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Ardal O'Hanlon
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External links
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External links
Ardal O'Hanlon on comedycv.co.uk
Ardal O'Hanlon in Melbourne at The Australian Ireland Fund charity event
Category:1965 births
Category:Living people
Category:20th-century Irish comedians
Category:21st-century Irish comedians
Category:Alumni of Dublin City University
Category:Irish humorists
Category:Irish male comedians
Category:Irish male stage actors
Category:Irish male film actors
Category:Irish male television actors
Category:Irish male voice actors
Category:Irish television presenters
Category:20th-century Irish novelists
Category:Irish stand-up comedians
Category:People educated at Blackrock College
Category:People from Carrickmacross
Category:Irish male novelists
Category:Actors from County Monaghan
Category:20th-century Irish male writers
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Ardal O'Hanlon
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Table of Content
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short description, Early life, Career, Personal life, Filmography, Film, Television, Awards, References, External links
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AMD
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Short description
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Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (AMD) is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California and maintains significant operations in Austin, Texas. AMD is a hardware and fabless company that designs and develops central processing units (CPUs), graphics processing units (GPUs), field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), system-on-chip (SoC), and high-performance computer solutions. AMD serves a wide range of business and consumer markets, including gaming, data centers, artificial intelligence (AI), and embedded systems.
AMD's main products include microprocessors, motherboard chipsets, embedded processors, and graphics processors for servers, workstations, personal computers, and embedded system applications. The company has also expanded into new markets, such as the data center, gaming, and high-performance computing markets. AMD's processors are used in a wide range of computing devices, including personal computers, servers, laptops, and gaming consoles. While it initially manufactured its own processors, the company later outsourced its manufacturing, after GlobalFoundries was spun off in 2009. Through its Xilinx acquisition in 2022, AMD offers field-programmable gate array (FPGA) products.
AMD was founded in 1969 by Jerry Sanders and a group of other technology professionals. The company's early products were primarily memory chips and other components for computers. In 1975, AMD entered the microprocessor market, competing with Intel, its main rival in the industry. In the early 2000s, it experienced significant growth and success, thanks in part to its strong position in the PC market and the success of its Athlon and Opteron processors. However, the company faced challenges in the late 2000s and early 2010s, as it struggled to keep up with Intel in the race to produce faster and more powerful processors.
In the late 2010s, AMD regained market share by pursuing a penetration pricing strategy and building on the success of its Ryzen processors, which were considerably more competitive with Intel microprocessors in terms of performance whilst offering attractive pricing. In 2022, AMD surpassed Intel by market capitalization for the first time.
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AMD
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History
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History
thumb|AMD's former headquarters in Sunnyvale, California (demolished in 2019)
thumb|AMD's campus in Markham, Ontario, Canada, formerly ATI headquarters
thumb|right|AMD's LEED-certified Lone Star campus in Austin, Texas
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AMD
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Foundational years
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Foundational years
Advanced Micro Devices was formally incorporated by Jerry Sanders, along with seven of his colleagues from Fairchild Semiconductor, on May 1, 1969.The other founding members were Ed Turney, John Carey, Sven Simonsen, Jack Gifford and three members from Gifford's team: Frank Botte, Jim Giles, and Larry Stenger.Rodengen, p. 30. Sanders, an electrical engineer who was the director of marketing at Fairchild, had, like many Fairchild executives, grown frustrated with the increasing lack of support, opportunity, and flexibility within the company. He later decided to leave to start his own semiconductor company,"Fairchild's Offspring". Business Week. August 25, 1997. p. 84. following the footsteps of Robert Noyce (developer of the first silicon integrated circuit at Fairchild in 1959)Mueller, Scott. Upgrading and Repairing PCs. Que Publishing, 2013. p. 6. and Gordon Moore, who together founded the semiconductor company Intel in July 1968.Malone, Michael S. "Silicon Insider: AMD-Intel Feud Continues". ABC News. April 24, 2003.
In September 1969, AMD moved from its temporary location in Santa Clara to Sunnyvale, California.Rodengen, p. 36. To immediately secure a customer base, AMD initially became a second source supplier of microchips designed by Fairchild and National Semiconductor.Pederson, Jay P. International Directory of Company Histories, Vol. 30 . St. James Press, 2000.Rodengen, p. 35. AMD first focused on producing logic chips.Rodengen, pp. 37–38. The company guaranteed quality control to United States Military Standard, an advantage in the early computer industry since unreliability in microchips was a distinct problem that customers – including computer manufacturers, the telecommunications industry, and instrument manufacturers – wanted to avoid.Singer, Graham. "The Rise and Fall of AMD". TechSpot. November 21, 2012.Rodengen, pp. 35, 38, 41, 42.AMD Corporation . Silicon Valley Historical Association. 2008.
In November 1969, the company manufactured its first product: the Am9300, a 4-bit MSI shift register, which began selling in 1970.Rodengen, pp. 36, 38. Also in 1970, AMD produced its first proprietary product, the Am2501 logic counter, which was highly successful.Lojek, Bo. History of Semiconductor Engineering.
Springer Science & Business Media, 2007. p. 220.Our History. AMD.com. Its bestselling product in 1971 was the Am2505, the fastest multiplier available.Rodengen, p. 41.
In 1971, AMD entered the RAM chip market, beginning with the Am3101, a 64-bit bipolar RAM.Electronic Design, Volume 19, Part 3. Hayden Publishing Company, 1971. p. 227. That year AMD also greatly increased the sales volume of its linear integrated circuits, and by year-end the company's total annual sales reached US$4.6 million.Rodengen, pp. 42, 43.
AMD went public in September 1972.Rodengen, p. 45.Walker, Rob. "Interview with W. Jerry Sanders" . Silicon Genesis. Stanford University. October 18, 2002. The company was a second source for Intel MOS/LSI circuits by 1973, with products such as Am14/1506 and Am14/1507, dual 100-bit dynamic shift registers.Rodengen, p. 46.MOS/LSI Data Book. Advanced Micro Devices, 1980. pp. 5–1, 5–2, B-8. By 1975, AMD was producing 212 products – of which 49 were proprietary, including the Am9102 (a static N-channel 1024-bit RAM)Electrical Design News, Volume 19, Issues 13–24. Rogers Publishing Company, 1974. p. 86. and three low-power Schottky MSI circuits: Am25LS07, Am25LS08, and Am25LS09.Rodengen, p. 55.
Intel had created the first microprocessor, its 4-bit 4004, in 1971.Venkata Ram, S.K. Advanced Microprocessor & Microcontrollers. Firewall Media, 2004. p. 3.Transcript: Silicon Valley (documentary). American Experience. PBS. 2013. By 1975, AMD entered the microprocessor market with the Am9080, a reverse-engineered clone of the Intel 8080,Rodengen, p. 50.Hitt, Michael; Ireland, R. Duane; Hoskisson, Robert. Strategic Management: Competitiveness and Globalization, Cases, Volume 2. Cengage Learning, 2008. p. 41. and the Am2900 bit-slice microprocessor family. When Intel began installing microcode in its microprocessors in 1976, it entered into a cross-licensing agreement with AMD, which was granted a copyright license to the microcode in its microprocessors and peripherals, effective October 1976.Lennon, Michael J. Drafting Technology Patent License Agreements. Aspen Publishers Online, 2007. p. 4-36.Pane, Patricia J. and Barbara Darrow. "AMD Asserts Right to Distribute Intel Code". InfoWorld. October 1, 1990. p. 5.Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. v. Intel Corp. (1994). No. S033874. December 30, 1994. Justia.com. Retrieved October 25, 2014.SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934: RELEASE No. 37730. Securities and Exchange Commission. Sec.gov. September 26, 1996. (Accessed October 25, 2014.)
In 1977, AMD entered into a joint venture with Siemens, a German engineering conglomerate wishing to enhance its technology expertise and enter the American market.Malerba, Franco. The Semiconductor Business: The Economics of Rapid Growth and Decline. University of Wisconsin Press, 1985. p. 166. Siemens purchased 20% of AMD's stock, giving the company an infusion of cash to increase its product lines.Rodengen, pp. 59–60.Reindustrialization Or New Industrialization: Minutes of a Symposium, January 13, 1981, Part 3. National Academies, 1981. p. 53. The two companies also jointly established Advanced Micro Computers (AMC), located in Silicon Valley and in Germany, allowing AMD to enter the microcomputer development and manufacturing field,Rodengen, p. 60.ADVANCED MICRO COMPUTERS, INC. . CaliforniaFirm.us.ADVANCED MICRO COMPUTERS, INC. . CaliforniaCompaniesList.com. in particular based on AMD's second-source Zilog Z8000 microprocessors.Mini-micro Systems, Volume 15. Cahners Publishing Company, 1982. p. 286. When the two companies' vision for Advanced Micro Computers diverged, AMD bought out Siemens' stake in the American division in 1979.Rodengen, p. 62."Siemens and Advanced Micro Devices Agree to Split Joint Venture". The Wall Street Journal. February 14, 1979. p. 38. AMD closed Advanced Micro Computers in late 1981 after switching focus to manufacturing second-source Intel x86 microprocessors.Freiberger, Paul. "AMD sued for alleged misuse of subsidiary's secrets". InfoWorld. June 20, 1983. p. 28.Swaine, Michael. "Eight Companies to produce the 8086 chip". InfoWorld. November 30, 1981. p. 78.Rodengen, p. 73.
Total sales in fiscal year 1978 topped $100 million, and in 1979, AMD debuted on the New York Stock Exchange. In 1979, production also began on AMD's new semiconductor fabrication plant in Austin, Texas; the company already had overseas assembly facilities in Penang and Manila,Rodengen, p. 59. and began construction on a fabrication plant in San Antonio in 1981.Hitt, Michael; Ireland, R. Duane; Hoskisson, Robert. Strategic Management: Concepts and Cases. Cengage Learning, 2006. p. C-26. In 1980, AMD began supplying semiconductor products for telecommunications, an industry undergoing rapid expansion and innovation.Rodengen, pp. 65, 71–72, 79–80.
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AMD
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Intel partnership
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Intel partnership
Intel had introduced the first x86 microprocessors in 1978.Sanchez, Julio, and Maria P. Canton. Software Solutions for Engineers and Scientists.
CRC Press, 2007. p. 95. In 1981, IBM created its PC, and wanted Intel's x86 processors, but only under the condition that Intel would also provide a second-source manufacturer for its patented x86 microprocessors. Intel and AMD entered into a 10-year technology exchange agreement, first signed in October 1981AMD 8086 microprocessor family, CPU World. (Accessed November 3, 2014.) and formally executed in February 1982. The terms of the agreement were that each company could acquire the right to become a second-source manufacturer of semiconductor products developed by the other; that is, each party could "earn" the right to manufacture and sell a product developed by the other, if agreed to, by exchanging the manufacturing rights to a product of equivalent technical complexity. The technical information and licenses needed to make and sell a part would be exchanged for a royalty to the developing company. The 1982 agreement also extended the 1976 AMD–Intel cross-licensing agreement through 1995. The agreement included the right to invoke arbitration of disagreements, and after five years the right of either party to end the agreement with one year's notice. The main result of the 1982 agreement was that AMD became a second-source manufacturer of Intel's x86 microprocessors and related chips, and Intel provided AMD with database tapes for its 8086, 80186, and 80286 chips. However, in the event of a bankruptcy or takeover of AMD, the cross-licensing agreement would be effectively canceled.
Beginning in 1982, AMD began volume-producing second-source Intel-licensed 8086, 8088, 80186, and 80188 processors, and by 1984, its own Am286 clone of Intel's 80286 processor, for the rapidly growing market of IBM PCs and IBM clones.Ziberg, Christian. "Timeline: How AMD changed over the past 39 years" . TGDaily. October 7, 2008. It also continued its successful concentration on proprietary bipolar chips.International Directory of Company Histories. 1992.
The company continued to spend greatly on research and development,Rodengen, pp. 73, 78–80. and created the world's first 512K EPROM in 1984.Rodengen, p. 80. That year, AMD was listed in the book The 100 Best Companies to Work for in America,Levering, Robert; Moskowitz, Milton; Katz, Michael. The 100 Best Companies to Work for in America. Addison-Wesley, 1984. and later made the Fortune 500 list for the first time in 1985.1985 Full list . Fortune 500. Fortune archive.Rodengen, p. 85.
By mid-1985, the microchip market experienced a severe downturn, mainly due to long-term aggressive trade practices (dumping) from Japan, but also due to a crowded and non-innovative chip market in the United States.Rodengen, pp. 85–87. AMD rode out the mid-1980s crisis by aggressively innovating and modernizing,Rodengen, pp. 86, 90, 95, 99. devising the Liberty Chip program of designing and manufacturing one new chip or chipset per week for 52 weeks in fiscal year 1986,Rodengen, pp. 90–91. and by heavily lobbying the U.S. government until sanctions and restrictions were put in place to prevent predatory Japanese pricing.Rodengen, pp. 87–88, 97–99. During this time, AMD withdrew from the DRAM market,Rodengen, p. 97. and made some headway into the CMOS market, which it had lagged in entering, having focused instead on bipolar chips.Rodengen, p. 91.
AMD had some success in the mid-1980s with the AMD7910 and AMD7911 "World Chip" FSK modem, one of the first multi-standard devices that covered both Bell and CCITT tones at up to 1200 baud half duplex or 300/300 full duplex.Computer Design, Volume 25, Issues 13–22. Computer Design Publishing Corporation, 1986. p. 14. Beginning in 1986, AMD embraced the perceived shift toward RISC with their own AMD Am29000 (29k) processor;Rodengen, p. 100. the 29k survived as an embedded processor.Pflanz, Matthias. On-line Error Detection and Fast Recover Techniques for Dependable Embedded Processors. Springer Science & Business Media, 2002. p. 23. The company also increased its EPROM memory market share in the late 1980s.Rodengen, pp. 121–122. Throughout the 1980s, AMD was a second-source supplier of Intel x86 processors. In 1991, it introduced its 386-compatible Am386, an AMD-designed chip. Creating its own chips, AMD began to compete directly with Intel.AMD. PC Encyclopedia. PC Magazine.
AMD had a large, successful flash memory business, even during the dotcom bust.Ruiz. p. 20. In 2003, to divest some manufacturing and aid its overall cash flow, which was under duress from aggressive microprocessor competition from Intel, AMD spun off its flash memory business and manufacturing into Spansion, a joint venture with Fujitsu, which had been co-manufacturing flash memory with AMD since 1993.Ruiz, pp. 54–55.Spooner, John G. "AMD, Fujitsu merge on flash memory". CNET. July 14, 2003. In December 2005, AMD divested itself of Spansion to focus on the microprocessor market, and Spansion went public in an IPO.Yi, Matthew. "Spansion spun off by AMD". San Francisco Chronicle. December 17, 2005.
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AMD
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2006–present
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2006–present
On July 24, 2006, AMD announced its acquisition of the Canadian 3D graphics card company ATI Technologies. AMD paid $4.3 billion and 58 million shares of its capital stock, for approximately $5.4 billion. The transaction was completed on October 25, 2006. On August 30, 2010, AMD announced that it would retire the ATI brand name for its graphics chipsets in favor of the AMD brand name.
In October 2008, AMD announced plans to spin off manufacturing operations in the form of GlobalFoundries Inc., a multibillion-dollar joint venture with Advanced Technology Investment Co., an investment company formed by the government of Abu Dhabi. The partnership and spin-off gave AMD an infusion of cash and allowed it to focus solely on chip design. To assure the Abu Dhabi investors of the new venture's success, AMD's CEO Hector Ruiz stepped down in July 2008, while remaining executive chairman, in preparation for becoming chairman of GlobalFoundries in March 2009.Ruiz, 159–162.Gruener, Wolfgang. "AMD's fabs now on their own: GlobalFoundries" . TG Daily. March 4, 2009. President and COO Dirk Meyer became AMD's CEO."At a glance: AMD's new CEO Dirk Meyer". Associated Press. July 17, 2008. Recessionary losses necessitated AMD cutting 1,100 jobs in 2009.Kawamoto, Dawn. "AMD to trim 1,100 jobs, initiate temporary pay cuts". CNET. January 16, 2009.
In August 2011, AMD announced that former Lenovo executive Rory Read would be joining the company as CEO, replacing Meyer. In November 2011, AMD announced plans to lay off more than 10% (1,400) of its employees from across all divisions worldwide.O'Gara. Maureen. "AMD to Fire 1,400" . Virtualization Journal. November 7, 2011. In October 2012, it announced plans to lay off an additional 15% of its workforce to reduce costs in the face of declining sales revenue. The inclusion of AMD chips into the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One were later seen as saving AMD from bankruptcy.
AMD acquired the low-power server manufacturer SeaMicro in early 2012, with an eye to bringing out an Arm64 server chip.
On October 8, 2014, AMD announced that Rory Read had stepped down after three years as president and chief executive officer. He was succeeded by Lisa Su, a key lieutenant who had been chief operating officer since June.A.M.D names Lisa Su as chief executive, Bits-Blogs, NYTimes October 8, 2014.
On October 16, 2014, AMD announced a new restructuring plan along with its Q3 results. Effective July 1, 2014, AMD reorganized into two business groups: Computing and Graphics, which primarily includes desktop and notebook processors and chipsets, discrete GPUs, and professional graphics; and Enterprise, Embedded, and Semi-Custom, which primarily includes server and embedded processors, dense servers, semi-custom SoC products (including solutions for gaming consoles), engineering services, and royalties. As part of this restructuring, AMD announced that 7% of its global workforce would be laid off by the end of 2014.AMD Reports 2014 Third Quarter Results. AMD. October 16, 2014. Retrieved October 20, 2014.
After the GlobalFoundries spin-off and subsequent layoffs, AMD was left with significant vacant space at 1 AMD Place, its aging Sunnyvale headquarters office complex. In August 2016, AMD's 47 years in Sunnyvale came to a close when it signed a lease with the Irvine Company for a new 220,000 sq. ft. headquarters building in Santa Clara. AMD's new location at Santa Clara Square faces the headquarters of archrival Intel across the Bayshore Freeway and San Tomas Aquino Creek. Around the same time, AMD also agreed to sell 1 AMD Place to the Irvine Company. In April 2019, the Irvine Company secured approval from the Sunnyvale City Council of its plans to demolish 1 AMD Place and redevelop the entire 32-acre site into townhomes and apartments.
In October 2020, AMD announced that it was acquiring Xilinx, one of the market leaders in field programmable gate arrays and complex programmable logic devices (FPGAs and CPLDs) in an all-stock transaction. The acquisition was completed in February 2022, with an estimated acquisition price of $50 billion.
In October 2023, AMD acquired an open-source AI software provider, Nod.ai, to bolster its AI software ecosystem.
In January 2024, AMD announced it was discontinuing the production of all complex programmable logic devices (CPLDs) acquired through Xilinx.
In March 2024, a rally in semiconductor stocks pushed AMD's valuation above $300B for the first time.
In July 2024, AMD announced that it would acquire the Finnish-based artificial intelligence startup company Silo AI in a $665 million all-cash deal in an attempt to better compete with AI chip market leader Nvidia.
In August 2024, AMD sign a deal to acquire ZT Systems for $4.9 Billion. The company creates custom computing infrastructure that is used for AI tasks.
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AMD
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List of CEOs
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List of CEOs
Name Years Position, education Jerry Sanders 1969–2002 Founder, electrical engineer Hector Ruiz 2002–2008 Electrical engineer Dirk Meyer 2008–2011 Computer engineer Rory Read 2011–2014 Information Systems Lisa Su 2014–present Electrical engineer
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AMD
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Products
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Products
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AMD
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CPUs and APUs
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CPUs and APUs
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AMD
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IBM PC and the x86 architecture
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IBM PC and the x86 architecture
In February 1982, AMD signed a contract with Intel, becoming a licensed second-source manufacturer of 8086 and 8088 processors. IBM wanted to use the Intel 8088 in its IBM PC, but its policy at the time was to require at least two sources for its chips. AMD later produced the Am286 under the same arrangement. In 1984, Intel internally decided to no longer cooperate with AMD in supplying product information to shore up its advantage in the marketplace, and delayed and eventually refused to convey the technical details of the Intel 80386.Ruiz, p. 86–87. In 1987, AMD invoked arbitration over the issue, and Intel reacted by canceling the 1982 technological-exchange agreement altogether.Rodengen, p. 102.Ruiz, p. 87. After three years of testimony, AMD eventually won in arbitration in 1992, but Intel disputed this decision. Another long legal dispute followed, ending in 1994 when the Supreme Court of California sided with the arbitrator and AMD.
In 1990, Intel countersued AMD, renegotiating AMD's right to use derivatives of Intel's microcode for its cloned processors.Rodengen, p. 116. In the face of uncertainty during the legal dispute, AMD was forced to develop clean room designed versions of Intel code for its x386 and x486 processors, the former long after Intel had released its own x386 in 1985.Rodengen, pp. 116–199. In March 1991, AMD released the Am386, its clone of the Intel 386 processor. By October of the same year it had sold one million units.
In 1993, AMD introduced the first of the Am486 family of processors, which proved popular with a large number of original equipment manufacturers, including Compaq, which signed an exclusive agreement using the Am486. The Am5x86, another Am486-based processor, was released in November 1995, and continued AMD's success as a fast, cost-effective processor.
Finally, in an agreement effective 1996, AMD received the rights to the microcode in Intel's x386 and x486 processor families, but not the rights to the microcode in the following generations of processors.
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AMD
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{{anchor
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K5, K6, Athlon, Duron, and Sempron
AMD's first in-house x86 processor was the K5, launched in 1996. The "K" in its name was a reference to Kryptonite, the only substance known to harm comic book character Superman. This itself was a reference to Intel's hegemony over the market, i.e., an anthropomorphization of them as Superman. The number "5" was a reference to the fifth generation of x86 processors; rival Intel had previously introduced its line of fifth-generation x86 processors as Pentium because the U.S. Trademark and Patent Office had ruled that mere numbers could not be trademarked.
In 1996, AMD purchased NexGen, specifically for the rights to their Nx series of x86-compatible processors. AMD gave the NexGen design team their own building, left them alone, and gave them time and money to rework the Nx686. The result was the K6 processor, introduced in 1997. Although it was based on Socket 7, variants such as K6-III/450 were faster than Intel's Pentium II (sixth-generation processor).
The K7 was AMD's seventh-generation x86 processor, making its debut under the brand name Athlon on June 23, 1999. Unlike previous AMD processors, it could not be used on the same motherboards as Intel's, due to licensing issues surrounding Intel's Slot 1 connector, and instead used a Slot A connector, referenced to the Alpha processor bus. The Duron was a lower-cost and limited version of the Athlon (64 KB instead of 256 KB L2 cache) in a 462-pin socketed PGA (socket A) or soldered directly onto the motherboard. Sempron was released as a lower-cost Athlon XP, replacing Duron in the socket A PGA era. It has since been migrated upward to all new sockets, up to AM3.
On October 9, 2001, the Athlon XP was released. On February 10, 2003, the Athlon XP with 512 KB L2 Cache was released.
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AMD
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Athlon 64, Opteron, and Phenom
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Athlon 64, Opteron, and Phenom
The K8 was a major revision of the K7 architecture, with the most notable features being the addition of a 64-bit extension to the x86 instruction set (called x86-64, AMD64, or x64), the incorporation of an on-chip memory controller, and the implementation of an extremely high-performance point-to-point interconnect called HyperTransport, as part of the Direct Connect Architecture. The technology was initially launched as the Opteron server-oriented processor on April 22, 2003.Scott Wasson. "Workstation platforms compared ", techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., September 15, 2003. Retrieved July 29, 2007. Shortly thereafter, it was incorporated into a product for desktop PCs, branded Athlon 64.Scott Wasson. "AMD's Athlon 64 processor ", techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., September 23, 2003. Retrieved July 29, 2007.
On April 21, 2005, AMD released the first dual-core Opteron, an x86-based server CPU.Scott Wasson. "AMD's dual-core Opteron processors ", techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., April 21, 2005. Retrieved July 29, 2007. A month later, it released the Athlon 64 X2, the first desktop-based dual-core processor family.Scott Wasson. "AMD's Athlon 64 X2 processors ", techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., May 9, 2005. Retrieved July 29, 2007. In May 2007, AMD abandoned the string "64" in its dual-core desktop product branding, becoming Athlon X2, downplaying the significance of 64-bit computing in its processors. Further updates involved improvements to the microarchitecture, and a shift of the target market from mainstream desktop systems to value dual-core desktop systems. In 2008, AMD started to release dual-core Sempron processors exclusively in China, branded as the Sempron 2000 series, with lower HyperTransport speed and smaller L2 cache. AMD completed its dual-core product portfolio for each market segment.
In September 2007, AMD released the first server Opteron K10 processors, followed in November by the Phenom processor for desktop. K10 processors came in dual-core, triple-core,AMD announcement. Retrieved September 17, 2007. and quad-core versions, with all cores on a single die. AMD released a new platform codenamed "Spider", which used the new Phenom processor, and an R770 GPU and a 790 GX/FX chipset from the AMD 700 chipset series. However, AMD built the Spider at 65nm, which was uncompetitive with Intel's smaller and more power-efficient 45nm.
In January 2009, AMD released a new processor line dubbed Phenom II, a refresh of the original Phenom built using the 45 nm process. AMD's new platform, codenamed "Dragon", used the new Phenom II processor, and an ATI R770 GPU from the R700 GPU family, and a 790 GX/FX chipset from the AMD 700 chipset series. The Phenom II came in dual-core, triple-core and quad-core variants, all using the same die, with cores disabled for the triple-core and dual-core versions. The Phenom II resolved issues that the original Phenom had, including a low clock speed, a small L3 cache, and a Cool'n'Quiet bug that decreased performance. The Phenom II cost less but was not performance-competitive with Intel's mid-to-high-range Core 2 Quads. The Phenom II also enhanced its predecessor's memory controller, allowing it to use DDR3 in a new native socket AM3, while maintaining backward compatibility with AM2+, the socket used for the Phenom, and allowing the use of the DDR2 memory that was used with the platform.
In April 2010, AMD released a new Phenom II Hexa-core (6-core) processor codenamed "Thuban". This was a totally new die based on the hexa-core "Istanbul" Opteron processor. It included AMD's "turbo core" technology, which allows the processor to automatically switch from 6 cores to 3 faster cores when more pure speed is needed.
The Magny Cours and Lisbon server parts were released in 2010. The Magny Cours part came in 8 to 12 cores and the Lisbon part in 4 and 6 core parts. Magny Cours is focused on performance while the Lisbon part is focused on high performance per watt. Magny Cours is an MCM (multi-chip module) with two hexa-core "Istanbul" Opteron parts. This will use a new socket G34 for dual and quad-socket processors and thus will be marketed as Opteron 61xx series processors. Lisbon uses socket C32 certified for dual-socket use or single socket use only and thus will be marketed as Opteron 41xx processors. Both will be built on a 45 nm SOI process.
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AMD
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Fusion becomes the AMD APU
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Fusion becomes the AMD APU
Following AMD's 2006 acquisition of Canadian graphics company ATI Technologies, an initiative codenamed Fusion was announced to integrate a CPU and GPU together on some of AMD's microprocessors, including a built in PCI Express link to accommodate separate PCI Express peripherals, eliminating the northbridge chip from the motherboard. The initiative intended to move some of the processing originally done on the CPU (e.g. floating-point unit operations) to the GPU, which is better optimized for some calculations. The Fusion was later renamed the AMD APU (Accelerated Processing Unit).
Llano was AMD's first APU built for laptops. Llano was the second APU released, targeted at the mainstream market. It incorporated a CPU and GPU on the same die, and northbridge functions, and used "Socket FM1" with DDR3 memory. The CPU part of the processor was based on the Phenom II "Deneb" processor. AMD suffered an unexpected decrease in revenue based on production problems for the Llano. More AMD APUs for laptops running Windows 7 and Windows 8 OS are being used commonly. These include AMD's price-point APUs, the E1 and E2, and their mainstream competitors with Intel's Core i-series: The Vision A- series, the A standing for accelerated. These range from the lower-performance A4 chipset to the A6, A8, and A10. These all incorporate next-generation Radeon graphics cards, with the A4 utilizing the base Radeon HD chip and the rest using a Radeon R4 graphics card, with the exception of the highest-model A10 (A10-7300) which uses an R6 graphics card.
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AMD
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New microarchitectures
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New microarchitectures
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AMD
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High-power, high-performance Bulldozer cores
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High-power, high-performance Bulldozer cores
Bulldozer was AMD's microarchitecture codename for server and desktop AMD FX processors, first released on October 12, 2011. This family 15h microarchitecture is the successor to the family 10h (K10) microarchitecture design. Bulldozer was a clean-sheet design, not a development of earlier processors. The core was specifically aimed at 10–125 W TDP computing products. AMD claimed dramatic performance-per-watt efficiency improvements in high-performance computing (HPC) applications with Bulldozer cores. While hopes were high that Bulldozer would bring AMD to be performance-competitive with Intel once more, most benchmarks were disappointing. In some cases the new Bulldozer products were slower than the K10 models they were built to replace.
The Piledriver microarchitecture was the 2012 successor to Bulldozer, increasing clock speeds and performance relative to its predecessor. Piledriver would be released in AMD FX, APU, and Opteron product lines. Piledriver was subsequently followed by the Steamroller microarchitecture in 2013. Used exclusively in AMD's APUs, Steamroller focused on greater parallelism.
In 2015, the Excavator microarchitecture replaced Piledriver. Expected to be the last microarchitecture of the Bulldozer series, Excavator focused on improved power efficiency.
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AMD
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Low-power Cat cores
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Low-power Cat cores
The Bobcat microarchitecture was revealed during a speech from AMD executive vice-president Henri Richard in Computex 2007 and was put into production during the first quarter of 2011. Based on the difficulty competing in the x86 market with a single core optimized for the 10–100 W range, AMD had developed a simpler core with a target range of 1–10 watts. In addition, it was believed that the core could migrate into the hand-held space if the power consumption can be reduced to less than 1 W.
Jaguar is a microarchitecture codename for Bobcat's successor, released in 2013, that is used in various APUs from AMD aimed at the low-power/low-cost market. Jaguar and its derivates would go on to be used in the custom APUs of the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, PlayStation 4 Pro, Xbox One S, and Xbox One X. Jaguar would be later followed by the Puma microarchitecture in 2014.
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AMD
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ARM architecture-based designs
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ARM architecture-based designs
In 2012, AMD announced it was working on ARM products, both as a semi-custom product and server product. The initial server product was announced as the Opteron A1100 in 2014, an 8-core Cortex-A57-based ARMv8-A SoC, and was expected to be followed by an APU incorporating a Graphics Core Next GPU. However, the Opteron A1100 was not released until 2016, with the delay attributed to adding software support. The A1100 was also criticized for not having support from major vendors upon its release.
In 2014, AMD also announced the K12 custom core for release in 2016. While being ARMv8-A instruction set architecture compliant, the K12 was expected to be entirely custom-designed, targeting the server, embedded, and semi-custom markets. While ARM architecture development continued, products based on K12 were subsequently delayed with no release planned. Development of AMD's x86-based Zen microarchitecture was preferred.
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AMD
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Zen-based CPUs and APUs
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Zen-based CPUs and APUs
Zen is an architecture for x86-64 based Ryzen series of CPUs and APUs, introduced in 2017 by AMD and built from the ground up by a team led by Jim Keller, beginning with his arrival in 2012, and taping out before his departure in September 2015.
One of AMD's primary goals with Zen was an IPC increase of at least 40%, however in February 2017 AMD announced that they had actually achieved a 52% increase. Processors made on the Zen architecture are built on the 14 nm FinFET node and have a renewed focus on single-core performance and HSA compatibility. Previous processors from AMD were either built in the 32 nm process ("Bulldozer" and "Piledriver" CPUs) or the 28 nm process ("Steamroller" and "Excavator" APUs). Because of this, Zen is much more energy efficient.
The Zen architecture is the first to encompass CPUs and APUs from AMD built for a single socket (Socket AM4). Also new for this architecture is the implementation of simultaneous multithreading (SMT) technology, something Intel has had for years on some of their processors with their proprietary hyper-threading implementation of SMT. This is a departure from the "Clustered MultiThreading" design introduced with the Bulldozer architecture. Zen also has support for DDR4 memory.
AMD released the Zen-based high-end Ryzen 7 "Summit Ridge" series CPUs on March 2, 2017, mid-range Ryzen 5 series CPUs on April 11, 2017, and entry level Ryzen 3 series CPUs on July 27, 2017. AMD later released the Epyc line of Zen derived server processors for 1P and 2P systems. In October 2017, AMD released Zen-based APUs as Ryzen Mobile, incorporating Vega graphics cores. In January 2018 AMD has announced their new lineup plans, with Ryzen 2. AMD launched CPUs with the 12nm Zen+ microarchitecture in April 2018, following up with the 7nm Zen 2 microarchitecture in June 2019, including an update to the Epyc line with new processors using the Zen 2 microarchitecture in August 2019, and Zen 3 slated for release in Q3 2020.
As of 2019, AMD's Ryzen processors were reported to outsell Intel's consumer desktop processors. At CES 2020 AMD announced their Ryzen Mobile 4000, as the first 7 nm x86 mobile processor, the first 7 nm 8-core (also 16-thread) high-performance mobile processor, and the first 8-core (also 16-thread) processor for ultrathin laptops. This generation is still based on the Zen 2 architecture. In October 2020, AMD announced new processors based on the Zen 3 architecture. On PassMark's Single thread performance test the Ryzen 5 5600x bested all other CPUs besides the Ryzen 9 5950X.
In April 2020, AMD launched three new SKUs which target commercial HPC workloads & hyperconverged infrastructure applications. The launch was based on Epyc’s 7 nm second-generation Rome platform and supported by Dell EMC, Hewlett Packard Enterprise, Lenovo, Supermicro, and Nutanix. IBM Cloud was its first public cloud partner. In August 2022, AMD announced their initial lineup of CPUs based on the new Zen 4 architecture.
The Steam Deck, PlayStation 5, Xbox Series X and Series S all use chips based on the Zen 2 microarchitecture, with proprietary tweaks and different configurations in each system's implementation than AMD sells in its own commercially available APUs.
In March 2025 AMD announced Instella an open source large language model.
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AMD
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Graphics products and GPUs
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Graphics products and GPUs
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AMD
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ATI prior to AMD acquisition
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ATI prior to AMD acquisition
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AMD
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Radeon within AMD
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Radeon within AMD
In 2007, the ATI division of AMD released the TeraScale microarchitecture implementing a unified shader model. This design replaced the previous fixed-function hardware of previous graphics cards with multipurpose, programmable shaders. Initially released as part of the GPU for the Xbox 360, this technology would go on to be used in Radeon branded HD 2000 parts. Three generations of TeraScale would be designed and used in parts from 2007 to 2015.
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AMD
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Combined GPU and CPU divisions
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Combined GPU and CPU divisions
In a 2009 restructuring, AMD merged the CPU and GPU divisions to support the company's APUs, which fused both graphics and general purpose processing. In 2011, AMD released the successor to TeraScale, Graphics Core Next (GCN). This new microarchitecture emphasized GPGPU compute capability in addition to graphics processing, with a particular aim of supporting heterogeneous computing on AMD's APUs. GCN's reduced instruction set ISA allowed for significantly increased compute capability over TeraScale's very long instruction word ISA. Since GCN's introduction with the HD 7970, five generations of the GCN architecture have been produced from 2011 through at least 2018.
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AMD
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Radeon Technologies Group
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Radeon Technologies Group
In September 2015, AMD separated the graphics technology division of the company into an independent internal unit called the Radeon Technologies Group (RTG) headed by Raja Koduri. This gave the graphics division of AMD autonomy in product design and marketing. The RTG then went on to create and release the Polaris and Vega microarchitectures released in 2016 and 2017, respectively. In particular the Vega, or fifth-generation GCN, microarchitecture includes a number of major revisions to improve performance and compute capabilities.
In November 2017, Raja Koduri left RTG and CEO and President Lisa Su took his position. In January 2018, it was reported that two industry veterans joined RTG, namely Mike Rayfield as senior vice president and general manager of RTG, and David Wang as senior vice president of engineering for RTG. In January 2020, AMD announced that its second-generation RDNA graphics architecture was in development, with the aim of competing with the Nvidia RTX graphics products for performance leadership. In October 2020, AMD announced their new RX 6000 series series GPUs, their first high-end product based on RDNA2 and capable of handling ray-tracing natively, aiming to challenge Nvidia's RTX 3000 GPUs.
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AMD
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Semi-custom and game console products
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Semi-custom and game console products
In 2012, AMD's then CEO Rory Read began a program to offer semi-custom designs. Rather than AMD simply designing and offering a single product, potential customers could work with AMD to design a custom chip based on AMD's intellectual property. Customers pay a non-recurring engineering fee for design and development, and a purchase price for the resulting semi-custom products. In particular, AMD noted their unique position of offering both x86 and graphics intellectual property. These semi-custom designs would have design wins as the APUs in the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One and the subsequent PlayStation 4 Pro, Xbox One S, Xbox One X, Xbox Series X/S, and PlayStation 5. Financially, these semi-custom products would represent a majority of the company's revenue in 2016. In November 2017, AMD and Intel announced that Intel would market a product combining in a single package an Intel Core CPU, a semi-custom AMD Radeon GPU, and HBM2 memory.
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AMD
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Other hardware
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Other hardware
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AMD
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AMD motherboard chipsets
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AMD motherboard chipsets
Before the launch of Athlon 64 processors in 2003, AMD designed chipsets for their processors spanning the K6 and K7 processor generations. The chipsets include the AMD-640, AMD-751, and the AMD-761 chipsets. The situation changed in 2003 with the release of Athlon 64 processors, and AMD chose not to further design its own chipsets for its desktop processors while opening the desktop platform to allow other firms to design chipsets. This was the "Open Platform Management Architecture" with ATI, VIA and SiS developing their own chipset for Athlon 64 processors and later Athlon 64 X2 and Athlon 64 FX processors, including the Quad FX platform chipset from Nvidia.
The initiative went further with the release of Opteron server processors as AMD stopped the design of server chipsets in 2004 after releasing the AMD-8111 chipset, and again opened the server platform for firms to develop chipsets for Opteron processors. As of today, Nvidia and Broadcom are the sole designing firms of server chipsets for Opteron processors.
As the company completed the acquisition of ATI Technologies in 2006, the firm gained the ATI design team for chipsets which previously designed the Radeon Xpress 200 and the Radeon Xpress 3200 chipsets. AMD then renamed the chipsets for AMD processors under AMD branding (for instance, the CrossFire Xpress 3200 chipset was renamed as AMD 580X CrossFire chipset). In February 2007, AMD announced the first AMD-branded chipset since 2004 with the release of the AMD 690G chipset (previously under the development codename RS690), targeted at mainstream IGP computing. It was the industry's first to implement a HDMI 1.2 port on motherboards, shipping for more than a million units. While ATI had aimed at releasing an Intel IGP chipset, the plan was scrapped and the inventories of Radeon Xpress 1250 (codenamed RS600, sold under ATI brand) was sold to two OEMs, Abit and ASRock. Although AMD stated the firm would still produce Intel chipsets, Intel had not granted the license of FSB to ATI.
On November 15, 2007, AMD announced a new chipset series portfolio, the AMD 7-Series chipsets, covering from the enthusiast multi-graphics segment to the value IGP segment, to replace the AMD 480/570/580 chipsets and AMD 690 series chipsets, marking AMD's first enthusiast multi-graphics chipset. Discrete graphics chipsets were launched on November 15, 2007, as part of the codenamed Spider desktop platform, and IGP chipsets were launched at a later time in spring 2008 as part of the codenamed Cartwheel platform.
AMD returned to the server chipsets market with the AMD 800S series server chipsets. It includes support for up to six SATA 6.0 Gbit/s ports, the C6 power state, which is featured in Fusion processors and AHCI 1.2 with SATA FIS-based switching support. This is a chipset family supporting Phenom processors and Quad FX enthusiast platform (890FX), IGP (890GX).
With the advent of AMD's APUs in 2011, traditional northbridge features such as the connection to graphics and the PCI Express controller were incorporated into the APU die. Accordingly, APUs were connected to a single chip chipset, renamed the Fusion Controller Hub (FCH), which primarily provided southbridge functionality.
AMD released new chipsets in 2017 to support the release of their new Ryzen products. As the Zen microarchitecture already includes much of the northbridge connectivity, the AM4-based chipsets primarily varied in the number of additional PCI Express lanes, USB connections, and SATA connections available. These AM4 chipsets were designed in conjunction with ASMedia.
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AMD
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Embedded products
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Embedded products
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AMD
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Embedded CPUs
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Embedded CPUs
thumb|An AMD Élan SC450 in Nokia 9000 Communicator
In the early 1990s, AMD began marketing a series of embedded system-on-a-chips (SoCs) called AMD Élan, starting with the SC300 and SC310. Both combines a 32-Bit, Am386SX, low-voltage 25 MHz or 33 MHz CPU with memory controller, PC/AT peripheral controllers, real-time clock, PLL clock generators and ISA bus interface. The SC300 integrates in addition two PC card slots and a CGA-compatible LCD controller. They were followed in 1996 by the SC4xx types. Now supporting VESA Local Bus and using the Am486 with up to 100 MHz clock speed. A SC450 with 33 MHz, for example, was used in the Nokia 9000 Communicator. In 1999 the SC520 was announced. Using an Am586 with 100 MHz or 133 MHz and supporting SDRAM and PCI it was the latest member of the series.
In February 2002, AMD acquired Alchemy Semiconductor for its Alchemy line of MIPS processors for the hand-held and portable media player markets. On June 13, 2006, AMD officially announced that the line was to be transferred to Raza Microelectronics, Inc., a designer of MIPS processors for embedded applications.
In August 2003, AMD also purchased the Geode business which was originally the Cyrix MediaGX from National Semiconductor to augment its existing line of embedded x86 processor products. During the second quarter of 2004, it launched new low-power Geode NX processors based on the K7 Thoroughbred architecture with speeds of fanless processors and , and processor with fan, of TDP 25 W. This technology is used in a variety of embedded systems (Casino slot machines and customer kiosks for instance), several UMPC designs in Asia markets, and the OLPC XO-1 computer, an inexpensive laptop computer intended to be distributed to children in developing countries around the world. The Geode LX processor was announced in 2005 and is said will continue to be available through 2015.
AMD has also introduced 64-bit processors into its embedded product line starting with the AMD Opteron processor. Leveraging the high throughput enabled through HyperTransport and the Direct Connect Architecture these server-class processors have been targeted at high-end telecom and storage applications. In 2007, AMD added the AMD Athlon, AMD Turion, and Mobile AMD Sempron processors to its embedded product line. Leveraging the same 64-bit instruction set and Direct Connect Architecture as the AMD Opteron but at lower power levels, these processors were well suited to a variety of traditional embedded applications. Throughout 2007 and into 2008, AMD has continued to add both single-core Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors and dual-core AMD Athlon X2 and AMD Turion processors to its embedded product line and now offers embedded 64-bit solutions starting with 8 W TDP Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors for fan-less designs up to multi-processor systems leveraging multi-core AMD Opteron processors all supporting longer than standard availability.
The ATI acquisition in 2006 included the Imageon and Xilleon product lines. In late 2008, the entire handheld division was sold off to Qualcomm, who have since produced the Adreno series. Also in 2008, the Xilleon division was sold to Broadcom.
In April 2007, AMD announced the release of the M690T integrated graphics chipset for embedded designs. This enabled AMD to offer complete processor and chipset solutions targeted at embedded applications requiring high-performance 3D and video such as emerging digital signage, kiosk, and Point of Sale applications. The M690T was followed by the M690E specifically for embedded applications which removed the TV output, which required Macrovision licensing for OEMs, and enabled native support for dual TMDS outputs, enabling dual independent DVI interfaces.
In January 2011, AMD announced the AMD Embedded G-Series Accelerated Processing Unit. This was the first APU for embedded applications. These were followed by updates in 2013 and 2016.
In May 2012, AMD Announced the AMD Embedded R-Series Accelerated Processing Unit. This family of products incorporates the Bulldozer CPU architecture, and Discrete-class Radeon HD 7000G Series graphics. This was followed by a system-on-a-chip (SoC) version in 2015 which offered a faster CPU and faster graphics, with support for DDR4 SDRAM memory.
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AMD
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Embedded graphics
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Embedded graphics
AMD builds graphic processors for use in embedded systems. They can be found in anything from casinos to healthcare, with a large portion of products being used in industrial machines. These products include a complete graphics processing device in a compact multi-chip module including RAM and the GPU. ATI began offering embedded GPUs with the E2400 in 2008. Since that time AMD has released regular updates to their embedded GPU lineup in 2009, 2011, 2015, and 2016; reflecting improvements in their GPU technology.
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AMD
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Current product lines
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Current product lines
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AMD
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CPU and APU products
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CPU and APU products
AMD's portfolio of CPUs and APUs
Athlon – brand of entry level CPUs (Excavator) and APUs (Ryzen)
A-series – Excavator-class consumer desktop and laptop APUs
G-series – Excavator- and Jaguar-class low-power embedded APUs
Ryzen – brand of consumer CPUs and APUs
Ryzen Threadripper – brand of prosumer/professional CPUs
R-series – Excavator class high-performance embedded APUs
Epyc – brand of server CPUs
Opteron – brand of microserver APUs
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AMD
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Graphics products
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Graphics products
AMD's portfolio of dedicated graphics processors
Radeon – brand for consumer line of graphics cards; the brand name originated with ATI.
Mobility Radeon offers power-optimized versions of Radeon graphics chips for use in laptops.
Radeon Pro – Workstation graphics card brand. Successor to the FirePro brand.
Radeon Instinct – brand of server and workstation targeted machine learning and GPGPU products
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AMD
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Radeon-branded products
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Radeon-branded products
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AMD
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RAM
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RAM
thumb|AMD Radeon memory
In 2011, AMD began selling Radeon branded DDR3 SDRAM to support the higher bandwidth needs of AMD's APUs. While the RAM is sold by AMD, it was manufactured by Patriot Memory and VisionTek. This was later followed by higher speeds of gaming oriented DDR3 memory in 2013. Radeon branded DDR4 SDRAM memory was released in 2015, despite no AMD CPUs or APUs supporting DDR4 at the time. AMD noted in 2017 that these products are "mostly distributed in Eastern Europe" and that it continues to be active in the business.
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AMD
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Solid-state drives
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Solid-state drives
AMD announced in 2014 it would sell Radeon branded solid-state drives manufactured by OCZ with capacities up to 480 GB and using the SATA interface.
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AMD
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Technologies
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Technologies
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AMD
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CPU hardware
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CPU hardware
technologies found in AMD CPU/APU and other products include:
HyperTransport – a high-bandwidth, low-latency system bus used in AMD's CPU and APU products
Infinity Fabric – a derivative of HyperTransport used as the communication bus in AMD's Zen microarchitecture
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AMD
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Graphics hardware
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Graphics hardware
technologies found in AMD GPU products include:
AMD Eyefinity – facilitates multi-monitor setup of up to 6 monitors per graphics card
AMD FreeSync – display synchronization based on the VESA Adaptive Sync standard
AMD TrueAudio – acceleration of audio calculations
AMD XConnect – allows the use of External GPU enclosures through Thunderbolt 3
AMD CrossFire – multi-GPU technology allowing the simultaneous use of multiple GPUs
Unified Video Decoder (UVD) – acceleration of video decompression (decoding)
Video Coding Engine (VCE) – acceleration of video compression (encoding)
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AMD
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Software
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Software
AMD has made considerable efforts towards opening its software tools above the firmware level in the past decade.
For the following mentions, software not expressely stated as being free can be assumed to be proprietary.
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AMD
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Distribution
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Distribution
AMD Radeon Software is the default channel for official software distribution from AMD. It includes both free and proprietary software components, and supports both Microsoft Windows and Linux.
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AMD
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Software by type
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Software by type
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AMD
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CPU
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CPU
AOCC is AMD's optimizing proprietary C/C++ compiler based on LLVM and available for Linux.
AMDuProf is AMD's CPU performance and Power profiling tool suite, available for Linux and Windows.
AMD has also taken an active part in developing coreboot, an open-source project aimed at replacing the proprietary BIOS firmware. This cooperation ceased in 2013, but AMD has indicated recently that it is considering releasing source code so that Ryzen can be compatible with coreboot in the future.
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AMD
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GPU
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GPU
Most notable public AMD software is on the GPU side.
AMD has opened both its graphic and compute stacks:
GPUOpen is AMD's graphics stack, which includes for example FidelityFX Super Resolution.
ROCm (Radeon Open Compute platform) is AMD's compute stack for machine learning and high-performance computing, based on the LLVM compiler technologies. Under the ROCm project, AMDgpu is AMD's open-source device driver supporting the GCN and following architectures, available for Linux. This latter driver component is used both by the graphics and compute stacks.
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AMD
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Other
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Other
AMD conducts open research on heterogeneous computing.
Other AMD software includes the AMD Core Math Library, and open-source software including the AMD Performance Library.
AMD contributes to open-source projects, including working with Sun Microsystems to enhance OpenSolaris and Sun xVM on the AMD platform. AMD also maintains its own Open64 compiler distribution and contributes its changes back to the community.
In 2008, AMD released the low-level programming specifications for its GPUs, and works with the X.Org Foundation to develop drivers for AMD graphics cards.
Extensions for software parallelism (xSP), aimed at speeding up programs to enable multi-threaded and multi-core processing, announced in Technology Analyst Day 2007. One of the initiatives being discussed since August 2007 is the Light Weight Profiling (LWP), providing internal hardware monitor with runtimes, to observe information about executing process and help the re-design of software to be optimized with multi-core and even multi-threaded programs. Another one is the extension of Streaming SIMD Extension (SSE) instruction set, the SSE5.
Codenamed SIMFIRE – interoperability testing tool for the Desktop and mobile Architecture for System Hardware (DASH) open architecture.
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AMD
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Production and fabrication
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Production and fabrication
Previously, AMD produced its chips at company-owned semiconductor foundries. AMD pursued a strategy of collaboration with other semiconductor manufacturers IBM and Motorola to co-develop production technologies. AMD's founder Jerry Sanders termed this the "Virtual Gorilla" strategy to compete with Intel's significantly greater investments in fabrication.
In 2008, AMD spun off its chip foundries into an independent company named GlobalFoundries. This breakup of the company was attributed to the increasing costs of each process node. The Emirate of Abu Dhabi purchased the newly created company through its subsidiary Advanced Technology Investment Company (ATIC), purchasing the final stake from AMD in 2009.
With the spin-off of its foundries, AMD became a fabless semiconductor manufacturer, designing products to be produced at for-hire foundries. Part of the GlobalFoundries spin-off included an agreement with AMD to produce some number of products at GlobalFoundries. Both prior to the spin-off and after AMD has pursued production with other foundries including TSMC and Samsung. It has been argued that this would reduce risk for AMD by decreasing dependence on any one foundry which has caused issues in the past.
In 2018, AMD started shifting the production of their CPUs and GPUs to TSMC, following GlobalFoundries' announcement that they were halting development of their 7 nm process. AMD revised their wafer purchase requirement with GlobalFoundries in 2019, allowing AMD to freely choose foundries for 7 nm nodes and below, while maintaining purchase agreements for 12 nm and above through 2021.
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AMD
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Corporate affairs
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Corporate affairs
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AMD
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Business trends
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Business trends
The key trends for AMD are (as of the financial year ending in late December):
Revenue (US$ bn)Net profit (US$ m)Total assets (US$ bn)Employees20175.3433.58,90020186.43374.510,10020196.73416.011,40020209.72,4908.912,600202116.43,16212.415,500202223.61,32067.525,000202322.685467.826,000
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AMD
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Partnerships
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Partnerships
AMD uses strategic industry partnerships to further its business interests and to rival Intel's dominance and resources:
A partnership between AMD and Alpha Processor Inc. developed HyperTransport, a point-to-point interconnect standard which was turned over to an industry standards body for finalization. It is now used in modern motherboards that are compatible with AMD processors.
AMD also formed a strategic partnership with IBM, under which AMD gained silicon on insulator (SOI) manufacturing technology, and detailed advice on 90 nm implementation. AMD announced that the partnership would extend to 2011 for 32 nm and 22 nm fabrication-related technologies.AMD Analyst Day June 2006 Presentation, slide 10. .
To facilitate processor distribution and sales, AMD is loosely partnered with end-user companies, such as HP, Dell, Asus, Acer, and Microsoft.
In 1993, AMD established a 50–50 partnership with Fujitsu called FASL, and merged into a new company called FASL LLC in 2003. The joint venture went public under the name Spansion and ticker symbol SPSN in December 2005, with AMD shares dropping 37%. AMD no longer directly participates in the Flash memory devices market now as AMD entered into a non-competition agreement on December 21, 2005, with Fujitsu and Spansion, pursuant to which it agreed not to directly or indirectly engage in a business that manufactures or supplies standalone semiconductor devices (including single-chip, multiple-chip or system devices) containing only Flash memory.
On May 18, 2006, Dell announced that it would roll out new servers based on AMD's Opteron chips by year's end, thus ending an exclusive relationship with Intel. In September 2006, Dell began offering AMD Athlon X2 chips in their desktop lineup.
In June 2011, HP announced new business and consumer notebooks equipped with the latest versions of AMD APUsaccelerated processing units. AMD will power HP's Intel-based business notebooks as well.Rik Myslewski, ChannelRegister. "Intel, AMD in HP notebook smackdown Which is faster? 'You tell me' says AMD". June 17, 2011. Retrieved June 20, 2011.
In the spring of 2013, AMD announced that it would be powering all three major next-generation consoles. The Xbox One and Sony PlayStation 4 are both powered by a custom-built AMD APU, and the Nintendo Wii U is powered by an AMD GPU. According to AMD, having their processors in all three of these consoles will greatly assist developers with cross-platform development to competing consoles and PCs and increased support for their products across the board.
AMD has entered into an agreement with Hindustan Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (HSMC) for the production of AMD products in India.
AMD is a founding member of the HSA Foundation which aims to ease the use of a Heterogeneous System Architecture. A Heterogeneous System Architecture is intended to use both central processing units and graphics processors to complete computational tasks.
AMD announced in 2016 that it was creating a joint venture to produce x86 server chips for the Chinese market.
On May 7, 2019, it was reported that the U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and Cray Inc., are working in collaboration with AMD to develop the Frontier exascale supercomputer. Featuring the AMD Epyc CPUs and Radeon GPUs, the supercomputer is set to produce more than 1.5 exaflops (peak double-precision) in computing performance. It is expected to debut sometime in 2021.
On March 5, 2020, it was announced that the U.S. Department of Energy, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and HPE are working in collaboration with AMD to develop the El Capitan exascale supercomputer. Featuring the AMD Epyc CPUs and Radeon GPUs, the supercomputer is set to produce more than 2 exaflops (peak double-precision) in computing performance. It is expected to debut in 2023.
In the summer of 2020, it was reported that AMD would be powering the next-generation console offerings from Microsoft and Sony.
On November 8, 2021, AMD announced a partnership with Meta to make the chips used in the Metaverse.
In January 2022, AMD partnered with Samsung to develop a mobile processor to be used in future products. The processor was named Exynos 2022 and works with the AMD RDNA 2 architecture.
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AMD
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Litigation with Intel
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Litigation with Intel
thumb|AMD processor with Intel copyright
AMD has a long history of litigation with former (and current) partner and x86 creator Intel.
In 1986, Intel broke an agreement it had with AMD to allow them to produce Intel's microchips for IBM; AMD filed for arbitration in 1987 and the arbitrator decided in AMD's favor in 1992. Intel disputed this, and the case ended up in the Supreme Court of California. In 1994, that court upheld the arbitrator's decision and awarded damages for breach of contract.
In 1990, Intel brought a copyright infringement action alleging illegal use of its 287 microcode. The case ended in 1994 with a jury finding for AMD and its right to use Intel's microcode in its microprocessors through the 486 generation.
In 1997, Intel filed suit against AMD and Cyrix Corp. for misuse of the term MMX. AMD and Intel settled, with AMD acknowledging MMX as a trademark owned by Intel, and with Intel granting AMD rights to market the AMD K6 MMX processor.
In 2005, following an investigation, the Japan Federal Trade Commission found Intel guilty of a number of violations. On June 27, 2005, AMD won an antitrust suit against Intel in Japan, and on the same day, AMD filed a broad antitrust complaint against Intel in the U.S. Federal District Court in Delaware. The complaint alleges systematic use of secret rebates, special discounts, threats, and other means used by Intel to lock AMD processors out of the global market. Since the start of this action, the court has issued subpoenas to major computer manufacturers including Acer, Dell, Lenovo, HP and Toshiba.
In November 2009, Intel agreed to pay AMD $1.25 billion and renew a five-year patent cross-licensing agreement as part of a deal to settle all outstanding legal disputes between them.
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AMD
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Guinness World Record achievement
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Guinness World Record achievement
On August 31, 2011, in Austin, Texas, AMD achieved a Guinness World Record for the "Highest frequency of a computer processor": 8.429 GHz.Peter Clarke, EE Times. "AMD 'clocks' FX processor at 8.429-GHz". September 13, 2011. Retrieved September 15, 2011. The company ran an 8-core FX-8150 processor with only one active module (two cores), and cooled with liquid helium.During the video, cooling transitions from air to water to liquid nitrogen and finally to liquid helium. The previous record was 8.308 GHz, with an Intel Celeron 352 (one core).
On November 1, 2011, geek.com reported that Andre Yang, an overclocker from Taiwan, used an FX-8150 to set another record: 8.461 GHz.Matthew Humprhires, Geek.com. "AMD clocks FX-8150 at 8.461-GHz ". November 1, 2011. Retrieved November 1, 2011.
On November 19, 2012, Andre Yang used an FX-8350 to set another record: 8.794 GHz.
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AMD
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Acquisitions, mergers, and investments
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Acquisitions, mergers, and investments
+DateCompanyIntegration or divisionPriceJanuary 16, 1996NexGenAMD K6$857 million in AMD sharesFebruary 6, 2002Alchemy SemiconductorProcessors (embedded CPUs)UndisclosedAugust 6, 2003CoatueMemory (non-volatile polymer-based memory)UndisclosedJuly 24, 2006ATI TechnologiesGraphics and 3D software (Radeon GPUs)$5,400 millionFebruary 29, 2012SeaMicroData center platform$334 millionJune 29, 2016HiAlgoGaming experience (Radeon Chill, Radeon Boost and Radeon Swift)UndisclosedApril 10, 2017Nitero60 GHz wireless IP (headset AR and VR)UndisclosedOctober 27, 2020XilinxCustom chips (FPGA, adaptive SoCs, system on modules, IA accelerator)$49,000 millionApril 4, 2022PensandoData center, cloud solutions and DPUs$1,900 millionAugust 29, 2023MipsologyAI inference softwareUndisclosedOctober 10, 2023Nod.ai Open-source AI softwareUndisclosedJuly 10, 2024Silo AIAI software$665 millionAugust 19, 2024ZT SystemsData center hardware$4,900 million
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AMD
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Corporate responsibility
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Corporate responsibility
In its 2022 report, AMD stated that it aimed to embed environmental sustainability across its business, promote safe and responsible workplaces in its global supply chain and advance stronger communities.
In 2022, AMD achieved a 19 percent reduction in its Scope 1 and 2 GHG emissions compared to 2020. Based on AMD calculations that are third-party verified (limited level assurance).
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AMD
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Other initiatives
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Other initiatives
The Green Grid, founded by AMD together with other founders, such as IBM, Sun and Microsoft, to seek lower power consumption for grids.
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AMD
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Sponsorships
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Sponsorships
thumb|right|300px|The AMD-logo on the rear spoiler of Michael Schumacher's F2005 from Ferrari, showing AMD's sponsorship at the 2005 German Grand Prix.
AMD's sponsorship of Formula 1 racing began in 2002 and since 2020 has sponsored the Mercedes-AMG Petronas team. AMD was also a sponsor of the BMW Sauber and Scuderia Ferrari Formula 1 teams together with Intel, Vodafone, AT&T, Pernod Ricard and Diageo. On 18 April 2018, AMD began a multi-year sponsorship with Scuderia Ferrari. In February 2020, just prior to the start of the 2020 race season, the Mercedes Formula 1 team announced it was adding AMD to its sponsorship portfolio.
AMD began a sponsorship deal with Victory Five (V5) for the League of Legends Pro League (LPL) in 2022. AMD was a sponsor of the Chinese Dota Pro Circuit together with Perfect World.
In February 2024, AMD was a Diamond sponsor for the World Artificial Intelligence Cannes Festival (WAICF).
AMD was a Platinum sponsor for the HPE Discover 2024, an event hosted by Hewlett Packard Enterprise to showcase technology for government and business customers. The event was held from 17 to 20 June 2024 in Las Vegas.
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AMD
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See also
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See also
3DNow!
Cool'n'Quiet
Bill Gaede
List of AMD accelerated processing units
List of AMD chipsets
List of AMD graphics processing units
List of AMD processors
List of ATI chipsets
PowerNow!
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AMD
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References
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References
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AMD
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Sources
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Sources
Rodengen, Jeffrey L. (1998). The Spirit of AMD: Advanced Micro Devices. Write Stuff.
Ruiz, Hector (2013). Slingshot: AMD's Fight to Free an Industry from the Ruthless Grip of Intel. Greenleaf Book Group.
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AMD
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External links
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External links
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Table of Content
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Short description, History, Foundational years, Intel partnership, 2006–present, List of CEOs, Products, CPUs and APUs, IBM PC and the x86 architecture, {{anchor, Athlon 64, Opteron, and Phenom, Fusion becomes the AMD APU, New microarchitectures, High-power, high-performance Bulldozer cores, Low-power Cat cores, ARM architecture-based designs, Zen-based CPUs and APUs, Graphics products and GPUs, ATI prior to AMD acquisition, Radeon within AMD, Combined GPU and CPU divisions, Radeon Technologies Group, Semi-custom and game console products, Other hardware, AMD motherboard chipsets, Embedded products, Embedded CPUs, Embedded graphics, Current product lines, CPU and APU products, Graphics products, Radeon-branded products, RAM, Solid-state drives, Technologies, CPU hardware, Graphics hardware, Software, Distribution, Software by type, CPU, GPU, Other, Production and fabrication, Corporate affairs, Business trends, Partnerships, Litigation with Intel, Guinness World Record achievement, Acquisitions, mergers, and investments, Corporate responsibility, Other initiatives, Sponsorships, See also, References, Sources, External links
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Albrecht Dürer
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Short description
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Albrecht Dürer ( , ;; 21 May 1471 – 6 April 1528),Müller, Peter O. (1993) Substantiv-Derivation in Den Schriften Albrecht Dürers, Walter de Gruyter. . sometimes spelled in English as Durer or Duerer, was a German painter, printmaker, and theorist of the German Renaissance. Born in Nuremberg, Dürer established his reputation and influence across Europe in his twenties due to his high-quality woodcut prints. He was in contact with the major Italian artists of his time, including Raphael, Giovanni Bellini and Leonardo da Vinci, and from 1512 was patronized by Emperor Maximilian I.
Dürer's vast body of work includes engravings, his preferred technique in his later prints, altarpieces, portraits and self-portraits, watercolours and books. The woodcuts series are stylistically more Gothic than the rest of his work, but revolutionised the potential of that medium, while his extraordinary handling of the burin expanded especially the tonal range of his engravings; well-known engravings include the three Meisterstiche (master prints) Knight, Death and the Devil (1513), Saint Jerome in his Study (1514), and Melencolia I (1514). His watercolours mark him as one of the first European landscape artists.
Dürer's introduction of classical motifs and of the nude into Northern art, through his knowledge of Italian artists and German humanists, has secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance. This is reinforced by his theoretical treatises, which involve principles of mathematics for linear perspective and body proportions.
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Albrecht Dürer
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Biography
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Biography
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Albrecht Dürer
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Early life (1471–1490)
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Early life (1471–1490)
thumb|left|upright|Self-portrait silverpoint drawing by the thirteen-year-old Dürer, 1484. Albertina, Vienna.
Dürer was born on 21 May 1471, the third child and second son of Albrecht Dürer the Elder and Barbara Holper, who married in 1467.Brand Philip & Anzelewsky (1978–79), 11. Albrecht Dürer the Elder (originally Albrecht Ajtósi) was a successful goldsmith who by 1455 had moved to Nuremberg from Ajtós, near Gyula in Hungary. He married Barbara, his master's daughter, when he himself qualified as a master. Her mother, Klinga Öllinger had some roots in Hungary too, as she was born in Sopron. The couple had eighteen children together, of which only three survived. Hans Dürer (1490–1534), also became a painter, trained under the older Albrecht. The other surviving brother, Endres Dürer (1484–1555), took over their father's business and was a master goldsmith.Brion (1960), 16. The German name "Dürer" is a translation from the Hungarian, "Ajtósi". Initially, it was "Türer", meaning doormaker, which is "ajtós" in Hungarian (from "ajtó", meaning door). A door is featured in the coat-of-arms the family acquired. Albrecht Dürer the Younger later changed "Türer", his father's diction of the family's surname, to "Dürer", to adapt to the local Nuremberg dialect.Bartrum, 93, n. 1.
Because Dürer left autobiographical writings and was widely known by his mid-twenties, his life is well documented. After a few years of school, Dürer learned the basics of goldsmithing and drawing from his father. Though his father wanted him to continue his training as a goldsmith, he showed such a precocious talent in drawing that he was allowed to start as an apprentice to Michael Wolgemut at the age of fifteen in 1486.Brand Philip & Anzelewsky (1978–79), 10. A self-portrait, a drawing in silverpoint, is dated 1484 (Albertina, Vienna) "when I was a child", as his later inscription says. The drawing is one of the earliest surviving children's drawings of any kind, and, as Dürer's Opus One, has helped define his oeuvre as deriving from, and always linked to, himself.Joseph Koerner, The Moment of Self-Portraiture in Renaissance Art, University of Chicago Press, 1993. Wolgemut was the leading artist in Nuremberg at the time, with a large workshop producing a variety of works of art, in particular woodcuts for books. Nuremberg was then an important and prosperous city, a centre for publishing and many luxury trades. It had strong links with Italy, especially Venice, a relatively short distance across the Alps.
Dürer's godfather Anton Koberger left goldsmithing to become a printer and publisher in the year of Dürer's birth. He became the most successful publisher in Germany, eventually owning twenty-four printing-presses and a number of offices in Germany and abroad. Koberger's most famous publication was the Nuremberg Chronicle, published in 1493 in German and Latin editions. It contained an unprecedented 1,809 woodcut illustrations (albeit with many repeated uses of the same block) by the Wolgemut workshop. Dürer may have worked on some of these, as the work on the project began while he was with Wolgemut.Giulia Bartrum, Albrecht Dürer and his Legacy, British Museum Press, 2002, .
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Albrecht Dürer
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''Wanderjahre'' and marriage (1490–1494)
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Wanderjahre and marriage (1490–1494)
thumb|left|The earliest painted Self-Portrait (1493) by Albrecht Dürer, oil, originally on vellum (Louvre, Paris)
After completing his apprenticeship, Dürer followed the common German custom of taking Wanderjahre—in effect gap years—in which the apprentice learned skills from other masters, their local tradition and individual styles; Dürer was to spend about four years away. He left in 1490, possibly to work under Martin Schongauer, the leading engraver of Northern Europe, but who died shortly before Dürer's arrival at Colmar in 1492. It is unclear where Dürer travelled in the intervening period, though it is likely that he went to Frankfurt and the Netherlands. In Colmar, Dürer was welcomed by Schongauer's brothers, the goldsmiths Caspar and Paul and the painter Ludwig. Later that year, Dürer travelled to Basel to stay with another brother of Martin Schongauer, the goldsmith Georg. In 1493 Dürer went to Strasbourg, where he would have experienced the sculpture of Nikolaus Gerhaert. Dürer's first painted self-portrait (now in the Louvre) was painted at this time, probably to be sent back to his fiancée in Nuremberg.
thumb|right|Dürer's sketch of his wife Agnes Frey (1494)
Very soon after his return to Nuremberg, on 7 July 1494, at the age of 23, Dürer was married to Agnes Frey following an arrangement made during his absence. Agnes was the daughter of a prominent brass worker (and amateur harpist) in the city. However, no children resulted from the marriage, and with Albrecht the Dürer name died out. The marriage between Agnes and Albrecht was believed not to be a generally happy one, as indicated by a letter of Dürer in which he quipped to Willibald Pirckheimer in a rough tone about his wife, calling her an "old crow" and made other vulgar remarks. Pirckheimer also made no secret of his antipathy towards Agnes, describing her as a miserly shrew with a bitter tongue, who helped cause Dürer's death at a young age. It has been hypothesized by many scholars that Albrecht was bisexual or homosexual, due to the recurrence of allegedly homoerotic themes in some of his works (e.g. The Men's Bath), and the nature of his correspondence with close friends.Brisman, Shira, Albrecht Dürer and the Epistolary Mode of Address, University of Chicago Press, 2017, p. 179.Mills, Robert, Seeing Sodomy in the Middle Ages, University of Chicago Press, 2015, p. 332, n. 93.
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Albrecht Dürer
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First journey to Italy (1494–1495)
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First journey to Italy (1494–1495)
Within three months of his marriage, Dürer left for Italy, alone, perhaps prompted by an outbreak of plague in Nuremberg. He made watercolour sketches as he traveled over the Alps. Some have survived and others may be deduced from accurate landscapes of real places in his later work, for example his engraving Nemesis.
In Italy, he went to Venice to study its more advanced artistic world.Lee, Raymond L. & Alistair B. Fraser. (2001) The Rainbow Bridge, Penn State Press. . Through Wolgemut's tutelage, Dürer had learned how to make prints in drypoint and design woodcuts in the German style, based on the works of Schongauer and the Housebook Master. He also would have had access to some Italian works in Germany, but the two visits he made to Italy had an enormous influence on him. He wrote that Giovanni Bellini was the oldest and still the best of the artists in Venice. His drawings and engravings show the influence of others, notably Antonio del Pollaiuolo, with his interest in the proportions of the body; Lorenzo di Credi; and Andrea Mantegna, whose work he produced copies of while training.Campbell, Angela and Raftery, Andrew. "Remaking Dürer: Investigating the Master Engravings by Masterful Engraving", Art in Print Vol. 2 No. 4 (November–December 2012). Dürer probably also visited Padua and Mantua on this trip.
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Albrecht Dürer
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Return to Nuremberg (1495–1505)
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Return to Nuremberg (1495–1505)
On his return to Nuremberg in 1495, Dürer opened his own workshop (being married was a requirement for this). Over the next five years, his style increasingly integrated Italian influences into underlying Northern forms. Arguably his best works in the first years of the workshop were his woodcut prints, mostly religious, but including secular scenes such as The Men's Bath (). These were larger and more finely cut than the great majority of German woodcuts hitherto, and far more complex and balanced in composition.
It is now thought unlikely that Dürer cut any of the woodblocks himself; this task would have been performed by a specialist craftsman. However, his training in Wolgemut's studio, which made many carved and painted altarpieces and both designed and cut woodblocks for woodcut, evidently gave him great understanding of what the technique could be made to produce, and how to work with block cutters. Dürer either drew his design directly onto the woodblock itself, or glued a paper drawing to the block. Either way, his drawings were destroyed during the cutting of the block.
thumb|Dürer's self-portrait at 28 (1500). Alte Pinakothek, Munich.
His series of sixteen designs for the Apocalypse is dated 1498, as is his engraving of St. Michael Fighting the Dragon. He made the first seven scenes of the Great Passion in the same year, and a little later, a series of eleven on the Holy Family and saints. The Seven Sorrows Polyptych, commissioned by Frederick III of Saxony in 1496, was executed by Dürer and his assistants c. 1500. In 1502, Dürer's father died. Around 1503–1505 Dürer produced the first 17 of a set illustrating the Life of the Virgin, which he did not finish for some years. Neither these nor the Great Passion were published as sets until several years later, but prints were sold individually in considerable numbers.
During the same period Dürer perfected the difficult art of using the burin to make engravings. Most likely he had learned this skill during his early training with his father, as it was also an essential skill of the goldsmith. In 1496 he executed the Prodigal Son, which the Italian Renaissance art historian Giorgio Vasari singled out for praise some decades later, noting its Germanic quality. He was soon producing some spectacular and original images, notably Nemesis (1502), The Sea Monster (1498), and Saint Eustace (), with a highly detailed landscape background and animals. His landscapes of this period, such as Pond in the Woods and Willow Mill, are quite different from his earlier watercolours. There is a much greater emphasis on capturing atmosphere, rather than depicting topography. He made a number of Madonnas, single religious figures, and small scenes with comic peasant figures. Prints are highly portable and these works made Dürer famous throughout the main artistic centres of Europe within a very few years.
The Venetian artist Jacopo de' Barbari, whom Dürer had met in Venice, visited Nuremberg in 1500, and Dürer said that he learned much about the new developments in perspective, anatomy, and proportion from him. To Dürer it seemed that De' Barbari was unwilling to explain everything he knew, so he began his own studies, which would become a lifelong preoccupation. A series of extant drawings show Dürer's experiments in human proportion, leading to the famous engraving of Adam and Eve (1504), which shows his subtlety while using the burin in the texturing of flesh surfaces. This is the only existing engraving signed with his full name.
Dürer created large numbers of preparatory drawings, especially for his paintings and engravings, and many survive, most famously the Betende Hände (Praying Hands) from circa 1508, a study for an apostle in the Heller altarpiece. He continued to make images in watercolour and bodycolour (usually combined), including a number of still lifes of meadow sections or animals, including his Young Hare (1502) and the Great Piece of Turf (1503).
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Albrecht Dürer
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Second journey to Italy (1505–1507)
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Second journey to Italy (1505–1507)
thumb|Feast of the Rosary (1506), oil on panel, 162 × 192 cm, National Gallery Prague
In Italy, he returned to painting, at first producing a series of works executed in tempera on linen. These include portraits and altarpieces, notably, the Paumgartner altarpiece and the Adoration of the Magi. In early 1506, he returned to Venice and stayed there until the spring of 1507. It was in Venice that he took up the material of blue paper, which he used to execute preparatory drawing for paintings he completed there in 1505–1507. By this time Dürer's engravings had attained great popularity and were being copied. In Venice he was given a valuable commission from the emigrant German community for the church of San Bartolomeo. This was the altar-piece known as the Feast of the Rosary (or the Feast of Rose Garlands). It shows Pope Julius II and Emperor Maximilian I, peacefully kneeling in adoration before her throne, both with their crowns taken off. It also includes portraits of members of Venice's German community and of Dürer himself on the upper right holding a designation of his authorship. Besides the Flemish verism in the depiction of the greenery and the garments, and the use of his own hues, the altar-piece shows a strong Italian influence. It was later acquired by the Emperor Rudolf II and taken to Prague.Kotková, Olga. "'The Feast of the Rose Garlands': What Remains of Dürer?". The Burlington Magazine, Volume 144, No. 1186, 2002. 4–13.
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Albrecht Dürer
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Nuremberg and the masterworks (1507–1520)
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Nuremberg and the masterworks (1507–1520)
thumb|Knight, Death and the Devil, 1513, engraving, 24.5 x 19.1 cm
thumb|right|Melencolia I (1514), engraving
thumb|right|St Jerome in His Study 1514
thumb|left|Rhinoceros (1515), National Gallery of Art
Dürer returned to Nuremberg by mid-1507, remaining in Germany until 1520. His reputation had spread throughout Europe and he was on friendly terms and in communication with many of the major artists including Raphael.
Between 1507 and 1511 Dürer worked on some of his most celebrated paintings: Adam and Eve (1507), Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand (1508, for Frederick of Saxony), Virgin with the Iris (1508), the altarpiece Assumption of the Virgin (1509, for Jacob Heller of Frankfurt), and Adoration of the Trinity (1511, for Matthaeus Landauer). During this period he also completed two woodcut series, the Great Passion and the Life of the Virgin, both published in 1511 together with a second edition of the Apocalypse series. The post-Venetian woodcuts show Dürer's development of chiaroscuro modelling effects,Panofsky (1945), 135. creating a mid-tone throughout the print to which the highlights and shadows can be contrasted. Other works from this period include the thirty-seven Little Passion woodcuts, published in 1511, and a set of fifteen small engravings on the same theme in 1512. Complaining that painting did not make enough money to justify the time spent when compared to his prints,Panofsky (1945), p. 44. he produced no paintings from 1513 to 1516. In 1513 and 1514 Dürer created his three most famous engravings: Knight, Death and the Devil (1513, probably based on Erasmus's Handbook of a Christian Knight),"Knight, Death, and the Devil, 1513–14". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 11 September 2020. St. Jerome in His Study, and the much-debated Melencolia I (both 1514, the year Dürer's mother died). Further outstanding pen and ink drawings of Dürer's period of art work of 1513 were drafts for his friend Pirckheimer. These drafts were later used to design Lusterweibchen chandeliers, combining an antler with a wooden sculpture.
In 1515, he created his woodcut of a Rhinoceros which had arrived in Lisbon from a written description and sketch by another artist, without ever seeing the animal himself. An image of the Indian rhinoceros, the image has such force that it remains one of his best-known and was still used in some German school science text-books as late as last century. In the years leading to 1520 he produced a wide range of works, including the woodblocks for the first western printed star charts in 1515 and portraits in tempera on linen in 1516. His only experiments with etching came in this period, producing five between 1515–1516 and a sixth in 1518; a technique he may have abandoned as unsuited to his aesthetic of methodical, classical form.
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Albrecht Dürer
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Patronage of Maximilian I
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Patronage of Maximilian I
thumb|Portrait of Maximilian I (1519), oil on lime wood, 74 × 61,5 cm, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (Inv. GG 825)
thumb|The Triumphal Arch of Maximilian (1515, 1799 ed.), 42 woodcuts and 2 etchings, 354 × 298.5 cm overall (National Gallery of Art, Inv. 76935)
From 1512, Maximilian I became Dürer's major patron. He commissioned The Triumphal Arch, a vast work printed from 192 separate blocks, the symbolism of which is partly informed by Pirckheimer's translation of Horapollo's Hieroglyphica. The design program and explanations were devised by Johannes Stabius, the architectural design by the master builder and court-painter Jörg Kölderer and the woodcutting itself by Hieronymous Andreae, with Dürer as designer-in-chief. The Arch was followed by The Triumphal Procession completed c. 1512.
Dürer worked with pen on the marginal images for an edition of the Emperor's printed prayer book; these were quite unknown until facsimiles were published in 1808 as part of the first book published in lithography. Dürer's work on the book was halted for an unknown reason, and the decoration was continued by artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder and Hans Baldung. Dürer also made several portraits of the Emperor, including one shortly before Maximilian's death in 1519.
Maximilian was a very cash-strapped prince who sometimes failed to pay, yet turned out to be Dürer's most important patron. In his court, artists and learned men were respected, which was not common at that time (later, Dürer commented that in Germany, as a non-noble, he was treated as a parasite). Pirckheimer (who he met in 1495, before entering the service of Maximilian) was also an important personage in the court and great cultural patron, who had a strong influence on Dürer as his tutor in classical knowledge and humanistic critical methodology, as well as collaborator. In Maximilian's court, Dürer also collaborated with a great number of other brilliant artists and scholars of the time who became his friends, like Johannes Stabius, Konrad Peutinger, Conrad Celtes, and Hans Tscherte (an imperial architect).
Dürer was proud of his ability. When the emperor tried to sketch Dürer an idea on charcoa, Dürer took the material from Maximilian's hand, finished the drawing and told him: "This is my scepter." On another occasion, Maximilian noticed that the ladder Dürer used was too short and unstable, thus told a noble to hold it for him. The noble refused, saying that it was beneath him to serve a non-noble. Maximilian then came to hold the ladder himself, and told the noble that he could make a noble out of a peasant any day, but he could not make an artist like Dürer out of a noble.
thumb|The Northern Hemisphere of the Celestial Globe, 1515, woodcut print, 61.3 × 45.6 cm, (National Gallery of Art)
This story and a 1849 painting depicting it by have become relevant recently. This nineteenth-century painting shows Dürer painting a mural at St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna. Apparently, this reflects a seventeenth-century "artists' legend" about the previously mentioned encounter (in which the emperor held the ladder) – that this encounter corresponds with the period Dürer was working on the Viennese murals. In 2020, during restoration work, art connoisseurs discovered a piece of handwriting now attributed to Dürer, suggesting that the Nuremberg master had actually participated in creating the murals at St. Stephen's Cathedral. In the recent 2022 Dürer exhibition in Nuremberg (in which the drawing technique is also traced and connected to Dürer's other works), the identity of the commissioner is discussed. Now the painting of Siegert (and the legend associated with it) is used as evidence to suggest that this was Maximilian. Dürer is historically recorded to have entered the emperor's service in 1511, and the mural's date is calculated to be around 1505, but it is possible they have known and worked with each other earlier than 1511.
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Albrecht Dürer
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Cartographic and astronomical works
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Cartographic and astronomical works
Dürer's exploration of space led to a relationship and cooperation with the court astronomer Johannes Stabius. Stabius also often acted as Dürer's and Maximilian's go-between for their financial problems.
In 1515 Dürer and Stabius created the first world map projected on a solid geometric sphere. Also in 1515, Stabius, Dürer and the astronomer produced the first planispheres of both southern and northerns hemispheres, as well as the first printed celestial maps, which prompted the revival of interest in the field of uranometry throughout Europe.
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Albrecht Dürer
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Journey to the Netherlands (1520–1521)
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Journey to the Netherlands (1520–1521)
left|thumb|St. Jerome in His Study (1521), oil on oakwood, 59. × 48.5 cm, Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon. Dürer's most important painting created during his fourth and last major journey.
Maximilian's death came at a time when Dürer was concerned he was losing "my sight and freedom of hand" (perhaps caused by arthritis) and increasingly affected by the writings of Martin Luther.Bartrum, 204. Quotation from a letter to the secretary of the Elector of Saxony. In July 1520 Dürer made his fourth and last major journey, to renew the Imperial pension Maximilian had given him and to secure the patronage of the new emperor, Charles V, who was to be crowned at Aachen. Dürer journeyed with his wife and her maid via the Rhine to Cologne and then to Antwerp, where he was well received and produced numerous drawings in silverpoint, chalk and charcoal. In addition to attending the coronation, he visited Cologne (where he admired the painting of Stefan Lochner), Nijmegen, 's-Hertogenbosch, Bruges (where he saw Michelangelo's Madonna of Bruges), Ghent (where he admired Jan van Eyck's Ghent Altarpiece),Borchert (2011), 101. and Zeeland.
Dürer took a large stock of prints with him and wrote in his diary to whom he gave, exchanged or sold them, and for how much. This provides rare information of the monetary value placed on prints at this time. Unlike paintings, their sale was very rarely documented.Landau & Parshall: 350–354 and passim. While providing valuable documentary evidence, Dürer's Netherlandish diary also reveals that the trip was not a profitable one. For example, Dürer offered his last portrait of Maximilian to his daughter, Margaret of Austria, but eventually traded the picture for some white cloth after Margaret disliked the portrait and declined to accept it. During this trip he also met Bernard van Orley, Jan Provoost, Gerard Horenbout, Jean Mone, Joachim Patinir and Tommaso Vincidor, though he did not, it seems, meet Quentin Matsys.Panofsky (1945), 209.
Having secured his pension, Dürer returned home in July 1521, having caught an undetermined illness, which afflicted him for the rest of his life, and greatly reduced his rate of work.
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Albrecht Dürer
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Final years, Nuremberg (1521–1528)
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Final years, Nuremberg (1521–1528)
thumb|Salvator Mundi, unfinished oil painting on linden wood, 58.1 × 47 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
On his return to Nuremberg, Dürer worked on a number of grand projects with religious themes, including a crucifixion scene and a , though neither was completed.Panofsky (1945), 223. This may have been due in part to his declining health, but perhaps also because of the time he gave to the preparation of his theoretical works on geometry and perspective, the proportions of men and horses, and fortification.
However, one consequence of this shift in emphasis was that during the last years of his life, Dürer produced comparatively little as an artist. In painting, there was only a portrait of Hieronymus Holtzschuher, a Madonna and Child (1526), Salvator Mundi (1526), and two panels showing St. John with St. Peter and St. Paul with St. Mark beside him. This last great work, the Four Apostles, was given by Dürer to the City of Nuremberg—although he was given 100 guilders in return.
As for engravings, Dürer's work was restricted to portraits and illustrations for his treatise. The portraits include his boyhood friend Willibald Pirckheimer, Cardinal-Elector Albert of Mainz; Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony; Philipp Melanchthon, and Erasmus of Rotterdam. For those of the Cardinal, Melanchthon, and Dürer's final major work, a drawn portrait of the Nuremberg patrician Ulrich Starck, Dürer depicted the sitters in profile.
Despite complaining of his lack of a formal classical education, Dürer was greatly interested in intellectual matters and learned much from Willibald Pirckheimer, whom he no doubt consulted on the content of many of his images.Corine Schleif (2010), "Albrecht Dürer between Agnes Frey and Willibald Pirckheimer", The Essential Dürer, ed. Larry Silver and Jeffrey Chipps Smith, Philadelphia, 85–205. He also derived great satisfaction from his friendships and correspondence with Erasmus and other scholars. Dürer succeeded in producing two books during his lifetime. The Four Books on Measurement were published at Nuremberg in 1525 and was the first book for adults on mathematics in German, as well as being cited later by Galileo and Kepler. The other, a work on city fortifications, was published in 1527. The Four Books on Human Proportion were published posthumously, shortly after his death in 1528.
Dürer died in Nuremberg at the age of 56, leaving an estate valued at 6,874 florins – a considerable sum. He is buried in the Johannisfriedhof cemetery. His large house (purchased in 1509 from the heirs of the astronomer Bernhard Walther), where his workshop was located and where his widow lived until her death in 1539, remains a prominent Nuremberg landmark.
thumb|Albrecht Dürer's House in Nuremberg
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Albrecht Dürer
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Dürer and the Reformation
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Dürer and the Reformation
Dürer's writings suggest that he may have been sympathetic to Luther's ideas, though it is unclear if he ever left the Catholic Church. Dürer wrote of his desire to draw Luther in his diary in 1520: "And God help me that I may go to Dr. Martin Luther; thus I intend to make a portrait of him with great care and engrave him on a copper plate to create a lasting memorial of the Christian man who helped me overcome so many difficulties."Price (2003), 225. In a letter to Nicholas Kratzer in 1524, Dürer wrote, "because of our Christian faith we have to stand in scorn and danger, for we are reviled and called heretics". Most tellingly, Pirckheimer wrote in a letter to Johann Tscherte in 1530: "I confess that in the beginning I believed in Luther, like our Albert of blessed memory ... but as anyone can see, the situation has become worse." Dürer may even have contributed to the Nuremberg City Council's mandating Lutheran sermons and services in March 1525. Notably, Dürer had contacts with various reformers, such as Zwingli, Andreas Karlstadt, Melanchthon, Erasmus and Cornelius Grapheus from whom Dürer received Luther's Babylonian Captivity in 1520.Price (2003), 225–248. Yet Erasmus and C. Grapheus are better said to be Catholic change agents. Also, from 1525, "the year that saw the peak and collapse of the Peasants' War, the artist can be seen to distance himself somewhat from the [Lutheran] movement..."Wolf (2010), 74.
However, Dürer's later works have also been claimed to show Protestant sympathies. His 1523 The Last Supper woodcut has often been understood to have an evangelical theme, focusing as it does on Christ espousing the Gospel, as well as the inclusion of the Eucharistic cup, perhaps alluding to tenets of Protestant utraquism,Strauss, 1981. although this interpretation has been questioned.Price (2003), 254. The delaying of the engraving of St. Philip, completed in 1523 but not distributed until 1526, may have been due to Dürer's uneasiness with images of saints; even if Dürer was not an iconoclast, in his last years he evaluated and questioned the role of art in religion.Harbison (1976).
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Albrecht Dürer
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Theoretical works
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Theoretical works
In all his theoretical works, in order to communicate his theories in the German language rather than in Latin, Dürer used graphic expressions based on a vernacular, craftsmen's language. For example, ("snail-line") was his term for a spiral form. Thus, Dürer contributed to the expansion in German prose which Luther had begun with his translation of the Bible.Panofsky (1945).
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Albrecht Dürer
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''Four Books on Measurement''
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Four Books on Measurement
Dürer's work on geometry is called the Four Books on Measurement (Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt or Instructions for Measuring with Compass and Ruler).A. Koyre, "The Exact Sciences", in The Beginnings of Modern Science, edited by Rene Taton, translated by A. J. Pomerans. The first book focuses on linear geometry. Dürer's geometric constructions include helices, conchoids and epicycloids. He also draws on Apollonius, and Johannes Werner's of 1522.
The second book moves onto two-dimensional geometry, i.e. the construction of regular polygons.Panofsky (1945), 255. Here Dürer favours the methods of Ptolemy over Euclid. The third book applies these principles of geometry to architecture, engineering and typography. In architecture Dürer cites Vitruvius but elaborates his own classical designs and columns. In typography, Dürer depicts the geometric construction of the Latin alphabet, relying on Italian precedent. However, his construction of the Gothic alphabet is based upon an entirely different modular system. The fourth book completes the progression of the first and second by moving to three-dimensional forms and the construction of polyhedra. Here Dürer discusses the five Platonic solids, as well as seven Archimedean semi-regular solids, as well as several of his own invention.
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Albrecht Dürer
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''Four Books on Human Proportion''
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Four Books on Human Proportion
thumb|Illustration from the Four Books on Human Proportion
Dürer's work on human proportions is called the Four Books on Human Proportion (Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion) of 1528. The first book was mainly composed by 1512/13 and completed by 1523, showing five differently constructed types of both male and female figures, all parts of the body expressed in fractions of the total height. Dürer based these constructions on both Vitruvius and empirical observations of "two to three hundred living persons", in his own words. The second book includes eight further types, broken down not into fractions but an Albertian system, which Dürer probably learned from Francesco di Giorgio's of 1525. In the third book, Dürer gives principles by which the proportions of the figures can be modified, including the mathematical simulation of convex and concave mirrors; here Dürer also deals with human physiognomy. The fourth book is devoted to the theory of movement.Schaar, Eckhard. "A Newly Discovered Proportional Study by Dürer in Hamburg". Master Drawings, vol. 36, no. 1, 1998. pp. 59–66.
Appended to the last book, however, is a self-contained essay on aesthetics, which Dürer worked on between 1512 and 1528, and it is here that we learn of his theories concerning 'ideal beauty'. Dürer rejected Alberti's concept of an objective beauty, proposing a relativist notion of beauty based on variety. Nonetheless, Dürer still believed that truth was hidden within nature, and that there were rules which ordered beauty, even though he found it difficult to define the criteria for such a code. In 1512/13 his three criteria were function ("Nutz"), naïve approval ("Wohlgefallen") and the happy medium ("Mittelmass"). However, unlike Alberti and Leonardo, Dürer was most troubled by understanding not just the abstract notions of beauty but also as to how an artist can create beautiful images. Between 1512 and the final draft in 1528, Dürer's belief developed from an understanding of human creativity as spontaneous or inspired to a concept of 'selective inward synthesis'. In other words, that an artist builds on a wealth of visual experiences in order to imagine beautiful things. Dürer's belief in the abilities of a single artist over inspiration prompted him to assert that "one man may sketch something with his pen on half a sheet of paper in one day, or may cut it into a tiny piece of wood with his little iron, and it turns out to be better and more artistic than another's work at which its author labours with the utmost diligence for a whole year".Panofsky (1945), 283.
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Albrecht Dürer
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''Book on Fortification''
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Book on Fortification
In 1527, Dürer also published Various Lessons on the Fortification of Cities, Castles, and Localities (Etliche Underricht zu Befestigung der Stett, Schloss und Flecken). It was printed in Nuremberg, probably by Hieronymus Andreae and reprinted in 1603 by Johan Janssenn in Arnhem. In 1535 it was also translated into Latin as On Cities, Forts, and Castles, Designed and Strengthened by Several Manners: Presented for the Most Necessary Accommodation of War (De vrbibus, arcibus, castellisque condendis, ac muniendis rationes aliquot : praesenti bellorum necessitati accommodatissimae), published by Christian Wechel (Wecheli/Wechelus) in Paris.For a French translation, see Instruction sur la fortification des villes: bourgs et châteaux, trans A. Rathau (Paris 1870).
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Albrecht Dürer
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Fencing
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Fencing
thumb|right|Page from the Meditation on the Handling of Weapons, 1512
Dürer created many sketches and woodcuts of soldiers and knights over the course of his life. His most significant martial works, however, were made in 1512 as part of his efforts to secure the patronage of Maximilian I. Using existing manuscripts from the Nuremberg Group as his reference, his workshop produced the extensive Οπλοδιδασκαλια sive Armorvm Tractandorvm Meditatio Alberti Dvreri ("Weapon Training, or Albrecht Dürer's Meditation on the Handling of Weapons", MS 26-232). Another manuscript based on the Nuremberg texts as well as one of Hans Talhoffer's works, the untitled Berlin Picture Book (Libr.Pict.A.83), is also thought to have originated in his workshop around this time. These sketches and watercolours show the same careful attention to detail and human proportion as Dürer's other work, and his illustrations of grappling, long sword, dagger, and messer are among the highest-quality in any fencing manual.
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Albrecht Dürer
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Legacy and influence
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Legacy and influence
Dürer exerted a huge influence on the artists of succeeding generations, especially in printmaking, the medium through which his contemporaries mostly experienced his art, as his paintings were predominantly in private collections located in only a few cities. His success in spreading his reputation across Europe through prints was undoubtedly an inspiration for major artists such as Raphael, Titian, and Parmigianino, all of whom collaborated with printmakers to promote and distribute their work.
His engravings seem to have had an intimidating effect upon his German successors; the "Little Masters" who attempted few large engravings but continued Dürer's themes in small, rather cramped compositions. Lucas van Leyden was the only Northern European engraver to successfully continue to produce large engravings in the first third of the 16th century. The generation of Italian engravers who trained in the shadow of Dürer all either directly copied parts of his landscape backgrounds (Giulio Campagnola, Giovanni Battista Palumba, Benedetto Montagna and Cristofano Robetta), or whole prints (Marcantonio Raimondi and Agostino Veneziano). However, Dürer's influence became less dominant after 1515, when Marcantonio perfected his new engraving style, which in turn travelled over the Alps to also dominate Northern engraving.
Dürer had relatively little influence in Italy, where probably only his altarpiece in Venice was seen, and his German successors were less effective in blending German and Italian styles. His intense and self-dramatizing self-portraits have continued to have a strong influence up to the present, especially on painters in the 19th and 20th century who desired a more dramatic portrait style. Dürer has never fallen from critical favour, and there have been significant revivals of interest in his works in Germany in the Dürer Renaissance of about 1570 to 1630, in the early nineteenth century, and in German nationalism from 1870 to 1945.
The Lutheran Church commemorates Dürer annually on 6 April,Lutheranism 101 edited by Scot A. Kinnaman, CPH, 2010. along with Michelangelo, Lucas Cranach the Elder and Hans Burgkmair.
In 1993, two of Dürer's drawings – Women's Bathhouse, valued at about $10 million, and Sitting Mary With Child – along with other works of art were stolen from the National Art Museum of Azerbaijan. The drawings were later recovered.
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Albrecht Dürer
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Gallery
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Gallery
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Albrecht Dürer
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List of works
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List of works
List of paintings by Albrecht Dürer
List of engravings by Albrecht Dürer
List of woodcuts by Albrecht Dürer
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Albrecht Dürer
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References
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References
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Albrecht Dürer
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Notes
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Notes
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Albrecht Dürer
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Citations
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Citations
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Albrecht Dürer
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Sources
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Sources
Bartrum, Giulia. Albrecht Dürer and His Legacy. London: British Museum Press, 2002.
Brand Philip, Lotte; Anzelewsky, Fedja. "The Portrait Diptych of Dürer's parents". Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, Volume 10, No. 1, 1978–79, pp. 5–18.
Brion, Marcel. Dürer. London: Thames and Hudson, 1960
Harbison, Craig. "Dürer and the Reformation: The Problem of the Re-dating of the St. Philip Engraving". The Art Bulletin, Vol. 58, No. 3, September 1976, pp. 368–373.
Koerner, Joseph Leo. The Moment of Self-Portraiture in German Renaissance Art. Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press, 1993. .
Landau David; Parshall, Peter. The Renaissance Print. Yale, 1996. .
Panofsky, Erwin. The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1945.
Price, David Hotchkiss. Albrecht Dürer's Renaissance: Humanism, Reformation and the Art of Faith. Michigan, 2003. .
Strauss, Walter L. (ed.). The Complete Engravings, Etchings and Drypoints of Albrecht Durer. Mineola NY: Dover Publications, 1973.
Borchert, Till-Holger. Van Eyck to Dürer: The Influence of Early Netherlandish painting on European Art, 1430–1530. London: Thames & Hudson, 2011.
Wolf, Norbert. Albrecht Dürer. Cologne: Taschen, 2010.
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Albrecht Dürer
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Further reading
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Further reading
Brahms, Iris. Zwischen Licht und Schatten. Zur Tradition der Farbgrundzeichnung bis Albrecht Dürer. Wilhelm Fink Verlag, Paderborn 2016, .
Campbell Hutchison, Jane. Albrecht Dürer: A Biography. Princeton University Press, 1990. .
Demele, Christine. Dürers Nacktheit – Das Weimarer Selbstbildnis. Rhema Verlag, Münster 2012, .
Dürer, Albrecht, Of the Just Shaping of Letters, translated by R.T. Nichol from the Latin text, Dover Publ., New York 1965. .
Korolija Fontana-Giusti, Gordana. "The Unconscious and Space: Venice and the Work of Albrecht Dürer", in Architecture and the Unconscious, eds. J. Hendrix and L.Holm, Farnham Surrey: Ashgate, 2016, pp. 27–44, .
Schmidt, Sebastian. "'dan sӳ machten dy vürtrefflichen künstner reich'. Zur ursprünglichen Bestimmung von Albrecht Dürers Selbstbildnis im Pelzrock", in Anzeiger des Germanischen Nationalmuseums 2010, pp. 65–82, .
Wilhelm, Kurth (ed.). The Complete Woodcuts of Albrecht Durer, Dover Publications, 2000, .
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Albrecht Dürer
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External links
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External links
The Strange World of Albrecht Dürer at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute. 14 November 2010 – 13 March 2011
Dürer Prints Close-up on YouTube, made to accompany The Strange World of Albrecht Dürer.
Albrecht Dürer: Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion (Nuremberg, 1528). Selected pages scanned from the original work. Historical Anatomies on the Web. US National Library of Medicine.
The Early Duerer Research Project of the Germanisches Nationalmuseum Nuremberg, with a comprehensive bibliography since 1971 (German).
"Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art
Albrecht Dürer, exhibition, Albertina, Vienna, 20 September 2019 – 6 January 2020.
Category:1471 births
Category:1528 deaths
Category:15th-century German engravers
Category:15th-century German painters
Category:16th-century German engravers
Category:16th-century German painters
Category:German animal artists
Category:Artist authors
Category:Artists from Nuremberg
Category:Catholic decorative artists
Category:Catholic engravers
Category:Catholic painters
Category:German draughtsmen
Category:German Lutherans
Category:German male painters
Category:German people of Hungarian descent
Category:German printmakers
Category:German Renaissance painters
Category:German Roman Catholics
Category:Heraldic artists
Category:Manuscript illuminators
Category:Mathematical artists
Category:People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar
Category:Renaissance engravers
Category:Woodcut designers
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Albrecht Dürer
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Table of Content
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Short description, Biography, Early life (1471–1490), ''Wanderjahre'' and marriage (1490–1494), First journey to Italy (1494–1495), Return to Nuremberg (1495–1505), Second journey to Italy (1505–1507), Nuremberg and the masterworks (1507–1520), Patronage of Maximilian I, Cartographic and astronomical works, Journey to the Netherlands (1520–1521), Final years, Nuremberg (1521–1528), Dürer and the Reformation, Theoretical works, ''Four Books on Measurement'', ''Four Books on Human Proportion'', ''Book on Fortification'', Fencing, Legacy and influence, Gallery, List of works, References, Notes, Citations, Sources, Further reading, External links
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Australian rules football
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Short description
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Australian football, also called Australian rules football or Aussie rules, or more simply football or footy, is a contact sport played between two teams of 18 players on an oval field, often a modified cricket ground. Points are scored by kicking the oval ball between the central goal posts (worth six points), or between a central and outer post (worth one point, otherwise known as a "behind").
During general play, players may position themselves anywhere on the field and use any part of their bodies to move the ball. The primary methods are kicking, handballing and running with the ball. There are rules on how the ball can be handled; for example, players running with the ball must intermittently bounce or touch it on the ground. Throwing the ball is not allowed, and players must not get caught holding the ball. A distinctive feature of the game is the mark, where players anywhere on the field who catch the ball from a kick (with specific conditions) are awarded unimpeded possession.2012 Laws of the game Section 14, page 45 Possession of the ball is in dispute at all times except when a free kick or mark is paid. Players can tackle using their hands or use their whole body to obstruct opponents. Dangerous physical contact (such as pushing an opponent in the back), interference when marking, and deliberately slowing the play are discouraged with free kicks, distance penalties, or suspension for a certain number of matches depending on the severity of the infringement. The game features frequent physical contests, spectacular marking, fast movement of both players and the ball, and high scoring.
The sport's origins can be traced to football matches played in Melbourne, Victoria, in 1858, inspired by English public school football games. Seeking to develop a game more suited to adults and Australian conditions, the Melbourne Football Club published the first laws of Australian football in May 1859.History Official Website of the Australian Football League
Australian football has the highest spectator attendance and television viewership of all sports in Australia,Kwek, Glenda (26 March 2013). "AFL leaves other codes in the dust" , The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 18 December 2016."AFL is clearly Australia's most watched Football Code, while V8 Supercars have the local edge over Formula 1" (14 March 2014), Roy Morgan. Retrieved 18 December 2016. while the Australian Football League (AFL), the sport's only fully professional competition, is the nation's wealthiest sporting body."The richest codes in world sport: Forget the medals, these sports are chasing the gold" (8 May 2014). Courier Mail. Retrieved 9 October 2016. The AFL Grand Final, held annually at the 100,000-capacity Melbourne Cricket Ground, is the highest-attended club championship event of any football code. The sport is also played at amateur level in many countries and in several variations. Its rules are governed by the AFL Commission with the advice of the AFL's Laws of the Game Committee.
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Australian rules football
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Name
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Name
Australian football is known by several nicknames, including Australian rules football, Aussie rules, football and footy. In some regions, where other codes of football are more popular, the sport is most often called AFL after the Australian Football League, while the league itself also uses this name for local competitions in some areas.
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Australian rules football
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History
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History
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Australian rules football
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Origins
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Origins
thumb|upright=0.9|Statue next to the Melbourne Cricket Ground on the approximate site of the 1858 football match between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College. Tom Wills is depicted umpiring behind two young players contesting the ball. The plaque reads that Wills "did more than any other person – as a footballer and umpire, co-writer of the rules and promoter of the game – to develop Australian football during its first decade."First Australian Rules Game , Monument Australia. Retrieved 18 June 2013.
Primitive forms of football were played sporadically in the Australian colonies in the first half of the 19th century. Compared to cricket and horse racing, football was considered a mere "amusement" by colonists at the time, and while little is known about these early one-off games, evidence does not support a causal link with Australian football. In Melbourne, in 1858, in a move that would help to shape Australian football in its formative years, private schools (then termed "public schools" in accordance with nomenclature in England) began organising football games inspired by precedents at English public schools. The earliest match, held on 15 June, was between Melbourne Grammar and St Kilda Grammar.
On 10 July 1858, the Melbourne-based Bell's Life in Victoria and Sporting Chronicle published a letter by Tom Wills, captain of the Victoria cricket team, calling for the formation of a "foot-ball club" with a "code of laws" to keep cricketers fit during winter. Born in Australia, Wills played a nascent form of rugby football while a pupil at Rugby School in England, and returned to his homeland a star athlete and cricketer. Two weeks later, Wills' friend, cricketer Jerry Bryant, posted an advertisement for a scratch match at the Richmond Paddock adjoining the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG). This was the first of several "kickabouts" held that year involving members of the Melbourne Cricket Club, including Wills, Bryant, W. J. Hammersley and J. B. Thompson. Trees were used as goalposts and play typically lasted an entire afternoon. Without an agreed-upon code of laws, some players were guided by rules they had learned in the British Isles, "others by no rules at all". Another milestone in 1858 was a 40-a-side match played under experimental rules between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College, held at the Richmond Paddock. Umpired by Wills and teacher John Macadam, it began on 7 August and continued over two subsequent Saturdays, ending in a draw with each side kicking one goal. It is commemorated with a statue outside the MCG, and the two schools have since competed annually in the Cordner–Eggleston Cup, the world's oldest continuous football competition.
Since the 1920s, it has been suggested that Australian football may have been derived from the Irish sport of Gaelic football. However, there is no archival evidence in favour of a Gaelic influence, and the style of play shared between the two modern codes appeared in Australia long before the Irish game evolved in a similar direction. Another theory, first proposed in 1983, posits that Wills, having grown up among Aboriginals in Victoria, may have seen or played the Aboriginal ball game of Marn Grook, and incorporated some of its features into early Australian football. There is only circumstantial evidence that he knew of the game, and according to biographer Greg de Moore's research, Wills was "almost solely influenced by his experience at Rugby School".
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Australian rules football
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First rules
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First rules
A loosely organised Melbourne side, captained by Wills, played against other football enthusiasts in the winter and spring of 1858. The following year, on 14 May, the Melbourne Football Club was officially established, making it one of the world's oldest football clubs. Three days later, Wills, Hammersley, Thompson and teacher Thomas H. Smith met near the MCG at the Parade Hotel, owned by Bryant, and drafted ten rules: "The Rules of the Melbourne Football Club". These are the laws from which Australian football evolved. The club aimed to create a simple code suited to the hard playing surfaces around Melbourne, and to eliminate the roughest aspects of English school games—such as "hacking" (shin-kicking) in Rugby School football—to reduce the risk of injuries to working men. In another significant departure from English public school football, the Melbourne rules omitted any offside law. "The new code was as much a reaction against the school games as influenced by them", writes Mark Pennings. The rules were distributed throughout the colony; Thompson in particular did much to promote the new code in his capacity as a journalist.
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Australian rules football
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Early competition in Victoria
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Early competition in Victoria
thumb|Engraving of a football match at the Richmond Paddock, 1866. The MCG and its first pavilion are visible in the background, as are kick-off posts, the forerunner of today's behind posts.
Following Melbourne's lead, Geelong and Melbourne University also formed football clubs in 1859. While many early Victorian teams participated in one-off matches, most had not yet formed clubs for regular competition. A South Yarra club devised its own rules. To ensure the supremacy of the Melbourne rules, the first-club level competition in Australia, the Caledonian Society's Challenge Cup (1861–64), stipulated that only the Melbourne rules were to be used. This law was reinforced by the Athletic Sports Committee (ASC), which ran a variation of the Challenge Cup in 1865–66. With input from other clubs, the rules underwent several minor revisions, establishing a uniform code known as "Victorian rules". In 1866, the "first distinctively Victorian rule", the running bounce, was formalised at a meeting of club delegates chaired by H. C. A. Harrison, an influential pioneer who took up football in 1859 at the invitation of Wills, his cousin.
The game around this time was defensive and low-scoring, played low to the ground in congested rugby-style scrimmages. The typical match was a 20-per-side affair, played with a ball that was roughly spherical, and lasted until a team scored two goals. The shape of the playing field was not standardised; matches often took place in rough, tree-spotted public parks, most notably the Richmond Paddock (Yarra Park), known colloquially as the Melbourne Football Ground. Wills argued that the turf of cricket fields would benefit from being trampled upon by footballers in winter, and, as early as 1859, football was allowed on the MCG. However, cricket authorities frequently prohibited football on their grounds until the 1870s, when they saw an opportunity to capitalise on the sport's growing popularity. Football gradually adapted to an oval-shaped field, and most grounds in Victoria expanded to accommodate the dual purpose—a situation that continues to this day.
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Australian rules football
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Spread to other colonies
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Spread to other colonies
left|thumb|Engraving of the first intercolonial football match between Victoria and South Australia, East Melbourne Cricket Ground, 1879
Football became organised in South Australia in 1860 with the formation of the Adelaide Football Club, the oldest football club in Australia outside Victoria. It devised its own rules, and, along with other Adelaide-based clubs, played a variety of codes until 1876, when they uniformly adopted most of the Victorian rules, with South Australian football pioneer Charles Kingston noting their similarity to "the old Adelaide rules". Similarly, Tasmanian clubs quarrelled over different rules until they adopted a slightly modified version of the Victorian game in 1879. The South Australian Football Association (SAFA), the sport's first governing body, formed on 30 April 1877, firmly establishing Victorian rules as the preferred code in that colony. The Victorian Football Association (VFA) formed the following month.
thumb|upright|George Coulthard, one of the first players to attain Australia-wide celebrity
Clubs began touring the colonies in the late 1870s, and in 1879 the first intercolonial match took place in Melbourne between Victoria and South Australia. In 1883, delegates representing the football associations of South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Queensland met to standardise the code across Australia. New rules such as holding the ball led to a "golden era" of fast, long-kicking and high-marking football in the 1880s, a time which also saw players such as George Coulthard achieve superstardom, as well as the rise of professionalism, particularly in Victoria and Western Australia, where the code took hold during a series of gold rushes. Likewise, when New Zealand experienced a gold rush, the sport arrived with a rapid influx of Australian miners. Now known as Australian rules or Australasian rules, the sport became the first football code to develop mass spectator appeal, attracting world record attendances for sports viewing and gaining a reputation as "the people's game".
Australian rules football reached Queensland and New South Wales as early as 1866; the sport experienced a period of dominance in the former,Pramberg, Bernie (15 June 2015). "Love of the Game: Aussie rules a dominant sport in early Queensland" , The Courier-Mail. Retrieved 24 April 2016. and in the latter, several regions remain strongholds of Australian rules, such as the Riverina. However, by the late 1880s, rugby football had become the dominant code in both colonies, as well as in New Zealand. This shift was largely due to rugby's spread with British migration, regional rivalries and the lack of strong local governing bodies. In the case of Sydney, denial of access to grounds, the influence of university headmasters from Britain who favoured rugby, and the loss of players to other codes inhibited the game's growth.Healy, Matthew (2002). Hard Sell: Australian Football in Sydney (PDF). . Melbourne, Vic.: Victoria University. pp. 20–28.
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Australian rules football
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Emergence of the VFL
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Emergence of the VFL
In 1896, delegates from six of the wealthiest VFA clubs—Carlton, Essendon, Fitzroy, Geelong, Melbourne and South Melbourne—met to discuss the formation of a breakaway professional competition. Later joined by Collingwood and St Kilda, the clubs formed the Victorian Football League (VFL), which held its inaugural season in 1897. The VFL's popularity grew rapidly as it made several innovations, such as instituting a finals system, reducing teams from 20 to 18 players, and introducing the behind as a score. Richmond and University joined the VFL in 1908, and by 1925, with the addition of Hawthorn, Footscray and North Melbourne, it had become the preeminent league in the country and would take a leading role in many aspects of the sport.
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Australian rules football
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Interstate football and the World Wars
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Interstate football and the World Wars
thumb|upright|The first national interstate competition was held in 1908 and included New Zealand.
The time around the federation of the Australian colonies in 1901 saw Australian rules undergo a revival in New South Wales, New Zealand and Queensland. In 1903, both the Queensland Australian Football League and the NSW Australian Football Association were established, and in New Zealand, as it moved towards becoming a dominion, leagues were also established in the major cities. This renewed popularity helped encourage the formation of the Australasian Football Council, which in 1908 in Melbourne staged the first national interstate competition, the Jubilee Australasian Football Carnival, with teams representing each state and New Zealand.
The game was also established early on in the new territories. In the new national capital Canberra both soccer and rugby had a head start, but following the first matches in 1911, Australian rules football in the Australian Capital Territory became a major participation sport. By 1981 it had become much neglected and quickly lagged behind the other football codes. Australian rules football in the Northern Territory began shortly after the outbreak of the war in 1916 with the first match in Darwin. The game went on to become the most popular sport in the Territory and build the highest participation rate for the sport nationally.
thumb|upright|left|Australia's first recruitment poster, published in 1915, questions the public's commitment to Australian football rather than the war.
Both World War I and World War II had a devastating effect on Australian football and on Australian sport in general. While scratch matches were played by Australian "diggers" in remote locations around the world, the game lost many of its great players to wartime service. Some clubs and competitions never fully recovered. Between 1914 and 1915, a proposed hybrid code of Australian football and rugby league, the predominant code of football in New South Wales and Queensland, was trialled without success. In Queensland, the state league went into recess for the duration of the war. VFL club University left the league and went into recess due to severe casualties. The West Australian Football League (WAFL) lost two clubs and the SANFL was suspended for one year in 1916 due to heavy club losses. The Anzac Day match, the annual game between Essendon and Collingwood on Anzac Day, is one example of how the war continues to be remembered in the football community.
The role of the Australian National Football Council (ANFC) was primarily to govern the game at a national level and to facilitate interstate representative and club competition. In 1968, the ANFC revived the Championship of Australia, a competition first held in 1888 between the premiers of the VFA and SAFA. Although clubs from other states were at times invited, the final was almost always between the premiers from the two strongest state competitions of the time—South Australia and Victoria—with Adelaide hosting most of the matches at the request of the SAFA/SANFL. The last match took place in 1976, with North Adelaide being the last non-Victorian winner in 1972. Between 1976 and 1987, the ANFC, and later the Australian Football Championships (AFC) ran a night series, which invited clubs and representative sides from around the country to participate in a knock-out tournament parallel to the premiership seasons, which Victorian sides still dominated.
With the lack of international competition, state representative matches were regarded with great importance. Due in part to the VFL poaching talent from other states, Victoria dominated interstate matches for three-quarters of a century. State of Origin rules, introduced in 1977, stipulated that rather than representing the state of their adopted club, players would return to play for the state they were first recruited in. This instantly broke Victoria's stranglehold over state titles and Western Australia and South Australia began to win more of their games against Victoria. Both New South Wales and Tasmania scored surprise victories at home against Victoria in 1990.
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Australian rules football
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Towards a national league
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Towards a national league
thumb|upright|Hall of Fame Legend Ron Barassi was a leading advocate of a national club-based competition."Vale Ron Barassi" , AFL. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
The term "Barassi Line", named after VFL star Ron Barassi, was coined by scholar Ian Turner in 1978 to describe the "fictitious geographical barrier" separating the rugby-following parts of New South Wales and Queensland from the rest of the country, where Australian football reigned.Marshall, Konrad (26 February 2016). "Where do rugby codes' strongholds turn to rules? At the 'Barassi Line', of course..." , The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 21 April 2016. It became a reference point for the expansion of Australian football and for establishing a national league.Referenced in
The way the game was played had changed dramatically due to innovative coaching tactics, with the phasing out of many of the game's kicking styles and the increasing use of handball; while presentation was influenced by television.WICKS, B. M. Whatever Happened to Australian Rules? Hobart, Tasmania, Libra Books. 1980, First Edition. ()
thumb|left|The West Coast Eagles and Sydney Swans line up for the national anthem at the 2005 AFL Grand Final.
In 1982, in a move that heralded big changes within the sport, one of the original VFL clubs, South Melbourne, relocated to Sydney and became known as the Sydney Swans. In the late 1980s, due to the poor financial standing of many of the Victorian clubs, and a similar situation existing in Western Australia in the sport, the VFL pursued a more national competition. Two more non-Victorian clubs, West Coast and Brisbane, joined the league in 1987 generating more than $8 million in license revenue for the Victorian clubs and increasing broadcast revenues which helped the Victorian clubs survive. In their early years, the Sydney and Brisbane clubs struggled both on and off-field because the substantial TV revenues they generated by playing on a Sunday went to the VFL. To protect these revenues the VFL granted significant draft concessions and financial aid to keep the expansion clubs competitive.
The VFL changed its name to the Australian Football League (AFL) for the 1990 season, and over the next decade, three non-Victorian clubs gained entry: Adelaide (1991), Fremantle (1995) and the SANFL's Port Adelaide (1997), the only pre-existing club outside Victoria to join the league. In 2011 and 2012, respectively, two new non-Victorian clubs were added to the competition: Gold Coast and Greater Western Sydney. The AFL, currently with 18 member clubs, is the sport's elite competition and most powerful body. Following the emergence of the AFL, state leagues were quickly relegated to a second-tier status. The VFA merged with the former VFL reserves competition in 1998, adopting the VFL name. State of Origin also declined in importance, especially after an increasing number of player withdrawals. The AFL turned its focus to the annual International Rules Series against Ireland in 1998 before abolishing State of Origin the following year. State and territorial leagues still contest interstate matches, as do AFL Women players.Big names locked in for AFLW state of origin . AFL News, 25 July 2017
In the 2010s, the AFL signalled further attempts at expanding into markets outside Australian football's traditional heartlands by hosting home-and-away matches in New Zealand,Cherny, Daniel; Wilson, Caroline (31 May 2016). "AFL 2016: St Kilda want two 2018 games in Auckland" , The Age. Retrieved 1 November 2016. followed by China."Port Adelaide, Gold Coast Suns take AFL to China in 2017 regular season" (26 October 2016), ABC News. Retrieved 1 November 2016. After several failed bids since the early 1990s for a Tasmania-based AFL team, the Tasmania Football Club secured the 19th AFL license in 2023, and is set to compete by 2028.Holmes, Adam (18 March 2024). "Tasmania Devils AFL club launched with name, colours, logo and guernsey concept revealed" , ABC News. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
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Australian rules football
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Laws of the game
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Laws of the game
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Australian rules football
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Players and equipment
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Players and equipment
thumb|upright|A uniform consists of a guernsey, shorts, socks and boots.
In a standard match, a team may consist of anywhere between 14 and 18 players who may be permitted on the playing surface at any given time. Each team may have up to four interchange (reserve) players who may be swapped for those on the field at any time during the game. Although some leagues in less populated areas may use as few as 12 players. In addition, some leagues notably including the AFL, have each team designate one additional player as a substitute who can be used to make a single permanent exchange of players during a game for either medical or tactical reasons.
Players on the playing surface can be swapped with those on the interchange bench at any time. They must though pass through a designated "Interchange Area". In the event a player fails to pass through this area correctly, or if too many players from one team are found to be on the ground at a time, a free kick will be awarded to the opposing side.
While there is no set uniform, the basic equipment for Australian football consists of a guernsey, shorts, socks and boots, with additional pieces of apparel such as headbands and gloves additionally being permitted. Players may wear certain pieces of protective equipment, such as helmets or arm guards, if approved by the relevant controlling body. Mouthguards are strongly recommended for all players.
Players are not permitted to wear jewellery, or other materials which the field umpire has deemed to be either potentially dangerous or increase the risk of injury to other players.
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