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Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny
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Act 2
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Act 2
Scene 12
Magically, the hurricane bypasses Mahagonny, and the people sing in awe of their miraculous rescue. This confirms Begbick's belief in the philosophy of "Do what you want," and she proceeds to put it into effect.
Scene 13 at the renovated "Do It" tavern.
The men sing of the four pleasures of life: Eating, Lovemaking, Fighting, and Drinking. First comes eating: To kitschy cafe music, Jimmy's friend Jacob gorges until he keels over and dies. The men sing a chorale over his body, saluting "a man without fear".
Scene 14: Loving.
While Begbick collects money and issues tips on behavior, Moses placates the impatient men queuing to make love to Jenny and the other whores. The men sing the "Mandalay Song", warning that love does not last forever, and urging those ahead of them to make it snappy.
Scene 15: Fighting.
The men flock to see a boxing match between Trinity Moses and Jim's friend Alaska Wolf Joe. While most of the men, including the ever-cautious Billy, bet on the burly Moses, Jim, out of friendship, bets heavily on Joe. The match is manifestly unfair; Moses not only wins but kills Joe in knocking him out.
Scene 16: Drinking.
In an effort to shake off the gloom of Joe's death, Jimmy invites everyone to have a drink on him. The men sing "Life in Mahagonny", describing how one could live in the city for only five dollars a day, but those who wanted to have fun always needed more. Jim, increasingly drunk, dreams of sailing back to Alaska. He takes down a curtain rod for a mast and climbs on the pool table, pretending it is a ship; Jenny and Billy play along. Jimmy is abruptly sobered up when Begbick demands payment for the whiskey as well as for the damage to her property. Totally broke, he turns in a panic to Jenny, who explains her refusal to help him out in the song "Make your own bed" – an adaptation of the ideas he proclaimed at the end of act 1. Jim is led off in chains as the chorus, singing another stanza of "Life in Mahagonny", returns to its pastimes. Trinity Moses assures the crowd that Jimmy will pay for his crimes with his life.
Scene 17
At night, Jim alone and chained to a lamppost sings a plea for the sun not to rise on the day of his impending trial.
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Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny
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Act 3
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Act 3
Scene 18: In the courtroom
Moses, like a carnival barker, sells tickets to the trials. He serves as prosecutor, Fatty as defense attorney, Begbick as judge. First comes the case of Toby Higgins, accused of premeditated murder for the purpose of testing an old revolver. Fatty invites the injured party to rise, but no one does so, since the dead do not speak. Toby bribes all three, and as a result, Begbick dismisses the case. Next Jimmy's case is called. Chained, he is led in by Billy, from whom he tries to borrow money; Billy of course refuses, despite Jim's plea to remember their time together in Alaska. In virtually the same speech he used to attack Higgins, Moses excoriates him for not paying his bills, for seducing Jenny (who presents herself as a plaintiff) to commit a "carnal act" with him for money, and for inciting the crowd with "an illegal joyous song" on the night of the typhoon. Billy, with the chorus's support, counters that, in committing the latter act, Jimmy discovered the laws by which Mahagonny lives. Moses argues that Jim hastened his friend Joe's death in a prizefight by betting on him, and Billy counters by asking who actually killed Joe. Moses does not reply. But there is no answer for the main count against him. Jim gets short sentences for his lesser crimes, but for having no money, he is sentenced to death. Begbick, Fatty, and Moses, rising to identify themselves as the injured parties, proclaim "in the whole human race / there is no greater criminal / than a man without money". As Jim is led off to await execution, everyone sings the "Benares Song", in which they long for that exotic city "where the sun is shining." But Benares has been destroyed by an earthquake. "Where shall we go?" they ask.
Scene 19: At the gallows
Jim says a tender goodbye to Jenny, who, dressed in white, declares herself his widow. He surrenders her to Billy, his last remaining companion from Alaska. When he tries to delay the execution by reminding the people of Mahagonny that God exists, they play out for him, under Moses' direction, the story of "God in Mahagonny", in which the Almighty condemns the town and is overthrown by its citizens, who declare that they can not be sent to Hell because they are already in Hell. Jim, chastened, asks only for a glass of water, but is refused even this as Moses gives the signal for the trap to be sprung.
Scene 20
A caption advises that, after Jim's death, increasing hostility among the city's various factions has caused the destruction of Mahagonny. To a potpourri of themes from earlier in the opera, groups of protesters are seen on the march, in conflict with one another, while the city burns in the background. Jenny and the whores carry Jim's clothing and accessories like sacred relics; Billy and several men carry his coffin. In a new theme, they and the others declare, "Nothing you can do will help a dead man". Begbick, Fatty, and Moses appear with placards of their own, joining the entire company in its march and declaring "Nothing will help him or us or you now," as the opera ends in chaos.
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Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny
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Musical numbers
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Musical numbers
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Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny
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Act 1
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Act 1
Scene 1: Gesucht werden Leokadja Begbick ("The Desired Progress of Leocadia Begbick")
Scene 1: Sie soll sein wie ein Netz ("It Should Be Made Like a Net")
Scene 2: Rasch wuchs ("Growing Up Quickly" ) / Moon of Alabama ("Oh, Show Us The Way...")
Scene 3: Die Nachricht ("The News")
Scene 4: In den nächsten Tagen ("In the Next Few Days")
Scene 5: Damals kam unter Anderen ("Among the Crowd There Came")
Scene 5: Heraus, ihr Schönen von Mahagonny ("Come Out, You Beauties of Mahagonny")
Scene 5: Ach, bedenken Sie ("Oh Worries")
Scene 6: Ich habe gelernt ("I Have Learned")
Scene 7: Alle großen Unternehmungen ("All Great Things")
Scene 7: Auch ich bin einmal ("Also I Was Once")
Scene 8: Alle wahrhaft Suchenden ("All Seekers of the Truth")
Scene 8: Aber etwas fehlt ("But Something is Missing")
Scene 9: Das ist die ewige Kunst ("That is the Eternal Art")
Scene 9: Sieben Jahre ("Seven Years!")
Scene 10: Ein Taifun! ("A Typhoon!")
Scene 11: In dieser Nacht des Entsetzens ("In This Night of Terror")
Scene 11: Nein, jetzt sage ich ("No, I Say Do It Now")
Scene 11: So tuet nur, was euch beliebt ("So, Just Do What You Like")
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Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny
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Act 2
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Act 2
Scene 12: Hurrikan bewegt ("The Eventful Hurricane")
Scene 12: O wunderbare Lösung! ("O Wonderful Result!")
Scene 13: Von nun an war der Leitspruch ("From Then On The Motto Was...")
Scene 13: Jetzt hab ich gegessen zwei Kälber ("Now I Have Eaten Two Calves")
Scene 14: Zweitens kommt die Liebe dran! ("Secondly Comes Being in Love")
Scene 14: Sieh jene Kraniche ("Look at Those Cranes") / The Duet of the Cranes
Scene 14: Erstens, vergesst nicht, kommt das Fressen ("Firstly, Don't Forget, Comes the Eating")
Scene 15: Wir, meine Herren ("We, My Dear Sirs...")
Scene 15: Dreimal hoch, Dreieinigkeitsmoses! ("Three Cheers for Trinity Moses!")
Scene 16: Freunde, kommt, ich lade euch ein ("Friends, Come, I Summon You")
Scene 16: Meine Herren, meine Mutter prägte ("My Dear Sirs, My Mother Impressed [Upon Me]")
Scene 17: Wenn der Himmel hell wird ("When the Sky is Bright")
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Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny
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Act 3
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Act 3
Scene 18: Haben all Zuschauer Billete? ("Do All The Gawkers Have Tickets?")
Scene 18: Zweitens der Fall des Jimmy Mahoney ("Secondly, the Case of Jimmy Mahoney")
Scene 19: In dieser Zeit gab es in Mahagonny ("In This Time It Was In Mahagonny")
Scene 20: Hinrichtung und Tod des Jimmy Mahoney ("The Execution and Death of Jimmy Mahoney")
Scene 20: Erstens, vergesst nicht, kommt das Fressen ("Firstly, Don't Forget, Comes the Eating")
Scene 21: Wollt ihr mich denn wirklich hinrichten? ("Do You Really Want Me to Be Executed After All?")
Scene 21: In diesen Tagen fanden in Mahagonny ("To This Day Found In Mahagonny")
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Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny
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In other media
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In other media
The opera influenced Harry Everett Smith in his 1970-1980 film Mahagonny, which features Allen Ginsberg and Patti Smith.
The 2005 movie Manderlay, directed by Lars von Trier, contains several references to the plot of Mahagonny. The most notable of these is the threat of a hurricane approaching the city during the first act. Von Trier's earlier movie Dogville, to which Manderlay is a sequel, was in large part based on a song from Brecht's Threepenny Opera ("Pirate Jenny"). In the brothel scene in act 2 of Mahagonny, the choir sings a "Song von Mandelay". The play Happy End (1929) by Elisabeth Hauptmann, Brecht and Weill, also contains a song called "Der Song von Mandelay", which uses the same refrain as in the brothel scene of Mahagonny. Brecht's use of the name Mandelay/Mandalay was inspired by Rudyard Kipling's poem "Mandalay".
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Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny
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Recordings
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Recordings
1956: Lotte Lenya, Wilhelm Brückner-Rüggeberg (Sony 1990; originally recorded 1956)
1979: DVD, James Levine; John Dexter, stage director; Teresa Stratas, Astrid Varnay, Richard Cassilly; Metropolitan Opera
1985: Anja Silja, Jan Latham-Koenig (Capriccio 1988; recorded in 1985)
1997: DVD 1997, Salzburg Festival
2007: DVD Los Angeles Opera, starring Audra McDonald, Patti LuPone, and Anthony Dean Griffey. This recording won two 2009 Grammy Awards for Best Opera Recording and Best Classical Album. It was screened on TV as part of PBS' Great Performances
2010: Teatro Real (Madrid), starring Measha Brueggergosman, Jane Henschel, Michael König and Willard White, conducted by Pablo Heras-Casado and staged by La Fura dels Baus. (DVD and Blu-ray Bel Air Classiques 2011; filmed in 2010)
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Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny
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Cover versions of songs
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Cover versions of songs
"Alabama Song" has been covered by many artists, notably Ute Lemper, The Doors and David Bowie.
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Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny
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References
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References
Informational notes
Citations
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Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny
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External links
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External links
Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny (Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny), Kurt Weill Foundation for Music
Libretto (Italian/German, dicoseunpo.it
"Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny", work details, opera-arias.com
Work details (incl. instrumentation), Universal Edition
Introduction to the Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny (The Royal Opera)
Category:Operas by Kurt Weill
Category:German-language operas
Category:Operas
Category:Satirical operas
Category:Plays by Bertolt Brecht
Category:1930 operas
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Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny
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Table of Content
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short description, Composition history, Language, Performance history, Roles, Synopsis, Act 1, Act 2, Act 3, Musical numbers, Act 1, Act 2, Act 3, In other media, Recordings, Cover versions of songs, References, External links
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Avery Hopwood
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Short description
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James Avery Hopwood (May 28, 1882 – July 1, 1928) was an American playwright of the Jazz Age. He had four plays running simultaneously on Broadway in 1920, namely "The Gold Diggers," "The Bat" and "Spanish Love" and "Ladies' Night (In a Turkish Bath)".
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Avery Hopwood
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Early life
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Early life
Hopwood was born to James and Jule Pendergast Hopwood on May 28, 1882, in Cleveland, Ohio. He graduated from Cleveland's West High School in 1900. In 1901, he began attending the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. However, his family experienced financial difficulties, so for his second year he transferred to Adelbert College. He returned to the University of Michigan in the fall of 1903, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1905.
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Avery Hopwood
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Career
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Career
Hopwood started out as a journalist for the Cleveland Leader as its New York correspondent, but within a year had his first play, Clothes (1906), produced on Broadway, with the aid of playwright Channing Pollock. Hopwood eventually became known as "The Playboy Playwright"Jim Beaver Biography for Avery Hopwood at Internet Movie Database and specialized in comedies and farces, some of them with material considered risqué at the time. One play, The Demi-Virgin in 1921, prompted a court case because of its suggestive subject matter, including a risque game of cards, "Stripping Cupid". The case was dismissed.
His many plays included Nobody's Widow (1910), starring Blanche Bates; Fair and Warmer (1915), starring Madge Kennedy (filmed in 1919); The Gold Diggers (1919), starring Ina Claire in New York and Tallulah Bankhead in London; (filmed in 1923 as The Gold Diggers, in 1928 as Gold Diggers of Broadway and also as Gold Diggers of 1933); Ladies' Night, 1920, starring Charlie Ruggles (filmed in 1928); the famous mystery play The Bat (with Mary Roberts Rinehart), 1920 (filmed in 1926 as The Bat, in 1930 as The Bat Whispers, and in 1959 as The Bat); Getting Gertie's Garter (with Wilson Collison), 1921, starring Hazel Dawn (filmed in 1927 and 1945); The Demi-Virgin, 1921, also starring Dawn; The Alarm Clock, 1923, translated from the French; The Best People (with David Gray), 1924 (filmed in 1925 and as Fast and Loose in 1930 with Clara Bow); the song-farce Naughty Cinderella, 1925, starring Irène Bordoni and The Garden of Eden in 1927, with Tallulah Bankhead in London and Miriam Hopkins in New York; (filmed in 1928 as The Garden of Eden).
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Avery Hopwood
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Personal life
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Personal life
thumb|upright|Avery Hopwood with dancer Rosa Rolanda, 1924
In 1906, Hopwood was introduced to writer and photographer Carl Van Vechten. The two became close friends and were sometimes sexual partners. In the 1920s Hopwood had a tumultuous and abusive romantic relationship with fellow Cleveland-born playwright John Floyd. Although Hopwood announced to the press in 1924 that he was engaged to vaudeville dancer and choreographer Rosa Rolanda, Van Vechten confirmed in later years that it was a publicity stunt. Rolanda would later marry caricaturist Miguel Covarrubias.
On the evening of July 1, 1928, at Juan-les-Pins on the French Riviera, Hopwood suffered a fatal heart attack while swimming. He was buried in Riverside Cemetery, Cleveland.Wilson, Scott. Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3d ed.: 2 (Kindle Location 22102). McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Kindle Edition His mother, Jule Hopwood, inherited a large trust from him, but he had not made arrangements for the disposition of other items, including literary rights. While she was working through the legal issues with his estate, Jule Hopwood fell ill and died on March 1, 1929. She was buried next to her son.Vigil, Vicki Blum (2007). Cemeteries of Northeast Ohio: Stones, Symbols & Stories. Cleveland, OH: Gray & Company.
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Avery Hopwood
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Legacy
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Legacy
Hopwood's plays were very successful commercially, but they did not have the lasting literary significance he hoped to achieve.
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Avery Hopwood
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Hopwood Award
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Hopwood Award
The terms of Hopwood's will left a substantial portion of his estate to his alma mater, the University of Michigan, for the establishment of the Avery Hopwood and Jule Hopwood Creative Writing Awards. The bequest stipulated: "It is especially desired that students competing for prizes shall be allowed the widest possible latitude, and that the new, the unusual, and the radical shall be especially encouraged." Famous Hopwood award winners include Robert Hayden, Marge Piercy, Arthur Miller, Betty Smith, Lawrence Kasdan, John Ciardi, Mary Gaitskill, Edmund White, Nancy Willard, Frank O'Hara, and Steve Hamilton.
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Avery Hopwood
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''The Great Bordello''
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The Great Bordello
Throughout his life, Hopwood worked on a novel that he hoped would "expose" the strictures the commercial theater machine imposed on playwrights, but the manuscript was never published. Jack Sharrar recovered the manuscript for this novel in 1982 during his research for Avery Hopwood, His Life and Plays. The novel was published in July 2011 by Mondial Books (New York) as The Great Bordello, a Story of the Theatre, edited and with an Afterword by Sharrar.
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Avery Hopwood
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Works
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Works
thumb|upright|WPA poster for Hopwood's 1922 play Why Men Leave Home
thumb|upright|WPA poster for Hopwood's 1923 play The Alarm Clock
Clothes (1906) with Channing Pollock
This Woman and This Man (1909)
Seven Days (1909) with Mary Roberts Rinehart
Judy Forgot (1910)
Nobody's Widow (1910)
Somewhere Else (1913)
Fair and Warmer (1915) Remains popular in Germany (Der Mustergatte) and Scandinavia (Gröna hissen )
Sadie Love (1915)
Our Little Wife (1916)
Double Exposure (1918)
Tumble In (1919, musical version of Seven Days)
The Gold Diggers (1919)
The Girl in the Limousine (1919) with Wilson Collison
Ladies' Night (1920) with Charlton Andrews
Spanish Love (1920, Adaptation of María del Carmen by Josep Feliu i Codina) with Mary Roberts Rinehart
The Bat (1920) with Mary Roberts Rinehart
Getting Gertie's Garter (1921) with Wilson Collison
The Demi-Virgin (1921)
Why Men Leave Home (1922)
Little Miss Bluebeard (1923, Adaptation of Kisasszony férje by Gábor Drégely)
The Alarm Clock (1923, Adaptation of La Sonnette d'alarme by Maurice Hennequin and Romain Coolus)
The Best People (1924) with David Gray
The Harem (1924) with Ernest Vajda
Naughty Cinderella (1925, Adaptation of Pouche by René Peter and Henri Falk)
The Garden of Eden (1927, Adaptation of Der Garten Eden by Rudolf Bernauer and Rudolf Österreicher)
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Avery Hopwood
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Filmography
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Filmography
Clothes (1914, based on Clothes)
Judy Forgot (1915, based on Judy Forgot)
Our Little Wife (1918, based on Our Little Wife)
Sadie Love (1919, based on Sadie Love)
Fair and Warmer (1919, based on Fair and Warmer)
Guilty of Love (1920, based on This Woman and This Man)
Clothes (1920, based on Clothes)
The Little Clown (1921, based on The Little Clown)
The Gold Diggers (1923, based on The Gold Diggers)
Why Men Leave Home (1924, based on Why Men Leave Home)
The Girl in the Limousine (1924, based on The Girl in the Limousine)
Miss Bluebeard (1925, based on Little Miss Bluebeard)
The Best People (1925, based on The Best People)
The Bat (1926, based on The Bat)
Good and Naughty (1926, based on Naughty Cinderella)
Nobody's Widow (1927, based on Nobody's Widow)
Getting Gertie's Garter (1927, based on Getting Gertie's Garter)
The Garden of Eden (1928, based on The Garden of Eden)
Ladies' Night in a Turkish Bath (1928, based on Ladies' Night)
Gold Diggers of Broadway (1929, based on The Gold Diggers)
Her Wedding Night (1930, based on Little Miss Bluebeard)
Let's Get Married (France, 1931, based on Little Miss Bluebeard)
Su noche de bodas (Spain, 1931, based on Little Miss Bluebeard)
Ich heirate meinen Mann (Germany, 1931, based on Little Miss Bluebeard)
A Minha Noite de Núpcias (Portugal, 1931, based on Little Miss Bluebeard)
Fast and Loose (1930, based on The Best People)
The Bat Whispers (1930, based on The Bat)
This Is the Night (1932, based on Naughty Cinderella)
Gold Diggers of 1933 (1933, based on The Gold Diggers)
Night of the Garter (UK, 1933, based on Getting Gertie's Garter)
The Model Husband (Germany, 1937, based on Fair and Warmer)
Unsere kleine Frau (Germany, 1938, based on Our Little Wife)
Mia moglie si diverte (Italy, 1938, based on Our Little Wife)
Gröna hissen (Sweden, 1944, based on Fair and Warmer)
Getting Gertie's Garter (1945, based on Getting Gertie's Garter)
Painting the Clouds with Sunshine (1951, based on The Gold Diggers)
The Green Lift (1952 film) (Sweden, 1952, based on Fair and Warmer)
The Model Husband (West Germany, 1956, based on Fair and Warmer)
The Bat (1959, based on The Bat)
The Model Husband (Switzerland, 1959, based on Fair and Warmer)
(Denmark, 1961, based on Fair and Warmer)
Den grønne heisen (Norway, 1981, based on Fair and Warmer)
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Avery Hopwood
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References
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References
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Avery Hopwood
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Works cited
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Works cited
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Avery Hopwood
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Further reading
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Further reading
Broadway, by Brooks Atkinson. NY: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1974.
Matinee Tomorrow, by Ward Morehouse. NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1948.
Posing a Threat: Flappers, Chorus Girls, and Other Brazen Performers of the American 1920s, by Angela Latham. Hanover and London: Wesleyan University Press, 2000.
The Splendid Drunken Twenties: Carl Van Vechten Selections from the Daybooks, 1922–1930. Edited by Bruce Kellner. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2003.
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Avery Hopwood
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External links
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External links
Mary Roberts Rinehart at University of Pittsburgh digital library – includes material on her collaboration with Hopwood
Category:1882 births
Category:1928 deaths
Category:American gay writers
Category:American LGBTQ dramatists and playwrights
Category:LGBTQ people from Ohio
Category:University of Michigan alumni
Category:American male dramatists and playwrights
Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Category:Writers from Cleveland
Category:20th-century American male writers
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Avery Hopwood
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Table of Content
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Short description, Early life, Career, Personal life, Legacy, Hopwood Award, ''The Great Bordello'', Works, Filmography, References, Works cited, Further reading, External links
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Antipope Felix II
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Short description
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Antipope Felix II, an Archdeacon of Rome, was installed as Pope in 355 AD after the Emperor Constantius II banished the reigning Pope, Liberius, for refusing to subscribe to a sentence of condemnation against Saint Athanasius.Charles A. Coulombe, Vicars of Christ (), p. 73
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Antipope Felix II
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Biography
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Biography
In May 357 AD the Roman laity, which had remained faithful to Liberius, demanded that Constantius, who was on a visit to Rome, should recall Liberius. The Emperor planned to have Felix and Liberius rule jointly, but when Liberius returned Felix was forced to retire to Porto, near Rome, where, after making an unsuccessful attempt to establish himself again in Rome, he died on 22 November 365 AD.Encyclopædia Britannica: Felix (II)The Papal Schism between Liberius and Felix, 1–4
This Felix was later confused with a Roman martyr named Felix, with the result that he was included in lists of the Popes as Felix II and that the succeeding Popes of the same name (Pope Felix III and Pope Felix IV) were given wrong numerals, as was Antipope Felix V.Annuario Pontificio 2012 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2012 ), p. 9*
The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909) called this confusion a "distortion of the true facts" and suggested that it arose because the "Liber Pontificalis", which at this point may be registering a reliable tradition, says that this Felix built a church on the Via Aurelia, which is where the Roman martyr of an earlier date was buried.Catholic Encyclopedia: Felix II However, a more recent source says that of the martyr Felix nothing is known except his name, that he was a martyr, and that he was buried in the cemetery on the Via Portuensis that bears his name.Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1969), p. 132
The Catholic Encyclopedia remarked that "the real story of the antipope was lost and he obtained in local Roman history the status of a saint and a confessor. As such he appears in the Roman Martyrology on 29 July." At that time (1909) the Roman Martyrology had the following text: This entry was based on what the Catholic Encyclopedia called later legends that confound the relative positions of Felix and Liberius. More recent editions of the Roman MartyrologyMartyrologium Romanum (Additiones et variationes 1960; then Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2001 ) have instead:
The feast day of the Roman martyr Felix is 29 July. The antipope Felix died, as stated above, on a 22 November, and his death was not a martyr's,1911 Encyclopædia Britannica: Felix II occurring when the Peace of Constantine had been in force for half a century.
As well as the Roman Martyrology, the Roman Missal identified the Saint Felix of 29 July with the antipope. This identification, still found in the 1920 typical edition, does not appear in the 1962 typical edition.1962 typical edition of the Roman Missal To judge by the Marietti printing of 1952, which omits the numeral "II" and the word "Papae", the correction had already been made by then. One Catholic writer excuses this by saying that the antipope "himself did refuse to accept Arianism, and so his feast has been kept in the past on [29 July]".
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Antipope Felix II
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See also
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See also
Papal selection before 1059
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Antipope Felix II
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References
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References
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Antipope Felix II
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External links
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External links
The Papal Schism between Liberius and Felix (a primary source)
Catholic Encyclopedia: Felix II
Encyclopædia Britannica: Felix (II)
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica: Felix II
Felix II
Felix II
Category:4th-century antipopes
Category:4th-century Christian clergy
Felix II
Category:Ancient Christians involved in controversies
Felix II
Category:Date of birth unknown
Category:Date of death unknown
Category:Place of birth unknown
Category:Place of death unknown
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Antipope Felix II
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Table of Content
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Short description, Biography, See also, References, External links
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Alkaloid
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Short description
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thumb|250px|The first individual alkaloid, morphine, was isolated in 1804 from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum).
Alkaloids are a broad class of naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure may also be termed alkaloids.
Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. They can be purified from crude extracts of these organisms by acid-base extraction, or solvent extractions followed by silica-gel column chromatography. Alkaloids have a wide range of pharmacological activities including antimalarial (e.g. quinine), antiasthma (e.g. ephedrine), anticancer (e.g. homoharringtonine), cholinomimetic (e.g. galantamine), vasodilatory (e.g. vincamine), antiarrhythmic (e.g. quinidine), analgesic (e.g. morphine), antibacterial (e.g. chelerythrine), and antihyperglycemic activities (e.g. berberine). Many have found use in traditional or modern medicine, or as starting points for drug discovery. Other alkaloids possess psychotropic (e.g. psilocin) and stimulant activities (e.g. cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, theobromine), and have been used in entheogenic rituals or as recreational drugs. Alkaloids can be toxic (e.g. atropine, tubocurarine). Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals, they almost uniformly evoke a bitter taste.
The boundary between alkaloids and other nitrogen-containing natural compounds is not clear-cut.Robert A. Meyers Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology – Alkaloids, 3rd edition. Most alkaloids are basic, although some have neutral and even weakly acidic properties. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen or sulfur. Rarer still, they may contain elements such as phosphorus, chlorine, and bromine. Compounds like amino acid peptides, proteins, nucleotides, nucleic acid, amines, and antibiotics are usually not called alkaloids. Natural compounds containing nitrogen in the exocyclic position (mescaline, serotonin, dopamine, etc.) are usually classified as amines rather than as alkaloids. Some authors, however, consider alkaloids a special case of amines.Aniszewski, p. 110
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Alkaloid
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Naming
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Naming
thumb|160px|The article that introduced the concept of "alkaloid".
The name "alkaloids" () was introduced in 1819 by German chemist Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Meissner, and is derived from late Latin root and the Greek-language suffix -('like'). However, the term came into wide use only after the publication of a review article, by Oscar Jacobsen in the chemical dictionary of Albert Ladenburg in the 1880s.Hesse, pp. 1–3
There is no unique method for naming alkaloids.Hesse, p. 5 Many individual names are formed by adding the suffix "ine" to the species or genus name.The suffix "ine" is a Greek feminine patronymic suffix and means "daughter of"; hence, for example, "atropine" means "daughter of Atropa" (belladonna): For example, atropine is isolated from the plant Atropa belladonna; strychnine is obtained from the seed of the Strychnine tree (Strychnos nux-vomica L.). Where several alkaloids are extracted from one plant their names are often distinguished by variations in the suffix: "idine", "anine", "aline", "inine" etc. There are also at least 86 alkaloids whose names contain the root "vin" because they are extracted from vinca plants such as Vinca rosea (Catharanthus roseus);Hesse, p. 7 these are called vinca alkaloids.
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Alkaloid
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History
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History
thumb|left|Friedrich Sertürner, the German chemist who first isolated morphine from opium.
Alkaloid-containing plants have been used by humans since ancient times for therapeutic and recreational purposes. For example, medicinal plants have been known in Mesopotamia from about 2000 BC.Aniszewski, p. 182 The Odyssey of Homer referred to a gift given to Helen by the Egyptian queen, a drug bringing oblivion. It is believed that the gift was an opium-containing drug.Hesse, p. 338 A Chinese book on houseplants written in 1st–3rd centuries BC mentioned a medical use of ephedra and opium poppies.Hesse, p. 304 Also, coca leaves have been used by Indigenous South Americans since ancient times.Hesse, p. 350
Extracts from plants containing toxic alkaloids, such as aconitine and tubocurarine, were used since antiquity for poisoning arrows.
Studies of alkaloids began in the 19th century. In 1804, the German chemist Friedrich Sertürner isolated from opium a "soporific principle" (), which he called "morphium", referring to Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams; in German and some other Central-European languages, this is still the name of the drug. The term "morphine", used in English and French, was given by the French physicist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac.
A significant contribution to the chemistry of alkaloids in the early years of its development was made by the French researchers Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou, who discovered quinine (1820) and strychnine (1818). Several other alkaloids were discovered around that time, including xanthine (1817), atropine (1819), caffeine (1820), coniine (1827), nicotine (1828), colchicine (1833), sparteine (1851), and cocaine (1860).Hesse, pp. 313–316 The development of the chemistry of alkaloids was accelerated by the emergence of spectroscopic and chromatographic methods in the 20th century, so that by 2008 more than 12,000 alkaloids had been identified.Begley, Natural Products in Plants.
The first complete synthesis of an alkaloid was achieved in 1886 by the German chemist Albert Ladenburg. He produced coniine by reacting 2-methylpyridine with acetaldehyde and reducing the resulting 2-propenyl pyridine with sodium.Hesse, p. 204
class=skin-invert-image|thumb|160px|Bufotenin, an alkaloid from some toads, contains an indole core, and is produced in living organisms from the amino acid tryptophan.
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Alkaloid
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Classifications
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Classifications
class=skin-invert-image|thumb|160px|The nicotine molecule contains both pyridine (left) and pyrrolidine rings (right).
Compared with most other classes of natural compounds, alkaloids are characterized by a great structural diversity. There is no uniform classification.Hesse, p. 11 Initially, when knowledge of chemical structures was lacking, botanical classification of the source plants was relied on. This classification is now considered obsolete.Orekhov, p. 6
More recent classifications are based on similarity of the carbon skeleton (e.g., indole-, isoquinoline-, and pyridine-like) or biochemical precursor (ornithine, lysine, tyrosine, tryptophan, etc.). However, they require compromises in borderline cases; for example, nicotine contains a pyridine fragment from nicotinamide and a pyrrolidine part from ornithineAniszewski, p. 109 and therefore can be assigned to both classes.Dewick, p. 307
Alkaloids are often divided into the following major groups:Hesse, p. 12
"True alkaloids" contain nitrogen in the heterocycle and originate from amino acids.Plemenkov, p. 223 Their characteristic examples are atropine, nicotine, and morphine. This group also includes some alkaloids that besides the nitrogen heterocycle contain terpene (e.g., evonineAniszewski, p. 108) or peptide fragments (e.g. ergotamineHesse, p. 84). The piperidine alkaloids coniine and coniceine may be regarded as true alkaloids (rather than pseudoalkaloids: see below)Hesse, p. 31 although they do not originate from amino acids.Dewick, p. 381
"Protoalkaloids", which contain nitrogen (but not the nitrogen heterocycle) and also originate from amino acids. Examples include mescaline, adrenaline and ephedrine.
Polyamine alkaloids – derivatives of putrescine, spermidine, and spermine.
Peptide and cyclopeptide alkaloids.
Pseudoalkaloids – alkaloid-like compounds that do not originate from amino acids.Aniszewski, p. 11 This group includes terpene-like and steroid-like alkaloids,Plemenkov, p. 246 as well as purine-like alkaloids such as caffeine, theobromine, theacrine and theophylline.Aniszewski, p. 12 Some authors classify ephedrine and cathinone as pseudoalkaloids. Those originate from the amino acid phenylalanine, but acquire their nitrogen atom not from the amino acid but through transamination.Dewick, p. 382
Some alkaloids do not have the carbon skeleton characteristic of their group. So, galanthamine and homoaporphines do not contain isoquinoline fragment, but are, in general, attributed to isoquinoline alkaloids.Hesse, pp. 44, 53
Main classes of monomeric alkaloids are listed in the table below:
ClassMajor groupsMain synthesis stepsExamplesAlkaloids with nitrogen heterocycles (true alkaloids) Pyrrolidine derivativesPlemenkov, p. 224
50px|center Ornithine or arginine → putrescine → N-methylputrescine → N-methyl-Δ1-pyrrolineAniszewski, p. 75 Cuscohygrine, hygrine, hygroline, stachydrineOrekhov, p. 33Tropane derivatives
100px|center Atropine groupSubstitution in positions 3, 6 or 7 Ornithine or arginine → putrescine → N-methylputrescine → N-methyl-Δ1-pyrroline Atropine, scopolamine, hyoscyamineHesse, p. 34 Cocaine group Substitution in positions 2 and 3 Cocaine, ecgonineAniszewski, p. 27Pyrrolizidine derivatives
80px|center Non-estersIn plants: ornithine or arginine → putrescine → homospermidine → retronecine Retronecine, heliotridine, laburninePlemenkov, p. 229 Complex esters of monocarboxylic acids Indicine, lindelophin, sarracine Macrocyclic diesters Platyphylline, trichodesmine 1-aminopyrrolizidines (lolines) In fungi: L-proline + L-homoserine → N-(3-amino-3-carboxypropyl)proline → norlolineLoline, N-formylloline, N-acetyllolinePiperidine derivativesPlemenkov, p. 225
50px|center Lysine → cadaverine → Δ1-piperideineAniszewski, p. 95 Sedamine, lobeline, anaferine, piperineOrekhov, p. 80 Octanoic acid → coniceine → coniine Coniine, coniceineQuinolizidine derivativesSaxton, Vol. 1, p. 93
80px|center Lupinine groupLysine → cadaverine → Δ1-piperideineAniszewski, p. 98 Lupinine, nupharidin Cytisine group Cytisine Sparteine group Sparteine, lupanine, anahygrine Matrine group. Matrine, oxymatrine, allomatridineSaxton, Vol. 1, p. 91 Ormosanine group Ormosanine, piptantineSaxton, Vol. 1, p. 92 Indolizidine derivativesDewick, p. 310
80px|center Lysine → δ-semialdehyde of α-aminoadipic acid → pipecolic acid → 1 indolizidinoneAniszewski, p. 96 Swainsonine, castanospermineAniszewski, p. 97Pyridine derivativesPlemenkov, p. 227
50px|center Simple derivatives of pyridineNicotinic acid → dihydronicotinic acid → 1,2-dihydropyridineAniszewski, p. 107 Trigonelline, ricinine, arecolineAniszewski, p. 85 Polycyclic noncondensing pyridine derivatives Nicotine, nornicotine, anabasine, anatabine Polycyclic condensed pyridine derivatives Actinidine, gentianine, pediculininePlemenkov, p. 228 Sesquiterpene pyridine derivatives Nicotinic acid, isoleucine Evonine, hippocrateine, triptonineIsoquinoline derivatives and related alkaloidsHesse, p. 36
90px|center Simple derivatives of isoquinolineTyrosine or phenylalanine → dopamine or tyramine (for alkaloids Amarillis)Aniszewski, pp. 77–78Begley, Alkaloid Biosynthesis Salsoline, lophocerine Derivatives of 1- and 3-isoquinolinesSaxton, Vol. 3, p. 122 N-methylcoridaldine, noroxyhydrastinine Derivatives of 1- and 4-phenyltetrahydroisoquinolines CryptostilinHesse, p. 54 Derivatives of 5-naftil-isoquinolineHesse, p. 37 Ancistrocladine Derivatives of 1- and 2-benzyl-izoquinolinesHesse, p. 38 Papaverine, laudanosine, sendaverine Cularine groupHesse, p. 46 Cularine, yagonine Pavines and isopavinesHesse, p. 50 Argemonine, amurensine Benzopyrrocolines Cryptaustoline Protoberberines Berberine, canadine, ophiocarpine, mecambridine, corydalineHesse, p. 47 Phthalidisoquinolines Hydrastine, narcotine (Noscapine)Hesse, p. 39 Spirobenzylisoquinolines Fumaricine Ipecacuanha alkaloidsHesse, p. 41 Emetine, protoemetine, ipecoside Benzophenanthridines Sanguinarine, oxynitidine, corynoloxineHesse, p. 49 Aporphines Glaucine, coridine, liriodenineHesse, p. 44 Proaporphines Pronuciferine, glaziovine HomoaporphinesSaxton, Vol. 3, p. 164 Kreysiginine, multifloramine Homoproaporphines Bulbocodine MorphinesHesse, p. 51 Morphine, codeine, thebaine, sinomenine,Plemenkov, p. 236 heroin HomomorphinesSaxton, Vol. 3, p. 163 Kreysiginine, androcymbine Tropoloisoquinolines Imerubrine Azofluoranthenes Rufescine, imeluteineSaxton, Vol. 3, p. 168 Amaryllis alkaloidsHesse, p. 52 Lycorine, ambelline, tazettine, galantamine, montanineHesse, p. 53 Erythrina alkaloids Erysodine, erythroidine Phenanthrene derivatives Atherosperminine Protopines Protopine, oxomuramine, corycavidine Aristolactam Doriflavin Oxazole derivativesPlemenkov, p. 241
80px|center Tyrosine → tyramineBrossi, Vol. 35, p. 261 Annuloline, halfordinol, texaline, texamineBrossi, Vol. 35, pp. 260–263 Isoxazole derivatives
80px|centerIbotenic acid → MuscimolIbotenic acid, Muscimol Thiazole derivativesPlemenkov, p. 242
80px|center 1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DOXP), tyrosine, cysteineBegley, Cofactor Biosynthesis Nostocyclamide, thiostreptoneQuinazoline derivatives
90px|center 3,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolone derivativesAnthranilic acid or phenylalanine or ornithineAniszewski, p. 106 FebrifugineAniszewski, p. 105 1,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolone derivatives Glycorine, arborine, glycosminine Pyrrolidine and piperidine quinazoline derivatives Vazicine (peganine) Acridine derivatives
100px|center Anthranilic acid Rutacridone, acronicinePlemenkov, pp. 231, 246Hesse, p. 58Quinoline derivativesPlemenkov, p. 231
90px|center Simple derivatives of quinoline derivatives of 2–quinolones and 4-quinoloneAnthranilic acid → 3-carboxyquinolineAniszewski, p. 114 Cusparine, echinopsine, evocarpineOrekhov, p. 205Hesse, p. 55 Tricyclic terpenoids FlindersinePlemenkov, p. 232 Furanoquinoline derivatives Dictamnine, fagarine, skimmianineOrekhov, p. 212Aniszewski, p. 118 Quinines Tryptophan → tryptamine → strictosidine (with secologanin) → korinanteal → cinhoninon Quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, cinhonidineIndole derivatives
100px|centerNon-isoprene indole alkaloids Simple indole derivativesAniszewski, p. 112Tryptophan → tryptamine or 5-HydroxytryptophanAniszewski, p. 113 Serotonin, psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine (DMT), bufoteninHesse, p. 15Saxton, Vol. 1, p. 467 Simple derivatives of β-carbolineDewick, pp. 349–350 Harman, harmine, harmaline, eleagnine Pyrroloindole alkaloidsAniszewski, p. 119 Physostigmine (eserine), etheramine, physovenine, eptastigmineSemiterpenoid indole alkaloids Ergot alkaloids Tryptophan → chanoclavine → agroclavine → elimoclavine → paspalic acid → lysergic acid Ergotamine, ergobasine, ergosineHesse, p. 29Monoterpenoid indole alkaloids Corynanthe type alkaloidsTryptophan → tryptamine → strictosidine (with secologanin) Ajmalicine, sarpagine, vobasine, ajmaline, yohimbine, reserpine, mitragynine,Hesse, pp. 23–26Saxton, Vol. 1, p. 169 group strychnine and (Strychnine brucine, aquamicine, vomicineSaxton, Vol. 5, p. 210) Iboga-type alkaloids Ibogamine, ibogaine, voacangine Aspidosperma-type alkaloids Vincamine, vinca alkaloids, vincotine, aspidospermineHesse, pp. 17–18Dewick, p. 357 Imidazole derivatives
50px|center Directly from histidineAniszewski, p. 104 Histamine, pilocarpine, pilosine, stevensine Purine derivativesHesse, p. 72
90px|center Xanthosine (formed in purine biosynthesis) → 7 methylxantosine → 7-methylxanthine → theobromine → caffeine Caffeine, theobromine, theophylline, saxitoxinHesse, p. 73Dewick, p. 396Alkaloids with nitrogen in the side chain (protoalkaloids) β-Phenylethylamine derivatives
110px|center Tyrosine or phenylalanine → dioxyphenilalanine → dopamine → adrenaline and mescaline tyrosine → tyramine phenylalanine → 1-phenylpropane-1,2-dione → cathinone → ephedrine and pseudoephedrine Tyramine, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, mescaline, cathinone, catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine)Hesse, p. 76 Colchicine alkaloids
120px|center Tyrosine or phenylalanine → dopamine → autumnaline → colchicineAniszewski, p. 77 Colchicine, colchamine MuscarineHesse, p. 81
100px|center Glutamic acid → 3-ketoglutamic acid → muscarine (with pyruvic acid)Brossi, Vol. 23, p. 376 Muscarine, allomuscarine, epimuscarine, epiallomuscarine BenzylamineHesse, p. 77
90px|center Phenylalanine with valine, leucine or isoleucineBrossi, Vol. 23, p. 268 Capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, vanillylamineBrossi, Vol. 23, p. 231Polyamines alkaloids Putrescine derivativesHesse, p. 82
90px|centerornithine → putrescine → spermidine → spermine Paucine Spermidine derivatives
110px|center Lunarine, codonocarpine Spermine derivatives
130px|center Verbascenine, aphelandrinePeptide (cyclopeptide) alkaloidsPeptide alkaloids with a 13-membered cyclePlemenkov, p. 243 Nummularine C typeFrom different amino acids Nummularine C, Nummularine S Ziziphine type Ziziphine A, sativanine HPeptide alkaloids with a 14-membered cycle Frangulanine type Frangulanine, scutianine J Scutianine A type Scutianine A Integerrine type Integerrine, discarine D Amphibine F type Amphibine F, spinanine A Amfibine B type Amphibine B, lotusine C Peptide alkaloids with a 15-membered cycle Mucronine A type Mucronine APseudoalkaloids (terpenes and steroids) Diterpenes
80px|center Lycoctonine type Mevalonic acid → Isopentenyl pyrophosphate → geranyl pyrophosphateBegley, Natural Products: An Overview Aconitine, delphinine Steroidal alkaloidsHesse, p. 88
100px|center Cholesterol, arginineDewick, p. 388 Solanidine, cyclopamine, batrachotoxinPlemenkov, p. 247
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Alkaloid
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Properties
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Properties
Most alkaloids contain oxygen in their molecular structure; those compounds are usually colorless crystals at ambient conditions. Oxygen-free alkaloids, such as nicotine or coniine, are typically volatile, colorless, oily liquids.Grinkevich, p. 131 Some alkaloids are colored, like berberine (yellow) and sanguinarine (orange).
Most alkaloids are weak bases, but some, such as theobromine and theophylline, are amphoteric. Many alkaloids dissolve poorly in water but readily dissolve in organic solvents, such as diethyl ether, chloroform or 1,2-dichloroethane. Caffeine, cocaine, codeine and nicotine are slightly soluble in water (with a solubility of ≥1g/L), whereas others, including morphine and yohimbine are very slightly water-soluble (0.1–1 g/L). Alkaloids and acids form salts of various strengths. These salts are usually freely soluble in water and ethanol and poorly soluble in most organic solvents. Exceptions include scopolamine hydrobromide, which is soluble in organic solvents, and the water-soluble quinine sulfate.
Most alkaloids have a bitter taste or are poisonous when ingested. Alkaloid production in plants appeared to have evolved in response to feeding by herbivorous animals; however, some animals have evolved the ability to detoxify alkaloids.Fattorusso, p. 53 Some alkaloids can produce developmental defects in the offspring of animals that consume but cannot detoxify the alkaloids. One example is the alkaloid cyclopamine, produced in the leaves of corn lily. During the 1950s, up to 25% of lambs born by sheep that had grazed on corn lily had serious facial deformations. These ranged from deformed jaws to cyclopia. After decades of research, in the 1980s, the compound responsible for these deformities was identified as the alkaloid 11-deoxyjervine, later renamed to cyclopamine.
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Alkaloid
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Distribution in nature
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Distribution in nature
thumb|Strychnine tree. Its seeds are rich in strychnine and brucine.
Alkaloids are generated by various living organisms, especially by higher plants – about 10 to 25% of those contain alkaloids.Aniszewski, p. 13Orekhov, p. 11 Therefore, in the past the term "alkaloid" was associated with plants.Hesse, p.4
The alkaloids content in plants is usually within a few percent and is inhomogeneous over the plant tissues. Depending on the type of plants, the maximum concentration is observed in the leaves (for example, black henbane), fruits or seeds (Strychnine tree), root (Rauvolfia serpentina) or bark (cinchona).Grinkevich, pp. 122–123 Furthermore, different tissues of the same plants may contain different alkaloids.Orekhov, p. 12
Beside plants, alkaloids are found in certain types of fungus, such as psilocybin in the fruiting bodies of the genus Psilocybe, and in animals, such as bufotenin in the skin of some toads and a number of insects, markedly ants. Many marine organisms also contain alkaloids.Fattorusso, p. XVII Some amines, such as adrenaline and serotonin, which play an important role in higher animals, are similar to alkaloids in their structure and biosynthesis and are sometimes called alkaloids.Aniszewski, pp. 110–111
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Alkaloid
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Extraction
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Extraction
thumb|Crystals of piperine extracted from black pepper.
Because of the structural diversity of alkaloids, there is no single method of their extraction from natural raw materials.Hesse, p. 116 Most methods exploit the property of most alkaloids to be soluble in organic solvents but not in water, and the opposite tendency of their salts.
Most plants contain several alkaloids. Their mixture is extracted first and then individual alkaloids are separated.Grinkevich, p. 132 Plants are thoroughly ground before extraction.Grinkevich, p. 5 Most alkaloids are present in the raw plants in the form of salts of organic acids. The extracted alkaloids may remain salts or change into bases. Base extraction is achieved by processing the raw material with alkaline solutions and extracting the alkaloid bases with organic solvents, such as 1,2-dichloroethane, chloroform, diethyl ether or benzene. Then, the impurities are dissolved by weak acids; this converts alkaloid bases into salts that are washed away with water. If necessary, an aqueous solution of alkaloid salts is again made alkaline and treated with an organic solvent. The process is repeated until the desired purity is achieved.
In the acidic extraction, the raw plant material is processed by a weak acidic solution (e.g., acetic acid in water, ethanol, or methanol). A base is then added to convert alkaloids to basic forms that are extracted with organic solvent (if the extraction was performed with alcohol, it is removed first, and the remainder is dissolved in water). The solution is purified as described above.Grinkevich, pp. 132–134
Alkaloids are separated from their mixture using their different solubility in certain solvents and different reactivity with certain reagents or by distillation.Grinkevich, pp. 134–136
A number of alkaloids are identified from insects, among which the fire ant venom alkaloids known as solenopsins have received greater attention from researchers. These insect alkaloids can be efficiently extracted by solvent immersion of live fire ants or by centrifugation of live ants followed by silica-gel chromatography purification. Tracking and dosing the extracted solenopsin ant alkaloids has been described as possible based on their absorbance peak around 232 nanometers.
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Alkaloid
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Biosynthesis
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Biosynthesis
Biological precursors of most alkaloids are amino acids, such as ornithine, lysine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, histidine, aspartic acid, and anthranilic acid.Plemenkov, p. 253 Nicotinic acid can be synthesized from tryptophan or aspartic acid. Ways of alkaloid biosynthesis are too numerous and cannot be easily classified. However, there are a few typical reactions involved in the biosynthesis of various classes of alkaloids, including synthesis of Schiff bases and Mannich reaction.
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Alkaloid
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Synthesis of Schiff bases
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Synthesis of Schiff bases
Schiff bases can be obtained by reacting amines with ketones or aldehydes.Plemenkov, p. 254 These reactions are a common method of producing C=N bonds.Dewick, p. 19
class=skin-invert-image|center
In the biosynthesis of alkaloids, such reactions may take place within a molecule, such as in the synthesis of piperidine:
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Alkaloid
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Mannich reaction
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Mannich reaction
An integral component of the Mannich reaction, in addition to an amine and a carbonyl compound, is a carbanion, which plays the role of the nucleophile in the nucleophilic addition to the ion formed by the reaction of the amine and the carbonyl.
class=skin-invert-image|center
The Mannich reaction can proceed both intermolecularly and intramolecularly:Plemenkov, p. 255Dewick, p. 305
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Alkaloid
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Dimer alkaloids
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Dimer alkaloids
In addition to the described above monomeric alkaloids, there are also dimeric, and even trimeric and tetrameric alkaloids formed upon condensation of two, three, and four monomeric alkaloids. Dimeric alkaloids are usually formed from monomers of the same type through the following mechanisms:Hesse, pp. 91–105
Mannich reaction, resulting in, e.g., voacamine
Michael reaction (villalstonine)
Condensation of aldehydes with amines (toxiferine)
Oxidative addition of phenols (dauricine, tubocurarine)
Lactonization (carpaine).
There are also dimeric alkaloids formed from two distinct monomers, such as the vinca alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine, which are formed from the coupling of catharanthine and vindoline. The newer semi-synthetic chemotherapeutic agent vinorelbine is used in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer. It is another derivative dimer of vindoline and catharanthine and is synthesised from anhydrovinblastine, starting either from leurosine or the monomers themselves.
class=skin-invert-image|center|1000px
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Alkaloid
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Biological role
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Biological role
Alkaloids are among the most important and best-known secondary metabolites, i.e. biogenic substances not directly involved in the normal growth, development, or reproduction of the organism. Instead, they generally mediate ecological interactions, which may produce a selective advantage for the organism by increasing its survivability or fecundity. In some cases their function, if any, remains unclear.Aniszewski, p. 142 An early hypothesis, that alkaloids are the final products of nitrogen metabolism in plants, as urea and uric acid are in mammals, was refuted by the finding that their concentration fluctuates rather than steadily increasing.
Most of the known functions of alkaloids are related to protection. For example, aporphine alkaloid liriodenine produced by the tulip tree protects it from parasitic mushrooms. In addition, the presence of alkaloids in the plant prevents insects and chordate animals from eating it. However, some animals are adapted to alkaloids and even use them in their own metabolism.Hesse, pp. 283–291 Such alkaloid-related substances as serotonin, dopamine and histamine are important neurotransmitters in animals. Alkaloids are also known to regulate plant growth.Aniszewski, pp. 142–143 One example of an organism that uses alkaloids for protection is the Utetheisa ornatrix, more commonly known as the ornate moth. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids render these larvae and adult moths unpalatable to many of their natural enemies like coccinelid beetles, green lacewings, insectivorous hemiptera and insectivorous bats.W.E. Conner (2009). Tiger Moths and Woolly Bears—behaviour, ecology, and evolution of the Arctiidae. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–10. . Another example of alkaloids being utilized occurs in the poison hemlock moth (Agonopterix alstroemeriana). This moth feeds on its highly toxic and alkaloid-rich host plant poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) during its larval stage. A. alstroemeriana may benefit twofold from the toxicity of the naturally-occurring alkaloids, both through the unpalatability of the species to predators and through the ability of A. alstroemeriana to recognize Conium maculatum as the correct location for oviposition. A fire ant venom alkaloid known as solenopsin has been demonstrated to protect queens of invasive fire ants during the foundation of new nests, thus playing a central role in the spread of this pest ant species around the world.
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Alkaloid
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Applications
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Applications
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Alkaloid
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In medicine
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In medicine
Medical use of alkaloid-containing plants has a long history, and, thus, when the first alkaloids were isolated in the 19th century, they immediately found application in clinical practice.Hesse, p. 303 Many alkaloids are still used in medicine, usually in the form of salts widely used including the following:Hesse, pp. 303–309
Alkaloid Action Ajmaline Antiarrhythmic Emetine Antiprotozoal agent, emesis Ergot alkaloids Vasoconstriction, hallucinogenic, Uterotonic Glaucine Antitussive Morphine Analgesic Nicotine Stimulant, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist Physostigmine Inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase Quinidine Antiarrhythmic Quinine Antipyretic, antimalarial Reserpine Antihypertensive Tubocurarine Muscle relaxant Vinblastine, vincristine Antitumor Vincamine Vasodilating, antihypertensive Yohimbine Stimulant, aphrodisiacBerberineAntihyperglycaemic
Many synthetic and semisynthetic drugs are structural modifications of the alkaloids, which were designed to enhance or change the primary effect of the drug and reduce unwanted side-effects.Hesse, p. 309 For example, naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist, is a derivative of thebaine that is present in opium.Dewick, p. 335
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Alkaloid
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In agriculture
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In agriculture
Prior to the development of a wide range of relatively low-toxic synthetic pesticides, some alkaloids, such as salts of nicotine and anabasine, were used as insecticides. Their use was limited by their high toxicity to humans.
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Alkaloid
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Use as psychoactive drugs
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Use as psychoactive drugs
Preparations of plants and fungi containing alkaloids and their extracts, and later pure alkaloids, have long been used as psychoactive substances. Cocaine, caffeine, and cathinone are stimulants of the central nervous system.Veselovskaya, p. 75Hesse, p. 79 Mescaline and many indole alkaloids (such as psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine and ibogaine) have hallucinogenic effect.Veselovskaya, p. 136 Morphine and codeine are strong narcotic pain killers.Veselovskaya, p. 6
There are alkaloids that do not have strong psychoactive effect themselves, but are precursors for semi-synthetic psychoactive drugs. For example, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are used to produce methcathinone and methamphetamine.Veselovskaya, pp. 51–52 Thebaine is used in the synthesis of many painkillers such as oxycodone.
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Alkaloid
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See also
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See also
Amine
Base (chemistry)
List of poisonous plants
Mayer's reagent
Natural products
Palau'amine
Secondary metabolite
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Alkaloid
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Explanatory notes
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Explanatory notes
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Alkaloid
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Citations
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Citations
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Alkaloid
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General and cited references
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General and cited references
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Alkaloid
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External links
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External links
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Alkaloid
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Table of Content
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Short description, Naming, History, Classifications, Properties, Distribution in nature, Extraction, Biosynthesis, Synthesis of Schiff bases, Mannich reaction, Dimer alkaloids, Biological role, Applications, In medicine, In agriculture, Use as psychoactive drugs, See also, Explanatory notes, Citations, General and cited references, External links
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Adventism
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Short description
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Adventism is a branch of Protestant Christianity that believes in the imminent Second Coming (or the "Second Advent") of Jesus Christ. It originated in the 1830s in the United States during the Second Great Awakening when Baptist preacher William Miller first publicly shared his belief that the Second Coming would occur at some point between 1843 and 1844. His followers became known as Millerites. After Miller's prophecies failed, the Millerite movement split up and was continued by a number of groups that held different doctrines from one another. These groups, stemming from a common Millerite ancestor, collectively became known as the Adventist movement.
Although the Adventist churches hold much in common with mainline Christianity, their theologies differ on whether the intermediate state of the dead is unconscious sleep or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is annihilation or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of Daniel 8 refers to the one in heaven or one on earth. Seventh-day Adventists and some smaller Adventist groups observe the seventh day Sabbath. The General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists has compiled that church's core beliefs in the 28 Fundamental Beliefs (1980 and 2005).
In 2010, Adventism claimed to have some 22 million believers who were scattered in various independent churches. The largest church within the movement—the Seventh-day Adventist Church—had more than 21 million members in 2020.
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Adventism
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History
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History
Adventism began as an inter-denominational movement. Its most vocal leader was William Miller. Between 50,000 and 100,000 people in the United States supported Miller's predictions of Christ's return. After the "Great Disappointment" of October 22, 1844, many people in the movement gave up on Adventism. Of those remaining Adventist, the majority gave up believing in any prophetic (biblical) significance for the October 22 date, yet they remained expectant of the near Advent (second coming of Jesus).George Knight, A Brief History of Seventh-day Adventists.
Of those who retained the October 22 date, many maintained that Jesus had come not literally but "spiritually", and consequently were known as "spiritualizers". A small minority held that something concrete had indeed happened on October 22, but that this event had been misinterpreted. This belief later emerged and crystallized with the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the largest remaining body today.
750px|thumb|center|The development of branches of Adventism in the 19th century.
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Adventism
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Albany Conference (1845)
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Albany Conference (1845)
The Albany Conference in 1845, attended by 61 delegates, was called to attempt to determine the future course and meaning of the Millerite movement. Following this meeting, the "Millerites" then became known as "Adventists" or "Second Adventists". However, the delegates disagreed on several theological points. Four groups emerged from the conference: The Evangelical Adventists, The Life and Advent Union, the Advent Christian Church, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church.
The largest group was organized as the American Millennial Association, a portion of which was later known as the Evangelical Adventist Church. Unique among the Adventists, they believed in an eternal hell and consciousness in death. They declined in numbers, and by 1916 their name did not appear in the United States Census of Religious Bodies. It has diminished to almost non-existence today. Their main publication was the Advent Herald, of which Sylvester Bliss was the editor until his death in 1863. It was later called the Messiah's Herald.
The Life and Advent Union was founded by George Storrs in 1863. He had established The Bible Examiner in 1842. It merged with the Adventist Christian Church in 1964.
The Advent Christian Church officially formed in 1861 and grew rapidly at first. It declined a little during the 20th century. The Advent Christians publish the four magazines The Advent Christian Witness, Advent Christian News, Advent Christian Missions and Maranatha. They also operate a liberal arts college at Aurora, Illinois; and a one-year Bible College in Lenox, Massachusetts, called Berkshire Institute for Christian Studies. The Primitive Advent Christian Church later separated from a few congregations in West Virginia.
The Seventh-day Adventist Church officially formed in 1863. It believes in the sanctity of the seventh-day Sabbath as a holy day for worship. It publishes the Adventist Review, which evolved from several early church publications. Youth publications include KidsView, Guide and Insight. It has grown to a large worldwide denomination and has a significant network of medical and educational institutions.
Miller did not join any of the movements, and he spent the last few years of his life working for unity, before dying in 1849.
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Adventism
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Denominations
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Denominations
thumb|The adventist church of Karjasilta, Oulu, Finland
The Handbook of Denominations in the United States, 12th ed., describes the following churches as "Adventist and Sabbatarian (Hebraic) Churches":
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Adventism
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Christadelphians
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Christadelphians
The Christadelphians were founded in 1844 by John Thomas and had an estimated 25,000 members in 170 ecclesias, or churches, in 2000 in America.
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Adventism
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Advent Christian Church
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Advent Christian Church
The Advent Christian Church was founded in 1860 and had 25,277 members in 302 churches in 2002 in America. It is a "first-day" body of Adventist Christians founded on the teachings of William Miller. It adopted the "conditional immortality" doctrine of Charles F. Hudson and George Storrs, who formed the "Advent Christian Association" in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1860.
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Adventism
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Primitive Advent Christian Church
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Primitive Advent Christian Church
The Primitive Advent Christian Church is a small group which separated from the Advent Christian Church. It differs from the parent body mainly on two points. Its members observe foot washing as a rite of the church, and they teach that reclaimed backsliders should be baptized (even though they had formerly been baptized). This is sometimes referred to as rebaptism.
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Adventism
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Seventh-day Adventist Church
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Seventh-day Adventist Church
The Seventh-day Adventist Church, founded in 1863, had over 19,500,000 baptized members (not counting children of members) worldwide as of June 2016. It is best known for its teaching that Saturday, the seventh day of the week, is the Sabbath and is the appropriate day for worship. However, the second coming of Jesus Christ, along with Judgment Day based on the three angels' message in Revelation 14:6–13, remain core beliefs of Seventh-day Adventists.
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Adventism
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Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement
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Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement
The Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement is a small offshoot with an unknown number of members from the Seventh-day Adventist Church caused by disagreement over military service on the Sabbath day during World War I.
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Adventism
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Davidian Seventh-day Adventist Association
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Davidian Seventh-day Adventist Association
The Davidians (originally named Shepherd's Rod) is a small offshoot with an unknown number of members made up primarily of voluntarily disfellowshipped members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. They were originally known as the Shepherd's Rod and are still sometimes referred to as such. The group derives its name from two books on Bible doctrine written by its founder, Victor Houteff, in 1929.
Branch Davidians
The Branch Davidians were a split ("branch") from the Davidians.
A group that gathered around David Koresh (the so-called Koreshians) abandoned Davidian teachings and turned into a religious cult. Many of them were killed during the infamous Waco Siege of April 1993.
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Adventism
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Church of God (Seventh Day)
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Church of God (Seventh Day)
The Church of God (Seventh-Day) was founded in 1863 and it had an estimated 11,000 members in 185 churches in 1999 in America. Its founding members separated in 1858 from those Adventists associated with Ellen G. White who later organized themselves as Seventh-day Adventists in 1863. The Church of God (Seventh Day) split in 1933, creating two bodies: one headquartered in Salem, West Virginia, and known as the Church of God (7th day) – Salem Conference and the other one headquartered in Denver, Colorado and known as the General Conference of the Church of God (Seventh-Day). The Worldwide Church of God splintered from this.
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Adventism
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Church of God General Conference
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Church of God General Conference
Many denominations known as "Church of God" have Adventist origins.
The Church of God General Conference was founded in 1921 and had 7,634 members in 162 churches in 2004 in America. It is a nontrinitarian first-day Adventist Christian body which is also known as the Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith and the Church of God General Conference (Morrow, GA).
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Adventism
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Creation Seventh-Day Adventist Church
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Creation Seventh-Day Adventist Church
The Creation Seventh-Day Adventist Church is a small group that broke off from the Seventh-Day Adventists in 1988, and organized itself as a church in 1991.
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Adventism
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United Seventh-Day Brethren
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United Seventh-Day Brethren
The United Seventh-Day Brethren is a small Sabbatarian Adventist body.
In 1947, several individuals and two independent congregations within the Church of God Adventist movement formed the United Seventh-Day Brethren, seeking to increase fellowship and to combine their efforts in evangelism, publications, and other .
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Adventism
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Other minor Adventist groups
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Other minor Adventist groups
True and Free Adventists, a Soviet Union offshoot
At least two denominations and numerous individual churches with a charismatic or Pentecostal-type bent have been influenced by or were offshoots – see charismatic Adventism generally
Church of the Blessed Hope, a first-day Adventist church
United Sabbath-Day Adventist Church, an African-American offshoot of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in New York City
Celestia, a Christian communal town near Laporte in Sullivan County, Pennsylvania, founded by Millerite Peter E. Armstrong. It disintegrated before the end of the 19th century"Celestia" blog by Jeff Crocombe, October 13, 2006
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Adventism
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Other relationships
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Other relationships
Early in its development, the Bible Student movement founded by Charles Taze Russell had close connections with the Millerite movement and stalwarts of the Adventist faith, including George Storrs and Joseph Seiss. Although both Jehovah's Witnesses and the Bible Students do not identify as part of the Millerite Adventist movement (or other denominations, in general), some theologians categorize these groups and related sects as Millerite Adventist because of their teachings regarding an imminent Second Coming and their use of specific dates. The various independent Bible Student groups currently have a cumulative membership of about 20,000 worldwide. According to the Watch Tower Society, there were about Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide as of .
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Adventism
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See also
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See also
Advent Christian Church
Adventist and related churches
List of Christian denominations#Millerites and comparable groups
Seventh-day Adventist Church
Other movements in Adventism
Great Disappointment
William Miller (preacher)
Millennialism
Millerites
Second Great Awakening
General:
Christian revival
Christianity in the 19th century
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Adventism
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References
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References
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Adventism
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Bibliography
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Bibliography
Butler, Jonathan. "From Millerism to Seventh-Day Adventism: Boundlessness to Consolidation", Church History, Vol. 55, 1986
Jordan, Anne Devereaux. The Seventh-Day Adventists: A History (1988)
Land, Gary. Adventism in America: A History (1998)
Land, Gary. Historical Dictionary of the Seventh-Day Adventists (2005).
Morgan, Douglas. Adventism and the American Republic: The Public Involvement of a Major Apocalyptic Movement (University of Tennessee Press, 2001)
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Adventism
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External links
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External links
History of the Millerite Movement, a reprint from the Seventh-day Adventist Encyclopedia 10:892–898, 1976.
Graphical timeline of major Millerite groups from the Worldwide Church of God official website
Category:History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church
Category:Christian eschatology
Category:Christian terminology
Category:Christian denominations founded in the United States
Category:Christian denominations established in the 19th century
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Adventism
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Table of Content
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Short description, History, Albany Conference (1845), Denominations, Christadelphians, Advent Christian Church, Primitive Advent Christian Church, Seventh-day Adventist Church, Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement, Davidian Seventh-day Adventist Association, Church of God (Seventh Day), Church of God General Conference, Creation Seventh-Day Adventist Church, United Seventh-Day Brethren, Other minor Adventist groups, Other relationships, See also, References, Bibliography, External links
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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Short description
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The archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and a principal leader of the Church of England, the ceremonial head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the bishop of the diocese of Canterbury. The first archbishop was Augustine of Canterbury, the "Apostle to the English", who was sent to England by Pope Gregory the Great and arrived in 597. The position is currently vacant following the resignation of Justin Welby, the 105th archbishop, effective 7 January 2025.Orders in Council, 18 December 2024, page 42. Archived, 22 December 2024 During the vacancy the official functions of the office have been delegated primarily to the archbishop of York, Stephen Cottrell, with some also undertaken by the bishop of London, Sarah Mullally, and the bishop of Dover, Rose Hudson-Wilkin.
From Augustine until William Warham, the archbishops of Canterbury were in full communion with the Catholic Church and usually received the pallium from the pope. During the English Reformation, King Henry VIII broke communion with Rome and proclaimed himself the head of the Church of England. Thomas Cranmer, appointed in 1533, was the first Protestant archbishop of Canterbury and would become one of the most important figures in the development of Anglicanism.
The archbishop is appointed by the British monarch on the advice of the prime minister of the United Kingdom and formally elected by the college of canons of Canterbury Cathedral. In practice, however, candidates are chosen by the Crown Nominations Commission, a Church of England body which advises the prime minister. The Archbishops' Secretary for Appointments wrote to General Synod members regarding appointment of a successor to Justin Welby in January 2025; meetings up to September 2025 were expected, to shortlist candidates.
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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Present roles and status
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Present roles and status
Currently the archbishop fills four main roles:Archbishop's Roles and Responsibilities , Archbishop of Canterbury website. Retrieved 8 February 2008.
bishop of the diocese of Canterbury, which covers the eastern parts of the County of Kent. Founded in 597, it is the oldest see in the English church.
metropolitan archbishop of the province of Canterbury, which covers the southern two-thirds of England.
the senior primate and chief religious figure of the Church of England (the British sovereign is the supreme governor of the church). Along with their colleague the archbishop of York they chair the General Synod and sits on or chairs many of the church's important boards and committees; power in the church is not highly centralised, however, so the two archbishops can often lead only through persuasion. The archbishop of Canterbury plays a central part in national ceremonies such as coronations; due to their high public profile, their opinions are often in demand by the news media.
spiritual leader of the Anglican Communion. The archbishop, although without legal authority outside England, is recognised by convention as ("first among equals") of all Anglican primates worldwide. Since 1867 the archbishop has convened more or less decennial meetings of worldwide Anglican bishops, the Lambeth Conferences.
In the last two of these functions, they have an important ecumenical and interfaith role, speaking on behalf of Anglicans in England and worldwide.
The archbishop's main residence is Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth. They also have lodgings in the Old Palace, Canterbury, located beside Canterbury Cathedral, where the Chair of St Augustine sits.
As holder of one of the "five great sees" (the others being York, London, Durham and Winchester), the archbishop of Canterbury is ex officio one of the Lords Spiritual of the House of Lords. They are one of the highest-ranking people in England and the highest ranking non-royal in the United Kingdom's order of precedence.
Since Henry VIII broke with Rome, the archbishops of Canterbury have been selected by the English (British since the Act of Union in 1707) monarch. Since the 20th century, the appointment of archbishops of Canterbury conventionally alternates between Anglo-Catholics and Evangelicals.The Archbishop of Canterbury , website of the Archbishop of York. Retrieved 31 March 2009.
The most recent archbishop, Justin Welby was the 105th holder of the office; he was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 4 February 2013. As archbishop he signed himself as + Justin Cantuar. On 12 November 2024, he announced his decision to resign; he did so effective 7 January 2025.
Two other former archbishops were living : George Carey (born 1935), the 103rd archbishop; and Rowan Williams (born 1950), the 104th archbishop.
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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Additional roles
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Additional roles
In addition to their office, the archbishop holds a number of other positions; for example, they are joint president of the Council of Christians and Jews in the United Kingdom. Some positions they formally hold ex officio and others virtually so (the incumbent of the day, although appointed personally, is appointed because of their office). Amongst these are:
Chancellor of Canterbury Christ Church University
Visitor for the following academic institutions:
All Souls College, Oxford
Selwyn College, Cambridge
Merton College, Oxford
Keble College, Oxford
Ridley Hall, Cambridge
The University of Kent (main campus located in Canterbury)
King's College London
University of King's College
Sutton Valence School
Benenden School
Cranbrook School
Haileybury and Imperial Service College
Harrow School
King's College School, Wimbledon
The King's School, Canterbury
St John's School, Leatherhead
Marlborough College
Dauntsey's School
Wycliffe Hall, Oxford (also Patron)
Governor of Charterhouse School
Governor of Wellington College
Visitor, The Dulwich Charities
Visitor, Whitgift Foundation
Visitor, Hospital of the Blessed Trinity, Guildford (Abbot's Fund)
Trustee, Bromley College
Trustee, Allchurches Trust
President, Corporation of Church House, Westminster
Director, Canterbury Diocesan Board of Finance
Patron, St Edmund's School Canterbury
Patron, The University of King's College, Halifax, Nova Scotia
Patron, The Worshipful Company of Parish Clerks
Patron, Prisoners Abroad
Patron, The Kent Savers Credit Union
Patron, Sanctuary Mental Health Ministries
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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Ecumenical and interfaith
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Ecumenical and interfaith
The archbishop is also a president of Churches Together in England (an ecumenical organisation). Geoffrey Fisher, 99th archbishop of Canterbury, was the first since 1397 to visit Rome, where he held private talks with Pope John XXIII in 1960. In 2005, Rowan Williams became the first archbishop of Canterbury to attend a papal funeral since the Reformation. He also attended the inauguration of Pope Benedict XVI. The 101st archbishop, Donald Coggan, was the first to attend a papal inauguration, that of Pope John Paul II in 1978.
Since 2002, the archbishop has co-sponsored the Alexandria Middle East Peace process with the Grand Mufti of Egypt. In July 2008, the archbishop attended a conference of Christians, Jews and Muslims convened by the king of Saudi Arabia at which the notion of the "clash of civilizations" was rejected. Delegates agreed "on international guidelines for dialogue among the followers of religions and cultures." Delegates said that "the deepening of moral values and ethical principles, which are common denominators among such followers, would help strengthen stability and achieve prosperity for all humans."
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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Origins
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Origins
thumb|right|upright|Arms of the see of Canterbury. Nearly 500 years after the Reformation, the arms still depict the pallium, a symbol of the authority of the Pope and metropolitan archbishops.
It has been suggested that the Roman province of Britannia had four archbishops, seated at Londinium (London), Eboracum (York), Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) and Corinium Dobunnorum (Cirencester).Wacher, J., The Towns of Roman Britain, Batsford, 1974, especially pp. 84–86. However, in the 5th and 6th centuries Britannia began to be overrun by pagan, Germanic peoples who came to be known collectively as the Anglo-Saxons. Of the kingdoms they created, Kent arguably had the closest links with European politics, trade and culture, because it was conveniently situated for communication with continental Europe. In the late 6th century, King Æthelberht of Kent married a Christian Frankish princess named Bertha, possibly before becoming king, and certainly a number of years before the arrival of the first Christian mission to England.Catholic Encyclopedia: Bertha. He permitted the preaching of Christianity.Bede, Ecclesiastical History, i, 25.
The first archbishop of Canterbury was Saint Augustine of Canterbury (not to be confused with Saint Augustine of Hippo), who arrived in Kent in 597 AD, having been sent by Pope Gregory I on a mission to the English. He was accepted by King Æthelbert, on his conversion to Christianity, about the year 598. It seems that Pope Gregory, ignorant of recent developments in the former Roman province, including the spread of the Pelagian heresy, had intended the new archiepiscopal sees for England to be established in London and York.Bede, Ecclesiastical History, i, 29. In the event, Canterbury was chosen instead of London, owing to political circumstances.Brooks, N., The Early History of the Church of Canterbury, Leicester University Press, 1984, pp. 3–14. Since then the archbishops of Canterbury have been referred to as occupying the Chair of St. Augustine.
A gospel book believed to be directly associated with St Augustine's mission survives in the Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, University of Cambridge, England. Catalogued as Cambridge Manuscript 286, it has been positively dated to 6th-century Italy and this bound book, the St Augustine Gospels, is still used during the swearing-in ceremony of new archbishops of Canterbury.
Before the break with papal authority in the 16th century, the Church of England was an integral part of the Western European church. Since the break the Church of England, an established national church, still considers itself part of the broader Western Catholic tradition (although this is not accepted by the Roman Catholic Church which regards Anglicanism as schismatic and does not accept Anglican holy orders as valid) as well as being the "mother church" of the worldwide Anglican Communion.
The Report of the Commissioners appointed by his Majesty to inquire into the Ecclesiastical Revenues of England and Wales (1835) noted the net annual revenue for the Canterbury see was £19,182.The National Enclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, Vol.III, Charles Knight, London, 1847, p. 362
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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Province and Diocese of Canterbury
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Province and Diocese of Canterbury
thumb|View of Canterbury Cathedral from the north west
The archbishop of Canterbury exercises metropolitical (or supervisory) jurisdiction over the Province of Canterbury, which encompasses thirty of the forty-two dioceses of the Church of England, with the rest falling within the Province of York. The four Welsh dioceses were also under the province of Canterbury until 1920 when they were transferred from the established church of England to the disestablished Church in Wales.
The archbishop of Canterbury has a ceremonial provincial curia, or court, consisting of some of the senior bishops of their province. The bishop of London — the most senior cleric of the church with the exception of the two archbishops — serves as Canterbury's provincial dean, the bishop of Winchester as chancellor, the bishop of Lincoln as vice-chancellor, the bishop of Salisbury as precentor, the bishop of Worcester as chaplain and the bishop of Rochester as cross-bearer.
Along with primacy over the archbishop of York, the archbishop of Canterbury also has a precedence of honour over the other bishops of the Anglican Communion. They are recognised as primus inter pares, or first amongst equals. They do not, however, exercise any direct authority in the provinces outside England, except in certain minor roles dictated by Canon in those provinces (for example, they are the judge in the event of an ecclesiastical prosecution against the archbishop of Wales). They do hold metropolitical authority over several extra-provincial Anglican churches, and they serve as ex officio bishop of the Falkland Islands.
the archbishop has four suffragan bishops:
The bishop of Dover is given the additional title of "bishop in Canterbury" and empowered to act almost as if the bishop of Dover were the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury, since the archbishop is so frequently away fulfilling national and international duties.
Two further suffragans, the bishop of Ebbsfleet and the bishop of Richborough, are provincial episcopal visitors for the whole Province of Canterbury, licensed by the archbishop as "flying bishops" to provide oversight throughout the province to parishes which for conscience' sake cannot accept that women can be ordained in the Sacrament of Ordination in the Church of England.
The bishop of Maidstone provides alternative episcopal oversight for the province of Canterbury for particular members who take a conservative evangelical view of male headship. On 23 September 2015, Rod Thomas was consecrated bishop of Maidstone. Previously the bishop of Maidstone was an actual suffragan bishop working in the diocese, until it was decided at the diocesan synod of November 2010 that a new bishop would not be appointed.
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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Styles and privileges
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Styles and privileges
The archbishops of Canterbury and York are both styled as "The Most Reverend"; retired archbishops are styled as "The Right Reverend". The archbishop is, by convention, appointed to the Privy Council and may, therefore, also use the style of "The Right Honourable" for life, unless later removed from the council. In formal documents, the archbishop of Canterbury is referred to as "The Most Reverend Forenames, by Divine Providence Lord Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England and Metropolitan". In debates in the House of Lords, the archbishop is referred to as "The Most Reverend Primate, the Archbishop of Canterbury". "The Right Honourable" is not used in either instance. They may also be formally addressed as "Your Grace" or, more informally, as "Archbishop".
The surname of the archbishop of Canterbury is not always used in formal documents; often only the first name and see are mentioned. The archbishop is legally entitled to sign their name as "Cantuar" (the Latin for Canterbury). The right to use a title as a legal signature is only permitted to bishops, peers of the Realm and peers by courtesy. Justin Welby as archbishop of Canterbury usually signed as "+Justin Cantuar:".
In the English and Welsh order of precedence, the archbishop of Canterbury is ranked above all individuals in the realm, with the exception of the sovereign and members of the royal family.Whitaker's Almanack, 2008, p. 43 – Precedence, England and Wales Immediately below them is the lord chancellor and then the archbishop of York.
The archbishop of Canterbury awards academic degrees, commonly called "Lambeth degrees".
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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Residences
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Residences
thumbnail|right|upright=1.4|The Archbishop of Canterbury's official London residence and office is Lambeth Palace, photographed looking east across the River Thames
The archbishop of Canterbury's official residence and office in London is Lambeth Palace. They also have an apartment within the Old Palace, next to Canterbury Cathedral which incorporates some 13th-century fabric of the medieval Archbishop's Palace.
Former seats of the archbishops include:
Croydon Palace: the summer residence of the archbishops from the 15th to the 18th centuries.
Addington Palace: purchased as a replacement for Croydon Palace in 1807; sold in 1897.
Archbishop's Palace, Maidstone: constructed in the 1390s, the palace was seized by the Crown at the time of the Reformation.
Otford Palace: a medieval palace, rebuilt by Archbishop Warham and forfeited to the Crown by Thomas Cranmer in 1537.
Archbishop's Palace, Charing: a palace existed from at least the 13th century; seized by the Crown after the Dissolution. Remnants survive as a farmhouse.
Knole House: built by Archbishop Bourchier in the second half of the 15th century, it was forfeited to the Crown by Archbishop Cranmer in 1538.
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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List of recent archbishops
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List of recent archbishops
Since 1900, the following have served as archbishop of Canterbury:
1896–1902: Frederick Temple
1903–1928: Randall Davidson
1928–1942: Cosmo Gordon Lang
1942–1944: William Temple
1945–1961: Geoffrey Fisher
1961–1974: Michael Ramsey
1974–1980: Donald Coggan
1980–1991: Robert Runcie
1991–2002: George Carey
2002–2012: Rowan Williams
2013–2025: Justin Welby
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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Archbishops who became peers
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Archbishops who became peers
From 1660 to 1902, all the archbishops of Canterbury died in office. In 1928, two years before his death, Randall Davidson became the first to voluntarily resign his office. All his successors except William Temple (who died in office in 1944) have also resigned their office before death.
All those who retired have been given peerages: initially hereditary baronies (although both recipients of such titles died without male heirs and so their titles became extinct on their deaths), and life peerages after the enactment of the Life Peerages Act 1958. Such titles have allowed retired archbishops to retain the seats in the House of Lords which they held ex officio before their retirement.
Archbishop Title Notes Randall Davidson Baron Davidson of Lambeth in 1928 Extinct in 1930 Cosmo Gordon Lang Baron Lang of Lambeth in 1942 Extinct in 1945 Geoffrey Fisher Baron Fisher of Lambeth for life in 1961 Extinct in 1972 Michael Ramsey Baron Ramsey of Canterbury for life in 1974 Extinct in 1988 Donald Coggan Baron Coggan for life in 1980 Extinct in 2000 Robert Runcie Baron Runcie for life in 1991 Extinct in 2000 George Carey Baron Carey of Clifton for life in 2002 Extant Rowan Williams Baron Williams of Oystermouth for life in 2013 Extant (retired from the House in 2020)
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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See also
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See also
Accord of Winchester
Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople
Religion in the United Kingdom
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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References
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References
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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External links
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External links
The Archbishopric of Canterbury, from Its Foundation to the Norman Conquest, by John William Lamb, published 1971, Faith Press, from Google Book Search
Category:597 establishments
Category:6th-century establishments in England
Category:Anglican Communion
Category:Anglican episcopal offices
Category:Christianity in Kent
Category:Church of England
Category:Culture in Canterbury
Category:Ecclesiastical titles
Category:People associated with Canterbury Christ Church University
Category:People associated with King's College London
Category:People associated with the Royal National College for the Blind
Category:People associated with the University of Kent
Canterbury
Category:Religious leadership roles
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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Table of Content
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Short description, Present roles and status, Additional roles, Ecumenical and interfaith, Origins, Province and Diocese of Canterbury, Styles and privileges, Residences, List of recent archbishops, Archbishops who became peers, See also, References, External links
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Albion, Michigan
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Use mdy dates
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Albion is a city in Calhoun County in the south central region of the Lower Peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 7,700 at the 2020 census. Albion is part of the Battle Creek Metropolitan Statistical Area.
The earliest English-speaking settlers also called this area The Forks, because it is at the confluence of the north and south branches of the Kalamazoo River. In the early 20th century, immigrants came to Albion from various eastern European nations, including the current Lithuania and Russia. More recently, Latino immigrants have come from Mexico and Central America. The Festival of the Forks has been held annually since 1967 to celebrate Albion's diverse ethnic heritage.
Since the 19th century, several major manufacturers were established in Albion, which became known as a factory town. This changed after several manufacturers closed. In the 21st century, Albion's culture is changing to that of a college town whose residents have a strong interest in technology and sustainability. Albion College is a private liberal arts college with a student population of about 1,250. Albion is a sister city with Noisy-le-Roi, France.
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Albion, Michigan
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History
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History
The first European-American settler, Tenney Peabody, arrived in 1833 along with his brother-in-law, Charles Blanchard, and another young man, Clark Dowling. Peabody's family followed soon after. In 1835, the Albion Company, a land development company formed by Jesse Crowell, platted a village. Peabody's wife was asked to name the settlement. She considered the name "Peabodyville", but selected "Albion" instead, after the former residence of Jesse Crowell. Crowell was appointed in 1838 as the first US postmaster there.
Many early settlers migrated to Albion from western New York and New England, part of a movement after the construction of the Erie Canal and the opening of new lands in Michigan and other Great Lakes territories. They first developed agriculture and it became a rural trading village. Settlers were strong supporters of education and in 1835, Methodists established Albion College affiliated with their church. Its first classes were held in 1843. The college was known by a few other names before 1861. At that time it was fully authorized to confer four-year degrees on both men and women.
Albion incorporated as a village in 1855, following construction of the railroad here in 1852, which stimulated development. It became a city in 1885."Festival of the Forks", Frank Passic, Morning Star, September 10, 2000, pg. 9"The Passing Scene", Frank Passic, Morning Star, September 9, 2001, pg. 3
Mills were constructed to operate on the water power of the forks of the Kalamazoo River. They were the first industry in the town, used to process lumber, grain, and other products to build the village. Albion quickly became a mill town as well as an agricultural market. The river that powered industry also flooded the town.
In the Great Flood of 1908, there was severe property damage. In February, several feet of snow fell across the region. Heavy rains and warmer conditions in early March created water saturation in the ground and risk of flooding because of the rivers' high flow. After the Homer Dam broke around 3 p.m. on March 7, the Kalamazoo River flooded Albion. By midnight, the bridges surrounding town were underwater. Six buildings in Albion collapsed, resulting in more than $125,000 in damage (1908 dollars).Willard Library. Photographs from Battle Creek History. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.Frank Passic. "The Great Flood of 1908". Retrieved on 2007-05-06. The town struggled to recover.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, numerous Lithuanian and other Eastern European immigrants settled there, most working for the Albion Malleable Iron Company, and some in the coal mine north of town. The iron company initially made agricultural implements, but around World War I shifted to making automotive parts. The Malleable merged in 1969 with the Hayes Corporation, becoming the Hayes-Albion Corporation. Now known as a division of Harvard Industries, the company continues to produce automotive castings in Albion. Molder Statue Park downtown is dedicated to the many molders who dealt with molten iron.
There were soon enough Lithuanians in town to establish Holy Ascension Orthodox Church, which they built in 1916. It is part of the Orthodox Church in America. Today its services are in English.
Albion's population peaked in 1960. In 1973 Albion was named an All-America City by the National Civic League. It celebrated the award on May 15, 1974, when Michigan Governor William Milliken and many other dignitaries came to town. In 1975 the closure of a major factory began a difficult period of industrial restructuring and decline in jobs and population.
Since that time citizens have mobilized, founding the Albion Community Foundation in 1968. They formed the Albion Volunteer Service Organization in the 1980s, with support from Albion College, to address the challenge of diminishing economic opportunity.
thumb|Albion's historic brick main street was first laid in 1903. It was reconstructed in 1993 with hand-laid, kiln-fired clay bricks.
Key to the City Honor Bestowed:
1964: Aunt Jemima visited Albion on January 25.
1960s: Columnist Ann Landers was presented with a key upon her visit to Starr Commonwealth for Boys.
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Albion, Michigan
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Law and government
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Law and government
Albion has a council-manager government. City residents elect a mayor at-large and City Council members from each of six single-member districts. The council in turn selects a city manager to handle the city's day-to-day affairs. The mayor presides over and is a voting member of the council. Council members are elected to four-year terms, staggered every two years. A mayor is elected every two years. The city levies an income tax of 1% on residents and 0.5% on nonresidents.
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Albion, Michigan
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Geography
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Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of , of which is land and is water. Albion is 42.24 degrees north of the equator and 84.75 degrees west of the prime meridian.
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Albion, Michigan
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Climate
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Climate
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Albion, Michigan
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Demographics
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Demographics
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Albion, Michigan
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2010 population by gender/age
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2010 population by gender/age
Male 4,013 46.6% Female 4,603 53.4% Under 18 1,872 21.7% 18 and over 6,744 78.3% 20-24 1,364 15.8% 25-34 842 9.8% 35-49 1,251 14.5% 50-64 1,368 15.9% 65+ 1,124 13.0%
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Albion, Michigan
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2010 population by ethnicity
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2010 population by ethnicity
Hispanic or Latino 500 5.8% Non Hispanic or Latino 8,116 94.2%
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Albion, Michigan
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2010 population by race
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2010 population by race
White 5,477 63.6% African American 2,579 29.9% Asian 91 1.1% American Indian and Alaska Native 29 0.3% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander 17 0.2% Other 90 1.0% Identified by two or more 333 3.9%
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Albion, Michigan
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Transportation
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Transportation
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Albion, Michigan
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Major highways
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Major highways
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