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Smashing Frank | Cast | Cast
Hedwig Tam as Ayla, an ex-convict and the leader of the heist crew Frank
Locker Lam as Hugo, Ayla's boyfriend and loyal accomplice
Kaki Sham as Chun, a truck driver enlisted as Frank's getaway driver
Renci Yeung as Chelsea, a high-class escort and Chun's former partner-in-crime
Ben Yuen as Ho Ka-wang, a billionaire and head of Unity Haven Church which he uses as a front for bribery, money laundering, and human trafficking
Also appearing in the film are Yeung Wai Lun as Father Tang, the priest at Unity Haven Church; Henry Chan as K, Ho's hitman; as Hui Chi-man, Ho's business partner; and Kaying Wong as Ying, a staff member at the currency exchange who ultimately becomes a supporter of Frank. |
Smashing Frank | Production | Production |
Smashing Frank | Conception | Conception
In 2018, Trevor Choi quit his job at a bank and returned to Hong Kong from Canada to pursue a career in filmmaking, and attended a filmmaking course hosted by the Hong Kong Film Directors' Guild and taught by Fruit Chan that same year. During the course, Choi worked on an assignment which later evolved into Smashing Frank, with Chan mentoring him on the writing process. The screenplay was completed in early 2019, prior to the 2019–2020 Hong Kong protests. Choi described it as a heist film, a genre that is rare in Hong Kong cinema, and compared it to the American films Ocean's Eleven (2001) and Baby Driver (2017). He also incorporated social themes to the story, such as exploring wealth disparity. Choi aimed to venture into a new genre beyond the typical buddy cop or police films in Hong Kong, drawing inspiration from Fruit Chan's New Wave film Made in Hong Kong (1998). He named the film and the titular heist crew "Frank" as a tribute to Leonardo DiCaprio's character Frank Abagnale in Catch Me If You Can (2002). In 2019, Choi submitted the screenplay to the First Feature Film Initiative but was rejected. He turned to the Hong Kong-Asia Film Financing Forum, presenting the project in 2020, but it still did not attract any investment.
In April 2021, Choi co-founded the YouTube sketch video channel with fellow filmmaker Ivan Lo, actor Will Or, and businessman Jason Pun, aiming to provide a platform for young directors and actors to produce their own short films. In April 2022, the channel celebrated its one-year anniversary by launching a crowdfunding campaign to produce their first feature film, aiming to raise HK$2.5 million within 35 days, with a planned release in June 2023. The film marks the first Hong Kong film to be produced through crowdfunding,Multiple sources: and was set to be directed by Trevor Choi and produced by Fruit Chan, featuring lead roles for Hanna Chan, , , and . The crowdfunding campaign was hosted on Kickstarter, with three tiers for backers contributing HK$160, 300, and 600, respectively. A concept trailer was released also on 20 April, coinciding with the campaign launch, featuring cameo appearances by filmmaker Tin Kai-man and YouTubers from Trial & Error, , and . Chan, Kwok, Tai, and Kung played a SFX makeup artist, a part-time girlfriend, a medical student, and a hacker, respectively, forming a heist crew targeting the wealthy. Choi explained that he aimed to distance the film's tone from the protests and the pandemic, presenting only a metaphor open to audience interpretation. Choi was inspired to use crowdfunding by the American film Shelby Oaks (2024) by YouTuber Chris Stuckmann and the unproduced Hong Kong film , although the latter did not succeed due to a significant funding gap. He analyzed the failure of The Young, The Old, and The Rich as stemming from its ambitious goal of HK$10 million, leading him to set a more achievable crowdfunding target of HK$2.5 million against an expected total budget of HK$4.5 million, intending to use the crowdfunding funds as start-up fund to expand the project. The campaign raised over HK$1.56 million with more than 1,900 backers by mid-May, and reached its goal within the same month. After the crowdfunding campaign ended in May, the production team spent the following three months seeking investors to cover the remaining budget. |
Smashing Frank | Creative shifts and filming | Creative shifts and filming
Although the film was initially scheduled for a June 2023 release, it faced significant delays, and the production team did not provide updates on Kickstarter to backers, citing "confidentiality agreements with other involved parties". In April 2023, 16:9 informed backers that the film would undergo a complete cast change, introducing Hedwig Tam, Locker Lam, Kaki Sham, and Renci Yeung as the new main cast, and Fruit Chan also exited the project. The four actors all won their parts through auditions. The production team also did not explain the creative overhaul to the backers, causing some backers to express dissatisfaction with the casting changes, and prompted the production team to announce the option for backers to request refunds. Choi later clarified in an interview with Ming Pao that Hanna Chan and Alma Kwok were only involved for filming the promotional teaser and had not confirmed their casting, and both actresses decided to withdraw after the crowdfunding campaign ended. While Fruit Chan was still actively involved, providing advice one week prior to filming, the limited budget prevented the production team from affording him a producer credit. The table-read and filming were announced to take place in May and June respectively.
Principal photography began on 23 June 2023 in Kwun Tong, with Ben Yuen, Henry Chan, Kaying Wong, and joining the cast. Filming wrapped in late August. Ming Pao reported that the production team still lacked updates even after filming commenced, and resulted in a two-year delay in post-production. In March 2024, the film was presented at the Hong Kong Filmart, and its first trailer was released on 5 March 2025. |
Smashing Frank | Release | Release
Smashing Frank had its premiere on 20 March 2025, followed by a theatrical release in Hong Kong on 17 April. The film is set to screen at the 24th New York Asian Film Festival. |
Smashing Frank | Reception | Reception
Edmund Lee of the South China Morning Post gave Smashing Frank 3/5 stars, calling it "a portrait of disaffected youth" that reflects the growing generational conflict and wealth gap in Hong Kong through its "morally conflicted protagonists", while praising Hedwig Tam's "ambivalent characterisation" and charismatic lead but noting that the thematic depth is somewhat muddled and fails to convey a clear message. |
Smashing Frank | References | References |
Smashing Frank | External links | External links
Category:2025 films
Category:Hong Kong heist films
Category:2020s Hong Kong films
Category:2020s Cantonese-language films
Category:Films set in Hong Kong
Category:Films shot in Hong Kong
Category:Kickstarter-funded films |
Smashing Frank | Table of Content | Short description, Plot, Cast, Production, Conception, Creative shifts and filming, Release, Reception, References, External links |
File:Peter Frederick Bronfman.png | Orphaned non-free revisions | |
File:Peter Frederick Bronfman.png | Summary | Summary |
File:Peter Frederick Bronfman.png | Licensing | Licensing |
File:Peter Frederick Bronfman.png | Table of Content | Orphaned non-free revisions, Summary, Licensing |
Draft:Before I Wake (soundtrack) | Draft topics | Before I Wake (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) is the film score to the 2016 film Before I Wake directed by Mike Flanagan. The original themes were provided by Danny Elfman, who also composed additional music, while the score was composed by the Newton Brothers. It was released under the Varèse Sarabande label on January 26, 2018. |
Draft:Before I Wake (soundtrack) | Background | Background
Danny Elfman composed the themes for the film, while also providing additional music for few of the cues. The original score was composed by the Newton Brothers, who developed on the themes curated by Elfman. They worked on the film for around three years since 2014. The duo noted that working with Elfman was a fun-filled experience, with Elfman having a collection of instruments that gave them inspiration for providing numerous ideas. |
Draft:Before I Wake (soundtrack) | Release | Release
The soundtrack was released through Varèse Sarabande on January 26, 2018, three weeks after the film's Netflix release. Additionally, the album was pressed into a limited-edition of 1000 copies through physical release. |
Draft:Before I Wake (soundtrack) | Reception | Reception
Filmtracks wrote "Elfman in top dramatic form and The Newton Brothers showing glimpses of hope amongst their nightmare of stock horror techniques." Brian Tallerico of RogerEbert.com called it as a "great score". Courtney Howard of Fresh Fiction described it an "enticing, complementary score from the Newton Brothers and Danny Elfman" Sharai Bohannon of Dread Central noted that Elfman's and the duo's score breathes life into this film. Noel Murray of The Verge wrote "the score by Danny Elfman and the Newton Brothers effectively manipulates the audience, enhancing the magical qualities of Cody’s gifts before driving home the sting." The New Indian Express called it an "understated score". |
Draft:Before I Wake (soundtrack) | Track listing | Track listing |
Draft:Before I Wake (soundtrack) | Personnel | Personnel
Credits adapted from liner notes:
Original themes and additional music composed by – Danny Elfman
Original score composed by – The Newton Brothers
Recording and mixing – Matt Ward
Score editor – Jeff Carson, Jim Harrison
Score coordinator – Becca Nelson
Executive producer – Robert Townson
Music supervisor – Dave Curtin
Musical assistance – Wyatt Baer
Associate producer – James Gibb
Copyist – Ryan Whyman
Orchestra and choir – F.A.M.E.S. Macedonian Symphony Orchestra
Orchestration – Jason Turbin, Steve Bartek
Music business and legal affairs – Charles M. Barsamian
Music clearance and licensing – Chris Piccaro
Music services – Cutting Edge
Piano – George Ramirez, The Newton Brothers
Electric cello, clarinet, bass guitar, e-bow, glockenspiel – The Newton Brothers
Solo violin – Sandy Cameron
Vocals – Sunna Wehrmeijer |
Draft:Before I Wake (soundtrack) | References | References |
Draft:Before I Wake (soundtrack) | Table of Content | Draft topics, Background, Release, Reception, Track listing, Personnel, References |
Category:West Texas A&M Buffaloes track and field athletes | [[Category:College men's track and field athletes in the United States]] | Category:College men's track and field athletes in the United States
Athletes, men
Track and field, men |
Category:West Texas A&M Buffaloes track and field athletes | Table of Content | [[Category:College men's track and field athletes in the United States]] |
File:SmashingFrankPoster.jpg | Orphaned non-free revisions | |
File:SmashingFrankPoster.jpg | Summary | Summary |
File:SmashingFrankPoster.jpg | Licensing | Licensing |
File:SmashingFrankPoster.jpg | Table of Content | Orphaned non-free revisions, Summary, Licensing |
Mullet boat | Short description | Mullet boats are small, basic fishing vessels often used by inshore fishers. The boats are often 20-25 ft in length and have flat bottoms allowing for shallow-water navigation. From the back of the boat, nets such as seines can be deployed and retrieved to haul in catch. Originally developed to support mullet fishers in the Auckland, New Zealand area in the late 1800s, the boats have expanded in purpose, and are now used to catch multiple species and even as pleasure craft. |
Mullet boat | References | References
Category:Boats |
Mullet boat | Table of Content | Short description, References |
File:TMBG TheStatueGotMeHigh.jpg | Orphaned non-free revisions | |
File:TMBG TheStatueGotMeHigh.jpg | Summary | Summary |
File:TMBG TheStatueGotMeHigh.jpg | Licensing | Licensing |
File:TMBG TheStatueGotMeHigh.jpg | Table of Content | Orphaned non-free revisions, Summary, Licensing |
Draft:NIVIRO | AfC submission/draft | {{Infobox musical artist
| name = NIVIRO
| birth_name = Tim Peeter
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Antwerp, Belgium
| occupation =
| origin = Belgium
| genre =
| label =
Tim Peeters, mostly known by his moniker NIVIRO, is a Belgian DJ and electronic music producer from Antwerp. He is best known for his songs "The ghost" released on NCS in 26th March 2017. |
Draft:NIVIRO | Table of Content | AfC submission/draft |
Category:Wikipedia sockpuppets of 7n3 | Sockpuppet category | |
Category:Wikipedia sockpuppets of 7n3 | Table of Content | Sockpuppet category |
File:Movement for the Intellectually Disabled of Singapore logo.png | Summary | Summary |
File:Movement for the Intellectually Disabled of Singapore logo.png | Licensing | Licensing
Category:Singaporean logos |
File:Movement for the Intellectually Disabled of Singapore logo.png | Table of Content | Summary, Licensing |
Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord | The | The Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord is an agreement signed in 1985 between the Government of Canada and the Government of Nova Scotia to manage offshore oil and gas resources adjacent to Nova Scotia. |
Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord | Background | Background
In 1979, oil was first discovered off the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador.
The Pierre Trudeau government proposed that "Newfoundland should enjoy the major share of the revenue that offshore resources are expected to generate" in 1983. |
Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord | Implementation | Implementation
The agreement established the Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Board (CNSOPB).
In 2005, the federal and provincial governments signed an agreement to amend the Accord legislation.
In 2007, the federal government reneged on the agreement, under Stephen Harper through changes made to the equalization payments. A federal Nova Scotial MP was forced to leave the Conservative caucus for voting against the budget bill which made these changes to the federal legislation for the accord.
In 2023, the federal government and the provincial government announced changes to the agreement, which would mean that offshore renewable energy would fall under the agreement. The amendments to the federal legislation were mde under Bill C-49 which received royal assent in October 2024. The legislation changed the name of the petroleum board to Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Energy Regulator. |
Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord | References | References |
Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord | External links | External links
Text of the 1986 accord
Category:Energy treaties
Category:Treaties of Canada
Category:Petroleum industry in Atlantic Canada
Category:Petroleum industry in Canada
Category:Treaties concluded in 2005
Category:Politics of Nova Scotia
Category:Canadian federal legislation
Category:Nova Scotia provincial legislation
Category:Environmental legislation |
Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord | Table of Content | The, Background, Implementation, References, External links |
Draft:Untitled (app) | '''[untitled]''' | [untitled]https://djmag.com/news/new-app-untitled-launched-help-producers-share-and-organise-unreleased-music-securely
https://www.axios.com/pro/media-deals/2022/09/21/untitled-music-collaboration-raise |
Draft:Untitled (app) | References | References |
Draft:Untitled (app) | Table of Content | '''[untitled]''', References |
File:Nolan Miller.jpg | Summary | Summary |
File:Nolan Miller.jpg | Licensing | Licensing |
File:Nolan Miller.jpg | Table of Content | Summary, Licensing |
File:1951 Stetson Hatters football team.jpg | Summary | Summary |
File:1951 Stetson Hatters football team.jpg | {{int:filedesc}} | |
File:1951 Stetson Hatters football team.jpg | Licensing | Licensing |
File:1951 Stetson Hatters football team.jpg | Table of Content | Summary, {{int:filedesc}}, Licensing |
Atlantic Accord | '''Atlantic Accord''' | Atlantic Accord may refer to
Canada-Newfoundland and Labrador Atlantic Accord
Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord |
Atlantic Accord | Table of Content | '''Atlantic Accord''' |
Chiara Biondini | short description | Chiara Teixeira Biondini (born 22 February 2002) is a Brazilian politician serving as a member of the Legislative Assembly of Minas Gerais since 2023. She is the daughter of Eros Biondini. |
Chiara Biondini | References | References
Category:2002 births
Category:Living people
Category:Progressistas politicians
Category:Members of the Legislative Assembly of Minas Gerais
Category:Women legislators
Category:21st-century Brazilian women politicians |
Chiara Biondini | Table of Content | short description, References |
File:United Cerebral Palsy logo.png | Orphaned non-free revisions | |
File:United Cerebral Palsy logo.png | Summary | Summary |
File:United Cerebral Palsy logo.png | Licensing | Licensing |
File:United Cerebral Palsy logo.png | Table of Content | Orphaned non-free revisions, Summary, Licensing |
Draft:Parallel trends | Short description | Parallel trends assumption (also known as the common trends or parallel paths assumption) is a key identifying assumption in causal inference, especially in the context of the difference-in-differences (DiD) research design in econometrics. It posits that, in the absence of a treatment or intervention, the difference between the outcomes for a "treatment group" and a "control group" would remain constant over time—in other words, the two groups would have followed parallel outcome trajectories if no treatment had occurred.Angrist, Joshua D., and Jörn-Steffen Pischke. (2008). Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist’s Companion. Princeton University Press.
thumb|Illustration of the parallel trends assumption in difference-in-differences.
This assumption allows researchers to use changes in the untreated group as an estimate of the counterfactual changes that would have occurred in the treated group, thereby isolating the treatment’s effect.Bertrand, Marianne; Duflo, Esther; & Mullainathan, Sendhil (2004). “How Much Should We Trust Differences-in-Differences Estimates?” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 119(1): 249–275.
The parallel trends assumption is fundamental to the validity of DiD analyses and is widely used in program evaluation, policy analysis, and other observational studies to draw causal conclusions when randomized experiments are not feasible. However, it is inherently unobservable (as it concerns a counterfactual scenario) and has important limitations and critiques. |
Draft:Parallel trends | Historical development in difference-in-differences | Historical development in difference-in-differences
The concept of parallel trends emerged alongside the development of the difference-in-differences (DiD) methodology in econometrics. Early applications of DiD reasoning can be traced back to 19th-century analyses—for instance, John Snow’s 1855 study on cholera has been cited as a proto-DiD example.Cunningham, Scott. (2021). Causal Inference: The Mixtape. Yale University Press. However, the formal econometric framework gained prominence in the late 20th century.
In the 1970s and 1980s, labor economists evaluating employment programs began to use DiD-like approaches. Orley Ashenfelter (1978) noted a systematic dip in earnings for participants just before they entered job training programs.Ashenfelter, Orley (1978). “Estimating the Effect of Training Programs on Earnings.” The Review of Economics and Statistics, 60(1): 47–57.
This phenomenon—later known as Ashenfelter’s dip—highlighted that participants and non-participants had different pre-treatment trends, foreshadowing the importance of a parallel trends assumption.
In 1989, James Heckman and V. Joseph Hotz emphasized the need for specification tests in nonexperimental evaluations, effectively suggesting that researchers examine pre-treatment outcome trends for treatment and control groups as a diagnostic check.Heckman & Hotz (1989) Their work was a response to earlier skepticism about nonrandomized evaluations, such as Robert LaLonde's 1986 critique, and helped crystallize the idea that one should justify any DiD strategy by arguing that, absent the intervention, the groups would have evolved similarly.
The parallel trends assumption became more widely recognized with the influential study of David Card and Alan Krueger (1994), who used a DiD design to analyze the employment effect of a minimum wage increase. The credibility of their findings—that the policy did not reduce employment—rested on the assumption that, in the absence of the minimum wage change, employment trends in New Jersey (the treatment state) would have been similar to those in Pennsylvania (the control state).
Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, applied researchers increasingly adopted DiD methods, often explicitly discussing the parallel trends assumption as a key condition for causal interpretation. By the time textbooks like Mostly Harmless Econometrics (Angrist & Pischke, 2008) were published, the parallel trends (or "common trends") assumption was enshrined as one of the core assumptions underlying DiD and was routinely taught as such. It continues to be a cornerstone of causal inference pedagogy and practice, while ongoing research refines and critiques its use. |
Draft:Parallel trends | Formal definition of the assumption | Formal definition of the assumption
In a canonical two-period, two-group difference-in-differences (DiD) setup, let there be a treatment group (T) and a control group (C). Denote by Yg,t the average outcome for group g ∈ {T, C} at time t ∈ {0, 1}, where t = 0 is a pre-treatment period and t = 1 is a post-treatment period (with the treatment applied to group T at t = 1). The parallel trends assumption formally states that the change in outcomes over time would have been the same for the treatment and control groups in the absence of treatment.<Greene, William H. (2018). Econometric Analysis, 8th ed. Pearson.
In terms of potential outcomes, this can be written as:
where Yg,t(0) denotes the outcome for group g at time t under no treatment. This states that the expected change from t = 0 to t = 1 for the treated group (if untreated) equals the actual change for the control group. Equivalently, the difference in outcomes between the groups would have remained constant from pre- to post-treatment in the absence of intervention.Greene, William H. (2018). Econometric Analysis, 8th ed. Pearson.
Under a typical DiD regression model specification, the assumption implies no interaction between group and time effects aside from the treatment itself. Consider the model:
Here, yit is the outcome for individual i at time t, Treatmenti is a treatment indicator, Postt indicates post-treatment, and δ is the DiD estimator. The assumption entails that in the absence of treatment (δ = 0), the time trend is fully captured by γ Postt, implying no group-specific time shocks. If this holds, δ estimates the causal effect of the treatment. Otherwise, δ is biased by differential trends.
Importantly, the assumption concerns the trajectory of untreated potential outcomes—not outcome levels. It allows groups to differ in baseline outcomes, as long as trends are similar. Graphically, the groups may differ in level but move in parallel. This distinction enables DiD to account for baseline differences by differencing them out, provided these differences are stable.Revisiting the Difference-in-Differences Parallel Trends Assumption - World Bank |
Draft:Parallel trends | Role and relevance in causal inference | Role and relevance in causal inference
The parallel trends assumption is central to identification of causal effects in DiD and other quasi-experimental designs. In observational studies, where treatment is not randomly assigned, causal claims require strong assumptions. Parallel trends helps control for time-varying confounders that affect both groups equally, such as macroeconomic conditions or seasonality.
If the assumption holds, changes in the control group approximate the counterfactual evolution of the treated group. Subtracting control changes from treated changes removes common trends and isolates the treatment effect. Hence, the name difference-in-differences.
In essence, the untreated group acts as a proxy for the treated group’s counterfactual trajectory.Revisiting the Difference-in-Differences Parallel Trends Assumption - World Bank This is why the assumption is sometimes paraphrased as: "the control group provides the correct counterfactual for the treatment group."Chapter 18 - Difference-in-Differences | The Effect
The credibility of a DiD study hinges on the plausibility of parallel trends. Researchers enhance credibility by choosing comparable control groups or using matching methods to align pre-treatment trends. When the assumption is plausible, DiD is a powerful tool; when it fails, results may be misleading. |
Draft:Parallel trends | Assessing the plausibility of parallel trends | Assessing the plausibility of parallel trends
A critical challenge with the parallel trends assumption is that it cannot be directly tested, as it pertains to an unobservable counterfactual scenario—the trajectory the treated group would have taken without treatment.No statistical test can definitively confirm this assumption, since we never observe both “treatment” and “no treatment” outcomes for the same unit in the same period. Nevertheless, researchers employ several strategies to assess its plausibility and build a case for its validity in applied studies. These provide suggestive evidence, not proof.Angrist, Joshua D., and Jörn-Steffen Pischke. (2008). Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist’s Companion. Princeton University Press.
1. Pre-treatment trend analysis: If data include multiple time series observations prior to the intervention, one can examine whether the treatment and control groups followed similar trends. A standard approach is to plot group averages over time and visually inspect whether trends were approximately parallel before treatment. Parallel movement before the intervention increases confidence that the groups would have evolved similarly without treatment.Cunningham, Scott. (2021). Causal Inference: The Mixtape. Yale University Press. Alternatively, researchers use event study regressions (leads and lags models), interacting group indicators with time dummies. Statistically insignificant pre-treatment interaction terms suggest no differential pre-trends, supporting the assumption.For example, Melissa Kearney and Phillip Levine (2015), in their study of MTV’s 16 and Pregnant and teen birth rates, showed indistinguishable trends pre-treatment between comparison groups.Revisiting the Parallel Trends Assumption - World Bank
2. Placebo or falsification tests: Researchers may run placebo DiD tests in time periods or with outcomes where no true treatment effect should exist. For instance, re-estimating DiD with pre-treatment data only, pretending treatment occurred earlier, helps detect spurious “effects” caused by pre-existing group differences. Detecting an effect in such placebo settings casts doubt on the assumption.Wooldridge, Jeffrey M. (2020). Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach, 7th ed. Cengage Learning. Another variant involves testing outcomes not plausibly affected by treatment. Any apparent treatment effect in these outcomes may signal violation of parallel trends.
3. Matching and covariate adjustment: Researchers often use matching methods or covariate adjustment to improve similarity between groups. Matching on baseline covariates and pre-treatment outcomes increases the likelihood of parallel counterfactual trends. Common strategies include propensity score matching or restricting samples to similar units. Basu and Small (2020) show that combining matching with DiD can reduce bias when strict parallel trends are implausible. Including group-specific time trends in regressions can help adjust for systematic differences, though it changes the identifying assumption.
4. External information and theory: Substantive context may support parallel trends. If groups were similarly exposed to macroeconomic forces or lacked differential access to other interventions, one might argue for parallelism. For example, stable regional income gaps under shared national business cycles might justify the assumption. Conversely, divergent economic conditions undermine it. Researchers often complement statistical diagnostics with qualitative justification.
It is important to emphasize that passing a pre-trend check or placebo test does not guarantee validity.Angrist, Joshua D., and Jörn-Steffen Pischke. (2008). Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist’s Companion. Princeton University Press. Absence of evidence against parallel trends is reassuring, but statistical power may be insufficient to detect subtle violations. Minor pre-treatment differences do not always invalidate findings, especially if they can be theoretically or empirically addressed.Revisiting the Parallel Trends Assumption - World Bank Ultimately, evaluating the assumption requires a blend of empirical testing and context-specific reasoning. |
Draft:Parallel trends | Evidence from applied research | Evidence from applied research
Applied research provides examples both supporting and challenging the parallel trends assumption. In practice, most difference-in-differences (DiD) studies present evidence on pre-treatment trends as part of their credibility checks. For instance, Melissa Kearney and Phillip Levine (2015) found no significant difference in pre-intervention trends in teen pregnancy rates between areas with high and low MTV viewership, supporting the claim that divergence post-intervention was due to the program 16 and Pregnant.Revisiting the Parallel Trends Assumption - World Bank Many other studies report null pre-trend tests or visually parallel pre-treatment graphs, which have become standard components in DiD empirical work.
There are also notable cases documenting violations. Orley Ashenfelter’s (1978) study of job training programs revealed that earnings of participants were already falling relative to non-participants before the program—a phenomenon known as Ashenfelter’s dipAshenfelter, Orley (1978). “Estimating the Effect of Training Programs on Earnings.” The Review of Economics and Statistics, 60(1): 47–57.
This invalidates a naive DiD comparison, as the assumption of parallel pre-treatment trends is violated. Researchers now address such issues by using longer panels and flexible specifications (e.g., individual fixed effects and time trends).
A re-analysis of Kearney and Levine’s work by David Jaeger, Ted Joyce, and Robert Kaestner (2019) questioned the parallel trends assumption once longer-term trends and demographic differences (e.g., unemployment, racial composition) were controlled for. They found that once adjusted, the estimated effect of the show disappeared, challenging the original DiD interpretation.Revisiting the Parallel Trends Assumption - World Bank Their critique, and Kearney and Levine’s response, illustrate how DiD results can hinge on the assumption’s validity.
More broadly, applied studies find that the assumption is more credible when treatment and control groups come from similar populations and settings. Using neighboring regions or matching units based on observable characteristics tends to improve credibility.Revisiting the Parallel Trends Assumption - World Bank Simulation studies (e.g., Ryan et al. 2018) show that methods like matched DiD outperform standard DiD when differential trends are present.
The growing econometric literature now includes methods to test, adjust for, or relax parallel trends. Jonathan Roth (2020) and Kahn-Lang and Lang (2019) caution against over-relying on pre-trend tests, emphasizing that failing to reject a difference does not confirm equivalence. Synthetic control methods create weighted control groups with exact pre-trend matches, addressing some violations but relying on other assumptions. New DiD estimators for multiple time periods and staggered adoption (e.g., Callaway and Sant’Anna 2021) allow for varying trends and offer more flexibility. |
Draft:Parallel trends | Criticisms and limitations | Criticisms and limitations
The parallel trends assumption, while foundational, faces several critiques:
Untestability and counterfactual nature: The assumption concerns an unobserved counterfactual and cannot be verified directly from data. As Kahn-Lang and Lang (2019) stress, failing to reject pre-trend differences does not prove equivalence in the post-treatment counterfactual.Revisiting the Parallel Trends Assumption - World Bank
Violations due to omitted variables: If one group is affected by an external shock or policy unrelated to the treatment, outcomes will diverge for reasons other than treatment. This is often called the Achilles' heel of DiD designs.
Selection biased and changing composition: If group membership changes over time, or units select into treatment based on anticipated trends, the assumption may fail. Ashenfelter’s dip exemplifies this, and researchers must account for such selection dynamics.
Heterogeneous trends and functional form issues: Whether trends are parallel can depend on the functional form of the outcome variable (e.g., levels vs. logs). Researchers must justify their modeling choices and consider transformations with care.Revisiting the Parallel Trends Assumption - World Bank
Recent methodological critiques: Roth (2022) and others highlight that common DiD estimators may yield biased estimates when effects vary over time or across groups. Two-way fixed effects DiD models can be especially problematic in staggered treatment designs. This has led to newer estimators with more transparent assumptions and diagnostic tools.What's trending in difference-in-differences?
These limitations reinforce the importance of careful design, sensitivity checks, and methodological transparency in DiD applications. |
Draft:Parallel trends | Selected references | Selected references
Ashenfelter, Orley (1978). “Estimating the Effect of Training Programs on Earnings.” The Review of Economics and Statistics, 60(1): 47–57. Origin of the term Ashenfelter’s dip, documenting pre-treatment earnings declines for trainees.Ashenfelter, Orley (1978). “Estimating the Effect of Training Programs on Earnings.” The Review of Economics and Statistics, 60(1): 47–57.
Card, David & Krueger, Alan B. (1994). “Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast-Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania.” American Economic Review, 84(4): 772–793. Classic application of DiD in labor economics.
Heckman, James J. & Hotz, V. Joseph (1989). “Choosing Among Alternative Nonexperimental Methods for Estimating the Impact of Social Programs: The Case of Manpower Training.” Journal of the American Statistical Association, 84(408): 862–874. Early discussion of specification tests for program evaluation, including pre-trend checks.Heckman & Hotz (1989)
Angrist, Joshua D. & Pischke, Jörn-Steffen (2008). Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist’s Companion. Princeton University Press. Textbook treatment of DiD and the parallel trends assumption.
Cunningham, Scott (2021). Causal Inference: The Mixtape. Yale University Press. Applied guide to causal inference methods including difference-in-differences and event studies.
Greene, William H. (2018). Econometric Analysis. 8th ed. Pearson. Advanced graduate-level treatment of econometric models, including fixed effects and DiD estimators.
Wooldridge, Jeffrey M. (2020). Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach. 7th ed. Cengage Learning. Widely used undergraduate/graduate textbook covering DiD within panel data methods.
Bertrand, Marianne; Duflo, Esther; & Mullainathan, Sendhil (2004). “How Much Should We Trust Differences-in-Differences Estimates?” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 119(1): 249–275. Discusses pitfalls of DiD, including serial correlation and Ashenfelter’s dip.
Kearney, Melissa S. & Levine, Phillip B. (2015). “Media Influences on Social Outcomes: The Impact of MTV’s 16 and Pregnant on Teen Childbearing.” American Economic Review, 105(12): 3597–3632. Applied DiD study testing parallel pre-trends in a natural experiment context.Revisiting the Parallel Trends Assumption - World Bank
Jaeger, David A.; Joyce, Ted; & Kaestner, Robert (2019). “A Cautionary Tale of Evaluating Identifying Assumptions: Did Reality TV Really Cause a Decline in Teenage Childbearing?” Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, 37(3): 443–454. Re-analysis questioning the parallel trends assumption in the Kearney & Levine study.Revisiting the Parallel Trends Assumption - World Bank
Kahn-Lang, Ariella & Lang, Kevin (2019). “The Promise and Pitfalls of Differences-in-Differences: Reflections on 16 and Pregnant and Other Applications.” Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, 37(3): 414–421. General discussion warning against misinterpretation of pre-trend tests.Revisiting the Parallel Trends Assumption - World Bank
Roth, Jonathan (2022). “Pre-test with Caution: Event-Study Estimates After Testing for Parallel Trends.” American Economic Review, 112(5): 1698–1731. Methodological critique of testing for parallel trends and inference consequences.Revisiting the Parallel Trends Assumption - World Bank
Callaway, Brantly & Sant’Anna, Pedro H.C. (2021). “Difference-in-Differences with Multiple Time Periods.” Journal of Econometrics, 225(2): 200–230. Develops DiD estimators for staggered treatments; modifies the assumption for multiple cohorts.
Basu, Pallavi & Small, Dylan (2020). “Constructing a More Closely Matched Control Group in a Difference-in-Differences Analysis: Its Effect on Bias.” Observational Studies, 6: 103–130. Shows matching can improve DiD validity by achieving more parallel trends. |
Draft:Parallel trends | References | References |
Draft:Parallel trends | Table of Content | Short description, Historical development in difference-in-differences, Formal definition of the assumption, Role and relevance in causal inference, Assessing the plausibility of parallel trends, Evidence from applied research, Criticisms and limitations, Selected references, References |
Heliconius erato phyllis | Subspeciesbox
| Heliconius erato phyllis (Fabricius, 1775) is a subspecies or geographical race of Heliconius erato that occurs in Brazil (south of the Amazon Basin, Atlantic coastal forest and Mato Grosso), Paraguay, Uruguay, northern Argentina and Bolivia. It has the largest range of any H. erato subspecies Rosser, N., Phillimore, A. B., Huertas, B., Willmott, K. R., & Mallet, J. (2012). Testing historical explanations for gradients in species richness in heliconiine butterflies of tropical America. Biological journal of the linnean society, 105(3), 479-497..
There are two very similar, sympatric Heliconius species with which H. erato phyllis may be confused: Heliconius besckei (Ménétriès, 1857), a member of the silvaniform group (mainly orange, yellow and black "tiger mimics"), and Heliconius melpomene, races nanna Stichel, 1899 and burchelli Poulton, 1910.
Key characters of present only in H. erato phyllis relative to these others are:
There are often red basal hindwing spots on dorsal and ventral surfaces, above and/or below the yellow stripe (if present, these are diagnostic);
There are pale, whitish spots at the apex of the ventral hindwing;
The inner margin of the red forewing band is deeply concave (visible on both wing surfaces);
The posterior edge or the red forewing band almost never extends below vein Cu2.
The yellow hindwing stripe in H. erato phyllis bends downward toward the apex, rather than towards the costal margin, as in the Central American H. erato petiverana.
In H. melpomene nanna, H. melpomene burchelli, and H. besckei, the red forewing band usually extends below vein Cu2, and its inner margin is less concave.
A unique diagnostic feature of H. besckei is the presence of an orange-red marginal stripe on the ventral hindwing. |
Heliconius erato phyllis | References | References
Category:Butterflies of South America |
Heliconius erato phyllis | Table of Content | Subspeciesbox
, References |
Category:Paralympic table tennis players for Malaysia | [[Category:Paralympic table tennis players by country | Malaysia
Table tennis |
Category:Paralympic table tennis players for Malaysia | Table of Content | [[Category:Paralympic table tennis players by country |
Draft:Yeakub Ali Tuhin | db-spam | Yeakub Ali Tuhin (born 15 April 1997) is a Bangladeshi poet, writer, journalist, and educator. His work spans themes of social rights, the Language Movement, love, and childhood imagination. He is known for his evocative poetry and literary efforts to represent rural life, cultural identity, and emotional expression. |
Draft:Yeakub Ali Tuhin | Early Life and Education | Early Life and Education
Tuhin was born in the village of Hijla in Jagannathpur Upazila, Sunamganj District, Bangladesh. His father is Ukil Ali, and his mother is Zainab Bibi. He completed his secondary education at Abdul Khaleq High School and higher secondary education at Jagannathpur Government College. He earned both his Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in Philosophy from Sunamganj Government College. |
Draft:Yeakub Ali Tuhin | Career | Career
Initially, Tuhin worked at a company called Multiproduct Ltd. before transitioning to the teaching profession. He currently works as a teacher of Bengali language and literature at Shah Paran Model High School. Additionally, he contributes as a journalist to The Morning Post and The Bangla Independent. |
Draft:Yeakub Ali Tuhin | Literary Work | Literary Work
Tuhin began his literary journey through poetry, though he has also written short stories, essays, and children's literature. His writing emphasizes themes of nature, patriotism, love, and introspective thought. He often publishes his work through digital literary platforms.
He believes:
“Poetry is not a bouquet of arranged flowers; it is the bleeding silence of the heart.” – Yeakub Ali Tuhin |
Draft:Yeakub Ali Tuhin | Published Books | Published Books
Jonmobhumir Kotha (The Story of the Homeland)
Shob Kotha Bolte Mana (Not Allowed to Say Everything)
Ekusher Swaralipi (Melody of the 21st)
Amar Jiboner Tirish Bosonto (Thirty Springs of My Life – autobiography)
Valobashar Batighor (Lighthouse of Love)
Mora Shohorer Kahini (Tale of the Dead City)
Chobbisher Gonobisforon (Anthology – co-author) |
Draft:Yeakub Ali Tuhin | Selected Poems | Selected Poems
1. The Language of Soil and People
“I am a child of this earth
Its roots hold
The red blood of language...”
2. Writing Letters to Emptiness
“You are gone, yet I write
On the blank canvas of absence
Sketching the shadow of your name.”
3. The Freedom of Tears
“Society told me not to cry
So I write poetry—
Where every word sheds
The freedom of silent grief.” |
Draft:Yeakub Ali Tuhin | Quotes | Quotes
"Hard work is the only path that leads you to the doorstep of success. Dreams come true through realization, not just imagination."
"Curiosity for the unknown is the first step toward true wisdom. A true learner finds joy not at the end of knowing, but at the beginning of curiosity."
"Love is not just giving your heart; it’s the practice of understanding it."
"When words fall silent, poetry speaks in its own language." |
Draft:Yeakub Ali Tuhin | Recognition | Recognition
He has received multiple certificates of honor and literary awards from organizations such as "Ajker Alo Sahitya Parishad" and "Preronar Pathshala" for his social awareness and poetic contributions. |
Draft:Yeakub Ali Tuhin | Social Work | Social Work
Tuhin is actively working to establish a local library in his village to promote reading, writing, and artistic development among school children. |
Draft:Yeakub Ali Tuhin | Interviews | Interviews
In a media interview, he stated:
"The power of my writing comes from the faces around me. Their life stories bring color to my pen. I believe a poet is not just someone who feels, but also a mirror of society." |
Draft:Yeakub Ali Tuhin | Future Plans | Future Plans
Tuhin aims to launch a full-fledged literary magazine focusing on voices from rural Bangladesh. He is also writing a children's storybook series meant for classroom and recreational reading. |
Draft:Yeakub Ali Tuhin | External Links | External Links
Jamuna Protidin
Sokal er Khobor
Sylhet Vision
Daily Naya Kontho
Matribhumir Kotha
Bartoman Sylhet |
Draft:Yeakub Ali Tuhin | Table of Content | db-spam, Early Life and Education, Career, Literary Work, Published Books, Selected Poems, Quotes, Recognition, Social Work, Interviews, Future Plans, External Links |
Hanna Ekola | Short description | Hanna Ekola-Salonen (née Heikkilä; born 9 November 1961) is a Finnish singer, songwriter and author, known for her 1990 hit "Villihevosia" composed by her brother Martti Heikkilä, and for her distinctive voice. |
Hanna Ekola | Early life | Early life
Ekola was born in Kiikka on 9 November 1961. Her elder sister was singer and songwriter Saara Suvanto. |
Hanna Ekola | Musical career | Musical career
Ekola has performed both light and spiritual music and written Christian literature. She performed with her husband Lido Salonen (1950–2008) and Virpi Salonen (Lahti). Ekola has continued to perform mainly in churches with Salonen even after her husband's death.
Ekola is a theologian by training. She has served as editor-in-chief of Finland's oldest Christian children's magazine, Vinki. Since childhood, she has written songs with Martti Heikkilä and their sister Saara Suvanto, and some of the songs have ended up on solo albums, for example, the song "Huomisaamun aikaa" written by Heikkilä and Ekola can be found on Ekola's debut album. Ekola also collaborates with other songwriters, such as Kai Jämsä; some of the songs written by Jämsä and Ekola have ended up on other artists. Ekola composed and wrote some of the songs on the album Luonnonlapset herself.
Ekola's hit "Villihevosia" was the most played radio song of 1991, and the album sold gold and platinum records. It was declared the most annoying hit in a Yle poll in 2015. In 2011, the Päijät-Häme District Court heard a case in which a man accused of aggravated assault had stabbed another man who had sung Ekola's song "Villihevosia".
Ekola has received several gold records and one platinum record for her albums and was awarded the Emma-gaala for New Female Soloist of the Year in 1991. She has written 28 Christian books and was awarded the Most Interesting Christian Book of the Year award in 1997.
Ekola is also an entrepreneur. She was granted an artist's pension in the beginning of 2022. |
Hanna Ekola | Personal life | Personal life
Ekola is a widow. Her husband was Juha "Lido" Salonen and Ekola has a son born in 1998. Salonen died of cancer in 2008. Ekola has since found a new man and lives in Pusula. |
Hanna Ekola | Discography | Discography |
Hanna Ekola | Studio albums | Studio albums
Hanna Ekola (Sonet, 1990)
Joutsentanssi (Polygram, 1992)
Luonnonlapset (Polygram, 1994)
Sateenkaari (Columbia, 1996)
Kiitos elämän lahjasta (Columbia, 1997)
Joulunaika (Columbia, 1998)
Enkelin siipien havinaa (Columbia, 2000)
Et ole yksin (Sley-kirjat, 2003)
Lupaus (2006)
Aurinkotie (AXR Music, 2011) |
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