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Australian rules football	Ball	Ball thumb\|A Sherrin Kangaroo Brand football. Sherrin is the official game ball of the Australian Football League. Australian rules football is played with an ellipsoid ball, between in long circumference, and in short circumference. For women's competitions, a smaller ball size of is used. The ball must be inflated to a pressure of . There are no defined laws regarding what material a ball must be made from, but standard AFL match-used balls are produced by Sherrin using cowhide leather. While there is no standard colour of the ball, red and yellow are most common and the only colours used at AFL level. Yellow is used for games beginning after 3 pm or in an enclosed stadium, due to its greater visibility, and to assist score reviews.Ryan, Peter (21 August 2015). "Is red nearly dead? Yellow Sherrins making their move" , AFL. Retrieved 27 March 2024.
Australian rules football	Field	Field thumb\|Typical Australian rules football playing field Unlike other forms of football which are played on rectangular fields, Australian rules football playing fields are oval-shaped, and are between long and wide. At either end of the field, two sets of posts are erected in a straight line to indicate the scoring areas on the field, each with two kinds of posts, named the goal posts and the behind posts respectively. The goal posts are placed first, located apart from each other, with a behind post being placed a further 6.4 metres to the side of each goal post. The name for the field line between two goal posts is known as the Goal Line. Around the perimeter of the field, two white lines are drawn between the set of behind posts in an arc-shape, marking the field of play. Other field markings include: An arc drawn from either end of the playing surface, known as the fifty metre arc. A square located in the centre of the playing surface, known as the centre square. A circle located in the centre of the playing surface, known as the centre circle A rectangle drawn at either end of the ground, measuring out from each pair of goal posts. This is known as the goal square. The 50m arcs, centre square, centre circle and goal square are used at the beginning of each quarter or after each goal. With each team permitted a maximum of six players in each 50m arc, with one in the goal square and four players in the centre square with one in the centre circle. If this is breached, a free kick is awarded.
Australian rules football	Match duration	Match duration A game lasts for 80 minutes, split into four-quarters consisting of 20 minutes playing time, with the clock being stopped for stoppages in play such as scores, or at the umpire's discretion, e.g. for serious injury. Leagues may choose to employ shorter quarters of play at their discretion, such as the AFLW using 17 minutes per quarter. For any given match, two timekeepers are appointed to officiate the duration. The timekeepers record all relevant statistics for the match, such as total quarter duration and score by each team. Additionally timekeepers are required to sound a siren prior to and at the conclusion of each quarter until such time they are acknowledged by the field umpires. To stop and recommence the clock, the field umpires are required to signal to the timekeepers to indicate when the clock should be stopped or restarted. Between each quarter, a break is observed to allow players a rest period. Two six-minute breaks are observed between the first and second quarters, and the third and fourth quarters. A longer 20-minute break is observed between the second and third quarter, commonly known as half-time.
Australian rules football	Officiation	Officiation thumb\|Umpires Each game is officiated by at least five match officials, known as an umpire. These match officials are placed into three categories based upon their roles and responsibilities, with varying minimum numbers of Umpires required depending on position: Field umpire: Field umpires are positioned within the playing area contained within the Boundary Lines, and are the primary match officials. A minimum of one field umpire is required to officiate the match, though it is common practice to employ more to reduce physical demand on individual umpires, and improve officiation quality. Boundary umpires: Boundary umpires are positioned along the two boundary lines upon either side of the field. Their primary duties include determining when the football is deemed to be outside of the field of play, and to throw the football back into play when directed. A minimum of two boundary umpires are required for a match. Goal umpires: Goal umpires are positioned at either end of the ground, with one stationed at either set of goal posts on the field. Their primary duties include judging what scores made by players, signalling scores, and recording scores made by each team during a match. A minimum of two goal umpires are required for a match. At AFL level, a video score review system is utilised. Only umpires are permitted to request a review, and only scoring shots and potential scoring shots are permitted to be reviewed.
Australian rules football	Game skills	Game skills
Australian rules football	Ball movement	Ball movement An Australian rules football may only be propelled forward in a select few ways as defined by the Laws of Australian Football, published by the AFL. The ball can be propelled in any direction by way of a kick or a clenched fist (called a handball)—deemed a correct disposal. Failure to dispose of the ball in one of these two methods will result in a free kick to the opposing team. If the ball is not currently in a player's possession, it can be moved legally through the usage of other means, such as punching. While in possession of the ball, players may run with the ball, but are required to either bounce or touch the ball on the ground at least once every .
Australian rules football	Tackling	Tackling thumb\|left\|Tackling Tackling is a technique employed by players used to force opposition players to dispose of the ball when they are in possession. Failure to dispose of the ball when legally tackled may see the player penalised for 'holding the ball', except if the umpire deems there was a lack of prior opportunity to do so. The ball carrier may only be tackled between the shoulders and knees from the front or side. If the player forcefully contacts the opposing in the back while performing a tackle, the opposition player will be penalised for a push in the back. If the opposition tackles the player with possession below the knees (a low tackle or a trip) or above the shoulders (a high tackle), the team with possession of the football gets a free kick. Furthermore, tackles deemed to be dangerous by the umpire and those conducted from front-on while an opposition player has their head over the football are deemed to be prohibited contact, and will incur a free kick against the offending player. Additionally, players may perform a technique known shepherding when the ball is within of an opposition player. Shepherding involves the use of a player's body to push, bump or otherwise block an opposition player, providing they do not have possession of the ball.
Australian rules football	Marking	Marking If a player takes possession of the ball that has travelled more than from another player's kick, by way of a catch within the field of play, it is deemed as a mark. To be awarded a mark, it must be deemed that the player sufficiently controlled the ball and took possession prior to it being touched, touching the ground, or in the case of a contest, being spoiled by an opponent. Upon a mark being taken, one opposition player may choose to stand on the point on the field where the mark was taken, known as "the mark". When a mark is taken, a small protected zone is established on the field, extending either side of "the mark" and the player who marked the ball, with a small protected corridor between "the mark" and the player. The opposition player is permitted to jump, but is not allowed to move from their position on "the mark". Any other movements result in a distance penalty (50 metres in the AFL). The player who was awarded the mark may then choose to either dispose of the ball over "the mark" or may choose to attempt disposal via a different method, in which case the field umpire will call "play on"—a verbal instruction to continue play. "Play on" may also be called if the umpire deems the player awarded the mark to be taking an unreasonable amount of time to dispose of the football. Once the player has disposed of the ball, or "play on" is called, normal play resumes.
Australian rules football	Rucking	Rucking thumb\|upright\|Rucking Rucking is the only specialist skill and is performed by a ruck, the term for designated players from each side to which umpire sends the ball to commence play. Only a nominated ruck may contest ball-ups and throw-ins. They are the only player allowed within the 10 metre circle at a centre bounce. Functionally the role is analogous to a basketball center and as such rucks are typically the tallest player on the team. Lifting teammates is not allowed so the ruck may only jump to reach the ball. If the ruck does not take possession of the football, it must be tapped or fisted, which is known as a hit-out. An effective hit-out that passes the ball to a teammate is known as a hit-out to advantage.Stats glossary: Every stat explained from AFL 28 December 2017
Australian rules football	Misconduct	Misconduct In the event a player breaks a rule, a free kick is awarded to the opposing team, from the location that the misconduct occurred, or the ball's current location—whichever is closer to the team's scoring zone. As when a mark is taken, this location is called "the mark", and the same protections regarding the space apply. In the event a player engages in unsportsmanlike conduct after a free kick has been awarded or a mark has been paid to the opposing team, the umpire may instead award a 50-metre penalty. When imposed, the field umpire will advance "the mark" an additional down the field or to the goal line, whichever is closer. Additional 50-metre penalties may be awarded if the behaviour continues after the initial penalty. The laws of the game allow umpires to send off players for egregious foul play, although this law does not apply to the AFL and is largely only used at the local level.
Australian rules football	Scoring	Scoring thumb\|The two tall central posts are the goal posts, and the two shorter outer posts are the behind posts. There are two types of scoring shots in Australian football: goals and behinds. A goal is worth six points, and is scored when the football is propelled between the goal posts and across the goal line at any height by way of a kick from the attacking team. It may touch the ground, but must not have been touched by any player from either team or a goalpost prior to crossing the goal line. A behind is worth one point and is scored when: The ball passes between a goal post and a behind post at any height. If the ball hits a goal post. If any player sends the ball across the goal or behind line by touching it with any part of the body other than a foot or lower leg. A behind is also awarded to the team if the ball touches any part of an opposition player, including a foot, before passing across their goal or behind line. A free kick is awarded against any player who is deemed to have deliberately rushed a behind. The team that has scored the most points at the end of play wins the game. If the scores are level on points at the end of play, then the game is a draw; extra time applies only during finals matches in some competitions. As an example of a score report, consider a match between Sydney and Geelong with the former as the home team. Sydney's score of 17 goals and 5 behinds equates to 107 points. Geelong's score of 10 goals and 17 behinds equates to a 77-point tally. Sydney wins the match by a margin of 30 points. Such a result would be written as: "Sydney 17.5 (107) defeated Geelong 10.17 (77)". And spoken as: "Sydney, seventeen-five, one hundred and seven, defeated Geelong, ten-seventeen, seventy-seven". Additionally, it can be said that: "Sydney defeated Geelong by 30 points". The home team is typically listed first and the visiting side is listed second. A draw would be written as: "Greater Western Sydney 10.8 (68) drew with Geelong 10.8 (68)".
Australian rules football	Governing bodies and competitions	Governing bodies and competitions thumb\|The AFL owns and is headquartered at Melbourne's Docklands Stadium. The football season proper is from March to August (early autumn to late winter in Australia) with finals being held in September and October. In the tropics, the game is sometimes played in the wet season (October to March). The AFL is recognised by the Australian Sports Commission as being the National Sporting Organisation for Australian football. There are also seven state/territory-based organisations in Australia, all of which are affiliated with the AFL. These state leagues hold annual semi-professional club competitions, with some also overseeing more than one league. Local semi-professional or amateur organisations and competitions are often affiliated to their state organisations. In 2002, the AFL became the de facto world governing body for Australian football when it pushed for the closure of the International Australian Football Council. There are also a number of affiliated organisations governing amateur clubs and competitions around the world. For almost all Australian football club competitions, the aim is to win the premiership, which is typically decided by a finals series. The teams that occupy the highest positions on the ladder after the home-and-away season play-off in a "semi-knockout" finals series, culminating in a single Grand Final match to determine the premiers. Between four and eight teams contest a finals series, typically using the AFL final eight system or a variation of the McIntyre system. The team which finishes first on the ladder after the home-and-away season is referred to as a "minor premier", but this usually holds little stand-alone significance, other than receiving a better draw in the finals. Some metropolitan leagues have several tiered divisions, with promotion of the lower division premiers and relegation of the upper division's last placed team at the end of each year.
Australian rules football	Women and Australian football	Women and Australian football thumb\|Action from a women's match on the Gold Coast between Bond University and Burleigh Heads The high level of interest shown by women in Australian football is considered unique among the world's football codes. It was the case in the 19th century, as it is in modern times, that women made up approximately half of total attendances at Australian football matches—a far greater proportion than, for example, the estimated 10 per cent of women that comprise British soccer crowds. This has been attributed in part to the egalitarian character of Australian football's early years in public parks where women could mingle freely and support the game in various ways.Browne, Ashley (2008). "For Women, Too". In Weston, James. The Australian Game of Football: Since 1858. Geoff Slattery Publishing. pp. 253–259. . In terms of participation, there are occasional 19th-century references to women playing the sport, but it was not until the 1910s that the first organised women's teams and competitions appeared. Women's state leagues emerged in the 1980s, and in 2013, the AFL announced plans to establish a nationally televised women's competition.Lane, Samantha (27 March 2013). "AFL sees the light on women's footy" , The Age. Retrieved 29 November 2014. Amidst a surge in viewing interest and participation in women's football, the AFL pushed the founding date of the competition, named AFL Women's, to 2017.Halloran, Jessica (29 January 2017). "Will the AFL Women's League level the playing field?" , The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 28 April 2018. Eight AFL clubs won licences to field sides in its inaugural season.Mark, David (17 June 2016). "AFL women's competition provides a pathway for young women into professional sport" , ABC. Retrieved 28 April 2018. By the seventh season in 2022, all 18 clubs fielded a women's side.
Australian rules football	Variations and related sports	Variations and related sports Many related games have emerged from Australian football, mainly with variations of contact to encourage greater participation. These include Auskick (played by children aged between 5 and 12), kick-to-kick (and its variants end-to-end footy and marks up), rec footy, 9-a-side footy, masters Australian football, handball and longest-kick competitions. Players outside Australia sometimes engage in related games adapted to available fields, like metro footy (played on gridiron fields) and Samoa rules (played on rugby fields). One such prominent example in use since 2018 is AFLX, a shortened variation of the game with seven players a side, played on a soccer-sized pitch.
Australian rules football	International rules football	International rules football The similarities between Australian football and the Irish sport of Gaelic football have allowed for the creation of a hybrid code known as international rules football. The first international rules matches were contested in Ireland during the 1967 Australian Football World Tour. Since then, various sets of compromise rules have been trialed, and in 1984 the International Rules Series commenced with national representative sides selected by Australia's state leagues (later by the AFL) and the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA). The competition became an annual event in 1998, but was postponed indefinitely in 2007 when the GAA pulled out due to Australia's severe and aggressive style of play.Haxton, Nance (3 January 2007). "Sounds of Summer: International Rules Series" . PM, ABC Radio National. Retrieved 1 May 2016. It resumed in Australia in 2008 under new rules to protect the player with the ball.
Australian rules football	Global reach	Global reach thumb\|Australian football match at Linkbelt Oval in Nauru, where Australian football is the national sport thumb\|Countries in red have participated in the International Cup, held triennially in Australia. During the colonial period, Australian rules was sometimes referred to as Australasian rules, reflecting its popularity in New Zealand. The game was played outside Australasia as early as 1888 when Australians studying at Edinburgh University and London University formed teams and competed in London. By the early 20th century, it had spread with the Australian diaspora to South Africa, the United States and other parts of the Anglosphere; however this growth went into rapid decline during and after World War I, leading also to a decades long hiatus in New Zealand. After World War II, it experienced growth in the Pacific region, particularly in Papua New Guinea and Nauru, where Australian football is now the national sport. Today, the sport is played at an amateur level in various countries throughout the world. Twenty-three countries have participated in the International Cup, the highest level of international competition, held triennially in Australia since 2002. Nine countries have also participated in the AFL Europe Championship with both competitions prohibiting Australian players. A fan of the sport since attending school in Victoria, King Charles is the Patron of AFL Europe. In 2013, participation across AFL Europe's 21 member nations was more than 5,000 players, the majority of which are European nationals rather than Australian expats. The sport also has a growing presence in India. Over 20 countries have either affiliation or working agreements with the AFL.AFL International Development Most present-day international amateur clubs and leagues are based in North America, Europe and Asia, with the oldest typically having originated in the 1980s. That decade, the sport developed a cult following in the United States when matches were broadcast on the fledgling ESPN network. Growing international interest has been assisted by exhibition matches, players switching between football codes, and Australia's multicultural makeup. Many VFL/AFL players were born overseas, with a growing number recruited through various initiatives. One notable example is the Irish experiment, which, since the 1980s, has seen many Gaelic footballers leave the amateur GAA to play Australian rules professionally. This has expanded to the AFLW, where it has grown from one Irish player in the debut 2017 season, to 36 in 2024. Although Australian rules football is not an Olympic sport, it was showcased at the MCG as part of the 1956 Summer Olympics, held in Melbourne. In addition, when Brisbane hosted the 1982 Commonwealth Games, an exhibition match was held at the Gabba.
Australian rules football	Cultural influence and popularity	Cultural influence and popularity thumb\|left\|Australian football is popular among Indigenous communities. Australian football has attracted more overall interest among Australians than any other football code. The 2024 AFL season saw an average attendance of 38,344 fans per match, making the AFL Australia's, and one of the world's best-attended sports leagues. Also that year, data indicated 1,319,687 people, or 1 in 20 Australians, are members of an AFL club. The most-visited sports website in Australia in 2023 was the AFL's, attracting 1.89 billion total visits. Approximately 40% of Australians aged 14+ watch AFL matches on TV either occasionally or regularly. The 2024 AFL Grand Final was that year's highest-rating free-to-air television broadcast in Australia, with an in-home audience of 4 million watching Seven's coverage; overall TV viewership reached at least 7,569,000. The AFL's current TV broadcasting rights deal with Seven and Foxtel is worth an Australian record $4.5 billion. In terms of participation, there were at least 581,000 registered players in Australia in 2024. This figure encompasses community football at junior, youth, and senior levels, as well as programs such as Footy 9s. Among Australian children aged 0–14, it is the fifth most common sporting activity, behind swimming, soccer, basketball and gymnastics. Women and girls account for 20% of all community football registrations.
Australian rules football	In the arts and popular culture	In the arts and popular culture thumb\|upright\|South Melbourne's ruck combination of the 1920s, left to right: Mark Tandy, Fred Fleiter and Roy Cazaly. Fleiter coined the phrase "Up there, Cazaly!" as a signal for Cazaly to leap for the ball. It entered popular idiom as a phrase of encouragement, and was used as a battle cry by Australian soldiers during World War II. It remains well known through Mike Brady's 1979 Australian football anthem of the same name. Australian football has inspired works by many writers and poets, including C. J. Dennis, Helen Garner, Peter Goldsworthy and Kerry Greenwood. Historians Manning Clarke and Geoffrey Blainey have also written extensively on the sport. Slang within Australian football has impacted Australian English more broadly, with a number of expressions taking on new meanings in non-sporting contexts, e.g., to "get a guernsey" is to gain recognition or approval, while "shirt-fronting" someone is to accost them."Shirtfronting" , Cambridge Dictionary. Retrieved 29 March 2022. thumb\|upright\|left\|Statue of Indigenous Hall of Famer Nicky Winmar pointing to his skin in 1993 in protest of racial vilification, erected outside Perth Stadium in 2019 In 1889, Australian impressionist painter Arthur Streeton captured football games en plein air for the 9 by 5 Impression Exhibition, titling one work The National Game.Clark, Jane (1985). Golden Summers: Heidelberg and Beyond, pp. 112–117 Paintings by Sidney Nolan (Footballer, 1946) and John Brack (Three of the Players, 1953) helped to establish Australian football as a serious subject for modernists,McAullife, Chris (1995). "Eyes on the Ball: Images of Australian Rules Football", Art & Australia (Vol 32 No 4), pp. 490–500 and many Aboriginal artists have explored the game, often fusing it with the mythology of their region.Heathcote, Christopher (August 2009). "Bush Football: The Kunoth Family", Art Monthly (Issue 222).Angel, Anita (23 November 2009). "Looking at Art" , Charles Darwin University Art Collection & Art Gallery. Retrieved 23 May 2014. Vincent Namatjira won the 2020 Archibald Prize for his portrait of Adam Goodes. In cartooning, WEG's VFL/AFL premiership posters—inaugurated in 1954—have achieved iconic status among Australian football fans.Rielly, Stephen (30 December 2008). "Cartoonist William Ellis Green spoke to AFL tribe", The Australian. Retrieved 5 December 2013. Australian football statues can be found throughout the country, some based on famous photographs, among them Haydn Bunton Sr.'s leap, Jack Dyer's charge and Nicky Winmar lifting his jumper.Green, Warwick (16 September 2018). "From photo to statue: Winmar's stance still powerful" , The Age. Retrieved 31 March 2022. In the 1980s, a group of postmodern architects based in Melbourne began incorporating references to Australian football into their buildings, an example being Building 8 by Edmond and Corrigan.Reinmuth, Gerard (2019). "Reflection on Wars Past". In Sydney vs Melbourne. UTS Architecture, p. 54. .Van Schaik, Leon (1996). In Building 8: 10 Essays. Schwarz Transition, pp. 48–53. . Dance sequences based on Australian football feature heavily in Robert Helpmann's 1964 ballet The Display, his first and most famous work for the Australian Ballet.Douglas, Tim (30 August 2012). "Ballet's former glories show footy's left its mark" , The Australian. Retrieved 8 June 2014. The game has also inspired well-known plays such as And the Big Men Fly (1963) by Alan Hopgood and David Williamson's The Club (1977), which was adapted into a 1980 film, directed by Bruce Beresford. Mike Brady's 1979 hit "Up There Cazaly" is considered an Australian football anthem, and references to the sport can be found in works by popular musicians, from singer-songwriter Paul Kelly to the alternative rock band TISM.Worrell, Shane (3 April 2010). "Modern footy not in tune" , Bendigo Advertiser. Retrieved 5 December 2013. Others, such as Tame Impala's Kevin Parker, have written songs for their favourite AFL club. Many Australian football video games have been released, notably the AFL series.
Australian rules football	Australian Football Hall of Fame	Australian Football Hall of Fame For the centenary of the VFL/AFL in 1996, the Australian Football Hall of Fame was established. That year, 136 significant figures across the various competitions were inducted into the Hall of Fame. Each years since the creation of the Hall of Fame, a panel selects a small group of players they deem worthy for this prestigious honour, resulting in a total number of more than 300 inductees as of 2024. In addition to the Hall of Fame, select members are chosen to receive the elite Legend status. Due to restrictions limiting the number of Legend status players to 10% of the total number of Hall of Fame inductees, there are currently only 32 players with the status in the Hall of Fame as of 2024.
Australian rules football	See also	See also Australian rules football attendance records Australian rules football positions List of Australian rules football clubs List of Australian rules football rivalries List of Australian rules football terms
Australian rules football	References	References
Australian rules football	Citations	Citations
Australian rules football	Sources	Sources
Australian rules football	Books	Books
Australian rules football	Journal and conference articles	Journal and conference articles
Australian rules football	External links	External links Australian Football League (AFL) official website Australian Football: Celebrating The History of the Great Australian Game 2020 Laws of Australian Football Australian Football explained in 31 languages – a publication from AFL.com.au Reading Australian Rules Football – The Definitive Guide to the Game State Library of Victoria Research Guide to Australian Football Category:Australian rules football Category:1858 introductions Category:1859 establishments in Australia Category:Ball games Category:Football codes Category:Sports originating in Australia Category:Team sports Category:Turf sports
Australian rules football	Table of Content	Short description, Name, History, Origins, First rules, Early competition in Victoria, Spread to other colonies, Emergence of the VFL, Interstate football and the World Wars, Towards a national league, Laws of the game, Players and equipment, Ball, Field, Match duration, Officiation, Game skills, Ball movement, Tackling, Marking, Rucking, Misconduct, Scoring, Governing bodies and competitions, Women and Australian football, Variations and related sports, International rules football, Global reach, Cultural influence and popularity, In the arts and popular culture, Australian Football Hall of Fame, See also, References, Citations, Sources, Books, Journal and conference articles, External links
Aon (company)	short description	Aon plc () is a British-American professional services firm that offers a range of risk-mitigation products. Aon has over 66,000 employees across 120 countries. Founded in Chicago by Patrick Ryan, Aon was created in 1982 when the Ryan Insurance Group merged with the Combined Insurance Company of America under W. Clement Stone. In 1987, the holding company was renamed Aon from aon, a Gaelic word meaning "one". The company is globally headquartered in London with its North America operations based in Chicago at the Aon Center. Aon is listed on the New York Stock Exchange under AON with a market cap of $65 billion in April 2023.
Aon (company)	History	History W. Clement Stone's mother bought a small Detroit insurance agency, and in 1918 brought her son into the business. Mr. Stone sold low-cost, low-benefit accident insurance, underwriting and issuing policies on-site. The next year he founded his own agency, the Combined Registry Co. As the Great Depression began, Stone reduced his workforce and improved training. Forced by his son's respiratory illness to winter in the South, Stone moved to Arkansas and Texas. In 1939 he bought American Casualty Insurance Co. of Dallas, Texas. It was consolidated with other purchases as the Combined Insurance Co. of America in 1947. The company continued through the 1950s and 1960s, continuing to sell health and accident policies. In the 1970s, Combined expanded overseas despite being hit hard by the recession. In 1982, after 10 years of stagnation under Clement Stone Jr., the elder Stone, then 79, resumed control until the completion of a merger with Ryan Insurance Co. allowed him to transfer control to Patrick Ryan. Ryan, the son of a Ford dealer in Wisconsin and a graduate of Northwestern University, had started his company as an auto credit insurer in 1964. In 1976, the company bought the insurance brokerage units of the Esmark conglomerate. Ryan focused on insurance brokering and added more upscale insurance products. He also trimmed staff and took other cost-cutting measures, and in 1987 he changed Combined's name to Aon. In 1992, he bought Dutch insurance broker Hudig-Langeveldt. In 1995, the company sold its remaining direct life insurance holdings to General Electric to focus on consulting. Aon built a global presence through purchases. In 1997, it bought The Minet Group, as well as the insurance brokerage A&A Services, Inc., founded by Alexander Howden in the late 19th century. It was then that insurance broker David Howden reclaimed the family brand name for the Howden Group. These transactions made Aon (temporarily) the largest insurance broker worldwide. The firm made no US buys in 1998, but doubled its employee base with purchases including Spain's largest retail insurance broker, Gil y Carvajal, and the formation of Aon Korea. Responding to industry demands, Aon announced its new fee disclosure policy in 1999, and the company reorganised to focus on buying personal line insurance firms and to integrate its acquisitions. That year it bought Nikols Sedgwick Group, an Italian insurance firm, and formed RiskAttack (with Zurich US), a risk analysis and financial management concern aimed at technology companies. The cost of integrating its numerous purchases, however, hammered profits in 1999. Despite its troubles, in 2000 Aon bought Reliance Group's accident and health insurance business, as well as Actuarial Sciences Associates, a compensation and employee benefits consulting company. Later in that year, however, the company decided to cut 6% of its workforce as part of a restructuring effort. In 2003, the company saw revenues increase primarily because of rate hikes in the insurance industry. Also that year, Endurance Specialty, a Bermuda-based underwriting operation that Aon helped to establish in November 2001 along with other investors, went public. The next year Aon sold most of its holdings in Endurance. In the late 2007, Aon announced the divestiture of its underwriting business. With this move, the firm sold off its two major underwriting subsidiaries: Combined Insurance Company of America (acquired by ACE Limited for $2.4 billion) and Sterling Life Insurance Company (purchased by Munich Re Group for $352 million). The low margin and capital-intensive nature of the underwriting industry was the primary reason for the firm's decision to divest. This growth strategy manifested in November 2008 when Aon announced it had acquired reinsurance intermediary and capital advisor Benfield Group Limited for $1.75 billion. The acquisition amplified the firm's broking capabilities, positioning Aon one of the largest players in the reinsurance brokerage industry. In 2010, Aon made its most significant acquisition to date with the purchase of Hewitt Associates for $4.9 billion. Aside from drastically boosting Aon's human resources consulting capacity and entering the firm into the business process outsourcing industry, the move added 23,000 colleagues and more than $3 billion in revenue. In January 2012, Aon announced that its headquarters would be moved to London, although North American operations and jobs remained in Chicago. — Note: only first hundred or so words archived, but that is sufficient to support fact here. thumb\|Aon's corporate headquarters in Chicago at the Aon Center. On 10 February 2017, Aon announced that it was selling its employee benefits outsourcing business to private equity firm The Blackstone Group for US$4.8 billion (£3.8 billion). In February 2020, Aon named Eric Andersen as president of Aon after co-president Michael O'Connor departed the company to pursue new opportunities. He will be reporting to Greg Case, the firm's CEO. In June 2020, Aon announced it was planning to repay the temporary 20% pay cut from 70% of employees that was published in a statement in April 2020 regarding the COVID-19 pandemic. On 30 June 2020, Aon announced it would repay staff in full, plus 5% of the withheld amount. In June 2020, Willis Towers Watson called its shareholders to two meetings to discuss its acquisition with Aon for August 26, 2020. It was revealed that the US Department of Justice has requested more information on the deal under antitrust rules.
Aon (company)	September 11 attacks	September 11 attacks Aon's New York offices were on the 92nd and 98th–105th floors of the South Tower of the World Trade Center at the time of the September 11 attacks. When the North Tower was struck by American Airlines Flight 11 at 8:46 a.m., an evacuation of Aon's offices was quickly initiated by executive Eric Eisenberg, and 924 of the estimated 1,100 Aon employees present at the time managed to get below the 77th floor before United Airlines Flight 175 crashed between Floors 77 and 85 at 9:03 a.m. Many, however, did not manage to get beneath in the 17 minutes they had between the two impacts. As a result, 176 employees of Aon were killed in the crash or died in the eventual collapse of the tower or from smoke inhalation. At 9:59 a.m., the tower collapsed, killing any survivors still within, including Eisenberg and Kevin Cosgrove.
Aon (company)	Spitzer investigation	Spitzer investigation In 2004–2005, Aon, along with other brokers including Marsh & McLennan and Willis, fell under regulatory investigation under New York Attorney General Eliot Spitzer and other state attorneys general. At issue was the practice of insurance companies' payments to brokers (known as contingent commissions). The payments were thought to bring a conflict of interest, swaying broker decisions on behalf of carriers, rather than customers. In the spring of 2005, without acknowledging any wrongdoing, Aon agreed to a $190 million settlement, payable over 30 months.
Aon (company)	UK regulatory breach	UK regulatory breach In January 2009, Aon was fined £5.69 million in the UK by the Financial Services Authority, who stated that the fine related to the company's inadequate bribery and corruption controls, claiming that between 14 January 2005 and 30 September 2007 Aon had failed to properly assess the risks involved in its dealings with overseas firms and individuals. The Authority did not find that any money had actually made its way to illegal organisations. Aon qualified for a 30% discount on the fine as a result of its cooperation with the investigation. Aon said its conduct was not deliberate, adding it had since "significantly strengthened and enhanced its controls around the usage of third parties".
Aon (company)	US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act violations	US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act violations In December 2011, Aon Corporation paid a $16.26 million penalty to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission and the U.S. Department of Justice for violations of the US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act. According to the Securities and Exchange Commission, Aon's subsidiaries made improper payments of over $3.6 million to government officials and third-party facilitators in Costa Rica, Egypt, Vietnam, Indonesia, the United Arab Emirates, Myanmar and Bangladesh, between 1983 and 2007, to obtain and retain insurance contracts.
Aon (company)	Major acquisitions	Major acquisitions On 5 January 2007, Aon announced that its Aon Affinity group had acquired the WedSafe Wedding Insurance program. On 22 August 2008, Aon announced that it had acquired London-based Benfield Group. The acquiring price was US$1.75 billion or £935 million, with US$170 million of debt. On 5 March 2010, Hewitt Associates announced that it acquired Senior Educators Ltd. The acquisition offers companies a new way to address retiree medical insurance commitments. On 12 July 2010, Aon announced that it had agreed to buy Lincolnshire, Illinois-based Hewitt Associates for $4.9 billion in cash and stock. On 7 April 2011, Aon announced that it had acquired Johannesburg, South Africa-based Glenrand MIB. Financial terms were not disclosed. On 19 July 2011, Aon announced that it bought Westfield Financial Corp., the owner of insurance-industry consulting firm Ward Financial Group, from Ohio Farmers Insurance Co. Financial terms were not disclosed. On 22 October 2012, Aon announced that it agreed to buy OmniPoint, Inc, a Workday consulting firm. Financial terms were not disclosed. On 16 June 2014, Aon announced that it agreed to buy National Flood Services, Inc., a large processor of flood insurance, from Stoneriver Group, L.P. On 31 October 2016, Aon's Aon Risk Solutions completed acquisition of Stroz Friedberg LLC, a specialised risk management firm focusing on cybersecurity. On 14 November 2016, Aon acquired CoCubes an online Indian Assessment firm, facilitating hiring of entry-level engineering graduates. On 10 February 2017, Aon plc agreed to sell its human resources outsourcing platform for US$4.8 billion (£3.8 billion) to Blackstone Group L.P. (BX.N), creating a new company called Alight Solutions. In September 2017, Aon announced its intent to purchase real estate investment management firm The Townsend Group from Colony NorthStar for $475 million, expanding Aon's property investment management portfolio. On 9 March 2020, Aon announced its merger with Willis Towers Watson for nearly $30 billion in an all-stock deal that creates the world's largest insurance broker. As of 21 May 2020, Willis board was under probe over merger agreement with Aon. The deal was called off in July 2021. In December 2023, Aon agreed to acquire NFP, a middle-market provider of risk, benefits, wealth and retirement plan advisory services company, for $13.4 billion. In March 2024, Aon plc acquired the technology assets and intellectual property of Humn.ai, an AI-powered platform. This will enhance its commercial fleet proposition.
Aon (company)	Operations	Operations
Aon (company)	Manchester United	Manchester United On 3 June 2009, it was reported that Aon had signed a four-year shirt sponsorship deal with English football giant Manchester United. On 1 June 2010, Aon replaced American insurance company AIG as the principal sponsor of the club. The Aon logo was prominently displayed on the front of the club's shirts until the 2014/2015 season when Chevrolet replaced them. The deal was said to be worth £80 million over four years, replacing United's deal with AIG as the most lucrative shirt deal in history at the time. In April 2013, Aon signed a new eight-year deal with Manchester United to rename their training ground as the Aon Training Complex and sponsor the club's training kits, reportedly worth £180 million to the club.
Aon (company)	Awards	Awards Aon was awarded Investment Consultancy of the Year and Fiduciary Manager of the Year at the FT's 2014 Pension and Investment Provider Awards Aon received a perfect score on the Human Rights Campaign's 2013 Corporate Equality Index Aon was named to Working Mother's list of the 100 Best Companies for 2012 Aon Risk Solutions was the most recommended broker in 2012 for service and expertise by middle market buyers in Business Insurance's Buyers Choice Awards Aon Risk Solutions was named Broker of the Year and Training Programme of the Year in 2012 by Insurance Times Aon Benfield was named 2012 European Reinsurance Broker of the Year, Best European Property Reinsurance Broker and Best European Casualty Reinsurance Broker at the European Intelligent Insurer Awards Aon Benfield was named Best Global Reinsurance Broking Company for Analytics at Reactions Global Awards 2012 Aon Hewitt was named Top Retirement Consultant of 2012 by PLANSPONSOR Magazine2 Aon Hewitt was named Actuarial and Investment Consultant of the Year for 2012 at the Professional Pensions Awards
Aon (company)	References	References
Aon (company)	External links	External links Category:Actuarial firms Category:Companies based in London Category:Financial services companies based in the City of London Category:Financial services companies established in 1982 Category:Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange Category:Financial services companies of the United States Category:Consulting firms established in 1982 Category:Tax inversions Category:Risk management companies Category:Human resource management consulting firms Category:Insurance companies of the United Kingdom Category:International management consulting firms Category:Management consulting firms of the United Kingdom Category:Consulting firms of the United States Category:British brands Category:Dual-listed companies Category:1982 establishments in Michigan
Aon (company)	Table of Content	short description, History, September 11 attacks, Spitzer investigation, UK regulatory breach, US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act violations, Major acquisitions, Operations, Manchester United, Awards, References, External links
Alban Berg	short description	Alban Maria Johannes Berg ( ; ; 9 February 1885 – 24 December 1935) was an Austrian composer of the Second Viennese School. His compositional style combined Romantic lyricism with the twelve-tone technique. Although he left a relatively small oeuvre, he is remembered as one of the most important composers of the 20th century for his expressive style encompassing "entire worlds of emotion and structure". Berg was born and lived in Vienna. He began to compose at the age of fifteen. He studied counterpoint, music theory and harmony with Arnold Schoenberg between 1904 and 1911, and adopted his principles of developing variation and the twelve-tone technique. Berg's major works include the operas Wozzeck (1924) and Lulu (1935, finished posthumously), the chamber pieces Lyric Suite and Chamber Concerto, as well as a Violin Concerto. He also composed a number of songs (lieder). He is said to have brought more "human values" to the twelve-tone system; his works are seen as more "emotional" than those of Schoenberg. His music had a surface glamour that won him admirers when Schoenberg himself had few. Berg died from sepsis in 1935.
Alban Berg	Life and career	Life and career
Alban Berg	Early life	Early life Berg was born in Vienna, the third of four children of Johanna and Konrad Berg. His father ran a successful export business, and the family owned several estates in Vienna and the countryside. The family's financial situation turned to the worse after the death of Konrad Berg in 1900, and it particularly affected young Berg, who had to repeat both his sixth and seventh grade to pass the exams. One of his closest lifelong friends and earliest biographer (under the pseudonym Hermann Herrenried), architect Hermann Watznauer, became a father figure (partly at Konrad's request), being ten years Berg's senior. Berg wrote him letters as long as thirty pages, often in florid, dramatic prose with idiosyncratic punctuation. Berg was more interested in literature than music as a child and would consider a career as a writer several times, turning to music slowly and at times unconfidently until the success of Wozzeck. He did not begin to compose until he was fifteen, when he started to teach himself music, although he did take piano lessons from his sister's governess. With Marie Scheuchl, a maid in the family estate of Berghof in Carinthia and fifteen years his senior, he fathered a daughter, Albine, born 4 December 1902. In 1906 Berg met the singer (1885–1976), daughter of a wealthy family (rumoured to be in fact the illegitimate daughter of Emperor Franz Joseph I from his liaison with Anna Nahowski).; Despite the outward hostility of her family, the couple married on 3 May 1911, although "her father insisted on a Protestant ceremony to facilitate the divorce he foresaw as inevitable."
Alban Berg	Early works (1907–1914)	Early works (1907–1914) With little prior music education, Berg began studying counterpoint, music theory, and harmony under Arnold Schoenberg in October 1904.Schoenberg, Arnold. Trans. Joe Monzo. By 1906 he was studying music full-time; by 1907 he began composition lessons. His student compositions included five drafts for piano sonatas. He also wrote songs, including his Seven Early Songs (Sieben frühe Lieder), three of which were Berg's first publicly performed work in a concert that featured the music of Schoenberg's pupils in Vienna that year. The early sketches eventually culminated in the Piano Sonata, Op. 1, published in 1910 and likely composed 19081909; it has been described as one of the most formidable "first" works ever written. Berg studied with Schoenberg for six years until 1911. Among Schoenberg's teachings was the idea that the unity of a musical composition depends upon all its aspects being derived from a single basic idea; this idea was later known as developing variation. Berg passed this on to his students, one of whom, Theodor W. Adorno, stated: "The main principle he conveyed was that of variation: everything was supposed to develop out of something else and yet be intrinsically different". The Piano Sonata is an example—the whole composition is derived from the work's opening quartal gesture and its opening phrase. Berg was a part of Vienna's cultural elite during the heady fin de siècle period. His circle included the musicians Alexander von Zemlinsky and Franz Schreker, the painter Gustav Klimt, the writer and satirist Karl Kraus, the architect Adolf Loos, and the poet Peter Altenberg. thumb\|upright=1.3\| [slapping concert], caricature in (Vienna), 6 April 1913 In 1913 two of Berg's Altenberg Lieder (1912) premiered in Vienna, conducted by Schoenberg in the infamous Skandalkonzert. Settings of aphoristic poetic utterances, the songs are accompanied by a very large orchestra. The performance caused a riot, and had to be halted. Berg effectively withdrew the work, and it was not performed in full until 1952. The full score remained unpublished until 1966. Berg had a particular interest in the number 23, using it to structure several works. Various suggestions have been made as to the reason for this interest: that he took it from the biorhythms theory of Wilhelm Fliess, in which a 23-day cycle is considered significant, or because he first suffered an asthma attack on the 23rd of the month.
Alban Berg	''Wozzeck'' (1917–1924) and ''Lulu'' (1928–1929)	Wozzeck (1917–1924) and Lulu (1928–1929) From 1915 to 1918 Berg served in the Austro-Hungarian Army. During a period of leave in 1917 he accelerated work on his first opera, Wozzeck. After the end of World War I, he settled again in Vienna, where he taught private pupils. He also helped Schoenberg run his Society for Private Musical Performances, which sought to create the ideal environment for the exploration and appreciation of unfamiliar new music by means of open rehearsals, repeat performances, and the exclusion of professional critics. In 1924 three excerpts from Wozzeck were performed, which brought Berg his first public success. The opera, which Berg completed in 1922, was first performed on 14 December 1925, when Erich Kleiber conducted the first performance in Berlin. Today, Wozzeck is seen as one of the century's most important works. Berg made a start on his second opera, the three-act Lulu, in 1928 but interrupted the work in 1929 for the concert aria Der Wein which he completed that summer. Der Wein presaged Lulu in a number of ways, including vocal style, orchestration, design and text. Other well-known Berg compositions include the Lyric Suite (1926), which was later shown to employ elaborate cyphers to document a secret love affair; the post-Mahlerian Three Pieces for Orchestra (completed in 1915 but not performed until after Wozzeck); and the Chamber Concerto (Kammerkonzert, 1923–25) for violin, piano, and 13 wind instruments: this latter is written so conscientiously that Pierre Boulez has called it "Berg's strictest composition" and it, too, is permeated by cyphers and posthumously disclosed hidden programs. It was at this time he began exhibiting tone clusters in his works after meeting with American avant-garde composer Henry Cowell, with whom he would eventually form a lifelong friendship.Sachs, Joel (2012). Henry Cowell: A Man Made of Music, pp. 191–192. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Alban Berg	Final years (1930–1935)	Final years (1930–1935) thumb\|Sketch of Berg by Emil Stumpp Life for the musical world was becoming increasingly difficult in the 1930s both in Vienna and Germany due to the rising tide of antisemitism and the Nazi cultural ideology that denounced modernity. Even to have an association with someone who was Jewish could lead to denunciation, and Berg's "crime" was to have studied with the Jewish composer Arnold Schoenberg. Berg found that opportunities for his work to be performed in Germany were becoming rare, and eventually his music was proscribed and placed on the list of degenerate music. In 1932 Berg and his wife acquired an isolated lodge, the Waldhaus on the southern shore of the Wörthersee, near Schiefling am See in Carinthia, where he was able to work in seclusion, mainly on Lulu and the Violin Concerto. At the end of 1934, Berg became involved in the political intrigues around finding a replacement for Clemens Krauss as director of the Vienna State Opera. As more of the performances of his work in Germany were cancelled by the Nazis, who had come to power in early 1933, he needed to ensure the new director would be an advocate for modernist music. Originally, the premiere of Lulu had been planned for the Berlin State Opera, where Erich Kleiber continued to champion his music and had conducted the premiere of Wozzeck in 1925, but now this was looking increasingly uncertain, and Lulu was rejected by the Berlin authorities in the spring of 1934. Kleiber's production of the Lulu symphonic suite on 30 November 1934 in Berlin was also the occasion of his resignation in protest at the extent of conflation of culture with politics. Even in Vienna, the opportunities for the Vienna School of musicians were dwindling. Berg had interrupted the orchestration of Lulu because of an unexpected (and financially much-needed) commission from the Russian-American violinist Louis Krasner for a Violin Concerto (1935). This profoundly elegiac work, composed at unaccustomed speed and posthumously premiered, has become one of Berg's frequently performed compositions. Like much of his mature work, it employs an idiosyncratic adaptation of Schoenberg's "dodecaphonic" or twelve-tone technique, that enables the composer to produce passages openly evoking tonality, including quotations from historical tonal music, such as a Bach chorale and a Carinthian folk song. The Violin Concerto was dedicated "to the memory of an Angel", Manon Gropius, the deceased daughter of architect Walter Gropius and Alma Mahler.
Alban Berg	Death	Death Berg died aged 50 in Vienna, on Christmas Eve 1935, from blood poisoning apparently caused by a furuncle on his back, induced by an insect sting that occurred in November.Steinberg, Michael (1998). The Concerto: A Listener's Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 95 He was buried at the Hietzing Cemetery in Vienna. Before he died, Berg had completed the orchestration of only the first two of the three acts of Lulu. The completed acts were successfully premièred in Zürich in 1937. For personal reasons Helene Berg subsequently imposed a ban on any attempt to "complete" the final act, which Berg had in fact completed in short score. An orchestration was therefore commissioned in secret from Friedrich Cerha and premièred in Paris (under Pierre Boulez) only in 1979, soon after Helene Berg's own death.
Alban Berg	Legacy	Legacy thumb\|Bust of Berg at Schiefling am See, Carinthia, Austria Berg is remembered as one of the most important composers of the 20th century and the most widely performed opera composer among the Second Viennese School. He is said to have brought more "human values" to the twelve-tone system, his works seen as more "emotional" than Schoenberg's. Critically, he is seen as having preserved the Viennese tradition in his music. Berg scholar Douglas Jarman writes in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians that "[as] the 20th century closed, the 'backward-looking' Berg suddenly came as [George] Perle remarked, to look like its most forward-looking composer." The Alban Berg Foundation, founded by the composer's widow in 1969, cultivates the memory and works of the composer, and awards scholarships."Geschichte der Alban Berg Stiftung" Alban Berg Stiftung. Retrieved 11 July 2023. The Alban Berg Monument, situated next to the Vienna State Opera and unveiled in 2016, was funded by the Foundation."Das Alban Berg Denkmal vor der Wiener Staatsoper" Alban Berg Stiftung. Retrieved 11 July 2023. The Alban Berg Quartett was a string quartet named after him, active from 1971 until 2008. The asteroid 4528 Berg is named after him (1983).
Alban Berg	Major compositions	Major compositions Piano Piano Sonata, Op. 1 String Quartet, Op. 3 Lyric Suite, string quartet Chamber Concerto (1925) for piano, violin and 13 wind instruments Orchestral Three Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 6 Violin Concerto Vocal Seven Early Songs Vier Lieder (Four Songs), Op. 2 Five Orchestral Songs on Postcard Texts of Peter Altenberg, Op. 4 Der Wein Schließe mir die Augen beide Operas Wozzeck, Op. 7 (1925) Lulu (1937)
Alban Berg	Notes and references	Notes and references
Alban Berg	Notes	Notes
Alban Berg	References	References
Alban Berg	Sources	Sources
Alban Berg	Further reading	Further reading Adorno, Theodor W. Alban Berg: Master of the Smallest Link. Trans. Juliane Brand and Christopher Hailey. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Brand, Juliane, Christopher Hailey and Donald Harris, eds. The Berg-Schoenberg Correspondence: Selected Letters. New York: Norton, 1987. Carner, Mosco. Alban Berg: The Man and the Work. London: Duckworth, 1975. dos Santos, Silvio J. Narratives of Identity in Alban Berg's 'Lulu'''. Rochester, New York: University of Rochester Press, 2014. Floros, Constantin. Trans. by Ernest Bernhardt-Kabisch. Alban Berg and Hanna Fuchs . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007. Grun, Bernard, ed. Alban Berg: Letters to his Wife. London: Faber and Faber, 1971. Headlam, Dave. The Music of Alban Berg. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996. Jarman, Douglas. "Dr. Schon's Five-Strophe Aria: Some Notes on Tonality and Pitch Association in Berg's Lulu". Perspectives of New Music 8/2 (Spring/Summer 1970). Jarman, Douglas. "Some Rhythmic and Metric Techniques in Alban Berg's Lulu". The Musical Quarterly 56/3 (July 1970). Jarman, Douglas. "Lulu: The Sketches". International Alban Berg Society Newsletter, 6 (June 1978). Jarman, Douglas. "Countess Geschwitz's Series: A Controversy Resolved?". Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association 107 (1980/81). Jarman, Douglas. "Some Observations on Rhythm, Meter and Tempo in Lulu". In Alban Berg Studien. Ed. Rudolf Klein. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1981. Jarman, Douglas. "Lulu: The Musical and Dramatic Structure". Royal Opera House Covent Garden program notes, 1981. Jarman, Douglas. "The 'Lost' Score of the 'Symphonic Pieces from Lulu". International Alban Berg Society Newsletter 12 (Fall/Winter 1982). Leibowitz, René. Schoenberg and his school; the contemporary stage of the language of music. Trans. Dika Newlin. New York: Philosophical Library, 1949. Redlich, Hans Ferdinand. Alban Berg, the Man and His Music. London: John Calder, 1957. Reich, Willi. The life and work of Alban Berg. Trans. Cornelius Cardew. New York : Da Capo Press, 1982. Schmalfeldt, Janet. "Berg's Path to Atonality: The Piano Sonata, Op. 1". Alban Berg: Historical and Analytical Perspectives. Eds. David Gable and Robert P. Morgan, pp. 79–110. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Schweizer, Klaus. Die Sonatensatzform im Schaffen Alban Bergs. Stuttgart: Satz und Druck, 1970. Wilkey, Jay Weldon. Certain Aspects of Form in the Vocal Music of Alban Berg''. Ph.D. thesis. Ann Arbor: Indiana University, 1965.
Alban Berg	External links	External links Alban Berg biography and works on the UE website (publisher) Vocal texts used by Alban Berg with translations to various languages, LiederNet Archive Alban Berg at Pytheas Center for Contemporary Music albanberg.resampled.de The most comprehensive acoustic representation of Alban Bergs Works in digital realisations. Alban Berg's obituary in the 24 Dec. 1935 issue of The New York Times Category:1885 births Category:1935 deaths Category:19th-century Austrian people Category:20th-century Austrian musicians Category:20th-century Austrian male musicians Category:20th-century Austrian people Category:20th-century Austrian classical composers Category:Austrian male classical composers Category:Austrian opera composers Category:Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I Category:Composers from Vienna Category:Deaths due to insect bites and stings Category:Deaths from sepsis Category:Expressionist music Category:Austrian male opera composers Category:Pupils of Arnold Schoenberg Category:Second Viennese School Category:Twelve-tone and serial composers Category:Lieder composers
Alban Berg	Table of Content	short description, Life and career, Early life, Early works (1907–1914), ''Wozzeck'' (1917–1924) and ''Lulu'' (1928–1929), Final years (1930–1935), Death, Legacy, Major compositions, Notes and references, Notes, References, Sources, Further reading, External links
Analytical chemistry	short description	thumb\|right\|300 px\|Gas chromatography laboratory Analytical chemistry studies and uses instruments and methods to separate, identify, and quantify matter. In practice, separation, identification or quantification may constitute the entire analysis or be combined with another method. Separation isolates analytes. Qualitative analysis identifies analytes, while quantitative analysis determines the numerical amount or concentration. Analytical chemistry consists of classical, wet chemical methods and modern analytical techniques. Classical qualitative methods use separations such as precipitation, extraction, and distillation. Identification may be based on differences in color, odor, melting point, boiling point, solubility, radioactivity or reactivity. Classical quantitative analysis uses mass or volume changes to quantify amount. Instrumental methods may be used to separate samples using chromatography, electrophoresis or field flow fractionation. Then qualitative and quantitative analysis can be performed, often with the same instrument and may use light interaction, heat interaction, electric fields or magnetic fields. Often the same instrument can separate, identify and quantify an analyte. Analytical chemistry is also focused on improvements in experimental design, chemometrics, and the creation of new measurement tools. Analytical chemistry has broad applications to medicine, science, and engineering.
Analytical chemistry	History	History thumb\|upright\|Gustav Kirchhoff (left) and Robert Bunsen (right) Analytical chemistry has been important since the early days of chemistry, providing methods for determining which elements and chemicals are present in the object in question. During this period, significant contributions to analytical chemistry included the development of systematic elemental analysis by Justus von Liebig and systematized organic analysis based on the specific reactions of functional groups. The first instrumental analysis was flame emissive spectrometry developed by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff who discovered rubidium (Rb) and caesium (Cs) in 1860. Most of the major developments in analytical chemistry took place after 1900. During this period, instrumental analysis became progressively dominant in the field. In particular, many of the basic spectroscopic and spectrometric techniques were discovered in the early 20th century and refined in the late 20th century. The separation sciences follow a similar time line of development and also became increasingly transformed into high performance instruments. In the 1970s many of these techniques began to be used together as hybrid techniques to achieve a complete characterization of samples. Starting in the 1970s, analytical chemistry became progressively more inclusive of biological questions (bioanalytical chemistry), whereas it had previously been largely focused on inorganic or small organic molecules. Lasers have been increasingly used as probes and even to initiate and influence a wide variety of reactions. The late 20th century also saw an expansion of the application of analytical chemistry from somewhat academic chemical questions to forensic, environmental, industrial and medical questions, such as in histology. Modern analytical chemistry is dominated by instrumental analysis. Many analytical chemists focus on a single type of instrument. Academics tend to either focus on new applications and discoveries or on new methods of analysis. The discovery of a chemical present in blood that increases the risk of cancer would be a discovery that an analytical chemist might be involved in. An effort to develop a new method might involve the use of a tunable laser to increase the specificity and sensitivity of a spectrometric method. Many methods, once developed, are kept purposely static so that data can be compared over long periods of time. This is particularly true in industrial quality assurance (QA), forensic and environmental applications. Analytical chemistry plays an increasingly important role in the pharmaceutical industry where, aside from QA, it is used in the discovery of new drug candidates and in clinical applications where understanding the interactions between the drug and the patient are critical.
Analytical chemistry	Classical methods	Classical methods thumb\|The presence of copper in this qualitative analysis is indicated by the bluish-green color of the flame Although modern analytical chemistry is dominated by sophisticated instrumentation, the roots of analytical chemistry and some of the principles used in modern instruments are from traditional techniques, many of which are still used today. These techniques also tend to form the backbone of most undergraduate analytical chemistry educational labs.
Analytical chemistry	Qualitative analysis	Qualitative analysis Qualitative analysis determines the presence or absence of a particular compound, but not the mass or concentration. By definition, qualitative analyses do not measure quantity.
Analytical chemistry	Chemical tests	Chemical tests There are numerous qualitative chemical tests, for example, the acid test for gold and the Kastle-Meyer test for the presence of blood.
Analytical chemistry	Flame test	Flame test Inorganic qualitative analysis generally refers to a systematic scheme to confirm the presence of certain aqueous ions or elements by performing a series of reactions that eliminate a range of possibilities and then confirm suspected ions with a confirming test. Sometimes small carbon-containing ions are included in such schemes. With modern instrumentation, these tests are rarely used but can be useful for educational purposes and in fieldwork or other situations where access to state-of-the-art instruments is not available or expedient.
Analytical chemistry	Quantitative analysis	Quantitative analysis Quantitative analysis is the measurement of the quantities of particular chemical constituents present in a substance. Quantities can be measured by mass (gravimetric analysis) or volume (volumetric analysis).
Analytical chemistry	Gravimetric analysis	Gravimetric analysis The gravimetric analysis involves determining the amount of material present by weighing the sample before and/or after some transformation. A common example used in undergraduate education is the determination of the amount of water in a hydrate by heating the sample to remove the water such that the difference in weight is due to the loss of water.
Analytical chemistry	Volumetric analysis	Volumetric analysis Titration involves the gradual addition of a measurable reactant to an exact volume of a solution being analyzed until some equivalence point is reached. Titration is a family of techniques used to determine the concentration of an analyte. Titrating accurately to either the half-equivalence point or the endpoint of a titration allows the chemist to determine the amount of moles used, which can then be used to determine a concentration or composition of the titrant. Most familiar to those who have taken chemistry during secondary education is the acid-base titration involving a color-changing indicator, such as phenolphthalein. There are many other types of titrations, for example, potentiometric titrations or precipitation titrations. Chemists might also create titration curves in order by systematically testing the pH every drop in order to understand different properties of the titrant.
Analytical chemistry	Instrumental methods	Instrumental methods thumb\|upright=1.2\|Block diagram of an analytical instrument showing the stimulus and measurement of response
Analytical chemistry	Spectroscopy	Spectroscopy Spectroscopy measures the interaction of the molecules with electromagnetic radiation. Spectroscopy consists of many different applications such as atomic absorption spectroscopy, atomic emission spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, X-ray spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, dual polarization interferometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, photoemission spectroscopy, Mössbauer spectroscopy and so on.
Analytical chemistry	Mass spectrometry	Mass spectrometry thumb\|An accelerator mass spectrometer used for radiocarbon dating and other analysis Mass spectrometry measures mass-to-charge ratio of molecules using electric and magnetic fields. In a mass spectrometer, a small amount of sample is ionized and converted to gaseous ions, where they are separated and analyzed according to their mass-to-charge ratios. There are several ionization methods: electron ionization, chemical ionization, electrospray ionization, fast atom bombardment, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization, and others. Also, mass spectrometry is categorized by approaches of mass analyzers: magnetic-sector, quadrupole mass analyzer, quadrupole ion trap, time-of-flight, Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance, and so on.
Analytical chemistry	Electrochemical analysis	Electrochemical analysis Electroanalytical methods measure the potential (volts) and/or current (amps) in an electrochemical cell containing the analyte. These methods can be categorized according to which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are measured. The four main categories are potentiometry (the difference in electrode potentials is measured), coulometry (the transferred charge is measured over time), amperometry (the cell's current is measured over time), and voltammetry (the cell's current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential). Potentiometry measures the cell's potential, coulometry measures the cell's current, and voltammetry measures the change in current when cell potential changes.
Analytical chemistry	Thermal analysis	Thermal analysis Calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis measure the interaction of a material and heat.
Analytical chemistry	Separation	Separation thumb\|Separation of black ink on a thin-layer chromatography plate Separation processes are used to decrease the complexity of material mixtures. Chromatography, electrophoresis and field flow fractionation are representative of this field.
Analytical chemistry	Chromatographic assays	Chromatographic assays Chromatography can be used to determine the presence of substances in a sample as different components in a mixture have different tendencies to adsorb onto the stationary phase or dissolve in the mobile phase. Thus, different components of the mixture move at different speed. Different components of a mixture can therefore be identified by their respective Rƒ values, which is the ratio between the migration distance of the substance and the migration distance of the solvent front during chromatography. In combination with the instrumental methods, chromatography can be used in quantitative determination of the substances. Chromatography separates the analyte from the rest of the sample so that it may be measured without interference from other compounds. There are different types of chromatography that differ from the media they use to separate the analyte and the sample. In Thin-layer chromatography, the analyte mixture moves up and separates along the coated sheet under the volatile mobile phase. In Gas chromatography, gas separates the volatile analytes. A common method for chromatography using liquid as a mobile phase is High-performance liquid chromatography.
Analytical chemistry	Hybrid techniques	Hybrid techniques Combinations of the above techniques produce a "hybrid" or "hyphenated" technique. Several examples are in popular use today and new hybrid techniques are under development. For example, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-infrared spectroscopy, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-NMR spectroscopy, liquid chromatography-infrared spectroscopy, and capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry. Hyphenated separation techniques refer to a combination of two (or more) techniques to detect and separate chemicals from solutions. Most often the other technique is some form of chromatography. Hyphenated techniques are widely used in chemistry and biochemistry. A slash is sometimes used instead of hyphen, especially if the name of one of the methods contains a hyphen itself.
Analytical chemistry	Microscopy	Microscopy thumb\|Fluorescence microscope image of two mouse cell nuclei in prophase (scale bar is 5 μm) The visualization of single molecules, single cells, biological tissues, and nanomaterials is an important and attractive approach in analytical science. Also, hybridization with other traditional analytical tools is revolutionizing analytical science. Microscopy can be categorized into three different fields: optical microscopy, electron microscopy, and scanning probe microscopy. Recently, this field is rapidly progressing because of the rapid development of the computer and camera industries.
Analytical chemistry	Lab-on-a-chip	Lab-on-a-chip Devices that integrate (multiple) laboratory functions on a single chip of only millimeters to a few square centimeters in size and that are capable of handling extremely small fluid volumes down to less than picoliters.
Analytical chemistry	Errors	Errors Error can be defined as numerical difference between observed value and true value.G.L. David - Analytical Chemistry The experimental error can be divided into two types, systematic error and random error. Systematic error results from a flaw in equipment or the design of an experiment while random error results from uncontrolled or uncontrollable variables in the experiment. In error the true value and observed value in chemical analysis can be related with each other by the equation where is the absolute error. is the true value. is the observed value. An error of a measurement is an inverse measure of accurate measurement, i.e. smaller the error greater the accuracy of the measurement. Errors can be expressed relatively. Given the relative error(): The percent error can also be calculated: If we want to use these values in a function, we may also want to calculate the error of the function. Let be a function with variables. Therefore, the propagation of uncertainty must be calculated in order to know the error in :
Analytical chemistry	Standards	Standards
Analytical chemistry	Standard curve	Standard curve thumb\|upright=1.2\|A calibration curve plot showing limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), dynamic range, and limit of linearity (LOL) A general method for analysis of concentration involves the creation of a calibration curve. This allows for the determination of the amount of a chemical in a material by comparing the results of an unknown sample to those of a series of known standards. If the concentration of element or compound in a sample is too high for the detection range of the technique, it can simply be diluted in a pure solvent. If the amount in the sample is below an instrument's range of measurement, the method of addition can be used. In this method, a known quantity of the element or compound under study is added, and the difference between the concentration added and the concentration observed is the amount actually in the sample.
Analytical chemistry	Internal standards	Internal standards Sometimes an internal standard is added at a known concentration directly to an analytical sample to aid in quantitation. The amount of analyte present is then determined relative to the internal standard as a calibrant. An ideal internal standard is an isotopically enriched analyte which gives rise to the method of isotope dilution.
Analytical chemistry	Standard addition	Standard addition The method of standard addition is used in instrumental analysis to determine the concentration of a substance (analyte) in an unknown sample by comparison to a set of samples of known concentration, similar to using a calibration curve. Standard addition can be applied to most analytical techniques and is used instead of a calibration curve to solve the matrix effect problem.
Analytical chemistry	Signals and noise	Signals and noise One of the most important components of analytical chemistry is maximizing the desired signal while minimizing the associated noise. The analytical figure of merit is known as the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N or SNR). Noise can arise from environmental factors as well as from fundamental physical processes.
Analytical chemistry	Thermal noise	Thermal noise Thermal noise results from the motion of charge carriers (usually electrons) in an electrical circuit generated by their thermal motion. Thermal noise is white noise meaning that the power spectral density is constant throughout the frequency spectrum. The root mean square value of the thermal noise in a resistor is given by where kB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, R is the resistance, and is the bandwidth of the frequency .
Analytical chemistry	Shot noise	Shot noise Shot noise is a type of electronic noise that occurs when the finite number of particles (such as electrons in an electronic circuit or photons in an optical device) is small enough to give rise to statistical fluctuations in a signal. Shot noise is a Poisson process, and the charge carriers that make up the current follow a Poisson distribution. The root mean square current fluctuation is given by where e is the elementary charge and I is the average current. Shot noise is white noise.
Analytical chemistry	Flicker noise	Flicker noise Flicker noise is electronic noise with a 1/ƒ frequency spectrum; as f increases, the noise decreases. Flicker noise arises from a variety of sources, such as impurities in a conductive channel, generation, and recombination noise in a transistor due to base current, and so on. This noise can be avoided by modulation of the signal at a higher frequency, for example, through the use of a lock-in amplifier.
Analytical chemistry	Environmental noise	Environmental noise thumb\|upright=1.2\|Noise in a thermogravimetric analysis; lower noise in the middle of the plot results from less human activity (and environmental noise) at night Environmental noise arises from the surroundings of the analytical instrument. Sources of electromagnetic noise are power lines, radio and television stations, wireless devices, compact fluorescent lamps and electric motors. Many of these noise sources are narrow bandwidth and, therefore, can be avoided. Temperature and vibration isolation may be required for some instruments.
Analytical chemistry	Noise reduction	Noise reduction Noise reduction can be accomplished either in computer hardware or software. Examples of hardware noise reduction are the use of shielded cable, analog filtering, and signal modulation. Examples of software noise reduction are digital filtering, ensemble average, boxcar average, and correlation methods.
Analytical chemistry	Applications	Applications thumb\|upright\|A US Food and Drug Administration scientist uses a portable near-infrared spectroscopy device to inspect lactose for adulteration with melamine Analytical chemistry has applications including in forensic science, bioanalysis, clinical analysis, environmental analysis, and materials analysis. Analytical chemistry research is largely driven by performance (sensitivity, detection limit, selectivity, robustness, dynamic range, linear range, accuracy, precision, and speed), and cost (purchase, operation, training, time, and space). Among the main branches of contemporary analytical atomic spectrometry, the most widespread and universal are optical and mass spectrometry. In the direct elemental analysis of solid samples, the new leaders are laser-induced breakdown and laser ablation mass spectrometry, and the related techniques with transfer of the laser ablation products into inductively coupled plasma. Advances in design of diode lasers and optical parametric oscillators promote developments in fluorescence and ionization spectrometry and also in absorption techniques where uses of optical cavities for increased effective absorption pathlength are expected to expand. The use of plasma- and laser-based methods is increasing. An interest towards absolute (standardless) analysis has revived, particularly in emission spectrometry. Great effort is being put into shrinking the analysis techniques to chip size. Although there are few examples of such systems competitive with traditional analysis techniques, potential advantages include size/portability, speed, and cost. (micro total analysis system (μTAS) or lab-on-a-chip). Microscale chemistry reduces the amounts of chemicals used. Many developments improve the analysis of biological systems. Examples of rapidly expanding fields in this area are genomics, DNA sequencing and related research in genetic fingerprinting and DNA microarray; proteomics, the analysis of protein concentrations and modifications, especially in response to various stressors, at various developmental stages, or in various parts of the body, metabolomics, which deals with metabolites; transcriptomics, including mRNA and associated fields; lipidomics - lipids and its associated fields; peptidomics - peptides and its associated fields; and metallomics, dealing with metal concentrations and especially with their binding to proteins and other molecules. Analytical chemistry has played a critical role in the understanding of basic science to a variety of practical applications, such as biomedical applications, environmental monitoring, quality control of industrial manufacturing, forensic science, and so on. The recent developments in computer automation and information technologies have extended analytical chemistry into a number of new biological fields. For example, automated DNA sequencing machines were the basis for completing human genome projects leading to the birth of genomics. Protein identification and peptide sequencing by mass spectrometry opened a new field of proteomics. In addition to automating specific processes, there is effort to automate larger sections of lab testing, such as in companies like Emerald Cloud Lab and Transcriptic. Analytical chemistry has been an indispensable area in the development of nanotechnology. Surface characterization instruments, electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes enable scientists to visualize atomic structures with chemical characterizations.
Analytical chemistry	See also	See also Calorimeter Clinical chemistry Environmental chemistry Ion beam analysis List of chemical analysis methods Important publications in analytical chemistry List of materials analysis methods Measurement uncertainty Metrology Microanalysis Nuclear reaction analysis Quality of analytical results Radioanalytical chemistry Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy Sensory analysis - in the field of Food science Virtual instrumentation Working range
Analytical chemistry	References	References
Analytical chemistry	Further reading	Further reading Gurdeep, Chatwal Anand (2008). Instrumental Methods of Chemical Analysis Himalaya Publishing House (India) Ralph L. Shriner, Reynold C. Fuson, David Y. Curtin, Terence C. Morill: The systematic identification of organic compounds - a laboratory manual, Verlag Wiley, New York 1980, 6. edition, . Bettencourt da Silva, R; Bulska, E; Godlewska-Zylkiewicz, B; Hedrich, M; Majcen, N; Magnusson, B; Marincic, S; Papadakis, I; Patriarca, M; Vassileva, E; Taylor, P; Analytical measurement: measurement uncertainty and statistics, 2012, .
Analytical chemistry	External links	External links Infografik and animation showing the progress of analytical chemistry aas Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer Category:Materials science
Analytical chemistry	Table of Content	short description, History, Classical methods, Qualitative analysis, Chemical tests, Flame test, Quantitative analysis, Gravimetric analysis, Volumetric analysis, Instrumental methods, Spectroscopy, Mass spectrometry, Electrochemical analysis, Thermal analysis, Separation, Chromatographic assays, Hybrid techniques, Microscopy, Lab-on-a-chip, Errors, Standards, Standard curve, Internal standards, Standard addition, Signals and noise, Thermal noise, Shot noise, Flicker noise, Environmental noise, Noise reduction, Applications, See also, References, Further reading, External links
A cappella	short description	Music performed a cappella ( , , ; ), less commonly spelled acapella in English,"A cappella" in Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, accessed 5 December 2023. is music performed by a singer or a singing group without instrumental accompaniment. The term a cappella was originally intended to differentiate between Renaissance polyphony and Baroque concertato musical styles. In the 19th century, a renewed interest in Renaissance polyphony, coupled with an ignorance of the fact that vocal parts were often doubled by instrumentalists, led to the term coming to mean unaccompanied vocal music. The term is also used, rarely, as a synonym for alla breve.
A cappella	Early history	Early history Research suggests that singing and vocables may have been what early humans used to communicate before the invention of language. The earliest piece of sheet music is thought to have originated from times as early as 2000 BC, while the earliest that has survived in its entirety is from the first century AD: a piece from Greece called the Seikilos epitaph.
A cappella	Religious origins	Religious origins A cappella music was originally used in religious music, especially church music as well as anasheed and zemirot. Gregorian chant is an example of a cappella singing, as is the majority of secular vocal music from the Renaissance. The madrigal, up until its development in the early Baroque into an instrumentally accompanied form, is also usually in a cappella form. The Psalms note that some early songs were accompanied by string instruments, though Jewish and Early Christian music was largely a cappella; the use of instruments has subsequently increased within both of these religions as well as in Islam.
A cappella	Christian	Christian The polyphony of Christian (predominantly Catholic) a cappella music began to develop in Europe around the 9th century AD with the practice of organum, reaching its height between the 14th and 16th centuries with compositions by composers of the Franco-Flemish school (such as Guillaume Du Fay, Johannes Ockeghem, and Josquin des Prez). The early a cappella polyphonies were sometimes doubled with other instruments, which were often wind or string instruments, or organs. By the 16th century, a cappella polyphony had further developed, but gradually, the cantata began to take the place of a cappella forms. Sixteenth-century a cappella polyphony, nonetheless, continued to influence church composers throughout this period and to the present day. Recent evidence has shown that some of the early pieces by Palestrina, such as those written for the Sistine Chapel, were intended to be accompanied by an organ "doubling" for some or all of the voices. Other composers that utilized the a cappella style, if only for the occasional piece, were Claudio Monteverdi and his Lagrime d'amante al sepolcro dell'amata (A lover's tears at his beloved's grave), which was composed in 1610, and Andrea Gabrieli when upon his death many choral pieces were discovered, one of which was in the unaccompanied style. Learning from the preceding two composers, Heinrich Schütz utilized the a cappella style in numerous pieces; chief among these were the pieces in the oratorio style, which were traditionally performed during the Easter week and dealt with the religious subject matter of that week, such as the Passion. Five of Schutz's Historien were Easter pieces, and of these the latter three, which dealt with the passion from three different viewpoints, those of Matthew, Luke and John, were all done a cappella style. The parts of the crowd were sung while the solo parts which were the quoted parts from either Christ or the authors were performed in a plainchant. In the Byzantine Rite of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches, the music performed in the liturgies is exclusively sung without instrumental accompaniment. Early Russian musika which started appearing in the late 17th century, in what was known as khorovïye kontsertï (choral concertos) made a cappella adaptations of Venetian-styled pieces, such as the treatise, Grammatika musikiyskaya (1675), by Nikolai Diletsky. Divine Liturgies and Western Rite Masses composed by famous composers such as Peter Tchaikovsky, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Alexander Arkhangelsky, and Mykola Leontovych are examples. Instruments have divided Christendom since their introduction into worship. They were considered a Roman Catholic innovation, not widely practiced until the 18th century, and were opposed vigorously in worship by a number of Protestant Reformers, including Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, and John Wesley. Opponents of musical instruments in the Christian worship believe that such opposition is supported by the Christian scriptures and Church history. There is no reference to instrumental music in early church worship in the New Testament, or in the worship of churches for the first six centuries. Several reasons have been posited throughout church history for the absence of instrumental music in church worship. Those who do not adhere to the regulative principle of interpreting Christian scripture, believe that limiting praise to the unaccompanied chant of the early church is not commanded in scripture, and that churches in any age are free to offer their songs with or without musical instruments. Those who subscribe to this interpretation believe that since the Christian scriptures never counter instrumental language with any negative judgment on instruments, opposition to instruments instead comes from an interpretation of history. There is no written opposition to musical instruments in any setting in the first century and a half of Christian churches (33–180 AD). The use of instruments for Christian worship during this period is also undocumented. Toward the end of the 2nd century, Christians began condemning the instruments themselves. Those who oppose instruments today believe these Church Fathers had a better understanding of God's desire for the church, but there are significant differences between the teachings of these Church Fathers and Christian opposition to instruments today. Modern Christians typically believe it is acceptable to play instruments or to attend weddings, funerals, banquets, etc., where instruments are heard playing religious music. The Church Fathers made no exceptions. Since the New Testament never condemns instruments themselves, much less in any of these settings, author Everett Ferguson wrote that "the church Fathers go beyond the New Testament in pronouncing a negative judgment on musical instruments." Written opposition to instruments in worship began near the turn of the 5th century. Modern opponents of instruments typically do not make the same assessment of instruments as these writers, who argued that God had allowed David the "evil" of using musical instruments in praise. While the Old Testament teaches that God specifically asked for musical instruments, modern concern is for worship based on the New Testament. Since "a cappella" singing brought a new polyphony (more than one note at a time) with instrumental accompaniment, it is not surprising that Protestant reformers who opposed the instruments (such as Calvin and Zwingli) also opposed the polyphony. While Zwingli was destroying organs in Switzerland – Luther called him a fanatic – the Church of England was burning books of polyphony. Some Holiness Churches such as the Free Methodist Church opposed the use of musical instruments in church worship until the mid-20th century. The Free Methodist Church allowed for local church decision on the use of either an organ or piano in the 1943 Conference before lifting the ban entirely in 1955. The Reformed Free Methodist Church and Evangelical Wesleyan Church were formed as a result of a schism with the Free Methodist Church, with the former retaining a cappella worship and the latter retaining the rule limiting the number of instruments in the church to the piano and organ. Present-day Christian religious bodies known for conducting their worship services without musical accompaniment include many Oriental Orthodox Churches (such as the Coptic Orthodox Church), many Anabaptist communities (including Old Order Anabaptist groups—such as the Amish, Old German Baptist Brethren, Old Order Mennonites, as well as Conservative Anabaptist groups—such as the Dunkard Brethren Church and Conservative Mennonites), some Presbyterian churches devoted to the regulative principle of worship, Old Regular Baptists, Primitive Baptists, Plymouth Brethren, Churches of Christ, Church of God, the Reformed Free Methodists, Doukhobors, and the Byzantine Rite of Eastern Christianity. Certain high church services and other musical events in liturgical churches (such as the Roman Catholic Mass and the Lutheran Divine Service) may be a cappella, a practice remaining from apostolic times. Many Mennonites also conduct some or all of their services without instruments. Sacred Harp, a type of folk music, is an a cappella style of religious singing with shape notes, usually sung at singing conventions.
A cappella	Jewish	Jewish While worship in the Temple in Jerusalem included musical instruments, traditional Jewish religious services in the Synagogue, both before and after the last destruction of the Temple, did not include musical instruments given the practice of scriptural cantillation. The use of musical instruments is traditionally forbidden on the Sabbath out of concern that players would be tempted to repair (or tune) their instruments, which is forbidden on those days. (This prohibition has been relaxed in many Reform and some Conservative congregations.) Similarly, when Jewish families and larger groups sing traditional Sabbath songs known as zemirot outside the context of formal religious services, they usually do so a cappella, and Bar and Bat Mitzvah celebrations on the Sabbath sometimes feature entertainment by a cappella ensembles. During the Three Weeks musical instruments are prohibited. Many Jews consider a portion of the 49-day period of the counting of the omer between Passover and Shavuot to be a time of semi-mourning and instrumental music is not allowed during that time. This has led to a tradition of a cappella singing sometimes known as sefirah music. The popularization of the Jewish chant may be found in the writings of the Jewish philosopher Philo, born 20 BC. Weaving together Jewish and Greek thought, Philo promoted praise without instruments, and taught that "silent singing" (without even vocal chords) was better still. This view parted with the Jewish scriptures, where Israel offered praise with instruments by God's own command The shofar is the only temple instrument still being used today in the synagogue, and it is only used from Rosh Chodesh Elul through the end of Yom Kippur. The shofar is used by itself, without any vocal accompaniment, and is limited to a very strictly defined set of sounds and specific places in the synagogue service. However, silver trumpets, as described in Numbers 10:1-18, have been made in recent years and used in prayer services at the Western Wall.
A cappella	In the United States	In the United States thumb\|The Hullabahoos, an a cappella group at the University of Virginia, were featured in the movie Pitch Perfect Peter Christian Lutkin, dean of the Northwestern University School of Music, helped popularize a cappella music in the United States by founding the Northwestern A Cappella Choir in 1906. The A Cappella Choir was "the first permanent organization of its kind in America." An a cappella tradition was begun in 1911 by F. Melius Christiansen, a music faculty member at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota. The St. Olaf College Choir was established as an outgrowth of the local St. John's Lutheran Church, where Christiansen was organist and the choir was composed, at least partially, of students from the nearby St. Olaf campus. The success of the ensemble was emulated by other regional conductors, and a tradition of a cappella choral music was born in the region at colleges like Concordia College (Moorhead, Minnesota), Augustana College (Rock Island, Illinois), Waldorf University (Forest City, Iowa), Luther College (Decorah, Iowa), Gustavus Adolphus College (St. Peter, Minnesota), Augustana College (Sioux Falls, South Dakota), and Augsburg University (Minneapolis, Minnesota). The choirs typically range from 40 to 80 singers and are recognized for their efforts to perfect blend, intonation, phrasing and pitch in a large choral setting. Movements in modern a cappella over the past century include barbershop and doo wop. The Barbershop Harmony Society, Sweet Adelines International, and Harmony Inc. host educational events including Harmony University, Directors University, and the International Educational Symposium, and international contests and conventions, recognizing international champion choruses and quartets. Many a cappella groups can be found in high schools and colleges. There are amateur Barbershop Harmony Society and professional groups that sing a cappella exclusively. Although a cappella is technically defined as singing without instrumental accompaniment, some groups use their voices to emulate instruments; others are more traditional and focus on harmonizing. A cappella styles range from gospel music to contemporary to barbershop quartets and choruses. The Contemporary A Cappella Society (CASA) is a membership option for former students, whose funds support hosted competitions and events. A cappella music was popularized between the late 2000s and the early to mid-2010s with media hits such as the 2009–2014 TV show The Sing-Off and the musical comedy film series Pitch Perfect.
A cappella	Recording artists	Recording artists In July 1943, as a result of the American Federation of Musicians boycott of US recording studios, the a cappella vocal group The Song Spinners had a best-seller with "Comin' In on a Wing and a Prayer". In the 1950s, several recording groups, notably The Hi-Los and the Four Freshmen, introduced complex jazz harmonies to a cappella performances. The King's Singers are credited with promoting interest in small-group a cappella performances in the 1960s. Frank Zappa loved doo wop and a cappella, so Zappa released The Persuasions' first album from his label in 1970. Judy Collins recorded "Amazing Grace" a cappella. In 1983, an a cappella group known as The Flying Pickets had a Christmas 'number one' in the UK with a cover of Yazoo's (known in the US as Yaz) "Only You". A cappella music attained renewed prominence from the late 1980s onward, spurred by the success of Top 40 recordings by artists such as The Manhattan Transfer, Bobby McFerrin, Huey Lewis and the News, All-4-One, The Nylons, Backstreet Boys, Boyz II Men, and *NSYNC. Contemporary a cappella includes many vocal groups and bands who add vocal percussion or beatboxing to create a pop/rock/gospel sound, in some cases very similar to bands with instruments. Examples of such professional groups include Straight No Chaser, Pentatonix, The House Jacks, Rockapella, Mosaic, Home Free and M-pact. There also remains a strong a cappella presence within Christian music, as some denominations purposefully do not use instruments during worship. Examples of such groups are Take 6, Glad and Acappella. Arrangements of popular music for small a cappella ensembles typically include one voice singing the lead melody, one singing a rhythmic bass line, and the remaining voices contributing chordal or polyphonic accompaniment. A cappella can also describe the isolated vocal track(s) from a multitrack recording that originally included instrumentation. These vocal tracks may be remixed or put onto vinyl records for DJs, or released to the public so that fans can remix them. One such example is the a cappella release of Jay-Z's Black Album, which Danger Mouse mixed with the Beatles' White Album to create The Grey Album. On their 1966 album titled Album, Peter, Paul and Mary included the song "Norman Normal". All the sounds on that song, both vocals and instruments, were created by Paul's voice, with no actual instruments used.Stookey, Paul. Liner Notes. The Peter, Paul, and Mary Album. Warner Bros Record, 1966. Vinyl. In 2013, an artist by the name Smooth McGroove rose to prominence with his style of a cappella music. He is best known for his a cappella covers of video game music tracks on YouTube. in 2015, an a cappella version of Jerusalem by multi-instrumentalist Jacob Collier was selected for Beats by Dre "The Game Starts Here" for the England Rugby World Cup campaign.
A cappella	Musical theatre	Musical theatre A cappella has been used as the sole orchestration for original works of musical theatre that have had commercial runs Off-Broadway (theatres in New York City with 99 to 500 seats) only four times. The first was Avenue X which opened on 28 January 1994, and ran for 77 performances. It was produced by Playwrights Horizons with book by John Jiler, music and lyrics by Ray Leslee. The musical style of the show's score was primarily doo-wop as the plot revolved around doo-wop group singers of the 1960s. In 2001, The Kinsey Sicks, produced and starred in the critically acclaimed off-Broadway hit, DRAGAPELLA! Starring the Kinsey Sicks at New York's Studio 54. That production received a nomination for a Lucille Lortel award as Best Musical and a Drama Desk nomination for Best Lyrics. It was directed by Glenn Casale with original music and lyrics by Ben Schatz. The a cappella musical Perfect Harmony, a comedy about two high school a cappella groups vying to win the national championship, made its Off Broadway debut at Theatre Row's Acorn Theatre on 42nd Street in New York City in October 2010 after a successful out-of-town run at the Stoneham Theatre, in Stoneham, Massachusetts. Perfect Harmony features the hit music of The Jackson 5, Pat Benatar, Billy Idol, Marvin Gaye, Scandal, Tiffany, The Romantics, The Pretenders, The Temptations, The Contours, The Commodores, Tommy James & the Shondells and The Partridge Family, and has been compared to a cross between Altar Boyz and The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee. The fourth a cappella musical to appear Off-Broadway, In Transit, premiered October 5, 2010, and was produced by Primary Stages with book, music, and lyrics by Kristen Anderson-Lopez, James-Allen Ford, Russ Kaplan, and Sara Wordsworth. Set primarily in the New York City subway system its score features an eclectic mix of musical genres (including jazz, hip hop, Latin, rock, and country). In Transit incorporates vocal beat boxing into its contemporary a cappella arrangements through the use of a subway beat boxer character. Beat boxer and actor Chesney Snow performed this role for the 2010 Primary Stages production. According to the show's website, it is scheduled to reopen for an open-ended commercial run in the Fall of 2011. In 2011, the production received four Lucille Lortel Award nominations including Outstanding Musical, Outer Critics Circle and Drama League nominations, as well as five Drama Desk nominations including Outstanding Musical and won for Outstanding Ensemble Performance. In December 2016, In Transit became the first a cappella musical on Broadway.

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