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Alexander Agassiz	See also	See also Agassiz family
Alexander Agassiz	References	References
Alexander Agassiz	External links	External links Agassiz, George (1913). Letters and Recollections of Alexander Agassiz with a sketch of his life and work. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Co. Murray, John (1911). "Alexander Agassiz: His Life and Scientific Work". Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 54 (3). pp 139–158. Publications by and about Alexander Agassiz in the catalogue Helveticat of the Swiss National Library National Mining Hall of Fame: Alexander Agassiz National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir Keweenaw National Historical Park Preserving many significant buildings and an archives of the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company and Alexander Agassiz. Category:1835 births Category:1910 deaths Category:19th-century American zoologists Category:20th-century American zoologists Category:American curators Category:American ichthyologists Category:Agassiz family Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Category:Foreign members of the Royal Society Category:Honorary Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Category:Victoria Medal recipients Category:Calumet and Hecla Mining Company personnel Category:United States Coast Survey personnel Category:Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences alumni Category:Swiss emigrants to the United States Category:People from Neuchâtel Category:People who died at sea Category:Members of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities Category:Members of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society
Alexander Agassiz	Table of Content	Short description, Biography, Legacy, Publications, See also, References, External links
Agathon	Short description	thumb\|This painting by Anselm Feuerbach re-imagines a scene from Plato's Symposium, in which the tragedian Agathon welcomes the drunken Alcibiades into his home. 1869. Agathon (; ; ) was an Athenian tragic poet whose works have been lost. He is best known for his appearance in Plato's Symposium, which describes the banquet given to celebrate his obtaining a prize for his first tragedy at the Lenaia in 416. He is also a prominent character in Aristophanes' comedy the Thesmophoriazusae.
Agathon	Life and career	Life and career Agathon was the son of Tisamenus, and the lover of Pausanias, with whom he appears in both the Symposium and Plato's Protagoras.Pierre Lévêque, Agathon (Paris: Societe d'Edition Les Belles Lettres, 1955), pp. 163-4. Together with Pausanias, around 407 BC he moved to the court of Archelaus, king of Macedon, who was recruiting playwrights; it is here that he probably died around 401 BC. Agathon introduced certain innovations into the Greek theater: Aristotle tells us in the Poetics (1451b21) that the characters and plot of his Anthos were original and not, following Athenian dramatic orthodoxy, borrowed from mythological or historical subjects.Aristotle, Poetics 9. Agathon was also the first playwright to write choral parts which were apparently independent from the main plot of his plays. Agathon is portrayed by Plato as a handsome young man, well dressed, of polished manners, courted by the fashion, wealth, and wisdom of Athens, and dispensing hospitality with ease and refinement. The epideictic speech in praise of love which Agathon recites in the Symposium is full of beautiful but artificial rhetorical expressions, and has led some scholars to believe he may have been a student of Gorgias. In the Symposium, Agathon is presented as the friend of the comic poet Aristophanes, but this alleged friendship did not prevent Aristophanes from harshly criticizing Agathon in at least two of his comic plays: the Thesmophoriazousae and the (now lost) Gerytades. In the later play Frogs, Aristophanes softens his criticisms, but even so, it may be only for the sake of punning on Agathon's name (ἁγαθός "good") that he makes Dionysus call him a "good poet". Agathon was also a friend of Euripides, another recruit to the court of Archelaus of Macedon.
Agathon	Physical appearance	Physical appearance Agathon's extraordinary physical beauty is brought up repeatedly in the sources; the historian W. Rhys Roberts observes that "ὁ καλός Ἀγάθων (ho kalos Agathon) has become almost a stereotyped phrase." The most detailed surviving description of Agathon is in the Thesmophoriazousae, in which Agathon appears as a pale, clean-shaven young man dressed in women's clothes. Scholars are unsure how much of Aristophanes' portrayal is fact and how much mere comic invention. After a close reading of the Thesmophoriazousae, the historian Jane McIntosh Snyder observed that Agathon's costume was almost identical to that of the famous lyric poet Anacreon, as he is portrayed in early 5th-century vase-paintings. Snyder theorizes that Agathon might have made a deliberate effort to mimic the sumptuous attire of his famous fellow poet, although by Agathon's time, such clothing, especially the κεκρύφαλος (kekryphalos, an elaborate covering for the hair) had long fallen out of fashion for men. According to this interpretation, Agathon is mocked in the Thesmophoriazousae not only for his notorious effeminacy, but also for the pretentiousness of his dress: "he seems to think of himself, in all his elegant finery, as a rival to the old Ionian poets, perhaps even to Anacreon himself."
Agathon	Plato's epigram	Plato's epigram Agathon is the subject of an epigram attributed to Plato: τὴν ψυχὴν Ἀγάθωνα φιλῶν ἐπὶ χείλεσιν εἶχον· ἦλθε γὰρ ἡ τλήμων ὡς διαβησομένη. One translation reads: <blockquote>My soul was on my lips as I was kissing Agathon. Poor soul! she came hoping to cross over to him.<ref name="Paton">Greek Anthology, translated by W. R. Paton, Volume 1.</ref></blockquote> The epigram was probably not composed by Plato. Stylistic evidence suggests that the poem (with most of Plato's other alleged epigrams) was actually written sometime after Plato had died: its form is that of the Hellenistic erotic epigram, which did not become popular until after 300 BC. According to 20th-century scholar Walther Ludwig, the poems were spuriously inserted into an early biography of Plato sometime between 250 BC and 100 BC and adopted by later writers from this source. It is unlikely Plato would write a love epigram about Agathon, who was approximately twenty years older than him. Known plays Of Agathon's plays, only six titles and thirty-one fragments have survived:AeropeAlcmeonAnthos or Antheus ("The Flower")Mysoi ("Mysians")Telephos ("Telephus")ThyestesFragments in A Nauck, Tragicorum graecorum fragmenta (1887). Fragments in Greek with English translations in Matthew Wright's "The Lost Plays of Greek Tragedy (Volume 1) Neglected Authors" (2016) Quotations See also List of speakers in Plato's dialogues Symposium (Feuerbach) References Notes SourcesThe Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, volume 1, by Alfred Bates. (London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906)Thesmoph. 59, 106, Eccles. 100 (Aristophanes)Lovers' Lips by Plato in the Project Gutenberg eText Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology'' by J. W. Mackail.
Agathon	External links	External links Agathon Poems Category:440s BC births Category:Year of birth unknown Category:400s BC deaths Category:Year of death unknown Category:5th-century BC Athenians Category:Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights Category:Ancient Greek LGBTQ people Category:Courtiers of Archelaus of Macedon Category:Tragic poets Category:5th-century BC Greek poets
Agathon	Table of Content	Short description, Life and career, Physical appearance, Plato's epigram, External links
Agesilaus II	short description	Agesilaus II (; ; 445/4 – 360/59 BC) was king of Sparta from 400 to 360 BC. Generally considered the most important king in the history of Sparta, Agesilaus was the main actor during the period of Spartan hegemony that followed the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC). Although brave in combat, Agesilaus lacked the diplomatic skills to preserve Sparta's position, especially against the rising power of Thebes, which reduced Sparta to a secondary power after its victory at Leuctra in 371 BC. Despite the traditional secrecy fostered by the Spartiates, the reign of Agesilaus is particularly well-known thanks to the works of his friend Xenophon, who wrote a large history of Greece (the Hellenica) covering the years 411 to 362 BC, therefore extensively dealing with Agesilaus' rule. Xenophon furthermore composed a panegyric biography of his friend, perhaps to clean his memory from the criticisms voiced against him. Another historical tradition—much more hostile to Agesilaus than Xenophon's writings—has been preserved in the Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, and later continued by Diodorus of Sicily. Moreover, Plutarch wrote a biography of Agesilaus in his Parallel Lives, which contains many elements deliberately omitted by Xenophon.
Agesilaus II	Early life	Early life
Agesilaus II	Youth	Youth Agesilaus' father was King Archidamos II (r. 469–427), who belonged to the Eurypontid dynasty, one of the two royal families of Sparta. Archidamos already had a son from a first marriage with Lampito (his own step-aunt) named Agis.Shipley, Commentary on Agesilaos, p. 58, spells her Lampido.Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 12, 13. After the death of Lampito, Archidamos remarried in the early 440s with Eupolia, daughter of Melesippidas, whose name indicates an aristocratic status.Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 21, 22. Lampito was probably 40 years younger than Archidamos.Shipley, Commentary on Agesilaos, p. 58, translates the name of Eupolia as "well-foaled". The dates of Agesilaus' birth, death, and reign are disputed. The only secured information is that he was 84 at his death. The majority opinion is to date his birth to 445/4,Cawkwell, "Agesilaus and Sparta", p. 63 (note 8).Shipley, Commentary on Agesilaos, p. 58.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 8.Powell et al., A Companion to Sparta, pp. 16, 375, 382, 430, 454, 457, 465, 559; although François Ruzé uses the later date p. 326. but a minority of scholars move it a bit later, c.442.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. xvii.Pascual, "La datación de la ascensión", p. 43. Most of the other dates of Agesilaus are similarly disputed, with the minority moving them about two years later than the majority. Agesilaus also had a sister named Kyniska (the first woman in ancient history to achieve an Olympic victory).Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 145, is unsure whether Kyniska was Agesilaos' full sister.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 13. The name Agesilaus was rare and harks back to Agesilaus I, one of the earliest kings of Sparta.Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 22, 23. Agesilaus was born lame, a fact that should have cost him his life, since in Sparta deformed babies were thrown into a chasm. As he was not heir-apparent, he might have received some leniency from the tribal elders who examined male infants, or perhaps the first effects of the demographic decline of Sparta were already felt at the time, and only the most severely impaired babies were killed.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 22.Sneed, "Disability and Infanticide in Ancient Greece", pp. 749–751, suggests that Spartans did not kill deformed infants. Starting at the age of 7, Agesilaus had to go through the rigorous education system of Sparta, called the agoge.Xenophon, Hellenica, iii. 3.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 23. Despite his disability, he brilliantly completed the training,Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 14. which massively enhanced his prestige, especially after he became king.Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 24-27. Indeed, as heirs-apparent were exempted of the agoge, few Spartan kings had gone through the same training as the citizens;Shipley, Commentary on Agesilaos, p. 62. another notable exception was Leonidas, the embodiment of the "hero-king".Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 24. Between 433 and 428, Agesilaus also became the younger lover of Lysander, an aristocrat from the circle of Archidamos, whose family had some influence in Libya.Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 28, 29.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 19.
Agesilaus II	Spartan prince	Spartan prince Little is known of Agesilaus' adult life before his reign, principally because Xenophon—his friend and main biographer—only wrote about his reign.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 10. Due to his special status, Agesilaus likely became a member of the Krypteia, an elite corps of young Spartans going undercover in Spartan territory to kill some helots deemed dangerous.Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 30–32. Once he turned 20 and became a full citizen, Agesilaus was elected to a common mess, presumably that of his elder half-brother Agis II, who had become king in 427, of which Lysander was perhaps a member.Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 32, 33. Agesilaus probably served during the Peloponnesian War (431–404) against Athens, likely at the Battle of Mantinea in 418.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 21. Agesilaus married Kleora at some point between 408 and 400.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 147. Despite the influence she apparently had on her husband, she is mostly unknown. Her father was Aristomenidas, an influential noble with connections in Thebes.Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 146, 147. Thanks to three treaties signed with Persia in 412–411, Sparta received funding from the Persians, which it used to build a fleet that ultimately defeated Athens.Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 186–189. This fleet was essentially led by Lysander, whose success gave him an enormous influence in the Greek cities of Asia as well as in Sparta, where he even schemed to become king.Hamilton, Sparta's Bitter Victories, pp. 27, 76, 88–98.Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 94–99. In 403 the two kings, Agis and Pausanias, acted together to relieve him from his command.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 23–25.
Agesilaus II	Reign	Reign
Agesilaus II	Accession to the throne (400–398 BC)	Accession to the throne (400–398 BC) Agis II died while returning from Delphi between 400 and 398. After his funeral, Agesilaus contested the claim of Leotychidas, the son of Agis II, using the widespread belief in Sparta that Leotychidas was an illegitimate son of Alcibiades—a famous Athenian statesman and nephew of Pericles, who had gone into exile in Sparta during the Peloponnesian War, and then seduced the queen. The rumours were strengthened by the fact that even Agis only recognised Leotychidas as his son on his deathbed.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 110.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 26. Diopeithes, a supporter of Leotychidas, however quoted an old oracle telling that a Spartan king could not be lame, thus refuting Agesilaus' claim, but Lysander cunningly returned the objection by saying that the oracle had to be understood figuratively. The lameness warned against by the oracle would therefore refer to the doubt on Leotychidas' paternity, and this reasoning won the argument.Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 110–113.Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 26, 27. The role of Lysander in the accession of Agesilaus has been debated among historians, principally because Plutarch makes him the main instigator of the plot, while Xenophon downplays Lysander's influence.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 112, gives more credence to Plutarch.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 28, favours Plutarch's version. Lysander doubtless supported Agesilaus' accession because he hoped that the new king would in return help him to regain the importance that he lost in 403.Cartledge, Sparta and Lakonia, p. 233.
Agesilaus II	Conspiracy of Cinadon (399 BC)	Conspiracy of Cinadon (399 BC) The Conspiracy of Cinadon took place during the first year of Agesilaus' reign, in the summer of 399.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 164. Cinadon was a hypomeion, a Spartan who had lost his citizen status, presumably because he could not afford the price of the collective mess—one of the main reasons for the dwindling number of Spartan citizens in the Classical Era, called oliganthropia.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 165.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 70.Gish, "Spartan Justice", pp. 353, 354. It is probable that the vast influx of wealth coming to the city after its victory against Athens in 404 triggered inflation in Sparta, which impoverished many citizens with a fixed income, like Cinadon, and caused their downgrade.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 83. Therefore, the purpose of the plot was likely to restore the status of these disfranchised citizens.Gish, "Spartan Justice", p. 356. However, the plot was uncovered and Cinadon and its leaders executed—probably with the active participation of Agesilaus,Cartledge, Sparta and Lakonia, p. 235. but no further action was taken to solve the social crisis at the origin of the conspiracy. The failure of Agesilaus to acknowledge the critical problem suffered by Sparta at the time has been criticised by modern historians.Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 84, 85.Gish, "Spartan Justice", p. 357 (note 40).
Agesilaus II	Invasion of Asia Minor (396–394 BC)	Invasion of Asia Minor (396–394 BC) According to the treaties signed in 412 and 411 between Sparta and the Persian Empire, the latter became the overlord of the Greek city-states of Asia Minor.Hamilton, Sparta's Bitter Victories, p. 27.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 87. In 401, these cities and Sparta supported the bid of Cyrus the Younger (the Persian Emperor's younger son and a good friend of Lysander) against his elder brother, the new emperor Artaxerxes II, who nevertheless defeated Cyrus at Cunaxa.Hamilton, Sparta's Bitter Victories, pp. 104–107. As a result, Sparta remained at war with Artaxerxes, and supported the Greek cities of Asia, which fought against Tissaphernes, the satrap of Lydia and Caria.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 88. In 397 Lysander engineered a large expedition in Asia headed by Agesilaus, likely to recover the influence he had over the Asian cities at the end of the Peloponnesian War.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 191.Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 90, 91. Lysander had placed partisans in the cities taken from the Athenian Empire, but was forced to abandon them in order to respect the treaties with Persia, which were enforced in 404. In order to win the approval of the Spartan assembly, Lysander built an army with only 30 Spartiates (full Spartan citizens), so the risk would be limited; the bulk of the army consisted of 2,000 neodamodes (freed helots) and 6,000 Greek allies.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 213.Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 92, 93. In addition, Agesilaus obtained the support of the oracles of Zeus at Olympia and Apollo at Delphi.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 93.
Agesilaus II	The sacrifice at Aulis (396 BC)	The sacrifice at Aulis (396 BC) Lysander and Agesilaus had intended the expedition to be a Panhellenic enterprise,Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 192. but Athens, Corinth, and especially Thebes, refused to participate.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 212.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 94. In Spring 396, Agesilaus came to Aulis (in Boeotian territory) to sacrifice on the place where Agamemnon had done so just before his departure to Troy at the head of the Greek army in the Iliad, thus giving a grandiose aspect to the expedition. However he did not inform the Boeotians and brought his own seer to perform the sacrifice, instead of the local one. Learning this, the Boeotians prevented him from sacrificing and further humiliated him by casting away the victim; they perhaps intended to provoke a confrontation, as the relations between Sparta and Thebes had become execrable. Agesilaus then left to Asia, but Thebes remained hateful to him for the rest of his life.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 95.thumb\|Meeting between Spartan king Agesilaus (left) and Pharnabazus II (right) in 395 BC, when Agesilaus agreed to remove himself from Hellespontine Phrygia.
Agesilaus II	Campaign in Asia (396–394 BC)	Campaign in Asia (396–394 BC) Once Agesilaus landed in Ephesus, the Spartan main base, he concluded a three months' truce with Tissaphernes, likely to settle the affairs among the Greek allies.Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 32, 33. He integrated some of the Greek mercenaries formerly hired by Cyrus the Younger (the Ten Thousand) in his army. They had returned from Persia under the leadership of Xenophon, who also remained in Agesilaus' staff.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 59. In Ephesus, Agesilaus' authority was nevertheless overshadowed by Lysander, who was reacquainted with many of his supporters, men he had placed in control of the Greek cities at the end of the Peloponnesian War. Angered by his local aura, Agesilaus humiliated Lysander several times to force him to leave the army, despite his former relationship and Lysander's role in his accession to the throne.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 213, Lysander was sent away in a diplomatic mission.Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 32–37. Plutarch adds that after Agesilaus' emancipation from him, Lysander returned to his undercover scheme to make the monarchy elective.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 36. After Lysander's departure, Agesilaus raided Phrygia, the satrapy of Pharnabazus, until his advance guard was defeated not far from Daskyleion by the superior Persian cavalry.Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 213, 214.Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 96, 97. He then wintered at Ephesus, where he trained a cavalry force, perhaps on the advice of Xenophon, who had commanded the cavalry of the Ten Thousand.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 214.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 97. In 395, the Spartan king managed to trick Tissaphernes into thinking that he would attack Caria, in the south of Asia Minor, forcing the satrap to hold a defence line on the Meander river. Instead, Agesilaus moved north to the important city of Sardis. Tissaphernes hastened to meet the king there, but his cavalry sent in advance was defeated by Agesilaus' army.Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 215, 216.Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 97–99. After his victory at the Battle of Sardis, Agesilaus became the first king to be given the command of both land and sea.Cartledge, Sparta and Lakonia, p. 237. He delegated the naval command to his brother-in-law Peisander, whom he appointed navarch despite his inexperience; perhaps Agesilaus wanted to avoid the rise of a new Lysander, who owed his prominence to his time as navarch. After his defeat, Tissaphernes was executed and replaced as satrap by Tithraustes, who gave Agesilaus 30 talents to move north to the satrapy of Pharnabazus (Persian satraps were often bitter rivals).Hamilton, Sparta's Bitter Victories, p. 101.Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 216, 217.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 100. Augesilaus' Phrygian campaign of 394 was fruitless, as he lacked the siege equipment required to take the fortresses of Leonton Kephalai, Gordion, and Miletou Teichos.Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 217.thumb\|Tens of thousands of Darics (popularly called "archers"), the main currency in Persia, were used to bribe the Greek states to start a war against Sparta, so that Agesilaus would have to be recalled from Asia.Xenophon tells that Agesilaus then wanted to campaign further east in Asia and sow discontent among the subjects of the Achaemenid empire, or even to conquer Asia. Plutarch went further and wrote that Agesilaus had prepared an expedition to the heart of Persia, up to her capital of Susa, thus making him a forerunner of Alexander the Great. It is very unlikely that Agesilaus really had such a grand campaign in mind; regardless, he was soon forced to return to Europe in 394.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 100–103.
Agesilaus II	Corinthian War (395–387 BC)	Corinthian War (395–387 BC) Although Thebes and Corinth had been allies of Sparta throughout the Peloponnesian War, they were dissatisfied by the settlement of the war in 404, with Sparta as leader of the Greek world. Sparta's imperialist expansion in the Aegean greatly upset its former allies, notably by establishing friendly regimes and garrisons in smaller cities.Hamilton, Sparta's Bitter Victories, pp. 41–48, 54 (note 117), 65.Robin Seager, "The Corinthian War", in Lewis et al., Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VI, p. 97. Through large gifts, Tithraustes also encouraged Sparta's former allies to start a war in order to force the recall of Agesilaus from Asia—even though the influence of Persian gold has been exaggerated.Robin Seager, "The Corinthian War", in Lewis et al., Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VI, p. 98. The initiative came from Thebes, which provoked a war between their ally Ozolian Locris and Phocis in order to bring Sparta to the latter's defence.Robin Seager, "The Corinthian War", in Lewis et al., Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VI, p. 99. Thebes wanted to avoid being seen as having broken the peace. Lysander and the other king Pausanias entered Boeotia, which enabled the Thebans to bring Athens in the war. Lysander then besieged Haliartus without waiting for Pausanias and was killed in a Boeotian counter-attack. In Sparta, Pausanias was condemned to death by Lysander's friends and went into exile.Xenophon, Hell. iii. 3, to the end, AgesilausRobin Seager, "The Corinthian War", in Lewis et al., Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VI, p. 100. After its success at Haliartus, Thebes was able to build a coalition against Sparta, with notably Argos and Corinth, where a war council was established, and securing the defection of most of the cities of northern and central Greece.Hamilton, Sparta's Bitter Victories, pp. 211–215.Françoise Ruzé, "The Empire of the Spartans (404–371)", p. 335. Unable to wage war on two fronts and with the loss of Lysander and Pausanias, Sparta had no choice but to recall Agesilaus from Asia.Robin Seager, "The Corinthian War", in Lewis et al., Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VI, p. 101. The Asian Greeks fighting for him said they wanted to continue serving with him, while Agesilaus promised he would return to Asia as soon as he could.Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 104, 105. thumb\|245x245px\|Map of the situation in the Aegean in 394 BC, with the long return of Agesilaus from Asia. Agesilaus returned to Greece by land, crossing the Hellespont and from there along the coast of the Aegean Sea. In Thessaly he won a cavalry battle near Narthacium against the Pharsalians who had made an alliance with Thebes.Stamatopoulou, "Thessalians Abroad", p. 221.Richard Bouchon and Bruno Helly, "The Thessalian League", in Beck (ed.), Federalism, p. 236.Françoise Ruzé, "The Empire of the Spartans (404–371)", p. 333. He then entered Boeotia by the Thermopylae, where he received reinforcements from Sparta.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 105. Meanwhile, Aristodamos—the regent of the young Agiad king Agesipolis—won a major victory at Nemea near Argos, which was offset by the disaster of the Spartan navy at Cnidus against the Persian fleet led by Conon, an exiled Athenian general. Agesilaus lied to his men about the outcome of the battle of Knidos to avoid demoralising them as they were about to fight a large engagement against the combined armies of Thebes, Athens, Argos and Corinth. The following Battle of Coronea was a classic clash between two lines of hoplites.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 106. The anti-Spartan allies were rapidly defeated, but the Thebans managed to retreat in good order, despite Agesilaus' activity on the front line, which caused him several injuries. The next day the Thebans requested a truce to recover their dead, therefore conceding defeat, although they had not been bested on the battlefield.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 108. Agesilaus appears to have tried to win an honourable victory, by risking his life and being merciful with some Thebans who had sought shelter in the nearby Temple of Athena Itonia.Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 108, 109. He then moved to Delphi, where he offered one tenth of the booty he had amassed since his landing at Ephesus, and returned to Sparta. No pitched battle took place in Greece in 393. Perhaps Agesilaus was still recovering from his wounds, or he was deprived of command because of the opposition of Lysander's and Pausanias' friends, who were disappointed by his lack of decisive victory and his appointment of Peisander as navarch before the disaster of Knidos.Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 109, 110. The loss of the Spartan fleet besides allowed Konon to capture the island of Kythera, in the south of the Peloponnese, from where he could raid Spartan territory.Françoise Ruzé, "The Empire of the Spartans (404–371)", p. 336. In 392, Sparta sent Antalcidas to Asia in order to negotiate a general peace with Tiribazus, the satrap of Lydia, while Sparta would recognise Persia's sovereignty over the Asian Greek cities. However, the Greek allies also sent emissaries to Sardis to refuse Antalcidas' plan, and Artaxerxes likewise rejected it. A second peace conference in Sparta failed the following year because of Athens.Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 111, 112. A personal enemy of Antalcidas, Agesilaus likely disapproved these talks, which show that his influence at home had waned.Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 112, 113. Plutarch says that he befriended the young Agiad king Agesipolis, possibly to prevent his opponents from coalescing behind him.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 110. By 391 Agesilaus had apparently recovered his influence as he was appointed at the head of the army, while his half-brother Teleutias became navarch.Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 114. The target was Argos, which had absorbed Corinth into a political union the previous year. In 390 BC he made several successful expeditions into Corinthian territory, capturing Lechaeum and Peiraion. The loss, however, of a battalion (mora), destroyed by Iphicrates, neutralised these successes, and Agesilaus returned to Sparta. In 389 BC he conducted a campaign in Acarnania, but two years later the Peace of Antalcidas, warmly supported by Agesilaus, put an end to the war, maintaining Spartan hegemony over Greece and returning the Greek cities of Asia Minor to the Achaemenid Empire. In this interval, Agesilaus declined command over Sparta's aggression on Mantineia, and justified Phoebidas' seizure of the Theban Cadmea so long as the outcome provided glory to Sparta.
Agesilaus II	Decline	Decline thumb\|right\|Agesilaus expels the Illyrians from Epirus in 385 BC When war broke out afresh with Thebes, Agesilaus twice invaded Boeotia (in 378 and 377 BC), although he spent the next five years largely out of action due to an unspecified but apparently grave illness. In the congress of 371 an altercation is recorded between him and the Theban general Epaminondas, and due to his influence, Thebes was peremptorily excluded from the peace, and orders given for Agesilaus's royal colleague Cleombrotus to march against Thebes in 371. Cleombrotus was defeated and killed at the Battle of Leuctra and the Spartan supremacy overthrown.Agesilaus from Livius.Org In 370 Agesilaus was engaged in an embassy to Mantineia, and reassured the Spartans with an invasion of Arcadia. He preserved an unwalled Sparta against the revolts and conspiracies of helots, perioeci and even other Spartans; and against external enemies, with four different armies led by Epaminondas penetrating Laconia that same year.
Agesilaus II	Asia Minor expedition (366 BC)	Asia Minor expedition (366 BC) In 366 BC, Sparta and Athens, dissatisfied with the Persian king's support of Thebes following the embassy of Philiscus of Abydos, decided to provide careful military support to the opponents of the Achaemenid king. Athens and Sparta provided support for the revolting satraps in the Revolt of the Satraps, in particular Ariobarzanes: Sparta sent a force to Ariobarzanes under an aging Agesilaus, while Athens sent a force under Timotheus, which was however diverted when it became obvious that Ariobarzanes had entered frontal conflict with the Achaemenid king. An Athenian mercenary force under Chabrias was also sent to the Egyptian Pharaoh Tachos, who was also fighting against the Achaemenid king. According to Xenophon,Xenophon, Agesilaus, ii. 26, 27 Agesilaus, in order to gain money for prosecuting the war, supported the satrap Ariobarzanes of Phrygia in his revolt against Artaxerxes II in 364 (Revolt of the Satraps). Again, in 362, Epaminondas almost succeeded in seizing the city of Sparta with a rapid and unexpected march. The Battle of Mantinea, in which Agesilaus took no part, was followed by a general peace: Sparta, however, stood aloof, hoping even yet to recover her supremacy.
Agesilaus II	Expedition to Egypt	Expedition to Egypt thumb\|Agesilaus offers his services to the Egyptian pharaoh Teos, Egypt. Sometime after the Battle of Mantineia, Agesilaus went to Egypt at the head of a mercenary force to aid the king Nectanebo I and his regent Teos against Persia. In the summer of 358, he transferred his services to Teos's cousin and rival, Nectanebo II, who, in return for his help, gave him a sum of over 200 talents. On his way home Agesilaus died in Cyrenaica, around the age of 84, after a reign of some 41 years. His body was embalmed in wax, and buried at Sparta. He was succeeded by his son Archidamus III.
Agesilaus II	Legacy	Legacy Agesilaus was of small stature and unimpressive appearance, and was lame from birth. These facts were used as an argument against his succession, an oracle having warned Sparta against a "lame reign." Most ancient writers considered him a highly successful leader in guerrilla warfare, alert and quick, yet cautious—a man, moreover, whose personal bravery was rarely questioned in his own time. Of his courage, temperance, and hardiness, many instances are cited, and to these were added the less Spartan qualities of kindliness and tenderness as a father and a friend. As examples, there was the story of his riding a stick-horse with his children and upon being discovered by a friend desiring that the friend not mention what he had seen until he was the father of children; and because of the affection of his son Archidamus for Cleonymus, he saved Sphodrias, Cleonymus' father, from execution for his incursion into Piraeus and dishonourable retreat in 378. Modern writers tend to be slightly more critical of Agesilaus' reputation and achievements, reckoning him an excellent soldier, but one who had a poor understanding of sea power and siege-craft. As a statesman he won himself both enthusiastic adherents and bitter enemies. Agesilaus was most successful in the opening and closing periods of his reign: commencing but then surrendering a glorious career in Asia; and in extreme age, maintaining his prostrate country. Other writers acknowledge his extremely high popularity at home, but suggest his occasionally rigid and arguably irrational political loyalties and convictions contributed greatly to Spartan decline, notably his unremitting hatred of Thebes, which led to Sparta's humiliation at the Battle of Leuctra and thus the end of Spartan hegemony. Historian J. B. Bury remarks that "there is something melancholy about his career:" born into a Sparta that was the unquestioned continental power of Hellas, the Sparta which mourned him eighty four years later had suffered a series of military defeats which would have been unthinkable to his forebears, had seen its population severely decline, and had run so short of money that its soldiers were increasingly sent on campaigns fought more for money than for defense or glory. Plutarch also describes how often, to remove the threat of instigators of internal dissension, Agesilaus would send his enemies abroad with governorships, where they often were corrupt and procured themselves enemies. Agesilaus would then protect them against these new enemies of theirs, so as to make them his friends. As a result, he no longer had to face internal opposition, as his enemies had henceforth become allies. As for his personal life, though he had two daughters, Eupolia and Prolyta, and a wife, Cleora, he nonetheless had the habit of forming homosexual "attachments for young men". thumb\|upright\|Xenophon's Agesilaus. Other historical accounts paint Agesilaus as a prototype for the ideal leader. His awareness, thoughtfulness, and wisdom were all traits to be emulated diplomatically, while his bravery and shrewdness in battle epitomised the heroic Greek commander. These historians point towards the unstable oligarchies established by Lysander in the former Athenian Empire and the failures of Spartan leaders (such as Pausanias and Kleombrotos) for the eventual suppression of Spartan power. The ancient historian Xenophon was a huge admirer and served under Agesilaus during the campaigns into Asia Minor. Plutarch includes among Agesilaus' 78 essays and speeches comprising the apophthegmata Agesilaus' letter to the ephors on his recall: And when asked whether Agesilaus wanted a memorial erected in his honour: Agesilaus lived in the most frugal style alike at home and in the field, and though his campaigns were undertaken largely to secure booty, he was content to enrich the state and his friends and to return as poor as he had set forth.Diodorus Siculus, xiv. xvPausanias, Description of Greece iii. 97 10Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos, in vitaPlutarch, Apophthegmata Laconica
Agesilaus II	Notes	Notes
Agesilaus II	References	References
Agesilaus II	Sources	Sources
Agesilaus II	Ancient sources	Ancient sources Plutarch, Parallel Lives. Xenophon, Hellenica.
Agesilaus II	Modern sources	Modern sources Hans Beck & Peter Funke, Federalism in Greek Antiquity, Cambridge University Press, 2015. Paul Cartledge, Sparta and Lakonia, A Regional History 1300–362 BC, London, Routledge, 1979 (originally published in 1979). George L. Cawkwell, "Agesilaus and Sparta", The Classical Quarterly 26 (1976): 62–84. David, Ephraim. Sparta Between Empire and Revolution (404-243 BC): Internal Problems and Their Impact on Contemporary Greek Consciousness. New York: Arno Press, 1981. Forrest, W.G. A History of Sparta, 950-192 B.C. 2d ed. London: Duckworth, 1980. Dustin A. Gish, "Spartan Justice: The Conspiracy of Kinadon in Xenophon's Hellenika", in Polis, vol. 26, no. 2, 2009, pp. 339–369. Hamilton, Charles D. Sparta's Bitter Victories: Politics and Diplomacy in the Corinthian War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1979. D. M. Lewis, John Boardman, Simon Hornblower, M. Ostwald (editors), The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VI, The Fourth Century B.C., Cambridge University Press, 1994. Anton Powell (editor), A Companion to Sparta, Volume I, Hoboken/Chichester, Wiley Blackwell, 2018. D. R. Shipley, A Commentary on Plutarch's Life of Agesilaos: Response to Sources in the Presentation of Character, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997. Debby Sneed, "Disability and Infanticide in Ancient Greece", Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Vol. 90, No. 4, 2021, pp. 747–772. Maria Stamatopoulou, "Thessalians Abroad, the Case of Pharsalos", in Mediterranean Historical Review, vol. 22.2 (2007), pp. 211–236. Graham Wylie, "Agesilaus and the Battle of Sardis", in Klio, n°74 (1992), pp. 118–130. Category:440s BC births Category:Year of birth uncertain Category:358 BC deaths Category:Year of death uncertain Category:4th-century BC Spartans Category:Eurypontid kings of Sparta Category:Ancient Greek generals Category:Ancient Greek LGBTQ people Category:Spartan hegemony
Agesilaus II	Table of Content	short description, Early life, Youth, Spartan prince, Reign, Accession to the throne (400–398 BC), Conspiracy of Cinadon (399 BC), Invasion of Asia Minor (396–394 BC), The sacrifice at Aulis (396 BC), Campaign in Asia (396–394 BC), Corinthian War (395–387 BC), Decline, Asia Minor expedition (366 BC), Expedition to Egypt, Legacy, Notes, References, Sources, Ancient sources, Modern sources
Agis	'''Agis'''	Agis or AGIS may refer to:
Agis	People	People Agis I (died 900 BC), Spartan king Agis II (died 401 BC), Spartan king Agis III (died 331 BC), Spartan king Agis IV (265–241 BC), Spartan king Agis (Paeonian) (died 358 BC), King of the Paeonians Agis of Argos, ancient Greek poet Maurice Agis (1931–2009), British sculptor and artist
Agis	Other uses	Other uses Agis (play), by John Home Agis, several fictional emperors of Isaac Asimov's Galactic Empire Apex Global Internet Services Atomic gravitational wave interferometric sensor Advanced Glaucoma Intervention Study, conducted by the National Eye Institute
Agis	See also	See also Agide (disambiguation), modern Italian given name related to Agis Category:Greek masculine given names Category:Masculine given names
Agis	Table of Content	'''Agis''', People, Other uses, See also
Antonio Agliardi	Short description	Antonio Agliardi (4 September 1832 – 19 March 1915) was an Italian Roman Catholic Cardinal, archbishop, and papal diplomat.
Antonio Agliardi	Biography	Biography Agliardi was born at Cologno al Serio, in what is now the Province of Bergamo. He studied theology and canon law, and after acting as parish priest in his native diocese for twelve years was sent by the pope to Canada as a bishop's chaplain. On his return he was appointed secretary to the Congregation of the Propaganda. In 1884, he was created by Pope Leo XIII Archbishop of Caesarea in partibus and sent to India as an Apostolic Delegate to report on the establishment of the hierarchy there. In 1887 he again visited India, to carry out the terms of the concordat arranged with Portugal. The same year he was appointed secretary of the Congregation super negotiis ecclesiae extraordinariis. In 1889 he became papal Apostolic Nuncio to Bavaria at Munich and in 1892 at Vienna. Allowing himself to be involved in the ecclesiastical disputes that divided Hungary in 1895, he was made the subject of formal complaint by the Hungarian government and in 1896 was recalled. In the consistory of 1896 he was elevated to Cardinal-Priest of Santi Nereo e Achilleo. In 1899 he was made Cardinal Bishop of Albano. In 1903, he was named vice-chancellor of the Catholic Church, and became the Chancellor of the Apostolic Chancery in the Secretariat of State in 1908. He died in Rome and was buried in Bergamo.
Antonio Agliardi	Episcopal lineage	Episcopal lineage Agliardi's episcopal lineage, or apostolic succession was: Cardinal Scipione Rebiba Cardinal Giulio Antonio Santorio Cardinal Girolamo Bernerio Archbishop Galeazzo Sanvitale Cardinal Ludovico Ludovisi Cardinal Luigi Caetani Cardinal Ulderico Carpegna Cardinal Paluzzo Paluzzi Altieri degli Albertoni Pope Benedict XIII Pope Benedict XIV Cardinal Enrico Enríquez Archbishop Manuel Quintano Bonifaz Cardinal Buenaventura Fernández de Córdoba Spínola Cardinal Giuseppe Doria Pamphili Pope Pius VIII Pope Pius IX Cardinal Alessandro Franchi Cardinal Giovanni Simeoni Cardinal Antonio Agliardi
Antonio Agliardi	Notes	Notes
Antonio Agliardi	References	References
Antonio Agliardi	External links	External links Catholic-Hierarchy.org Category:1832 births Category:1915 deaths Category:Clergy from the Province of Bergamo Category:Apostolic nuncios to Austria Category:20th-century Italian cardinals Category:Cardinal-bishops of Albano Category:Cartellverband members Category:19th-century Italian Roman Catholic archbishops Category:20th-century Italian Roman Catholic archbishops Category:Apostolic Nuncios to Bavaria Category:Cardinals created by Pope Leo XIII Category:Roman Catholic titular archbishops of Caesarea
Antonio Agliardi	Table of Content	Short description, Biography, Episcopal lineage, Notes, References, External links
Agnes of Merania	Infobox royalty	Agnes of Merania (1175 – July 1201) was Queen of France by marriage to King Philip II. She is called Marie by some of the French chroniclers.
Agnes of Merania	Biography	Biography Agnes Maria was the daughter of Berthold, Duke of Merania and Agnes of Rochlitz. In June 1196, Agnes married Philip II of France, who had repudiated his second wife Ingeborg of Denmark in 1193. Pope Innocent III espoused the cause of Ingeborg; but Philip did not submit until 1200, when, nine months after interdict had been added to excommunication, he consented to a separation from Agnes. Agnes died, possibly in childbirth, in July of the next year, at the castle of Poissy, and was buried in the Convent of St. Corentin, near Nantes.
Agnes of Merania	Family	Family Agnes and Philip had two children: Mary, b. 1198 Philip I, Count of Boulogne, b 1200 Both were legitimized by the Pope in 1201.
Agnes of Merania	References	References
Agnes of Merania	Sources	Sources
Agnes of Merania	External links	External links Category:1175 births Category:1201 deaths Category:Queens consort of France Category:Repudiated queens Category:House of Andechs Category:House of Capet Category:12th-century French people Category:12th-century French women Category:13th-century French people Category:13th-century French women Category:Wives of Philip II of France Category:Deaths in childbirth
Agnes of Merania	Table of Content	Infobox royalty , Biography, Family, References, Sources, External links
Agrippina the Elder	Short description	(Vipsania) Agrippina the Elder (also, in Latin, , "Germanicus's Agrippina"; – AD 33) was a prominent member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. She was the daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (a close supporter of the first Roman emperor, Augustus) and Augustus' daughter, Julia the Elder. Her brothers Lucius and Gaius Caesar were the adoptive sons of Augustus, and were his heirs until their deaths in AD 2 and 4, respectively. Following their deaths, her second cousin Germanicus was made the adoptive son of Tiberius, Augustus' stepson, as part of the succession scheme in the adoptions of AD 4 (in which Tiberius was adopted by Augustus). As a result of the adoption, Agrippina was wed to Germanicus in order to bring him closer to the Julian family. Agrippina the Elder is known to have traveled with Germanicus throughout his career, taking her children wherever they went. In AD 14, Germanicus was deployed in Gaul as a governor and general, and, while there, the late Augustus sent her son Gaius to stay with her. Agrippina liked to dress him in a little soldiers' outfit for which Gaius earned the nickname "Caligula" ("little soldier's boots"). After three years in Gaul, they returned to Rome, and her husband was awarded a triumph on 26 May AD 17 to commemorate his victories. The following year, Germanicus was sent to govern over the eastern provinces. While Germanicus was active in his administration, the governor of Syria Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso began feuding with him. During the feud, her husband died of illness on 10 October AD 19. Germanicus was cremated in Antioch, and she transported his ashes to Rome where they were interred at the Mausoleum of Augustus. Agrippina was vocal in claims of her husband being murdered in order to promote Tiberius' son, Drusus Julius Caesar ("Drusus the Younger"), as heir. Following the model of her stepgrandmother Livia, she spent the time following Germanicus' death supporting the cause of her sons Nero and Drusus Caesar. This put her and her sons at odds with the powerful Praetorian prefect Lucius Aelius Sejanus, who began eliminating their supporters with accusations of treason and sexual misconduct in AD 26. Her family's rivalry with Sejanus would culminate with her and Nero's exile in AD 29. Nero was exiled to Pontia and she was exiled to the island of Pandateria, where she would remain until her death by starvation in AD 33.
Agrippina the Elder	Name	Name Following the Roman custom of parents and children sharing the same nomen and cognomen, women in the same family would often share the same name. Accordingly, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa first daughter with Attica was named Vipsania Agrippina. To distinguish Agrippa and Julia's daughter from their granddaughter Julia Agrippina, historians refer to this daughter as "Agrippina the Elder" (Latin: Agrippina Maior). Likewise, Agrippina's daughter is referred to as "Agrippina the Younger" (Minor). Like her father, Agrippina the Elder avoided her nomen and has not been found to have used "Vipsania" in inscription. An inscription in Rhodiapolis records her with the nomen "Julia", although this appears to be a mistake.
Agrippina the Elder	Background	Background thumb\|left\|A denarius depicting Agrippa wearing a combination of the corona muralis and the corona rostalis. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was an early supporter of Augustus (then "Octavius"). He was a key general in Augustus' armies, commanding troops during the wars against Sextus Pompey and Mark Antony. From early in the emperor's reign, Agrippa was trusted to handle affairs in the eastern provinces and was even given the signet ring of Augustus, who appeared to be on his deathbed in 23BC, a sign that he would become princeps were Augustus to die. It is probable that he was to rule until the emperor's nephew, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, came of age. However, Marcellus died that year of an illness that became an epidemic in Rome.. Now, with Marcellus dead, Augustus arranged for the marriage of Agrippa to his daughter Julia the Elder, who was previously the wife of Marcellus. Agrippa was given tribunicia potestas ("the tribunician power") in 18 BC, a power that only the emperor and his immediate heir could hope to attain. The tribunician power allowed him to control the Senate, and it was first given to Julius Caesar. Agrippa acted as tribune in the Senate to pass important legislation and, though he lacked some of the emperor's power and authority, he was approaching the position of co-regent. After the birth of Agrippa's second son, Lucius, in 17 BC, Lucius and his brother Gaius were adopted together by Augustus. Around the time of their adoption in the summer, Augustus held the fifth ever Ludi Saeculares ("Secular Games"). Cassius Dio says the adoption of the boys coupled with the games served to introduce a new era of peace – the Pax Augusta. It is not known what Agrippa thought of their adoption; however, following their adoption, Agrippa was dispatched to govern the eastern provinces, bringing his family with him..
Agrippina the Elder	Early life and family	Early life and family Agrippina was born in 14 BC to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder, before their return to Rome in 13 BC. She had several siblings, including half-sisters Vipsania Agrippina, Vipsania Attica, Vipsania Marcella and Vipsania Marcellina (from her father's marriages to Pomponia Caecilia Attica and Claudia Marcella Major); and four full siblings, with three brothers; Gaius, Lucius, and Postumus Agrippa (all were adopted by Augustus; Gaius and Lucius were adopted together following Lucius' birth in 17 BC; Postumus in AD 4), and a sister Julia the Younger. She was a prominent member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. On her mother's side, she was the younger granddaughter of Augustus. She was the Stepdaughter of Tiberius by her mother's marriage to him, and sister in law of Claudius, the brother of her husband Germanicus. Her son Gaius, better known as "Caligula", would be the third emperor, and her grandson Nero would be the last emperor of the dynasty. In 13 BC, her father returned to Rome and was promptly sent to Pannonia to suppress a rebellion. Agrippa arrived there that winter (in 12 BC), but the Pannonians gave up that same year. Agrippa returned to Campania in Italy, where he fell ill and died soon after. After her father's death, she spent the rest of her childhood in Augustus' household where access to her was strictly controlled. Some of the currency issued in 13–12 BC, the aurei and denarii, make it clear that her brothers Gaius and Lucius were Augustus' intended heirs. Their father was no longer available to assume the reins of power if the Emperor were to die, and Augustus had to make it clear who his intended heirs were in case anything should happen. Lucius' and Gaius' military and political careers would steadily advance until their deaths in AD 2 and 4, respectively. The death of her brothers meant that Augustus had to find other heirs. Although he initially considered Agrippina's second cousin Germanicus a potential heir for a time, Livia convinced Augustus to adopt Tiberius, Livia's son from her first marriage with Tiberius Claudius Nero. Although Augustus adopted Tiberius, it was on condition that Tiberius first adopt Germanicus so that Germanicus would become second in the line of succession. It was a corollary to the adoption, probably in the next year, that Agrippina was married to Germanicus. By her husband Germanicus, she had nine children: Nero Julius Caesar, Drusus Julius Caesar, Tiberius Julius Caesar, a child of unknown name (normally referenced as Ignotus), Gaius the Elder, the Emperor Caligula (Gaius the Younger), the Empress Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla, and Julia Livilla. Only six of her children came of age; Tiberius and Ignotus died as infants, and Gaius the Elder in his early childhood.
Agrippina the Elder	Marriage	Marriage thumb\|Bronze statue of her husband Germanicus, from Amelia, Umbria Her husband's career in the military began in AD 6, with the Batonian War in Pannonia and Dalmatia. Throughout Germanicus' military career, Agrippina is known to have traveled with her husband and their children. Germanicus' career advanced steadily as he advanced in ranks following the cursus honorum until, in AD 12, he was made consul. The following year, he was given command over Gaul and the forces on the Rhine, totaling eight legions. On 18 May AD 14, her one-year-old son Gaius was sent by Augustus from Rome to join her in Gaul. She was pregnant at the time and, while Germanicus was collecting taxes across Gaul, she remained at an unspecified separate location, presumably for her safety. Augustus sent her a letter with her son's party, which read: Later that year, on 19 August, Augustus died while away in Campania. As a result, Tiberius was made princeps. While Germanicus was administering the oath of fealty to Tiberius, a mutiny began among the forces on the Rhine. During the mutiny, Agrippina brought out their sixth child, Gaius, and made preparations to take him away to a safer town nearby. He was in a full army outfit including the legionary hobnailed boots (caligae). These military-booties earned Gaius the nickname "Caligula" (lit. "little boots"), and garnered sympathy for Agrippina and the child among the soldiery. Tacitus attributes her actions as having quelled the mutiny (Tacitus, Annals 1.40–4). Once the mutiny was put to an end, Germanicus allowed the soldiers to deal with the ringleaders, which they did with brutal severity. He then led them against the Germanic tribes, perhaps in an effort to prevent future mutiny. Germanicus would remain in Gaul fighting against the Germanic tribes until AD 16, at which time he was recalled to Rome by Tiberius. His campaigns won him much renown among the Roman people, and he was awarded a triumph on 26 May AD 17.
Agrippina the Elder	Widowhood	Widowhood thumb\|left\|250px\|Benjamin West, Agrippina Landing at Brundisium with the Ashes of Germanicus (1768), oil on canvas. Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven. In AD 18, Agrippina left for the eastern provinces with her family. Germanicus was sent the east to govern the provinces, the same assignment her father was given years earlier. Agrippina was pregnant on their journey east and, on the way to Syria, she gave birth to her youngest daughter Julia Livilla on the island of Lesbos. Inscriptions celebrating her fertility have been found on the island. Tiberius sent Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso to assist her husband, naming him governor of Syria. During their time there, Germanicus was active in his administration of the eastern regions. Piso did not get along well with Germanicus and their relationship only got worse. In AD 19, Germanicus ordered Piso to leave the province, which Piso began to do. On his way back to Rome, Piso stopped at the island of Kos off the coast of Syria. Around that time Germanicus fell ill and he died on 10 October AD 19 at Antioch. Rumours spread of Piso poisoning her husband on the emperor's orders. After Germanicus' cremation in the forum of Antioch, Agrippina personally carried the ashes of her husband to Rome. The transportation of the ashes witnessed national mourning. She landed at the port of Brundisium in southern Italy where she was met with huge crowds of sympathizers; a praetorian escort was provided by the emperor in light of her rank as the wife of a governor-general. As she passed each town, the people and local magistrates came out to show their respect. Drusus the Younger (son of Tiberius), Claudius, and the consuls journeyed to join the procession as well. Once she made it to Rome, her husband's ashes were interred at the Mausoleum of Augustus. Tiberius and Livia did not make an appearance.
Agrippina the Elder	Life after Germanicus	Life after Germanicus thumb\|right\|Great Cameo of France detail depicting Livia (left), Drusus (center), and Agrippina the Elder (right). Her marriage to Germanicus had served to unite the imperial family. Agrippina may have suspected Tiberius' involvement in the death of her husband and, with Germanicus dead, she no longer had any familial ties to the emperor. Historian Richard Alston says it is likely that either Tiberius or Livia were behind the exile of Agrippina's sister Julia the Younger and the death of Postumus. He notes the death of Agrippina's mother, who starved herself to death amidst her exile in AD 14, linking her death to Tiberius' disdain for her. Agrippina was vocal about her feelings claiming that Germanicus was murdered to promote Drusus the Younger as Tiberius' heir, and worried that the birth of the Younger Drusus' twin sons would displace her own sons in the line of succession. At about this time, Tiberius' Praetorian Prefect Sejanus was becoming powerful in Rome and began feuding with Drusus the Younger. While the exact causes of the feud are unknown, it ended when the Younger Drusus died of seemingly natural causes on 14 September AD 23. After the death of Tiberius' son, Agrippina wanted to advance the careers of her sons, who were all potential heirs for Tiberius. It has been suggested that to achieve this, Agrippina commissioned the Great Cameo of France and presented it to Tiberius as a personalized gift that positioned the family of Germanicus around the emperor. The work was designed to convince Tiberius to choose her children as his heirs. Ultimately, the death of Tiberius' son elevated her own children to the position of heirs. Her sons were the logical choice, because they were the sons of Germanicus and Tiberius' grandsons were too young. Nero was becoming popular in the Senate due in part, Tacitus says, to his resemblance with his father. The rise of her children was threatening to Sejanus' position. Resultantly, Sejanus began spreading rumors about Agrippina in the imperial court. The coming years were marked with increasing hostility between Sejanus and Agrippina and her sons. This effectively caused factions to rise in the aristocracy between her family and Sejanus.
Agrippina the Elder	Political rivalry	Political rivalry thumb\|left\|300px\|Bronze sestertius of Caligula with Agrippina on the obverse, minted circa AD 37. On New Year's Day, AD 24, Sejanus had the priests and magistrates add prayers for the health of Nero and Drusus in addition to those normally offered to the emperor on that day. Tiberius was not happy with this and he voiced his displeasure in the Senate. In addition, he questioned the priests of the Palatine. Some of the priests who offered the prayers were relatives of Agrippina and Germanicus. This made Tiberius suspicious of her and marked a change in his attitude toward her and her older sons, but not Caligula. In AD 25, Sejanus requested Livilla's hand in marriage. Livilla was a niece of the emperor, which would have made him a member of the imperial family. While this did make his ambitions clear, his request was denied. The loss may have been huge for Sejanus had the dissensions in the imperial household not been deteriorating. Relations were so bad that Agrippina refused to eat at Tiberius' dinner parties for fear of being poisoned. She also asked Tiberius if she could be allowed to remarry, which he also refused. If either of them were allowed to remarry it would have threatened the line of succession that Tiberius was comfortable with. By refusing Sejanus' request, Tiberius made it clear he was content with the children of Germanicus and his own grandchildren being his successors. Had Sejanus married Livilla, their children would have provided another line of possible successors. The implication of Agrippina's request was that she needed a man from outside the imperial family to serve as protector and step-father of possible imperial heirs, a powerful position. It was also an implied reprimand: Tiberius was meant to be the guardian of the imperial family. Tiberius was in a tough position. He was faced with a conflict between his family and his friend. His solution was surprising. In AD 26, he left Rome altogether and retired to the island of Capri in the Bay of Naples. He cut himself off from the factions altogether and abandoned politics. He left Rome in the care of Sejanus. This allowed Sejanus to freely attack his rivals.
Agrippina the Elder	Downfall	Downfall With Tiberius away from Rome, the city would see a rise of politically motivated trials on the part of Sejanus and his supporters against Agrippina and her associates. Many of her friends and associates were subsequently accused of maiestas ("treason") by the growing number of accusers. It was also common to see charges of sexual misconduct and corruption. In AD 27, Agrippina found herself placed under house arrest in her suburban villa outside Herculaneum. In AD 28, the Senate voted that altars to Clementia (mercy) and Amicitia (friendship) be raised. At that time, Clementia was considered a virtue of the ruling class, for only the powerful could give clemency. The altar of Amicitia was flanked by statues of Sejanus and Tiberius. By this time, his association with Tiberius was such that there were those in Roman society who erected statues in his honor and gave prayers and sacrifices in his honor. Sejanus' birthday was honored as if he were a member of the imperial family. According to Richard Alston, "Sejanus' association with Tiberius must have at least indicated to the people that he would be further elevated." Sejanus did not begin his final attack on Agrippina until after the death of Livia in AD 29. Tacitus reports a letter being sent to the Senate from Tiberius denouncing Agrippina for her arrogance and prideful attitude, and Nero for engaging in shameful sexual activities. The Senate would not begin these highly unpopular prosecutions against her or her son until it received clear instructions from Tiberius to do so. Despite public outcry, Agrippina and Nero were declared public enemies (hostes) following a repeat of the accusations by the emperor. They were both exiled; Nero to Pontia where he was killed or encouraged to commit suicide in AD 31, and Agrippina to the island of Pandateria (the same place her daughter was exiled to). Suetonius says that while on the island of Pandateria, she lost an eye when she was beaten by a centurion. She would remain on the island until her death in AD 33. Accounts of her death vary. She is said to have died from starvation, but it is not certain whether or not it was self-imposed. Tacitus says food was withheld from her in an effort to make her death seem like a suicide.
Agrippina the Elder	Post mortem	Post mortem thumb\|upright\|Caligula Depositing the Ashes of his Mother and Brother in the Tomb of his Ancestors, painting by Eustache Le Sueur (1647) thumb\|Cinerary urn of Agrippina which now rests in the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Capitoline Museums near the Tabularium. Her son Drusus was later also exiled on charges of sexual misdemeanors. Sejanus remained powerful until his sudden downfall and summary execution in October AD 31, just after the death of Nero, the exact cause for which remains unclear. Alston suggests that Sejanus may have been acting in Tiberius' favor to remove Germanicus' family from power, noting that Agrippina and Nero's brother Drusus were left in exile even after Sejanus' death. The deaths of Agrippina's older sons elevated her youngest son Caligula to the position of successor and he became princeps when Tiberius died in AD 37. Drusus the Younger's son Tiberius Gemellus was summoned to Capri by his grandfather Tiberius, where he and Caligula were made joint-heirs. When Caligula assumed power he made Gemellus his adopted son, but Caligula soon had Gemellus killed for plotting against him. According to Philo, Caligula's pretended reason was a conspiracy.Philo, Against Flaccus 3.11 After he became emperor, Caligula took on the role of a dutiful son and brother in a public show of pietas ("piety"). He went out to the islands of Pontia and Pandateria in order to recover the remains of Agrippina and Nero. It was not easy to recover Nero's bones as they were scattered and buried. Moreover, he had a stormy passage; however, the difficulty in his task made his devotion seem even greater. The ashes were brought to Ostia, from where they were carried up the Tiber and brought to the Campus Martius, from where equestrians placed them on briers to join the ashes of Germanicus in the mausoleum of Augustus. The move was reminiscent of when Agrippina carried the ashes of her husband just over 17 years earlier. Agrippina's funerary urn still survives (). The tablet made of marble reads: "OSSA AGRIPPINAE M AGRIPPAE F DIVI AVG NEPTIS VXORIS GERMANICI CAESARIS MATRIS C CAESARIS AVG GERMANICI PRINCIPIS" which translates as "Bones of Agrippina; daughter of Marcus Agrippa, granddaughter of Divus Augustus, wife of Germanicus Caesar, mother of Princeps Gaius Caesar Germanicus".
Agrippina the Elder	Personality	Personality Agrippina was fiercely independent, a trait she shared with her mother. Dio described her as having ambitions to match her pedigree. However, Anthony A. Barrett notes that Agrippina was fully aware that a woman in ancient Rome could not hold power in her own right. Instead, Agrippina followed the model of Livia in promoting the careers of her children. She and her daughter, Agrippina the Younger, are both described as being equally ambitious for their sons. Whereas the elder Agrippina's son failed to become emperor, the younger Agrippina's son, also named Nero, succeeds. In a contrast, Tacitus has Agrippina the Elder merely standing on a bridge waving the soldiers passing by, whereas her daughter eclipses her by presiding over a military tribunal and accepting gifts from foreign ambassadors. Tacitus also records serious tension between Agrippina and Livia. He describes Livia as having visited "stepmotherly provocations" on Agrippina. He says of Agrippina: "were it not that through her moral integrity and love for her husband she converted an otherwise ungovernable temper to the good" (Tacitus, Annals 1.33). Despite being sympathetic to her as a victim of imperial oppression, he uses expressions like "excitable", "arrogant", "proud", "fierce", "obstinate", and "ambitious" to describe Agrippina. His comments are echoed by other sources.
Agrippina the Elder	Historiography	Historiography Historian Lindsay Powell says Agrippina enjoyed a normal marriage and continued to show her devotion to Germanicus after his death. He says she was regarded by the Roman people as, quoting Tacitus, "the glory of the country, the sole surviving offspring of Augustus, the solitary example of the good old times." Alston cautions against accepting the stories of Agrippina's feud with Sejanus at face value, as these accounts reflect a tradition hostile to Tiberius and Sejanus. They may have been circulated by Agrippina's supporters or they may have emerged after Sejanus' fall in AD 31. He adds: "These stories are plausible, though not certain to be true."
Agrippina the Elder	Suetonius	Suetonius Augustus was proud of Agrippina. Suetonius claims that Augustus wrote her a letter praising her intellect and directing her education. Suetonius also records that Augustus, who held strict views on self-restraint and respectable speech, cautioned Agrippina not to speak "offensively". When she next appears, she is being chastised by Tiberius in Greek for making irritating remarks, and the tone of the Greek verse quoted by Tiberius suggests that she should have heeded the advice of her grandfather not to speak offensively.
Agrippina the Elder	Tacitus	Tacitus The Annals of Tacitus is a history of the Julio-Claudian dynasty beginning with the death of Augustus. In it, he portrays women as having a profound influence on politics. The women of the imperial family in particular are depicted by Tacitus as having a notable prominence in the public sphere as well as possessing a ferocity and ambition with which they pursue it. Tacitus presents them as living longer than the imperial men and thus being more wise as they advance in age. Among the most broad of his portrayals is that of Agrippina. He emphasizes their role in connecting genetically back to Augustus, a significant factor in the marriages of the emperors and princes of the dynasty. The Annals repeatedly has Agrippina competing for influence with Tiberius simply because she is related to Augustus biologically. Tacitus presents Agrippina as being kindred to aristocratic males, and has her reversing gender roles, which showcases her assumption of male auctoritas ("authority") with metaphors of her dressing and undressing. In an example of Agrippina assuming auctoritas, he says: Using the above epithet, "(femina) ingens animi" ("..[a woman], great for her courage"), he assigns a haughty attitude to Agrippina that compels her to explore the affairs of men. He records her as having reversed the natural order of things when she quelled the mutiny of the Rhine in AD 14. In so doing, he describes her as having usurped her husband's power, a power rightfully belonging only to a general.
Agrippina the Elder	Portraiture	Portraiture thumb\|right\|The Gemma Claudia (AD 50) depicting Claudius (front left), Agrippina the Younger (back left), Germanicus (front right), and Agrippina the Elder (back right). thumb\|Marble bust, Istanbul Archaeology Museum Portraits of Roman women from the Julio-Claudian dynasty display a freer hair treatment than those of traditional Roman men and are more keen on the sensitivity of recording on different textures. These changes in style served to make reproducing them more popular in the mid-first-century AD. Reproductions of her image would continue to be made into that period. In the portrait, she is given a youthful face despite the fact that she lived to middle age. Agrippina's hair is a mass of curls that covers both sides of her head and is long going down to her shoulders. Her portraiture can be contrasted with that of Livia who had a more austere Augustan hairstyle. There are three different periods during the first-century AD when portraits were created for Agrippina: at the time of her marriage to Germanicus (which made her the mother of a potential emperor); when her son Caligula came into power in AD 37, and collected her ashes from the island of Pandateria for relocation to the Mausoleum of Augustus; and at the time of Claudius' marriage to Agrippina the Younger, who wanted to connect himself to the lineage of Augustus by evoking Agrippina's image. Coins and inscriptions cannot act as a method of discerning her age, because her hairstyle remains unchanged in all the representations. The easiest phase of portraits to identify are those dating to the time of Caligula, when a fair abundance of coins were minted with an image of his mother on them. It is a posthumous portrait of her with idealized features. In the phase following Claudius' marriage, her features are made to more closely resemble those of her daughter. The goal was to strengthen Agrippina the Younger's connection with her mother. Finally, the portraits of her dating to the time of Tiberius are still idealized, but not as much as those from the period of Caligula's reign. Images of Agrippina from this period are the most lifelike.
Agrippina the Elder	Cultural depictions	Cultural depictions Agrippina is one of the few women from the Roman imperial period whose story was recounted in later centuries as an example of moral character. Her journey to deposit the ashes of her husband was popular with eighteenth century painters, including William Turner, Gavin Hamilton, and Benjamin West whose painting Agrippina Landing at Brundisium with the Ashes of Germanicus (1768) began the trend. She is also remembered in De Mulieribus Claris, a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, composed in 136162. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature. Other notable works of which include: Agrippina Mourning over the ashes of Germanicus (1775), an etching by Scottish painter Alexander Runciman. The Caesars (1968), a television series by Philip Mackie for Granada TV. She was played by Caroline Blakiston. I, Claudius (1976), a television series by Jack Pulman for the BBC. She was played by Fiona Walker.
Agrippina the Elder	See also	See also Julio-Claudian family tree Gaius Silius
Agrippina the Elder	Notes	Notes
Agrippina the Elder	References	References
Agrippina the Elder	Bibliography	Bibliography
Agrippina the Elder	External links	External links Category:10s BC births Category:33 deaths Category:1st-century BC Roman women Category:1st-century Roman women Category:1st-century Romans Category:Ancient Roman women in warfare Category:Burials at the Mausoleum of Augustus Category:Children of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Category:Deaths by starvation Category:Germanicus Category:Julio-Claudian dynasty Category:Vipsanii Agrippae Category:Women in 1st-century warfare Category:Year of birth uncertain Category:Mothers of Roman emperors
Agrippina the Elder	Table of Content	Short description, Name, Background, Early life and family, Marriage, Widowhood, Life after Germanicus, Political rivalry, Downfall, Post mortem, Personality, Historiography, Suetonius, Tacitus, Portraiture, Cultural depictions, See also, Notes, References, Bibliography, External links
Agrippina the Younger	Short description	Julia Agrippina (6 November AD 15 – 23 March AD 59), also referred to as Agrippina the Younger, was Roman empress from AD 49 to 54, the fourth wife and niece of emperor Claudius, and the mother of Nero. Agrippina was one of the most prominent women in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. She was the great-granddaughter of Augustus (the first Roman emperor) and the daughter of the Roman general Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder. Her father, Germanicus, was the nephew and heir apparent of the second emperor, Tiberius. Agrippina's brother Caligula became emperor in AD 37. After Caligula was assassinated in AD 41, Germanicus' brother Claudius took the throne. Agrippina married Claudius in AD 49. Agrippina has been described by modern and ancient sources as ruthless, ambitious, domineering and using her powerful political ties to influence the affairs of the Roman state, even managing to successfully maneuver her son Nero into the line of succession. Claudius eventually became aware of her plotting, but died in AD 54 under suspicious circumstances, potentially poisoned by Agrippina herself.Tacitus, Annals XII.66; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.34; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 44; Josephus is less sure, Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.1. She exerted significant political influence in the early years of her son's reign, but eventually fell out of favor with him and was killed in AD 59. Physically, Agrippina was described as a beautiful and reputable woman; and, according to Pliny the Elder, had a double canine in her upper right jaw, which was regarded as a sign of good fortune in Ancient Rome.
Agrippina the Younger	Family	Family Agrippina was the first daughter and fourth living child of Agrippina the Elder and Germanicus. She had three elder brothers, Nero Caesar, Drusus Caesar, and the future emperor Caligula, and two younger sisters, Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla. Agrippina's two eldest brothers and her mother were victims of the intrigues of the Praetorian Prefect Lucius Aelius Sejanus. She was the namesake of her mother. Agrippina the Elder was remembered as a modest and heroic matron, who was the second daughter and fourth child of Julia the Elder and the statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. The father of Julia the Elder was the emperor Augustus, and Julia was his only natural child from his second marriage to Scribonia, who had close blood relations with Pompey the Great and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Germanicus, Agrippina's father, was a very popular general and politician. His mother was Antonia Minor and his father was the general Nero Claudius Drusus. He was Antonia Minor's first child. Germanicus had two younger siblings: Livilla and Claudius, making the pair Agrippina's aunt and uncle, respectively. Not only would Claudius later serve as Roman emperor, he would also go on to take Agrippina, his own niece, as his wife. Antonia Minor was a daughter to Octavia the Younger by her second marriage to triumvir Mark Antony, and Octavia was the second eldest sister and full-blooded sister of Augustus. Germanicus' father, Drusus the Elder, was the second son of the Empress Livia Drusilla by her first marriage to praetor Tiberius Nero, and was the emperor Tiberius's younger brother and Augustus's stepson. In the year AD 9, Augustus ordered Tiberius to adopt Germanicus, who happened to be Tiberius's nephew, as his son and heir. Germanicus was a favourite of Augustus, who hoped that he would succeed Tiberius, who was Augustus's adopted son and heir and then emperor following Augustus' death in AD 14. This in turn meant that Tiberius was also Agrippina's adoptive grandfather in addition to her paternal great-uncle.
Agrippina the Younger	Birth and early life	Birth and early life Agrippina was born on 6 November in AD 15, or possibly AD 14, at Oppidum Ubiorum, a Roman outpost on the Rhine River located in present-day Cologne, Germany.Gaius Stern, "Caligula's Three Sisters" suggests that the sisters of Caligula were born at two-year intervals – Agrippina in AD 14, Drusilla in AD 16, and Livilla in AD 18, contra Suetonius "the girls were born in three consecutive years." Tac. Ann 2.54 disproves Suetonius' claim, placing Livilla's birthday in AD 18. Note the births of Agrippina the Younger and Drusilla are only 10 months apart if Suetonius is correct. But Drusilla was clearly born in AD 18. A second sister Julia Drusilla was born on 16 September AD 16, also in Germany.Lindsay Powell Germanicus (Pen and Sword 2013), 116, cites = ILS 1837, = ILS 194, = ILS 195, for the birth and location of Julia Drusilla. Agrippina's place of birth is disputed, with Cologne being seen as a likely place considering how Agrippina would favor the city and the Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium being established at her prompting there. Suetonius however claims that both of Germanicus's eldest daughters were born in Trier in Gaul. As a small child, Agrippina travelled with her parents throughout Germany until she and her siblings (apart from Caligula) returned to Rome to live with and be raised by their paternal grandmother Antonia. Her parents departed for Syria in AD 18 to conduct official duties, and, according to Tacitus, the third and youngest sister was born en route on the island of Lesbos, namely Julia Livilla, probably on 18 March.Tacitus, Annals. 2.54. See also local inscriptions found by Lindsay Powell Germanicus (Pen and Sword 2013), p. 132 n. 96, , and others, as well as local coins. In October of AD 19, Germanicus died suddenly in Antioch (present-day Antakya, Turkey). Germanicus' death caused much public grief in Rome, and gave rise to rumours that he had been murdered by Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso and Munatia Plancina on the orders of Tiberius, as his widow Agrippina the Elder returned to Rome with his ashes. Agrippina the Younger was thereafter supervised by her mother, her paternal grandmother Antonia Minor, and her great-grandmother, Livia. She lived on the Palatine Hill in Rome.
Agrippina the Younger	Marriage to Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus	Marriage to Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus thumb\|left\|Bust of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus\|290x290px After her thirteenth birthday in AD 28, Tiberius arranged for Agrippina to marry her paternal first cousin once removed Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and ordered the marriage to be celebrated in Rome.Tacitus, Annals 4.75. Domitius came from a distinguished family of consular rank. Through his mother Antonia Major, Domitius was a great nephew of Augustus, first cousin to Claudius, and first cousin once removed to Agrippina and Caligula. He had two sisters; Domitia Lepida the Elder and Domitia Lepida the Younger. Domitia Lepida the Younger was the mother of the Empress Valeria Messalina. Antonia Major was the elder sister to Antonia Minor, and the first daughter of Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. Domitius, who was, according to Suetonius, "in every aspect of his life detestable," served as consul in AD 32. Agrippina and Domitius lived between Antium and Rome. Not much is known about the relationship between them.
Agrippina the Younger	Reign of Caligula	Reign of Caligula thumb\|right\|upright=1.4\|During the reign of Caligula, coins like the one pictured here were issued depicting his three sisters, Drusilla, Livilla, and Agrippina the Younger.
Agrippina the Younger	Public role and political intrigues	Public role and political intrigues Tiberius died on 16 March AD 37, and Agrippina's only surviving brother, Caligula, became the new emperor. Being the emperor's sister gave Agrippina some influence. Agrippina and her younger sisters Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla received various honours from their brother, which included but were not limited to receiving the rights of the Vestal Virgins, such as the freedom to view public games from the upper seats in the stadium; being honoured with a new type of coinage, depicting images of Caligula and his sisters on opposite faces; having their names added to motions, including loyalty oaths (e.g., "I will not value my life or that of my children less highly than I do the safety of the Emperor and his sisters") and consular motions (e.g., "Good fortune attend to the Emperor and his sisters)". Around the time that Tiberius died, Agrippina had become pregnant. Domitius had acknowledged the paternity of the child. On 15 December AD 37, in the early morning, in Antium, Agrippina gave birth to a son. Agrippina and Domitius named their son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, after Domitius' recently deceased father. This child would grow up to become the emperor Nero. Nero was Agrippina's only natural child. Suetonius states that Domitius was congratulated by friends on the birth of his son, whereupon he replied "I don't think anything produced by me and Agrippina could possibly be good for the state or the people". Caligula and his sisters were accused of having incestuous relationships. On 10 June AD 38, Drusilla died, possibly of a fever, rampant in Rome at the time. Caligula was particularly fond of Drusilla, claiming to treat her as he would his own wife, even though Drusilla had a husband. Following her death, Caligula showed no special love or respect toward the surviving sisters and was said to have gone insane. In AD 39, Agrippina and Livilla, with their maternal cousin, Drusilla's widower Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, were involved in a failed plot to murder Caligula, a plot known as the Plot of the Three Daggers, which was to make Lepidus the new emperor. Lepidus, Agrippina and Livilla were accused of being lovers. Not much is known concerning this plot and the reasons behind it. At the trial of Lepidus, Caligula felt no compunction about denouncing them as adulteresses, producing handwritten letters discussing how they were going to kill him. The three were found guilty as accessories to the crime.
Agrippina the Younger	Exile	Exile Lepidus was executed. According to the fragmentary inscriptions of the Arval Brethren, Agrippina was forced to carry the urn of Lepidus' ashes back to Rome. Agrippina and Livilla were exiled by their brother to the Ponza, in Pontine Islands, an archipelago of small volcanic islands about 70 miles away from Rome. Caligula sold their furniture, jewellery, slaves and freedmen. In January of AD 40, Domitius died of edema (dropsy) at Pyrgi. Lucius had gone to live with his second paternal aunt Domitia Lepida the Younger after Caligula had taken his inheritance away from him. Caligula, his wife Milonia Caesonia and their daughter Julia Drusilla were murdered on 24 January AD 41. Agrippina's paternal uncle, Claudius, brother of her father Germanicus, became the new Roman emperor.
Agrippina the Younger	Reign of Claudius	Reign of Claudius
Agrippina the Younger	Return from exile	Return from exile thumb\|upright=1.2\|Messalina holding her son Britannicus (Louvre) Claudius lifted the exiles of Agrippina and Livilla. Livilla returned to her husband, while Agrippina was reunited with her estranged son. After the death of her first husband, Agrippina tried to make shameless advances on the future emperor Galba. He showed no interest, being devoted to his wife Aemilia Lepida. On one occasion, Galba's mother-in-law gave Agrippina a public reprimand and a slap in the face before a whole bevy of married women.C. Suetonius Tranquillus Suetonius. Twelve Caesars: Galba. Claudius had Lucius' inheritance reinstated. Lucius became more wealthy despite his youth shortly after Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus divorced Lucius' aunt, Domitia Lepida the Elder (Lucius' first paternal aunt) so that Crispus could marry Agrippina. They married, and Crispus became a step-father to Lucius. Crispus was an influential, wealthy and powerful man who served twice as consul. He was the adopted grandson and biological great-great-nephew of the historian Sallust. Little is known about their relationship, but Crispus soon died and left his estate to Nero. During the first years his reign, Claudius was married to the Empress Valeria Messalina. Messalina was Agrippina's paternal second cousin. Among the victims of Messalina's intrigues were Agrippina's surviving sister Livilla, who was charged with adultery with Seneca the Younger. Although Agrippina was very influential at this time, she kept a low profile and stayed away from the imperial palace and the court of the emperor. Messalina considered Agrippina's son a threat to her son's position and sent assassins to strangle Lucius during his siesta. The assassins left after they saw a snake beneath Lucius' pillow, considering it a bad omen. It was, however, only a sloughed-off snake-skin. By Agrippina's order, the serpent's skin was enclosed in a bracelet that the young Lucius wore on his right arm. In AD 47, Crispus died. At his funeral, a rumour spread that Agrippina had poisoned Crispus to gain his estate. After being widowed a second time, Agrippina was left very wealthy. Later that year, Messalina and Britannicus attended the performance of the Troy Pageant at the Secular Games, where Agrippina was also present with Lucius. Agrippina and Lucius received greater applause from the audience than Messalina and Britannicus did. Many people began to show pity and sympathy to Agrippina, due to the unfortunate circumstances of her life.Tacitus Annals 11.11–12
Agrippina the Younger	Marriage to Claudius	Marriage to Claudius Messalina was executed in AD 48 for conspiring with Gaius Silius to overthrow her husband. Around this time, Agrippina became the mistress to one of Claudius' advisers, the Greek freedman Marcus Antonius Pallas. After ending his marriage, Claudius considered remarrying for the fourth time and his advisers began discussing which noblewoman he should marry. Claudius had a reputation that he was easily persuaded; but it has been suggested that the Senate may have pushed for the marriage between Agrippina and Claudius to end the feud between the Julian and Claudian branches.Scramuzza (1940) pp. 91–92. See also Tac. Ann. XII 6, 7; Suet. Claud. 26. This feud dated back to Agrippina's mother's actions against Tiberius after the death of Germanicus. Another reason was to bring in Agrippina's son, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, as a candidate for the succession. His prestige as the descendent of Augustus and Germanicus would have helped the survival of Claudius' regime. Claudius was said to have made references to her in his speeches: "my daughter and foster child, born and bred, in my lap, so to speak".Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 39 When Claudius decided to marry her, he persuaded a group of senators that the marriage should be arranged in the public interest. In Roman society, an uncle (Claudius) marrying his niece (Agrippina) was considered incestuous and immoral.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 26 Agrippina and Claudius married on New Year's Day in AD 49 and the marriage was met with widespread disapproval. Agrippina's marriage to Claudius was not based on love, but powerpossibly being a part of her plan to make her son Lucius the new emperor. Shortly after marrying Claudius, Agrippina eliminated her rival Lollia Paulina by persuading Claudius to charge Paulina with allegations of black magic use. Claudius stipulated that Paulina did not receive a hearing and her property was confiscated. She left Italy, but Agrippina was unsatisfied. Allegedly on Agrippina's orders, a tribune forced Lollia Paulina to commit suicide.<ref>Tacitus, Annals' 12.22</ref> In the months leading up to her marriage to Claudius, Agrippina's maternal second cousin, the praetor Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus, was betrothed to Claudius' daughter Claudia Octavia. This betrothal was broken off in AD 48, when Agrippina, scheming with the consul Lucius Vitellius the Elder, the father of the future emperor Aulus Vitellius, falsely accused Silanus of incest with his sister Junia Calvina. Agrippina did this hoping to secure a marriage between Octavia and her son. Consequently, Claudius broke off the engagement and forced Silanus to resign from public office.Tacitus, Annals 12.4; The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 27; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.31.8 Silanus committed suicide on the day that Agrippina married her uncle, and Calvina was exiled from Italy in early AD 49. Calvina was called back from exile after the death of Agrippina. Towards the end of AD 54, Agrippina would order the murder of Silanus' eldest brother Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus without Nero's knowledge, so that he would not seek revenge against her over his brother's death. Empress thumb\|upright=1.4\|Denarius of Agrippina and Claudius, minted in AD 50–54. She was the first Roman empress to be depicted on official Roman coins in an unambiguous manner Agrippina became empress in AD 49 upon marrying her uncle Claudius. She also became stepmother to Claudia Antonia, Claudius' daughter and only child from his second marriage to Aelia Paetina; and to the young Claudia Octavia and Britannicus, Claudius' children with Valeria Messalina. Agrippina removed or eliminated anyone from the palace or the imperial court whom she thought was loyal and dedicated to the memory of the late Messalina. She also eliminated or removed anyone whom she considered was a potential threat to her position and the future of her son, one of her victims being Lucius' second paternal aunt and Messalina's mother Domitia Lepida the Younger. Griffin describes how Agrippina "had achieved this dominant position for her son and herself by a web of political alliances," which included Claudius chief secretary and bookkeeper Pallas, his doctor Xenophon, and Afranius Burrus: the head of the Praetorian Guard (the imperial bodyguard), who owed his promotion to Agrippina. Neither ancient nor modern historians of Rome have doubted that Agrippina had her eye on securing the throne for Nero from the very day of the marriageif not earlier. Dio Cassius observation seems to bear that out: "As soon as Agrippina had come to live in the palace she gained complete control over Claudius." In AD 49, Agrippina was seated on a dais at a parade of captives when their leader the Celtic King Caratacus bowed before her with the same homage and gratitude as he accorded the emperor.Tacitus, Annals 12.37 In AD 50, Agrippina was granted the honorific title of Augusta. She was third Roman woman (after Livia Drusilla and Antonia Minor) and only the second living Roman woman (the first being Livia) to receive this title. In her capacity as Augusta, Agrippina quickly became a trusted advisor to Claudius, and by AD 54, she exerted a considerable influence over the decisions of the emperor. Statues of her were erected in many cities across the Empire and her face appeared on official Roman coins unambiguously, a first for a living empress. In the Senate, her followers were advanced with public offices and governorships. She listened to the Senate from behind the scenes. According to Cassius Dio, Agrippina was often present with Claudius in public, seated on her own platform, when he was transacting government businesses or receiving foreign ambassadors.Cassius Dio, Historia Romana LX.33.7. Pliny the Elder writes that he saw her seated beside the emperor during mock naval combats, wearing a golden cloak.Pliny, Natural History 33.19; Tacitus, Annals 12.56 Tacitus claims that she boasted being a "partner in the empire".Tacitus, Annals 12.37 However, this privileged position caused resentment among the senatorial class and the imperial family. Also that year, Claudius founded a Roman colony and called the colony Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensis or Agrippinensium, today known as Cologne, after Agrippina who was born there.Tacitus, Annals 12.27 This was the only Roman colony to be named after a Roman woman. In AD 51, she was given a carpentum: a ceremonial carriage usually reserved for priests such as the Vestal Virgins and sacred statues. That same year she secured the appointment of Sextus Afranius Burrus as the head of the Praetorian Guard, replacing the previous head of the Praetorian Guard, Rufrius Crispinus.Tacitus, Annals 12.42 She assisted Claudius in administering the empire and became very wealthy and powerful. Ancient sources claim that Agrippina successfully influenced Claudius into adopting her son and making him his successor. Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus was adopted by his great maternal uncle and stepfather in AD 50. Lucius' name was changed to Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus and he became Claudius's adopted son, heir and recognized successor. Agrippina and Claudius betrothed Nero to his step sister Claudia Octavia, and Agrippina arranged to have Seneca the Younger return from exile to tutor the future emperor. Claudius chose to adopt Nero because of his Julian and Claudian lineage.Tacitus, Annals XII.25. Agrippina deprived Britannicus of his heritage and further isolated him from his father and succession for the throne in every way possible. For instance, in AD 51, Agrippina ordered the execution of Britannicus' tutor Sosibius. Sosibus had confronted her, outraged by Claudius' adoption of Nero and his choice of Nero as successor over his own son Britannicus.Some compare this to when Tiberius had chosen Caligula and the other grandson Tiberius Gemellus "without any approbation." Why would there be any approbation? Tiberius had few descendants and Gemellus was the youngest of all of them. First Tiberius designated the older brothers of Caligula (his adopted son's sons) as his successors. Later he accused and imprisoned them. All he had left was Caligula (by then over 20) and Gemellus (under 10). There would be more approbation for overlooking Caligula in Gemellus' favour. Nero and Octavia were married on 9 June AD 53. Claudius later regretted marrying Agrippina and adopting Nero and began to favor Britannicus, preparing him for the throne. These actions gave Agrippina a motive to allegedly eliminate Claudius. Ancient sources say she poisoned Claudius on 13 October AD 54 with a plate of deadly mushrooms at a banquet, thus enabling Nero to quickly take the throne as emperor. Accounts vary wildly with regard to this private incident, and according to more modern sources, it is possible that Claudius died of natural causes, being 63 years old. In the aftermath of Claudius's death, Agrippina, who initially kept the death secret, tried to consolidate power by immediately ordering that the palace and the capital be sealed. After all the gates were blockaded and exit of the capital forbidden, she introduced Nero first to the soldiers and then to the senators as emperor. Reign of Nero Relationship with Nero thumb\|left\|upright=0.8\|Marble bust of Nero. Antiquarium of the Palatine. Nero was raised to emperor and Agrippina was named a priestess of the cult of the deified Claudius. She now attempted to use her son's youth to participate in the rule of the Roman Empire. She enjoyed imperial prerogatives: being allowed to visit the senate meetings from behind a curtain, and appearing as a partner to her son in the official coinage and statues. The historian Tacitus depicts her as attempting a diarchy with her son when she demanded that the Praetorian Guard pledge their loyalty to her. She was also said to have tried to participate in her son's meeting with Armenian ambassadors until Seneca and Burrus persuaded Nero to stop her.Tacitus, Annals 13.5.3. thumb\|upright=0.8\|Sculpture of Agrippina crowning her young son Nero ( AD 54–59) In year one of Nero's reign, Agrippina began losing influence over Nero when he began to have an affair with the freed woman Claudia Acte, which Agrippina strongly disapproved of and violently scolded him for. Agrippina began to support Britannicus in her possible attempt to make him emperor, or to threaten Nero. The panicking emperor decided on whether to eliminate his mother or his step-brother. Soon, Nero had Britannicus secretly poisoned during his own banquet in February AD 55. The power struggle between Agrippina and her son had begun.Rome: Agrippina the Younger – Background and Rise to Prominence, by Lily Ophelia. Between AD 56 and 58, Agrippina became very watchful and critical of her son. In AD 56, Agrippina was forced out of the palace by her son to live in the imperial residence. However, Agrippina retained some degree of influence over her son for several more years, and they are considered the best years of Nero's reign. But, as their relationship grew more hostile, Nero gradually began to deprive his mother of honours and power, and even removed her Roman and German bodyguards. Nero even threatened his mother that he would abdicate the throne and would go to live on the Greek Island of Rhodes, a place where Tiberius had lived after divorcing Julia the Elder. Pallas also was dismissed from the court. The fall of Pallas and the opposition of Burrus and Seneca to Agrippina contributed to her scaling down of authority. In mid AD 56, she was forced out of everyday and active participation in the governance of Rome.Simon Hornblower, Antony Spawforth – E.A. (edd.), Oxford Classical Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003. While Agrippina lived in her residence or when she went on short visits to Rome, Nero sent people to annoy her. Although living in Misenum, she was always hailed as "Augusta", and Agrippina and Nero would see each other on short visits. In late AD 58, Agrippina and a group of soldiers and senators were accused of attempting to overthrow Nero, and it was said they planned to move with Gaius Rubellius Plautus.Tacitus, Annals 13.19. In addition, she revealed Nero's relationship with Poppaea Sabina. Death and aftermath The circumstances that surround Agrippina's death are uncertain due to historical contradictions and anti-Nero bias. However, ancient accounts agree that Nero had her murdered following an unsuccessful attempt on her life on a boat. thumb\|Nero before the corpse of his mother, Agrippina the Younger, by Arturo Montero y Calvo, 1887 Tacitus's account According to Tacitus, in AD 58, Nero became involved with the noble woman Poppaea Sabina. She taunted him for being a "mummy's boy". She also convinced him of the autonomy of any other emperor. With the reasoning that a divorce from Octavia and a marriage to Poppaea was not politically feasible with Agrippina alive, Nero decided to kill Agrippina.Tacitus, Annals XIV.1. Yet, Nero did not marry Poppaea until AD 62, calling into question this motive.See Dawson, Alexis, "Whatever Happened to Lady Agrippina?" Classical Quarterly (1969) p. 264. Additionally, Suetonius reveals that Poppaea's husband, Otho, was not sent away by Nero until after Agrippina's death in AD 59, making it highly unlikely that already married Poppaea would be pressing Nero.Suetonius, The Lives of Caesars, Life of Otho 3. Some modern historians theorise that Nero's decision to kill Agrippina was prompted by her plot to replace him with either Gaius Rubellius Plautus (Nero's maternal second cousin) or Britannicus (Claudius' biological son).Rogers, Robert. Heirs and Rivals to Nero, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 86. (1955), p. 202. Silana accuses Agrippina of plotting to bring up Plautus in 55, Tacitus, Annals XIII.19; Silana is recalled from exile after Agrippina's power waned, Tacitus, Annals XIV.12; Plautus is exiled in 60, Tacitus, Annals XIV.22. Tacitus claims that Nero considered poisoning or stabbing her, but felt these methods were too difficult and suspicious, so he settled on – after the advice of his former tutor and freedman Anicetus – building a self-sinking boat.Tacitus, Annals XIV.3. Though aware of the plot, Agrippina embarked on this boat and was nearly crushed by a collapsing lead ceiling only to be saved by the side of a couch breaking the ceiling's fall.Tacitus, Annals XIV.5. Though the collapsing ceiling missed Agrippina, it crushed her attendant who was outside by the helm. The boat failed to sink as a result of the collapse of the lead ceiling, so the crew then sank the boat, but Agrippina swam to shore. Her friend Acerronia Polla was attacked by oarsmen while still in the water, and was either bludgeoned to death or drowned, since she was exclaiming that she was Agrippina, in the hope of being saved. Agrippina was met at the shore by crowds of admirers.Tacitus, Annals XIV.8. News of Agrippina's survival reached Nero so he asked Seneca and Burrus for the advice. After a moment of silence, they recommended Anicetus to carry out the act, since the Praetorians were loyal to the children of Germanicus. So Nero sent Anicetus, the trierach Herculeius, and the marine centurion Obaritus, as well as an "armed and menacing column" to kill her. After surrounding the villa, which scared away Agrippina's supporters, they eventually made their way to the bedroom. After the last slave girl departed her side, (whom she asked "Are you too deserting me?"), Agrippina was surrounded in her bed and struck in the head with a cudgel, before proffering her womb, crying out "Stab my belly!" and finally dying after experiencing many fatal wounds to that area. This narrative is clearly presented similarly to that of Julius Caesar, and her last act being to ensure violence upon her womb implies it was a symbolic act against her womb's only progeny: the man who had ordered her death. Suetonius's account Suetonius says that Agrippina's "over-watchful" and "over-critical" eye that she kept over Nero drove him to murdering her. After months of attempting to humiliate her by depriving her of her power, honour, and bodyguards, he also expelled her from the Palatine, followed by the people he sent to "pester" her with lawsuits and "jeers and catcalls". When he eventually turned to murder, he first tried poison, three times in fact. She prevented her death by taking the antidote in advance. Afterwards, he rigged up a machine in her room which would drop her ceiling tiles onto her as she slept, but she once again escaped death after she received word of the plan. Nero's final plan was to get her in a boat which would collapse and sink. He sent her a friendly letter asking to reconcile and inviting her to celebrate the Quinquatrus at Baiae with him. He arranged an "accidental" collision between her galley and one of his captains. When returning home, he offered her his collapsible boat, as opposed to her damaged galley. The day after the boat sank, Nero received word of her survival from her freedman Agermus. Panicking, Nero ordered a guard to "surreptitiously" drop a blade behind Agermus and Nero immediately had him arrested on a charge of attempted murder. Nero ordered the assassination of Agrippina. He made it look as if Agrippina had committed suicide after her plot to kill Nero had been uncovered. Suetonius says that after Agrippina's death, Nero examined Agrippina's corpse and discussed her good and bad points. Nero also believed Agrippina would haunt him after her death.Suetonius, 'The Lives of Caesars', The Life of Nero 34. thumb\|Nero and Agrippina, painting by Antonio Rizzi Cassius Dio's account The tale of Cassius Dio is also somewhat different. It starts again with Poppaea and Seneca as the motive behind the murder.Cassius Dio, Historia Romana LXIII.11–12. Nero designed a ship that would open at the bottom while at sea.Cassius Dio, Historia Romana LXIII.12. Then he pretended to reconcile with Agrippina and put her aboard on the vessel. Once the bottom of the ship opened up, she fell into the water. However, the sailors ended up killing Acerronia Polla instead and Agrippina swam to shore.Cassius Dio, Historia Romana LXIII.13. Pretending to ignore the conspiracy, she sent Nero a letter informing of her well-being, so Nero sent Anicetus to kill her. Her reputed last words, uttered as the assassin was about to strike, were "Strike here, Anicetus, strike here, for this bore Nero".Cassius Dio, Historia Romana LXIII.13. Nero then told the Senate that Agrippina had plotted to kill him and committed suicide.Cassius Dio, Historia Romana LXIII.14. Burial After Agrippina's death, Nero viewed her corpse and, according to some, commented how beautiful she was.Tacitus, Annals XIV.9.Cassius Dio, Historia Romana LXIII.13. Her body was cremated that night on a dining couch. At his mother's funeral, Nero was witless, speechless and rather scared. When the news spread that Agrippina had died, the Roman army, senate, and various people sent him letters of congratulations that he had been saved from his mother's plots. Aftermath During the remainder of Nero's reign, Agrippina's grave was not covered or enclosed. Her household later on gave her a modest tomb in Misenum. Nero would have his mother's death on his conscience. He felt so guilty he would sometimes have nightmares of her, even seeing his mother's ghost and getting Persian magicians to ask her for forgiveness. Years before she died, Agrippina had visited astrologers to ask about her son's future. The astrologers had rather accurately predicted that her son would become emperor and would kill her. She replied, "Let him kill me, provided he becomes emperor," according to Tacitus. Agrippina's alleged victims 47 Passienus Crispus: Agrippina's 2nd husband, poisoned (Suet.). 49 Lollia Paulina: as she was a rival for Claudius' hand in marriage as proposed by the freedman Callistus (Tac. & Dio). Lucius Silanus: betrothed to Octavia, Claudius' daughter, before his marriage of Agrippina. He committed suicide on their wedding day. Sosibius: Britannicus' tutor, executed for plotting against Nero. Calpurnia: banished (Tac.) and/or executed (Dio) because Claudius had commented on her beauty. 53 Statilius Taurus: forced to commit suicide because Agrippina wanted his gardens (Tac.). 54 Claudius: her husband, poisoned (Tac., Sen., Juv., Suet., Dio). Domitia Lepida: mother of Messalina, executed (Tac.). Marcus Junius Silanus: a potential rival to Nero, poisoned (Pliny, Tac., Dio). Cadius Rufus: executed on the charge of extortion. Tiberius Claudius Narcissus: Because of the competition with Agrippina. 55 Britannicus: Claudius' son, poisoned (Juv.). Junia Silana: Agrippina's friend turned enemy. Unsuccessfully accused Agrippina of conspiracy against Nero, and was exiled (Tac.). Legacy and cultural references thumb\|Gustav Wertheimer: The Shipwreck of Agrippina (1874) Memoirs Agrippina left memoirs of her life and the misfortunes of her family, which Tacitus used when writing his Annals, but they have not survived.Tacitus, Annals 4.53. In music and literature She is remembered in De Mulieribus Claris, a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, composed in 136162. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in western literature..Octavia, a Roman tragedy written during the Flavian periodAgrippina: Trauerspiel (1665), a German baroque tragedy by Daniel Casper von Lohenstein G.F. Handel's 1709 opera Agrippina with a libretto by Vincenzo GrimaniEmpress of Rome (1978), a novel by Robert DeMaria (Vineyard Press edition, 2001, ) Agrippina is considered to be the founder of Cologne and is still symbolised there today by the robe of the virgin of the Cologne triumvirate. In the sculpture programme of the Cologne town hall tower, a figure by Heribert Calleen was dedicated to Agrippina on the ground floor. In film, television, and radio The 1911 Italian film AgrippinaMio Figlio Nerone (1956) played by Gloria Swanson I, Claudius (1976) played by Barbara Young (here called Agrippinilla).Caligula (1979) and also Messalina, Messalina (1977) played by Lori Wagner.Caligula and Messalina (1981) played by Françoise Blanchard.A.D. (1985 miniseries) played by Ava Gardner.Boudica (2003) played by Frances Barber.Imperium: Nero (2005) played by Laura Morante.Ancients Behaving Badly (2009), History Channel documentary. Episode Nero.Roman Empire (2016), Netflix, played by Teressa Liane. Agrippina the Younger was portrayed by Betty Lou Gerson in the August 31, 1953, episode of the CBS radio program Crime Classics that was entitled "Your Loving Son, Nero." The episode chronicles the killing of Agrippina by her son Nero who was portrayed by William Conrad. Horrible Histories – The Movie (2019) Agrippina is portrayed by Kim Catrall Historiography Ancient Most ancient Roman sources are quite critical of Agrippina the Younger. Tacitus considered her vicious and had a strong disposition against her. Other sources are Suetonius and Cassius Dio. Modern Girod, Virginie, Agrippine, sexe, crimes et pouvoir dans la Rome impériale , Paris, Tallandier, 2015, 300 p. Minaud, Gérard, Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés , Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch. 3, La vie d'Agrippine, femme de Claude, pp. 65–96. E. Groag, A. Stein, L. Petersen, Prosopographia Imperii Romani saeculi I, II et III, Berlin, 1933 H. H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero: History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68, London, 19825A critical view of Agrippina, suggesting she was ambitious and unscrupulous and a depraved sexual psychopath. "Agrippina struck down a series of victims; no man or woman was safe if she suspected rivalry or desired their wealth." p. 303. Guglielmo Ferrero, The Women of the Caesars (1911)Sympathetic and understanding, suggesting Agrippina has been judged harshly by history. Suggesting her marriage to Claudius was to a weak emperor who was, because of his hesitations and terrors, a threat to the imperial authority and government. She saw it her duty to compensate for the innumerable deficiencies of her strange husband through her own intelligence and strength of will. Pages 212ff.; 276ff. Barrett, Anthony A., Agrippina: Sex, Power and Politics in the Early Roman Empire, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1996. Annelise Freisenbruch, The first ladies of Rome McDaniel, W. B. "Bauli the Scene of the Murder of Agrippina". The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 2 (April 1910) Salmonson, Jessica Amanda. (1991) The Encyclopedia of Amazons. Paragon House. pp. 4–5. Donna Hurley, Agrippina the Younger (Wife of Claudius). L. Foubert, Agrippina. Keizerin van Rome, Leuven, 2006. Opera by G. F. Handel: AgrippinaSee also List of unsolved murders Notes Tacitus, Annales xii.1–10, 64–69, xiv.1–9Suetonius, De vita Caesarum – Claudius v.44 and Nero vi.5.3, 28.2, 34.1–4''
Agrippina the Younger	References	References Category:15 births Category:59 deaths Category:1st-century executions Category:1st-century Roman empresses Category:Augustae Category:Children of Germanicus Category:Family of Nero Category:Female murder victims Category:Incest Category:Julii Caesares Category:Murdered ancient Roman empresses Category:People from Cologne Category:Unsolved murders in Italy Category:Wives of Claudius Category:Mothers of Roman emperors
Agrippina the Younger	Table of Content	Short description, Family, Birth and early life, Marriage to Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, Reign of Caligula, Public role and political intrigues, Exile, Reign of Claudius, Return from exile, Marriage to Claudius, References
American Chinese cuisine	short description	thumb\|right\|Chop suey, made with garlic chicken and peapods, on fried rice 200px\|thumb\|An unopened fortune cookie American Chinese cuisine, also known as Sino–American cuisine is a cuisine developed by Chinese Americans based on the wide variety of Chinese food. Most of the dishes served in many North American Chinese restaurants are modified to suit American peoples' tastes and are often quite different from Chinese cuisine.
American Chinese cuisine	History	History thumb\|upright\|Theodore Wores, 1884, Chinese Restaurant, oil on canvas, 83 x 56 cm, Crocker Art Museum, Sacramento The history of American Chinese cuisine can be traced back to the California Gold Rush (1848-1855). Chinese immigrants came to the United States in search for work as gold miners and railroad workers. As more Chinese immigrants arrived, the United States introduced laws that prohibited them from owning land. Chinese immigrants, started small businesses on the west coast, including restaurants and laundry services. Early American Chinese food tended to be homogenized, requiring adaptation of local ingredients and catering to Americanized tastes. By the 19th century, Chinese Americans in San Francisco operated luxurious restaurants patronized mainly by Chinese customers, serving food based customers requests, including anything from pork chop sandwiches and apple pie to beans and eggs. Many of these restaurant owners were self-taught family cooks who improvised with different cooking methods using whatever ingredients were available. These smaller restaurants were responsible for the development of American Chinese food, adapting it to suit the tastes of Americans. They began by serving miners and railroad workers and later opened Chinese restaurants in towns where Chinese food was completely unknown, using local ingredients and cooking procedures to adapt their customer preferences. California Gold Rush (1848–1855) brought 20,000–30,000 immigrants to the US from Canton (Guangdong province) , China. The location of first Chinese restaurant has sparked debate. Some say it was Macau and Woosung, while others cite Canton Restaurant. Neither one of these restaurants have any surviving photographs; the only reliable information is that these two restaurants were founded in 1849 in San Francisco. Either way, these and other such restaurants were central features in the daily lives of Chinese immigrants. They provided a connection to home, particularly for the many bachelors who did not have the resources or knowledge to cook for themselves. These populations was substantial: In 1852, the ratio of male to female Chinese immigrants was a 18:1. These restaurants served as gathering places and cultural centers for the Chinese community. By 1850, there were five Chinese restaurants in San Francisco. Soon after, significant amounts of food were being imported from China to America's west coast. The trend spread steadily eastward with the development of the American railways, particularly to New York City. The Chinese Exclusion Act allowed merchants to enter the country, and in 1915, restaurant owners became eligible for merchant visas; these visas fueled the opening of Chinese restaurants as an immigration vehicle. The merchant status was based on the use of rotating managers. Restaurants would operate as a partnership among many people, rotating different partners through the management responsibilities and establishing them as merchants to earn the exemption. thumb\|Edward Hopper's 1929 painting Chop Suey portrays a Chinese American restaurant in New York City By the early decades of the 20th century, Chinese restaurants had brought new culinary ingredients to towns and cities across the United States, including soy sauce, sesame oil, bean sprouts, water chestnuts, dried mushrooms, fried noodles, Oolong tea and almond cookies. Bok choi, then called "Pak choi," was sometimes called "Chinese Romaine". Similarly, Napa cabbage was called "Chinese cabbage". In those years, it was commonplace for prosperous American families, especially on the West Coast, to employ Chinese cooks as domestic servants. For example, cookbook author and TV personality James Beard grew up in Portland, Oregon where his parents employed a Chinese cook, Jue-Let, whom Beard credited as a major culinary influence, and spoke of with great affection. In 1915, a manual was published in San Francisco, instructing Chinese immigrants how to cook for American families. Along the way, cooks adapted southern Chinese dishes and developed a style of Chinese food not found in China, such as chop suey. Restaurants (along with Chinese laundries) provided an ethnic niche for small businesses at a time when Chinese people were excluded from most jobs in the wage economy by ethnic discrimination or lack of language fluency.Andrew Coe Chop Suey: A Cultural History of Chinese Food in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009). By the 1920s, this cuisine, particularly chop suey, became popular among middle-class Americans. However, after World War II it began to be dismissed for not being "authentic," though it continued to be popular. In 1955, the Republic of China (having itself retreated to Taiwan) evacuated the Dachen Islands. Many who escaped to Taiwan later moved to the United States as they lacked strong social networks and access to opportunities in Taiwan. Chefs from the Dachen Islands had a strong influence on American Chinese food. By the end of the 1950s, immigrants from Taiwan replaced Cantonese immigrants as the primary labor force in American Chinese restaurants. Taiwanese immigrants expanded American-Chinese cuisine beyond Cantonese cuisine to encompass dishes from many different regions of China as well as Japanese-inspired dishes. Chinese-American restaurants played a key role in ushering in the era of take-out and delivery food in the United States. In New York City, delivery was pioneered in the 1970s by Empire Szechuan Gourmet Franchise, which hired Taiwanese students studying at Columbia University to do the work. Chinese American restaurants were among the first restaurants to use picture menus in the US. Taiwanese immigration largely ended in the 1990s due to an economic boom and democratization in Taiwan. From the 1990s onward, immigrants from China once again made up the majority of cooks in American Chinese restaurants. There has been a consequential component of Chinese emigration of illegal origin, most notably Fuzhou people from Fujian and Wenzhounese from Zhejiang in mainland China, specifically destined to work in Chinese restaurants in New York City, beginning in the 1980s. Adapting Chinese cooking techniques to local produce and tastes has led to the development of American Chinese cuisine. Many of the Chinese restaurant menus in the US are printed in Chinatown, Manhattan, which has a strong Chinese-American demographic. Late 20th-century tastes have been more accommodating to domestic residents. By this time, it had become evident that Chinese restaurants no longer catered mainly to Chinese customers. In 2011, the Smithsonian National Museum of American History displayed some of the historical background and cultural artifacts of American Chinese cuisine in its exhibit entitled, Sweet & Sour: A Look at the History of Chinese Food in the United States. Pekin Noodle Parlor, established in 1911, is the oldest operating Chinese restaurant in the country. As of 2023, the United States had around 37,000 Chinese restaurants.
American Chinese cuisine	Differences from other regional cuisines in China	Differences from other regional cuisines in China Many of the dishes are commonly recognized as "Chinese food" were actually developed in America and bear little resemblance to traditional Chinese cuisine. Examples include fortune cookies, crab rangoon, and General Tso's chicken, none of which originated in China. Instead, these dishes were crafted to suit American palates, often characterized by sweetness, bold sauces, and deep-fried dishes. American Chinese cuisine has its roots in the culinary traditions of Chinese immigrants from Guangdong province, particularly the Toisan (Taishan) district, the origin of most Chinese immigration before the closure of immigration in 1924. These Chinese immigrants developed new cooking styles and used readily available ingredients. The type of Chinese-American cooking served in restaurants differed significantly from the food eaten in Chinese-American homes. Among various regional cuisines in China, Cantonese cuisine has had the most influence on the development of American Chinese food. American Chinese food typically includes greater quantities of meat compared to traditional Chinese cuisine. An increasing number of American Chinese restaurants—including some upscale establishments—have begun to incorporate more authentic dishes in response to growing customer demand for traditional flavors. While Chinese cuisine frequently uses of Asian leaf vegetables, like bok choy and gai-lan, American Chinese cuisine commonly utilizing ingredients rarely found in China. For instance, Western broccoli () is used instead of Chinese broccoli (gai-lan, ). Chinese ingredients previously considered "exotic" in North America have become more available over time, including fresh fruits and vegetables. For example, edible snow pea pods have become widely available, while the less-known dau miu (also called "pea sprouts," "pea pod stems," or "pea shoots") are increasingly appearing on menus and even in supermarkets in North America. thumb\|A Chinese buffet restaurant in the United States American-Chinese food also has had a reputation for high levels of MSG, used to enhance flavor. From the early to mid-2000s through the 2010s and into the 2020s, market forces and customer preferences encouraged many restaurants to offer "MSG Free" or "No MSG" menus, or to omit this ingredient upon request. However, discussions appearing around 2020 addressed that MSG's reputation has begun shifting, suggesting this trend had been developing for at least the past decade. thumb\|Carryout Chinese food is commonly served in a paper carton with a wire bail, known as an oyster pail. A typical example to show how American Chinese cuisine differs from traditional Chinese food is Egg fried rice. In American Chinese cuisine, egg fried rice often includes more soy sauce for additional flavor, whereas traditional egg fried rice uses much less soy sauce. Some culinary styles, such as dim sum, have also been modified to fit American tastes, including adding batter for fried dishes and using extra soy sauce. Both traditional Chinese and American-Chinese cooking utilize similar methods of preparation, such as stir frying, pan frying, and deep frying, all of which can easily be performed using a wok. Ming Tsai, chef and former owner of the Blue Ginger restaurant in Wellesley, Massachusetts, and host of PBS culinary show Simply Ming, has commented on the characteristics of American Chinese restaurants. He noted that these establishments often serve dishes representing three to five regions of China simultaneously, typically including items such as chop suey, various sweet and sour dishes, and an adaptation of chow mein or fried rice. Tsai described this style as: "Chinese-American cuisine as an adaptation of traditional Chinese food, modified to attract American customers by making it blander, thicker, and sweeter"."Chef Ming Tsai wants you to have a Chinese friend". CNN. January 19, 2011. Retrieved on January 19, 2011. Most American Chinese primarily cater to non-Chinese customers, offering menus written in English accompanied by descriptive pictures. In some cases, separate menus written in Chinese are available, typically featuring traditional dishes such as liver, chicken feet, or other meat items that might scare American customers (such as offal). In Chinatown, Manhattan, certain restaurants are known to offer a so-called "phantom" menu, which features items preferred by ethnic Chinese diners but often excluded from the standard menu due to the perception that they would not attract non-Chinese customers.
American Chinese cuisine	Dishes	Dishes
American Chinese cuisine	Menu items not found in China	Menu items not found in China Dishes that often appear on American Chinese restaurant menus include: Almond chicken — Chicken breaded in batter containing ground almonds, fried and served with almonds and onions. Chicken and broccoli — Similar to beef and broccoli, but with chicken instead of beef. Chinese chicken salad — Usually contains sliced or shredded chicken, uncooked leafy greens, carrots, cucumbers, crispy noodles (or fried wonton skins) and sesame dressing. Some version include mandarin oranges. Chop suey — Derived from a term meaning "assorted pieces" in Chinese. It typically consists of vegetables and meat in a brown sauce but can also be served in a white sauce. Crab rangoon — Fried wonton skins stuffed with (usually) artificial crab meat (surimi) and cream cheese. Fortune cookie — Invented in California as a Westernized version of the Japanese omikuji senbei, fortune cookies have become sweetened and found their way to many American Chinese restaurants. Fried wontons — Somewhat similar to crab rangoon, a filling, (most often pork), is wrapped in a wonton skin and deep fried.Fried Wonton , About.comFried Wontons Recipe, BlogChef.netFried Wontons Recipe, ThaiTable.comFried Wontons (Zhá Yúntūn) , Chow.comChinese New Year: Fried Wontons , FromAway.comFried Wontons Recipe, RasaMalaysia.com General Tso's chicken — Chunks of chicken that are dipped in batter, deep fried, and seasoned with ginger, garlic, sesame oil, scallions, and hot chili peppers. This dish was named after Qing dynasty statesman and military leader Zuo Zongtang, often referred to as General Tso. Mongolian beef — Fried beef with scallions or white onions in a spicy and often sweet brown sauce. Pepper steak — Sliced steak, green bell peppers, tomatoes, and white or green onions stir fried with salt, sugar, and soy sauce. Bean sprouts are a less common addition. Royal beef—Deep-fried sliced beef, doused in a wine sauce and often served with steamed broccoli. Sesame chicken — Boned, marinated, battered, and deep-fried chicken which is then dressed with a translucent red or orange, sweet and mildly spicy sauce, made from soy sauce, corn starch, vinegar, chicken broth, and sugar, and topped with sesame seeds. thumb\|Wonton strips are commonly served as complimentary appetizers along with duck sauce and hot mustard Sushi — despite being served in the Japanese and American styles, some American Chinese restaurants serve various types of sushi, usually on buffets. Sweet roll — yeast rolls, typically fried, covered in granulated sugar or powdered sugar. Some variants are stuffed with cream cheese or icing. Wonton strips — these deep-fried strips of dough are commonly offered as complimentary appetizers, along with duck sauce and hot mustard, or with soup when ordering take-out.
American Chinese cuisine	Other American Chinese dishes	Other American Chinese dishes Dau miu is a Chinese vegetable that has become popular since the early 1990s, and now not only appears on English-language menus, usually as "pea shoots", but is often served by some non-Asian restaurants as well. Originally, it was only available during a few months of the year, but it is now grown in greenhouses and is available year-round.
American Chinese cuisine	Versions of dishes also found in China	Versions of dishes also found in China thumb\|Egg foo young Beijing beef — in China, this dish uses gai lan (Chinese broccoli) rather than American broccoli. Beef and broccoli — flank steak cut into small pieces, stir-fried with broccoli, and covered in a dark sauce made with soy sauce and oyster sauce and thickened with cornstarch. Cashew chicken — stir-fried tender chicken pieces with cashew nuts. Chow mein — literally means "stir-fried noodles". Chow mein consists of fried crispy noodles with bits of meat and vegetables. It can come with chicken, pork, shrimp or beef. Egg foo young — Chinese-style omelet with vegetables and meat, usually served with a brown gravy. While some restaurants in North America deep-fry the omelet, versions found in Asia are more likely to fry in the wok. Egg roll — while spring rolls have a thin, light beige crispy skin that flakes apart, and is filled with mushrooms, bamboo, and other vegetables inside, the American-style egg roll has a thicker, chewier, dark brown bubbly skin stuffed with cabbage and usually bits of meat or seafood (such as pork or shrimp), but no egg. In some regions, a filling of shredded and dried celery replaces cabbage, resulting in a more greenish tinge to the filling.Egg roll recipe Dinner in the Pines Fried rice — fried-rice dishes are popular offerings in American Chinese food due to the speed and ease of preparation and their appeal to American tastes.It is commonly prepared with rice cooled overnight, allowing restaurants to put leftover rice to good use (freshly cooked rice is actually less suitable for fried rice). The American-Chinese version of this dish typically uses more soy sauce than the versions found in China, and it's offered with different combinations of meat (pork, chicken, shrimp ) and vegetables. Ginger beef () — tender beef cut in chunks, mixed with ginger and Chinese mixed vegetables. Ginger fried beef () — tender beef cut in strings, battered, deep fried, then re-fried in a wok mixed with a sweet sauce, a variation of a popular Northern Chinese dish. Hulatang — a traditional Chinese soup with hot spices, often called "spicy soup" on menus. Hot and sour soup — the North American soups tend to have starch added as a thickener. Kung Pao chicken — a spicy Sichuan dish that is served with peanuts, scallions, and Sichuan peppers. Some versions in North America may include zucchini and bell peppers. Lo mein ("stirred noodles") — frequently made with eggs and flour, making them chewier than a recipe simply using water. Thick, spaghetti-shaped noodles are pan fried with vegetables (mainly bok choy and Chinese cabbage or napa) and meat. Sometimes this dish is referred to as chow mein (which literally means "stir-fried noodles" in Cantonese). Mei fun — noodles usually simmered in broth with other ingredients such as fish balls, beef balls or slices of fishcake. Moo shu pork — the original version uses more typically Chinese ingredients (including wood ear fungi and daylily buds) and thin flour pancakes, while the American version often uses vegetables more familiar to Americans, and thicker pancakes. This dish is quite popular in Chinese restaurants in the United States, but not as popular in China. Orange chicken — chopped, battered, fried chicken with a sweet orange flavored chili sauce that is thickened and glazed. The traditional version consists of stir-fried chicken in a light, slightly sweet soy sauce flavored with dried orange peels. Wonton soup — In most American Chinese restaurants, only wonton dumplings in broth are served, while versions found in China may come with noodles. (In Guangdong, it can be a full meal in itself, consisting of thin egg noodles and several pork and prawn wontons in a pork or chicken soup broth or noodle broth). Especially in takeout restaurants, wonton are often made with thicker dough skins, to withstand the rigors of delivery.
American Chinese cuisine	Regional variations	Regional variations
American Chinese cuisine	New York City	New York City The New York metropolitan area is home to the largest Chinese population outside of Asia, which also constitutes the largest metropolitan Asian-American group in the United States and the largest Asian-national metropolitan diaspora in the Western Hemisphere. The Chinese-American population of the New York City metropolitan area was an estimated 893,697 as of 2017. Given the New York metropolitan area's continuing status as by far the leading gateway for Chinese immigrants to the United States, all popular styles of every Chinese regional cuisine have commensurately become ubiquitously accessible in New York City, including Hakka, Taiwanese, Shanghainese, Hunanese, Szechuan, Cantonese, Fujianese, Xinjiang, Zhejiang, and Korean Chinese cuisine. Even the relatively obscure Dongbei style of cuisine indigenous to Northeast China is now available in Flushing, Queens, as well as Mongolian cuisine and Uyghur cuisine.
American Chinese cuisine	Kosher preparation	Kosher preparation Kosher preparation of Chinese food is also widely available in New York City, given the metropolitan area's large Jewish and particularly Orthodox Jewish populations. The perception that American Jews eat at Chinese restaurants on Christmas Day is documented in media. The tradition may have arisen from the lack of other open restaurants on Christmas Day, the close proximity of Jewish and Chinese immigrants in New York City, and the absence of dairy foods combined with meat. Kosher Chinese food is usually prepared in New York City, as well as in other large cities with Orthodox Jewish neighborhoods, under strict rabbinical supervision as a prerequisite for Kosher certification.
American Chinese cuisine	Los Angeles County	Los Angeles County Chinese populations in Los Angeles represent at least 21 of the 34 provincial-level administrative units of China, along with the largest population of Taiwanese-born immigrants outside of Taiwan, making greater Los Angeles home to a diverse population of Chinese people in the United States. Chinese-American cuisine in the Greater Los Angeles area is concentrated in Chinese ethnoburbs rather than traditional Chinatowns. The oldest Chinese ethnoburb is Monterey Park, considered to be the nation's first suburban Chinatown. Although Chinatown in Los Angeles is still a significant commercial center for Chinese immigrants, the majority are centered in the San Gabriel Valley which is the one of the largest concentration of Asian-Americans in the country, stretching from Monterey Park into the cities of Alhambra, San Gabriel, Rosemead, San Marino, South Pasadena, West Covina, Walnut, City of Industry, Diamond Bar, Arcadia, and Temple City. The Valley Boulevard corridor is the main artery of Chinese restaurants in the San Gabriel Valley. Another hub with a significant Chinese population is Irvine (Orange County). More than 200,000 Chinese Americans live in the San Gabriel Valley alone, with over 67% being foreign-born. The valley has become a brand-name tourist destination in China, although droughts in California are creating a difficult impact upon its water security and existential viability. Of the ten cities in the United States with the highest proportions of Chinese Americans, the top eight are located in the San Gabriel Valley, making it one of the largest concentrated hubs for Chinese Americans in North America. Some regional styles of Chinese cuisine include Beijing, Chengdu, Chongqing, Dalian, Hangzhou, Hong Kong, Hunan, Mongolian, Nanjing, Shanghai, Shanxi, Shenyang, Wuxi, Xinjiang, Yunnan, and Wuhan. LA is also home to notable food critics, including food blogger David R. Chan, who has visited more than 8000 Chinese restaurants, including hundreds around Los Angeles.
American Chinese cuisine	San Francisco Bay Area	San Francisco Bay Area Since the early 1990s, many American Chinese restaurants influenced by California cuisine have opened in the San Francisco Bay Area. The trademark dishes of American Chinese cuisine remain on the menu, but there is more emphasis on fresh vegetables, and the selection is vegetarian-friendly. This new cuisine has exotic ingredients like mangos and portobello mushrooms. Brown rice is often offered as an alternative to white rice. Some restaurants substitute grilled wheat flour tortillas for the rice pancakes in mu shu dishes. This substitution occurs even in some restaurants that are not typically associated with Chinese cuisine, including both Westernized and the more authentic places. For example, a Mexican bakery that supplies some restaurants with thinner tortillas made for use with mushu. However, this trend is not always appreciated by Mu shu purists. In addition, many restaurants serving more native-style Chinese cuisines exist, due to the high numbers and proportion of ethnic Chinese in the San Francisco Bay Area. Restaurants specializing in Cantonese, Sichuanese, Hunanese, Northern Chinese, Shanghainese, Taiwanese, and Hong Kong traditions are widely available, as are more specialized restaurants such as seafood restaurants, Hong Kong-style diners and cafes, also known as Cha chaan teng (), dim sum teahouses, and hot pot restaurants. Many Chinatown areas also feature Chinese bakeries, boba milk tea shops, roasted meat, vegetarian cuisine, and specialized dessert shops. However, one of the most common American Chinese dishes, Chop suey, is not widely available in San Francisco, and the area's chow mein is different from Midwestern chow mein.
American Chinese cuisine	Boston	Boston Chinese cuisine in Boston results from a combination of economic and regional factors, in association with the wide Chinese academic scene. The growing Boston Chinatown accommodates Chinese-owned bus lines shuttling an increasing number of passengers to and from the numerous Chinatowns in New York City, and this has led to some exchange between Boston Chinese cuisine and that in New York. A large Fujianese immigrant population has made a home in Boston, leading to Fuzhou cuisine being readily available there. An increasing Vietnamese population has also had an influence on Chinese cuisine in Greater Boston. In addition, innovative dishes incorporating chow mein and chop suey as well as locally farmed produce and regionally procured seafood are found in Chinese as well as non-Chinese restaurants in and around Boston. The selection of Chinese baked products has increased markedly in the 21st century, although the range of choices in New York City remains supreme. Joyce Chen introduced northern Chinese and Shanghainese dishes to Boston in the 1950s, including Peking duck, moo shu pork, hot and sour soup, and potstickers, which she called "Peking Ravioli" or "Ravs". Her restaurants were frequented by early pioneers of the ARPANET,Hafner, K., & Lyon, M. (1996). Where wizards stay up late: The origins of the Internet. New York: Simon and Schuster, p. 112. as well as celebrities such as John Kenneth Galbraith, James Beard, Julia Child, Henry Kissinger, Beverly Sills, and Danny Kaye. A former Harvard University president called her eating establishment "not merely a restaurant, but a cultural exchange center". In addition, her single-season PBS national television series Joyce Chen Cooks popularized some dishes which could be made at home, and she often encouraged using substitute ingredients when necessary.
American Chinese cuisine	Philadelphia	Philadelphia The evolving American Chinese cuisine scene in Philadelphia has similarities with the situation in both New York City and Boston. As with Boston, Philadelphia is experiencing significant Chinese immigration from New York City, to the north, and from China, the top country of birth by a significant margin for a new arrivals there . There is a growing Fujianese community in Philadelphia as well, and Fuzhou cuisine is readily available in the Philadelphia Chinatown. Also, emerging Vietnamese cuisine in Philadelphia is contributing to evolution in local Chinese cuisine, with some Chinese-American restaurants adopting Vietnamese influences or recipes.
American Chinese cuisine	Washington, D.C.	Washington, D.C. Although Washington, D.C.'s Chinese community has not achieved as high of a local profile as that in other major cities along the Mid-Atlantic United States, it is now growing, and rapidly so, due to the gentrification of DC's Chinatown and the status of Washington, D.C., as the capital of the United States. The growing Chinese community in D.C. and its suburbs has revitalized the influence of Chinese cuisine in the area. Washington, D.C.'s population is 1% Chinese, making them the largest single Asian ancestry in the city. However, the Chinese community in the DC area is no longer solely concentrated in the area of Chinatown, which is about 15% Chinese and 25% Asian, but is mostly concentrated throughout various towns in suburban Maryland and Northern Virginia. The largest concentration of Chinese and Taiwanese in the D.C. area is in Rockville, Maryland, in Montgomery County. A popular dish localized in Chinese American carryouts across the DMV region consists of whole fried chicken wings served with mumbo sauce, a sweet, tangy ketchup-based condiment.Ballard, K. (May 9, 2018). A brief history of Washington, D.C.'s famous mambo sauce. Culture Trip. https://theculturetrip.com/north-america/usa/washington-dc/articles/a-brief-history-of-washington-d-c-s-famous-mambo-sauce/ In D.C. proper, there are Chinese-owned restaurants specializing in both Chinese American and authentic Chinese cuisine. Regional variations of Chinese cuisine that restaurants in D.C. specialize in include Shanghainese cuisine, Cantonese cuisine, Uyghur cuisine, Mongolian cuisine, and Sichuan cuisine. In the suburbs of D.C. in Maryland and Virginia, many of which have a much higher Chinese population than D.C., regional variations present aside from the ones previously mentioned include Hong Kong cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shaanxi cuisine, Taiwanese cuisine, and Yunnan cuisine.
American Chinese cuisine	Puerto Rico	Puerto Rico

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