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AZ Alkmaar
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Jong AZ
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Jong AZ
Participating in the Eerste Divisie, the reserve squad of AZ trains and plays their home games in Zaanstad.
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AZ Alkmaar
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Former players
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Former players
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AZ Alkmaar
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National team players
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National team players
The following players were called up to represent their national teams in international football and received caps during their tenure with AZ Alkmaar:
Argentina
Sergio Romero (2007–2011)
Australia
James Holland (2009–2012)
Brett Holman (2008–2012)
Mathew Ryan (2023–2024)
Austria
Kurt Welzl (1978–1981)
Belgium
Stein Huysegems (2003–2006)
Maarten Martens (2006–2014)
Sébastien Pocognoli (2007–2010)
Gill Swerts (2008–2011)
Cameroon
Willie Overtoom (2013–2014)
Costa Rica
Esteban Alvarado (2010–2015)
Denmark
Henrik Eigenbrod (1982–1984)
Kristen Nygaard (1972–1982)
Kenneth Perez (2000–2006)
Simon Poulsen (2008–2012; 2014–2015)
Estonia
Ragnar Klavan (2009–2012)
Finland
Niki Mäenpää (2011–2012)
Niklas Moisander (2008–2012)
Juha Reini (2002–2006)
Georgia
Shota Arveladze (2005–2007)
Ghana
Kamal Sowah (2022)
Greece
Pantelis Chatzidiakos (2015–2023)
Vangelis Pavlidis (2021–2024)
Hungary
Milos Kerkez (2022–2023)
Iceland
Joey Guðjónsson (2006–2007)
Albert Guðmundsson (2018–2022)
Jóhann Berg Guðmundsson (2009–2014)
Kolbeinn Sigþórsson (2010–2011)
Grétar Steinsson (2006–2008)
Iran
Alireza Jahanbakhsh (2015–2018)
Japan
Yukinari Sugawara (2020–2024)
Mexico
Héctor Moreno (2008–2011)
Morocco
Zakaria Aboukhlal (2019–2022)
Nourdin Boukhari (2007)
Ali Elkhattabi (2001–2006)
Abdelkrim El Hadrioui (1998–2002)
Mounir El Hamdaoui (2007–2010; 2015–2016)
Oussama Idrissi (2018–2020)
Adil Ramzi (2004–2006)
Tarik Sektioui (2004–2006)
Netherlands
Peter Arntz (1976–1985)
Roy Beerens (2011–2014)
Marco Bizot (2017–2021)
Myron Boadu (2017–2021)
Dries Boussatta (1998–2002)
Tim de Cler (2002–2007)
Barry van Galen (1997–2006)
Willem van Hanegem (1976–1979)
Hugo Hovenkamp (1975–1983)
Kew Jaliens (2004–2011)
Vincent Janssen (2015–2016)
Jos Jonker (1980–1983)
Danny Koevermans (2005–2007)
Kees Kist (1972–1982; 1984–1985)
Teun Koopmeiners (2017–2021)
Jan Kromkamp (2000–2005)
Denny Landzaat (2003–2006)
Adam Maher (2010–2013; 2018–2019)
Dirk Marcellis (2010–2015)
Bruno Martins Indi (2020–present)
Joris Mathijsen (2004–2006)
Martijn Meerdink (2002–2007)
David Mendes da Silva (2006–2010)
John Metgod (1976–1982)
Oscar Moens (1996–2003)
Barry Opdam (1996–2008)
Jan Peters (1977–1982)
Henk van Rijnsoever (1974–1982)
Stijn Schaars (2005–2011)
Ronald Spelbos (1974–1982)
Calvin Stengs (2017–2021)
Guus Til (2016–2019)
Henk Timmer (2000–2006)
Pier Tol (1978–1988)
Netherlands (continued)
Nick Viergever (2010–2014)
Ron Vlaar (2004–2006; 2015–2021)
Bobby Vosmaer (1974–1978)
Wout Weghorst (2016–2018)
Owen Wijndal (2017–2022)
Demy de Zeeuw (2005–2009)
Norway
Håkon Evjen (2020–2023)
Markus Henriksen (2012–2017)
Bjørn Maars Johnsen (2018–2020)
Fredrik Midtsjø (2017–2022)
Jonas Svensson (2017–2021)
David Møller Wolfe (2023–present)
Paraguay
Celso Ortiz (2010–2016)
Republic of Ireland
Troy Parrott (2024–present)
Romania
Dorin Rotariu (2018–2019)
Serbia
Kristijan Belić (2024–present)
Nemanja Gudelj (2013–2015)
Suriname
Ramon Leeuwin (2020–2021)
Sweden
Rasmus Elm (2009–2012)
Mattias Johansson (2012–2017)
Jesper Karlsson (2020–2023)
Muamer Tanković (2014–2017)
Pontus Wernbloom (2009–2012)
Trinidad & Tobago
Levi García (2015–2018)
United States
Jozy Altidore (2011–2013)
Aron Jóhannsson (2013–2015)
Djordje Mihailovic (2023–2024)
Players in bold actively play for AZ Alkmaar and for their respective national teams. Years in brackets indicate careerspan with AZ. National team players by Confederation
Member associations are listed in order of most to least amount of current and former AZ players represented Internationally
+ Total national team players by confederation Confederation Total (Nation) Association AFC 5 Australia (3), Iran (1), Japan (1) CAF 10 Morocco (8), Cameroon (1), Ghana (1) CONCACAF 7 United States (3), Costa Rica (1), Mexico (1), Suriname (1), Trinidad & Tobago (1) CONMEBOL 2 Argentina (1), Paraguay (1) OFC 0 UEFA 73 Netherlands (40), Norway (6), Iceland (5), Sweden (5), Belgium (4), Denmark (4), Finland (3), Greece (2), Serbia (2), Austria (1), Estonia (1), Georgia (1), Hungary (1), Ireland (1), Romania (1)
Players in international tournaments
The following is a list of AZ players who have competed in international tournaments, including the FIFA World Cup, UEFA European Championship, AFC Asian Cup, Africa Cup of Nations, CONCACAF Gold Cup and the Copa América. To this date no AZ players have participated in the FIFA Confederations Cup or the OFC Nations Cup while playing for AZ Alkmaar.
CupPlayers UEFA Euro 1976 Hugo Hovenkamp Kees Kist John Metgod 1978 FIFA World Cup Hugo Hovenkamp UEFA Euro 1980 Hugo Hovenkamp Kees Kist 2000 Africa Cup of Nations Abdelkarim El Hadrioui UEFA Euro 2004 Kenneth Perez 2006 FIFA World Cup Tim de Cler Kew Jaliens Denny Landzaat Joris Mathijsen Henk Timmer UEFA Euro 2008 Demy de Zeeuw 2010 FIFA World Cup Brett Holman Héctor Moreno Simon Poulsen Sergio Romero Stijn Schaars 2011 AFC Asian Cup Brett Holman 2011 Copa América Sergio Romero 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup Héctor Moreno UEFA Euro 2012 Rasmus Elm Simon Poulsen 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup Esteban Alvarado Aron Jóhannsson 2016 Copa América Celso Ortiz 2018 FIFA World Cup Alireza Jahanbakhsh 2019 Africa Cup of Nations Oussama Idrissi UEFA Euro 2020 Marco Bizot Teun Koopmeiners Owen Wijndal 2021 Africa Cup of Nations Zakaria Aboukhlal 2023 AFC Asian Cup Mathew Ryan Yukinari Sugawara 2023 CONCACAF Gold Cup Djordje Mihailovic
Stadium and sponsor
Stadium
250px|right|thumb|AFAS Stadion, AZ's home venue in Alkmaar. Photo includes the old roof and the old name, 'DSB Stadion'.
AZ play its home matches at the AFAS Stadion, located in the southern part of the city of Alkmaar. The stadium, which is directly owned by the club, was opened in 2006 and replaced the old Alkmaarderhout venue as the DSB Stadion. The stadium currently has a capacity of 17,023. During its design stages, the name Victorie Stadion was frequently used, referring to the Dutch War of Independence, the phrase "In Alkmaar begint de victorie" (Victory begins in Alkmaar) in particular. Until now, this name has not been officially in use, the board instead opting for sponsorship deals because of financial motives. However, to this day, the name maintains a good share of support among the fans.
To further increase revenue, AZ's board of directors decided to expand the capacity of the new stadium to at least 30,000 somewhere in the future. The extension will be realised by constructing a second tier to three of the four stands. The main stand with all technical areas, VIP and sponsor and media facilities will remain in place. These plans, however, were put on hold after the DSB bankruptcy and there are no current plans to increase the capacity.
In October 2009, sponsor DSB Bank was declared bankrupt. The stadium name temporarily changed from DSB Stadion to AZ Stadion, as it was considered undesirable that the stadium was linked with a non-existent bank. In February 2010, a new main sponsor was found in construction works service provider BUKO, based in Beverwijk.
A year later, in the 2010–11 season, took over as official stadium sponsor. The current external name of the ground is the AFAS Stadion.
On 10 August 2019, the roof of the stadium partially collapsed. No people were injured during the incident. As the result AZ spent the rest of the year playing home matches at the Cars Jeans Stadion in The Hague whilst the damaged roof was being removed, before returning to the stadium on 15 December 2019, beating Ajax 1–0 in their first match back. AZ played the rest of the 2019/20 season, until the COVID-19 pandemic cut it short, without a roof. During the 2020/21 season, a new roof was installed, held up by 20 crane-like arms on three sides and a so-called mega truss on the main stand. The renewed stadium, which also included a capacity upgrade of nearly 2,500 seats for a new total capacity of 19,500, was officially opened on 11 September 2021, before the home game against PSV.
Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors
Period Kit manufacturer Shirt sponsor 1977–1982Adidas 1982–1986Sony 1986–1988LottoElectrolux 1988–1989Swingbo 1989–1990ReebokReebok 1990–1993Hi-TecFrisia 1993–1998 Hummel 1998–1999Kappa 1999–2001none 2001–2002Umbro 2002–2004Actus Notarissen 2004–2005Frisia 2005–2006DSB 2006–2008Quick 2008–2009Canterbury 2009–2010QuickBUKO 2010–2011AFAS Software 2011–2015Macron 2015–2019Under Armour 2020–Nike 2022–2024NikeKansino
Honours
350px|thumb|Historical chart of league performance
TypeCompetitionTitlesSeasonsRef.DomesticEredivisie21980–81,
2008–09 Eerste Divisie3 1959–601,
1995–96,
1997–98 Tweede Divisie1 1955–562 KNVB Cup4 1977–78, 1980–81,
1981–82,
2012–13 Johan Cruyff Shield12009
European record
Matches
Season Competition Round Opponent Home Away Aggregate 1977–78 UEFA Cup First round Red Boys Differdange 11–1 5–0 16–1 Second round Barcelona 1–1 1–1 1–1 1978–79 European Cup Winners' Cup First round Ipswich Town 0–0 0–2 0–2 1980–81 UEFA Cup First round Red Boys Differdange 6–0 4–0 10–0 Second round Levski Sofia 5–0 1–1 6–1 Third round Radnički Niš 5–0 2–2 7–2 Quarter-finals Lokeren 2–0 0–1 2–1 Semi-finals Sochaux 3–2 1–1 4–3 Final Ipswich Town 4–2 0–3 4–5 1981–82 European Cup First round Start 3–1 1–0 4–1 Round of 16 Liverpool 2–2 2–3 4–5 1982–83 European Cup Winners' Cup First round Limerick 1–0 1–1 2–1 Second round Inter Milan 1–0 0–2 1–2 2004–05 UEFA Cup Group F Auxerre 2–0N/A 1st Amica WronkiN/A 3–1 Rangers 1–0N/A Grazer AKN/A 0–2 Round of 32 Alemannia Aachen 2–1 0–0 2–1 Round of 16 Shakhtar Donetsk 2–1 3–1 5–2 Quarter-finals Villarreal 1–1 2–1 3–2 Semi-finals Sporting CP 3–2 1–2 4–4 (a) 2005–06 UEFA Cup Group D Dnipro DnipropetrovskN/A 2–1 2nd Middlesbrough 0–0N/A Litex LovechN/A 2–0 Grasshoppers 1–0N/A Round of 32 Real Betis 2–1 0–2 2–3 2006–07 UEFA Cup Group C Braga 3–0N/A 1st GrasshoppersN/A 5–2 Slovan Liberec 2–2N/A SevillaN/A 2–1 Round of 32 Fenerbahçe 2–2 3–3 5–5 (a) Round of 16 Newcastle United 2–0 2–4 4–4 (a) Quarter-finals Werder Bremen 0–0 1–4 1–4 2007–08 UEFA Cup Group A Zenit Saint PetersburgN/A 1–1 4th Larissa 1–0N/A 1. FC NürnbergN/A 1–2 Everton 2–3N/A 2009–10 UEFA Champions League Group H Olympiacos 0–0 0–1 4th Standard Liège 1–1 1–1 Arsenal 1–1 1–4 2010–11 UEFA Europa League Group E Sheriff Tiraspol 2–1 1–1 3rd BATE Borisov 3–0 1–4 Dynamo Kyiv 1–2 0–2 2011–12 UEFA Europa League Group G Malmö FF 4–1 0–0 2nd Metalist Kharkiv 1–1 1–1 Austria Wien 2–2 2–2 Round of 32 Anderlecht 1–0 1–0 2–0 Round of 16 Udinese 2–0 1–2 3–2 Quarter-finals Valencia 2–1 0–4 2–5 2012–13 UEFA Europa League Play-off round Anzhi Makhachkala 0–5 0–1 0–6 2013–14 UEFA Europa League Play-off round Atromitos 2–0 3–1 5–1 Group L Maccabi Haifa 2–0 1–0 1st PAOK 1–1 2–2 Shakhter Karagandy 1–0 1–1 Round of 32 Slovan Liberec 1–1 1–0 1-2 Round of 16 Anzhi Makhachkala 1–0 0–0 1–0 Quarter-finals Benfica 0–1 0–2 0–3 2015–16 UEFA Europa League Third qualifying round İstanbul Başakşehir 2–0 2–1 4–1 Play-off round Astra Giurgiu 2–0 2–3 4–3 Group L Partizan 1–2 2–3 4th Athletic Bilbao 2–1 2–2 FC Augsburg 0–1 1–4 2016–17 UEFA Europa League Third qualifying round PAS Giannina 1–0 2–1 3–1 Play-off round Vojvodina 0–0 3–0 3–0 Group D Dundalk 1–1 1–0 2nd Zenit Saint Petersburg 3–2 0–5 Maccabi Tel Aviv 1–2 0–0 Round of 32 Lyon 1–4 1–7 2–11 2018–19 UEFA Europa League Second qualifying round Kairat 2–1 0–2 2–3 2019–20 UEFA Europa League Second qualifying round BK Häcken 0–0 3–0 3–0 Third qualifying round Mariupol 4–0 0–0 4–0 Play-off round Antwerp 1–1 4–1 5–2 Group L Partizan 2–2 2–2 2nd Manchester United 0–0 0–4 Astana 6–0 5–0 Round of 32 LASK 1–1 0–2 1–3 2020–21 UEFA Champions League Second qualifying round FC Viktoria Plzeň 3–1N/A 3–1 Third qualifying round FC Dynamo KyivN/A 0–2 0-2 2020–21 UEFA Europa League Group F Napoli 1–1 1–0 3rd Rijeka 4–1 1–2 Real Sociedad 0–0 0–1 2021–22 UEFA Europa Conference League Group D Randers 1–0 2–2 1st Jablonec 1–0 1–1 CFR Cluj 2–0 1–0 Round of 16 Bodø/Glimt 2–2 1–2 3–4 2022–23 UEFA Europa Conference League Second qualifying round Tuzla City 1–0 4–0 5–0 Third qualifying round Dundee United 7–0 0–1 7–1 Play-off round Gil Vicente 4–0 2–1 6–1 Group E Dnipro-1 2–1 1–0 1st Vaduz 4–1 2–1 Apollon Limassol 3–2 0–1 Round of 16 Lazio 2–1 2–1 4–2 Quarter-finals Anderlecht 2–0 0–2 2–2 (4–1 p.) Semi-finals West Ham United 0–1 1–2 1–3 2023–24 UEFA Europa Conference League Third qualifying round FC Santa Coloma 2–0 1–0 3–0 Play-off round Brann 1–1 3–3 4–4 (6–5 p.)Group E Zrinjski Mostar1–03–4 3rd Legia Warsaw1–00–2 Aston Villa 1–4 1–2 2024–25 UEFA Europa League League phase IF Elfsborg3–219th Athletic Bilbao0–2 Tottenham Hotspur0–1 Fenerbahçe3–1 Galatasaray1–1 Ludogorets Razgrad2–2 Roma1–0 Ferencváros3–4Knockout phase play-offs Galatasaray 4–1 2–2 6–3Round of 16 Tottenham Hotspur 1–0 1–3 2–3
UEFA coefficient ranking
Rank Team Points37 Olympiacos56.50038 GNK Dinamo56.00039 AZ54.50040 Shakhtar Donetsk52.00041 Slavia Praha51.000
Domestic results
Below is a table with AZ's domestic results since the introduction of professional football in 1956.
Domestic results since 1956Domestic leagueLeague resultQualification toKNVB Cup seasonCup result1956–57 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54)2nd (group A) –1956–57Third round 1957–58 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54)9th (group A) –1957–58Third round 1958–59 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54)4th (group A) –1958–59Third round 1959–60 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54)1st (group B)Eredivisie (promotion)not heldnot held1960–61 Eredivisie (as Alkmaar '54)17thEerste Divisie (relegation)1960–61First round 1961–62 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54)12th (group A)Tweede Divisie (relegation)1961–62Second round 1962–63 Tweede Divisie (as Alkmaar '54)4th (group A) –1962–63Semi-finals 1963–64 Tweede Divisie (as Alkmaar '54)1st (group A); 2nd overall losing play-offEerste Divisie (winning promotion tournament)1963–64First round 1964–65 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54) 1964–65 Tweede Divisie (as FC Zaanstreek)11th 6th (group A) –1964–65First round First round 1965–66 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar'54) 1965–66 Tweede Divisie (as FC Zaanstreek)4th 3rd (group A) – Eerste Divisie (promotion)1965–66Group stage Group stage 1966–67 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54 and FC Zaanstreek)12th 7th –1966–67First round First round 1967–68 Eerste Divisie2ndEredivisie (promotion)1967–68Group stage 1968–69 Eredivisie16th – (after surviving relegation play-offs)1968–69Second round 1969–70 Eredivisie12th –1969–70Quarter-finals 1970–71 Eredivisie17thEerste Divisie (relegation)1970–71Second round1971–72 Eerste Divisie2ndEredivisie (promotion)1971–72First round1972–73 Eredivisie15th –1972–73Semi-finals1973–74 Eredivisie7th –1973–74Quarter-finals1974–75 Eredivisie5th –1974–75Quarter-finals1975–76 Eredivisie5th –1975–76Quarter-finals1976–77 Eredivisie3rdUEFA Cup1976–77Semi-finals1977–78 Eredivisie3rdCup Winners' Cup1977–78Winner1978–79 Eredivisie4th –1978–79Quarter-finals1979–80 Eredivisie2ndUEFA Cup1979–80Quarter-finals1980–81 Eredivisie1stEuropean Cup1980–81Winner1981–82 Eredivisie3rdCup Winners' Cup1981–82Winner1982–83 Eredivisie11th –1982–83Second round1983–84 Eredivisie6th –1983–84Quarter-finals1984–85 Eredivisie13th –1984–85First round1985–86 Eredivisie9th –1985–86Second round1986–87 Eredivisie15th –1986–87Second round1987–88 Eredivisie16thEerste Divisie (relegation)1987–88First round1988–89 Eerste Divisie5th –1988–89Quarter-finals1989–90 Eerste Divisie12th –1989–90First round1990–91 Eerste Divisie4thpromotion/relegation play-off: no promotion1990–91First round1991–92 Eerste Divisie13th –1991–92Second round1992–93 Eerste Divisie10th –1992–93Third round1993–94 Eerste Divisie3rdpromotion/relegation play-off: no promotion1993–94Round of 161994–95 Eerste Divisie5thpromotion/relegation play-off: no promotion1994–95Round of 161995–96 Eerste Divisie1stEredivisie (promotion)1995–96Round of 161996–97 Eredivisie18thEerste Divisie (relegation)1996–97Quarter-finals1997–98 Eerste Divisie1stEredivisie (promotion)1997–98First round (knock-out stage)1998–99 Eredivisie9th –1998–99Round of 161999–2000 Eredivisie7th –1999–00Semi-finals2000–01 Eredivisie13th –2000–01Quarter-finals2001–02 Eredivisie10th –2001–02Second round (knock-out stage)2002–03 Eredivisie10th –2002–03Second round (knock-out stage)2003–04 Eredivisie5thUEFA Cup2003–04Second round2004–05 Eredivisie3rdUEFA Cup2004–05Round of 162005–06 Eredivisie2ndUEFA Cup (after losing Champions League play-offs)2005–06Semi-finals2006–07 Eredivisie3rdUEFA Cup (after losing Champions League play-offs)2006–07Final2007–08 Eredivisie11th –2007–08Second round2008–09 Eredivisie1stChampions League2008–09Quarter-finals2009–10 Eredivisie5thEuropa League (Q3)2009–10Round of 162010–11 Eredivisie4thEuropa League (Q3)2010–11Round of 162011–12 Eredivisie4thEuropa League (Q4)2011–12Semi-finals2012–13 Eredivisie 10thEuropa League2012–13Winner2013–14 Eredivisie 8th –2013–14Semi-finals2014–15 Eredivisie3rdEuropa League (Q3)2014–15Quarter-finals2015–16 Eredivisie4thEuropa League (Q3)2015–16Semi-finals2016–17 Eredivisie 6th–2016–17Final2017–18 Eredivisie3rdEuropa League (Q3)2017–18Final2018–19 Eredivisie4thEuropa League (Q2)2018–19Semi-finals2019–20 Eredivisie2ndChampions League (Q2)2019–20Quarter-finals2020–21 Eredivisie3rdEuropa League (Q4)2020–21Round of 162021–22 Eredivisie5thEuropa Conference League (Q2)2021–22Semi-finals2022–23 Eredivisie4thEuropa Conference League (Q3)2022–23Round of 162023–24 Eredivisie4thEuropa League2023–24Quarter-finals
Coaches
Alkmaar '54
(1954–1956)
Kick Smit (1956–1958)
(1 July 1958 – 30 June 1960)
Piet de Wolf (1960–1961)
(1961–1962)
Arie Rentenaar (1962–1963)
(1 July 1963 – 30 June 1965)
Barry Hughes (1 July 1965 – 30 June 1967)
KFC / FC Zaanstreek
Bob Kelly (1955–1956)
(1956–1958)
(1958–1960)
(1960–1963)
(1963–1964)
Piet de Wolf (1964–1965)
(1965–1966)
AZ '67
Lesley Talbot (1 July 1967 – 30 June 1968)
(1968–1969)
Robert Heinz (1969–1971)
Cor van der Hart (1 July 1971 – 30 June 1973)
Joop Brand (1 July 1973 – 30 June 1976)
Hans Kraay Sr. (1 July 1976 – 30 June 1977)
Jan Notermans (1977)
Cor van der Hart (1 July 1977 – 30 June 1978)
Georg Keßler (1 July 1978 – 30 June 1982)
Hans Eijkenbroek (1 July 1982 – 30 June 1983)
Piet de Visser (1 July 1983 – 30 June 1985)
Joop Brand (1 July 1985 – 30 June 1986)
Han Berger (1 July 1986 – 31 December 1986)
AZ
Hans Eijkenbroek (1987 – 30 June 1989)
Hans van Doorneveld (1 July 1989 – 30 June 1990)
Henk Wullems (1 July 1990 – 30 June 1993)
Piet Schrijvers (1 July 1993 – 30 June 1994)
Theo Vonk (1 July 1994 – 28 February 1997)
Hans de Koning (interim) (28 February 1997 – 30 June 1997)
Willem van Hanegem (1 July 1997 – 30 June 1999)
Gerard van der Lem (1 July 1999 – 30 March 2000)
Henk van Stee (31 March 2000 – 30 October 2002)
Co Adriaanse (30 October 2002 – 30 June 2005)
Louis van Gaal (1 July 2005 – 30 June 2009)
Ronald Koeman (1 July 2009 – 5 December 2009)
Martin Haar (interim) (5 December 2009 – 10 December 2009)
Dick Advocaat (10 December 2009 – 30 June 2010)
Gertjan Verbeek (1 July 2010 – 29 September 2013)
Martin Haar (interim)'' (29 September 2013 – 15 October 2013)
Dick Advocaat (15 October 2013 – 30 June 2014)
Marco van Basten (30 June 2014 – 16 September 2014)
John van den Brom (29 September 2014 – 30 June 2019)
Arne Slot (1 July 2019 – 5 December 2020)
Pascal Jansen (5 December 2020 – 17 January 2024)
Maarten Martens (17 January 2024 – present)
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AZ Alkmaar
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Notes
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Notes
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AZ Alkmaar
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References
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References
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AZ Alkmaar
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External links
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External links
Category:1967 establishments in the Netherlands
Category:Association football clubs established in 1967
Category:Football clubs in the Netherlands
Category:Football clubs in Alkmaar
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AZ Alkmaar
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Table of Content
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Short description, History, 1910–1972: Foundation and first years, 1972–1985: Molenaar years, 1985–1993: Interim years, 1993–2009: Scheringa years, 2009–2014: Advocaat–Verbeek years, 2014–2019: Van den Brom years, 2020–2024: Slot–Jansen years, 2024–Present: Maarten Martens years, Coaching staff, Players, Current squad, Out on loan, Jong AZ, Former players, National team players, Notes, References, External links
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Autochthones
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Autochthones
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Table of Content
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Adrenal gland
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Short description
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The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol. They are found above the kidneys. Each gland has an outer cortex which produces steroid hormones and an inner medulla. The adrenal cortex itself is divided into three main zones: the zona glomerulosa, the zona fasciculata and the zona reticularis.
The adrenal cortex produces three main types of steroid hormones: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. Mineralocorticoids (such as aldosterone) produced in the zona glomerulosa help in the regulation of blood pressure and electrolyte balance. The glucocorticoids cortisol and cortisone are synthesized in the zona fasciculata; their functions include the regulation of metabolism and immune system suppression. The innermost layer of the cortex, the zona reticularis, produces androgens that are converted to fully functional sex hormones in the gonads and other target organs. The production of steroid hormones is called steroidogenesis, and involves a number of reactions and processes that take place in cortical cells. The medulla produces the catecholamines, which function to produce a rapid response throughout the body in stress situations.
A number of endocrine diseases involve dysfunctions of the adrenal gland. Overproduction of cortisol leads to Cushing's syndrome, whereas insufficient production is associated with Addison's disease. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a genetic disease produced by dysregulation of endocrine control mechanisms. A variety of tumors can arise from adrenal tissue and are commonly found in medical imaging when searching for other diseases.
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Adrenal gland
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Structure
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Structure
thumb|Adrenal glands, anterior (left) and posterior (right) surface
The adrenal glands are located on both sides of the body in the retroperitoneum, above and slightly medial to the kidneys. In humans, the right adrenal gland is pyramidal in shape, whereas the left is semilunar or crescent shaped and somewhat larger. The adrenal glands measure approximately 5 cm in length, 3 cm in width, and up to 1 cm in thickness. Their combined weight in an adult human ranges from 7 to 10 grams. The glands are yellowish in colour.
The adrenal glands are surrounded by a fatty capsule and lie within the renal fascia, which also surrounds the kidneys. A weak septum (wall) of connective tissue separates the glands from the kidneys. The adrenal glands are directly below the diaphragm, and are attached to the crura of the diaphragm by the renal fascia.
Each adrenal gland has two distinct parts, each with a unique function, the outer adrenal cortex and the inner medulla, both of which produce hormones.
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Adrenal gland
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Adrenal cortex
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Adrenal cortex
thumb|right|Section of human adrenal gland under the microscope, showing its different layers. From the surface to the center: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis, medulla. In the medulla, the central adrenomedullary vein is visible.
The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part of an adrenal gland. It is divided into three separate zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone is responsible for producing specific hormones.
The adrenal cortex is the outermost layer of the adrenal gland. Within the cortex are three layers, called "zones". When viewed under a microscope each layer has a distinct appearance, and each has a different function. The adrenal cortex is devoted to production of hormones, namely aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens.
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Adrenal gland
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Zona glomerulosa
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Zona glomerulosa
The outermost zone of the adrenal cortex is the zona glomerulosa. It lies immediately under the fibrous capsule of the gland. Cells in this layer form oval groups, separated by thin strands of connective tissue from the fibrous capsule of the gland and carry wide capillaries.
This layer is the main site for production of aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, by the action of the enzyme aldosterone synthase. Aldosterone plays an important role in the long-term regulation of blood pressure.
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Adrenal gland
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Zona fasciculata
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Zona fasciculata
The zona fasciculata is situated between the zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis. Cells in this layer are responsible for producing glucocorticoids such as cortisol. It is the largest of the three layers, accounting for nearly 80% of the volume of the cortex. In the zona fasciculata, cells are arranged in columns radially oriented towards the medulla. Cells contain numerous lipid droplets, abundant mitochondria and a complex smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
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Adrenal gland
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Zona reticularis
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Zona reticularis
The innermost cortical layer, the zona reticularis, lies directly adjacent to the medulla. It produces androgens, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenedione (the precursor to testosterone) in humans. Its small cells form irregular cords and clusters, separated by capillaries and connective tissue. The cells contain relatively small quantities of cytoplasm and lipid droplets, and sometimes display brown lipofuscin pigment.
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Adrenal gland
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Medulla
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Medulla
The adrenal medulla is at the center of each adrenal gland, and is surrounded by the adrenal cortex. The chromaffin cells of the medulla are the body's main source of the catecholamines, such as adrenaline and noradrenaline, released by the medulla. Approximately 20% noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and 80% adrenaline (epinephrine) are secreted here.
The adrenal medulla is driven by the sympathetic nervous system via preganglionic fibers originating in the thoracic spinal cord, from vertebrae T5–T11. Because it is innervated by preganglionic nerve fibers, the adrenal medulla can be considered as a specialized sympathetic ganglion. Unlike other sympathetic ganglia, however, the adrenal medulla lacks distinct synapses and releases its secretions directly into the blood.
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Adrenal gland
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Blood supply
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Blood supply
The adrenal glands have one of the greatest blood supply rates per gram of tissue of any organ: up to 60 small arteries may enter each gland. Three arteries usually supply each adrenal gland:
The superior suprarenal artery, a branch of the inferior phrenic artery
The middle suprarenal artery, a direct branch of the abdominal aorta
The inferior suprarenal artery, a branch of the renal artery
These blood vessels supply a network of small arteries within the capsule of the adrenal glands. Thin strands of the capsule enter the glands, carrying blood to them.
Venous blood is drained from the glands by the suprarenal veins, usually one for each gland:
The right suprarenal vein drains into the inferior vena cava.
The left suprarenal vein drains into the left renal vein or the left inferior phrenic vein.
The central adrenomedullary vein, in the adrenal medulla, is an unusual type of blood vessel. Its structure is different from the other veins in that the smooth muscle in its tunica media (the middle layer of the vessel) is arranged in conspicuous, longitudinally oriented bundles.
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Adrenal gland
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Variability
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Variability
The adrenal glands may not develop at all, or may be fused in the midline behind the aorta. These are associated with other congenital abnormalities, such as failure of the kidneys to develop, or fused kidneys. The gland may develop with a partial or complete absence of the cortex, or may develop in an unusual location.
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Adrenal gland
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Function
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Function
thumb|center|600px|Different hormones are produced in different zones of the cortex and medulla of the gland. Light microscopy at magnification × 204.
The adrenal gland secretes a number of different hormones which are metabolised by enzymes either within the gland or in other parts of the body. These hormones are involved in a number of essential biological functions.
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Adrenal gland
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Corticosteroids
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Corticosteroids
Corticosteroids are a group of steroid hormones produced from the cortex of the adrenal gland, from which they are named.
Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone regulate salt ("mineral") balance and blood pressureMarieb Human Anatomy & Physiology 9th edition, chapter:16, page:629, question number:14
Glucocorticoids such as cortisol influence metabolism rates of proteins, fats and sugars ("glucose").
Androgens such as dehydroepiandrosterone.
Mineralocorticoids
The adrenal gland produces aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, which is important in the regulation of salt ("mineral") balance and blood volume. In the kidneys, aldosterone acts on the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts by increasing the reabsorption of sodium and the excretion of both potassium and hydrogen ions. Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of about 2% of filtered glomerular filtrate. Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation. Angiotensin II and extracellular potassium are the two main regulators of aldosterone production. The amount of sodium present in the body affects the extracellular volume, which in turn influences blood pressure. Therefore, the effects of aldosterone in sodium retention are important for the regulation of blood pressure.
Glucocorticoids
Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid in humans. In species that do not create cortisol, this role is played by corticosterone instead. Glucocorticoids have many effects on metabolism. As their name suggests, they increase the circulating level of glucose. This is the result of an increase in the mobilization of amino acids from protein and the stimulation of synthesis of glucose from these amino acids in the liver. In addition, they increase the levels of free fatty acids, which cells can use as an alternative to glucose to obtain energy. Glucocorticoids also have effects unrelated to the regulation of blood sugar levels, including the suppression of the immune system and a potent anti-inflammatory effect. Cortisol reduces the capacity of osteoblasts to produce new bone tissue and decreases the absorption of calcium in the gastrointestinal tract.
The adrenal gland secretes a basal level of cortisol but can also produce bursts of the hormone in response to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary. Cortisol is not evenly released during the day – its concentrations in the blood are highest in the early morning and lowest in the evening as a result of the circadian rhythm of ACTH secretion. Cortisone is an inactive product of the action of the enzyme 11β-HSD on cortisol. The reaction catalyzed by 11β-HSD is reversible, which means that it can turn administered cortisone into cortisol, the biologically active hormone.
Formation
thumb|right|Steroidogenesis in the adrenal glands – different steps occur in different layers of the gland
All corticosteroid hormones share cholesterol as a common precursor. Therefore, the first step in steroidogenesis is cholesterol uptake or synthesis. Cells that produce steroid hormones can acquire cholesterol through two paths. The main source is through dietary cholesterol transported via the blood as cholesterol esters within low density lipoproteins (LDL). LDL enters the cells through receptor-mediated endocytosis. The other source of cholesterol is synthesis in the cell's endoplasmic reticulum. Synthesis can compensate when LDL levels are abnormally low. In the lysosome, cholesterol esters are converted to free cholesterol, which is then used for steroidogenesis or stored in the cell.
The initial part of conversion of cholesterol into steroid hormones involves a number of enzymes of the cytochrome P450 family that are located in the inner membrane of mitochondria. Transport of cholesterol from the outer to the inner membrane is facilitated by steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and is the rate-limiting step of steroid synthesis.
The layers of the adrenal gland differ by function, with each layer having distinct enzymes that produce different hormones from a common precursor. The first enzymatic step in the production of all steroid hormones is cleavage of the cholesterol side chain, a reaction that forms pregnenolone as a product and is catalyzed by the enzyme P450scc, also known as cholesterol desmolase. After the production of pregnenolone, specific enzymes of each cortical layer further modify it. Enzymes involved in this process include both mitochondrial and microsomal P450s and hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases. Usually a number of intermediate steps in which pregnenolone is modified several times are required to form the functional hormones. Enzymes that catalyze reactions in these metabolic pathways are involved in a number of endocrine diseases. For example, the most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia develops as a result of deficiency of 21-hydroxylase, an enzyme involved in an intermediate step of cortisol production.
Regulation
thumb|right|Negative feedback in the HPA axis
Glucocorticoids are under the regulatory influence of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA) axis. Glucocorticoid synthesis is stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), a hormone released into the bloodstream by the anterior pituitary. In turn, production of ACTH is stimulated by the presence of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which is released by neurons of the hypothalamus. ACTH acts on the adrenal cells first by increasing the levels of StAR within the cells, and then of all steroidogenic P450 enzymes. The HPA axis is an example of a negative feedback system, in which cortisol itself acts as a direct inhibitor of both CRH and ACTH synthesis. The HPA axis also interacts with the immune system through increased secretion of ACTH at the presence of certain molecules of the inflammatory response.
Mineralocorticoid secretion is regulated mainly by the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS), the concentration of potassium, and to a lesser extent the concentration of ACTH. Sensors of blood pressure in the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidneys release the enzyme renin into the blood, which starts a cascade of reactions that lead to formation of angiotensin II. Angiotensin receptors in cells of the zona glomerulosa recognize the substance, and upon binding they stimulate the release of aldosterone.
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Adrenal gland
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Androgens
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Androgens
Cells in zona reticularis of the adrenal glands produce male sex hormones, or androgens, the most important of which is DHEA. In general, these hormones do not have an overall effect in the male body, and are converted to more potent androgens such as testosterone and DHT or to estrogens (female sex hormones) in the gonads, acting in this way as a metabolic intermediate.
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Adrenal gland
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Catecholamines
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Catecholamines
Also called epinephrine and norepinephrine, adrenaline and noradrenaline, respectively, are catecholamines – water-soluble compounds that have a structure made of a catechol group and an amine group. The adrenal glands are responsible for most of the adrenaline that circulates in the body, but only for a small amount of circulating noradrenaline. These hormones are released by the adrenal medulla, which contains a dense network of blood vessels. Adrenaline and noradrenaline act by binding to adrenoreceptors throughout the body, with effects that include an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. Actions of adrenaline and noradrenaline are responsible for the fight or flight response, characterised by a quickening of breathing and heart rate, an increase in blood pressure, and constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body.
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Adrenal gland
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Formation
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Formation
Catecholamines are produced in chromaffin cells in the medulla of the adrenal gland, from tyrosine, a non-essential amino acid derived from food or produced from phenylalanine in the liver. The enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase converts tyrosine to L-DOPA in the first step of catecholamine synthesis. L-DOPA is then converted to dopamine before it can be turned into noradrenaline. In the cytosol, noradrenaline is converted to epinephrine by the enzyme phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) and stored in granules. Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex stimulate the synthesis of catecholamines by increasing the levels of tyrosine hydroxylase and PNMT.
Catecholamine release is stimulated by the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Splanchnic nerves of the sympathetic nervous system innervate the medulla of the adrenal gland. When activated, it evokes the release of catecholamines from the storage granules by stimulating the opening of calcium channels in the cell membrane.
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Adrenal gland
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Gene and protein expression
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Gene and protein expression
The human genome includes approximately 20,000 protein coding genes and 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal adult adrenal glands. Only some 250 genes are more specifically expressed in the adrenal glands compared to other organs and tissues. The adrenal-gland-specific genes with the highest level of expression include members of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of enzymes. Corresponding proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the adrenal gland, such as CYP11A1, HSD3B2 and FDX1 involved in steroid hormone synthesis and expressed in cortical cell layers, and PNMT and DBH involved in noradrenaline and adrenaline synthesis and expressed in the medulla.
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Adrenal gland
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Development
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Development
The adrenal glands are composed of two heterogenous types of tissue. In the center is the adrenal medulla, which produces adrenaline and noradrenaline and releases them into the bloodstream, as part of the sympathetic nervous system. Surrounding the medulla is the cortex, which produces a variety of steroid hormones. These tissues come from different embryological precursors and have distinct prenatal development paths. The cortex of the adrenal gland is derived from mesoderm, whereas the medulla is derived from the neural crest, which is of ectodermal origin.
The adrenal glands in a newborn baby are much larger as a proportion of the body size than in an adult. For example, at age three months the glands are four times the size of the kidneys. The size of the glands decreases relatively after birth, mainly because of shrinkage of the cortex. The cortex, which almost completely disappears by age 1, develops again from age 4–5. The glands weigh about at birth and develop to an adult weight of about each. In a fetus the glands are first detectable after the sixth week of development.
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Adrenal gland
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Cortex
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Cortex
Adrenal cortex tissue is derived from the intermediate mesoderm. It first appears 33 days after fertilisation, shows steroid hormone production capabilities by the eighth week and undergoes rapid growth during the first trimester of pregnancy. The fetal adrenal cortex is different from its adult counterpart, as it is composed of two distinct zones: the inner "fetal" zone, which carries most of the hormone-producing activity, and the outer "definitive" zone, which is in a proliferative phase. The fetal zone produces large amounts of adrenal androgens (male sex hormones) that are used by the placenta for estrogen biosynthesis. Cortical development of the adrenal gland is regulated mostly by ACTH, a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates cortisol synthesis. During midgestation, the fetal zone occupies most of the cortical volume and produces 100–200 mg/day of DHEA-S, an androgen and precursor of both androgens and estrogens (female sex hormones). Adrenal hormones, especially glucocorticoids such as cortisol, are essential for prenatal development of organs, particularly for the maturation of the lungs. The adrenal gland decreases in size after birth because of the rapid disappearance of the fetal zone, with a corresponding decrease in androgen secretion.
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Adrenal gland
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Adrenarche
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Adrenarche
During early childhood androgen synthesis and secretion remain low, but several years before puberty (from 6–8 years of age) changes occur in both anatomical and functional aspects of cortical androgen production that lead to increased secretion of the steroids DHEA and DHEA-S. These changes are part of a process called adrenarche, which has only been described in humans and some other primates. Adrenarche is independent of ACTH or gonadotropins and correlates with a progressive thickening of the zona reticularis layer of the cortex. Functionally, adrenarche provides a source of androgens for the development of axillary and pubic hair before the beginning of puberty.
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Adrenal gland
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Medulla
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Medulla
The adrenal medulla is derived from neural crest cells, which come from the ectoderm layer of the embryo. These cells migrate from their initial position and aggregate in the vicinity of the dorsal aorta, a primitive blood vessel, which activates the differentiation of these cells through the release of proteins known as BMPs. These cells then undergo a second migration from the dorsal aorta to form the adrenal medulla and other organs of the sympathetic nervous system. Cells of the adrenal medulla are called chromaffin cells because they contain granules that stain with chromium salts, a characteristic not present in all sympathetic organs. Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex were once thought to be responsible for the differentiation of chromaffin cells. More recent research suggests that BMP-4 secreted in adrenal tissue is the main responsible for this, and that glucocorticoids only play a role in the subsequent development of the cells.
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Adrenal gland
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Clinical significance
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Clinical significance
The normal function of the adrenal gland may be impaired by conditions such as infections, tumors, genetic disorders and autoimmune diseases, or as a side effect of medical therapy. These disorders affect the gland either directly (as with infections or autoimmune diseases) or as a result of the dysregulation of hormone production (as in some types of Cushing's syndrome) leading to an excess or insufficiency of adrenal hormones and the related symptoms.
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Adrenal gland
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Corticosteroid overproduction
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Corticosteroid overproduction
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Adrenal gland
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Cushing's syndrome
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Cushing's syndrome
Cushing's syndrome is the manifestation of glucocorticoid excess. It can be the result of a prolonged treatment with glucocorticoids or be caused by an underlying disease which produces alterations in the HPA axis or the production of cortisol. Causes can be further classified into ACTH-dependent or ACTH-independent. The most common cause of endogenous Cushing's syndrome is a pituitary adenoma which causes an excessive production of ACTH. The disease produces a wide variety of signs and symptoms which include obesity, diabetes, increased blood pressure, excessive body hair (hirsutism), osteoporosis, depression, and most distinctively, stretch marks in the skin, caused by its progressive thinning.
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Adrenal gland
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Primary aldosteronism
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Primary aldosteronism
When the zona glomerulosa produces excess aldosterone, the result is primary aldosteronism. Causes for this condition are bilateral hyperplasia (excessive tissue growth) of the glands, or aldosterone-producing adenomas (a condition called Conn's syndrome). Primary aldosteronism produces hypertension and electrolyte imbalance, increasing potassium depletion sodium retention.
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Adrenal gland
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Adrenal insufficiency
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Adrenal insufficiency
Adrenal insufficiency (the deficiency of glucocorticoids) occurs in about 5 in 10,000 in the general population. Diseases classified as primary adrenal insufficiency (including Addison's disease and genetic causes) directly affect the adrenal cortex. If a problem that affects the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis arises outside the gland, it is a secondary adrenal insufficiency.
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Adrenal gland
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Addison's disease
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Addison's disease
thumb|right|Characteristic skin hyperpigmentation in Addison's disease
Addison's disease refers to primary hypoadrenalism, which is a deficiency in glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid production by the adrenal gland. In the Western world, Addison's disease is most commonly an autoimmune condition, in which the body produces antibodies against cells of the adrenal cortex. Worldwide, the disease is more frequently caused by infection, especially from tuberculosis. A distinctive feature of Addison's disease is hyperpigmentation of the skin, which presents with other nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue.
A complication seen in untreated Addison's disease and other types of primary adrenal insufficiency is the adrenal crisis, a medical emergency in which low glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid levels result in hypovolemic shock and symptoms such as vomiting and fever. An adrenal crisis can progressively lead to stupor and coma. The management of adrenal crises includes the application of hydrocortisone injections.Hydrocortisone Emergency Factsheet for Ambulance Personnel The Pituitary Foundation
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Adrenal gland
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Secondary adrenal insufficiency
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Secondary adrenal insufficiency
In secondary adrenal insufficiency, a dysfunction of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis leads to decreased stimulation of the adrenal cortex. Apart from suppression of the axis by glucocorticoid therapy, the most common cause of secondary adrenal insufficiency are tumors that affect the production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by the pituitary gland. This type of adrenal insufficiency usually does not affect the production of mineralocorticoids, which are under regulation of the renin–angiotensin system instead.
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Adrenal gland
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Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
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Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a family of congenital diseases in which mutations of enzymes that produce steroid hormones result in a glucocorticoid deficiency and malfunction of the negative feedback loop of the HPA axis. In the HPA axis, cortisol (a glucocorticoid) inhibits the release of CRH and ACTH, hormones that in turn stimulate corticosteroid synthesis. As cortisol cannot be synthesized, these hormones are released in high quantities and stimulate production of other adrenal steroids instead. The most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia is due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. 21-hydroxylase is necessary for production of both mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, but not androgens. Therefore, ACTH stimulation of the adrenal cortex induces the release of excessive amounts of adrenal androgens, which can lead to the development of ambiguous genitalia and secondary sex characteristics.
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Adrenal gland
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Adrenal tumors
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Adrenal tumors
thumb|240px|Incidences and prognoses of adrenal tumors.Data and references for pie chart are located at file description page in Wikimedia Commons.
Adrenal tumors are commonly found as incidentalomas, unexpected asymptomatic tumors found during medical imaging. They are seen in around 3.4% of CT scans, and in most cases they are benign adenomas. Adrenal carcinomas are very rare, with an incidence of 1 case per million per year.
Pheochromocytomas are tumors of the adrenal medulla that arise from chromaffin cells. They can produce a variety of nonspecific symptoms, which include headaches, sweating, anxiety and palpitations. Common signs include hypertension and tachycardia. Surgery, especially adrenal laparoscopy, is the most common treatment for small pheochromocytomas.
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Adrenal gland
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History
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History
Bartolomeo Eustachi, an Italian anatomist, is credited with the first description of the adrenal glands in 1563–4. However, these publications were part of the papal library and did not receive public attention, which was first received with Caspar Bartholin the Elder's illustrations in 1611.
The adrenal glands are named for their location relative to the kidneys. The term "adrenal" comes from Latin ad, "near", and ren, "kidney". Similarly, "suprarenal", as termed by Jean Riolan the Younger in 1629, is derived from the Latin supra, "above", and ren, "kidney", as well. The suprarenal nature of the glands was not truly accepted until the 19th century, as anatomists clarified the ductless nature of the glands and their likely secretory role – prior to this, there was some debate as to whether the glands were indeed suprarenal or part of the kidney.
One of the most recognized works on the adrenal glands came in 1855 with the publication of On the Constitutional and Local Effects of Disease of the Suprarenal Capsule, by the English physician Thomas Addison. In his monography, Addison described what the French physician George Trousseau would later name Addison's disease, an eponym still used today for a condition of adrenal insufficiency and its related clinical manifestations. In 1894, English physiologists George Oliver and Edward Schafer studied the action of adrenal extracts and observed their pressor effects. In the following decades several physicians experimented with extracts from the adrenal cortex to treat Addison's disease. Edward Calvin Kendall, Philip Hench and Tadeusz Reichstein were then awarded the 1950 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries on the structure and effects of the adrenal hormones.
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Adrenal gland
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See also
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See also
Adrenopause
Adrenochrome
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
Adrenal insufficiency
Adrenal gland disorder
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Adrenal gland
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References
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References
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Adrenal gland
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External links
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External links
Adrenal gland at the Human Protein Atlas
Adrenal gland histology
– "Adrenal Gland"
– "Posterior Abdominal Wall: The Retroperitoneal Fat and Suprarenal Glands"
Adrenal Gland, from Colorado State University
Category:Adrenaline
Category:Endocrine system anatomy
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Adrenal gland
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Table of Content
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Short description, Structure, Adrenal cortex, Zona glomerulosa, Zona fasciculata, Zona reticularis, Medulla, Blood supply, Variability, Function, Corticosteroids, Androgens, Catecholamines, Formation, Gene and protein expression, Development, Cortex, Adrenarche, Medulla, Clinical significance, Corticosteroid overproduction, Cushing's syndrome, Primary aldosteronism, Adrenal insufficiency, Addison's disease, Secondary adrenal insufficiency, Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, Adrenal tumors, History, See also, References, External links
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A360media
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Short description
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A360 Media, LLC (branded a360media), formerly American Media, Inc. (AMI), is an American publisher of magazines, supermarket tabloids, and books based in New York City. Originally affiliated with only the National Enquirer, the media company's holdings expanded considerably in the 1990s and 2000s. In November 2010, American Media filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection due to debts of nearly $1 billion, but has continued to buy and sell magazine brands since then.
AMI had been in the news affiliated with accusations of catch and kill operations. On December 12, 2018, the U.S. Attorney's Office reported that AMI admitted to paying $150,000 to Karen McDougal in concert with Donald Trump's presidential campaign for the sole purpose of preventing damaging allegations prior to the 2016 US presidential election.
According to its September 2018 non-prosecution agreement with Southern District of New York federal prosecutors, AMI "shall commit no crimes whatsoever" for three years, otherwise "A.M.I. shall thereafter be subject to prosecution for any federal criminal violation of which this office has knowledge."
On April 10, 2019, Chatham Asset Management, which controls 80 percent of AMI's stock, forced AMI to sell the National Enquirer. This came after Chatham owner Anthony Melchiorre, who AMI has also relied on for survival, expressed dismay over the tabloid magazine's recent scandals involving hush money assistance to U.S. president Donald Trump's 2016 campaign and blackmail of Jeff Bezos. On April 18, 2019, AMI agreed to sell not only the National Enquirer, but two of its other publications, Globe and National Examiner, to Hudson News Distributors.
In August 2020, Chatham Asset Management, AMI's owning holding company, announced it would merge AMI with Accelerate 360, a wholesale distribution company it also owned. As part of the merger, AMI was officially renamed A360 on October 1.
In February 2023, A360media agreed to sell the National Enquirer to VVIP Ventures, a joint venture of the digital media company Vinco Ventures and a new company set up for the purchase, Icon Publishing. As of July 7th, 2023 the deal has collapsed as reported by The Wall Street Journal.
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A360media
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History
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History
thumb|right|Logo as American Media, Inc.The modern American Media came into being after Generoso Pope Jr., longtime owner of the National Enquirer, died in 1988, and his tabloids came under new ownership. American tabloids began consolidating in 1990, when American Media bought Star from Rupert Murdoch. The purchase of Globe Communications (owner of the Globe and the National Examiner) followed nine years later. Roger Altman, through Evercore Partners, bought a controlling stake in American Media in 1999.
American Media is not to be confused with American Media Distribution, the international news coverage firm. American Media's former corporate headquarters in Boca Raton, Florida, figured prominently in news headlines in late 2001, after an anthrax attack was perpetrated on the company and other media outlets. Since then the corporate headquarters have moved to New York City at 1 Park Avenue in Manhattan, before moving to the Financial District to the former JP Morgan Chase headquarters at 4 New York Plaza. That building was severely damaged by Hurricane Sandy but reopened in February 2013.
AMI continued to expand after it bought Joe Weider's Weider Publications in 2002. Joe Weider continued to manage control of his magazines under AMI's Weider Publications subsidiary until his death in March 2013.
American Media also owns Distribution Services, an in-store magazine merchandising company. In fall 2002, it launched the book-publishing imprint, AMI Books.
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A360media
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2010s: Bankruptcy and continued acquisitions
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2010s: Bankruptcy and continued acquisitions
In 2009, American Media was taken over by its bondholders to keep it out of bankruptcy.
In November 2010, American Media filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection due to nearly $1 billion in debt, and assets of less than $50,000. Its subsidiary, American Media Operations Inc., listed assets of $100 to $500 million and debt of over $1 billion. It exited in December.
In May 2014, American Media announced a decision to shift the headquarters of the National Enquirer from Florida, where it had been located since 1971, back to New York City, where it originally began as The New York Enquirer in 1926. In August 2014, American Media was acquired by Chatham Asset Management and Omega Charitable Partnership.
In 2015, American Media sold Shape, Natural Health, and Fit Pregnancy to Meredith.
In 2016, Pecker revealed to the Toronto Star that AMI now relied on support from Chatham Asset Management and its owner Anthony Melchiorre. The $4 billion hedge fund owns 80 percent of AMI's stock.
In March 2017, American Media acquired Us Weekly from Wenner Media for a reported $100 million. Three months later, in June 2017, American Media also acquired Men's Journal from Wenner Media.
In June 2018, American Media acquired 13 brands from Bauer Media Group including In Touch Weekly, Life & Style and Closer to add to their celebrity portfolio. They also acquired Bauer Media's kids group including J-14 and Girl's World.
In February 2019, American Media acquired TEN's adventure sports properties.
In April 2019, the National Enquirer was reported to be up for sale and likely to be sold within days. The company stated that it had shifted its emphasis away from tabloids to its "glossy" magazines such as Us Weekly and Men's Journal. This came following pressure from Chatham owner Anthony Melchiorre, who expressed disapproval of the Enquirer's style of journalism. On April 18, 2019, AMI accepted an offer from Hudson News Distributors head James Cohen and agreed to sell not only the National Enquirer, but also Globe and The Examiner to Hudson News Distributors for $100 million. At the time the sales were announced, AMI was approximately $355 million in debt.
In 2022, A360 acquired single issue magazine publisher Centennial Media. Also in 2022, A360 sold Men's Journal and the Adventure Sports Network properties to The Arena Group.
In December 2024, A360media merged with McClatchy. Prior to the merger its tabloids including the National Enquirer and the Globe were sold to an undisclosed buyer.
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A360media
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Checkbook journalism controversy
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Checkbook journalism controversy
On April 22, 2024, Pecker acknowledged that the National Enquirer engaged in a practice of checkbook journalism which involved paying sources for stories, and that he "gave a number to the editors that they could not spend more than $10,000" and he had final say over celebrity stories. He also acknowledged that "checkbook journalism" served as part of the editorial philosophy he followed when ran American Media Inc. Pecker stated that he believed that “The only thing that is important is the cover of a magazine.”
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A360media
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"Catch-and-kill" scandals related to Donald Trump
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"Catch-and-kill" scandals related to Donald Trump
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A360media
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Allegation about Trump Tower maid
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Allegation about Trump Tower maid
In late 2015, AMI paid $30,000 to Dino Sajudin, a doorman at Trump Tower, to obtain the rights to his story in which he alleged Donald Trump had an affair in the 1980s that resulted in the birth of a child. Sajudin in April 2018 identified the woman as Trump's former housekeeper. AMI reporters were given the names of the woman and the alleged child, while Sajudin passed a lie detector test when testifying that he had heard the story from others. Shortly after the payment was made, Pecker ordered the reporters to drop the story. In April 2018, AMI chief content officer Dylan Howard denied the story was "spiked" in a so-called "catch and kill" operation, insisting that AMI did not run the story because Sajudin's story lacked credibility. On August 24, 2018, after AMI had released Sajudin from the contract, CNN obtained a copy of it and published excerpts. The contract instructed Sajudin to provide "information regarding Donald Trump's illegitimate child," but did not contain further specifics of Sajudin's story.
In April 2024, Pecker testified in Trump's New York criminal trial how the story was his first "catch-and-kill" target during Trump's campaign, with Sajudin also attempting to claim that the child was a girl. A National Enquirer editor who discovered the allegation originally did not know Sajudin's name, but just as a doorman who had worked at Trump. Cohen was the one who discovered the names of the doorman and the alleged maid. Though Cohen at first claimed the story was not true, the National Enquirer acquired the story for $30,000, which was noticeably higher than the usual $10,000 they paid for stories.
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A360media
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Karen McDougal
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Karen McDougal
alt=American Media Inc. Non-Prosecution Agreement|thumb|American Media Inc. Non-Prosecution Agreement
In 2016, AMI paid Playboy model Karen McDougal $150,000 for exclusive rights to her allegations of a ten-month affair with Donald Trump—which she claimed happened in 2006–2007, when he was already married to Melania—but AMI never published the story. AMI publicly acknowledged having made the payment after The Wall Street Journal revealed it days before the 2016 presidential election, but AMI denied that its purpose had been to "kill damaging stories about" Trump; instead, AMI claimed it had paid only for "exclusive life rights to any relationship [McDougal] has had with a then-married man" and "two years' worth of her fitness columns and magazine covers." In March 2018, McDougal filed a lawsuit to invalidate the non-disclosure agreement she had with AMI. A month later, AMI settled with McDougal, allowing her to speak about the alleged affair. In August 2018, it was reported that AMI CEO/chairman David Pecker and AMI chief content officer Dylan Howard were granted witness immunity in exchange for their testimony regarding hush money payments made by Donald Trump's then-personal lawyer, Michael Cohen, in an attempt to influence the 2016 presidential election.
On December 12, 2018, the U.S. Attorney's office announced its agreement with AMI. "AMI admitted that it made the $150,000 payment in concert with a candidate's presidential campaign," the press release said, so that Karen McDougal wouldn't "publicize damaging allegations about the candidate before the 2016 presidential election. AMI further admitted that its principal purpose in making the payment was to suppress the woman's story so as to prevent it from influencing the election." As a result of this agreement, AMI did not face prosecution and agreed to provide extensive assistance to prosecutors about the involvement of Trump and other politicians with the company. The same press release also revealed that Michael Cohen had been sentenced to three years in prison for various crimes, including the $150,000 campaign finance violation—the facilitation of the payment to McDougal—to which he pled guilty on August 21, 2018. AMI agreed to pay the Federal Election Commission a $187,500 fine in June 2021.
In April 2024, Pecker testified how he, Howard and Cohen conspired to get the National Enquirer to acquire McDougal's story. Pecker stated that after Howard found out about McDougal's allegation, he sent Howard to California to interview her. During the time Howard met with McDougal, he conversed with Cohen about the situation. Ultimately, McDougal agreed to sell her story to the National Enquirer for $150,000.
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A360media
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Jeff Bezos blackmail
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Jeff Bezos blackmail
In January 2019, the National Enquirer broke a story about the extramarital affair of Amazon founder and Washington Post owner Jeff Bezos with Lauren Sánchez. Bezos began investigating how and why the information had been leaked to the National Enquirer. President Trump has long expressed displeasure with Bezos, and Trump's irritation may have increased due to the Washington Post's critical coverage of the murder (and the subsequent cover-up) of one of its reporters, Jamal Khashoggi. This, Bezos suspects, may have been the political motivation for someone to leak his affair to the tabloid.
On February 7, 2019, Bezos shared emails that he had received the previous day in which AMI sought a public statement from him and his lawyer "affirming that they have no knowledge or basis for suggesting that AM's coverage [of the sexual affair] was politically motivated or influenced by political forces, and an agreement that they will cease referring to such a possibility." AMI chief content officer Dylan Howard and his lawyer Jon Fine threatened Bezos, saying that if Bezos did not promptly meet their demands, AMI would publish selfies and sexts sent between Bezos and his girlfriend. Bezos wrote that he would refuse to make this "specific lie" or to otherwise participate in this blackmail bargain that "no real journalists [would] ever propose." "Of course I don't want personal photos published," Bezos added, but he said he chooses to "stand up, roll this log over, and see what crawls out."
That same day, The Washington Post published an article on the matter, quoting a former federal prosecutor who speculated that this news could undermine AMI's recent deal with the government. If prosecutors decide they must file new criminal charges against AMI, the government may not be able "to continue to use them [AMI] to assist other ongoing investigations," said Robert Mintz.
Lauren Sanchez's brother, Michael Sanchez, an ardent Trump supporter, stated he was told by multiple AMI employees that the Enquirer set out to do "a takedown to make Trump happy" and The Daily Beast reported seeing documents showing that Sanchez believed the Bezos story was run with "President Trump's knowledge and appreciation."
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A360media
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Divisions
AMI Books
AMI Entertainment Group
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A360media
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See also
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See also
2017–18 United States political sexual scandals
Stormy Daniels–Donald Trump scandal
Death of Robert Stevens
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A360media
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References
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References
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A360media
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External links
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External links
Tabloid Company, Aiding Trump Campaign, May Have Crossed Line Into Politics
Category:Publishing companies established in 1936
Category:Magazine publishing companies of the United States
Category:Newspaper companies of the United States
Category:Privately held companies based in New York City
Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2010
Category:1936 establishments in New York (state)
Category:Publishing companies based in New York City
Category:2024 mergers and acquisitions
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A360media
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Table of Content
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Short description, History, 2010s: Bankruptcy and continued acquisitions, Checkbook journalism controversy, "Catch-and-kill" scandals related to Donald Trump, Allegation about Trump Tower maid, Karen McDougal, Jeff Bezos blackmail, Publications, Current, Former, Divisions, See also, References, External links
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Aramaic
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Short description
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thumb|Syriac alphabet
Aramaic (; ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, southeastern Anatolia, Eastern Arabia and the Sinai Peninsula, where it has been continually written and spoken in different varieties for over three thousand years.
Aramaic served as a language of public life and administration of ancient kingdoms and empires, particularly the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Neo-Babylonian Empire, and Achaemenid Empire, and also as a language of divine worship and religious study within Judaism, Christianity, and Gnosticism. Several modern varieties of Aramaic are still spoken. The modern eastern branch is spoken by Assyrians, Mandeans, and Mizrahi Jews.: "The overarching concept of Aramaic, strictly a historical-linguistic abstraction, is made more concrete by various terms for the various Aramaic languages (or dialects, where we are mainly dealing with regional vernaculars without a written tradition; the neutral term variety includes both categories). ... Or scholars use the same terms to refer to different historical periods, as with "Old Aramaic" or "Imperial Aramaic." Others still are just misleading, such as "Modern Syriac" for the modern spoken languages, which do not directly descend from Syriac. When discussing what a certain word or phrase is "in Aramaic" then, we always have to specify which period, region, or culture is meant unlike Classical Latin, for instance. ... For the most part, Aramaic is thus studied as a crucial but subservient element in several well-established, mainly philological and historical disciplines and social sciences. Even in the academic world, only few people see any inherent value that transcends the disciplinary boundaries in this language family." Western Aramaic is still spoken by the Muslim and Christian Arameans (Syriacs) in the towns of Maaloula, Bakh'a and nearby Jubb'adin in Syria. Classical varieties are used as liturgical and literary languages in several West Asian churches,: "Despite their divergent creeds and confessional affiliations, they retained their own West or East Syriac ritual prayers and liturgical formulae; on the one hand, there are the West Syriac Orthodox and Syriac Catholics...and also to a lesser degree the similarly Catholic Maronites (where Arabic is increasingly taking over the function of Syriac); one the other hand, there is the Assyrian "Church of the East," which stems from the East Syriac tradition, and...the Chaldean Catholic Church. Additionally, some of the many Christian churches of India belong to the Syriac tradition." as well as in Judaism, Samaritanism, and Mandaeism. The Aramaic language is now considered endangered, with several varieties used mainly by the older generations. Researchers are working to record and analyze all of the remaining varieties of Neo-Aramaic languages before or in case they become extinct.
Aramaic belongs to the Northwest group of the Semitic language family, which also includes the mutually intelligible Canaanite languages such as Hebrew, Edomite, Moabite, Ekronite, Sutean, and Phoenician, as well as Amorite and Ugaritic. Aramaic varieties are written in the Aramaic alphabet, a descendant of the Phoenician alphabet. The most prominent variant of this alphabet is the Syriac alphabet, used in the ancient city of Edessa. The Aramaic alphabet also became a base for the creation and adaptation of specific writing systems in some other Semitic languages of West Asia, such as the Hebrew alphabet and the Arabic alphabet.
Early Aramaic inscriptions date from 11th century BC, placing it among the earliest languages to be written down. Aramaicist notes, "The linguistic history of Aramaic prior to the appearance of the first textual sources in the ninth century BC remains unknown." Aramaic is also believed by most historians and scholars to have been the primary language spoken by Jesus of Nazareth both for preaching and in everyday life.
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Aramaic
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History
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History
thumb|This clay tablet represents a classroom experiment; a teacher imposed a challenging writing exercise on pupils who spoke both Babylonian-Akkadian and Aramaic. The pupils had to use traditional syllabic signs to express the sounds of the Aramaic alphabet. . From Iraq
Historically and originally, Old Aramaic was the language of the ancient Aramean tribes. By around 1000 BC, the Arameans had a string of kingdoms in what is now part of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey, and the fringes of southern Mesopotamia (Iraq). Aramaic rose to prominence under the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC), under whose influence Aramaic became a prestige language after being adopted as a lingua franca of the empire by Assyrian kings, and its use was spread throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant and parts of Asia Minor, the Arabian Peninsula, and Ancient Iran under Assyrian rule. At its height, Aramaic was spoken in what is now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Kuwait, parts of southeast and south central Turkey, northern parts of the Arabian Peninsula and parts of northwest Iran, as well as the southern Caucasus, having gradually replaced several other related Semitic languages.
The scribes of the Neo-Assyrian bureaucracy used Aramaic, and this practice was subsequently inherited by the succeeding Neo-Babylonian Empire (605–539 BC) and later by the Achaemenid Empire (539–330 BC). Mediated by scribes that had been trained in the language, highly standardized written Aramaic, named by scholars Imperial Aramaic, progressively also became the lingua franca of public life, trade and commerce throughout Achaemenid territories. Wide use of written Aramaic subsequently led to the adoption of the Aramaic alphabet and, as logograms, some Aramaic vocabulary in the Pahlavi scripts, which were used by several Middle Iranian languages, including Parthian, Middle Persian, Sogdian, and Khwarezmian.
Biblical Aramaic was used in several sections of the Hebrew Bible, including parts of the books of Daniel and Ezra. Aramaic translation of the Bible is known as the Targum. It was the language of Jesus, who spoke the Galilean dialect during his public ministry, and of the Jerusalem Talmud, Babylonian Talmud, and Zohar. According to the Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 38b), the language spoken by Adamthe first human in the Biblewas Aramaic.
Some variants of Aramaic are retained as sacred languages by certain religious communities. Most notable among them is Classical Syriac, the liturgical language of Syriac Christianity. It is used by several communities, including the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, the Maronite Church, and also the Saint Thomas Christians, Syriac Christians of Kerala, India. One of the liturgical dialects was Mandaic, which besides becoming a vernacular, Neo-Mandaic, also remained the liturgical language of Mandaeism. Syriac was also the liturgical language of several now-extinct gnostic faiths, such as Manichaeism.
Neo-Aramaic languages are still spoken in the 21st century as a first language by many communities of Assyrians, Mizrahi Jews (in particular, the Iraqi Jews), and Mandaeans of the Near East, with the main Neo-Aramaic languages being Suret (~240,000 speakers) and Turoyo (~250,000 speakers). Western Neo-Aramaic (~3,000) persists in only two villages in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains in western Syria.Brock, An Introduction to Syriac Studies They have retained use of the once-dominant lingua franca despite subsequent language shifts experienced throughout the Middle East.
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Aramaic
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Name
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Name
thumb|The Carpentras Stele was the first ancient inscription ever identified as "Aramaic". Although it was first published in 1704, it was not identified as Aramaic until 1821, when Ulrich Friedrich Kopp complained that previous scholars had left everything "to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all".
The connection between Chaldean, Syriac, and Samaritan as "Aramaic" was first identified in 1679 by German theologian Johann Wilhelm Hilliger. In 1819–1821 Ulrich Friedrich Kopp published his ("Images and Inscriptions of the Past"), in which he established the basis of the paleographical development of the Northwest Semitic scripts. Kopp criticised Jean-Jacques Barthélemy and other scholars who had characterized all the then-known inscriptions and coins as Phoenician, with "everything left to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all". Kopp noted that some of the words on the Carpentras Stele corresponded to the Aramaic in the Book of Daniel, and in the Book of Ruth.
Josephus and Strabo (the latter citing Posidonius) both stated that the "Syrians" called themselves "Arameans".Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 1.144: "Aram had the Aramites, which the Greeks called Syrians" (Strabo, Geographica, 1.2.34: "But it would seem that the view of Poseidonius is best, for here he derives an etymology of the words from the kinship of the peoples and their common characteristics. For the nation of the Armenians and that of the Syrians and Arabians betray a close affinity, not only in their language, but in their mode of life and in their bodily build, and particularly wherever they live as close neighbours. Mesopotamia, which is inhabited by these three nations, gives proof of this, for in the case of these nations the similarity is particularly noticeable. And if, comparing the differences of latitude, there does exist a greater difference between the northern and the southern people of Mesopotamia than between these two peoples and the Syrians in the centre, still the common characteristics prevail. And, too, the Assyrians, the Arians, and the Aramaeans display a certain likeness both to those just mentioned and to each other. Indeed, Poseidonius conjectures that the names of these nations also are akin; for, says he, the people whom we call Syrians are by the Syrians themselves called Arimaeans and Arammaeans; and there is a resemblance between this name and those of the Armenians, the Arabians and the Erembians, since perhaps the ancient Greeks gave the name of Erembians to the Arabians, and since the very etymology of the word "Erembian" contributes to this result".Strabo, Geographica, 16.4.27: "Poseidonius says that the Arabians consist of three tribes, that they are situated in succession, one after another, and that this indicates that they are homogeneous with one another, and that for this reason they were called by similar names – one tribe "Armenians," another "Arameans," and another "Arambians." And just as one may suppose that the Arabians were divided into three tribes, according to the differences in the latitudes, which ever vary more and more, so also one may suppose that they used several names instead of one. Neither are those who write "Eremni" plausible; for that name is more peculiarly applicable to the Aethiopians. The poet also mentions "Arimi,"by which, according to Poseidonius, we should interpret the poet as meaning, not some place in Syria or in Cilicia or in some other land, but Syria itself; for the people in Syria are Arameans, though perhaps the Greeks called them Arimaeans or Arimi". The Septuagint, the earliest extant full copy of the Hebrew Bible, a Greek translation, used the terms Syria and Syrian where the Masoretic Text, the earliest extant Hebrew copy of the Bible, uses the terms Aramean and Aramaic; numerous later bibles followed the Septuagint's usage, including the King James Version. This connection between the names Syrian and Aramaic was discussed in 1835 by Étienne Marc Quatremère.
In historical sources, Aramaic language is designated by two distinctive groups of terms, first of them represented by endonymic (native) names, and the other one represented by various exonymic (foreign in origin) names. Native (endonymic) terms for Aramaic language were derived from the same word root as the name of its original speakers, the ancient Arameans. Endonymic forms were also adopted in some other languages, like ancient Hebrew. In the Torah (Hebrew Bible), "Aram" is used as a proper name of several people including descendants of Shem, Nahor, and Jacob. Ancient Aram, bordering northern Israel and what is now called Syria, is considered the linguistic center of Aramaic, the language of the Arameans who settled the area during the Bronze Age .
Unlike in Hebrew, designations for Aramaic language in some other ancient languages were mostly exonymic. In ancient Greek, Aramaic language was most commonly known as the "Syrian language",Nöldeke, 1871, p. 115: "Die Griechen haben den Namen "Aramäer" nie eigentlich gekannt; ausser Posidonius (dem Strabo folgt) nennt ihn uns nur noch ein andrer Orientale, Josephus (Ant. 1, 6, 4). Dass Homer bei den 'Ερεμβοι oder in den Worten eiv 'Αρίμοις an sie dächte, ist sehr unwahrscheinlich. Die Griechen nannten das Volk "Syrer"". in relation to the native (non-Greek) inhabitants of the historical region of Syria. Since the name of Syria itself emerged as a variant of Assyria, the biblical Ashur, and Akkadian Ashuru, a complex set of semantic phenomena was created, becoming a subject of interest both among ancient writers and modern scholars.
The Koine Greek word (Hebraïstí) has been translated as "Aramaic" in some versions of the Christian New Testament, as Aramaic was at that time the language commonly spoken by the Jews. However, is consistently used in Koine Greek at this time to mean Hebrew and (Syristi) is used to mean Aramaic. In Biblical scholarship, the term "Chaldean" was for many years used as a synonym of Aramaic, due to its use in the book of Daniel and subsequent interpretation by Jerome.
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Aramaic
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Geographic distribution
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Geographic distribution
thumb|Syriac inscription at the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church's Major Archbishop's House in Kerala, India
thumb|265px|Late Syriac text, written in Madnhāyā script, from Thrissur, Kerala, India (1799)
During the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires, Arameans began to settle in greater numbers in Babylonia, and later in the heartland of Assyria, also known as the "Arbela triangle" (Assur, Nineveh, and Arbela). The influx eventually resulted in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) adopting an Akkadian-influenced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of its empire. This policy was continued by the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire, and both empires became operationally bilingual in written sources, with Aramaic used alongside Akkadian. The Achaemenid Empire (539–323 BC) continued this tradition, and the extensive influence of these empires led to Aramaic gradually becoming the lingua franca of most of western Asia, Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Egypt.
Beginning with the rise of the Rashidun Caliphate and the early Muslim conquests in the late seventh century, Arabic gradually replaced Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Near East. However, Aramaic remains a spoken, literary, and liturgical language for local Christians and also some Jews. Aramaic also continues to be spoken by the Assyrians of northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and northwest Iran, with diaspora communities in Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and southern Russia. The Mandaeans also continue to use Classical Mandaic as a liturgical language, although most now speak Arabic as their first language. There are still also a small number of first-language speakers of Western Aramaic varieties in isolated villages in western Syria.
Being in contact with other regional languages, some Neo-Aramaic dialects were often engaged in the mutual exchange of influences, particularly with Arabic, Iranian, and Kurdish.
The turbulence of the last two centuries (particularly the Assyrian genocide, also known as Seyfo "Sword" in Syriac, has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world. However, there are several sizable Assyrian towns in northern Iraq, such as Alqosh, Bakhdida, Bartella, Tesqopa, and Tel Keppe, and numerous small villages, where Aramaic is still the main spoken language, and many large cities in this region also have Suret-speaking communities, particularly Mosul, Erbil, Kirkuk, Dohuk, and al-Hasakah. In modern Israel, the only native Aramaic-speaking population are the Jews of Kurdistan, although the language is dying out."The last of the Aramaic speakers", Miriam Shaviv, 14 July 2013, Times of Israel However, Aramaic is also experiencing a revival among Maronites in Israel in Jish.
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Aramaic
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Aramaic languages and dialects
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Aramaic languages and dialects
Aramaic is often spoken of as a single language but is actually a group of related languages. Some languages differ more from each other than the Romance languages do among themselves. Its long history, extensive literature, and use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not, similar to the situation with modern varieties of Arabic.
Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, Syriac is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic variety spoken by Syriac Christian communities in northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, and northwestern Iran, and the Saint Thomas Christians in Kerala, India. Most dialects can be described as either "Eastern" or "Western", the dividing line being roughly the Euphrates, or slightly west of it.
It is also helpful to distinguish modern living languages, or Neo-Aramaics, and those that are still in use as literary or liturgical languages or are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives "Old", "Middle", and "Modern" periods alongside "Eastern" and "Western" areas to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic.
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Aramaic
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Writing system
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Writing system
thumb|11th century book in Syriac Serto
The earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the Phoenician alphabet. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive "square" style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of Canaan adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the Hebrew alphabet. This is the writing system used in Biblical Aramaic and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the Syriac alphabet. A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the Mandaic alphabet, is used by the Mandaeans.
In addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups: the Nabataean alphabet in Petra and the Palmyrene alphabet in Palmyra. In modern times, Turoyo (see below) has sometimes been written in a Latin script.
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Aramaic
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Periodization
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Periodization
Periodization of historical development of Aramaic language has been the subject of particular interest for scholars, who proposed several types of periodization, based on linguistic, chronological and territorial criteria. Overlapping terminology, used in different periodizations, led to the creation of several polysemic terms, that are used differently among scholars. Terms like: Old Aramaic, Ancient Aramaic, Early Aramaic, Middle Aramaic, Late Aramaic (and some others, like Paleo-Aramaic), were used in various meanings, thus referring (in scope or substance) to different stages in historical development of Aramaic language.
Most commonly used types of periodization are those of Klaus Beyer and Joseph Fitzmyer.
Periodization of Klaus Beyer (1929–2014):
Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to
Middle Aramaic, from c. 200 AD, to c. 1200 AD
Modern Aramaic, from c. 1200 AD, up to the modern times
Periodization of Joseph Fitzmyer (1920–2016):
Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to regional prominence c. 700 BC
Official Aramaic, from c. 700 BC, to c. 200 BC
Middle Aramaic, from c. 200 BC, to c. 200 AD
Late Aramaic, from c. 200 AD, to c. 700 AD
Modern Aramaic, from c. 700 AD, up to the modern times
Recent periodization of Aaron Butts:
Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to c. 538 BC
Achaemenid Aramaic, from c. 538 BC, to c. 333 BC
Middle Aramaic, from c. 333 BC, to c. 200 AD
Late Aramaic, from c. 200 AD, to c. 1200 AD
Neo-Aramaic, from c. 1200 AD, up to the modern times
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Aramaic
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Old Aramaic
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Old Aramaic
thumb|One of the Bar-Rakib inscriptions from Sam'al. The inscription is in the Samalian language (also considered a dialect).
Aramaic's long history and diverse and widespread use has led to the development of many divergent varieties, which are sometimes considered dialects, though they have become distinct enough over time that they are now sometimes considered separate languages. Therefore, there is not one singular, static Aramaic language; each time and place rather has had its own variation. The more widely spoken Eastern Aramaic languages are largely restricted to Assyrian, Mandean and Mizrahi Jewish communities in Iraq, northeastern Syria, northwestern Iran, and southeastern Turkey, whilst the severely endangered Western Neo-Aramaic language is spoken by small Christian and Muslim communities in the Anti-Lebanon mountains, and closely related western varieties of Aramaic persisted in Mount Lebanon until as late as the 17th century.
The term "Old Aramaic" is used to describe the varieties of the language from its first known use, until the point roughly marked by the rise of the Sasanian Empire (224 AD), dominating the influential, eastern dialect region. As such, the term covers over thirteen centuries of the development of Aramaic. This vast time span includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct. Regarding the earliest forms, Beyer suggests that written Aramaic probably dates from the 11th century BC, as it is established by the 10th century, to which he dates the oldest inscriptions of northern Syria. Heinrichs uses the less controversial date of the 9th century, for which there is clear and widespread attestation.
The central phase in the development of Old Aramaic was its official use by the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–608 BC), Neo-Babylonian Empire (620–539 BC), and Achaemenid Empire (500–330 BC). The period before this, dubbed "Ancient Aramaic", saw the development of the language from being spoken in Aramaean city-states to become a major means of communication in diplomacy and trade throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Egypt. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, local vernaculars became increasingly prominent, fanning the divergence of an Aramaic dialect continuum and the development of differing written standards.
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Aramaic
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Ancient Aramaic
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Ancient Aramaic
"Ancient Aramaic" refers to the earliest known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the Fertile Crescent. It was the language of the Aramean city-states of Damascus, Hamath, and Arpad.
There are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the Phoenician alphabet, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Due to increasing Aramean migration eastward, the Western periphery of Assyria became bilingual in Akkadian and Aramean at least as early as the mid-9th century BC. As the Neo-Assyrian Empire conquered Aramean lands west of the Euphrates, Tiglath-Pileser III made Aramaic the Empire's second official language, and it eventually supplanted Akkadian completely.
From 700 BC, the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its unity. Different dialects emerged in Assyria, Babylonia, the Levant and Egypt. Around 600 BC, Adon, a Canaanite king, used Aramaic to write to an Egyptian Pharaoh.
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Aramaic
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Imperial Aramaic
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Imperial Aramaic
Around 500 BC, following the Achaemenid (Persian) conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Aramaic (as had been used in that region) was adopted by the conquerors as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed Official Aramaic or Imperial Aramaic, can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did". In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language. Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought.
Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of Persian gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in 330 BC), Imperial Aramaic – or a version thereof near enough for it to be recognisable – would remain an influence on the various native Iranian languages. Aramaic script and – as ideograms – Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the Pahlavi scripts.
One of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the Persepolis Administrative Archives, found at Persepolis, which number about five hundred. Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from Egypt, and Elephantine in particular (see Elephantine papyri). Of them, the best known is the Story of Ahikar, a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical Book of Proverbs. Consensus regards the Aramaic portion of the Biblical book of Daniel (i.e., 2:4b–7:28) as an example of Imperial (Official) Aramaic.
Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language.
A group of thirty Aramaic documents from Bactria have been discovered, and an analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdia.
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Aramaic
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Biblical Aramaic
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Biblical Aramaic
Biblical Aramaic is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the Old Testament:
Ezra and – documents from the Achaemenid period (5th century BC) concerning the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem.
Daniel – five tales and an apocalyptic vision.
Jeremiah 10:11 – a single sentence in the middle of a Hebrew text denouncing idolatry.
Genesis – translation of a Hebrew place-name.
Biblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. It is theorized that some Biblical Aramaic material originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty.
Biblical Aramaic presented various challenges for writers who were engaged in early Biblical studies. Since the time of Jerome of Stridon (d. 420), Aramaic of the Bible was named as "Chaldean" (Chaldaic, Chaldee). That label remained common in early Aramaic studies, and persisted up into the nineteenth century. The "Chaldean misnomer" was eventually abandoned, when modern scholarly analyses showed that Aramaic dialect used in the Hebrew Bible was not related to ancient Chaldeans and their language.
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Aramaic
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Post-Achaemenid Aramaic
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Post-Achaemenid Aramaic
thumb|Coin of Alexander the Great bearing an Aramaic language inscription
thumb|The Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription (Greek and Aramaic) by the Indian king Ashoka, 3rd century BC at Kandahar, Afghanistan
right|thumb|11th century Hebrew Bible with Targum intercalated between verses of Hebrew text
The fall of the Achaemenid Empire ( 334–330 BC), and its replacement with the newly created political order, imposed by Alexander the Great (d. 323 BC) and his Hellenistic successors, marked an important turning point in the history of Aramaic language. During the early stages of the post-Achaemenid era, public use of Aramaic language was continued, but shared with the newly introduced Greek language. By the year 300 BC, all of the main Aramaic-speaking regions came under political rule of the newly created Seleucid Empire that promoted Hellenistic culture, and favored Greek language as the main language of public life and administration. During the 3rd century BC, Greek overtook Aramaic in many spheres of public communication, particularly in highly Hellenized cities throughout the Seleucid domains. However, Aramaic continued to be used, in its post-Achaemenid form, among upper and literate classes of native Aramaic-speaking communities, and also by local authorities (along with the newly introduced Greek). Post-Achaemenid Aramaic, that bears a relatively close resemblance to that of the Achaemenid period, continued to be used up to the 2nd century BC.
By the end of the 2nd century BC, several variants of Post-Achaemenid Aramaic emerged, bearing regional characteristics. One of them was Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official administrative language of Hasmonaean Judaea (142–37 BC), alongside Hebrew, which was the language preferred in religious and some other public uses (coinage). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the Qumran texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major Targums, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean Aramaic. It also appears in quotations in the Mishnah and Tosefta, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms.
The use of written Aramaic in the Achaemenid bureaucracy also precipitated the adoption of Aramaic(-derived) scripts to render a number of Middle Iranian languages. Moreover, many common words, including even pronouns, particles, numerals, and auxiliaries, continued to be written as Aramaic "words" even when writing Middle Iranian languages. In time, in Iranian usage, these Aramaic "words" became disassociated from the Aramaic language and came to be understood as signs (i.e. logograms), much like the symbol '&' is read as "and" in English and the original Latin et is now no longer obvious. Under the early 3rd-century BC Parthian Arsacids, whose government used Greek but whose native language was Parthian, the Parthian language and its Aramaic-derived writing system both gained prestige. This in turn also led to the adoption of the name 'pahlavi' (< parthawi, "of the Parthians") for that writing system. The Persian Sassanids, who succeeded the Parthian Arsacids in the mid-3rd century AD, subsequently inherited/adopted the Parthian-mediated Aramaic-derived writing system for their own Middle Iranian ethnolect as well. That particular Middle Iranian dialect, Middle Persian, i.e. the language of Persia proper, subsequently also became a prestige language. Following the conquest of the Sassanids by the Arabs in the 7th-century, the Aramaic-derived writing system was replaced by the Arabic alphabet in all but Zoroastrian usage, which continued to use the name 'pahlavi' for the Aramaic-derived writing system and went on to create the bulk of all Middle Iranian literature in that writing system.
Other regional dialects continued to exist alongside these, often as simple, spoken variants of Aramaic. Early evidence for these vernacular dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, some of those regional dialects became written languages by the 2nd century BC. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not directly dependent on Achaemenid Aramaic, and they also show a clear linguistic diversity between eastern and western regions.
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Aramaic
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Targumic
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Targumic
Babylonian Targumic is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the Targum Onqelos and Targum Jonathan, the "official" targums. The original, Hasmonaean targums had reached Babylon sometime in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to create the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow.
Galilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of Galilee. The Hasmonaean targums reached Galilee in the 2nd century AD, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was not considered an authoritative work by other communities, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended. From the 11th century AD onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it.
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Aramaic
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Babylonian Documentary Aramaic
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Babylonian Documentary Aramaic
Babylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the 3rd century AD onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the 12th century, all Jewish private documents are in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps because many of the documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard.
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Aramaic
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Nabataean
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Nabataean
Nabataean Aramaic was the written language of the Arab kingdom of Nabataea, whose capital was Petra. The kingdom (c. 200 BC – 106 AD) controlled the region to the east of the Jordan River, the Negev, the Sinai Peninsula, and the northern Hijaz, and supported a wide-ranging trade network. The Nabataeans used imperial Aramaic for written communications, rather than their native Arabic. Nabataean Aramaic developed from Imperial Aramaic, with some influence from Arabic: "l" is often turned into "n", and there are some Arabic loanwords. Arabic influence on Nabataean Aramaic increased over time. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions date from the early days of the kingdom, but most datable inscriptions are from the first four centuries AD. The language is written in a cursive script that was the precursor to the Arabic alphabet. After annexation by the Romans in 106 AD, most of Nabataea was subsumed into the province of Arabia Petraea, the Nabataeans turned to Greek for written communications, and the use of Aramaic declined.
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Aramaic
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Palmyrene
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Palmyrene
Palmyrene Aramaic is the dialect that was in use in the multicultural city state of Palmyra in the Syrian Desert from 44 BC to 274 AD. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive Estrangela. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a much lesser degree.
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Aramaic
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Eastern dialects
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Eastern dialects
right|thumb|Mandaic magical "demon trap"
In the eastern regions (from Mesopotamia to Persia), dialects like Palmyrene Aramaic and Arsacid Aramaic gradually merged with the regional vernacular dialects, thus creating languages with a foot in Achaemenid and a foot in regional Aramaic.
In the Kingdom of Osroene, founded in 132 BC and centred in Edessa (Urhay), the regional dialect became the official language: Edessan Aramaic (Urhaya), that later came to be known as Classical Syriac. On the upper reaches of the Tigris, East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from the regions of Hatra and Assur.
Tatian the Assyrian (or Syrian), the author of the gospel harmony the Diatessaron came from Adiabene (Syr. Beth-Hadiab), and perhaps wrote his work (172 AD) in East Mesopotamian rather than Classical Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from ). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic.
The written form of Mandaic, the language of Mandaeism, was descended from the Arsacid chancery script.
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Aramaic
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Western dialects
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Western dialects
The western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Aramaic came to coexist with Canaanite dialects, eventually completely displacing Phoenician in the first century BC and Hebrew around the turn of the fourth century AD.
The form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of Caesarea Philippi. This is the dialect of the oldest manuscript of the Book of Enoch (c. 170 BC). The next distinct phase of the language is called Old Judaean lasting into the second century AD. Old Judean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the Talmud and receipts from Qumran. Josephus' first, non-extant edition of his The Jewish War was written in Old Judean.
The Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century AD by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see Peshitta).
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Aramaic
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Languages during Jesus' lifetime
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Languages during Jesus' lifetime
It is generally believed by Christian scholars that in the first century, Jews in Judea primarily spoke Aramaic with a decreasing number using Hebrew as their first language, though many learned Hebrew as a liturgical language. Additionally, Koine Greek was the lingua franca of the Near East in trade, among the Hellenized classes (much like French in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries in Europe), and in the Roman administration. Latin, the language of the Roman army and higher levels of administration, had almost no impact on the linguistic landscape.
In addition to the formal, literary dialects of Aramaic based on Hasmonean and Babylonian, there were a number of colloquial Aramaic dialects spoken in the southern Levant. Seven Western Aramaic varieties were spoken in the vicinity of Judea in Jesus' time. They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judean was the prominent dialect of Jerusalem and Judaea. The region of Ein Gedi spoke the Southeast Judaean dialect. Samaritan Aramaic was distinct; it ultimately merged [ʔ], [h], [ħ], and [ʕ] as a glottal stop, only maintaining [ʕ] in the initial position before the vowel [a]. Galilean Aramaic, the dialect of Jesus' home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature, and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features, including the collapse of gutturals and the maintenance of diphthongs. In the Transjordan, the various dialects of East Jordanian Aramaic were spoken. In the region of Damascus and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as Aleppo, the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken.
The three languages, especially Hebrew and Aramaic, influenced one another through loanwords and semantic loans. Hebrew words entered Jewish Aramaic. Most were mostly technical religious words, but a few were everyday words like "wood". Conversely, Aramaic words, such as māmmôn "wealth" were borrowed into Hebrew, and Hebrew words acquired additional senses from Aramaic. For instance, borrowed the sense "worthy, seemly" from Aramaic "seen, worthy".
New Testament Greek preserves some semiticisms, including transliterations of Semitic words. Some are Aramaic, like talitha (), which represents the Aramaic noun , and others may be either Hebrew or Aramaic like Rabbounei (), which means "my master/great one/teacher" in both languages. Other examples:
"Talitha kumi" (טליתא קומי)
"Ephphatha" (אתפתח)
"Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" (?אלהי, אלהי, למה שבקתני)
The 2004 film The Passion of the Christ used Aramaic for much of its dialogue, specially reconstructed by a scholar, William Fulco, S.J. Where the appropriate words (in first-century Aramaic) were no longer known, he used the Aramaic of Daniel and fourth-century Syriac and Hebrew as the basis for his work.
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Aramaic
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Middle Aramaic
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Middle Aramaic
During the Late Middle Aramaic period, spanning from 300 BCE to 200 CE, Aramaic diverged into its eastern and western branches. During this time, the nature of various Aramaic dialects began to change. The descendants of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western regional dialects started to develop significant new literatures. Unlike many dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic.
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Aramaic
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Eastern Middle Aramaic
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Eastern Middle Aramaic
The dialects of Old Eastern Aramaic continued in ancient Assyria, Babylon, and the Achaemenid Empire as written languages using various Aramaic scripts. Eastern Middle Aramaic comprises Classical Mandaic, Hatran, Jewish Babylonian Aramaic dialects, and Classical Syriac.
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Aramaic
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Syriac Aramaic
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Syriac Aramaic
thumb|9th century Syriac Estrangela manuscript of John Chrysostom's Homily on the Gospel of John
Syriac Aramaic (also "Classical Syriac") is the literary, liturgical, and often spoken language of Syriac Christianity. It originated in the first century in the region of Osroene, centered in Edessa, but its golden age was the fourth to eighth centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the Peshitta, and the masterful prose and poetry of Ephrem the Syrian. Classical Syriac became the language of Eastern Christianity and missionary activity led to the spread of Syriac from Mesopotamia and Persia, into Central Asia, India, and China.
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Aramaic
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Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
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Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
Jewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the fourth and the eleventh century. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian Talmud (which was completed in the seventh century) and of post-Talmudic Geonic literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Judaism. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of incantation bowls written in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic.
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Aramaic
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Mandaic Aramaic
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Mandaic Aramaic
Classical Mandaic, used as a liturgical language by the Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran, is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. It is the language in which the Mandaeans' gnostic religious literature was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography and does not make use of vowel diacritics.
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Aramaic
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Western Middle Aramaic
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Western Middle Aramaic
The dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with Nabataean, Jewish Palestinian (in Hebrew "square script"), Samaritan Aramaic (in the Old Hebrew script), and Christian Palestinian (in Syriac Estrangela script). Of these four, only Jewish Palestinian continued as a written language.
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Aramaic
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Samaritan Aramaic
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Samaritan Aramaic
The Samaritan Aramaic is earliest attested by the documentary tradition of the Samaritans that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century.
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Aramaic
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Aramaic in Roman Judea
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Aramaic in Roman Judea
thumb|right|Hebrew (left) and Aramaic (right) in parallel in a 1299 Hebrew Bible held by the Bodleian Library
In 135, after the Bar Kokhba revolt, many Jewish leaders, expelled from Jerusalem, moved to Galilee. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the Jerusalem Talmud (completed in the 5th century), Palestinian targumim (Jewish Aramaic versions of scripture), and midrashim (biblical commentaries and teaching). The standard vowel pointing for the Hebrew Bible, the Tiberian system (7th century), was developed by speakers of the Galilean dialect of Jewish Middle Palestinian. Classical Hebrew vocalisation, therefore, in representing the Hebrew of this period, probably reflects the contemporary pronunciation of this Aramaic dialect.
Middle Judaean Aramaic, the descendant of Old Judaean Aramaic, was no longer the dominant dialect, and was used only in southern Judaea (the variant Engedi dialect continued throughout this period). Likewise, Middle East Jordanian Aramaic continued as a minor dialect from Old East Jordanian Aramaic. The inscriptions in the synagogue at Dura-Europos are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean.
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Aramaic
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Christian Aramaic in the Levant
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Christian Aramaic in the Levant
This was the language of the Christian Melkite (Chalcedonian) community, predominantly of Jewish descent, in Palestine, Transjordan and Sinai from the 5th to the 8th century. As a liturgical language, it was used up to the 13th century. It is also been called "Melkite Aramaic", "Syro-Palestinian" and "Palestinian Syriac". The language itself comes from Old Western Aramaic, but its writing conventions were based on the Aramaic dialect of Edessa, and it was heavily influenced by Greek. For example, the name Jesus, Syriac īšū‘, is written īsūs, a transliteration of the Greek form, in Christian Palestinian.
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Aramaic
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Modern Aramaic
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Modern Aramaic
thumb|250px|right|Territorial distribution of Neo-Aramaic languages in the Near East
As the Western Aramaic dialects of the Levant have become nearly extinct in non-liturgical usage, the most prolific speakers of Neo-Aramaic languages in the 21st century are Eastern Aramaic speakers, the most numerous being the Central Neo-Aramaic and Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) speakers of Mesopotamia. This includes speakers of the Assyrian (235,000 speakers) and Chaldean (216,000 speakers) varieties of Suret, and Turoyo (112,000 to 450,000 speakers). Having largely lived in remote areas as insulated communities for over a millennium, the remaining speakers of modern Aramaic dialects, such as the Arameans of the Qalamoun Mountains, Assyrians, Mandaeans and Mizrahi Jews, escaped the linguistic pressures experienced by others during the large-scale language shifts that saw the proliferation of other tongues among those who previously did not speak them, most recently the Arabization of the Middle East and North Africa by Arabs beginning with the early Muslim conquests of the seventh century.
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Aramaic
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Modern Eastern Aramaic
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Modern Eastern Aramaic
thumb|upright=0.7|Amen in Eastern Syriac
Modern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages. There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by Assyrians, Mizrahi Jews, and Mandaeans, with mutually unintelligible variations within each of these groups.
The Christian varieties of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) are often called "Assyrian", "Chaldean" or "Eastern Syriac", and are spoken by the Assyrians in northern Iraq, northeast Syria, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran, and in the diaspora. However, they also have roots in numerous previously unwritten local Aramaic varieties and, in some cases, even contain Akkadian influences. These varieties are not purely the direct descendants of the language of Ephrem the Syrian, which was Classical Syriac.
The Judeo-Aramaic languages are now mostly spoken in Israel, and most are facing extinction. The Jewish varieties that have come from communities that once lived between Lake Urmia and Mosul are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example Urmia, Christian Assyrians and Mizrahi Jews speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic in the same place. In others, the Nineveh Plains around Mosul for example, the varieties of these two ethnicities are similar enough to allow conversation.
Modern Central Neo-Aramaic, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Northeastern Neo-Aramaic, is generally represented by Turoyo, the language of the Assyrians/Syriacs of Tur Abdin. A related Neo-Aramaic language, Mlaḥsô, has recently become extinct.
Mandaeans living in the Khuzestan province of Iran and scattered throughout Iraq, speak Neo-Mandaic. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic variety. Mandaeans number some 50,000–75,000 people, but it is believed Neo-Mandaic may now be spoken fluently by as few as 5,000 people, with other Mandaeans having varying degrees of knowledge.
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Aramaic
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Modern Western Aramaic
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Modern Western Aramaic
Very little remains of Western Aramaic. Its only remaining vernacular is Western Neo-Aramaic, which is still spoken in the Aramean villages of Maaloula and Jubb'adin on Syria's side of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, as well as by some people who migrated from these villages, to Damascus and other larger towns of Syria. Bakh'a was completely destroyed during the Syrian civil war and all the survivors fled to other parts of Syria or to Lebanon. All these speakers of modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic as well. Other Western Aramaic languages, like Jewish Palestinian Aramaic and Samaritan Aramaic, are preserved only in liturgical and literary usage.
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Aramaic
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Sample texts
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Sample texts
Matthew 2, verses 1–4, in Classical Syriac (Eastern accent), Christian Palestinian Aramaic and Suret (Swadaya):
English (KJV):[1] Now when Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king, behold, there came wise men from the east to Jerusalem,
[2] Saying, Where is he that is born King of the Jews? for we have seen his star in the east, and are come to worship him.
[3] When Herod the king had heard these things, he was troubled, and all Jerusalem with him.
[4] And when he had gathered all the chief priests and scribes of the people together, he demanded of them where Christ should be born.Classical Syriac (Eastern accent):[1] Ḵaḏ dēyn eṯīleḏ Īšōʕ b-Ḇēṯlḥem d-Īhūḏā b-yawmay Herodes malkā eṯaw mġōšē min maḏnḥā l-Ōrešlem.
[2] W-Āmrīn: Aykaw malkā d-īhūḏāyē d-eṯīleḏ? Ḥzayn gēr kawkḇēh b-maḏnḥā w-eṯayn l-mesgaḏ lēh.
[3] Šmaʕ dēyn Herodes malkā w-ettzīʕ w-ḵullāh Ōrešlem ʕammēh.
[4] W-ḵanneš ḵulhōn rabbay kāhnē w-sāprē d-ʕammā wa-mšayel-wālhōn d-aykā meṯīleḏ mšīḥā.Christian Palestinian Aramaic:[1] Ḵaḏ eṯileḏ mōro Yesūs b-Beṯlḥem d-Yuḏō b-yawmay d-Herodes malkō w-hō mġušōya min maḏnḥō eṯaw l-Irušlem.
[2] Ōmrin: Hōn hū deyn d-eṯileḏ? Ḥmaynan ger kawkḇeh b-maḏnḥō w-eṯaynan d-nesguḏ leh.
[3] W-ḵaḏ šmaʕ malkō Herodes eṯʕabaḇ w-ḵuloh Irušlem ʕameh.
[4] W-ḵaneš ḵulhun rišay koḥnōya w-soprawi d-qahlo wa-hwo mšayel lhun hōn mšiḥō meṯileḏ. Suret (Swadaya): [1] Min baṯar d-pišleh iliḏe Išo go Beṯlkham d-Ihuḏa b-yomane d-Herodes malka ṯelon mġoše min maḏnkha l-Orešlim.
[2] W-buqrehon: Eykeleh haw d-pišleh iliḏe malka d-ihuḏāye? Sabab khzelan l-kawkhḇeh b-maḏnkha w-telan d-saġdakh eleh.
[3] Iman d-šmayeleh Herodes malka aha pišleh šġhiše w-kulaha Orešlim ʔammeh.
[4] W-qraeleh kuleh gurane d-kahne w-sapre d-ʔamma w-buqrehmennay eyka bit paiš va iliḏe mšikha.
Matthew 28, verse 16, in Classical Syriac (Eastern accent), Western Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo and Suret (Swadaya):
English (KJV):[16] Then the eleven disciples went away into Galilee, into a mountain where Jesus had appointed them. Classical Syriac (Eastern accent) [16] Talmīḏē dēyn ḥḏaʕesre āzalū l-Glīlā l-ṭūrā aykā d-waʕad ennūn Īšōʕ. Western Neo-Aramaic: [16] Bes aḥḥadaʕsar tilmit̲ zallun l-Ġalila l-ṭūra ti amerlun maʕleh Yešūʕ. Turoyo: [16] Wa-ḥḏaḥsar talmiḏe azzinnewa lu Ġlilo lu ṭūro ayko d-moʕadleh Yešū. Suret (Swadaya): [16] Ina talmiḏe khadissar azzillun l-Glila l-ṭūra eyka d-bit khwaʔda ʔammeh Išo.
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Aramaic
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Phonology
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Phonology
Each dialect of Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. Some modern Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of "emphatic" consonants, and some have borrowed from the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly Arabic, Azerbaijani, Kurdish, Persian, and Turkish.
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Aramaic
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Vowels
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Vowels
Front Back Close Close-mid Open-mid () Open ()
As with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels:
Open a-vowels
Close front i-vowels
Close back u-vowels
These vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting.
The open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel ("short" a, somewhat like the first vowel in the English "batter", ). It usually has a back counterpart ("long" a, like the a in "father", , or even tending to the vowel in "caught", ), and a front counterpart ("short" e, like the vowel in "head", ). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects. There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short a and short e. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long a became the o sound. The open e and back a are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters א "alaph" (a glottal stop) or ה "he" (like the English h).
The close front vowel is the "long" i (like the vowel in "need", ). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the "long" e, as in the final vowel of "café" (). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close e corresponds with the open e in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant י y as a mater lectionis.
The close back vowel is the "long" u (like the vowel in "school", ). It has a more open counterpart, the "long" o, like the vowel in "show" (). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of these, with the short close o sometimes corresponding with the long open a. The close back vowels often use the consonant ו w to indicate their quality.
Two basic diphthongs exist: an open vowel followed by י y (ay), and an open vowel followed by ו w (aw). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to e and o respectively.
The so-called "emphatic" consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised.
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Aramaic
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Consonants
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Consonants
Labial Dental Alveolar Post-alv. / Palatal Velar Uvular / Pharyngeal Glottal plain emp. Nasal Stop voiceless voiced Fricative voiceless voiced Approximant Trill
The various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty-two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a stop and a fricative at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives:
Labial set: פּ\פ p/f and בּ\ב b/v,
Dental set: תּ\ת t/θ and דּ\ד d/ð,
Velar set: כּ\כ k/x and גּ\ג ɡ/ɣ.
Each member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is, p and f are written with the same letter), and are near allophones.
A distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of "emphatic" consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of pharyngealization and velarization. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are:
ח Ḥêṯ, a voiceless pharyngeal fricative, ,
ט Ṭêṯ, a pharyngealized t, ,
ע ʽAyin (or ʽE in some dialects), a pharyngealized glottal stop (sometimes considered to be a voiced pharyngeal approximant), or ,
צ Ṣāḏê, a pharyngealized s, ,
ק Qôp, a voiceless uvular stop, .
Ancient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics, and some Neo-Aramaic languages definitely do. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values.
Overlapping with the set of emphatics are the "guttural" consonants. They include ח Ḥêṯ and ע ʽAyn from the emphatic set, and add א ʼĀlap̄ (a glottal stop) and ה Hê (as the English "h").
Aramaic classically has a set of four sibilants (ancient Aramaic may have had six):
ס, שׂ (as in English "sea"),
ז (as in English "zero"),
שׁ (as in English "ship"),
צ (the emphatic Ṣāḏê listed above).
In addition to these sets, Aramaic has the nasal consonants מ m and נ n, and the approximants ר r (usually an alveolar trill), ל l, י y and ו w.
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Aramaic
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Historical sound changes
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Historical sound changes
Six broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials:
Vowel change occurs almost too frequently to document fully, but is a major distinctive feature of different dialects.
Plosive/fricative pair reduction. Originally, Aramaic, like Tiberian Hebrew, had fricatives as conditioned allophones for each plosive. In the wake of vowel changes, the distinction eventually became phonemic; still later, it was often lost in certain dialects. For example, Turoyo has mostly lost , using instead, like Arabic; other dialects (for instance, standard Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) have lost and and replaced them with and , as with Modern Hebrew. In most dialects of Modern Syriac, and are realized as after a vowel.
Loss of emphatics. Some dialects have replaced emphatic consonants with non-emphatic counterparts, while those spoken in the Caucasus often have glottalized rather than pharyngealized emphatics.
Guttural assimilation is the main distinctive feature of Samaritan pronunciation, also found in Samaritan Hebrew: all the gutturals are reduced to a simple glottal stop. Some Modern Aramaic dialects do not pronounce h in all words (the third person masculine pronoun hu becomes ow).
Proto-Semitic */θ/ */ð/ are reflected in Aramaic as */t/, */d/, whereas they became sibilants in Hebrew (the number three is שלוש šālôš in Hebrew but תלת tlāṯ in Aramaic, the word gold is זהב zahav in Hebrew but דהב dehav in Aramaic). Dental/sibilant shifts are still happening in the modern dialects.
New phonetic inventory. Modern dialects have borrowed sounds from the dominant surrounding languages. The most frequent borrowings are (as the first consonant in "azure"), (as in "jam"), and (as in "church"). The Syriac alphabet has been adapted for writing these new sounds.
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Aramaic
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Grammar
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Grammar
As in other Semitic languages, Aramaic morphology (the way words are formed) is based on the consonantal root. The root generally consists of two or three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, כת״ב k-t-b has the meaning of 'writing'. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning:
כתבה kṯāḇâ, handwriting, inscription, script, book.
כתבי kṯāḇê, books, the Scriptures.
כתובה kāṯûḇâ, secretary, scribe.
כתבת kiṯḇeṯ, I wrote.
אכתב eḵtûḇ, I shall write.
Nouns and adjectives
Aramaic nouns and adjectives are inflected to show gender, number and state.
Aramaic has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. The feminine absolute singular is often marked by the ending ה- -â.
Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional "dual" number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic.
Aramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states. To a certain extent, these states correspond to the role of articles and cases in the Indo-European languages:
The absolute state is the basic form of a noun. In early forms of Aramaic, the absolute state expresses indefiniteness, comparable to the English indefinite article a(n) (for example, כתבה kṯāḇâ, "a handwriting"), and can be used in most syntactic roles. However, by the Middle Aramaic period, its use for nouns (but not adjectives) had been widely replaced by the emphatic state.
The construct state is a form of the noun used to make possessive constructions (for example, כתבת מלכתא kṯāḇat' malkṯâ, "the handwriting of the queen"). In the masculine singular, the form of the construct is often the same as the absolute, but it may undergo vowel reduction in longer words. The feminine construct and masculine construct plural are marked by suffixes. Unlike a genitive case, which marks the possessor, the construct state is marked on the possessed. This is mainly due to Aramaic word order: possessed[const.] possessor[abs./emph.] are treated as a speech unit, with the first unit (possessed) employing the construct state to link it to the following word. In Middle Aramaic, the use of the construct state for all but stock phrases (like בר נשא bar nāšâ, "son of man") begins to disappear.
The emphatic or determined state is an extended form of the noun that functions similarly to the definite article. It is marked with a suffix (for example, כתבתא kṯāḇtâ, "the handwriting"). Although its original grammatical function seems to have been to mark definiteness, it is used already in Imperial Aramaic to mark all important nouns, even if they should be considered technically indefinite. This practice developed to the extent that the absolute state became extraordinarily rare in later varieties of Aramaic.
Whereas other Northwest Semitic languages, like Hebrew, have the absolute and construct states, the emphatic/determined state is a unique feature to Aramaic. Case endings, as in Ugaritic, probably existed in a very early stage of the language, and glimpses of them can be seen in a few compound proper names. However, as most of those cases were expressed by short final vowels, they were never written, and the few characteristic long vowels of the masculine plural accusative and genitive are not clearly evidenced in inscriptions. Often, the direct object is marked by a prefixed -ל l- (the preposition "to") if it is definite.
Adjectives agree with their nouns in number and gender but agree in state only if used attributively. Predicative adjectives are in the absolute state regardless of the state of their noun (a copula may or may not be written). Thus, an attributive adjective to an emphatic noun, as in the phrase "the good king", is written also in the emphatic state מלכא טבא malkâ ṭāḇâking[emph.] good[emph.]. In comparison, the predicative adjective, as in the phrase "the king is good", is written in the absolute state מלכא טב malkâ ṭāḇking[emph.] good[abs.].
"good" masc. sg. fem. sg. masc. pl. fem. pl. abs. טב ṭāḇ טבה ṭāḇâ טבין ṭāḇîn טבן ṭāḇān const. טבת ṭāḇaṯ טבי ṭāḇê טבת ṭāḇāṯ det./emph. טבא ṭāḇâ טבתא ṭāḇtâ טביא ṭāḇayyâ טבתא ṭāḇāṯâ
The final א- -â in a number of these suffixes is written with the letter aleph. However, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the letter he for the feminine absolute singular. Likewise, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the Hebrew masculine absolute singular suffix ים- -îm instead of ין- -în. The masculine determined plural suffix, יא- -ayyâ, has an alternative version, -ê. The alternative is sometimes called the "gentilic plural" for its prominent use in ethnonyms (יהודיא yəhûḏāyê, 'the Jews', for example). This alternative plural is written with the letter aleph, and came to be the only plural for nouns and adjectives of this type in Syriac and some other varieties of Aramaic. The masculine construct plural, -ê, is written with yodh. In Syriac and some other variants this ending is diphthongized to -ai.
Possessive phrases in Aramaic can either be made with the construct state or by linking two nouns with the relative particle -[ד[י d[î]-. As the use of the construct state almost disappears from the Middle Aramaic period on, the latter method became the main way of making possessive phrases.
For example, the various forms of possessive phrases (for "the handwriting of the queen") are:
כתבת מלכתא kṯāḇaṯ malkṯâ – the oldest construction, also known as סמיכות səmîḵûṯ : the possessed object (כתבה kṯābâ, "handwriting") is in the construct state (כתבת kṯāḇaṯ); the possessor (מלכה malkâ, "queen") is in the emphatic state (מלכתא malkṯâ)
כתבתא דמלכתא kṯāḇtâ d(î)-malkṯâ – both words are in the emphatic state and the relative particle -[ד[י d[î]- is used to mark the relationship
כתבתה דמלכתא kṯāḇtāh d(î)-malkṯâ – both words are in the emphatic state, and the relative particle is used, but the possessed is given an anticipatory, pronominal ending (כתבתה kṯāḇtā-h, "handwriting-her"; literally, "her writing, that (of) the queen").
In Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent.
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Aramaic
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Verbs
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Verbs
The Aramaic verb has gradually evolved in time and place, varying between varieties of the language. Verb forms are marked for person (first, second or third), number (singular or plural), gender (masculine or feminine), tense (perfect or imperfect), mood (indicative, imperative, jussive, or infinitive), and voice (active, reflexive, or passive). Aramaic also employs a system of conjugations, or verbal stems, to mark intensive and extensive developments in the lexical meaning of verbs.
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Aramaic
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Aspectual tense
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Aspectual tense
Aramaic has two proper tenses: perfect and imperfect. These were originally aspectual, but developed into something more like a preterite and future. The perfect is unmarked, while the imperfect uses various preformatives that vary according to person, number and gender. In both tenses the third-person singular masculine is the unmarked form from which others are derived by addition of afformatives (and preformatives in the imperfect). In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac.
Person & gender Perfect Imperfect Singular Plural Singular Plural 3rd m. כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ כתבו ↔ כתב(ו)\כתבון kəṯaḇû ↔ kəṯaḇ(w)/kəṯabbûn יכתוב ↔ נכתוב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ יכתבון ↔ נכתבון yiḵtəḇûn ↔ neḵtəḇûn 3rd f. כתבת kiṯbaṯ ↔ keṯbaṯ כתבת ↔ כתב(י)\כתבן kəṯaḇâ ↔ kəṯaḇ(y)/kəṯabbên תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ יכתבן ↔ נכתבן yiḵtəḇān ↔ neḵtəḇān 2nd m. כתבת kəṯaḇt ↔ kəṯaḇt כתבתון kəṯaḇtûn ↔ kəṯaḇton תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ תכתבון tiḵtəḇûn ↔ teḵtəḇûn 2nd f. (כתבתי ↔ כתבת(י kəṯaḇtî ↔ kəṯaḇt(y) כתבתן kəṯaḇtēn ↔ kəṯaḇtên תכתבין tiḵtuḇîn ↔ teḵtuḇîn תכתבן tiḵtəḇān ↔ teḵtəḇān 1st m./f. כתבת kiṯḇēṯ ↔ keṯḇeṯ כתבנא ↔ כתבן kəṯaḇnâ ↔ kəṯaḇn אכתב eḵtuḇ ↔ eḵtoḇ נכתב niḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ
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Aramaic
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Conjugations or verbal stems
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Conjugations or verbal stems
Like other Semitic languages, Aramaic employs a number of derived verb stems, to extend the lexical coverage of verbs. The basic form of the verb is called the ground stem, or G-stem. Following the tradition of mediaeval Arabic grammarians, it is more often called the Pə‘al פעל (also written Pe‘al), using the form of the Semitic root פע״ל P-‘-L, meaning "to do". This stem carries the basic lexical meaning of the verb.
By doubling of the second radical, or root letter, the D-stem or פעל Pa‘‘el is formed. This is often an intensive development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, qəṭal means "he killed", whereas qaṭṭel means "he slew". The precise relationship in meaning between the two stems differs for every verb.
A preformative, which can be -ה ha-, -א a-, or -ש ša-, creates the C-stem or variously the Hap̄‘el, Ap̄‘el or Šap̄‘el (also spelt הפעל Haph‘el, אפעל Aph‘el, and שפעל Shaph‘el). This is often an extensive or causative development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, טעה ṭə‘â means "he went astray", whereas אטעי aṭ‘î means "he deceived". The Šap̄‘el שפעל is the least common variant of the C-stem. Because this variant is standard in Akkadian, it is possible that its use in Aramaic represents loanwords from that language. The difference between the variants הפעל Hap̄‘el and אפעל Ap̄‘el appears to be the gradual dropping of the initial ה h sound in later Old Aramaic. This is noted by the respelling of the older he preformative with א aleph.
These three conjugations are supplemented with three further derived stems, produced by the preformative -הת hiṯ- or -את eṯ-. The loss of the initial ה h sound occurs similarly to that in the form above. These three derived stems are the Gt-stem, התפעל Hiṯpə‘el or אתפעל Eṯpə‘el (also written Hithpe‘el or Ethpe‘el), the Dt-stem, התפעּל Hiṯpa‘‘al or אתפעּל Eṯpa‘‘al (also written Hithpa‘‘al or Ethpa‘‘al), and the Ct-stem, התהפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al, אתּפעל Ettap̄‘al, השתפעל Hištap̄‘al or אשתפעל Eštap̄‘al (also written Hithhaph‘al, Ettaph‘al, Hishtaph‘al, or Eshtaph‘al). Their meaning is usually reflexive, but later became passive. However, as with other stems, actual meaning differs from verb to verb.
Not all verbs use all of these conjugations, and, in some, the G-stem is not used. In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac.
Stem Perfect active Imperfect active Perfect passive Imperfect passive פעל Pə‘al (G-stem) כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ יכתב ↔ נכתב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ כתיב kəṯîḇ התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpə‘ēl/Eṯpə‘el (Gt-stem) התכתב ↔ אתכתב hiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ eṯkəṯeḇ יתכתב ↔ נתכתב yiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ neṯkəṯeḇ פעּל Pa‘‘ēl/Pa‘‘el (D-stem) כתּב kattēḇ ↔ katteḇ יכתּב ↔ נכתּב yəḵattēḇ ↔ nəkatteḇ כֻתּב kuttaḇ התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpa‘‘al/Eṯpa‘‘al (Dt-stem) התכתּב ↔ אתכתּב hiṯkəttēḇ ↔ eṯkətteḇ יתכתּב ↔ נתכתּב yiṯkəttēḇ ↔ neṯkətteḇ הפעל\אפעל Hap̄‘ēl/Ap̄‘el (C-stem) הכתב ↔ אכתב haḵtēḇ ↔ aḵteḇ יהכתב↔ נכתב yəhaḵtēḇ ↔ naḵteḇ הֻכתב huḵtaḇ התהפעל\אתּפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al/Ettap̄‘al (Ct-stem) התהכתב ↔ אתּכתב hiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ ettaḵtaḇ יתהכתב ↔ נתּכתב yiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ nettaḵtaḇ
In Imperial Aramaic, the participle began to be used for a historical present. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an auxiliary verb), allowing for narrative that is more vivid. Aramaic syntax usually follows the order verb–subject–object (VSO). Imperial (Persian) Aramaic, however, tended to follow a S-O-V pattern (similar to Akkadian), which was the result of Persian syntactic influence.
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Aramaic
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See also
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See also
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Aramaic
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References
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References
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