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Athens | Culture | Culture |
Athens | Archaeological hub and museums | Archaeological hub and museums
thumb|The National Archaeological Museum in central Athens
thumb|The Acropolis Museum
thumb|Museum of the Ancient Agora in the Stoa of Attalos
The city is a world centre of archaeological research. Alongside national academic institutions, such as the Athens University and the Archaeological Society, it is home to multiple archaeological museums, taking in the National Archaeological Museum, the Cycladic Museum, the Epigraphic Museum, the Byzantine & Christian Museum, as well as museums at the ancient Agora, Acropolis, Kerameikos, and the Kerameikos Archaeological Museum. The city is also the setting for the Demokritos laboratory for Archaeometry, alongside regional and national archaeological authorities forming part of the Greek Department of Culture.
Athens hosts 17 Foreign Archaeological Institutes which promote and facilitate research by scholars from their home countries. As a result, Athens has more than a dozen archaeological libraries and three specialised archaeological laboratories, and is the venue of several hundred specialised lectures, conferences and seminars, as well as dozens of archaeological exhibitions each year. At any given time, hundreds of international scholars and researchers in all disciplines of archaeology are to be found in the city.
Athens' most important museums include:
the National Archaeological Museum, the largest archaeological museum in the country, and one of the most important internationally, as it contains a vast collection of antiquities. Its artefacts cover a period of more than 5,000 years, from late Neolithic Age to Roman Greece;
the Benaki Museum with its several branches for each of its collections including ancient, Byzantine, Ottoman-era, Chinese art and beyond;
the Byzantine and Christian Museum, one of the most important museums of Byzantine art;
the National Art Gallery, the nation's eponymous leading gallery, which reopened in 2021 after renovation;
the National Museum of Contemporary Art, which opened in 2000 in a former brewery building;
the Numismatic Museum, housing a major collection of ancient and modern coins;
the Museum of Cycladic Art, home to an extensive collection of Cycladic art, including its famous figurines of white marble;
the New Acropolis Museum, opened in 2009, and replacing the old museum on the Acropolis. The new museum has proved considerably popular; almost one million people visited during the summer period June–October 2009 alone. A number of smaller and privately owned museums focused on Greek culture and arts are also to be found.
the Kerameikos Archaeological Museum, a museum which displays artifacts from the burial site of Kerameikos. Much of the pottery and other artifacts relate to Athenian attitudes towards death and the afterlife, throughout many ages.
the Jewish Museum of Greece, a museum which describes the history and culture of the Greek Jewish community. |
Athens | Architecture | Architecture
thumb|The Zappeion Hall
thumb|The Cathedral of Athens (Athens Metropolis)
Athens incorporates architectural styles ranging from Greco-Roman and Neoclassical to Modern. They are often to be found in the same areas, as Athens is not marked by a uniformity of architectural style. A visitor will quickly notice the absence of tall buildings: Athens has very strict height restriction laws in order to ensure the Acropolis Hill is visible throughout the city. Despite the variety in styles, there is evidence of continuity in elements of the architectural environment throughout the city's history.
For the greatest part of the 19th century Neoclassicism dominated Athens, as well as some deviations from it such as Eclecticism, especially in the early 20th century. Thus, the Old Royal Palace was the first important public building to be built, between 1836 and 1843. Later in the mid and late 19th century, Theophil Freiherr von Hansen and Ernst Ziller took part in the construction of many neoclassical buildings such as the Athens Academy and the Zappeion Hall. Ziller also designed many private mansions in the centre of Athens which gradually became public, usually through donations, such as Schliemann's Iliou Melathron.
Beginning in the 1920s, modern architecture including Bauhaus and Art Deco began to exert an influence on almost all Greek architects, and buildings both public and private were constructed in accordance with these styles. Localities with a great number of such buildings include Kolonaki, and some areas of the centre of the city; neighbourhoods developed in this period include Kypseli.Fessas-Emmanouil, Helen. Ελληνική Αρχιτεκτονική Εταιρεία: Αρχιτέκτονες του 20ού αιώνα: Μέλη της Εταιρείας, Ποταμός, Athens, 2009, pp. xxi & xxv.
In the 1950s and 1960s during the extension and development of Athens, other modern movements such as the International style played an important role. The centre of Athens was largely rebuilt, leading to the demolition of a number of neoclassical buildings. The architects of this era employed materials such as glass, marble and aluminium, and many blended modern and classical elements.Fessas-Emmanouil, Helen. Ελληνική Αρχιτεκτονική Εταιρεία: Αρχιτέκτονες του 20ού αιώνα: Μέλη της Εταιρείας, Ποταμός, Athens, 2009, p. xxxi, After World War II, internationally known architects to have designed and built in the city included Walter Gropius, with his design for the US Embassy, and, among others, Eero Saarinen, in his postwar design for the east terminal of the Ellinikon Airport. |
Athens | Urban sculpture | Urban sculpture
thumb|The Old Parliament House is now home to the National History Museum. View from Stadiou Street.
Across the city numerous statues or busts are to be found. Apart from the neoclassicals by Leonidas Drosis at the Academy of Athens (Plato, Socrates, Apollo and Athena), others in notable categories include the statue of Theseus by Georgios Fytalis at Thiseion; depictions of philhellenes such as Lord Byron, George Canning, and William Gladstone; the equestrian statue of Theodoros Kolokotronis by Lazaros Sochos in front of the Old Parliament; statues of Ioannis Kapodistrias, Rigas Feraios and Adamantios Korais at the university; of Evangelos Zappas and Konstantinos Zappas at the Zappeion; Ioannis Varvakis at the National Garden; the" Woodbreaker" by Dimitrios Filippotis; the equestrian statue of Alexandros Papagos in the Papagou district; and various busts of fighters of Greek independence at the Pedion tou Areos. A significant landmark is also the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Syntagma. |
Athens | Entertainment and performing arts | Entertainment and performing arts
alt=|thumb|The National Theatre of Greece, near Omonoia Square
Athens is home to 148 theatrical stages, more than any other city in the world, including the ancient Odeon of Herodes Atticus, home to the Athens Festival, which runs from May to October each year. In addition to a large number of multiplexes, Athens plays host to open air garden cinemas. The city also supports music venues, including the Athens Concert Hall (Megaro Moussikis), which attracts world class artists. The Athens Planetarium, located in Andrea Syngrou Avenue, in Palaio Faliro is one of the largest and best equipped digital planetaria in the world. The Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center, inaugurated in 2016, will house the National Library of Greece and the Greek National Opera. In 2018 Athens was designated as the World Book Capital by UNESCO.
Restaurants, tavernas and bars can be found in the entertainment hubs in Plaka and the Trigono areas of the historic centre, the inner suburbs of Gazi and Psyrri are especially busy with nightclubs and bars, while Kolonaki, Exarchia, Kypseli, Metaxourgeio, Koukaki and Pangrati offer more of a cafe and restaurant scene. The coastal suburbs of Microlimano, Alimos and Glyfada include many tavernas, beach bars and busy summer clubs.
alt=|thumb|The Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Centre, home of the Greek National Opera and the new National Library
The most successful songs during the period 1870–1930 were the Athenian serenades (Αθηναϊκές καντάδες), based on the Heptanesean kantádhes (καντάδες 'serenades'; sing.: καντάδα) and the songs performed on stage (επιθεωρησιακά τραγούδια 'theatrical revue songs') in revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes that were dominating Athens' theatre scene.
In 1922, following the Greek-Turkish war, Greek genocide and later population exchange suffered by the Greek population of Asia Minor, many ethnic Greeks fled to Athens. They settled in poor neighbourhoods and brought with them Rebetiko music, making it also popular in Greece, and which later became the base for the Laïko music. Other forms of song popular today in Greece are elafrolaika, entechno, dimotika, and skyladika. Greece's most notable, and internationally famous, composers of Greek song, mainly of the entechno form, are Manos Hadjidakis and Mikis Theodorakis. Both composers have achieved fame abroad for their composition of film scores.
The renowned American-born Greek soprano Maria Callas spent her teenage years in Athens, where she settled in 1937. Her professional opera career started in 1940 in Athens, with the Greek National Opera. In 2018, the city's municipal Olympia Theatre was renamed to "Olympia City Music Theatre 'Maria Callas'" and in 2023, the Municipality inaugurated the Maria Callas Museum, housing it in a neoclassical building on 44 Mitropoleos street. |
Athens | Sports | Sports
thumb|The Panathenaic Stadium of Athens (Kallimarmaron), dating back to the 4th century BC, hosted the first modern Olympic Games in 1896.
thumb|Panathinaikos FC vs Sparta Prague in the Athens Olympic Stadium, 2008
Athens has a long tradition in sports and sporting events, serving as home to the most important clubs in Greek sport and housing a large number of sports facilities. The city has also been host to sports events of international importance.
Athens has hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice, in 1896 and 2004. The 2004 Summer Olympics required the development of the Athens Olympic Stadium, which has since gained a reputation as one of the most beautiful stadiums in the world, and one of its most interesting modern monuments. The biggest stadium in the country, it hosted two finals of the UEFA Champions League, in 1994 and 2007. Other major stadiums are the Karaiskakis Stadium located in the nearby city of Piraeus, a sports and entertainment complex, host of the 1971 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final, and Agia Sophia Stadium located in Nea Filadelfeia, host of the 2024 UEFA Europa Conference League final.
The EuroLeague final has been hosted twice in 1985 and in 1993 at the Peace and Friendship Stadium, most known as SEF, a large indoor arena, and the third time in 2007 at the Olympic Indoor Hall. Events in other sports such as athletics, volleyball, water polo etc., have been hosted in the capital's venues.
Greater Athens is home to three widely supported and successful multi-sport clubs, Panathinaikos, originated in the city of Athens, Olympiacos, originated in the port city of Piraeus and AEK, originated in the suburban town of Nea Filadelfeia. In football, Olympiacos is the dominant force at the national level and the only Greek club to have won a European competition, the 2023–24 UEFA Europa Conference League, Panathinaikos made it to the 1971 European Cup Final, while AEK Athens is the other member of the big three. These clubs also have successful basketball teams; Panathinaikos and Olympiacos are considered among the top powers in Europe, having won the EuroLeague seven and three times respectively, whilst AEK Athens was the first Greek team to win a European trophy in any team sport.
Other notable clubs within the region are Athinaikos, Panionios, Atromitos, Apollon, Panellinios, Egaleo F.C., Ethnikos Piraeus, Maroussi BC and Peristeri B.C. Athenian clubs have also had domestic and international success in other sports.
The Athens area encompasses a variety of terrain, notably hills and mountains rising around the city, and the capital is the only major city in Europe to be bisected by a mountain range. Four mountain ranges extend into city boundaries and thousands of kilometres of trails criss-cross the city and neighbouring areas, providing exercise and wilderness access on foot and on bicycle.
Beyond Athens and across the prefecture of Attica, outdoor activities include skiing, rock climbing, hang gliding and windsurfing. Numerous outdoor clubs serve these sports, including the Athens Chapter of the Sierra Club, which leads over 4,000 outings annually in the area.
Athens was awarded the 2004 Summer Olympics on 5 September 1997 in Lausanne, Switzerland, after having lost a previous bid to host the 1996 Summer Olympics, to Atlanta, United States. It was to be the second time Athens would host the games, following the inaugural event of 1896. After an unsuccessful bid in 1990, the 1997 bid was radically improved, including an appeal to Greece's Olympic history. In the last round of voting, Athens defeated Rome with 66 votes to 41. Prior to this round, the cities of Buenos Aires, Stockholm and Cape Town had been eliminated from competition, having received fewer votes. Although the heavy cost was criticised, estimated at US$1.5 billion, Athens was transformed into a more functional city that enjoys modern technology both in transportation and in modern urban development. The games welcomed over 10,000 athletes from 202 countries. |
Athens | See also | See also
List of modern cities named after Athens
Outline of Athens
Timeline of Athens |
Athens | Notes | Notes |
Athens | References | References |
Athens | External links | External links
of the Municipality of Athens
Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Greece
Category:Archaeological sites in Attica
Category:Capitals in Europe
Category:Capitals of Greek states
Category:City-states
Category:Greek regional capitals
Category:Populated coastal places in Greece
Category:Populated places established in the 5th century BC
Category:Populated places in ancient Greece
Category:Populated places in Central Athens (regional unit)
Category:Roman sites in Greece
Category:Athens Riviera |
Athens | Table of Content | short description, Etymology and names, History, Antiquity, Middle Ages, Ottoman Athens, Modern history, Geography<!--'Athens Basin' and 'Attica Basin' redirect here-->, Environment, Parks and zoos, Climate, Administration<!--'Athens City Centre', 'Athens City Center', 'Athens city centre', 'Athens city center', 'City of Athens', 'Municipality of Athens', 'Athens Municipality', 'Athens municipality' redirect here-->, Athens Urban Area<!--'Athens Urban Area', 'Athens urban area', 'Urban Area of the Capital', and 'Greater Athens' redirect here-->, Athens metropolitan area, Twin towns – sister cities, Demographics, Metropolitan Area, Safety, Economy, Tourism, Transport, Bus transport, Railways, Athens International Airport, Ferry, Motorways, Education, Culture, Archaeological hub and museums, Architecture, Urban sculpture, Entertainment and performing arts, Sports, See also, Notes, References, External links |
Anguilla | Short description | Anguilla is a British Overseas Territory in the Caribbean. It is one of the most northerly of the Leeward Islands in the Lesser Antilles, lying east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands and directly north of Saint Martin. The territory consists of the main island of Anguilla, approximately long by wide at its widest point, together with a number of much smaller islands and cays with no permanent population. The territory's capital is The Valley. The total land area of the territory is , with a population of approximately (). |
Anguilla | Etymology | Etymology
The native Arawak name for the island was Malliouhana.
In reference to the island's shape, the Italian , meaning "eel" (in turn, from the Latin diminutive of anguis, "snake") was used as its name. Anguillan tradition holds that Christopher Columbus named the island. |
Anguilla | History | History
thumb|left|Wallblake House, a plantation house thought to be the oldest building in Anguilla
Anguilla was first settled by Indigenous Amerindian peoples who migrated from South America. The earliest Native American artefacts found on Anguilla have been dated to around 1300 BC; remains of settlements date from AD 600.Caribbean Islands, Sarah Cameron (Footprint Travel Guides), p. 466 (Google Books )
There are two known petroglyph sites in Anguilla: Big Spring and Fountain Cavern. The rock ledges of Big Spring contain more than 100 petroglyphs (dating back to AD 600–1200), the majority consisting of three indentations that form faces.Source: The Anguilla National Trust - Preservation for Generations .
Precisely when Anguilla was first seen by Europeans is uncertain: some sources claim that Columbus sighted the island during his second voyage in 1493, while others state that the first European explorer was the French Huguenot nobleman and merchant René Goulaine de Laudonnière in 1564. The Dutch West India Company established a fort on the island in 1631. However, the Company later withdrew after its fort was destroyed by the Spanish in 1633.Source: Atlas of Mutual Heritage .
Traditional accounts state that Anguilla was first colonised by English settlers from Saint Kitts beginning in 1650. The settlers focused on planting tobacco, and to a lesser extent cotton. The French temporarily took over the island in 1666 but returned it to English control under the terms of the Treaty of Breda the next year. Major John Scott, who visited in September 1667, wrote of leaving the island "in good condition" and noted that in July 1668, "200 or 300 people fled thither in time of war".British Colonial and State Papers 1661–1668, 16 November 1667 and 9 July 1668. The French attacked again in 1688, 1745 and 1798, causing much destruction but failing to capture the island.
It is likely that the early European settlers brought enslaved Africans with them. Historians confirm that African slaves lived in the region in the early 17th century, such as slaves from Senegal living on St Kitts in the mid-1600s. By 1672 a slave depot existed on the island of Nevis, serving the Leeward Islands. While the time of African arrival in Anguilla is difficult to place precisely, archival evidence indicates a substantial African presence of at least 100 enslaved people by 1683; these seem to have come from Central Africa as well as West Africa.Walicek, Don E. (2009). "The Founder Principle and Anguilla's Homestead Society," Gradual Creolization: Studies Celebrating Jacques Arends, ed. by M. van den Berg, H. Cardoso, and R. Selbach. (Creole Language Library Series 34), Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 349–372. The slaves were forced to work on the sugar plantations which had begun to replace tobacco as Anguilla's main crop. Over time, the African slaves and their descendants came to vastly outnumber the white settlers. The African slave trade was eventually terminated within the British Empire in 1807, and slavery outlawed completely in 1834. Many planters subsequently sold up or left the island.
During the early colonial period, Anguilla was administered by the British through Antigua; in 1825, it was placed under the administrative control of nearby Saint Kitts. Anguilla was federated with St Kitts and Nevis in 1882, against the wishes of many Anguillans. Economic stagnation, and the severe effects of several droughts in the 1890s and later the Great Depression of the 1930s led many Anguillans to emigrate for better prospects elsewhere.
thumb|left|Flag of the short-lived Republic of Anguilla
Full adult suffrage was introduced to Anguilla in 1952. After a brief period as part of the West Indies Federation (1958–1962), the island of Anguilla became part of the associated state of Saint Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla with full internal autonomy in 1967. However many Anguillans had no wish to be a part of this union, and resented the dominance of St Kitts within it. On 30 May, 1967, Anguillans forcibly ejected the St Kitts police force from the island and declared their separation from St Kitts following a referendum.Anguilla, 11 July 1967: Separation from St Kitts and Nevis; Peace Committee as Government Direct Democracy Noack, David X., Die abtrünnige Republik Anguilla, amerika21.de, 27 September 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2017. . The events, led by Atlin Harrigan and Ronald Webster among others, became known as the Anguillan Revolution; its goal was not independence per se, but rather independence from Saint Kitts and Nevis and a return to being a British colony.
With negotiations failing to break the deadlock, a second referendum confirming Anguillans' desire for separation from St Kitts was held and the Republic of Anguilla was declared unilaterally, with Ronald Webster as president. Efforts by British envoy William Whitlock failed to break the impasse and 300 British troops were subsequently sent in March 1969. British authority was restored, and confirmed by the Anguilla Act 1971 (c. 63) of July 1971. In 1980, Anguilla was finally allowed to formally secede from Saint Kitts and Nevis and become a separate British Crown colony (now a British overseas territory). Since then, Anguilla has been politically stable, and has seen a large growth in its tourism and offshore financing sectors. |
Anguilla | Geography and geology | Geography and geology
thumb|right|An aerial view of the western portion of the island of Anguilla. The Blowing Point ferry terminal is visible in the lower right, as are (right to left) Shaddick Point, Rendezvous Bay, Cove Bay and Maundays Bay.
Anguilla is a flat, low-lying island of coral and limestone in the Caribbean Sea, measuring some 16 miles (26 km) long and 3.5 miles (6 km) in width. It lies to the east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands and directly north of Saint Martin, separated from that island by the Anguilla Channel. The soil is generally thin and poor, supporting scrub, tropical and forest vegetation. The terrain is generally low-lying, with the highest terrain located in the vicinity of The Valley; Crocus Hill, Anguilla's highest peak at , lies in the western regions of the town.
Anguilla is noted for its ecologically important coral reefs and beaches. Apart from the main island of Anguilla itself, the territory includes a number of other smaller islands and cays, mostly tiny and uninhabited:
Anguillita
Blowing Rock
Dog Island
Little Scrub Island
Prickly Pear Cays
Scrub Island
Seal Island
Sombrero, also known as Hat Island
Sandy Island
Scilly Cay
In Anguilla, forest cover is around 61% of the total land area, equivalent to 5,500 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, which was unchanged from 1990. |
Anguilla | Geology | Geology
Anguilla (and the wider Anguilla Bank) is of volcanic origin, lying on the Lesser Antilles volcanic island arc, and tuffs and volcaniclastic breccias of Eocene age are exposed locally on the island. The island was largely submerged during the Miocene, leading to the formation of the reefal limestone Anguilla Formation, which was subsequently tectonically uplifted and covers most of the island today. Since the late Pleistocene, however, Anguilla has undergone tectonic subsidence at a rate of around 1–2 mm/yr.
thumb|300px|left|Map showing the location of Anguilla relative to Sint Maarten/Saint Martin and other islands to its souththumb|450px|left|Map of Anguilla |
Anguilla | Climate | Climate |
Anguilla | Temperature | Temperature
Northeastern trade winds keep this tropical island relatively cool and dry. Average annual temperature is . July–October is its hottest period, December–February, its coolest. |
Anguilla | Rainfall | Rainfall
Rainfall averages annually, although the figures vary from season to season and year to year. The island is subject to both sudden tropical storms and hurricanes, which occur in the period from July to November. The island suffered damage from Hurricane Luis in 1995, severe flooding from Hurricane Lenny in 1999 and severe damage from Hurricane Irma in 2017, which remains the most powerful hurricane to hit the island. |
Anguilla | Governance | Governance |
Anguilla | Political system | Political system
Anguilla is an internally self-governing overseas territory of the United Kingdom. Its politics take place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic dependency, whereby the Premier is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. A governor is appointed by the British government to represent the king.
The United Nations Committee on Decolonization includes Anguilla on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories. The territory's constitution is the Anguilla Constitutional Order 1 April 1982 (amended 1990). Executive power is exercised by the government, with legislative power being vested in both the government and the House of Assembly. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. |
Anguilla | Defence | Defence
As a British overseas territory, the UK is responsible for Anguilla's military defence, although there are no active garrisons or armed forces present in the territory. Since 2020, the Royal Navy has forward-deployed the offshore patrol vessel HMS Medway long-term to the Caribbean for patrol and sovereignty protection duties. In October 2023, the destroyer HMS Dauntless (which had temporarily replaced Medway on her normal Caribbean tasking), visited the territory in order to assist local authorities in preparing for the climax of the hurricane season.
Anguilla had a small marine police force, comprising around 32 personnel, which operated one VT Halmatic M160-class fast patrol boat. Policing on the island is the responsibility of the Royal Anguilla Police Force. |
Anguilla | Population | Population |
Anguilla | Demographics | Demographics
The majority of residents (90.08%) are of West African ancestry, most of whom are the descendants of enslaved people transported from Africa. Minorities include whites at 3.74% and people of mixed race at 4.65% (figures from 2001 census). Of the population, 72% is Anguillan while 28% is non-Anguillan (2001 census). Of the non-Anguillan population, many are citizens of the United States, United Kingdom, St Kitts & Nevis, the Dominican Republic, and Jamaica.
The years 2006 and 2007 saw an influx of large numbers of Chinese, Indian and Mexican workers, brought in as labour for major tourist developments due to the local population not being large enough to support the labour requirements. |
Anguilla | Religion | Religion
Christian churches did not have a consistent or strong presence during the initial period of English colonisation; spiritual and religious practices of Europeans and Africans tended to reflect their regional origins. As early as 1813, Christian ministers formally ministered to enslaved Africans and promoted literacy among converts.Walicek, Don E. (2011). "Christianity, Literacy, and Creolization in Nineteenth-Century Anguilla". In Anansi's Defiant Webs, Contact, Continuity, Convergence, and Complexity in the Language, Literatures and Cultures of the Greater Caribbean, ed. by N. Faraclas, R. Severing, et al., Willemstad: University of Curaçao and Fundashon pa Planifikashon di Idioma, pp. 181–189. The Wesleyan (Methodist) Missionary Society of England built churches and schools from 1817.Hodge, S. Wilfred (2003). "Bethel—the road—and due west" In Wilbert Forker (Ed.), Born in Slavery: A Story of Methodism in Anguilla and Its Influence in the Caribbean (pp. 20–29). Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press.
According to the 2001 census, Christianity is Anguilla's predominant religion, with 29% of the population practising Anglicanism; another 23.9% are Methodist. Other churches on the island include Seventh-day Adventist, Baptist, Roman Catholic (served by the Diocese of Saint John's–Basseterre, with the See at Saint John on Antigua and Barbuda) and a small community of Jehovah's Witnesses (0.7%). Between 1992 and 2001, the number of followers of the Church of God and Pentecostals increased considerably. There are at least 15 churches on the island. Although a minority on the island, Anguilla is an important location to followers of Rastafarian religion as the birthplace of Robert Athlyi Rogers, author of the Holy Piby which had a strong influence on Rastafarian and other Africa-centre belief systems. More recently, a Muslim cultural centre has opened on the island.
+ Religions in Anguillaby percentage Religion 1992 2001 2011 Anglican 40.4 29.0 22.7 Methodist 33.2 23.9 19.4 Pentecostal – 7.7 10.5 Seventh-day Adventist 7.0 7.6 8.3 Baptist 4.7 7.3 7.1 Catholic 3.2 5.7 6.8 Church of God – 7.6 4.9 Jehovah's Witnesses – 0.7 1.1 Rastafarian – 0.7 Evangelical – 0.5 Plymouth Brethren – 0.3 0.1 Muslim – 0.3 Presbyterian – 0.2 0.2 Hindu – 0.4 Jewish – 0.1 None – 4.0 4.5 Other 10.7 3.5 Not stated 0.7 0.3 |
Anguilla | Languages | Languages
thumb|Anguillan Flag
Today most people in Anguilla speak a British-influenced variety of standard English. Other languages are also spoken on the island, including varieties of Spanish, Chinese and the languages of other immigrant communities. However, the most common language other than Standard English is the island's own English-lexifier Creole language (not to be confused with Antillean Creole ('French Creole'), spoken in French islands such as Martinique and Guadeloupe). It is referred to locally by terms such as "dialect" (pronounced "dialek"), Anguilla Talk or "Anguillian". It has its main roots in early varieties of English and West African languages, and is similar to the dialects spoken in English-speaking islands throughout the Eastern Caribbean in terms of its structural features.
Linguists who are interested in the origins of Anguillan and other Caribbean Creoles point out that some of its grammatical features can be traced to African languages while others can be traced to European languages. Three areas have been identified as significant for the identification of the linguistic origins of those forced migrants who arrived before 1710: the Gold Coast, the Slave Coast and the Windward Coast.Singler, John. 1993. African influence upon Afro-American language varieties: A consideration of sociohistorical factors. In Africanisms in Afro-American language varieties, S. Mufwene and n. Condon (eds.), 235–253. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.
Sociohistorical information from Anguilla's archives suggest that Africans and Europeans formed two distinct, but perhaps overlapping speech communities in the early phases of the island's colonisation. "Anguillian" is believed to have emerged as the language of the masses as time passed, slavery was abolished and locals began to see themselves as "belonging" to Anguillan society. |
Anguilla | Education | Education
There are six government primary schools, one government secondary school (Albena Lake Hodge Comprehensive School), and two private schools."Schools ." Government of Anguilla. Retrieved 7 December 2017. There is a single library, the Edison L. Hughes Education & Library Complex of the Anguilla Public Library."The Edison L. Hughes Education & Library Complex ." Government of Anguilla. Retrieved 7 December 2017. A branch of the Saint James School of Medicine was established in 2011 in Anguilla. It is a private, for-profit medical school headquartered in Park Ridge, Illinois.
There is a University of the West Indies Open campus site in the island. |
Anguilla | Culture | Culture
thumb|right|The beach at the Cap Juluca resort on Maundays Bay
thumb|Sandy Ground beach
The island's cultural history begins with the native Taino, Arawak and Carib. Their artefacts have been found around the island, telling of life before European settlers arrived.
Anguillan culture has also been built through immigration. Many European families have moved to the island and have impacted the formalities of the Anguillan people.
Similar to nearby islands, Anguillans geography and location require a cultural reliance on the ocean. The island's abundance of sea life has led to the incorporation of many fish and crustacean into daily life. They have become a part of the local cuisine, opened up opportunities for ecotourism, and introduced celebrations such as Lobster Fest and boat races.
As throughout the Caribbean, holidays are a cultural fixture. Anguilla's most important holidays are of historic as much as cultural importance – particularly the anniversary of the emancipation (previously August Monday in the Park), celebrated as the Summer Festival, or Carnival, the sailboat races, and Lobster Fest. British festivities, such as the King's Birthday, are also celebrated.
Music in Anguilla presents itself as an important part of its culture as well. All different genres of music are played at the celebrations mentioned above. This music represents the deep history of talent that Anguillans have displayed for decades.
The Anguilla National Trust (ANT) was established in 1989 and opened its current office in 1991 charged with the responsibility of preserving the heritage of the island, including its cultural heritage.
The Heritage Collection Museum used to showcase the history and artefacts of Anguilla, but in 2024 the collection was handed over to the Anguilla National Museum. |
Anguilla | Cuisine | Cuisine
thumb|Sunshine Shack Beachbar N Grill located in Rendezvous Bay
Anguillan cuisine is influenced by native Caribbean, West African, Spanish, French, and English cuisines.Robinson, Peg. "Foods That Are Important in Anguilla." USA Today Travel . Retrieved July 2011. Seafood is abundant, including prawns, shrimp, crab, spiny lobster, conch, mahi-mahi, red snapper, marlin, and grouper. Salt cod is a staple food eaten on its own and used in stews, casseroles and soups. Livestock is limited due to the small size of the island and people there use poultry, pork, goat, and mutton, along with imported beef. Goat is the most commonly eaten meat, used in a variety of dishes. The official national food of Anguilla is pigeon peas and rice.
A significant amount of the island's produce is imported due to limited land suitable for agriculture production; much of the soil is sandy and infertile. The agriculture produce of Anguilla includes tomatoes, peppers, limes and other citrus fruits, onion, garlic, squash, pigeon peas, and callaloo. Starch staple foods include imported rice and other foods that are imported or locally grown, including yams,Higgins, Michelle (28 January 2007). "For Foodies: Anguilla." The New York Times – Travel . Retrieved July 2011. sweet potatoes and breadfruit. |
Anguilla | Literature | Literature
The Anguilla National Trust has programmes encouraging Anguillan writers and the preservation of the island's history. In 2015, Where I See The Sun – Contemporary Poetry in Anguilla A New Anthology by Lasana M. Sekou was published by House of Nehesi Publishers. Among the forty three poets in the collection are Rita Celestine-Carty, Bankie Banx, John T. Harrigan, Patricia J. Adams, Fabian Fahie, Dr. Oluwakemi Linda Banks, and Reuel Ben Lewi. |
Anguilla | Music | Music
thumb|right|Bankie Banx, noted reggae artist and poet from Anguilla who has built up an international following
Various Caribbean musical genres are popular on the island, such as soca and calypso, but reggae most deeply roots itself in Anguillan society. Anguilla has produced many artists and groups in this genre.
Reggae has shown itself to be the most popular genre in Anguilla. The most successful of reggae artists originating in Anguilla come from the Banks family. Bankie "Banx" and his son Omari Banks have had many chart-topping songs listened to around the world. The two musicians continue to provide live performances across the island quite often.
British Dependency has also gained popularity throughout the 21st century. The band, who began in Anguilla, boasts the island's first female bass player. Performing alongside The Wailers on tour, British Dependency have earned attention from an American audience.
One of many musical events that take place in Anguilla is Moonsplash. Moonsplash is an annual reggae music festival that has occurred in Anguilla for 33 consecutive years and proves to be the oldest independent musical event in the Caribbean. Along with its longstanding history, it is the largest festival annually alongside carnival.
While not many soca and calypso artists have gained extreme popularity, the genres are still widely listened to across the island. |
Anguilla | Sports | Sports
Boat racing has deep roots in Anguillan culture and is the national sport. There are regular sailing regattas on national holidays, such as Carnival, which are contested by locally built and designed boats. These boats have names and have sponsors that print their logo on their sails.
As in many other former British colonies, cricket is also a popular sport. Anguilla is the home of Omari Banks, who played for the West Indies Cricket Team, while Cardigan Connor played first-class cricket for English county side Hampshire and was 'chef de mission' (team manager) for Anguilla's Commonwealth Games team in 2002. Other noted players include Chesney Hughes, who played for Derbyshire County Cricket Club in England.
Rugby union is represented in Anguilla by the Anguilla Eels RFC, who were formed in April 2006.Rugby in Anguilla! , Anguilla News The Eels have been finalists in the St. Martin tournament in November 2006 and semi-finalists in 2007, 2008, 2009 and Champions in 2010. The Eels were formed in 2006 by Scottish club national second row Martin Welsh, Club Sponsor and President of the AERFC Ms. Jacquie Ruan, and Canadian standout Scrumhalf Mark Harris (Toronto Scottish RFC).
Anguilla is the birthplace of sprinter Zharnel Hughes who has represented Great Britain since 2015, and England at the 2018 Commonwealth Games. He won the 100 metres at the 2018 European Athletics Championships, the 4 x 100 metres at the same championships, and the 4 x 100 metres for England at the 2018 Commonwealth Games. He also won a relay team gold at the 2022 Birmingham Commonwealth Games and a silver on the relay for Great Britain at the 2020 Olympic Games. In 2023 he broke the British record for the 100m sprint, with a time of 9.83 seconds.
Shara Proctor, British Long Jump Silver Medalist at the World Championships in Beijing, first represented Anguilla in the event until 2010 when she began to represent Great Britain and England. Under the Anguillan Flag she achieved several medals in the NACAC games.
Keith Connor, triple jumper, is also an Anguillan. He represented Great Britain and England and achieved several international titles including Commonwealth and European Games gold medals and an Olympic bronze medal. Connor later became Head Coach of Australia Athletics. |
Anguilla | Natural history | Natural history |
Anguilla | Wildlife | Wildlife
thumb|The Cuban tree frog can be found on the island.
Anguilla has habitat for the Cuban tree frogs (Osteopilus septentrionalis). The red-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis carbonaria) is a species of tortoise found here, which originally came from South America. Hurricanes in the mid-90s led to over-water dispersal of the green iguanas (Iguana iguana) to Anguilla. All three animals are introductions.
Five species of bats are known in the literature from Anguilla – the threatened insular single leaf bat (Monophyllus plethodon), the Antillean fruit-eating bat (Brachyphylla cavernarum), the Jamaican fruit bat (Artibeus jamaicensis), the Mexican funnel-eared bat (Natalus stramineus), and the velvety free-tailed bat (Molossus molossus). |
Anguilla | Notable people | Notable people
Zharnel Hughes (born 1995), sprinter
Dee-Ann Kentish-Rogers (born 1993), politician, model and Miss Universe Great Britain 2018
Carlos Newton (born 1976), former UFC Welterweight Champion
Shara Proctor (born 1988), long jump athlete |
Anguilla | Economy | Economy
Anguilla's thin arid soil being largely unsuitable for agriculture, the island has few land-based natural resources. Its main industries are tourism, offshore incorporation and management, offshore banking, captive insurance and fishing.
Anguilla's currency is the East Caribbean dollar, though the US dollar is also widely accepted. The exchange rate is fixed to the US dollar at US$1 = EC$2.70.
The economy, and especially the tourism sector, suffered a setback in late 1995 due to the effects of Hurricane Luis in September. Hotels were hit particularly hard but a recovery occurred the following year. Another economic setback occurred during the aftermath of Hurricane Lenny in 2000. Before the 2008 worldwide crisis, the economy of Anguilla was growing strongly, especially the tourism sector, which was driving major new developments in partnerships with multi-national companies. Anguilla's tourism industry received a major boost when it was selected to host the World Travel Awards in December 2014. Known as "the Oscars of the travel industry", the awards ceremony was held at the CuisinArt Resort and Spa and was hosted by Vivica A. Fox. Anguilla was voted the World's Leading Luxury Island Destination from a short list of top-tier candidates such as St. Barts, the Maldives, and Mauritius. The economy, including the tourism sector, suffered its biggest setback in late 2017 due to the effects of Hurricane Irma in September, which was the most powerful hurricane to hit the island and which caused major material damage of $320 million. A lot of infrastructure was damaged, which was repaired in 2018/19 and the economy began to recover in 2019. However, the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020/21, caused a setback in the economy.
Anguilla's financial system comprises seven banks, two money services businesses, more than 40 company managers, more than 50 insurers, 12 brokers, more than 250 captive intermediaries, more than 50 mutual funds, and eight trust companies.
Anguilla has become a popular tax haven, having no capital gains, estate, profit, sales, or corporate taxes. In April 2011, faced with a mounting deficit, it introduced a 3% "Interim Stabilisation Levy", Anguilla's first form of income tax. Anguilla also has a 0.75% property tax.
Anguilla aims to obtain 15% of its energy from solar power to become less reliant on expensive imported diesel. The Climate & Development Knowledge Network is helping the government gather the information it needs to change the territory's legislation, so that it can integrate renewables into its grid. Barbados has also made good progress in switching to renewables, but many other Small Island Developing States are still at the early stages of planning how to integrate renewable energy into their grids. "For a small island we're very far ahead," said Beth Barry, Coordinator of the Anguilla Renewable Energy Office. "We've got an Energy Policy and a draft Climate Change policy and have been focusing efforts on the question of sustainable energy supply for several years now. As a result, we have a lot of information we can share with other islands."Fry, Carolyn. 28 June 2012. Anguilla moves towards cleaner energy
According to a Bloomberg report, due to a skyrocketing interest in artificial intelligence, Anguilla was expected to profit in 2023 from a surge in demand for web addresses ending with the country's top-level domain .ai. The total number of registrations of .ai domain names had already doubled in 2022, and according to Vince Cate, who has managed the top-level domain, Anguilla will bring in as much as $30 million in domain-registration fees for 2023. |
Anguilla | Transportation | Transportation |
Anguilla | Air | Air
Anguilla is served by Clayton J. Lloyd International Airport (prior to 4 July 2010 known as Wallblake Airport). The primary runway at the airport is in length and can accommodate moderate-sized aircraft. Regional scheduled passenger services connect to various other Caribbean islands via local airlines.
In December 2021 Anguilla inaugurated its first ever international regular commercial jet service flight to and from the mainland U.S. American Eagle operating on behalf of American Airlines began nonstop Embraer 175 regional jet service to Anguilla from Miami in an aviation watershed moment for Anguilla with the airport also currently attempting to attract other international air carriers.
Other airlines currently serving the airport include Tradewind Aviation and Cape Air which provide scheduled air service to San Juan, Puerto Rico. Several other small airlines serve the airport as well.
The airport can handle large narrow-body jets such as the Boeing 737 and Airbus A320 and has growing private jet service flights with a new private jet terminal being built. |
Anguilla | Road | Road
Aside from taxis, there is no public transport on the island. Cars drive on the left and most roads are unsealed. There is no rail network. |
Anguilla | Boat | Boat
There are regular ferries from Saint Martin to Anguilla. It is a 20-minute crossing from Marigot, St. Martin, to Blowing Point, Anguilla.
There is also a charter service which offers boat trips from Blowing Point, Anguilla, to Princess Juliana Airport. |
Anguilla | See also | See also
Bibliography of Anguilla
Outline of Anguilla
Index of Anguilla-related articles |
Anguilla | Notes | Notes |
Anguilla | References | References |
Anguilla | Further reading | Further reading
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Anguilla | External links | External links |
Anguilla | Government | Government
Government of Anguilla—Official government website |
Anguilla | General information | General information
Anguilla. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Anguilla from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Anguilla Focus
battle for freedom -- youtube video compilation archived at Ghostarchive.org on 18 May 2022
Category:1650 establishments in North America
Category:1650 establishments in the British Empire
Category:1650s establishments in the Caribbean
Category:British Leeward Islands
.Anguilla
Category:British West Indies
Category:English-speaking countries and territories
Category:Former English colonies
Category:Island countries
Category:Leeward Islands (Caribbean)
Category:Member states of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States
Category:Small Island Developing States
Category:States and territories established in 1650
Category:States and territories established in 1980
Category:Dependent territories in the Caribbean |
Anguilla | Table of Content | Short description, Etymology, History, Geography and geology, Geology, Climate, Temperature, Rainfall, Governance, Political system, Defence, Population, Demographics, Religion, Languages, Education, Culture, Cuisine, Literature, Music, Sports, Natural history, Wildlife, Notable people, Economy, Transportation, Air, Road, Boat, See also, Notes, References, Further reading, External links, Government, General information |
Telecommunications in Anguilla | Short description |
This article is about communications systems in Anguilla. |
Telecommunications in Anguilla | Telephone | Telephone
Telephones – main lines in use: 6,200 (2002)
country comparison to the world: 212
Telephones – mobile cellular: 1,800 (2002)
country comparison to the world: 211
Telephone system:
Domestic: Modern internal telephone system
International: EAST CARIBBEAN FIBRE SYSTEM ECFS (cable system)
microwave radio relay to island of Saint Martin (Guadeloupe and Netherlands Antilles) |
Telecommunications in Anguilla | Mobile phone (GSM) | Mobile phone (GSM)
Mobile phone operators:
FLOW (Anguilla) Ltd. – GSM and UMTS 850 and 1900 MHz, LTE 700 MHz with Island-wide coverage
Digicel (Anguilla) Ltd. – GSM and UMTS 850 to 1900 MHz, LTE 700 MHz
Mobiles: ? (2007) |
Telecommunications in Anguilla | Radio | Radio
Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 7, shortwave 0 (2007)
+ Radio Stations of Anguilla Band / Freq. Call Sign Brand City of license Notes AM 690 kHz Unknown Caribbean Beacon The Valley Religious broadcaster AM 1500 kHz Unknown Caribbean Beacon The Valley 2.5 kW repeater AM 1610 kHz Unknown Caribbean Beacon The Valley 200 kW repeater FM 92.9 MHz Unknown Klass 92.9 The Valley FM 93.3 MHz Unknown Rainbow FM The Valley Caribbean Music, News FM 95.5 MHz Unknown Radio Anguilla The Valley Public broadcaster FM 97.7 MHz Unknown Heart Beat Radio/Up Beat Radio The Valley 30 kW, Caribbean Music, News FM 99.3 MHz ZNBR-FM NBR – New Beginning Radio / Grace FM The Valley 5 kW, Religious broadcaster FM 100.1 MHz Unknown Caribbean Beacon The Valley Religious broadcaster FM 100.9 MHz Unknown CBN – Country Broadcast Network The Valley 3 kW FM 103.3 MHz Unknown Kool FM The Valley Religious broadcaster, Urban Caribbean FM 105.1 MHz ZRON-FM Tradewinds Radio The Valley 5 kW, Caribbean Music, News FM 106.7 MHz unknown VOC – Voice Of Creation Sachasses Religious broadcaster FM 107.9 MHz unknown GEM Radio Network The Valley Repeater (Trinidad) SW 6090 kHz Unknown Caribbean Beacon The Valley Religious SW 11775 kHz Unknown Caribbean Beacon The Valley Religious
Radios: 3,000 (1997) |
Telecommunications in Anguilla | Television | Television
Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
Televisions: 1,000 (1997) |
Telecommunications in Anguilla | Internet | Internet
Internet country code: .ai (Top level domain)
Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (FLOW – , Digicel Anguilla – )
Internet hosts: 269 (2012)
country comparison to the world: 192
Internet: users: 12,377 (2018)
country comparison to the world: 206 |
Telecommunications in Anguilla | See also | See also
Anguilla
FLOW (Anguilla) Ltd. |
Telecommunications in Anguilla | References | References |
Telecommunications in Anguilla | External links | External links
Public Utilities Commission of Anguilla
Anguilla, SubmarineCableMap.com
Category:Communications in Anguilla
Anguilla
Anguilla |
Telecommunications in Anguilla | Table of Content | Short description, Telephone, Mobile phone (GSM), Radio, Television, Internet, See also, References, External links |
Ashmore and Cartier Islands | Short description | alt=Satellite image of Ashmore reef on 26 August 2021.|thumb|Satellite image of Ashmore reef on 26 August 2021.
The Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands is an uninhabited Australian external territory consisting of four low-lying tropical islands in two separate reefs (Ashmore and Cartier), as well as the territorial sea generated by the islands. The territory is located in the Indian Ocean situated on the edge of the continental shelf, about off the northwest coast of Australia and south of the Indonesian island of Rote.
Ashmore Reef is called Pulau Pasir by Indonesians and Nusa Solokaek in the Rotenese language. Both names have the meaning "sand island". Ashmore Reef (not not Cartier Reef) lies on the Indonesian side of the median line between the Australian and Indonesian maritime territories. |
Ashmore and Cartier Islands | Geography | Geography
thumb|left|A map of Ashmore and Cartier Islands
The territory comprises Ashmore Reef, which includes West, Middle and East Islands, in addition to two lagoons, as well as Cartier Reef, which includes Cartier Island. Ashmore Reef covers approximately and Cartier Reef , both measurements extending to the limits of the reefs.
West, Middle and East Islands have a combined land area variously reported as , and . Cartier Island has a reported land area of . |
Ashmore and Cartier Islands | History | History
According to Australian literature, Cartier Island was visited by Captain Nash in 1800, and named after his ship Cartier. Ashmore Island was seen by Captain Samuel Ashmore in 1811 from his ship Hibernia and named after him. Ashmore Island was annexed by the United Kingdom in 1878, as was Cartier Island in 1909. In December 1905, formally took possession of the Ashmore Islands on behalf of the United Kingdom. The ship's commander Captain Ernest Gaunt went ashore accompanied by five officers and around 200 seamen, erecting the Union Jack on a flagpole and singing "God Save the King", while Cambrian returned a 21-gun salute.
After their annexation, the British Government occasionally granted licences on the islands for fishing or guano extraction. In the 1920s, the islands were used as a base for poachers targeting the Western Australian pearling industry. The lack of effective policing led to Australian lobbying for a transfer of control.
A British order-in-council dated 23 July 1931 stated that Ashmore and Cartier Islands would be placed under the authority of the Commonwealth of Australia, when Australia passes legislation to accept them, and formal administration would begin two years later. The Commonwealth's resulting Ashmore and Cartier Islands Acceptance Act 1933 came into operation on 10 May 1934, when the islands formally became a part of Australia. The act authorised the Governor of Western Australia to make ordinances for the territory. In July 1938 the territory was annexed to the Northern Territory, then also administered by the Commonwealth, whose laws, ordinances and regulations applied to the Northern Territory. When self-government was granted to the Northern Territory on 1 July 1978, administration of Ashmore and Cartier Islands was retained by the Commonwealth.
In 1947, interior minister Herbert Johnson became the first Australian government minister to visit the territory. The Age reported that Johnson had been unable to land due to rough seas and regarded the islands as "almost valueless".
In 1983, the territory was declared a nature reserve under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975, now replaced by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 Cartier Island, which was a former bombing range, became a marine reserve in 2000.
After the islands became a first point of contact with the Australian migration zone, in September 2001, the Australian Government excised the Ashmore and Cartier Islands from the Australian migration zone. |
Ashmore and Cartier Islands | Indonesian heritage and memorandum | Indonesian heritage and memorandum
Ashmore has been regularly visited and fished by Indonesian fishermen since the early eighteenth century. A 1974 Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between Australia and Indonesia sets out arrangements by which traditional fishers can access resources in Australia's territorial sea in the region. This allows traditional Indonesian fishermen to access parts of Ashmore for shelter, freshwater and to visit grave sites. The area, known as the MOU Box, contains the Ashmore and Cartier Islands Territory. |
Ashmore and Cartier Islands | Governance | Governance
Today, the territory is administered from Canberra by the Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts, which is also responsible for the administration of the territories of Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, the Coral Sea Islands, Jervis Bay Territory and Norfolk Island.
The Attorney-General's Department had been responsible for the administration of Australian territories until the 2010 federal election. In that year the responsibility for Australian territories was transferred to the then Department of Regional Australia, Local Government, Arts and Sport, and from 18 September 2013 the Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development has administered Australian territories.
Defence of Ashmore and Cartier Islands is the responsibility of Australia, with periodic visits by the Royal Australian Navy, Royal Australian Air Force and the Australia Border Force.
Nearby Hibernia Reef, northeast of Ashmore Reef, is not part of the Territory, but belongs to Western Australia. It has no permanently dry land area, although large parts of the reef become exposed during low tide. |
Ashmore and Cartier Islands | Proposed Northern Territory annexation | Proposed Northern Territory annexation
The Northern Territory government has claimed on multiple occasions (1989, 1996) that the Ashmore and Cartier Islands should be returned to their jurisdiction, instead of remaining a separate territory. The Australian House of Representatives Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs recommended in a 1991 report that the Northern Territory annex the islands. In 1998, John Howard's Coalition debated the issue in the leadup to the 1998 Northern Territory statehood referendum, and stated in a campaign release that it would "pursue incorporation of the Ashmore & Cartier Islands into the Northern Territory before or at the time of Statehood". Website incorrectly filed the statement under 2007, but the statement itself says it was released 30 September 1998. However, these efforts did not lead to any changes. |
Ashmore and Cartier Islands | Environment and protection | Environment and protection
thumb|right|Cartier Island and surrounding reef (NASA satellite image)
The Ashmore Reef Marine Park and Cartier Island Marine Park are both classed as strict nature reserves (IUCN Ia) and protect biodiverse areas of significant and international importance, as well as cultural heritage.
Cartier Island is an unvegetated sand island, with access prohibited because of the risk of unexploded ordnances. There are no ports or harbours, only offshore anchorage. Today, all the wells in the Territory are infected with cholera or otherwise contaminated and undrinkable. The Australian Border Force vessel is stationed off the reef for up to 300 days per year. The islands are also visited by seasonal caretakers and occasional scientific researchers. |
Ashmore and Cartier Islands | Economy | Economy
The area around the Ashmore and Cartier Islands has been a traditional fishing ground of Indonesian fishermen for centuries, and continues to be. In the 1850s, American whalers operated in the region. Outside of fishing, the islands were historically used as sources of guano, beche-de-mer, trochus and tortoiseshell. Mining of phosphate deposits took place on Ashmore Island in the latter half of the 19th century.
Petroleum extraction activities take place at the Jabiru and Challis oil fields, which are adjacent to the Territory, and which are administered by the Northern Territory's Department of Mines and Energy on behalf of the Commonwealth. |
Ashmore and Cartier Islands | Migration | Migration
As Ashmore Reef is the closest point of Australian territory to Indonesia, it was a popular target for people smugglers transporting asylum seekers en route to Australia.Anita Roberts "Don't let them drown" Inside Indonesia Apr–Jun 2001, vol. 64 Once they had landed on Ashmore Island, asylum seekers could claim to have entered Australian migration zone and request to be processed as refugees. The use of Ashmore Island for this purpose created great notoriety during late 2001, when refugee arrivals became a major political issue in Australia. The Australian Government argued that as Australia was not the country of first asylum for these "boat people", Australia did not have a responsibility to accept them.
A number of measures were taken to discourage the use of the territory for this purpose, such as attempting to have the people smugglers arrested in Indonesia; the so-called Pacific Solution of processing them in third countries; the boarding and forced turnaround of the boats by Australian military forces; and finally excising the territory and many other small islands from the Australian migration zone.
In October 2001, the Royal Australian Navy detained two Indonesian boats carrying asylum seekers for seven days in the Ashmore Island lagoon. These boats were later returned to Indonesian waters through the use of force and deception. |
Ashmore and Cartier Islands | See also | See also
Immigration detention in Australia
SIEV 36 |
Ashmore and Cartier Islands | References | References |
Ashmore and Cartier Islands | External links | External links
Ashmore and Cartier Islands. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Geoscience Australia—Ashmore and Cartier Islands
Department of the Environment and Heritage—Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve
Department of the Environment and Heritage—Cartier Island Commonwealth Marine Reserve
First on list of Australian islands
"Ashmore Reef Belongs to Indonesia," posted on East Timor Action Network.
"Ashmore Islands are member of ARABOSAI"
Category:Ramsar sites in Australia
Category:Important Bird Areas of Australian External Territories
Category:Immigration to Australia
Category:Territorial disputes of Australia
Category:Territorial disputes of Indonesia
Category:Former British protectorates
Ashmore Reef |
Ashmore and Cartier Islands | Table of Content | Short description, Geography, History, Indonesian heritage and memorandum, Governance, Proposed Northern Territory annexation, Environment and protection, Economy, Migration, See also, References, External links |
Acoustic theory | Short description | Acoustic theory is a scientific field that relates to the description of sound waves. It derives from fluid dynamics. See acoustics for the engineering approach.
For sound waves of any magnitude of a disturbance in velocity, pressure, and density we have
In the case that the fluctuations in velocity, density, and pressure are small, we can approximate these as
Where is the perturbed velocity of the fluid, is the pressure of the fluid at rest, is the perturbed pressure of the system as a function of space and time, is the density of the fluid at rest, and is the variance in the density of the fluid over space and time.
In the case that the velocity is irrotational (), we then have the acoustic wave equation that describes the system:
Where we have |
Acoustic theory | Derivation for a medium at rest | Derivation for a medium at rest
Starting with the Continuity Equation and the Euler Equation:
If we take small perturbations of a constant pressure and density:
Then the equations of the system are
Noting that the equilibrium pressures and densities are constant, this simplifies to
|
Acoustic theory | A Moving Medium | A Moving Medium
Starting with
We can have these equations work for a moving medium by setting , where is the constant velocity that the whole fluid is moving at before being disturbed (equivalent to a moving observer) and is the fluid velocity.
In this case the equations look very similar:
Note that setting returns the equations at rest. |
Acoustic theory | Linearized Waves | Linearized Waves
Starting with the above given equations of motion for a medium at rest:
Let us now take to all be small quantities.
In the case that we keep terms to first order, for the continuity equation, we have the term going to 0. This similarly applies for the density perturbation times the time derivative of the velocity. Moreover, the spatial components of the material derivative go to 0. We thus have, upon rearranging the equilibrium density:
Next, given that our sound wave occurs in an ideal fluid, the motion is adiabatic, and then we can relate the small change in the pressure to the small change in the density by
Under this condition, we see that we now have
Defining the speed of sound of the system:
Everything becomes
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Acoustic theory | For Irrotational Fluids | For Irrotational Fluids
In the case that the fluid is irrotational, that is , we can then write and thus write our equations of motion as
The second equation tells us that
And the use of this equation in the continuity equation tells us that
This simplifies to
Thus the velocity potential obeys the wave equation in the limit of small disturbances. The boundary conditions required to solve for the potential come from the fact that the velocity of the fluid must be 0 normal to the fixed surfaces of the system.
Taking the time derivative of this wave equation and multiplying all sides by the unperturbed density, and then using the fact that tells us that
Similarly, we saw that . Thus we can multiply the above equation appropriately and see that
Thus, the velocity potential, pressure, and density all obey the wave equation. Moreover, we only need to solve one such equation to determine all other three. In particular, we have
|
Acoustic theory | For a moving medium | For a moving medium
Again, we can derive the small-disturbance limit for sound waves in a moving medium. Again, starting with
We can linearize these into
|
Acoustic theory | For Irrotational Fluids in a Moving Medium | For Irrotational Fluids in a Moving Medium
Given that we saw that
If we make the previous assumptions of the fluid being ideal and the velocity being irrotational, then we have
Under these assumptions, our linearized sound equations become
Importantly, since is a constant, we have , and then the second equation tells us that
Or just that
Now, when we use this relation with the fact that , alongside cancelling and rearranging terms, we arrive at
We can write this in a familiar form as
This differential equation must be solved with the appropriate boundary conditions. Note that setting returns us the wave equation. Regardless, upon solving this equation for a moving medium, we then have |
Acoustic theory | See also | See also
Acoustic attenuation
Sound
Fourier analysis |
Acoustic theory | References | References
Category:Fluid dynamics
Category:Acoustics
Category:Sound |
Acoustic theory | Table of Content | Short description, Derivation for a medium at rest, A Moving Medium, Linearized Waves, For Irrotational Fluids, For a moving medium, For Irrotational Fluids in a Moving Medium, See also, References |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Short description | Alexander Mackenzie (January 28, 1822 – April 17, 1892) was a Canadian politician who served as the second prime minister of Canada, in office from 1873 to 1878.
Mackenzie was born in Logierait, Perthshire, Scotland. He left school at the age of 13, following his father's death, to help his widowed mother, and trained as a stonemason. Mackenzie immigrated to the Province of Canada when he was 19, settling in what became Ontario. His masonry business prospered, allowing him to pursue other interests – such as the editorship of a pro-Reformist newspaper called the Lambton Shield. Mackenzie was elected to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada in 1862, as a supporter of George Brown.
In 1867, Mackenzie was elected to the new House of Commons of Canada for the Liberal Party. He became leader of the party (thus Leader of the Opposition) in mid-1873, and a few months later succeeded John A. Macdonald as the prime minister, following Macdonald's resignation in the aftermath of the Pacific Scandal. Mackenzie and the Liberals won a clear majority at the 1874 election. He was popular among the general public for his humble background and consistent democratic principles.
As the prime minister, Mackenzie continued the nation-building programme that had been begun by his predecessor. His government established the Supreme Court of Canada and Royal Military College of Canada, and created the District of Keewatin to better administer Canada's newly acquired western territories. However, it made little progress on the transcontinental railway, and struggled to deal with the aftermath of the Panic of 1873. At the 1878 election, Mackenzie's government suffered a landslide defeat. He remained leader of the Liberal Party for another two years, and continued on as a Member of Parliament (MP) until his death, due to a stroke. |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Early life | Early life
Mackenzie was born on January 28, 1822, in Logierait, Perthshire, Scotland, the son of Mary Stewart (Fleming) and Alexander Mackenzie Sr. (born 1784) who were married in 1817. The site of his birthplace is known as Clais-'n-deoir (the Hollow of the Weeping), where families said their goodbyes as the convicted were led to nearby Gallows Hill. The house in which he was born was built by his father. He was the third of 10 boys, seven of whom survived infancy. Alexander Mackenzie Sr. was a carpenter and ship's joiner who had to move around frequently for work after the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. Mackenzie's father died on March 7, 1836, and at the age of 13, Alexander Mackenzie Jr. was thus forced to end his formal education to help support his family. He apprenticed as a stonemason and met his future wife, Helen Neil, in Irvine, where her father was also a stonemason. The Neils were Baptist and shortly thereafter, Mackenzie converted from Presbyterianism to Baptist beliefs. Together with the Neils, he immigrated to Canada in 1842 to seek a better life. Mackenzie's faith was to link him to the increasingly influential temperance cause, particularly strong in Canada West (Ontario) where he lived, a constituency of which he later represented in the House of Commons.
The Neils and Mackenzie settled in Kingston, Ontario. The limestone in the area proved too hard for his stonemason tools, and not having money to buy new tools, Mackenzie took a job as a labourer constructing a building on Princess Street. The contractor on the job claimed financial difficulty, so Mackenzie accepted a promissory note for summer wages. The note later proved to be worthless. Subsequently, Mackenzie won a contract building a bomb-proof arch at Fort Henry. He later became a foreman on the construction of Kingston's four Martello Towers – Murney Tower, Fort Frederick, Cathcart Tower, and Shoal Tower. He was also a foreman on the construction of the Welland Canal and the Lachine Canal. While working on the Beauharnois Canal, a one-ton stone fell and crushed one of his legs. He recovered, but never regained the strength in that leg.
While in Kingston, Mackenzie became a vocal opponent of religious and political entitlement and corruption in government.
Mackenzie married Helen Neil (1826–52) in 1845 and with her had three children, with only one girl, Mary, surviving infancy. Helen and he moved to Sarnia, Ontario (known as Canada West) in 1847 and Mary was born in 1848. They were soon joined from Scotland by the rest of Mackenzie's brothers and his mother. He began working as a general contractor, earning a reputation for being a hard-working, honest man, as well as having a working man's view on fiscal policy. Mackenzie helped construct many courthouses and jails across southern Ontario. A number of these still stand today, including the Sandwich Courthouse and Jail now known as the Mackenzie Hall Cultural Centre in Windsor, Ontario, and the Kent County Courthouse and Jail in Chatham, Ontario. He even bid, unsuccessfully, on the construction of the Parliament buildings in Ottawa in 1859.
Helen died in 1852, finally succumbing to the effects of excessive doses of mercury-based calomel used to treat a fever while in Kingston. In 1853, he married Jane Sym (1825–93).
Mackenzie served as a Major in the 27th Lambton Battalion of Infantry from 1866 to 1874, serving on active duty during the Fenian Raids in 1870.
thumb|150px|left|upright=1.2|An 1875 Canadian Illustrated News cartoon shows Mackenzie the Mason and Governor General Lord Dufferin the Overseer. |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Early political involvement | Early political involvement
Mackenzie involved himself in politics almost from the moment he arrived in Canada. He fought passionately for equality and the elimination of all forms of class distinction. In 1851, he became the secretary for the Reform Party for Lambton. After convincing him to run in Kent/Lambton, Mackenzie campaigned relentlessly for George Brown, owner of the Reformist paper The Globe in the 1851 election, helping Brown to win his first seat in the Legislative Assembly. Mackenzie and Brown remained the closest of friends and colleagues for the rest of their lives.
In 1852, Mackenzie became editor of another reformist paper, the Lambton Shield. As an editor, Mackenzie was perhaps a little too vocal, leading the paper to a lawsuit for libel against the local conservative candidate. Because a key witness claimed Cabinet Confidence and would not testify, the paper lost the suit and was forced to fold due to financial hardship.
After his brother, Hope Mackenzie, declined to run for re-election, Alexander was petitioned to run and won his first seat in the Legislative Assembly as a supporter of George Brown in 1861. When Brown resigned from the Great Coalition in 1865 over negotiations of a reciprocity trade treaty with the United States, Mackenzie was invited to replace him as president of the council. Wary of Macdonald's motivations and true to his principles, Mackenzie declined.
He entered the House of Commons of Canada in 1867, representing the Lambton constituency. No cohesive national Liberal Party of Canada existed at the time, and with Brown not winning his seat, no official leader emerged. Mackenzie was asked but did not believe he was the best qualified for the position. Although he resisted offers of the position, he nevertheless sat as the de facto leader of the Official Opposition. |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Prime Minister (1873–1878) | Prime Minister (1873–1878)
When the Macdonald government fell due to the Pacific Scandal in 1873, the Governor General, Lord Dufferin, called upon Mackenzie, who had been chosen as leader of the Liberal Party a few months earlier, to form a new government. Mackenzie formed a government and asked the Governor General to call an election for January 1874. The Liberals won a majority of the seats in the House of Commons having garnered 40% of the popular vote.
Mackenzie remained prime minister until the 1878 election when Macdonald's Conservatives returned to power.
For a man of Mackenzie's humble origins to attain such a position was unusual in an age which generally offered such opportunity only to the privileged. Lord Dufferin expressed early misgivings about a stonemason taking over government, but on meeting Mackenzie, Dufferin revised his opinions:
Mackenzie served concurrently as Minister of Public Works and oversaw the completion of the Parliament buildings. While drawing up the plans for the West Block, he included a circular staircase leading directly from his office to the outside of the building, which allowed him to escape the patronage-seekers waiting for him in his ante-chamber. Proving Dufferin's reflections on his character to be true, Mackenzie disliked intensely the patronage inherent in politics. Nevertheless, he found it a necessary evil to maintain party unity and ensure the loyalty of his fellow Liberals.
thumb|Statue of Alexander Mackenzie on Parliament Hill, Ottawa by Hamilton MacCarthy
In keeping with his democratic ideals, Mackenzie refused the offer of a knighthood three times, and was thus the only one of Canada's first eight Prime Ministers not to be knighted. He also declined appointment to the UK Privy Council and hence does not bear the title "Right Honourable". His pride in his working class origins never left him. Once, while touring Fort Henry as prime minister, he asked the soldier accompanying him if he knew the thickness of the wall beside them. The embarrassed escort confessed that he didn't and Mackenzie replied, "I do. It is five feet, ten inches. I know, because I built it myself!"Canada's Prime Ministers, 1867 – 1994: Biographies and Anecdotes. [Ottawa]: National Archives of Canada, [1994]. 40 p.
As Prime Minister, Alexander Mackenzie strove to reform and simplify the machinery of government, achieving a remarkable record of reform legislation. He introduced the secret ballot; advised the creation of the Supreme Court of Canada; the establishment of the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston in 1874 and the creation of the Office of the Auditor General in 1878. He completed the Intercolonial Railway, but struggled to progress on the national railway due to a worldwide economic depression, almost coming to blows with Governor General Lord Dufferin over imperial interference. Mackenzie stood up for the rights of Canada as a nation and fought for the supremacy of Parliament and honesty in government. Above all else, he was known and loved for his honesty and integrity.
However, his term was marked by economic depression that had grown out of the Panic of 1873, which Mackenzie's government was unable to alleviate. In 1874, Mackenzie negotiated a new free trade agreement with the United States, eliminating the high protective tariffs in place on Canadian goods in US markets. However, this action did not bolster the economy, and construction of the CPR slowed drastically due to lack of funding. In 1876, the Conservative opposition announced a National Policy of protective tariffs, which resonated with voters. When an election was called in 1878, the Liberals got slightly more than a third of the vote, and the Conservatives with 42 percent of the votes came back into power. |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Supreme Court appointments | Supreme Court appointments
thumb|right|A painting of Mackenzie
Mackenzie chose the following jurists to be appointed as justices of the Supreme Court of Canada by the Governor General:
Sir William Buell Richards (Chief Justice) – September 30, 1875
Télesphore Fournier – September 30, 1875
William Alexander Henry – September 30, 1875
Sir William Johnstone Ritchie – September 30, 1875
Sir Samuel Henry Strong – September 30, 1875
Jean-Thomas Taschereau – September 30, 1875
Sir Henri Elzéar Taschereau – October 7, 1878 |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Later life | Later life
Despite his government's defeat, he retained the East York seat and remained Leader of the Opposition for another two years, until 1880. In 1881, he became the first president of The North American Life Assurance Company.
He was soon struck with a mysterious strange ailment that sapped his strength and all but took his voice. Although sitting in silence in the House of Commons, he held his House of Commons East York seat until his death in 1892.
He suffered a stroke after hitting his head during a fall in 1892. He died on April 17 in Toronto at the age of seventy, and was buried in Lakeview Cemetery in Sarnia, Ontario. |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Character | Character
Mackenzie's first biography in 1892 referred to him as Canada's Stainless Statesman. He was a devout Baptist and teetotaller who found refuge in, and drew strength from, his family, friends, and faith. He was also a loyal friend and an incorrigible prankster (stuffed chimney on young in-laws; rolled boulder down Thunder Cape towards friend A. McKellar; burned Tory campaign placards in hotel woodstove early in morning).
Unpretentious and down to earth, his public official austerity was in striking contrast to private compassion and giving nature. He was called "the soul of honour and integrity" by Thomas Guthrie Marquis, a historian of the period, and according to a later biographer, was a proud man who sought no recognition or personal enrichment and accepted gifts reluctantly. He preferred to follow than to lead (many times he refused leadership offers) and he said he found that duty outweighed the heavy burden of office.; He was uncompromising on his principles, perhaps too much so.; ; Marquis wrote, "He was, and ever will remain, the Sir Galahad of Canadian politics."
Very proud of his Scottish heritage, he was forever a Scot: "Nemo me impune lacessit" (no one attacks me with impunity). The Upper Canada rebellion leader William Lyon Mackenzie said of him, "He is every whit a self-made, self-educated man. Has large mental capacity and indomitable energy."
Canada's Governor General, Lord Dufferin, said he was "as pure as crystal, and as true as steel, with lots of common sense." A close friend, Chief Justice Sir Louis Davies, said he was "the best debater the House of Commons has ever known."(Mackenzie's newspaper scrapbook "Days of Giants", Library and Archives Canada). Sir Wilfrid Laurier, a friend, colleague in cabinet and later prime minister of Canada, said Mackenzie was "one of the truest and strongest characters to be met within Canadian history. He was endowed with a warm heart and a copious and rich fancy, though veiled by a somewhat reticent exterior, and he was of friends the most tender and true."
Sir George Ross, a friend, colleague, and later premier of Ontario, said, "Mackenzie was sui generis a debater. His humorous sallies blistered like a blast from a flaming smelter. His sterling honesty is a great heritage, and will keep his memory green to all future generations."
At his eulogy, Rev. Dr. Thomas compared him to the Duke of Wellington, who "stood four square, to all the winds that blow."
Newspapers around the world and in Canada gave him many compliments. The London Times – the untiring energy, the business-like accuracy, the keen perception and reliable judgment, and above all the inflexible integrity, which marked his private life, he carried without abatement of one jot into his public career. The Westminster Review – a man, who although, through failing health and failing voice, he had virtually passed out of public life, yet retained to the last the affectionate veneration of the Canadian people as no other man of the time can be said to have done.
The Charlottetown Patriot – in all that constitutes the real man, the honest statesman, the true patriot, the warm friend, and sincere Christian, he had few equals. Possessed of a clear intellect, a retentive memory, and a ready command of appropriate words, he was one of the most logical and powerful speakers we have ever heard.
The St. John Telegraph – he was loved by the people and his political opponents were compelled to respect him even above their own chosen leader. As a statesman, he has had few equals.
The Montreal Star – it is one of the very foremost architects of the Canadian nationality that we mourn. In the dark days of ’73, Canadians were in a state of panic, distrusting the stability of their newly-built Dominion; no one can tell what would have happened had not the stalwart form of Alexander Mackenzie lifted itself above the screaming, vociferating and denying mass of politicians, and all Canada felt at once, there was a man who could be trusted.
The Toronto Globe – he was a man who loved the people and fought for their rights against privilege and monopoly in every form. The Philadelphia Record – Like Caesar, who twice refused a knightly crown, Alexander Mackenzie refused knighthood three times. Unlike Caesar, he owed his political overthrow to his incorruptible honesty and unswerving integrity. |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Legacy | Legacy
In their 1999 study of the Prime Ministers of Canada, which included the results of a survey of Canadian historians, J. L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer found that Mackenzie was in 11th place just after John Sparrow David Thompson. |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Namesakes | Namesakes
thumb|Mackenzie Building at the Royal Military College of Canada
The following are named in honour of Alexander Mackenzie:
The Mackenzie Mountain Range in the Yukon and Northwest Territories
Mount Mackenzie, in the Selkirk Mountains of British Columbia
The Mackenzie Building, and the use of the Mackenzie tartan by the bands at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, Ontario, "Alexander Mackenzie", the Royal Military College of Canada March for bagpipes, was composed in his honour by Pipe Major Don M. Carrigan, who was the College Pipe Major 1973 to 1985.Archie Cairns – Bk1 Pipe Music 'Alexander Mackenzie' (Slow March) by Pipe Major Don M. Carrigan 1995
Mackenzie Hall in Windsor, Ontario
Alexander Mackenzie Scholarships in Economics and Political Science at McGill University and the University of Toronto
Alexander MacKenzie Park in Sarnia, Ontario
Alexander Mackenzie High School in Sarnia
Alexander Mackenzie Housing Co-Operative Inc. in Sarnia
Mackenzie Avenue, Ottawa, Ontario
Mackenzie Tower, West Block, Parliament Hill, Ottawa, Ontario |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Other honours | Other honours
A monument is dedicated to his tomb in Lakeview Cemetery, Sarnia, Ontario
"Honourable Alexander Mackenzie" (1964) by Lawren Harris, head of the Department of Fine Arts, Mount Allison University, now hangs in the Mackenzie Building, Royal Military College of Canada. The unveiling ceremony was performed by the Right Honourable Louis St. Laurent, a Canadian former Prime Minister, and the gift was accepted by the Commandant, Air Commodore L.J. Birchall. The painting was commissioned in memory of No. 244, Lieut.-Col, F.B. Wilson, O.B.E., her deceased husband, by Mrs, F.W. Dashwood. Also taking part in the ceremony was the Honourable Paul Hellyer, Minister of National Defence, President and Chancellor of the college.Source: Royal Military College of Canada – Review Yearbook (Kingston, Ontario Canada) Class of 1965, page 191 In attendance was Mrs. Burton R. Morgan of Ottawa, great-granddaughter of Alexander Mackenzie.
Burgess tickets presented to Alexander Mackenzie in Dundee, Dunkeld, Logierait, Irvine, and Perth Scotland |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Electoral record | Electoral record |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | See also | See also
List of prime ministers of Canada
Timeline of the Alexander Mackenzie premiership |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | References | References |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Citations | Citations |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Works cited | Works cited
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Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | General sources | General sources
Alexander Mackenzie fonds at Library and Archives Canada |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Further reading | Further reading
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Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | External links | External links
Photograph:Alexander Mackenzie, 1874 – McCord Museum
Category:Prime ministers of Canada
Category:Leaders of the Liberal Party of Canada
Category:Provincial secretaries of Ontario
Category:Members of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada from Canada West
Category:Businesspeople from Ontario
Category:Canadian journalists
Category:19th-century Scottish writers
Category:Politicians from Sarnia
Category:People from Perth and Kinross
Category:Scottish emigrants to pre-Confederation Ontario
Category:1822 births
Category:1892 deaths
Category:Leaders of the opposition (Canada)
Category:Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Category:Canadian Baptists
Category:19th-century Canadian journalists
Category:Canadian male journalists
Category:19th-century British male writers
Category:Immigrants to the Province of Canada
Category:19th-century Baptists
Category:19th-century Scottish businesspeople
Category:19th-century members of the House of Commons of Canada
Category:Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario |
Alexander Mackenzie (politician) | Table of Content | Short description, Early life, Early political involvement, Prime Minister (1873–1878), Supreme Court appointments, Later life, Character, Legacy, Namesakes, Other honours, Electoral record, See also, References, Citations, Works cited, General sources, Further reading, External links |
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