of 16 bytes termed the state:Large-block variants of Rijndael use an array with additional columns, but always four rows.
The key size used for an AES cipher specifies the number of transformation rounds that convert the input, called the plaintext, into the final output, called the ciphertext. The number of rounds are as follows:
10 rounds for 128-bit keys.
12 rounds for 192-bit keys.
14 rounds for 256-bit keys.
Each round consists of several processing steps, including one that depends on the encryption key itself. A set of reverse rounds are applied to transform ciphertext back into the original plaintext using the same encryption key. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | High-level description of the algorithm | High-level description of the algorithm
round keys are derived from the cipher key using the AES key schedule. AES requires a separate 128-bit round key block for each round plus one more.
Initial round key addition:
each byte of the state is combined with a byte of the round key using bitwise xor.
9, 11 or 13 rounds:
a non-linear substitution step where each byte is replaced with another according to a lookup table.
a transposition step where the last three rows of the state are shifted cyclically a certain number of steps.
a linear mixing operation which operates on the columns of the state, combining the four bytes in each column.
Final round (making 10, 12 or 14 rounds in total):
|
Advanced Encryption Standard | The {{mono | The step
right|320px|thumbnail|In the step, each byte in the state is replaced with its entry in a fixed 8-bit lookup table, S; bij = S(aij).
In the step, each byte in the state array is replaced with a using an 8-bit substitution box. Before round 0, the state array is simply the plaintext/input. This operation provides the non-linearity in the cipher. The S-box used is derived from the multiplicative inverse over , known to have good non-linearity properties. To avoid attacks based on simple algebraic properties, the S-box is constructed by combining the inverse function with an invertible affine transformation. The S-box is also chosen to avoid any fixed points (and so is a derangement), i.e., , and also any opposite fixed points, i.e., .
While performing the decryption, the step (the inverse of ) is used, which requires first taking the inverse of the affine transformation and then finding the multiplicative inverse. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | The {{mono | The step
right|320px|thumbnail|In the step, bytes in each row of the state are shifted cyclically to the left. The number of places each byte is shifted differs incrementally for each row.
The step operates on the rows of the state; it cyclically shifts the bytes in each row by a certain offset. For AES, the first row is left unchanged. Each byte of the second row is shifted one to the left. Similarly, the third and fourth rows are shifted by offsets of two and three respectively.Rijndael variants with a larger block size have slightly different offsets. For blocks of sizes 128 bits and 192 bits, the shifting pattern is the same. Row is shifted left circular by bytes. For a 256-bit block, the first row is unchanged and the shifting for the second, third and fourth row is 1 byte, 3 bytes and 4 bytes respectively—this change only applies for the Rijndael cipher when used with a 256-bit block, as AES does not use 256-bit blocks. In this way, each column of the output state of the step is composed of bytes from each column of the input state. The importance of this step is to avoid the columns being encrypted independently, in which case AES would degenerate into four independent block ciphers. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | The {{mono | The step
right|320px|thumbnail|In the step, each column of the state is multiplied with a fixed polynomial .
In the step, the four bytes of each column of the state are combined using an invertible linear transformation. The function takes four bytes as input and outputs four bytes, where each input byte affects all four output bytes. Together with , provides diffusion in the cipher.
During this operation, each column is transformed using a fixed matrix (matrix left-multiplied by column gives new value of column in the state):
Matrix multiplication is composed of multiplication and addition of the entries. Entries are bytes treated as coefficients of polynomial of order . Addition is simply XOR. Multiplication is modulo irreducible polynomial . If processed bit by bit, then, after shifting, a conditional XOR with 1B16 should be performed if the shifted value is larger than FF16 (overflow must be corrected by subtraction of generating polynomial). These are special cases of the usual multiplication in .
In more general sense, each column is treated as a polynomial over and is then multiplied modulo with a fixed polynomial . The coefficients are displayed in their hexadecimal equivalent of the binary representation of bit polynomials from . The step can also be viewed as a multiplication by the shown particular MDS matrix in the finite field . This process is described further in the article Rijndael MixColumns. |
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