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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaf_Club
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The Deaf Club
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["1 Founding","2 Walking Dead Records compilation albums","3 Reviews","4 Closing","5 References"]
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Deaf ClubFormer location of the Deaf Club as seen in 2015Location530 Valencia Street, San Francisco, California, U.S.TypemusicGenre(s)punkOpened9 December 1978Closedsummer 1980
The Deaf Club was a notable music venue located on Valencia Street in San Francisco which remained open for an 18-month period. Its main attraction was punk music. The name comes from the fact the building it was in originally began as a deaf people's clubhouse in the 1930s.
Founding
Daphne Hanrahan, manager of The Offs, discovered the San Francisco Club for the Deaf, and was able to rent it on a nightly basis.
She remembers finding the place: “I bought a burrito at La Cumbre and noticed a sign on the fire escape across the street. It said ‘Hall for Rent.’ I went up the flights of stairs and saw two guys watching TV with the sound off. After a very short while, I realized we weren't going to communicate, so I wrote on a piece of paper that I wanted to rent the place. Bill—I never knew his last name—was a mustachioed, lascivious, cigar-chewing character who apparently was in charge. He wrote ‘OK & $250,’ so I wrote ‘OK.’”
The first show as the Deaf Club on 9 December 1978 featured the Offs, started by guitarist Billy Hawk and singer Don Vinil, and later joined by former Hot Tuna drummer Bob Steeler and a rotation of horn players including Bob Roberts, Richard Edson and Roland Young. They were accompanied by The Mutants, who are known for their theatrical performances which often include elaborate props, projections, and comical antics. They are credited with being one of the first "Art-punk" bands in San Francisco, and were one of the most popular bands of the San Francisco punk scene during the late 1970s and early 1980s. On The Rag also participated in the Deaf Club's first show. Over 100 bands such as Northern California's The Dead Kennedys, Tuxedomoon, The Units, The Zeros, Crime, The Dils, Flipper, Negative Trend, Los Microwaves, The Jars, Minimal Man, Voice Farm, Humans, Pearl Harbor and the Explosions, The Sleepers, Avengers, Factrix, Bpeople, S.S.I., NON, MX-80, V.I.P$, K.G.B., Monitor, Blowdryers, BoB, VKTMS, Snuky Tate, JJ180, On The Rag, Noh Mercy, No Alternative; as well as Southern California's Bags, The Alley Cats, Germs, X, Soul Rebels, Walking Dead, Wall of Voodoo, The Rotters, Seizure, Z'EV, Barry Kooda Kombo, Vs., Fillmore Struts, Punts, Inflatable Boy Clams, Jah Hovah, Plugz, Suburbs, The Vandals, The Controllers, Nervous Gender, U.X.A., Dinettes, and some touring bands from Vancouver like D.O.A., Pointed Sticks, and Subhumans, and even touring bands from England like Levi and the Rockats would play this small underground club.
Given the unique nature of the venue and its location in the Mission District near 16th Street and the Roxie Theater, it was enthusiastically supported by the punk and arts community, visited by film greats like John Waters and occasionally challenged by the officials of the San Francisco noise abatement patrol, the police, fire department, health department and the alcohol and beverage control until it closed.
The house DJs were Enrico Chandoha who worked on the editorial staff of the early Thrasher Magazine; Jack Fan (an Offs road manager and chef at the Zuni); BBC celebrity Johnnie Walker; and Daphne Hanrahan.
About such venues, Brendan Earley of The Mutants comments:
"The earthiness, I guess, of playing places like the Deaf Club seemed to have a lot more energy to them. You know the crowd that started coming to this music in '77, it was maybe a peak of their scene, or the scene at that time. They were not normal kinds of clubs, they weren't places like the Stone, or even the Mabuhay, really. They were neat places to play; often good audiences, and good energy going on."
″A possibly unique aspect of the club was the constant presence of actual deaf people in the hall, who didn't know what to make of their unruly musical cohorts—but counterintuitively, they did seem to enjoy the music. Indeed, punk music might be tailor-made for deaf people to enjoy, because of the constant frenetic thudding of the 4/4 beat that can be sensed as vibrations. As Penelope Houston of The Avengers said, “It was kind of amazing. I think they were dancing to the vibrations. The deaf people were amused that all these punks wanted to come in and rent their room and have these shows.” According to artist Winston Smith, “They put their hands on the table and they could hear the music. It was music they could appreciate because it was so loud.”″
In an interview Daphne Hanrahan says "The social aspect of being able to participate and be accepted was big for the deaf people. They enjoyed being exposed to a different subculture like their own. It was very convivial, no fights or hassles.
Walking Dead Records compilation albums
The four partners in Walking Dead Records developed a live compilation project that resulted in an album released by Optional Record distribution of Berkeley, CA on the Walking Dead label: "Can You Hear Me? Music From the Deaf Club." It was recorded on a mobile 8 track by Jim Keylor (also of Army Street Studios), DJ'ed by Johnnie Walker , produced by Daphne Hanrahan who also managed and booked the Club, and coordinated by Peter Worrall. The photos selected for the album were taken by Sue Brisk, the album art was by Diana Miami (aka Diana Stumbo) and the liner notes were written by V. Vale of RE/Search/Search & Destroy. It was recorded live at the club during early 1979 and is a testament to the authentic underground punk and "new wave" scene during that period in San Francisco's music history. The album featured The Mutants' "Tribute to Russ Meyer" and "Monster of Love" and performances from other first and second generation San Francisco Punk bands like:
Offs – "Hundred Dollar Limo", "Die Babylon", "I've Got the Handle" (Offs were: Don Vinyl, Billy Hawk, Bob Roberts now of Spotlight Tattoo in Los Angeles, Bob Steeler and Denny Boredom who also played with Hot Tuna)
Pink Section – "Jane Blank", Francine's List" & "Been In The Basement 30 Years" (Pink Section was: singer Judy Gittelsohn and drummer Carol Detweiler (both members of Inflatable Boy Clams), singer / guitarist Matt Heckert (Survival Research Laboratories), and bassist Stephen Wymore.)
Tuxedomoon – "19th Nervous Breakdown", courtesy of The Rolling Stones and "Heaven" from the film Eraserhead (Tuxedomoon was: Winston Tong, Steven Brown, Blane Reinenger, Peter Carcinogenic (Principle), Greg Langston on drums, With Bruce Geduldig on visuals)
KGB – "Dying in the USA" & "Picture Frame Seduction"
Dead Kennedys with "Police Truck", "California Uber Alles", "Short Songs" & "Straight A's". Raymond Pepperell Jr., better known as East Bay Ray of the Dead Kennedys used the original two track safety masters from that live eight track recording to release their recent 2004 Live at the Deaf Club CD.
From the Deaf Club, Walking Dead also produced, with William Passerelli, Dirk Dirksen (Mabuhay Gardens), Paul Rat Bachavich (Temple Beautiful) & Goody Thompson: the Western Front Festival. The festival engaged the Deaf Club and every venue, (including the "art clubs": A.R.E., Target Video, Valencia Tool & Die, Club Foot, the A-hole and Club Generic) in the San Francisco Bay Area that embraced punk culture and music for a week long event.
Reviews
In a conversation with Daphne Hanrahan at the Deaf Club during a show during the Western Front with one of the Dinettes of San Diego, Joel Selvin, a music critic for the SF Chronicle, who was attracted by the energy surrounding the punk scene, promised to "put the scene on the map." Selvin authored an extensive article published in the San Francisco Chronicle, October 22, 1979 on page 6 entitled "S.F. Goes Punk." It documented the scene during that time and included interviews with Dirk Dirksen, Joe Rees, Daphne Hanrahan, Johnnie Walker and Paul Rat Bachavich. He also mentioned the Deaf Club in a subsequent publication: "San Francisco: The Musical History Tour : A Guide to over 200 of the Bay Area's Most Memorable Music Sites" where he disparages the Club as "one of the stranger scenes on the punk rock scene."
Tono Rondone, a member of the Frank Hymng Band, which featured Fritz Fox of The Mutants, remembers a humorous sideline to the history of The Deaf Club: "At one point, there was a headline in the San Francisco Chronicle which told of the temporary closing of The Deaf Club whose headline read 'Deaf Club Closed Due to Excessive Noise Levels.'"
Herb Caen in his daily San Francisco Chronicle column dated Monday August 13, 1979 "Have a Weird Day" said: "I don't know about you, but I find it slightly bizarre that The Deaf Club at 530 Valencia – indeed a social hangout for deaf people – features punk rock groups, such as Zen, Off, The Pink Section, Blow Driers and Mutants. "The louder the better!" beams Edward Juaregui, executive director of Deaf Self Help. "We all like to dance, and we can feel the vibrations." How about the neighbors? "Oh," continued Edward, "they're going crazy. They keep calling the cops, complaining the noise is deafening. Isn't that rich?"
Ethan Davison a fan said "The most interesting thing about the Deaf Club was that it was a real Deaf Club. The members stood around with the rest of us drinking the pow- erful drinks. I don't sign, so I never “spoke” to any of them, but what I was told was that they enjoyed our music because they could feel the vibrations on the floor. I imagine that they also enjoyed the visual display, for we were the most visually interesting visual community at the time. People would dye their hair a different shade of blue, green, or purple every week. It can now be said that I never had trouble buying a Bloody Mary, even though I was sixteen."
Kathy Peck, of the Contractions, remembers the Deaf Club fondly, explaining that, "The place was filthy. My boots would stick to the floor. The deaf people would dance to the vibration of the beat. Daphne Hanrahan would do a radio show with Johnny Walker (BBC punk rock DJ) on the side of the stage, it seems. Daphne Hanrahan, manager of the Offs discovered the San Francisco Club for the Deaf in 1978, and was able to rent it on a nightly basis. It was great fun. The Deaf Club was more a like a neighborhood place, very underground, in the Mission District. People would give the deaf sign for a beer as the Offs, the Contractions, Middle Class, No Alternative, and the Dils played. People like Ginger Coyote (Punk Globe) would hang out, dance, and drink. The bathroom was full of graffiti. We'd load in, and the punk bands would always get in crazy fights, especially Brittley Black, drummer of Crime, who fell out of the upstairs window many a night.The deaf people were receptive. They could “hear” through the wooden floor—a simple floor, made from planks or linoleum. It could catch the vibrations. FrankMoore from the Outrageous Beauty Pageant was there in his wheelchair that people dragged upstairs, since it was on the second floor. Dirk Dirksen (Mabuhay club promoter and San Francisco music icon) nurtured his career.
As Bonnie Hayes from the Punts says, “The club was utterly un-controlled, which was one of the best things about it. It was basically like a big, really messy party at someone's house. It seemed private, like an inside thing --- you would meet everybody and be in the family.”
In a conversation with Klaus Flouride of The Dead Kennedys he looks back at the state of the Deaf club."I remember it being working-class, but I don't remember it being that dingy, but we played an awful lot of pretty dingy punk clubs. That didn't ever impress upon me that much. I think that “California Über Alles” might have come out by the time we played there, but I really don't think so, because we still had 6025 in the group. So, it was still before we had a single out. We were still early on in the thing. There was a folding table in the back. They sold cans of Budweiser. I think it was for like a buck apiece. Back then, you could get Buds for $2.50 or $3.00 a six-pack, or something like that, so they were doing okay. That was your bar. The thing that impressed me the most was that when we were watching the Germs I was right up front, and I was trying to talk to the person next to me. Everybody was grabbing somebody's ear and hollering to try and talk, whereas the deaf members, the people who were deaf and frequented the place on an everyday basis, would just lean forward towards the stage and sign each other— no problem with communication."
Esmerelda Kent of Noh Mercy recalls that, "The Deaf Club was down the street from our “house” which was a ginormous storefront, 1920s dry goods store on Valencia Street that is now Artists Television Access (ATA Gallery) at 992 Valencia St., where me, Tony Hotel, and our manager (and Tuxedomoon's manager) Adrian Craig lived. We had a huge basement that had secret passages (connecting all the block) where we used to record and practice.
The Deaf Club was my favorite club because of how strange it was. One night after we played at the end of the night, I went backstage and changed and I thought everyone had left because it was so quiet I was sure I was alone. I went out and the room was full with over a hundred people all signing. I wondered if drunk deaf people slurred their sign language.They loved the music because they could feel it. Deafness knows no specific demographic, so rich, poor, old, young, black, Asian, anyone could be and often was deaf and they were all there. Who knew? It was great to write a note of what you wanted to the bartender and see old ladies drinking with spiked mohawk punks."
Closing
The club closed with a party hosted by the artist and filmmaker Bruce Conner.
The club had a history of being closed for various reasons, such as by the fire marshal for the lack of sprinklers. Holding private parties with a closed door policy was a way of it continuing to run. The DEAF CLUB closed after the WESTERN FRONT, a September–October festival of West Coast Bands, which went underreported. As Biafra said, "The magic of the DEAF CLUB was its intimate sweaty atmosphere, kind of like a great big house party. The club remained raw to the very end.
References
San Francisco Bay Area portal
Selvin, Joel. San Francisco Chronicle, 22 October 1979, page 6: "S.F. Goes Punk"
http://www.whitenoise.localsonline.com
San Francisco: The Musical History Tour : A Guide to over 200 of the Bay Area's Most Memorable Music Sites by Joel Selvin
Peter Belsito and Bob Davis. Hardcore California – A History Of Punk and New Wave, Last Gasp of San Francisco, August 1983: page 94
Jack Boulware & Silke Tudor. , Penguin Group USA 2009: Chapter 10 "No One's Listening"
^ a b THE ROOTS OF SAN FRANCISCO PUNK: THE DEAF CLUB, 1978-1980
^ Quote cited from White Noise Records.
^ Deaf Club
"I was there..."
By Daphne Hanrahan
^ a b c d e the deaf club: an un-oral history
Authority control databases: Geographic
MusicBrainz place
37°45′52″N 122°25′20″W / 37.76433°N 122.42213°W / 37.76433; -122.42213
|
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needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"The Mutants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mutants_(San_Francisco)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ROOTS-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Daphne Hanrahan, manager of The Offs, discovered the San Francisco Club for the Deaf, and was able to rent it on a nightly basis.She remembers finding the place: “I bought a burrito at La Cumbre and noticed a sign on the fire escape across the street. It said ‘Hall for Rent.’ I went up the flights of stairs and saw two guys watching TV with the sound off. After a very short while, I realized we weren't going to communicate, so I wrote on a piece of paper that I wanted to rent the place. Bill—I never knew his last name—was a mustachioed, lascivious, cigar-chewing character who apparently was in charge. He wrote ‘OK & $250,’ so I wrote ‘OK.’”[1]The first show as the Deaf Club on 9 December 1978 featured the Offs, started by guitarist Billy Hawk and singer Don Vinil, and later joined by former Hot Tuna drummer Bob Steeler and a rotation of horn players including Bob Roberts, Richard Edson and Roland Young. They were accompanied by The Mutants, who are known for their theatrical performances which often include elaborate props, projections, and comical antics. They are credited with being one of the first \"Art-punk\" bands in San Francisco, and were one of the most popular bands of the San Francisco punk scene during the late 1970s and early 1980s. On The Rag also participated in the Deaf Club's first show. Over 100 bands such as Northern California's The Dead Kennedys, Tuxedomoon, The Units, The Zeros, Crime, The Dils, Flipper, Negative Trend, Los Microwaves, The Jars, Minimal Man, Voice Farm, Humans, Pearl Harbor and the Explosions, The Sleepers, Avengers, Factrix, Bpeople, S.S.I., NON, MX-80, V.I.P$, K.G.B., Monitor, Blowdryers, BoB, VKTMS, Snuky Tate, JJ180, On The Rag, Noh Mercy, No Alternative; as well as Southern California's Bags, The Alley Cats, Germs, X, Soul Rebels, Walking Dead, Wall of Voodoo, The Rotters, Seizure, Z'EV, Barry Kooda Kombo, Vs., Fillmore Struts, Punts, Inflatable Boy Clams, Jah Hovah, Plugz, Suburbs, The Vandals, The Controllers, Nervous Gender, U.X.A., Dinettes, and some touring bands from Vancouver like D.O.A., Pointed Sticks, and Subhumans, and even touring bands from England like Levi and the Rockats would play this small underground club.Given the unique nature of the venue and its location in the Mission District near 16th Street and the Roxie Theater, it was enthusiastically supported by the punk and arts community, visited by film greats like John Waters and occasionally challenged by the officials of the San Francisco noise abatement patrol, the police, fire department, health department and the alcohol and beverage control until it closed.[citation needed]The house DJs were Enrico Chandoha who worked on the editorial staff of the early Thrasher Magazine; Jack Fan (an Offs road manager and chef at the Zuni); BBC celebrity Johnnie Walker; and Daphne Hanrahan.[citation needed]About such venues, Brendan Earley of The Mutants comments:\"The earthiness, I guess, of playing places like the Deaf Club seemed to have a lot more energy to them. You know the crowd that started coming to this music in '77, it was maybe a peak of their scene, or the scene at that time. They were not normal kinds of clubs, they weren't places like the Stone, or even the Mabuhay, really. They were neat places to play; often good audiences, and good energy going on.\"[2]″A possibly unique aspect of the club was the constant presence of actual deaf people in the hall, who didn't know what to make of their unruly musical cohorts—but counterintuitively, they did seem to enjoy the music. Indeed, punk music might be tailor-made for deaf people to enjoy, because of the constant frenetic thudding of the 4/4 beat that can be sensed as vibrations. As Penelope Houston of The Avengers said, “It was kind of amazing. I think they were dancing to the vibrations. The deaf people were amused that all these punks wanted to come in and rent their room and have these shows.” According to artist Winston Smith, “They put their hands on the table and they could hear the music. It was music they could appreciate because it was so loud.”″[1]In an interview Daphne Hanrahan says \"The social aspect of being able to participate and be accepted was big for the deaf people. They enjoyed being exposed to a different subculture like their own. It was very convivial, no fights or hassles.[3]","title":"Founding"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Walking Dead Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Walking_Dead_Records&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilation_album"},{"link_name":"Berkeley, CA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley,_California"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.bbc.co.uk/radio2/shows/walker/"},{"link_name":"album art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Album_art"},{"link_name":"liner notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liner_notes"},{"link_name":"RE/Search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RE/Search"},{"link_name":"new wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_wave_music"},{"link_name":"The Mutants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mutants_(San_Francisco)"},{"link_name":"19th Nervous Breakdown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_Nervous_Breakdown"},{"link_name":"The Rolling Stones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones"},{"link_name":"Eraserhead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eraserhead"},{"link_name":"Dead Kennedys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Kennedys"},{"link_name":"Raymond Pepperell Jr., better known as East Bay Ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Bay_Ray"},{"link_name":"Live at the Deaf Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_at_the_Deaf_Club"},{"link_name":"Mabuhay Gardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mabuhay_Gardens"},{"link_name":"Target Video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_Video"},{"link_name":"Valencia Tool & Die","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valencia_Tool_%26_Die"},{"link_name":"punk culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_culture"}],"text":"The four partners in Walking Dead Records developed a live compilation project that resulted in an album released by Optional Record distribution of Berkeley, CA on the Walking Dead label: \"Can You Hear Me? Music From the Deaf Club.\" It was recorded on a mobile 8 track by Jim Keylor (also of Army Street Studios), DJ'ed by Johnnie Walker [1], produced by Daphne Hanrahan who also managed and booked the Club, and coordinated by Peter Worrall. The photos selected for the album were taken by Sue Brisk, the album art was by Diana Miami (aka Diana Stumbo) and the liner notes were written by V. Vale of RE/Search/Search & Destroy. It was recorded live at the club during early 1979 and is a testament to the authentic underground punk and \"new wave\" scene during that period in San Francisco's music history. The album featured The Mutants' \"Tribute to Russ Meyer\" and \"Monster of Love\" and performances from other first and second generation San Francisco Punk bands like:Offs – \"Hundred Dollar Limo\", \"Die Babylon\", \"I've Got the Handle\" (Offs were: Don Vinyl, Billy Hawk, Bob Roberts now of Spotlight Tattoo in Los Angeles, Bob Steeler and Denny Boredom who also played with Hot Tuna)\nPink Section – \"Jane Blank\", Francine's List\" & \"Been In The Basement 30 Years\" (Pink Section was: singer Judy Gittelsohn and drummer Carol Detweiler (both members of Inflatable Boy Clams), singer / guitarist Matt Heckert (Survival Research Laboratories), and bassist Stephen Wymore.)\nTuxedomoon – \"19th Nervous Breakdown\", courtesy of The Rolling Stones and \"Heaven\" from the film Eraserhead (Tuxedomoon was: Winston Tong, Steven Brown, Blane Reinenger, Peter Carcinogenic (Principle), Greg Langston on drums, With Bruce Geduldig on visuals)\nKGB – \"Dying in the USA\" & \"Picture Frame Seduction\"\nDead Kennedys with \"Police Truck\", \"California Uber Alles\", \"Short Songs\" & \"Straight A's\". Raymond Pepperell Jr., better known as East Bay Ray of the Dead Kennedys used the original two track safety masters from that live eight track recording to release their recent 2004 Live at the Deaf Club CD.From the Deaf Club, Walking Dead also produced, with William Passerelli, Dirk Dirksen (Mabuhay Gardens), Paul Rat Bachavich (Temple Beautiful) & Goody Thompson: the Western Front Festival. The festival engaged the Deaf Club and every venue, (including the \"art clubs\": A.R.E., Target Video, Valencia Tool & Die, Club Foot, the A-hole and Club Generic) in the San Francisco Bay Area that embraced punk culture and music for a week long event.","title":"Walking Dead Records compilation albums"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"San Diego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego,_California"},{"link_name":"Joel Selvin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel_Selvin"},{"link_name":"music critic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_critic"},{"link_name":"SF Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle"},{"link_name":"This quote needs a citation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Inline_citation#When_you_must_use_inline_citations"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Dirk Dirksen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirk_Dirksen"},{"link_name":"Johnnie Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnnie_Walker"},{"link_name":"The Mutants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mutants_(San_Francisco)"},{"link_name":"This quote needs a citation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Inline_citation#When_you_must_use_inline_citations"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-un-oral-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-un-oral-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-un-oral-4"},{"link_name":"Klaus Flouride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus_Flouride"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-un-oral-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-un-oral-4"}],"text":"In a conversation with Daphne Hanrahan at the Deaf Club during a show during the Western Front with one of the Dinettes of San Diego, Joel Selvin, a music critic for the SF Chronicle, who was attracted by the energy surrounding the punk scene, promised to \"put the scene on the map.\"[This quote needs a citation] Selvin authored an extensive article published in the San Francisco Chronicle, October 22, 1979 on page 6 entitled \"S.F. Goes Punk.\"[citation needed] It documented the scene during that time and included interviews with Dirk Dirksen, Joe Rees, Daphne Hanrahan, Johnnie Walker and Paul Rat Bachavich. He also mentioned the Deaf Club in a subsequent publication: \"San Francisco: The Musical History Tour : A Guide to over 200 of the Bay Area's Most Memorable Music Sites\" where he disparages the Club as \"one of the stranger scenes on the punk rock scene.\"Tono Rondone, a member of the Frank Hymng Band, which featured Fritz Fox of The Mutants, remembers a humorous sideline to the history of The Deaf Club: \"At one point, there was a headline in the San Francisco Chronicle which told of the temporary closing of The Deaf Club whose headline read 'Deaf Club Closed Due to Excessive Noise Levels.'\"[This quote needs a citation]Herb Caen in his daily San Francisco Chronicle column dated Monday August 13, 1979 \"Have a Weird Day\" said: \"I don't know about you, but I find it slightly bizarre that The Deaf Club at 530 Valencia – indeed a social hangout for deaf people – features punk rock groups, such as Zen, Off, The Pink Section, Blow Driers and Mutants. \"The louder the better!\" beams Edward Juaregui, executive director of Deaf Self Help. \"We all like to dance, and we can feel the vibrations.\" How about the neighbors? \"Oh,\" continued Edward, \"they're going crazy. They keep calling the cops, complaining the noise is deafening. Isn't that rich?\"Ethan Davison a fan said \"The most interesting thing about the Deaf Club was that it was a real Deaf Club. The members stood around with the rest of us drinking the pow- erful drinks. I don't sign, so I never “spoke” to any of them, but what I was told was that they enjoyed our music because they could feel the vibrations on the floor. I imagine that they also enjoyed the visual display, for we were the most visually interesting visual community at the time. People would dye their hair a different shade of blue, green, or purple every week. It can now be said that I never had trouble buying a Bloody Mary, even though I was sixteen.\"[4]Kathy Peck, of the Contractions, remembers the Deaf Club fondly, explaining that, \"The place was filthy. My boots would stick to the floor. The deaf people would dance to the vibration of the beat. Daphne Hanrahan would do a radio show with Johnny Walker (BBC punk rock DJ) on the side of the stage, it seems. Daphne Hanrahan, manager of the Offs discovered the San Francisco Club for the Deaf in 1978, and was able to rent it on a nightly basis. It was great fun. The Deaf Club was more a like a neighborhood place, very underground, in the Mission District. People would give the deaf sign for a beer as the Offs, the Contractions, Middle Class, No Alternative, and the Dils played. People like Ginger Coyote (Punk Globe) would hang out, dance, and drink. The bathroom was full of graffiti. We'd load in, and the punk bands would always get in crazy fights, especially Brittley Black, drummer of Crime, who fell out of the upstairs window many a night.The deaf people were receptive. They could “hear” through the wooden floor—a simple floor, made from planks or linoleum. It could catch the vibrations. FrankMoore from the Outrageous Beauty Pageant was there in his wheelchair that people dragged upstairs, since it was on the second floor. Dirk Dirksen (Mabuhay club promoter and San Francisco music icon) nurtured his career.[4]As Bonnie Hayes from the Punts says, “The club was utterly un-controlled, which was one of the best things about it. It was basically like a big, really messy party at someone's house. It seemed private, like an inside thing --- you would meet everybody and be in the family.”[4]In a conversation with Klaus Flouride of The Dead Kennedys he looks back at the state of the Deaf club.\"I remember it being working-class, but I don't remember it being that dingy, but we played an awful lot of pretty dingy punk clubs. That didn't ever impress upon me that much. I think that “California Über Alles” might have come out by the time we played there, but I really don't think so, because we still had 6025 in the group. So, it was still before we had a single out. We were still early on in the thing. There was a folding table in the back. They sold cans of Budweiser. I think it was for like a buck apiece. Back then, you could get Buds for $2.50 or $3.00 a six-pack, or something like that, so they were doing okay. That was your bar. The thing that impressed me the most was that when we were watching the Germs I was right up front, and I was trying to talk to the person next to me. Everybody was grabbing somebody's ear and hollering to try and talk, whereas the deaf members, the people who were deaf and frequented the place on an everyday basis, would just lean forward towards the stage and sign each other— no problem with communication.\"[4]Esmerelda Kent of Noh Mercy recalls that, \"The Deaf Club was down the street from our “house” which was a ginormous storefront, 1920s dry goods store on Valencia Street that is now Artists Television Access (ATA Gallery) at 992 Valencia St., where me, Tony Hotel, and our manager (and Tuxedomoon's manager) Adrian Craig lived. We had a huge basement that had secret passages (connecting all the block) where we used to record and practice.\nThe Deaf Club was my favorite club because of how strange it was. One night after we played at the end of the night, I went backstage and changed and I thought everyone had left because it was so quiet I was sure I was alone. I went out and the room was full with over a hundred people all signing. I wondered if drunk deaf people slurred their sign language.They loved the music because they could feel it. Deafness knows no specific demographic, so rich, poor, old, young, black, Asian, anyone could be and often was deaf and they were all there. Who knew? It was great to write a note of what you wanted to the bartender and see old ladies drinking with spiked mohawk punks.\"[4]","title":"Reviews"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bruce Conner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Conner"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The club closed with a party hosted by the artist and filmmaker Bruce Conner. [citation needed]\nThe club had a history of being closed for various reasons, such as by the fire marshal for the lack of sprinklers. Holding private parties with a closed door policy was a way of it continuing to run. [citation needed] The DEAF CLUB closed after the WESTERN FRONT, a September–October festival of West Coast Bands, which went underreported. As Biafra said, \"The magic of the DEAF CLUB was its intimate sweaty atmosphere, kind of like a great big house party. The club remained raw to the very end.","title":"Closing"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenoux
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Brenoux
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["1 Population","2 See also","3 References"]
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Coordinates: 44°29′03″N 3°32′02″E / 44.4842°N 3.5339°E / 44.4842; 3.5339
Commune in Occitania, FranceBrenouxCommuneThe Truc de Balduc seen from Mont Mimat, Brenoux is in the valley to the leftLocation of Brenoux
BrenouxShow map of FranceBrenouxShow map of OccitanieCoordinates: 44°29′03″N 3°32′02″E / 44.4842°N 3.5339°E / 44.4842; 3.5339CountryFranceRegionOccitaniaDepartmentLozèreArrondissementMendeCantonSaint-Étienne-du-ValdonnezIntercommunalityCC Mont LozèreGovernment • Mayor (2020–2026) Olivier TaurissonArea111.25 km2 (4.34 sq mi)Population (2021)387 • Density34/km2 (89/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+01:00 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+02:00 (CEST)INSEE/Postal code48030 /48000Elevation729–1,082 m (2,392–3,550 ft) (avg. 735 m or 2,411 ft)1 French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers > 1 km2 (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries.
Brenoux (French pronunciation: ; Occitan: Brenosc) is a commune in the Lozère department in southern France.
Population
Historical populationYearPop.±% p.a.1968 173— 1975 148−2.21%1982 173+2.25%1990 260+5.22%1999 304+1.75%2009 339+1.10%2014 374+1.98%2020 389+0.66%Source: INSEE
See also
Communes of the Lozère department
References
^ "Répertoire national des élus: les maires" (in French). data.gouv.fr, Plateforme ouverte des données publiques françaises. 13 September 2022.
^ "Populations légales 2021" (in French). The National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies. 28 December 2023.
^ Population en historique depuis 1968, INSEE
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Brenoux.
vteCommunes of the Lozère department
Albaret-le-Comtal
Albaret-Sainte-Marie
Allenc
Altier
Antrenas
Arzenc-d'Apcher
Arzenc-de-Randon
Auroux
Badaroux
Balsièges
Banassac-Canilhac
Barjac
Barre-des-Cévennes
Bassurels
La Bastide-Puylaurent
Bédouès-Cocurès
Bel-Air-Val-d'Ance
Les Bessons
Blavignac
Les Bondons
Le Born
Bourgs sur Colagne
Brenoux
Brion
Le Buisson
La Canourgue
Cans et Cévennes
Cassagnas
Chadenet
Chanac
Chastanier
Chastel-Nouvel
Châteauneuf-de-Randon
Chauchailles
Chaudeyrac
Chaulhac
Cheylard-l'Évêque
Le Collet-de-Dèze
Cubières
Cubiérettes
Cultures
Esclanèdes
La Fage-Montivernoux
La Fage-Saint-Julien
Florac Trois Rivièressubpr
Fontans
Fournels
Fraissinet-de-Fourques
Gabriac
Gabrias
Gatuzières
Gorges du Tarn Causses
Grandrieu
Grandvals
Grèzes
Les Hermaux
Hures-la-Parade
Ispagnac
Julianges
Lachamp-Ribennes
Lajo
Langogne
Lanuéjols
Laubert
Les Laubies
Laval-du-Tarn
Luc
La Malène
Le Malzieu-Forain
Le Malzieu-Ville
Marchastel
Marvejols
Mas-Saint-Chély
Massegros Causses Gorges
Mendepref
Meyrueis
Moissac-Vallée-Française
Molezon
Montbel
Mont Lozère et Goulet
Montrodat
Monts-de-Randon
Les Monts-Verts
Nasbinals
Naussac-Fontanes
Noalhac
Palhers
La Panouse
Paulhac-en-Margeride
Pelouse
Peyre en Aubrac
Pied-de-Borne
Pierrefiche
Le Pompidou
Pont-de-Montvert-Sud-Mont-Lozère
Pourcharesses
Prévenchères
Prinsuéjols-Malbouzon
Prunières
Recoules-d'Aubrac
Recoules-de-Fumas
Rimeize
Rocles
Rousses
Le Rozier
Saint-Alban-sur-Limagnole
Saint-André-Capcèze
Saint-André-de-Lancize
Saint-Bauzile
Saint-Bonnet-de-Chirac
Saint-Bonnet-Laval
Saint-Chély-d'Apcher
Saint-Denis-en-Margeride
Sainte-Croix-Vallée-Française
Sainte-Eulalie
Sainte-Hélène
Saint-Étienne-du-Valdonnez
Saint-Étienne-Vallée-Française
Saint-Flour-de-Mercoire
Saint-Frézal-d'Albuges
Saint-Gal
Saint-Germain-de-Calberte
Saint-Germain-du-Teil
Saint-Hilaire-de-Lavit
Saint-Jean-la-Fouillouse
Saint-Juéry
Saint-Julien-des-Points
Saint-Laurent-de-Muret
Saint-Laurent-de-Veyrès
Saint-Léger-de-Peyre
Saint-Léger-du-Malzieu
Saint-Martin-de-Boubaux
Saint-Martin-de-Lansuscle
Saint-Michel-de-Dèze
Saint-Paul-le-Froid
Saint-Pierre-de-Nogaret
Saint-Pierre-des-Tripiers
Saint-Pierre-le-Vieux
Saint-Privat-de-Vallongue
Saint-Privat-du-Fau
Saint-Saturnin
Saint-Sauveur-de-Ginestoux
Les Salces
Les Salelles
Serverette
Termes
La Tieule
Trélans
Vebron
Ventalon-en-Cévennes
Vialas
Villefort
pref: prefecture
subpr: subprefecture
This Lozère geographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
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|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LP1_(Joss_Stone_album)
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LP1 (Joss Stone album)
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["1 Critical reception","2 Commercial performance","3 Track listing","4 Personnel","4.1 Musicians","4.2 Technical","4.3 Artwork","5 Charts","5.1 Weekly charts","5.2 Year-end charts","6 Release history","7 References"]
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2011 studio album by Joss Stone
LP1Studio album by Joss StoneReleased21 July 2011 (2011-07-21)StudioBlackbird (Nashville, Tennessee)Genre
Blues
soul
R&B
rock
Length40:07Label
Stone'd
Surfdog
Producer
Dave Stewart
Joss Stone
Joss Stone chronology
Colour Me Free!(2009)
LP1(2011)
The Best of Joss Stone 2003–2009(2011)
Singles from LP1
"Somehow"Released: 17 June 2011
"Karma"Released: 3 October 2011
"Don't Start Lying to Me Now"Released: 17 October 2011
LP1 is the fifth studio album by English singer and songwriter Joss Stone. It was released on 21 July 2011 on Stone's own label, Stone'd Records, in partnership with Surfdog Records, following her departure from EMI in 2010. The album was recorded at Blackbird Studios in Nashville, Tennessee, in six days. Stone co-wrote and co-produced the album with record producer and Eurythmics co-founder, Dave Stewart.
To promote the album, Stone and Stewart performed on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on 11 July 2011, on The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson on 13 July and on Live! with Regis and Kelly on 14 July.
Critical reception
Professional ratingsAggregate scoresSourceRatingMetacritic59/100Review scoresSourceRatingAllMusicThe A.V. ClubCThe Daily TelegraphEntertainment WeeklyBThe GuardianThe IndependentPaste7.5/10PopMatters4/10Rolling StoneSlant Magazine
LP1 received mixed reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 59, based on 18 reviews. Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote, "For most of the album she lets her big, smoky voice rip into songs of all-out romantic strife" and that "er voice is a loose cannon; LP1 figures out how to aim it." The Boston Globe's Scott McLennan noted that the album "has bolder blues-rock and country undertones, and those platforms elevate the originality of Stone's raw talents." He further stated: "With her rich tone that is cut with a bit of rasp, Stone has the ability to inhabit songs the way good actors create characters." Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated that "Stewart is naturally reluctant to present Stone in a strictly soul setting; R&B is the foundation, but he dabbles in tight funk, folk, blues, Euro-rock, and modernist pop, giving LP1 just enough elasticity so it breathes and just enough color so it doesn't seem staid." Holly Gleason of Paste described the album as "a full-tumble of relentless musicianship, grit and soul" and compared it to Dusty Springfield's 1969 album Dusty in Memphis. She later concluded that "n a world where machined dance fodder, rap-deckled pop and lumbering rawk dominates, a genuine article of soul music—especially one where the thick bass, tumbling Wurlitzer and bright guitars set the tone—is a joyous noise, indeed." The Guardian's Paul MacInnes believed that the album is "proficiently played and Stone's voice has a range and tonal dexterity that few of her peers possess", but "the final product is so familiar and so shorn of genuine emotion that LP1 quickly loses any sense of identity and becomes standard fare, indistinguishable from any number of other recordings." Colin McGuire agreed in his review for PopMatters, and said that the album is "missing the key element of why she has been so lauded over the course of her increasingly mature career: A groove. In fact, lacks so much of a groove, it would be safe to say the singer has almost completely abandoned her soulful roots altogether", deeming the result "disappointing", "low-rent", "unexpected" and "most of all, it seems like something Joss Stone was previously above".
Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone commented that "Stone is best when she's rawest, bookending LP1 with 'Newborn' and 'Take Good Care,' stripped-down tunes where her howl goes from plaintive to bone-shaking in a few lovesick heartbeats." Andy Gill of The Independent remarked that the album is "less hostage to a single specific style than any of her previous work" and that "the diversity emphasises her shared heritage with Janis Joplin, while retaining her core deep-soul strength on tracks such as 'Cry Myself to Sleep' and 'Newborn'." Matthew Cole from Slant Magazine felt that "sameness is an issue , as most of the songs here aspire to little more than providing scenery for Stone's vocals." He continued: "This a wholly acceptable effort, but it makes it clear that Stone is stalling out a mere decade into what looked at first like a promising career." Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times viewed it as "Stone's most conventional record yet" and opined that "the music gestures toward the majestic balladry we've heard a lot of lately from Ryan Tedder in his productions for Beyoncé and Kelly Clarkson. But such a mild reward hardly seems worth the trouble of her protracted freedom fight." Kenny Herzog from The A.V. Club was emphatic, dubbing it Stone's "flattest and phoniest album yet" and "an almost shockingly forgettable slab of forced adult-contemporary rock", adding that "espite a capable vocal range, Stone primarily dials up screechy wails and contrived, finger-wagging sass." Joanne Huffa from Now argued that "ated production could be overlooked if the songs were better, but there's a serious lack of hooks for a pop album. And since Stone's voice is the focal point, there's no escaping the leaden lyrics."
Commercial performance
LP1 debuted and peaked at number 36 on the UK Albums Chart. In the United States, it debuted at number nine on the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 30,000 copies, becoming Stone's third consecutive top-10 album on the chart, as well as her second highest-peaking album after Introducing Joss Stone (2007).
In June 2012, the album was awarded a gold certification from the Independent Music Companies Association (IMPALA), indicating sales in excess of 75,000 copies across Europe.
Track listing
No.TitleWriter(s)Length1."Newborn"Joss StoneDave StewartWendy Joseph3:432."Karma"Martina McBrideBrad WarrenBrett WarrenStoneStewart3:543."Don't Start Lying to Me Now"Chris StapletonMelissa PeirceStone4:084."Last One to Know"StoneStewart4:525."Drive All Night"StoneFrancis White5:076."Cry Myself to Sleep"StoneStewart3:517."Somehow"StoneStewart3:048."Landlord"StoneStewart3:579."Boat Yard"Stone5:0210."Take Good Care"Paul ConroyStone2:29
iTunes Store bonus tracksNo.TitleWriter(s)Length11."Picnic for Two" (featuring Dave Stewart)StoneStewart4:1412."Cutting the Breeze"StoneStewart3:39
Amazon Germany digital bonus trackNo.TitleWriter(s)Length11."Picnic for Two" (featuring Dave Stewart)StoneStewart4:14
Japanese edition bonus trackNo.TitleWriter(s)Length11."The Sound"StoneStewart3:29
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of LP1.
Musicians
Joss Stone – vocals
Dave Stewart – guitar
Chad Cromwell – drums, percussion
Michael Rhodes – bass
Tom Bukovac – guitar
Dan Dugmore – pedal steel guitars
Mike Rojas – keys
Drea Rhenee – background vocals
Wendy Moten – background vocals
Luke Potter – additional guitars on "Karma"
Technical
Dave Stewart – production
Joss Stone – production, executive production
Dave Kaplan – executive production
Brian Nelson – executive production
John McBride – engineering
Steve Greenwell – mixing, additional engineering
Tom Coyne – mastering at Sterling Sound (New York City)
Artwork
Kristin Burns – photography
Dave Stewart – cover photo
Kevin Tetreault – layout, design
Charts
Weekly charts
Weekly chart performance for LP1
Chart (2011)
Peakposition
Australian Albums (ARIA)
58
Australian Jazz & Blues Albums (ARIA)
1
Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)
15
Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)
12
Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)
39
Canadian Albums (Billboard)
15
Danish Albums (Hitlisten)
38
Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)
6
French Albums (SNEP)
46
German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)
5
Italian Albums (FIMI)
80
Japanese Albums (Oricon)
153
Portuguese Albums (AFP)
30
Scottish Albums (OCC)
58
Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)
2
UK Albums (OCC)
36
UK Independent Albums (OCC)
7
US Billboard 200
9
US Independent Albums (Billboard)
2
US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums (Billboard)
3
Year-end charts
Year-end chart performance for LP1
Chart (2011)
Position
Australian Jazz & Blues Albums (ARIA)
14
Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)
88
US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums (Billboard)
81
Release history
Release dates and formats for LP1
Region
Date
Format
Label
Ref(s)
Portugal
21 July 2011
CD
Stone'dSurfdog
Germany
22 July 2011
CDLP
Sony
Digital download
Stone'dSurfdog
Netherlands
CD
United Kingdom
24 July 2011
Digital download
France
25 July 2011
CD
Universal
Digital download
Stone'dSurfdog
Italy
Netherlands
Portugal
United Kingdom
CDLP
Canada
26 July 2011
CDdigital download
Italy
CD
Edel
United States
CDLPdigital download
Stone'dSurfdog
Australia
29 July 2011
CDdigital download
Universal
Japan
24 August 2011
CD
Victor
References
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^ a b c Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. "LP1 – Joss Stone". AllMusic. Archived from the original on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ a b c Herzog, Kenny (2 August 2011). "Joss Stone: LP1". The A.V. Club. Archived from the original on 6 January 2019. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
^ "Somehow: Joss Stone: MP3-Downloads". Amazon (in German). Germany. Archived from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
^ "Karma: Joss Stone: Téléchargements MP3". Amazon (in French). France. Archived from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
^ "Don't Start Lying to Me Now (Radio Edit) – Single by Joss Stone". iTunes Store. United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 27 February 2015. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
^ a b Cantor, Paul (22 July 2011). "Joss Stone Enjoys New Freedom on 'LP1'". Billboard. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ a b c "Joss Stone Announces Release of New Album, LP1, on July 26". JossStone.com. 5 May 2011. Archived from the original on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno – Episode guide". NBC. 11 July 2011. Archived from the original on 3 November 2012. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
^ "Check out Joss Stone on Craig Ferguson last night with Dave Stewart". DaveStewart.com. 14 July 2011. Archived from the original on 11 October 2012. Retrieved 16 July 2011.
^ "Joss Stone To Appear Next Week on Leno, Ferguson, Regis & Kelly, New Album LP1 Out July 26". The Audio Perv. 8 July 2011. Archived from the original on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 16 July 2011.
^ a b "LP1 by Joss Stone Reviews and Tracks". Metacritic. Archived from the original on 25 January 2019. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
^ McCormick, Neil (5 August 2011). "Joss Stone: LP1, CD review". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
^ Wete, Brad (29 July 2011). "Albums: July 29, 2011". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on 21 November 2018. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ a b MacInnes, Paul (28 July 2011). "Joss Stone: LP1 – review". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 18 October 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ a b Gill, Andy (22 July 2011). "Album: Joss Stone, LP1 (Stone'd/Surfdog)". The Independent. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
^ a b Gleason, Holly (25 July 2011). "Joss Stone: LP1". Paste. Archived from the original on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
^ a b McGuire, Colin (24 July 2011). "Joss Stone: LP1". PopMatters. Archived from the original on 19 October 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ a b Cole, Matthew (24 July 2011). "Review: Joss Stone, LP1". Slant Magazine. Archived from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 13 December 2019.
^ Pareles, Jon (25 July 2011). "New Music – Joss Stone". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 October 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
^ McLennan, Scott (25 July 2011). "Stone shows growth on bold new album". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 8 July 2018. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
^ Wood, Mikael (25 July 2011). "Album review: Joss Stone's 'LP1'". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 5 June 2012. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
^ Huffa, Joanne (21 July 2011). "Joss Stone – Mirror Mirror". Now. Vol. 30, no. 47. ISSN 0712-1326. Archived from the original on 13 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "Joss Stone | full Official Chart History" (select "Albums" tab). Official Charts Company. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ a b "Official Albums Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ Caulfield, Keith (3 August 2011). "Eric Church Lands First No. 1 Album, Amy Winehouse Climbs into Top 5". Billboard. Archived from the original on 13 April 2013. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
^ a b "Joss Stone Chart History (Billboard 200)". Billboard. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
^ "15/06/12: As Caro Emerald hits Triple Platinum, over 100 releases by independent artists pick up IMPALA European Sales Awards, with Adele's 21 reaching an incredible Twenty Five Times Platinum". Independent Music Companies Association. 15 June 2012. Archived from the original on 5 January 2019. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
^ "LP1 by Joss Stone". iTunes Store. United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 14 December 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
^ "LP1 (Inkl. Bonus-Track / exklusiv bei Amazon.de): Joss Stone: MP3-Downloads". Amazon (in German). Germany. Archived from the original on 13 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ a b "Lp1 : Joss Stone". HMV Japan. Archived from the original on 13 April 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ Joss Stone (2011). LP1 (liner notes). Stone'd Records. 233418.
^ "Chartifacts" (PDF). The ARIA Report. No. 1119. 8 August 2011. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2011. Retrieved 13 December 2019 – via National Library of Australia.
^ "ARIA Jazz & Blues Albums – Week Commencing 8th August 2011" (PDF). The ARIA Report. No. 1119. 8 August 2011. p. 21. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2011. Retrieved 13 December 2019 – via National Library of Australia.
^ "Austriancharts.at – Joss Stone – LP1" (in German). Hung Medien. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
^ "Ultratop.be – Joss Stone – LP1" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved 5 August 2011.
^ "Ultratop.be – Joss Stone – LP1" (in French). Hung Medien. Retrieved 5 August 2011.
^ "Joss Stone Chart History (Canadian Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
^ "Danishcharts.dk – Joss Stone – LP1". Hung Medien. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
^ "Dutchcharts.nl – Joss Stone – LP1" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
^ "Lescharts.com – Joss Stone – LP1". Hung Medien. Retrieved 9 August 2011.
^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Joss Stone – LP1" (in German). GfK Entertainment Charts. Retrieved 5 July 2015.
^ "Italiancharts.com – Joss Stone – LP1". Hung Medien. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ エル・ピー・ワン | ジョス・ストーン (in Japanese). Oricon. Archived from the original on 13 April 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "Portuguesecharts.com – Joss Stone – LP1". Hung Medien. Retrieved 3 September 2011.
^ "Official Scottish Albums Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "Swisscharts.com – Joss Stone – LP1". Hung Medien. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
^ "Official Independent Albums Chart Top 50". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "Joss Stone Chart History (Independent Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
^ "Joss Stone Chart History (Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
^ "ARIA Charts – End Of Year Charts – Top 50 Jazz & Blues Albums 2011". Australian Recording Industry Association. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "Schweizer Jahreshitparade 2011". hitparade.ch (in German). Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ "Year End Charts – Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums". Billboard. 2011. Archived from the original on 30 June 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
^ "Stone, Joss – LP1". CDGO (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 14 March 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "LP1: Joss Stone". Amazon (in German). Germany. Archived from the original on 9 January 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2011.
^ "Lp1 : Joss Stone". Amazon (in German). Germany. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "LP1: Joss Stone: MP3-Downloads". Amazon (in German). Germany. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "LP1, Joss Stone". bol.com (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 31 January 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "LP1: Joss Stone: MP3 Downloads". Amazon. United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "LP1 – Joss Stone – CD album" (in French). Fnac. Archived from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
^ "LP1: Joss Stone: Téléchargements MP3". Amazon (in French). France. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "LP1: Joss Stone: Musica Digitale". Amazon (in Italian). Italy. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "LP1 (2011) | Joss Stone". 7digital (in Dutch). Netherlands. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "LP1 (2011) | Joss Stone". 7digital (in Portuguese). Portugal. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "Joss Stone: Lp1". HMV. Archived from the original on 12 October 2012. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
^ "LP1 : Joss Stone". Amazon. United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "LP1 by Joss Stone". HMV Canada. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "LP1 by Joss Stone". iTunes Store. Canada. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "Joss Stone – LP1". IBS.it (in Italian). Archived from the original on 29 June 2012. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
^ "LP1 (CD): Joss Stone". Amazon. United States. Archived from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2011.
^ "LP1 (Vinyl): Joss Stone". Amazon. United States. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ "LP1 by Joss Stone". iTunes Store. United States. Archived from the original on 13 October 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
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^ "LP1 by Joss Stone". iTunes Store. Australia. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
vteJoss StoneDiscographyStudio albums
The Soul Sessions
Mind Body & Soul
Introducing Joss Stone
Colour Me Free!
LP1
The Soul Sessions Vol. 2
Water for Your Soul
Never Forget My Love
Merry Christmas, Love
Compilation albums
The Best of Joss Stone 2003–2009
Video albums
Mind Body & Soul Sessions: Live in New York City
Other albums
SuperHeavy
Singles
"Fell in Love with a Boy"
"Super Duper Love"
"You Had Me"
"Right to Be Wrong"
"Spoiled"
"Cry Baby/Piece of My Heart"
"Don't Cha Wanna Ride"
"Tell Me 'bout It"
"Tell Me What We're Gonna Do Now"
"L-O-V-E"
"Baby Baby Baby"
"Free Me"
"While You're Out Looking for Sugar"
"Pillow Talk"
"Teardrops"
"No Man's Land (Green Fields of France)"
Featured singles
"Cry Baby Cry"
"Sing"
"I Put a Spell on You
"The Best Thing About Me Is You"
Other songs
"Stalemate"
Tours
LP1 World Tour
Total World Tour
Related articles
SuperHeavy
Stone'd Records
Authority control databases
MusicBrainz release group
|
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It was released on 21 July 2011 on Stone's own label, Stone'd Records, in partnership with Surfdog Records, following her departure from EMI in 2010.[7][8] The album was recorded at Blackbird Studios in Nashville, Tennessee, in six days.[7][8] Stone co-wrote and co-produced the album with record producer and Eurythmics co-founder, Dave Stewart.[8]To promote the album, Stone and Stewart performed on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on 11 July 2011,[9] on The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson on 13 July[10] and on Live! with Regis and Kelly on 14 July.[11]","title":"LP1 (Joss Stone album)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"normalised","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_score"},{"link_name":"average","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighted_arithmetic_mean"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MC-12"},{"link_name":"Jon Pareles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Pareles"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes-20"},{"link_name":"The Boston Globe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Boston_Globe"},{"link_name":"blues-rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues_rock"},{"link_name":"country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_music"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Stephen Thomas Erlewine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Thomas_Erlewine"},{"link_name":"AllMusic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllMusic"},{"link_name":"soul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_music"},{"link_name":"R&B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues"},{"link_name":"funk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funk"},{"link_name":"folk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music"},{"link_name":"blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues"},{"link_name":"pop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_music"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allmusic-2"},{"link_name":"Paste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paste_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Dusty Springfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dusty_Springfield"},{"link_name":"Dusty in Memphis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dusty_in_Memphis"},{"link_name":"Wurlitzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wurlitzer"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-paste-17"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian-15"},{"link_name":"PopMatters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PopMatters"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-popmatters-18"},{"link_name":"Rolling Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rollingstone-1"},{"link_name":"The Independent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-independent-16"},{"link_name":"Slant Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slant_Magazine"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-slant-19"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times"},{"link_name":"Ryan Tedder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryan_Tedder"},{"link_name":"Beyoncé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Kelly Clarkson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_Clarkson"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"The A.V. Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_A.V._Club"},{"link_name":"adult-contemporary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult_contemporary_music"},{"link_name":"rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-avclub-3"},{"link_name":"Now","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Now_(newspaper)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"LP1 received mixed reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 59, based on 18 reviews.[12] Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote, \"For most of the album she lets her big, smoky voice rip into songs of all-out romantic strife\" and that \"[h]er voice is a loose cannon; LP1 figures out how to aim it.\"[20] The Boston Globe's Scott McLennan noted that the album \"has bolder blues-rock and country undertones, and those platforms elevate the originality of Stone's raw talents.\" He further stated: \"With her rich tone that is cut with a bit of rasp, Stone has the ability to inhabit songs the way good actors create characters.\"[21] Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated that \"Stewart is naturally reluctant to present Stone in a strictly soul setting; R&B is the foundation, but he dabbles in tight funk, folk, blues, Euro-rock, and modernist pop, giving LP1 just enough elasticity so it breathes and just enough color so it doesn't seem staid.\"[2] Holly Gleason of Paste described the album as \"a full-tumble of relentless musicianship, grit and soul\" and compared it to Dusty Springfield's 1969 album Dusty in Memphis. She later concluded that \"[i]n a world where machined dance fodder, rap-deckled pop and lumbering rawk dominates, a genuine article of soul music—especially one where the thick bass, tumbling Wurlitzer and bright guitars set the tone—is a joyous noise, indeed.\"[17] The Guardian's Paul MacInnes believed that the album is \"proficiently played and Stone's voice has a range and tonal dexterity that few of her peers possess\", but \"the final product is so familiar and so shorn of genuine emotion that LP1 quickly loses any sense of identity and becomes standard fare, indistinguishable from any number of other recordings.\"[15] Colin McGuire agreed in his review for PopMatters, and said that the album is \"missing the key element of why she has been so lauded over the course of her increasingly mature career: A groove. In fact, [LP1] lacks so much of a groove, it would be safe to say the singer has almost completely abandoned her soulful roots altogether\", deeming the result \"disappointing\", \"low-rent\", \"unexpected\" and \"most of all, it seems like something Joss Stone was previously above\".[18]Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone commented that \"Stone is best when she's rawest, bookending LP1 with 'Newborn' and 'Take Good Care,' stripped-down tunes where her howl goes from plaintive to bone-shaking in a few lovesick heartbeats.\"[1] Andy Gill of The Independent remarked that the album is \"less hostage to a single specific style than any of her previous work\" and that \"the diversity emphasises her shared heritage with Janis Joplin, while retaining her core deep-soul strength on tracks such as 'Cry Myself to Sleep' and 'Newborn'.\"[16] Matthew Cole from Slant Magazine felt that \"sameness is [...] an issue [for the album], as most of the songs here aspire to little more than providing scenery for Stone's vocals.\" He continued: \"This a wholly acceptable effort, but it makes it clear that Stone is stalling out a mere decade into what looked at first like a promising career.\"[19] Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times viewed it as \"Stone's most conventional record yet\" and opined that \"the music gestures toward the majestic balladry we've heard a lot of lately from Ryan Tedder in his productions for Beyoncé and Kelly Clarkson. But such a mild reward hardly seems worth the trouble of her protracted freedom fight.\"[22] Kenny Herzog from The A.V. Club was emphatic, dubbing it Stone's \"flattest and phoniest album yet\" and \"an almost shockingly forgettable slab of forced adult-contemporary rock\", adding that \"[d]espite a capable vocal range, Stone primarily dials up screechy wails [...] and contrived, finger-wagging sass.\"[3] Joanne Huffa from Now argued that \"[d]ated production could be overlooked if the songs were better, but there's a serious lack of hooks for a pop album. And since Stone's voice is the focal point, there's no escaping the leaden lyrics.\"[23]","title":"Critical reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"UK Albums Chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UK_peak-25"},{"link_name":"Billboard 200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_200"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Introducing Joss Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introducing_Joss_Stone"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bb200-27"},{"link_name":"Independent Music Companies Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Music_Companies_Association"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"LP1 debuted and peaked at number 36 on the UK Albums Chart.[24][25] In the United States, it debuted at number nine on the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 30,000 copies, becoming Stone's third consecutive top-10 album on the chart,[26] as well as her second highest-peaking album after Introducing Joss Stone (2007).[27]In June 2012, the album was awarded a gold certification from the Independent Music Companies Association (IMPALA), indicating sales in excess of 75,000 copies across Europe.[28]","title":"Commercial performance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joss Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joss_Stone"},{"link_name":"Dave Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Stewart_(Eurythmics)"},{"link_name":"Martina McBride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martina_McBride"},{"link_name":"Chris Stapleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Stapleton"},{"link_name":"Melissa Peirce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melissa_Peirce"},{"link_name":"Francis White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eg_White"},{"link_name":"iTunes Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes_Store"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Amazon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_(company)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hmv.co.jp-31"}],"text":"No.TitleWriter(s)Length1.\"Newborn\"Joss StoneDave StewartWendy Joseph3:432.\"Karma\"Martina McBrideBrad WarrenBrett WarrenStoneStewart3:543.\"Don't Start Lying to Me Now\"Chris StapletonMelissa PeirceStone4:084.\"Last One to Know\"StoneStewart4:525.\"Drive All Night\"StoneFrancis White5:076.\"Cry Myself to Sleep\"StoneStewart3:517.\"Somehow\"StoneStewart3:048.\"Landlord\"StoneStewart3:579.\"Boat Yard\"Stone5:0210.\"Take Good Care\"Paul ConroyStone2:29iTunes Store bonus tracks[29]No.TitleWriter(s)Length11.\"Picnic for Two\" (featuring Dave Stewart)StoneStewart4:1412.\"Cutting the Breeze\"StoneStewart3:39Amazon Germany digital bonus track[30]No.TitleWriter(s)Length11.\"Picnic for Two\" (featuring Dave Stewart)StoneStewart4:14Japanese edition bonus track[31]No.TitleWriter(s)Length11.\"The Sound\"StoneStewart3:29","title":"Track listing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"text":"Credits adapted from the liner notes of LP1.[32]","title":"Personnel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joss Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joss_Stone"},{"link_name":"Dave Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Stewart_(Eurythmics)"},{"link_name":"Chad Cromwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad_Cromwell"},{"link_name":"Michael Rhodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Rhodes_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Tom Bukovac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Bukovac"},{"link_name":"Dan Dugmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Dugmore"},{"link_name":"Wendy Moten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendy_Moten"}],"sub_title":"Musicians","text":"Joss Stone – vocals\nDave Stewart – guitar\nChad Cromwell – drums, percussion\nMichael Rhodes – bass\nTom Bukovac – guitar\nDan Dugmore – pedal steel guitars\nMike Rojas – keys\nDrea Rhenee – background vocals\nWendy Moten – background vocals\nLuke Potter – additional guitars on \"Karma\"","title":"Personnel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tom Coyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Coyne_(music_engineer)"},{"link_name":"Sterling Sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterling_Sound"}],"sub_title":"Technical","text":"Dave Stewart – production\nJoss Stone – production, executive production\nDave Kaplan – executive production\nBrian Nelson – executive production\nJohn McBride – engineering\nSteve Greenwell – mixing, additional engineering\nTom Coyne – mastering at Sterling Sound (New York City)","title":"Personnel"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Artwork","text":"Kristin Burns – photography\nDave Stewart – cover photo\nKevin Tetreault – layout, design","title":"Personnel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LP1_(Joss_Stone_album)&action=edit§ion=9"},{"link_name":"ARIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARIA_Charts"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"ARIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARIA_Charts"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Ö3 Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%963_Austria_Top_40"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Austria_Joss_Stone-35"},{"link_name":"Ultratop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultratop"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Flanders_Joss_Stone-36"},{"link_name":"Ultratop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultratop"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Wallonia_Joss_Stone-37"},{"link_name":"Canadian Albums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Albums_Chart"},{"link_name":"Billboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_BillboardCanada_Joss_Stone-38"},{"link_name":"Hitlisten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitlisten"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Denmark_Joss_Stone-39"},{"link_name":"Album Top 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Album_Top_100"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Netherlands_Joss_Stone-40"},{"link_name":"SNEP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndicat_National_de_l%27%C3%89dition_Phonographique"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_France_Joss_Stone-41"},{"link_name":"Offizielle Top 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GfK_Entertainment_charts"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Germany4_Joss_Stone-42"},{"link_name":"FIMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federazione_Industria_Musicale_Italiana"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Italy_Joss_Stone-43"},{"link_name":"Oricon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oricon_Albums_Chart"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"AFP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Fonogr%C3%A1fica_Portuguesa"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Portugal_Joss_Stone-45"},{"link_name":"Scottish Albums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Singles_and_Albums_Charts"},{"link_name":"OCC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Scotland_-46"},{"link_name":"Schweizer Hitparade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Hitparade"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Switzerland_Joss_Stone-47"},{"link_name":"UK Albums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart"},{"link_name":"OCC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UK_peak-25"},{"link_name":"UK Independent Albums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Independent_Singles_and_Albums_Charts"},{"link_name":"OCC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_UKIndependent_-48"},{"link_name":"Billboard 200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_200"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bb200-27"},{"link_name":"Independent Albums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Albums"},{"link_name":"Billboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_BillboardIndependent_Joss_Stone-49"},{"link_name":"Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_R%26B/Hip-Hop_Albums"},{"link_name":"Billboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_BillboardRandBHipHop_Joss_Stone-50"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LP1_(Joss_Stone_album)&action=edit§ion=10"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"}],"text":"Weekly charts[edit]\n\nWeekly chart performance for LP1\n\n\nChart (2011)\n\nPeakposition\n\n\nAustralian Albums (ARIA)[33]\n\n58\n\n\nAustralian Jazz & Blues Albums (ARIA)[34]\n\n1\n\n\nAustrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)[35]\n\n15\n\n\nBelgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)[36]\n\n12\n\n\nBelgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)[37]\n\n39\n\n\nCanadian Albums (Billboard)[38]\n\n15\n\n\nDanish Albums (Hitlisten)[39]\n\n38\n\n\nDutch Albums (Album Top 100)[40]\n\n6\n\n\nFrench Albums (SNEP)[41]\n\n46\n\n\nGerman Albums (Offizielle Top 100)[42]\n\n5\n\n\nItalian Albums (FIMI)[43]\n\n80\n\n\nJapanese Albums (Oricon)[44]\n\n153\n\n\nPortuguese Albums (AFP)[45]\n\n30\n\n\nScottish Albums (OCC)[46]\n\n58\n\n\nSwiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)[47]\n\n2\n\n\nUK Albums (OCC)[25]\n\n36\n\n\nUK Independent Albums (OCC)[48]\n\n7\n\n\nUS Billboard 200[27]\n\n9\n\n\nUS Independent Albums (Billboard)[49]\n\n2\n\n\nUS Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums (Billboard)[50]\n\n3\n\n\n\nYear-end charts[edit]\n\nYear-end chart performance for LP1\n\n\nChart (2011)\n\nPosition\n\n\nAustralian Jazz & Blues Albums (ARIA)[51]\n\n14\n\n\nSwiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)[52]\n\n88\n\n\nUS Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums (Billboard)[53]\n\n81","title":"Charts"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Release history"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"Ganz, Caryn (2 August 2011). \"Joss Stone LP1 Album Review\". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 12 July 2012. Retrieved 3 August 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rollingstone.com/music/albumreviews/lp1-20110802","url_text":"\"Joss Stone LP1 Album Review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone","url_text":"Rolling Stone"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120712024211/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/albumreviews/lp1-20110802","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. \"LP1 – Joss Stone\". AllMusic. Archived from the original on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Thomas_Erlewine","url_text":"Erlewine, Stephen Thomas"},{"url":"https://www.allmusic.com/album/lp1-mw0002150340","url_text":"\"LP1 – Joss Stone\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllMusic","url_text":"AllMusic"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150312215637/http://www.allmusic.com/album/lp1-mw0002150340","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Herzog, Kenny (2 August 2011). \"Joss Stone: LP1\". The A.V. Club. Archived from the original on 6 January 2019. Retrieved 5 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://music.avclub.com/joss-stone-lp1-1798169095","url_text":"\"Joss Stone: LP1\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_A.V._Club","url_text":"The A.V. Club"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190106153233/https://music.avclub.com/joss-stone-lp1-1798169095","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Somehow: Joss Stone: MP3-Downloads\". Amazon (in German). Germany. Archived from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20150315013109/http://www.amazon.de/dp/B0054KV0EQ","url_text":"\"Somehow: Joss Stone: MP3-Downloads\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_(company)","url_text":"Amazon"},{"url":"https://www.amazon.de/dp/B0054KV0EQ","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Karma: Joss Stone: Téléchargements MP3\". Amazon (in French). France. Archived from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20150315013116/http://www.amazon.fr/dp/B005P6SZ74","url_text":"\"Karma: Joss Stone: Téléchargements MP3\""},{"url":"https://www.amazon.fr/dp/B005P6SZ74","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Don't Start Lying to Me Now (Radio Edit) – Single by Joss Stone\". iTunes Store. United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 27 February 2015. 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Slater
|
Ralph Slater
|
["1 Personal life","2 Selected works","3 References"]
|
English millwright
Ralph SlaterMarsh Mill, built by Slater in 1794Born1754Barton, PrestonDied1830 (aged 75–76)NationalityBritishKnown forLancashire windmills
Ralph Slater (1754–1830) was an English millwright, active in the second half of the 18th century and early 19th, ostensibly known for his windmills on the Fylde in Lancashire, England. One of them, Marsh Mill, is a Grade II* listed building. He was from Pilling.
Personal life
Slater was born in 1754 in Barton, Preston. He married Margery Speakman (1742–1814) on 25 April 1775. They had four children together.
He died in 1830, aged 75 or 76.
Selected works
Marsh Mill, Thornton (1794)
Damside Windmill, Pilling (1808)
Clifton Mill, Clifton
References
Footnotes
^ a b c d Register: Burials 1813 - 1887, Page 167, Entry 1332 Source: LDS Film 1470949
^ Rennison, pp. 216–17
^ Fields, pp. 150–51
^ "Listed Buildings", National Heritage List for England, English Heritage, retrieved 13 June 2011
^ a b Lancashire's Architectural Heritage: An Anthology of Fine Buildings, John Champness (1989), p. 83 ISBN 9780902228719
^ "Meet the miller" – BBC Lancashire, 14 June 2007
^ The industrial archaeology of north-west England, Owen Ashmore (1982), p. 216 ISBN 9780719008207
Sources
Fields, Kenneth (1998), Lancashire Magic & Mystery: Secrets of the Red Rose County, Sigma, ISBN 1-85058-606-3
Rennison, Robert William (1996), Civil Engineering Heritage: Northern England, Thomas Telford, ISBN 0-7277-2518-1
Portals: United Kingdom Biography
This British biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
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|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Listed Buildings\", National Heritage List for England, English Heritage, retrieved 13 June 2011","urls":[{"url":"https://britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/101073150-marsh-mill-wyre-marsh-mill-ward","url_text":"\"Listed Buildings\""}]},{"reference":"Fields, Kenneth (1998), Lancashire Magic & Mystery: Secrets of the Red Rose County, Sigma, ISBN 1-85058-606-3","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85058-606-3","url_text":"1-85058-606-3"}]},{"reference":"Rennison, Robert William (1996), Civil Engineering Heritage: Northern England, Thomas Telford, ISBN 0-7277-2518-1","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7277-2518-1","url_text":"0-7277-2518-1"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/101073150-marsh-mill-wyre-marsh-mill-ward","external_links_name":"\"Listed Buildings\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/lancashire/content/articles/2007/08/23/bus_windmill.shtml","external_links_name":"\"Meet the miller\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ralph_Slater&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius_University_Astronomical_Observatory
|
Vilnius University Astronomical Observatory
|
["1 Early history","2 After World War I","3 After World War II","4 See also","5 References"]
|
Coordinates: 54°40′59.2″N 25°17′11.4″E / 54.683111°N 25.286500°E / 54.683111; 25.286500ObservatoryVilnius University ObservatoryThe building of old Astronomical Observatory (south extension by Marcin Knackfuss)Alternative namesVilnius University Astronomical Observatory OrganizationVilnius UniversityObservatory code70 (before 1939), 570 (after 1939)LocationVilnius, LithuaniaCoordinates54°40′59.2″N 25°17′11.4″E / 54.683111°N 25.286500°E / 54.683111; 25.286500Altitude101 metres (331 ft)Established1753Websitewww.astro.ff.vu.ltLocation of Vilnius University Observatory Related media on Commons
Vilnius University Astronomical Observatory is an astronomical observatory of Vilnius University. It was founded in 1753 by initiative of Thomas Zebrowski. The observatory is the fourth oldest observatory in the Europe. While the observatory is no longer able to make astronomical observations due to light pollution in Vilnius (observations are carried out at Molėtai Astronomical Observatory), it continues scientific research.
Early history
Thomas Zebrowski holding picture of Vilnius University Observatory
In 1753, on the initiative of Thomas Zebrowski the Vilnius University Astronomical Observatory was established, which was among the first observatories in Europe and the first in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The construction was funded by Elżbieta Ogińska-Puzynina. First telescope (13.5 cm reflector) was donated by Michał Kazimierz "Rybeńko" Radziwiłł, Supreme Commander of the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Second, 10 cm reflector, was donated by bishop of Vilnius Józef Stanisław Sapieha.
The golden age of Astronomical Observatory has begun when Marcin Odlanicki Poczobutt was director of the Observatory (1764–1807). In 1777, Poczobutt created a constellation Taurus Poniatovii to honor Stanisław August Poniatowski, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. He was very skillful observer and left a lot of observational data. Later these observations were used by Jérôme Lalande in his calculations of Mercury orbit. Poczobutt also decided to build an extension of the observatory to the south. It was designed and built by the famous architect Marcin Knackfuss in 1782–88.
Later the observatory was headed by Jan Śniadecki (1807–1825) and Piotr Sławinski (1825–1843). They observed planets, their satellites, asteroids and comets, eclipses of the Sun and Moon. In 1861, G. Sabler, the director of the observatory, proposed to acquire for that purpose new instruments, among which there were a solar photoheliograph, a photometer and a spectroscope. Spectroscopic observations of the Sun and photometric observations of stars were initiated.
In 1864, director Georg Sabler installed a photoheliograph in the Vilnius University Astronomical Observatory, which was only the second such device in the entire world (after London). Since 1868, for the first time in the world, a systematic photographic service of sunspots dynamics was launched in Vilnius.
In 1876, a fire broke out in the observatory, causing a heavy damage. The observatory did not receive any funds for the restoration and five years later was closed. The library and instruments were distributed among various institutions of Russia, the main part of them were transferred to Pulkovo Observatory.
After World War I
The astronomical observatory was revived only after World War I. In Vilnius, occupied by Poland, a Department of Astronomy was set up at the reopened Vilnius University. Władysław Dziewulski, a famous Polish astronomer, was appointed as the head of this department. The location of the old observatory was no longer suitable for astronomical observations. Therefore, in 1921 it was decided to build a new observatory. For that purpose a site was allocated in the outskirts of the city near Vingis Park on the present M.K.Čiurlionis street. The observatory was equipped with two 15 cm Zeiss astrographs and a 48 cm reflector with a spectrograph.
After World War II
After World War II activities of Lithuanian astronomers resumed at the Astronomical Observatory of Vilnius University. Professor Paulius Slavėnas became the head of the observatory. In 1957–62 a number of instruments (the 12 cm and 16 cm astrographs, 25 cm and 48 cm reflectors and the slitless Zeiss spectrograph) were restored and renovated. The investigation of variable stars and photometric observations in Vilnius multicolour photometric system, created by Vytautas Straižys were started.
After expansion of Vilnius, accurate astronomical observations became impossible due to air and light pollution in the 1960s. In 1968, the 48 cm telescope was moved to Simeiz Observatory in Crimea where it was in use up to 1973. Later it was moved to Maidanak Observatory in Uzbekistan. In 1974, the 63 cm reflector was put in operation at Molėtai Astronomical Observatory. The observatory became involved in design and construction of photometric equipment for telescopes, in the study of variable stars, physical and chemical properties of stars, interstellar matter, the structure of the Milky Way, Andromeda, Triangulum galaxies. In 1960–92, in collaboration with the Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Astronomical Observatory published Bulletin of the Vilnius Astronomical Observatory.
The heads of observatories after World War II were: Bernardas Kodatis (1941–44), Paulius Slavėnas (1944–52 and 1956–69), Borisas Voronkovas (1952–56), Alfonsas Misiukas-Misiūnas (1969–78), Romualdas Kalytis (1978–92), Jokūbas Sūdžius (1992–08), Vladas Vansevičius (from 2008).
See also
List of Jesuit sites
References
^ Drėma, Vladas (1991). Dingęs Vilnius (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Vaga. p. 221. ISBN 5-415-00366-5.
^ "Astronomical Observatory". History. Vilnius University. Archived from the original on 2009-03-12. Retrieved 2009-01-22.
^ Cutler, Nellie (2011). "The Baltic States and Belarus". TIME for Kids World Atlas (Rev. and updated ed.). New York, NY. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-60320-884-0. {{cite book}}: |magazine= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Klimka, Libertas (29 October 2013). "Apie reikšmingas astronomijos mokslui datas". Lrt.lt (in Lithuanian). p. 3. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Klimka, Libertas. "Tiksliųjų mokslų pradininkas Tomas Žebrauskas (1714-1758)" (PDF). etnokosmomuziejus.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ a b c d e f g h "Vilniaus universiteto astronomijos observatorija". vle.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ "Vilniaus universiteto Astronomijos observatorija". ff.vu.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ "Martynas Počobutas". vle.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ "Georg Sabler". vle.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Klimka, Libertas (20 June 2001). Senosios Vilniaus astronomijos observatorijos instrumentarijus (PDF) (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences. p. 44. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Klimka, Libertas (1997). Istorija XXXV (PDF) (in Lithuanian). pp. 122–123. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Добрянский Ф. Старая и Новая Вильна (Третье ed.). Вильна: Типография А. Г. Сыркина. p. 250.
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
United States
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vilnius University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius_University"},{"link_name":"Thomas Zebrowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Zebrowski"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-link1-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"light pollution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_pollution"},{"link_name":"Molėtai Astronomical Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C4%97tai_Astronomical_Observatory"}],"text":"ObservatoryVilnius University Astronomical Observatory is an astronomical observatory of Vilnius University. It was founded in 1753 by initiative of Thomas Zebrowski.[1] The observatory is the fourth oldest observatory in the Europe.[2][3][4][5] While the observatory is no longer able to make astronomical observations due to light pollution in Vilnius (observations are carried out at Molėtai Astronomical Observatory), it continues scientific research.","title":"Vilnius University Astronomical Observatory"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Thomas_Zebrowski.jpg"},{"link_name":"Thomas Zebrowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Zebrowski"},{"link_name":"Vilnius University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius_University"},{"link_name":"Thomas Zebrowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Zebrowski"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ObservatoryVle-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Elżbieta Ogińska-Puzynina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=El%C5%BCbieta_Ogi%C5%84ska-Puzynina&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"reflector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflecting_telescope"},{"link_name":"Michał Kazimierz \"Rybeńko\" Radziwiłł","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_%22Rybe%C5%84ko%22_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82"},{"link_name":"Grand Duchy of Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ObservatoryVle-6"},{"link_name":"Józef Stanisław Sapieha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C3%B3zef_Stanis%C5%82aw_Sapieha&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ObservatoryVle-6"},{"link_name":"Marcin Odlanicki Poczobutt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcin_Odlanicki_Poczobutt"},{"link_name":"constellation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation"},{"link_name":"Taurus Poniatovii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurus_Poniatovii"},{"link_name":"Stanisław August Poniatowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski"},{"link_name":"King of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Grand Duke of Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duke_of_Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Jérôme Lalande","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Lalande"},{"link_name":"Mercury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet)"},{"link_name":"Marcin Knackfuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcin_Knackfuss"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Jan Śniadecki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_%C5%9Aniadecki"},{"link_name":"Piotr Sławinski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Piotr_S%C5%82awinski&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ObservatoryVle-6"},{"link_name":"asteroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid"},{"link_name":"comets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet"},{"link_name":"photometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometer"},{"link_name":"spectroscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscope"},{"link_name":"photoheliograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoheliograph"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ObservatoryVle-6"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ObservatoryVle-6"},{"link_name":"Pulkovo Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulkovo_Observatory"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Thomas Zebrowski holding picture of Vilnius University ObservatoryIn 1753, on the initiative of Thomas Zebrowski the Vilnius University Astronomical Observatory was established, which was among the first observatories in Europe and the first in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.[6][7] The construction was funded by Elżbieta Ogińska-Puzynina. First telescope (13.5 cm reflector) was donated by Michał Kazimierz \"Rybeńko\" Radziwiłł, Supreme Commander of the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[6] Second, 10 cm reflector, was donated by bishop of Vilnius Józef Stanisław Sapieha.[6]The golden age of Astronomical Observatory has begun when Marcin Odlanicki Poczobutt was director of the Observatory (1764–1807). In 1777, Poczobutt created a constellation Taurus Poniatovii to honor Stanisław August Poniatowski, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. He was very skillful observer and left a lot of observational data. Later these observations were used by Jérôme Lalande in his calculations of Mercury orbit. Poczobutt also decided to build an extension of the observatory to the south. It was designed and built by the famous architect Marcin Knackfuss in 1782–88.[8]Later the observatory was headed by Jan Śniadecki (1807–1825) and Piotr Sławinski (1825–1843).[6] They observed planets, their satellites, asteroids and comets, eclipses of the Sun and Moon. In 1861, G. Sabler, the director of the observatory, proposed to acquire for that purpose new instruments, among which there were a solar photoheliograph, a photometer and a spectroscope. Spectroscopic observations of the Sun and photometric observations of stars were initiated.In 1864, director Georg Sabler installed a photoheliograph in the Vilnius University Astronomical Observatory, which was only the second such device in the entire world (after London).[9][6] Since 1868, for the first time in the world, a systematic photographic service of sunspots dynamics was launched in Vilnius.[10][11]In 1876, a fire broke out in the observatory, causing a heavy damage. The observatory did not receive any funds for the restoration and five years later was closed.[6] The library and instruments were distributed among various institutions of Russia, the main part of them were transferred to Pulkovo Observatory.[12]","title":"Early history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ObservatoryVle-6"},{"link_name":"Władysław Dziewulski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Dziewulski"},{"link_name":"Vingis Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vingis_Park"},{"link_name":"M.K.Čiurlionis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikalojus_Konstantinas_%C4%8Ciurlionis"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ObservatoryVle-6"},{"link_name":"Zeiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Zeiss_AG"},{"link_name":"astrographs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrograph"}],"text":"The astronomical observatory was revived only after World War I. In Vilnius, occupied by Poland, a Department of Astronomy was set up at the reopened Vilnius University.[6] Władysław Dziewulski, a famous Polish astronomer, was appointed as the head of this department. The location of the old observatory was no longer suitable for astronomical observations. Therefore, in 1921 it was decided to build a new observatory. For that purpose a site was allocated in the outskirts of the city near Vingis Park on the present M.K.Čiurlionis street.[6] The observatory was equipped with two 15 cm Zeiss astrographs and a 48 cm reflector with a spectrograph.","title":"After World War I"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Paulius Slavėnas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paulius_Slav%C4%97nas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vilnius multicolour photometric system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius_photometric_system"},{"link_name":"Vytautas Straižys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vytautas_Strai%C5%BEys"},{"link_name":"light pollution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_pollution"},{"link_name":"Simeiz Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simeiz_Observatory"},{"link_name":"Crimea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimea"},{"link_name":"Maidanak Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maidanak_Observatory&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Uzbekistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan"},{"link_name":"Molėtai Astronomical Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C4%97tai_Astronomical_Observatory"},{"link_name":"Milky Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way"},{"link_name":"Andromeda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy"},{"link_name":"Triangulum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulum_Galaxy"},{"link_name":"Bulletin of the Vilnius Astronomical Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Vilnius_Astronomical_Observatory"},{"link_name":"Bernardas Kodatis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bernardas_Kodatis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Paulius Slavėnas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paulius_Slav%C4%97nas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Borisas Voronkovas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Borisas_Voronkovas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Alfonsas Misiukas-Misiūnas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alfonsas_Misiukas-Misi%C5%ABnas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Romualdas Kalytis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romualdas_Kalytis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Jokūbas Sūdžius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jok%C5%ABbas_S%C5%ABd%C5%BEius&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vladas Vansevičius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladas_Vansevi%C4%8Dius&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"After World War II activities of Lithuanian astronomers resumed at the Astronomical Observatory of Vilnius University. Professor Paulius Slavėnas became the head of the observatory. In 1957–62 a number of instruments (the 12 cm and 16 cm astrographs, 25 cm and 48 cm reflectors and the slitless Zeiss spectrograph) were restored and renovated. The investigation of variable stars and photometric observations in Vilnius multicolour photometric system, created by Vytautas Straižys were started.After expansion of Vilnius, accurate astronomical observations became impossible due to air and light pollution in the 1960s. In 1968, the 48 cm telescope was moved to Simeiz Observatory in Crimea where it was in use up to 1973. Later it was moved to Maidanak Observatory in Uzbekistan. In 1974, the 63 cm reflector was put in operation at Molėtai Astronomical Observatory. The observatory became involved in design and construction of photometric equipment for telescopes, in the study of variable stars, physical and chemical properties of stars, interstellar matter, the structure of the Milky Way, Andromeda, Triangulum galaxies. In 1960–92, in collaboration with the Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Astronomical Observatory published Bulletin of the Vilnius Astronomical Observatory.The heads of observatories after World War II were: Bernardas Kodatis (1941–44), Paulius Slavėnas (1944–52 and 1956–69), Borisas Voronkovas (1952–56), Alfonsas Misiukas-Misiūnas (1969–78), Romualdas Kalytis (1978–92), Jokūbas Sūdžius (1992–08), Vladas Vansevičius (from 2008).","title":"After World War II"}]
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[{"image_text":"Thomas Zebrowski holding picture of Vilnius University Observatory","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Portrait_of_Thomas_Zebrowski.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Thomas_Zebrowski.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"List of Jesuit sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Jesuit_sites"}]
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[{"reference":"Drėma, Vladas (1991). Dingęs Vilnius (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Vaga. p. 221. ISBN 5-415-00366-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-415-00366-5","url_text":"5-415-00366-5"}]},{"reference":"\"Astronomical Observatory\". History. Vilnius University. Archived from the original on 2009-03-12. Retrieved 2009-01-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090312073300/http://www.vu.lt/en/welcome/history/observatory/","url_text":"\"Astronomical Observatory\""},{"url":"http://www.vu.lt/en/welcome/history/observatory/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Cutler, Nellie (2011). \"The Baltic States and Belarus\". TIME for Kids World Atlas (Rev. and updated ed.). New York, NY. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-60320-884-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60320-884-0","url_text":"978-1-60320-884-0"}]},{"reference":"Klimka, Libertas (29 October 2013). \"Apie reikšmingas astronomijos mokslui datas\". Lrt.lt (in Lithuanian). p. 3. Retrieved 7 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lrt.lt/naujienos/nuomones/3/28375/libertas-klimka-apie-reiksmingas-astronomijos-mokslui-datas","url_text":"\"Apie reikšmingas astronomijos mokslui datas\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lrt.lt","url_text":"Lrt.lt"}]},{"reference":"Klimka, Libertas. \"Tiksliųjų mokslų pradininkas Tomas Žebrauskas (1714-1758)\" (PDF). etnokosmomuziejus.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 7 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://etnokosmomuziejus.lt/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Tomas_Zebrauskas.pdf","url_text":"\"Tiksliųjų mokslų pradininkas Tomas Žebrauskas (1714-1758)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vilniaus universiteto astronomijos observatorija\". vle.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 7 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/vilniaus-universiteto-astronomijos-observatorija/","url_text":"\"Vilniaus universiteto astronomijos observatorija\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vle.lt","url_text":"vle.lt"}]},{"reference":"\"Vilniaus universiteto Astronomijos observatorija\". ff.vu.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 7 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ff.vu.lt/tfai/struktura/vilniaus-universiteto-astronomijos-observatorija","url_text":"\"Vilniaus universiteto Astronomijos observatorija\""}]},{"reference":"\"Martynas Počobutas\". vle.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 7 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/martynas-pocobutas/","url_text":"\"Martynas Počobutas\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vle.lt","url_text":"vle.lt"}]},{"reference":"\"Georg Sabler\". vle.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 7 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/georg-sabler/","url_text":"\"Georg Sabler\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vle.lt","url_text":"vle.lt"}]},{"reference":"Klimka, Libertas (20 June 2001). Senosios Vilniaus astronomijos observatorijos instrumentarijus (PDF) (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences. p. 44. Retrieved 7 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://etalpykla.lituanistikadb.lt/object/LT-LDB-0001:J.04~2001~1367156198266/J.04~2001~1367156198266.pdf","url_text":"Senosios Vilniaus astronomijos observatorijos instrumentarijus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_University_of_Educational_Sciences","url_text":"Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences"}]},{"reference":"Klimka, Libertas (1997). Istorija XXXV (PDF) (in Lithuanian). pp. 122–123. Retrieved 7 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.vdu.lt/cris/bitstream/20.500.12259/104865/1/ISSN2029-7181_1997_V_35.PG_122-134.pdf","url_text":"Istorija XXXV"}]},{"reference":"Добрянский Ф. Старая и Новая Вильна (Третье ed.). Вильна: Типография А. Г. Сыркина. p. 250.","urls":[]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Foulweather
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Cape Foulweather
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["1 See also","2 References"]
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Coordinates: 44°46′20″N 124°04′33″W / 44.7723366°N 124.0759496°W / 44.7723366; -124.0759496Historic cape on the Oregon coast
Cape Foulweather from Otter Crest State Scenic Viewpoint
Stereoscopic image of Shagg Rocks at Cape Foulweather, late 19th or early 20th century.
Cape Foulweather is a basalt outcropping 500 feet (150 m) above the Pacific Ocean on the central coastline of the U.S. state of Oregon - in Lincoln County, south of Depoe Bay. The cape is notable as the first promontory on the northwest coast of New Albion (as the area was then known) to be sighted and named by Captain James Cook, while on his third voyage around the world. His March 7, 1778 journal entry reads:
The land appeared to be of moderate height, diversified with hill and Valley and almost everywhere covered with wood. There was nothing remarkable about it except one hill…At the northern extreme the land formed a point which I called Cape Foulweather from the very bad weather we soon after met with.
The cape can be viewed from Otter Crest State Scenic Viewpoint.
See also
Whale Cove (Oregon)
References
^ Cook, James, The Voyages of Captain James Cook, Volume II, William Smith, publisher, 1842, pp. 259
^ The Coast of Oregon, from the Captain Cook Society web site
44°46′20″N 124°04′33″W / 44.7723366°N 124.0759496°W / 44.7723366; -124.0759496
This Lincoln County, Oregon state location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cape_Foulweather_(1465223588).jpg"},{"link_name":"Otter Crest State Scenic Viewpoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otter_Crest_State_Scenic_Viewpoint"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shagg_rocks_at_Cape_Foulweather,_by_J._G._Crawford.jpg"},{"link_name":"basalt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt"},{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"U.S. state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state"},{"link_name":"Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon"},{"link_name":"Lincoln County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_County,_Oregon"},{"link_name":"Depoe Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depoe_Bay,_Oregon"},{"link_name":"New Albion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Albion"},{"link_name":"James Cook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cook"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Otter Crest State Scenic Viewpoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otter_Crest_State_Scenic_Viewpoint"}],"text":"Historic cape on the Oregon coastCape Foulweather from Otter Crest State Scenic ViewpointStereoscopic image of Shagg Rocks at Cape Foulweather, late 19th or early 20th century.Cape Foulweather is a basalt outcropping 500 feet (150 m) above the Pacific Ocean on the central coastline of the U.S. state of Oregon - in Lincoln County, south of Depoe Bay. The cape is notable as the first promontory on the northwest coast of New Albion (as the area was then known) to be sighted and named by Captain James Cook, while on his third voyage around the world. His March 7, 1778 journal entry reads:The land appeared to be of moderate height, diversified with hill and Valley and almost everywhere covered with wood. There was nothing remarkable about it except one hill…At the northern extreme the land formed a point which I called Cape Foulweather from the very bad weather we soon after met with.[1][2]The cape can be viewed from Otter Crest State Scenic Viewpoint.","title":"Cape Foulweather"}]
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[{"image_text":"Cape Foulweather from Otter Crest State Scenic Viewpoint","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Cape_Foulweather_%281465223588%29.jpg/220px-Cape_Foulweather_%281465223588%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Stereoscopic image of Shagg Rocks at Cape Foulweather, late 19th or early 20th century.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Shagg_rocks_at_Cape_Foulweather%2C_by_J._G._Crawford.jpg/220px-Shagg_rocks_at_Cape_Foulweather%2C_by_J._G._Crawford.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Whale Cove (Oregon)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whale_Cove_(Oregon)"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_Dossier
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September Dossier
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["1 Claims","1.1 Uranium from Niger","1.2 The 45 minute claim","2 Role in the death of David Kelly","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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British government document about Iraq
For the later dossier on Iraq also published by the British Government in February 2003, see Iraq Dossier.
This article is part of a series aboutTony Blair
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vte
Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Assessment of the British Government, also known as the September Dossier, was a document published by the British government on 24 September 2002. Parliament was recalled on the same day to discuss the contents of the document. The paper was part of an ongoing investigation by the government into weapons of mass destruction (WMD) in Iraq, which ultimately led to the invasion of Iraq six months later. It contained a number of allegations according to which Iraq also possessed WMD, including chemical weapons and biological weapons. The dossier even alleged that Iraq had reconstituted its nuclear weapons programme.
The much-anticipated document was based on reports made by the Joint Intelligence Committee, part of the British Intelligence 'machinery'. Most of the evidence was uncredited, ostensibly to protect sources. On publication, serious press comment was generally critical of the dossier for tameness and for the seeming lack of any genuinely new evidence. Those politically opposed to military action against Iraq generally agreed that the dossier was unremarkable, with Menzies Campbell observing in the House of Commons that:
We can also agree that most certainly has chemical and biological weapons and is working towards a nuclear capability. The dossier contains confirmation of information that we either knew or most certainly should have been willing to assume.
However, two sections later became the centre of fierce debate: the allegation that Iraq had sought "significant quantities of uranium from Africa", and the claim in the foreword to the document written by British Prime Minister Tony Blair that "The document discloses that his military planning allows for some of the WMD to be ready within 45 minutes of an order to use them."
Britain's biggest selling popular daily newspaper, The Sun, subsequently carried the headline "Brits 45mins from doom", while the Daily Star reported "Mad Saddam ready to attack: 45 minutes from a chemical war", helping to create the impression among the British public that Iraq was a threat to Britain.
Major General Michael Laurie, one of those involved in producing the dossier wrote to the Chilcot Inquiry in 2011 saying "the purpose of the dossier was precisely to make a case for war, rather than setting out the available intelligence, and that to make the best out of sparse and inconclusive intelligence the wording was developed with care." On 26 June 2011, The Observer reported on a memo from John Scarlett to Blair's foreign affairs adviser, released under the Freedom of Information Act, which referred to "the benefit of obscuring the fact that in terms of WMD Iraq is not that exceptional". The memo has been described as one of the most significant documents on the September dossier yet published as it is considered a proposal to mislead the public.
Claims
Uranium from Niger
The claim that Iraq was seeking to buy uranium from Africa was repeated in US President George W. Bush's January 2003 State of the Union Address. The controversial '16 words' used by President Bush on 28 January 2003 were:
The British government has learned that Saddam Hussein recently sought significant quantities of uranium from Africa.
In March 2003, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), when it finally obtained the documents referred to by United States Secretary of State Colin Powell to the United Nations Security Council alleging transactions between Niger and Iraq, concluded that they were obvious fakes.
Subsequently, CIA director George Tenet stated that the remarks should not have been included in the US President's speech. This followed a remark by US National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice, saying that the presence of the line in the speech showed that it had been authorised by the CIA.
In July, Tony Blair testified to the House of Commons Liaison Committee that the evidence the government had regarding Iraq's dealings with Niger came from a separate source to the fraudulent documents. Ever since Powell's presentation, critics argued that had the US and UK intelligence services fully cooperated with United Nations weapons inspectors, it could have been found out whether the claims were truthful.
The same month, British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw told the Foreign Affairs Select Committee (which was investigating the veracity of the claims in the dossier) that the statement in the dossier rested on separate evidence which was still under review, and that this specific intelligence had not been shared with the CIA. In written evidence to the same committee, however, Straw further disclosed that the intelligence information upon which the British government had relied was shared separately with the IAEA by a foreign government shortly before their report of 7 March 2003. This was further confirmed in a Parliamentary answer to Lynne Jones MP. Lynne Jones subsequently contacted the IAEA to question whether a third party had discussed or shared separate intelligence with them and, if so, what assessment they made of it. IAEA spokesman Mark Gwozdecky responded to Jones on 25 May 2004:
I can confirm to you that we have received information from a number of member states regarding the allegation that Iraq sought to acquire uranium from Niger. However, we have learned nothing which would cause us to change the conclusion we reported to the United Nations Security Council on March 7, 2003 with regards to the documents assessed to be forgeries and have not received any information that would appear to be based on anything other than those documents.
The Foreign Affairs Select Committee judged that the British government had been wrong to state in an unqualified manner something that had not been established beyond doubt:
We conclude that it is very odd indeed that the Government asserts that it was not relying on the evidence which has since been shown to have been forged, but that eight months later it is still reviewing the other evidence. The assertion "…that Iraq sought the supply of significant amounts of uranium from Africa …" should have been qualified to reflect the uncertainty.
The privately Blair-appointed Butler Review, whose own report was issued after the aforementioned public investigation, concluded that the report Saddam's government was seeking uranium in Africa appeared credible:
a. It is accepted by all parties that Iraqi officials visited Niger in 1999.
b. The British Government had intelligence from several different sources indicating that this visit was for the purpose of acquiring uranium. Since uranium constitutes almost three-quarters of Niger's exports, the intelligence was credible.
c. The evidence was not conclusive that Iraq actually purchased, as opposed to having sought, uranium, and the British Government did not claim this.
d. The forged documents were not available to the British Government at the time its assessment was made, and so the fact of the forgery does not undermine it.
The Butler Review also made a specific conclusion on President Bush's 16 words: "By extension, we conclude also that the statement in President Bush's State of the Union Address of 28 January 2003 that: 'The British Government has learned that Saddam Hussein recently sought significant quantities of uranium from Africa.' was well-founded."
The 45 minute claim
The 45 minute claim lies at the centre of a row between Downing Street and the BBC. On 29 May 2003, BBC defence correspondent Andrew Gilligan filed a report for BBC Radio 4's Today programme in which he stated that an unnamed source – a senior British official – had told him that the September Dossier had been "sexed up", and that the intelligence agencies were concerned about some "dubious" information contained within it – specifically the claim that Saddam Hussein could deploy weapons of mass destruction within 45 minutes of an order to use them.
On 1 June, Gilligan expanded upon that claim in The Mail on Sunday newspaper, stating that the government's director of communications, Alastair Campbell, had been responsible for the insertion of the 45-minute claim, against the wishes of the intelligence agencies. Gilligan subsequently gave evidence before the Foreign Affairs Select Committee, as did Campbell, who denied ordering the inclusion of the claim, and demanded an apology from the BBC. He subsequently backed this demand in writing.
The BBC refused to apologise, and stood by Gilligan's story. Campbell responded angrily, with an appearance on Channel 4 News.
On 7 July, the Select Committee published a report which cleared Campbell, albeit on the casting vote of the chairman. In the report, the committee stated that the 45-minute claim had been given "undue prominence".
On 15 September, MI6 head Richard Dearlove told the Hutton Inquiry that the claim related to battlefield WMD rather than weapons of mass destruction of a larger range than just battlefield. On the same day, Tony Cragg, the retired deputy chief of defence intelligence, admitted there were memos from two members of DIS objecting that parts of the dossier, including the 45-minute claim, was "far too strong" or "over-egged".
On 28 January 2004, the Hutton Inquiry released its report, which among other things concluded that:
"Mr Gilligan accepted that he had made errors" about the 45 minute claim; specifically, his report that the government "probably knew that the 45 minutes claim was wrong or questionable", and his report that intelligence officers were unhappy with the insertion of the claim in the dossier, or only inserted it at the insistence of the government, were erroneous.
Hutton was "satisfied that Dr Kelly did not say to Mr Gilligan" certain dramatic statements about the 45 minute claim, which Gilligan had reported as direct quotations.
That only one person (Dr. Jones) had expressed any reservations about the 45 minute claim, and that was about the strength of the wording, not its inclusion.
Information surfacing in late 2009 initially appeared to suggest that the source of the 45 minute claim was in fact a taxi driver "on the Iraqi-Jordanian border, who had remembered an overheard conversation in the back of his cab a full two years earlier". Whether or not the taxi driver was the source of the 45-minute claim or instead "something about missiles" remains an open question.
It is also claimed by Adam Holloway MP that "When the information was acquired by MI6, a footnote was written on the page of an intelligence report sent to No 10 stating that the claim was 'verifiably inaccurate'."
Role in the death of David Kelly
Main article: David Kelly (weapons expert)
The following day, 30 May 2003, the Ministry of Defence claimed that one of its officials (later named as Dr. David Kelly) had come forward, admitting to having discussed the matter of Iraq's weapons with Gilligan on 22 May. The BBC responded by saying that Kelly differed from Gilligan's key source in "important ways". Kelly was subsequently called before the Foreign Affairs Select Committee whose conclusion was that Kelly was being used as a scapegoat and that he had not been Gilligan's key mole.
On 17 July, Gilligan gave evidence to a private session of the Select Committee, and was subsequently criticised for not naming his source, and for changing his story. The BBC continued to stand by him.
On the same day, Kelly left his home for an area of woodland and was later found dead with his left wrist slit, apparently having committed suicide.
On 20 July, Richard Sambrook, director of news at the BBC, revealed that Kelly was indeed the key source for Gilligan's report, and that the BBC had not said so before so as to protect Kelly. The BBC stressed that Gilligan's reporting accurately reflected Kelly's comments, implying that Kelly had not been entirely truthful with the Select Committee. An inquest into the cause of the death was begun, but was suspended by Lord Falconer.
The BBC committed to assisting fully with the then forthcoming Hutton Inquiry into Kelly's death.
On 28 January 2004, the Hutton Inquiry published its report. With regard to the death of Kelly:
Hutton was "satisfied that Kelly took his own life"
Hutton was "satisfied that Dr. Kelly did not say to Mr Gilligan" certain dramatic statements which Gilligan had reported as quotations. Regarding certain other statements (reported by Gilligan as quotations but also denied by Kelly), it was "not possible to reach a definite conclusion" whether it was Gilligan or Kelly who had lied.
Kelly's meeting with Gilligan was "in breach of the Civil Service code"
Kelly may not have originally intended to discuss intelligence matters with Gilligan, but after 29 May he "must have come to realise the gravity of the situation".
The BBC's investigation into Gilligan's report was flawed, and "the Governors should have recognised more fully than they did that their duty to protect the independence of the BBC was not incompatible with giving proper consideration to whether there was validity in the Government's complaints"
The Ministry of Defence (MOD) was at fault for not informing Kelly of their strategy that would involve naming him.
Dissatisfied with the results of the Hutton Inquiry, in 2010 experts called for the suspended inquest to be reopened.
See also
British parliamentary approval for the invasion of Iraq
Bush–Blair 2003 Iraq memo
Butler Review of intelligence relating to Iraq war
Downing Street memo of pre-war meeting between UK ministers
Iraq Dossier government briefing issued to journalists on 3 February 2003
Iraq Inquiry
Iraq Survey Group
Opinion on legality of war by UK Attorney General
References
^ Hansard (24 September 2002). "Iraq and Weapons of Mass Destruction". TheyWorkForYou. mySociety. Archived from the original on 5 June 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
^ "House of Commons Hansard for 24 Sept 2002 (pt 12)". www.parliament.uk. London: Parliament of the United Kingdom. 24 September 2002. Column 43. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
^ "Full text of Tony Blair's foreword to the dossier on Iraq". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media. 24 September 2002. Archived from the original on 26 August 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
^ "Daily Record scoop - world war could be just 30 seconds away". TheGuardian.com. 12 October 2015.
^ "Timeline: The 45-minute claim". BBC News. London: BBC. 13 October 2004. Archived from the original on 20 April 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
^ Norton-Taylor, Richard (12 May 2011). "Iraq dossier drawn up to make case for war – intelligence officer". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media. Archived from the original on 10 September 2013. Retrieved 14 May 2011.
^ Ames, Chris (26 June 2011). "Memo reveals intelligence chief's bid to fuel fears of Iraqi WMDs". The Observer. London: Guardian News and Media. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
^ "President Delivers 'State of the Union'". georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov (Archived White House press release). Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration. 28 January 2003. Archived from the original on 7 January 2010. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
^ Ensor, David (14 March 2003). "Fake Iraq documents 'embarrassing' for U.S." CNN. Washington, D.C.: Turner Broadcasting System. Archived from the original on 28 October 2006. Retrieved 2 November 2006.
^ Foreign and Commonwealth Office (July 2003). "Iraqi Attempts To Procure Uranium". www.parliament.uk (Supplementary memorandum). London: Parliament of the United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
^ "House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 30 Jan 2004 (pt 14): Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs: Iraq". www.parliament.uk. London: Parliament of the United Kingdom. 30 January 2004. Column 581W. Archived from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
^ "The 'uranium from Africa' claim". Lynne Jones MP. Archived from the original on 4 April 2015. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
^ Foreign Affairs Select Committee (7 July 2003). The September Dossier. London: The Stationery Office. ISBN 0215011627. HC 813-I. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2013. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help) From pages 13–24 of "The Decision to go to War in Iraq: Ninth Report of Session 2002–03" Archived 7 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine (PDF).
^ "Review of Intelligence on Weapons of Mass Destruction – Report". Butler Review. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
^ " Review of Intelligence on Weapons of Mass Destruction – Report". UK Government Web Archive. Kew: The National Archives. Archived from the original on 7 August 2010. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
^ "Exclusive: Alastair Campbell interview". Channel 4 News. ITN. 27 June 2003. Archived from the original on 19 May 2013. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
^ Peter, Fray (17 September 2003). "Spy chief regrets '45-minute' Iraq weapons claim". The Age. Melbourne: Fairfax Media. Archived from the original on 5 May 2009. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
^ Tempest, Matthew (15 September 2003). "Memo reveals high-level dossier concern". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media. Archived from the original on 27 August 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
^ Sparrow, Andrew (8 December 2009). "45-minute WMD claim 'may have come from an Iraqi taxi driver'". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media. Archived from the original on 26 August 2013. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
^ "Ex-spy chief says Iraqi WMD claims not manipulated". BBC News. London: BBC. 8 December 2009. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
^ Waugh, Paul (8 December 2009). "Saddam, cabbies and WMD (an update)". Evening Standard (Blog). London. Archived from the original on 13 December 2009. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
^ Evans, Michael (8 December 2009). "Gossiping taxi driver source of Iraq 45-minute WMD claim". The Times. London: News Corporation. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
^ a b Siddique, Haroon (13 August 2010). "Experts call for David Kelly inquest". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media. Archived from the original on 15 September 2013. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
External links
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction (the September Dossier)
"Iraq Dossier website". Archived from the original on 19 November 2011. Retrieved 2013-06-05.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
Iraq Inquiry Digest monitors the Chilcot Inquiry
"The September Dossier". Archived from the original on 30 January 2010. Retrieved 2009-10-26.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) (PDF)
The September Dossier (PDF)
Foreign Affairs Select Committee report on the decision to go to war in Iraq (PDF)
Real Audio version of Andrew Gilligan's original report, from the BBC
BBC statement confirming David Kelly as the source for Gilligan's report, 20 July 2003
Guardian articles on the subject
Robin Cook's resignation speech, House of Commons, 17 March 2003
Zaid Al-Ali's analysis of the September Dossier, dated January 23, 2003
Kettell, Steven (2008). "Who's Afraid of Saddam Hussein? Re-Examining the September Dossier Affair". Contemporary British History. 22 (3): 407–426. doi:10.1080/13619460701731939. S2CID 143921135.
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§ Other killingsand bombings2003
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14 September
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2005
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Karbala and Ramadi
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2007
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12 February
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29 March
18 April
26 July
1 August
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2008
Bagdad bombings
February
March
June
Balad 2008
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Al-Karmah
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2009
Bagdad bombings
March
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October
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Taza bombing
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2010
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10 May
25 August
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February
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August
September
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2011
Nationwide attacks
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Al Hillah 2011
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Archaeological looting
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Prosecution
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Saleh v. Bush
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§ All attacks listed in this group were either committed by insurgents, or have unknown perpetratorsImpactGeneral
Casualties
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Hutton Inquiry
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2004 document leak
Al Jazeera bombing memo
Scott Thomas Beauchamp controversy
MoveOn.org ad controversy
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Role of Canada
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Khuy Voyne!
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Aftermath in Iraq
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Insurgency (2011–13)
War in Iraq (2013–17)
War against ISIL (2014–present)
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Insurgency (2017–present)
MiscellaneousTerminology
Axis of evil
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Old Europe and New Europe
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Star Spangled Ice Cream
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Triangle of Death
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Outline / Category / Wikinews / Multimedia
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iraq Dossier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_Dossier"},{"link_name":"British government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_government"},{"link_name":"Parliament was recalled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_of_parliament"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"weapons of mass destruction (WMD) in Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction"},{"link_name":"invasion of Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Iraq"},{"link_name":"chemical weapons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_weapon"},{"link_name":"biological weapons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare"},{"link_name":"nuclear weapons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon"},{"link_name":"Joint Intelligence Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Intelligence_Committee_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"British Intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_intelligence_agencies#United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Menzies Campbell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menzies_Campbell"},{"link_name":"House of Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Campbell2002-09-24-2"},{"link_name":"uranium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium"},{"link_name":"British Prime Minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Prime_Minister"},{"link_name":"Tony Blair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Blair"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blair2002dossier-3"},{"link_name":"The Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sun_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Daily Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Star_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Chilcot Inquiry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilcot_Inquiry"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"The Observer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Observer"},{"link_name":"John Scarlett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Scarlett"},{"link_name":"Freedom of Information Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_Information_Act_2000"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"For the later dossier on Iraq also published by the British Government in February 2003, see Iraq Dossier.Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Assessment of the British Government, also known as the September Dossier, was a document published by the British government on 24 September 2002. Parliament was recalled on the same day to discuss the contents of the document.[1] The paper was part of an ongoing investigation by the government into weapons of mass destruction (WMD) in Iraq, which ultimately led to the invasion of Iraq six months later. It contained a number of allegations according to which Iraq also possessed WMD, including chemical weapons and biological weapons. The dossier even alleged that Iraq had reconstituted its nuclear weapons programme.The much-anticipated document was based on reports made by the Joint Intelligence Committee, part of the British Intelligence 'machinery'. Most of the evidence was uncredited, ostensibly to protect sources. On publication, serious press comment was generally critical of the dossier for tameness and for the seeming lack of any genuinely new evidence. Those politically opposed to military action against Iraq generally agreed that the dossier was unremarkable, with Menzies Campbell observing in the House of Commons that:We can also agree that [Saddam Hussein] most certainly has chemical and biological weapons and is working towards a nuclear capability. The dossier contains confirmation of information that we either knew or most certainly should have been willing to assume.[2]However, two sections later became the centre of fierce debate: the allegation that Iraq had sought \"significant quantities of uranium from Africa\", and the claim in the foreword to the document written by British Prime Minister Tony Blair that \"The document discloses that his military planning allows for some of the WMD to be ready within 45 minutes of an order to use them.\"[3]Britain's biggest selling popular daily newspaper, The Sun, subsequently carried the headline \"Brits 45mins from doom\",[4] while the Daily Star reported \"Mad Saddam ready to attack: 45 minutes from a chemical war\",[5] helping to create the impression among the British public that Iraq was a threat to Britain.Major General Michael Laurie, one of those involved in producing the dossier wrote to the Chilcot Inquiry in 2011 saying \"the purpose of the dossier was precisely to make a case for war, rather than setting out the available intelligence, and that to make the best out of sparse and inconclusive intelligence the wording was developed with care.\"[6] On 26 June 2011, The Observer reported on a memo from John Scarlett to Blair's foreign affairs adviser, released under the Freedom of Information Act, which referred to \"the benefit of obscuring the fact that in terms of WMD Iraq is not that exceptional\". The memo has been described as one of the most significant documents on the September dossier yet published as it is considered a proposal to mislead the public.[7]","title":"September Dossier"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Claims"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George W. Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush"},{"link_name":"January 2003 State of the Union Address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_State_of_the_Union_Address"},{"link_name":"Saddam Hussein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"International Atomic Energy Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency"},{"link_name":"United States Secretary of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State"},{"link_name":"Colin Powell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Powell"},{"link_name":"United Nations Security Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council"},{"link_name":"Niger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger"},{"link_name":"fakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_document"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"CIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA"},{"link_name":"George Tenet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Tenet"},{"link_name":"National Security Advisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Advisor_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Condoleezza Rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condoleezza_Rice"},{"link_name":"Liaison Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liaison_Committee_(House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Foreign Secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Secretary"},{"link_name":"Jack Straw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Straw"},{"link_name":"Foreign Affairs Select Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Affairs_Select_Committee"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Lynne Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynne_Jones"},{"link_name":"MP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FACSepdossier-13"},{"link_name":"Butler Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butler_Review"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-butlerreport-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blutlerreportnationalarchives-15"}],"sub_title":"Uranium from Niger","text":"The claim that Iraq was seeking to buy uranium from Africa was repeated in US President George W. Bush's January 2003 State of the Union Address. The controversial '16 words' used by President Bush on 28 January 2003 were:The British government has learned that Saddam Hussein recently sought significant quantities of uranium from Africa.[8]In March 2003, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), when it finally obtained the documents referred to by United States Secretary of State Colin Powell to the United Nations Security Council alleging transactions between Niger and Iraq, concluded that they were obvious fakes.[9]Subsequently, CIA director George Tenet stated that the remarks should not have been included in the US President's speech. This followed a remark by US National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice, saying that the presence of the line in the speech showed that it had been authorised by the CIA.In July, Tony Blair testified to the House of Commons Liaison Committee that the evidence the government had regarding Iraq's dealings with Niger came from a separate source to the fraudulent documents. Ever since Powell's presentation, critics argued that had the US and UK intelligence services fully cooperated with United Nations weapons inspectors, it could have been found out whether the claims were truthful.The same month, British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw told the Foreign Affairs Select Committee (which was investigating the veracity of the claims in the dossier) that the statement in the dossier rested on separate evidence which was still under review, and that this specific intelligence had not been shared with the CIA. In written evidence to the same committee, however, Straw further disclosed that the intelligence information upon which the British government had relied was shared separately with the IAEA by a foreign government shortly before their report of 7 March 2003.[10] This was further confirmed in a Parliamentary answer to Lynne Jones MP.[11] Lynne Jones subsequently contacted the IAEA to question whether a third party had discussed or shared separate intelligence with them and, if so, what assessment they made of it. IAEA spokesman Mark Gwozdecky responded to Jones on 25 May 2004:I can confirm to you that we have received information from a number of member states regarding the allegation that Iraq sought to acquire uranium from Niger. However, we have learned nothing which would cause us to change the conclusion we reported to the United Nations Security Council on March 7, 2003 with regards to the documents assessed to be forgeries and have not received any information that would appear to be based on anything other than those documents.[12]The Foreign Affairs Select Committee judged that the British government had been wrong to state in an unqualified manner something that had not been established beyond doubt:We conclude that it is very odd indeed that the Government asserts that it was not relying on the evidence which has since been shown to have been forged, but that eight months later it is still reviewing the other evidence. The assertion \"…that Iraq sought the supply of significant amounts of uranium from Africa …\" should have been qualified to reflect the uncertainty.[13]The privately Blair-appointed Butler Review, whose own report was issued after the aforementioned public investigation, concluded that the report Saddam's government was seeking uranium in Africa appeared credible:a. It is accepted by all parties that Iraqi officials visited Niger in 1999.\nb. The British Government had intelligence from several different sources indicating that this visit was for the purpose of acquiring uranium. Since uranium constitutes almost three-quarters of Niger's exports, the intelligence was credible.\nc. The evidence was not conclusive that Iraq actually purchased, as opposed to having sought, uranium, and the British Government did not claim this.\n\nd. The forged documents were not available to the British Government at the time its assessment was made, and so the fact of the forgery does not undermine it.[14][15]The Butler Review also made a specific conclusion on President Bush's 16 words: \"By extension, we conclude also that the statement in President Bush's State of the Union Address of 28 January 2003 that: 'The British Government has learned that Saddam Hussein recently sought significant quantities of uranium from Africa.' was well-founded.\"","title":"Claims"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Downing Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downing_Street"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"Andrew Gilligan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Gilligan"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_4"},{"link_name":"Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Today_(BBC_Radio_4)"},{"link_name":"sexed up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexed_up"},{"link_name":"The Mail on Sunday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mail_on_Sunday"},{"link_name":"Alastair Campbell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alastair_Campbell"},{"link_name":"Channel 4 News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_4_News"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"MI6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MI6"},{"link_name":"Richard Dearlove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dearlove"},{"link_name":"Hutton Inquiry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutton_Inquiry"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"DIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Intelligence"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Adam Holloway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Holloway"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"The 45 minute claim","text":"The 45 minute claim lies at the centre of a row between Downing Street and the BBC. On 29 May 2003, BBC defence correspondent Andrew Gilligan filed a report for BBC Radio 4's Today programme in which he stated that an unnamed source – a senior British official – had told him that the September Dossier had been \"sexed up\", and that the intelligence agencies were concerned about some \"dubious\" information contained within it – specifically the claim that Saddam Hussein could deploy weapons of mass destruction within 45 minutes of an order to use them.On 1 June, Gilligan expanded upon that claim in The Mail on Sunday newspaper, stating that the government's director of communications, Alastair Campbell, had been responsible for the insertion of the 45-minute claim, against the wishes of the intelligence agencies. Gilligan subsequently gave evidence before the Foreign Affairs Select Committee, as did Campbell, who denied ordering the inclusion of the claim, and demanded an apology from the BBC. He subsequently backed this demand in writing.The BBC refused to apologise, and stood by Gilligan's story. Campbell responded angrily, with an appearance on Channel 4 News.[16]On 7 July, the Select Committee published a report which cleared Campbell, albeit on the casting vote of the chairman. In the report, the committee stated that the 45-minute claim had been given \"undue prominence\".On 15 September, MI6 head Richard Dearlove told the Hutton Inquiry that the claim related to battlefield WMD rather than weapons of mass destruction of a larger range than just battlefield.[17] On the same day, Tony Cragg, the retired deputy chief of defence intelligence, admitted there were memos from two members of DIS objecting that parts of the dossier, including the 45-minute claim, was \"far too strong\" or \"over-egged\".[18]On 28 January 2004, the Hutton Inquiry released its report, which among other things concluded that:\"Mr Gilligan accepted that he had made errors\" about the 45 minute claim; specifically, his report that the government \"probably knew that the 45 minutes claim was wrong or questionable\", and his report that intelligence officers were unhappy with the insertion of the claim in the dossier, or only inserted it at the insistence of the government, were erroneous.\nHutton was \"satisfied that Dr Kelly did not say to Mr Gilligan\" certain dramatic statements about the 45 minute claim, which Gilligan had reported as direct quotations.\nThat only one person (Dr. Jones) had expressed any reservations about the 45 minute claim, and that was about the strength of the wording, not its inclusion.Information surfacing in late 2009 initially appeared to suggest that the source of the 45 minute claim was in fact a taxi driver \"on the Iraqi-Jordanian border, who had remembered an overheard conversation in the back of his cab a full two years earlier\".[19][20] Whether or not the taxi driver was the source of the 45-minute claim or instead \"something about missiles\" remains an open question.[21]It is also claimed by Adam Holloway MP that \"When the information was acquired by MI6, a footnote was written on the page of an intelligence report sent to No 10 stating that the claim was 'verifiably inaccurate'.\"[22]","title":"Claims"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ministry of Defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"David Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Kelly_(weapons_expert)"},{"link_name":"scapegoat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scapegoat"},{"link_name":"mole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole_(espionage)"},{"link_name":"Richard Sambrook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Sambrook"},{"link_name":"Lord Falconer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Falconer"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siddique-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siddique-23"}],"text":"The following day, 30 May 2003, the Ministry of Defence claimed that one of its officials (later named as Dr. David Kelly) had come forward, admitting to having discussed the matter of Iraq's weapons with Gilligan on 22 May. The BBC responded by saying that Kelly differed from Gilligan's key source in \"important ways\". Kelly was subsequently called before the Foreign Affairs Select Committee whose conclusion was that Kelly was being used as a scapegoat and that he had not been Gilligan's key mole.On 17 July, Gilligan gave evidence to a private session of the Select Committee, and was subsequently criticised for not naming his source, and for changing his story. The BBC continued to stand by him.On the same day, Kelly left his home for an area of woodland and was later found dead with his left wrist slit, apparently having committed suicide.On 20 July, Richard Sambrook, director of news at the BBC, revealed that Kelly was indeed the key source for Gilligan's report, and that the BBC had not said so before so as to protect Kelly. The BBC stressed that Gilligan's reporting accurately reflected Kelly's comments, implying that Kelly had not been entirely truthful with the Select Committee. An inquest into the cause of the death was begun, but was suspended by Lord Falconer.\n[23]The BBC committed to assisting fully with the then forthcoming Hutton Inquiry into Kelly's death.On 28 January 2004, the Hutton Inquiry published its report. With regard to the death of Kelly:Hutton was \"satisfied that Kelly took his own life\"\nHutton was \"satisfied that Dr. Kelly did not say to Mr Gilligan\" certain dramatic statements which Gilligan had reported as quotations. Regarding certain other statements (reported by Gilligan as quotations but also denied by Kelly), it was \"not possible to reach a definite conclusion\" whether it was Gilligan or Kelly who had lied.\nKelly's meeting with Gilligan was \"in breach of the Civil Service code\"\nKelly may not have originally intended to discuss intelligence matters with Gilligan, but after 29 May he \"must have come to realise the gravity of the situation\".\nThe BBC's investigation into Gilligan's report was flawed, and \"the Governors should have recognised more fully than they did that their duty to protect the independence of the BBC was not incompatible with giving proper consideration to whether there was validity in the Government's complaints\"\nThe Ministry of Defence (MOD) was at fault for not informing Kelly of their strategy that would involve naming him.Dissatisfied with the results of the Hutton Inquiry, in 2010 experts called for the suspended inquest to be reopened.[23]","title":"Role in the death of David Kelly"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"British parliamentary approval for the invasion of Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_parliamentary_approval_for_the_invasion_of_Iraq"},{"title":"Bush–Blair 2003 Iraq memo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush%E2%80%93Blair_2003_Iraq_memo"},{"title":"Butler Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butler_Review"},{"title":"Downing Street memo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downing_Street_memo"},{"title":"Iraq Dossier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_Dossier"},{"title":"Iraq Inquiry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_Inquiry"},{"title":"Iraq Survey Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_Survey_Group"},{"title":"Opinion on legality of war by UK Attorney General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Goldsmith,_Baron_Goldsmith"}]
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[{"reference":"Hansard (24 September 2002). \"Iraq and Weapons of Mass Destruction\". TheyWorkForYou. mySociety. Archived from the original on 5 June 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hansard","url_text":"Hansard"},{"url":"https://www.theyworkforyou.com/debates/?id=2002-09-24.1.0","url_text":"\"Iraq and Weapons of Mass Destruction\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheyWorkForYou","url_text":"TheyWorkForYou"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySociety","url_text":"mySociety"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130605214435/http://www.theyworkforyou.com/debates/?id=2002-09-24.1.0","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"House of Commons Hansard for 24 Sept 2002 (pt 12)\". www.parliament.uk. London: Parliament of the United Kingdom. 24 September 2002. Column 43. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 6 June 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200102/cmhansrd/vo020924/debtext/20924-12.htm#20924-12_spnew1","url_text":"\"House of Commons Hansard for 24 Sept 2002 (pt 12)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150403125336/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200102/cmhansrd/vo020924/debtext/20924-12.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Full text of Tony Blair's foreword to the dossier on Iraq\". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media. 24 September 2002. Archived from the original on 26 August 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/sep/24/iraq.speeches","url_text":"\"Full text of Tony Blair's foreword to the dossier on Iraq\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130826162920/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/sep/24/iraq.speeches","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Daily Record scoop - world war could be just 30 seconds away\". TheGuardian.com. 12 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/media/greenslade/2015/oct/12/daily-record-scoop-world-war-could-be-just-30-seconds-away","url_text":"\"Daily Record scoop - world war could be just 30 seconds away\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheGuardian.com","url_text":"TheGuardian.com"}]},{"reference":"\"Timeline: The 45-minute claim\". BBC News. London: BBC. 13 October 2004. Archived from the original on 20 April 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3466005.stm","url_text":"\"Timeline: The 45-minute claim\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News","url_text":"BBC News"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC","url_text":"BBC"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090420212637/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3466005.stm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Norton-Taylor, Richard (12 May 2011). \"Iraq dossier drawn up to make case for war – intelligence officer\". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media. Archived from the original on 10 September 2013. Retrieved 14 May 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Norton-Taylor","url_text":"Norton-Taylor, Richard"},{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/may/12/iraq-dossier-case-for-war","url_text":"\"Iraq dossier drawn up to make case for war – intelligence officer\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130910001843/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/may/12/iraq-dossier-case-for-war","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Ames, Chris (26 June 2011). \"Memo reveals intelligence chief's bid to fuel fears of Iraqi WMDs\". The Observer. London: Guardian News and Media. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013. 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Contemporary British History. 22 (3): 407–426. doi:10.1080/13619460701731939. S2CID 143921135.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13619460701731939","url_text":"10.1080/13619460701731939"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143921135","url_text":"143921135"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Hayward
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Alan Hayward
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["1 References"]
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British engineer and physicist
Alan Hayward (1923–2008) was a British engineer and physicist who was also active as an old-earth Creationist writer, and Christadelphian.
Hayward's primary field of research was fluid density and flowmeters, writing a textbook on the subject, and presenting to the Institute of Physics in 1981.
As a Christadelphian lay preacher Hayward had commenced writing on general religious topics for the Christadelphian Auxiliary Lecturing Society during the early 1970s. In particular his booklet on the characteristic (Socinian) belief of Christadelphians against the personal pre-existence of Christ remains that church's most widely circulated publication on that topic. Other publications included The Real Devil against belief in supernatural evil.
As a Christian, and a scientist, though not a biologist, he was soon involved in the subject of creation. In New Scientist (11 March 1992 issue) Hayward is cited speaking of "the quiet majority of Bible-believing creationists" who accept the "evidence of physics and geology that the Universe and our planet are billions of years old".
Despite being a nontrinitarian, Hayward's moderate old-earth creationist stand led to him being invited to write for mainstream publishers Thomas Nelson. He published three books: God is (1980) God's truth (1983) – a work dealing with textual defence of the Bible, and Creation and Evolution for SPCK (1985), which was widely cited and was re-published in America by Bethany House, Minneapolis (1995). Hayward's old-earth views were not welcomed by young earth or flood geology creationists, and his nontrinitarian views were often pointed out in criticism. His three main books have since been reprinted in India. God is was translated into German and Bengali, and God's Truth into Chinese.
References
^ Alan Hayward Flowmeters: a basic guide and source-book for users 1979 Wiley New York
^ Journal of Physics: Scientific instruments: Volume 14 1981 "The meeting continued with a talk by Dr Alan Hayward of Moore, Barrett & Redwood Limited on Developments in Flow and Density Measurements."
^ Alan Hayward. "Did Jesus really come down from heaven?". www.god-so-loved-the-world.org. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
^ Alan Hayward. "The Real Devil". www.god-so-loved-the-world.org. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
^ Physics bulletin Volume 35 Letters to the Editor 1984
^ 11 Mar 1982 Page 656 Vol. 93, No. 1296
^ Keith B. Miller, Perspectives on an evolving creation 2003 page 453; James Porter Moreland, Paul Nelson, John Mark Reynolds, Three views on creation and evolution 1999 page 107, "old earth creationist works include Alan Hayward, Creation and Evolution..."; Davis A. Young, Ralph F. Stearley, The Bible, Rocks and Time: Geological Evidence for the Age of the Earth, 2008 page 157; Howard J. Van Till, Portraits of creation: biblical and scientific perspectives 1990 page 59; Alex Philippidis, 'Cosmic Controversy: The Big Bang and Genesis 1' in Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 47.3:190-194 (9/1995); Glenn R. Morton, 'The Transformation of a Young-Earth Creationist' in Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 52 (June 2000): 81-83; Robert C. Newman, 'Scientific and Religious Aspects of the Origins Debate' in Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 47 (September 1995): 164-175; Mark Whorton, Hill Roberts Holman QuickSource Guide to Understanding Creation 2008- Page 365; etc.
^ Ron J. Bigalke, Jr The Genesis Factor: Myths and Realities 2008 Page 126 "For example, the author Alan Hayward claims to be a "Bible-believing Christian." Hayward is a Christadelphian physicist... "
^ Sarfati, Jonathan (2014). Refuting Compromise (2nd, Updated & Expanded ed.). Powder Springs, Georgia, USA: Creation Book Publishers. pp. 75–76, 334. ISBN 9781921643774.
^ Hayward, Alan (1995). Does God Exist? Science Says Yes!. Hyderabad: Printland Publishers, back cover. ISBN 0-551-05585-5.
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Netherlands
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn_of_the_Earth
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Hymn of the Earth
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["1 Instrumentation","2 History","3 Discography","4 Notes, references, and sources","4.1 Notes","4.2 References","4.3 Sources","5 External links"]
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Patriotic cantata by Jean Sibelius (1920)
Hymn of the EarthCantata by Jean SibeliusThe composer (c. 1918)Native nameMaan virsiOpus95TextMaan virsiby Eino LeinoLanguageFinnishComposed1919 (1919)–1920Duration8 mins.PremiereDate4 April 1920 (1920-04-04)LocationHelsinki, FinlandConductorHeikki Klemetti PerformersHelsinki Philharmonic OrchestraSuomen Laulu
Hymn of the Earth (in Finnish: Maan virsi), Op. 95, is a single-movement, patriotic cantata for mixed choir and orchestra written from 1919 to 1920 by Finnish composer Jean Sibelius. The piece, which is a setting of the Finnish author Eino Leino's Finnish-language poem of the same name, is chronologically the eighth of Sibelius's nine orchestral cantatas; in particular, it belongs to the series of four "little known, but beautiful" cantatas from the composer's mature period that also includes My Own Land (Op. 92, 1918), Song of the Earth (Op. 93, 1919), and Väinämöinen's Song (Op. 110, 1926). Hymn of the Earth premiered on 4 April 1920 in Helsinki, with Heikki Klemetti conducting the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra and his choir, Suomen Laulu .
Instrumentation
Hymn of the Earth is scored for the following instruments and voices, organized by family (vocalists, woodwinds, brass, percussion, and strings):
Mixed choir (SATB)
2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets (in B♭), and 2 bassoons
4 horns (in F), 2 trumpets (in B♭), and 3 trombones
Timpani
Violins (I and II), violas, cellos, and double basses
History
A 1917 painting (by Akseli Gallen-Kallela) of Eino Leino, whose poem Sibelius set in Hymn of the Earth.
The cantata resulted from a commission by the Finnish choral conductor Heikki Klemetti , who had founded the mixed choir Suomen Laulu in 1900 and desired from Sibelius a new work that the ensemble could perform in the spring of 1920 to celebrate its twentieth anniversary. Sibelius, however, was unenthused, writing in his diary in January 1919: "And then there's the promise I made Klemetti for a work for Suomen Laulu. He is by no means one of my 'admirers'. It annoys me that he only wants to use my name as a decoration". By late December 1919, however, Sibelius's delay tactics ceased and he began work on the piece for Klemetti.
Although Sibelius had planned to set Suomenmaa by the Finnish poet Aleksis Kivi, he settled on Maan virsi by Eino Leino. It is a patriotic text that celebrates Finland, as well as the natural world. For example, in the third stanza, Leino writes:
Original Finnish
English translation
Maa! sulle kiitosta kantele soikoon,
suvilaulu Suomen,
tuoksussa juhannuskoivun ja tuomen,
rikkaana riemuita virtemme voikoon,
elonhuolet voittaa,
kauneuden korkean sydänkieltä soittaa.
Earth! Let the kantele sing thee its thanks,
Finland’s summer song,
In the scent of the midsummer birch and hawthorn,
Rich may our streams rejoice,
Overcoming the cares of life,
Sounding the inner voice of high beauty.
Sibelius completed the cantata in late January 1920; it premiered a few months later on 4 April 1920 (Easter Sunday) in Helsinki, with Klemetti—its dedicatee—conducting Suomen Laulu and the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra.
Discography
The Estonian conductor Eri Klas and the Finnish National Opera Orchestra and Chorus made the world premiere studio recording of the Hymn of the Earth in 1990 for Ondine. The table below lists this and other commercially available recordings:
No.
Conductor
Orchestra
Chorus
Rec.
Time
Venue
Label
Ref.
1
Eri Klas
Finnish National Opera Orchestra
Finnish National Opera Chorus
1990
7:36
Roihuvuori Church
Ondine
2
Paavo Järvi
Estonian National Symphony Orchestra
Estonian National Male Choir
2002
7:41
Estonia Concert Hall
Virgin Classics
3
Osmo Vänskä
Lahti Symphony Orchestra
Dominante Choir
2004
5:47
Sibelius Hall
BIS
Notes, references, and sources
Notes
^ This translation, by John Skinner, is from the liner notes (pg. 28) to the recording by Eri Klas and the Finnish National Opera. (E. Klas—Ondine (ODE 754-2) 1990)
^ Refers to the year in which the performers recorded the work; this may not be the same as the year in which the recording was first released to the general public.
^ All runtimes are official, as printed on CD or LP liner notes.
^ E. Klas—Ondine (ODE 754-2) 1990
^ P. Järvi—Virgin Classics (7243 5 45589 2 4) 2003
^ O. Vänskä—BIS (CD–1365) 2005
References
^ a b c d e f Dahlström 2003, p. 406.
^ Lascar 2003, p. 11.
^ a b c Barnett 2005, p. 6.
^ Barnett 2005, p. 6–7.
Sources
Barnett, Andrew (2005). Sibelius: Song of the Earth (booklet). Osmo Vänskä, Lahti Symphony Orchestra, & Dominante Choir. BIS. BIS CD-1365. OCLC 62255940
Barnett, Andrew (2007). Sibelius. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300111590.
Dahlström, Fabian (2003). Jean Sibelius: Thematisch-bibliographisches Verzeichnis seiner Werke (in German). Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & Härtel. ISBN 3-7651-0333-0.
Lascar, Pierre-Yves (2003). Sibelius: Cantatas (booklet). Paavo Järvi, Estonian National Symphony Orchestra, & Estonian National Male Choir. Virgin Classics. 7243 5 45589 2 4. OCLC 52897195
Okkonen, Jukka (1990). Sibelius: Cantatas (booklet). Eri Klas, Finnish National Opera Orchestra and Chorus. Ondine. ODE 754-2. OCLC 26017670
External links
Hymn of the Earth (Maan virsi), Op. 95: Scores at the International Music Score Library Project
vteJean SibeliusList of compositionsDiscography of symphony cyclesSymphonies
Kullervo (1892)
Symphony No. 1 (1899, rev. 1900)
Symphony No. 2 (1902)
Symphony No. 3 (1907)
Symphony No. 4 (1911)
Symphony No. 5 (1915, rev. 1916, 1919)
Symphony No. 6 (1923)
Symphony No. 7 (1924)
Symphony No. 8 (mid 1920s–c. 1938, abandoned)
Concertante
Violin Concerto (1904, rev. 1905)
Two Serenades (1912–1913)
Two Serious Melodies (1914–1915)
Six Humoresques (1917–1918, No. 1 rev. 1940)
Suite for Violin and String Orchestra (1929)
Tone poems
En saga (1892, rev. 1902)
Spring Song (1894, rev. 1895)
The Wood Nymph (1895)
Lemminkäinen Suite
1895, rev. 1897, 1900, 1939; includes The Swan of Tuonela
Finlandia (1899)
Pohjola's Daughter (1906)
Nightride and Sunrise (1909)
The Dryad (1910)
The Bard (1913)
Luonnotar (1913)
The Oceanides (1914, rev. 1914)
Tapiola (1926)
Opera & theatre
The Building of the Boat (1893–1894, abandoned)
The Maiden in the Tower (1896)
King Christian II (1898)
Kuolema
1903; includes Valse triste
Pelléas et Mélisande (1905)
Belshazzar's Feast (1906)
Swanwhite (1908)
The Lizard (1909)
The Language of the Birds (1911)
Scaramouche (1913)
Everyman (1916)
The Tempest (1925)
Cantatas
Cantata for the University Graduation Ceremonies of 1894
Cantata for the Coronation of Nicholas II (1896)
Cantata for the University Graduation Ceremonies of 1897
The Origin of Fire (1902, rev. 1910)
The Captive Queen (1906)
My Own Land (1918)
Song of the Earth (1919)
Hymn of the Earth (1920)
Väinämöinen's Song (1926)
Other voice(s) & orchestra
The Rapids-Rider's Brides (1897)
The Breaking of the Ice on the Oulu River (1899)
Snöfrid (1900)
Marjatta (1905, abandoned)
Impromptu (1902, rev. 1910)
The Raven (1910, abandoned)
Other orchestral
Overture in E major (1891)
Ballet Scene (1891)
Karelia Suite (1893)
Rakastava (1894, arr. 1912)
Scènes historiques I (1899, arr. 1911)
Overture in A minor (1902)
Romance in C major (1904)
Cassazione (1904, rev. 1905)
Pan and Echo (1906)
In memoriam (1909, rev. 1910)
Scènes historiques II (1912)
Suite mignonne (1921)
Suite champêtre (1922)
Suite caractéristique (1922)
String quartets
String Quartet in E-flat major (1885)
String Quartet in A minor (1889)
String Quartet in B-flat major (1890)
String Quartet in D minor, Voces intimae (1909)
Andante festivo (1922, orch. 1938)
Piano trios
Piano Trio in A minor, Hafträsk (1886)
Piano Trio in D major, Korpo (1887)
Piano Trio in C major, Lovisa (1888)
Other chamber
Water Droplets (c. 1875–1881)
Pieces for brass septet (1889–1899)
Piano Quintet (1890)
Malinconia (1900)
Violin Sonatina (1915)
Piano
Six Impromptus (1893)
Piano Sonata (1893)
Ten Pieces, Op. 24 (1895–1903)
Kyllikki (1904)
Three Sonatinas (1912)
The Bells of Kallio Church (1912, arr. 1912)
Two Rondinos (1912)
Five Pieces, The Trees, Op. 75 (1914)
Five Pieces, The Flowers, Op. 85 (1916–1917)
Five Esquisses (1929)
Songs
Seven Runeberg Songs, Op. 13 (1891–1892)
"Serenad", JS 168 (1894–1895)
Six Songs, Op. 36 (1899–1900)
Five Songs, Op. 37 (1900–1902)
Seven Songs, Op. 17 (1891–1904)
Five Songs, Op. 38 (1903–1904; includes "Höstkväll")
Six Songs, Op. 50 (1906)
Two Songs, Op. 35 (1908)
"Kom nu hit, död", Op. 60/1 (1909, orch. 1957)
"Arioso", Op. 3 (1911)
Five Christmas Songs, Op. 1 (1897–1913; includes "Giv mig ej glans, ej guld, ej prakt")
Six Runeberg Songs, Op. 90 (1917)
Choral works
Hymn, Op. 21 (1896, rev. 1898)
Songs for Mixed Chorus from the 1897 Promotional Cantata (arr. 1898)
Finlandia Hymn (1899, arr. 1938–1940)
Six Partsongs, Op. 18 (1893–1901)
Jäger March (1917)
Family
Ainola (home)
Aino Sibelius (wife)
Ruth Snellman (daughter)
Heidi Blomstedt (daughter)
Christian Sibelius (brother)
Aulis Blomstedt (son-in-law)
Jussi Jalas (son-in-law)
Jussi Snellman (son-in-law)
Alexander Järnefelt (father-in-law)
Elisabeth Järnefelt (mother-in-law)
Armas Järnefelt (brother-in-law)
Arvid Järnefelt (brother-in-law)
Eero Järnefelt (brother-in-law)
Kasper Järnefelt (brother-in-law)
Teachers
Helsinki Music Institute: Martin Wegelius (theory, composition)
Mitrofan Vasiliev (violin)
Hermann Csillag (violin)
Post-graduate studies: Albert Becker
Robert Fuchs
Karl Goldmark
Pupils
Toivo Kuula
Leevi Madetoja
Bengt de Törne
Colleagues & friends
Juhani Aho
Aino Ackté
Granville Bantock
Ferruccio Busoni
Axel Carpelan (patron)
Olin Downes
Ida Ekman
Richard Faltin
Ida Flodin
Karl Flodin
Akseli Gallen-Kallela
Heikki Klemetti
Santeri Levas (secretary)
Erkki Melartin
Oskar Merikanto
Rosa Newmarch
Abraham Ojanperä
Selim Palmgren
Adolf Paul
Wilhelm Stenhammar
Karl Wasenius
Select interpreters
Sir Thomas Beecham
Paavo Berglund
Sir Colin Davis
Neeme Järvi
Paavo Järvi
Robert Kajanus
Herbert von Karajan
Serge Koussevitzky
Hannu Lintu
Sakari Oramo
Eugene Ormandy
Sir Simon Rattle
Jukka-Pekka Saraste
Georg Schnéevoigt
Leif Segerstam
Leopold Stokowski
Osmo Vänskä
Select biographers
Fabian Dahlström
Karl Ekman
Erik Furuhjelm
Glenda Dawn Goss
Cecil Gray
Robert Layton
Nils-Eric Ringbom
Erik W. Tawaststjerna
Namesakes
International Jean Sibelius Violin Competition
Jean Sibelius Quartet
Sibelius (2003 film)
Sibelius (scorewriter)
Sibelius Academy
Sibelius Academy Quartet
Sibelius Glacier
Sibelius Hall
Sibelius Medal
Sibelius Monument
Sibelius Museum
Sibelius Piano Trio
Sibelius Society of Finland
1405 Sibelius (asteroid)
Wihuri Sibelius Prize
Category
Portal: Classical Music
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The piece, which is a setting of the Finnish author Eino Leino's Finnish-language poem of the same name, is chronologically the eighth of Sibelius's nine orchestral cantatas; in particular, it belongs to the series of four \"little known, but beautiful\"[2] cantatas from the composer's mature period that also includes My Own Land (Op. 92, 1918), Song of the Earth (Op. 93, 1919), and Väinämöinen's Song (Op. 110, 1926). Hymn of the Earth premiered on 4 April 1920 in Helsinki, with Heikki Klemetti [fi] conducting the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra and his choir, Suomen Laulu [fi].[1]","title":"Hymn of the Earth"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDahlstr%C3%B6m2003406-1"},{"link_name":"vocalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocalist"},{"link_name":"woodwinds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodwind_section"},{"link_name":"brass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass_section"},{"link_name":"percussion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percussion_section"},{"link_name":"strings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_section"},{"link_name":"Mixed choir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SATB"},{"link_name":"flutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_concert_flute"},{"link_name":"oboes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oboe"},{"link_name":"clarinets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarinet"},{"link_name":"bassoons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bassoon"},{"link_name":"horns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_horn"},{"link_name":"trumpets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trumpet"},{"link_name":"trombones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trombone"},{"link_name":"Timpani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timpani"},{"link_name":"Violins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violin"},{"link_name":"violas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viola"},{"link_name":"cellos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello"},{"link_name":"double basses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bass"}],"text":"Hymn of the Earth is scored for the following instruments and voices,[1] organized by family (vocalists, woodwinds, brass, percussion, and strings):Mixed choir (SATB)\n2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets (in B♭), and 2 bassoons\n4 horns (in F), 2 trumpets (in B♭), and 3 trombones\nTimpani\nViolins (I and II), violas, cellos, and double basses","title":"Instrumentation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gallen-Kallela,_Eino-Leino_1917.jpg"},{"link_name":"Akseli Gallen-Kallela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akseli_Gallen-Kallela"},{"link_name":"Eino Leino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eino_Leino"},{"link_name":"Heikki Klemetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heikki_Klemetti&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heikki_Klemetti"},{"link_name":"Suomen Laulu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suomen_Laulu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suomen_Laulu_(kuoro)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett20056-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett20056-3"},{"link_name":"Aleksis Kivi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksis_Kivi"},{"link_name":"Eino Leino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eino_Leino"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett20056-3"},{"link_name":"the natural world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_Nature"},{"link_name":"stanza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanza"},{"link_name":"Easter Sunday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Sunday"},{"link_name":"Helsinki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki"},{"link_name":"Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Philharmonic_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett20056%E2%80%937-5"}],"text":"A 1917 painting (by Akseli Gallen-Kallela) of Eino Leino, whose poem Sibelius set in Hymn of the Earth.The cantata resulted from a commission by the Finnish choral conductor Heikki Klemetti [fi], who had founded the mixed choir Suomen Laulu [fi] in 1900 and desired from Sibelius a new work that the ensemble could perform in the spring of 1920 to celebrate its twentieth anniversary.[3] Sibelius, however, was unenthused, writing in his diary in January 1919: \"And then there's the promise I made Klemetti for a work for Suomen Laulu. He is by no means one of my 'admirers'. It annoys me that he only wants to use my name as a decoration\".[3] By late December 1919, however, Sibelius's delay tactics ceased and he began work on the piece for Klemetti.Although Sibelius had planned to set Suomenmaa by the Finnish poet Aleksis Kivi, he settled on Maan virsi by Eino Leino.[3] It is a patriotic text that celebrates Finland, as well as the natural world. For example, in the third stanza, Leino writes:Sibelius completed the cantata in late January 1920; it premiered a few months later on 4 April 1920 (Easter Sunday) in Helsinki, with Klemetti—its dedicatee—conducting Suomen Laulu and the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eri Klas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eri_Klas"},{"link_name":"Finnish National Opera Orchestra and Chorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_National_Opera_and_Ballet"},{"link_name":"Ondine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ondine_(record_label)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDahlstr%C3%B6m2003406-1"}],"text":"The Estonian conductor Eri Klas and the Finnish National Opera Orchestra and Chorus made the world premiere studio recording of the Hymn of the Earth in 1990 for Ondine.[1] The table below lists this and other commercially available recordings:","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notes, references, and sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Eri Klas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eri_Klas"},{"link_name":"Finnish National Opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_National_Opera"},{"link_name":"E. Klas—Ondine (ODE 754-2) 1990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.discogs.com/release/8014879-Finnish-National-Opera-Orchestra-And-Chorus-Eri-Klas-Sibelius-Cantatas"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Years_6-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc"},{"link_name":"LP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LP_record"},{"link_name":"liner notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liner_notes"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Klas_8-0"},{"link_name":"E. Klas—Ondine (ODE 754-2) 1990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.discogs.com/release/8014879-Finnish-National-Opera-Orchestra-And-Chorus-Eri-Klas-Sibelius-Cantatas"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"P. Järvi—Virgin Classics (7243 5 45589 2 4) 2003","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.discogs.com/release/9467845-Sibelius-Ellerhein-Girls-Choir-Estonian-National-Male-Choir-Estonian-National-Symphony-Orchestra-Paa"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"O. Vänskä—BIS (CD–1365) 2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.prestomusic.com/classical/products/7939799--sibelius-songs-of-the-earth"}],"sub_title":"Notes","text":"^ This translation, by John Skinner, is from the liner notes (pg. 28) to the recording by Eri Klas and the Finnish National Opera. (E. Klas—Ondine (ODE 754-2) 1990)\n\n^ Refers to the year in which the performers recorded the work; this may not be the same as the year in which the recording was first released to the general public.\n\n^ All runtimes are official, as printed on CD or LP liner notes.\n\n^ E. Klas—Ondine (ODE 754-2) 1990\n\n^ P. Järvi—Virgin Classics (7243 5 45589 2 4) 2003\n\n^ O. Vänskä—BIS (CD–1365) 2005","title":"Notes, references, and sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDahlstr%C3%B6m2003406_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDahlstr%C3%B6m2003406_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDahlstr%C3%B6m2003406_1-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDahlstr%C3%B6m2003406_1-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDahlstr%C3%B6m2003406_1-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDahlstr%C3%B6m2003406_1-5"},{"link_name":"Dahlström 2003","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDahlstr%C3%B6m2003"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELascar200311_2-0"},{"link_name":"Lascar 2003","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLascar2003"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnett20056_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnett20056_3-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnett20056_3-2"},{"link_name":"Barnett 2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBarnett2005"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnett20056%E2%80%937_5-0"},{"link_name":"Barnett 2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBarnett2005"}],"sub_title":"References","text":"^ a b c d e f Dahlström 2003, p. 406.\n\n^ Lascar 2003, p. 11.\n\n^ a b c Barnett 2005, p. 6.\n\n^ Barnett 2005, p. 6–7.","title":"Notes, references, and sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"62255940","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/62255940"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780300111590","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300111590"},{"link_name":"Dahlström, Fabian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_Dahlstr%C3%B6m"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-7651-0333-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7651-0333-0"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"52897195","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/52897195"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"26017670","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/26017670"}],"sub_title":"Sources","text":"Barnett, Andrew (2005). Sibelius: Song of the Earth (booklet). Osmo Vänskä, Lahti Symphony Orchestra, & Dominante Choir. BIS. BIS CD-1365. OCLC 62255940\nBarnett, Andrew (2007). Sibelius. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300111590.\nDahlström, Fabian [in Swedish] (2003). Jean Sibelius: Thematisch-bibliographisches Verzeichnis seiner Werke [Jean Sibelius: A Thematic Bibliographic Index of His Works] (in German). Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & Härtel. ISBN 3-7651-0333-0.\nLascar, Pierre-Yves (2003). Sibelius: Cantatas (booklet). Paavo Järvi, Estonian National Symphony Orchestra, & Estonian National Male Choir. Virgin Classics. 7243 5 45589 2 4. OCLC 52897195\nOkkonen, Jukka (1990). Sibelius: Cantatas (booklet). Eri Klas, Finnish National Opera Orchestra and Chorus. Ondine. ODE 754-2. OCLC 26017670","title":"Notes, references, and sources"}]
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[{"image_text":"A 1917 painting (by Akseli Gallen-Kallela) of Eino Leino, whose poem Sibelius set in Hymn of the Earth.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gallen-Kallela%2C_Eino-Leino_1917.jpg/220px-Gallen-Kallela%2C_Eino-Leino_1917.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Barnett, Andrew (2005). Sibelius: Song of the Earth (booklet). Osmo Vänskä, Lahti Symphony Orchestra, & Dominante Choir. BIS. BIS CD-1365.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Barnett, Andrew (2007). Sibelius. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300111590.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300111590","url_text":"9780300111590"}]},{"reference":"Dahlström, Fabian [in Swedish] (2003). Jean Sibelius: Thematisch-bibliographisches Verzeichnis seiner Werke [Jean Sibelius: A Thematic Bibliographic Index of His Works] (in German). Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & Härtel. ISBN 3-7651-0333-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_Dahlstr%C3%B6m","url_text":"Dahlström, Fabian"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7651-0333-0","url_text":"3-7651-0333-0"}]},{"reference":"Lascar, Pierre-Yves (2003). Sibelius: Cantatas (booklet). Paavo Järvi, Estonian National Symphony Orchestra, & Estonian National Male Choir. Virgin Classics. 7243 5 45589 2 4.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Okkonen, Jukka (1990). Sibelius: Cantatas (booklet). Eri Klas, Finnish National Opera Orchestra and Chorus. Ondine. ODE 754-2.","urls":[]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.discogs.com/release/8014879-Finnish-National-Opera-Orchestra-And-Chorus-Eri-Klas-Sibelius-Cantatas","external_links_name":"E. Klas—Ondine (ODE 754-2) 1990"},{"Link":"https://www.discogs.com/release/8014879-Finnish-National-Opera-Orchestra-And-Chorus-Eri-Klas-Sibelius-Cantatas","external_links_name":"E. Klas—Ondine (ODE 754-2) 1990"},{"Link":"https://www.discogs.com/release/9467845-Sibelius-Ellerhein-Girls-Choir-Estonian-National-Male-Choir-Estonian-National-Symphony-Orchestra-Paa","external_links_name":"P. Järvi—Virgin Classics (7243 5 45589 2 4) 2003"},{"Link":"https://www.prestomusic.com/classical/products/7939799--sibelius-songs-of-the-earth","external_links_name":"O. Vänskä—BIS (CD–1365) 2005"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62255940","external_links_name":"62255940"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52897195","external_links_name":"52897195"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26017670","external_links_name":"26017670"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Baptism_of_Christ_(Annibale_Carracci)
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Baptism of Christ (Annibale Carracci)
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["1 History of the painting","2 Description","3 Gallery","4 References"]
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Painting by Annibale Carracci
The Baptism of Christ is a painting by Annibale Carracci.
Baptism of Christ (1585) by Annibale Carracci
History of the painting
The work was commissioned in 1583 by Giacomo Canobbi, professor of law at the University of Bologna, for his chapel in the Santi Gregorio e Siro. He was licensed in 1585, the date that appears on the canvas.
This is the second public commission obtained by Annibale after the Crucifixion of 1583, now in the Santa Maria della Carità, Bologna.The Baptism is the only altarpiece made by the most famous of the Carracci before his move to Rome to have remained in its original location.
Description
The Baptism is the first important manifestation of the rediscovery of Correggio who, between 1584 and 1587, occupied the artistic interests of Annibale Carracci.
The influence of Correggio is particularly evident in the upper part of the altarpiece, occupied by a choir of angel musicians, supported by material clouds, in the centre of which the Eternal Father appears. This part of the composition derives from Correggio's frescoes painted for the dome of Parma Cathedral.
The lower part of the painting, where the main event takes place, instead, seems to be still linked to the late Mannerist style then dominant among Bolognese painters. This can be seen above all from the artificiality of the poses of some of the characters depicted and especially from that of the catechumen on the left - which shows the Lord taking off his shirt to be baptized in turn - whose twisting is strongly unnatural.
In general, there is a fracture between the two parts of the canvas (also highlighted by the different luministic setting of the two sections) which is probably an indication of the uncertainties and the results of the young Annibale's research still in progress.
In the composition, in addition to the depiction of Baptism, there is a reference to the mystery of the Trinity: the Father, the dove, symbol of the Holy Spirit, and Jesus, the Son, are aligned on the middle axis of the painting. The Trinitarian allusion is echoed by the gesture of the onlooker's hand on the left (in a red coat) indicating the number three. The Canobbi chapel, in fact, was dedicated to both the Baptist and the Trinity.
Already in this first important example of Carracci's attention to the art of Allegri we can see Hannibal's effort to update the style: the angelic choir at the top, though derived from Correggio, is characterized by its domestic spirit, "almost a concertino staged like a family celebration".
According to Malvasia, for this second public rehearsal, Annibale would have availed himself of the help of his more experienced cousin Ludovico.
Gallery
The Baptism in the church of Santi Gregorio e Siro in Bologna
References
^ a b c d Benati, Daniele; Riccòmini, Eugenio (2006). Annibale Carracci: [mostra, 22 settembre 2006-7 gennaio 2007, Bologna, Museo Civico Archeologico, 25 gennaio-6 maggio 2007, Roma, DART Chiostro del Bramante (in Italian). Milano: Electa. p. 166. ISBN 978-88-370-4349-0. OCLC 644973633.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
^ a b c d Posner, Donald; Samuel H. Kress Foundation (1971). Annibale Carracci: a study in the reform of Italian painting around 1590. London: Phaidon. pp. 29–32. ISBN 978-0-7148-1471-1. OCLC 1086213185.
vteAnnibale CarracciPaintings
List of paintings
The Laughing Youth (1580s)
The Beaneater (1580–1590)
Butcher's Shop (1583)
Crucifixion with Saints (1583)
Corpse of Christ (1583–1585)
An Allegory of Truth and Time (1584–1585)
Baptism of Christ (1585)
Pietà with Saints Clare, Francis and Mary Magdalene (1585)
The Mystic Marriage of St Catherine (c. 1585)
The Vision of Saint Eustace (1585–1586)
Two Children Teasing a Cat (1587–1588)
Madonna and Child with Saints (1588)
Venus with a Satyr and Two Cupids (1588–1590)
Lamentation (1587–1590)
Self-Portrait in Profile (1590s)
Assumption of the Virgin (1590)
The Virgin Appears to Saint Luke and Saint Catherine (1592)
Self-Portrait (1593)
Madonna and Child with Saints (1593)
Resurrection (1593)
Madonna and Child in Glory over the City of Bologna (c. 1593)
Christ and the Samaritan Woman (1593–1594)
Saint Roch Giving Alms (1587–1595)
Fishing (before 1595)
Hunting (before 1595)
River Landscape (c. 1590)
Christ and the Canaanite Woman (1594–1595)
Entombment of Christ (c. 1595)
Venus, Adonis and Cupid (c. 1595)
Camerino Farnese
The Choice of Hercules (1596)
Christ in Glory with Saints and Odoardo Farnese (c. 1597–1598)
The Death of Saint Francis (1597–1598)
Saint Margaret of Antioch (1599)
Christ Appearing to Saint Anthony Abbot (1598–1600)
Christ Crowned with Thorns (1598–1600)
Christ Crowned with Thorns (Bologna) (c. 1598–1600)
The Madonna and Sleeping Child with the Infant St John the Baptist (c. 1599–1600)
Pietà (c. 1600)
The Three Marys at the Tomb (c. 1600)
Rinaldo and Armida (c. 1601)
Assumption of the Virgin (1600–1601)
Saint Gregory at Prayer (c. 1600–1602)
Domine quo vadis? (c. 1602)
Portable Altarpiece with Pietà and Saints (1603)
Pietà with Two Angels (c. 1603)
Sleeping Venus (c. 1603)
Self-Portrait on an Easel (1603–1604)
The Martyrdom of St Stephen (c. 1603–1604)
Portrait of Monsignor Giovanni Battista Agucchi (1604) (disputed)
Landscape with the Flight into Egypt (c. 1604)
The Dead Christ Mourned (c. 1604)
Rest on the Flight into Egypt (c. 1604)
Danaë (1600–1605)
Saint Didacus of Alcalá Presenting Juan de Herrera's Son to Christ (c. 1606)
Pietà with Saint Francis and Saint Mary Magdalene (1602–1607)
The Loves of the Gods (1608)
The Birth of the Virgin (1605–1609)
Related
Agostino Carracci (brother)
Ludovico Carracci (cousin)
The Carracci
Accademia degli Incamminati
Palazzo Sampieri frescoes
Palazzo Magnani
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Annibale Carracci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annibale_Carracci"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Annibale_Carracci,_Battesimo_di_Cristo,_Chiesa_dei_Santi_Gregorio_e_Siro,_Bologna.jpg"}],"text":"The Baptism of Christ is a painting by Annibale Carracci.Baptism of Christ (1585) by Annibale Carracci","title":"Baptism of Christ (Annibale Carracci)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Santi Gregorio e Siro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santi_Gregorio_e_Siro"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Benati_Catalogo-1"},{"link_name":"Santa Maria della Carità, Bologna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Maria_della_Carit%C3%A0,_Bologna"},{"link_name":"altarpiece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altarpiece"}],"text":"The work was commissioned in 1583 by Giacomo Canobbi, professor of law at the University of Bologna, for his chapel in the Santi Gregorio e Siro. He was licensed in 1585, the date that appears on the canvas.[1]This is the second public commission obtained by Annibale after the Crucifixion of 1583, now in the Santa Maria della Carità, Bologna.The Baptism is the only altarpiece made by the most famous of the Carracci before his move to Rome to have remained in its original location.","title":"History of the painting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Posner-2"},{"link_name":"Correggio's frescoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assumption_of_the_Virgin_(Correggio)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Posner-2"},{"link_name":"catechumen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catechesis"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Posner-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Posner-2"},{"link_name":"Trinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Benati_Catalogo-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Benati_Catalogo-1"},{"link_name":"Malvasia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Cesare_Malvasia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Benati_Catalogo-1"}],"text":"The Baptism is the first important manifestation of the rediscovery of Correggio who, between 1584 and 1587, occupied the artistic interests of Annibale Carracci.[2]The influence of Correggio is particularly evident in the upper part of the altarpiece, occupied by a choir of angel musicians, supported by material clouds, in the centre of which the Eternal Father appears. This part of the composition derives from Correggio's frescoes painted for the dome of Parma Cathedral.[2]The lower part of the painting, where the main event takes place, instead, seems to be still linked to the late Mannerist style then dominant among Bolognese painters. This can be seen above all from the artificiality of the poses of some of the characters depicted and especially from that of the catechumen on the left - which shows the Lord taking off his shirt to be baptized in turn - whose twisting is strongly unnatural.[2]In general, there is a fracture between the two parts of the canvas (also highlighted by the different luministic setting of the two sections) which is probably an indication of the uncertainties and the results of the young Annibale's research still in progress.[2]In the composition, in addition to the depiction of Baptism, there is a reference to the mystery of the Trinity: the Father, the dove, symbol of the Holy Spirit, and Jesus, the Son, are aligned on the middle axis of the painting. The Trinitarian allusion is echoed by the gesture of the onlooker's hand on the left (in a red coat) indicating the number three. The Canobbi chapel, in fact, was dedicated to both the Baptist and the Trinity.[1]Already in this first important example of Carracci's attention to the art of Allegri we can see Hannibal's effort to update the style: the angelic choir at the top, though derived from Correggio, is characterized by its domestic spirit, \"almost a concertino staged [...] like a family celebration\".[1]According to Malvasia, for this second public rehearsal, Annibale would have availed himself of the help of his more experienced cousin Ludovico.[1]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Annibale_Carracci_Battesimo_di_Cristo_chiesa_Santi_Siro_Gregorio_Bologna.jpg"},{"link_name":"Santi Gregorio e Siro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santi_Gregorio_e_Siro"}],"text":"The Baptism in the church of Santi Gregorio e Siro in Bologna","title":"Gallery"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Baptism of Christ (1585) by Annibale Carracci","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Annibale_Carracci%2C_Battesimo_di_Cristo%2C_Chiesa_dei_Santi_Gregorio_e_Siro%2C_Bologna.jpg/300px-Annibale_Carracci%2C_Battesimo_di_Cristo%2C_Chiesa_dei_Santi_Gregorio_e_Siro%2C_Bologna.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Benati, Daniele; Riccòmini, Eugenio (2006). Annibale Carracci: [mostra, 22 settembre 2006-7 gennaio 2007, Bologna, Museo Civico Archeologico, 25 gennaio-6 maggio 2007, Roma, DART Chiostro del Bramante (in Italian). Milano: Electa. p. 166. ISBN 978-88-370-4349-0. OCLC 644973633.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/644973633","url_text":"Annibale Carracci: [mostra, 22 settembre 2006-7 gennaio 2007, Bologna, Museo Civico Archeologico, 25 gennaio-6 maggio 2007, Roma, DART Chiostro del Bramante"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-370-4349-0","url_text":"978-88-370-4349-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/644973633","url_text":"644973633"}]},{"reference":"Posner, Donald; Samuel H. Kress Foundation (1971). Annibale Carracci: a study in the reform of Italian painting around 1590. London: Phaidon. pp. 29–32. ISBN 978-0-7148-1471-1. OCLC 1086213185.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1086213185","url_text":"Annibale Carracci: a study in the reform of Italian painting around 1590"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-1471-1","url_text":"978-0-7148-1471-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1086213185","url_text":"1086213185"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/644973633","external_links_name":"Annibale Carracci: [mostra, 22 settembre 2006-7 gennaio 2007, Bologna, Museo Civico Archeologico, 25 gennaio-6 maggio 2007, Roma, DART Chiostro del Bramante"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/644973633","external_links_name":"644973633"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1086213185","external_links_name":"Annibale Carracci: a study in the reform of Italian painting around 1590"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1086213185","external_links_name":"1086213185"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashton_Sanders
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Ashton Sanders
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["1 Early life and education","2 Career","3 Filmography","3.1 Film","3.2 Television","4 References","5 External links"]
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American actor (b. 1995)
Ashton SandersSanders at 2016 TIFFBornAshton Durrand Sanders (1995-10-24) October 24, 1995 (age 28)Carson, California, U.S.EducationDePaul UniversityOccupationActorYears active2012–present
Ashton Durrand Sanders (born October 24, 1995) is an American actor best known for his portrayal of teenage Chiron in the Academy Award-winning film Moonlight (2016). He has since acted in films such as The Equalizer 2 (2017), All Day and a Night (2020), and Judas and the Black Messiah (2020). He portrayed Bigger Thomas in Native Son (2019) and Bobby Brown in Whitney Houston: I Wanna Dance with Somebody (2022).
Early life and education
Sanders was born in Carson, California. He attended Grand Arts High School in Downtown Los Angeles, from which he graduated in 2014. He was studying towards a BFA at The Theatre School at DePaul University, before leaving after three years in 2016 to focus on his acting career.
Career
Sanders made his film debut in The Retrieval, directed by Chris Eska. The film had its world premiere at South by Southwest on March 11, 2013. It was released in a limited release on April 2, 2014, by Variance Films.
In 2015, Sanders had a small role in Straight Outta Compton. In 2016, he appeared in an episode of Refinery29's web series The Skinny.
The same year, Sanders appeared in the drama film Moonlight, directed by Barry Jenkins. The film had its world premiere at the Telluride Film Festival on September 2, 2016, and began a limited release on October 21, 2016, by A24. Moonlight received massive critical acclaim as well dozens of accolades, including the Golden Globe Award for Best Picture – Drama. The film also won three Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Supporting Actor for Mahershala Ali. Sanders' role in the film was praised by critics; Benjamin Lee of The Guardian called his performance "powerful".
Sanders co-starred in The Equalizer 2, a sequel to the hit action film The Equalizer, opposite Denzel Washington. In 2019, Sanders starred in Rupert Wyatt's science fiction thriller film Captive State, opposite John Goodman and Vera Farmiga. He also played the lead in HBO's adaptation of the novel Native Son. In November 2020, he was set to star in The Things They Carried, a Vietnam war movie featuring an ensemble cast.
In September 2021, Sanders was cast as Bobby Brown in Whitney Houston: I Wanna Dance with Somebody, a biopic feature on Whitney Houston.
Filmography
Film
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2012
Making Possibilities
Donnie
Short film Los Angeles Film and Script Festival Honorable Mention
2013
The Retrieval
Will
2015
Straight Outta Compton
Kid on bus
2016
Moonlight
Teen Chiron
Austin Film Critics Association Special Honorary Award for Best EnsembleGotham Special Jury Award – Ensemble PerformanceIndependent Spirit Robert Altman AwardMTV Movie Award for Best KissNominated – Black Reel Award for Outstanding Supporting ActorNominated – Black Reel Award for Outstanding Breakthrough Performance, MaleNominated – Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture
We Home
Javan
Short film
The Last Virgin in LA
Josh
Short film
2018
The Equalizer 2
Miles Whittaker
The Kids Are Alright
Angel
Short film based on the Grammy-nominated album The Kids Are Alright by Chloe x Halle
2019
Native Son
Bigger Thomas
Captive State
Gabriel Drummond
2020
All Day and a Night
Jahkor
2021
Judas and the Black Messiah
Jimmy Palmer
2022
Whitney Houston: I Wanna Dance with Somebody
Bobby Brown
Television
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2016
The Skinny
Tyler
Episode: "Squad"
2019
Wu-Tang: An American Saga
Bobby/The RZA
Series regular
2022
The Proud Family: Louder and Prouder
College Kareem (voice)
Episode: "When You Wish Upon a Roker"
References
^ "Ashton Durrand Sanders (@ashtondsanders) • Instagram photos and videos". www.instagram.com.
^ Robehmed, Natalie (January 6, 2017). "Meet Ashton Sanders, Star Of 'Moonlight' And 30 Under 30 Honoree". Forbes.
^ Duncan, Fiona. "ASHTON SANDERS". Wonderland Magazine. Retrieved September 18, 2018.
^ Cuby, Michael. ""Moonlight"'s Ashton Sanders Opens Up About Being Bullied". Teen Vogue. Retrieved March 6, 2017.
^ Mishra, Himani. "Ashton Sanders Biography: Wiki, Early Life, Age, Career, Awards, Physical Appearance, Affair/Girlfriend, Family, Net Worth, Movies". Latest In South. Latest In South. Retrieved November 20, 2023.
^ Harris, Brandon (April 3, 2014). "Battle Cry: Chris Eska on The Retrieval". Filmmaker Magazine. Retrieved October 24, 2016.
^ "The Retrieval". South by Southwest. Retrieved October 24, 2016.
^ McNary, Dave (February 13, 2014). "SXSW Winner 'The Retrieval' Gets US Distribution". Variety. Retrieved October 24, 2016.
^ "The Retrieval". Apple Trailers. Retrieved October 24, 2016.
^ Phillips, Michael (September 15, 2016). "'Moonlight' reveals struggles of a young African-American man". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved October 24, 2016.
^ "The Skinny". Refinery29. Retrieved October 24, 2016.
^ McNary, Dave (October 21, 2015). "Naomie Harris, Andre Holland, Mahershala Ali to Star in 'Moonlight'". Variety. Retrieved October 24, 2016.
^ Hammond, Pete (September 1, 2016). "Telluride Film Festival Lineup: 'Sully', 'La La Land', 'Arrival', 'Bleed For This' & More". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved October 24, 2016.
^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (June 28, 2016). "A24 Sets Dates For 'Moonlight' & Cannes Jury Prize Winner 'American Honey'". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved October 24, 2016.
^ Berman, Eliza. "'Moonlight' Wins Golden Globe for Best Picture, Drama". Time. Retrieved January 9, 2017.
^ Opam, Kwame (January 24, 2017). "Oscar nominations 2017: Moonlight and La La Land will go head-to-head at the Academy Awards". The Verge. Retrieved February 5, 2017.
^ "Meet 'Moonlight' Star Ashton Sanders". EW.com. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
^ Lee, Benjamin (April 22, 2017). "Moonlight's Ashton Sanders: 'America isn't made for the black man'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
^ Fleming, Mike Jr. (August 24, 2017). "'Moonlight's Ashton Sanders Lands A Lead In 'Equalizer 2'". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
^ "'Moonlight' Breakout Ashton Sanders Joins John Goodman in 'Captive State' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
^ "'The Things They Carried': Tye Sheridan, Tom Hardy, Stephan James, Bill Skarsgard, Pete Davidson & Ashton Sanders Lead All-Star Vietnam War Movie — AFM Hot Pic".
^ "Ashton Sanders To Play Bobby Brown In Whitney Houston Biopic As Black Label Media Joins As Co-Financier".
^ Shand, Rohan, Making Possibilities, Mandy Aceves-Lopez, Karina Maddox, Ashton Sanders, retrieved October 24, 2017
External links
Ashton Sanders at IMDb
vteMTV Movie & TV Award for Best Kiss1990s
Anna Chlumsky & Macaulay Culkin in My Girl (1992)
Christian Slater & Marisa Tomei in Untamed Heart (1993)
Demi Moore & Woody Harrelson in Indecent Proposal (1994)
Jim Carrey & Lauren Holly in Dumb and Dumber (1995)
Natasha Henstridge & Anthony Guidera in Species (1996)
Will Smith & Vivica A. Fox in Independence Day (1997)
Adam Sandler & Drew Barrymore in The Wedding Singer (1998)
Gwyneth Paltrow & Joseph Fiennes in Shakespeare in Love (1999)
2000s
Sarah Michelle Gellar & Selma Blair in Cruel Intentions (2000)
Julia Stiles & Sean Patrick Thomas in Save the Last Dance (2001)
Jason Biggs & Seann William Scott in American Pie 2 (2002)
Tobey Maguire & Kirsten Dunst in Spider-Man (2003)
Owen Wilson, Carmen Electra & Amy Smart in Starsky & Hutch (2004)
Ryan Gosling & Rachel McAdams in The Notebook (2005)
Heath Ledger & Jake Gyllenhaal in Brokeback Mountain (2006)
Will Ferrell & Sacha Baron Cohen in Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby (2007)
Briana Evigan & Robert Hoffman in Step Up 2: The Streets (2008)
Robert Pattinson & Kristen Stewart in Twilight (2009)
2010s
Robert Pattinson & Kristen Stewart in The Twilight Saga: New Moon (2010)
Robert Pattinson & Kristen Stewart in The Twilight Saga: Eclipse (2011)
Robert Pattinson & Kristen Stewart in The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn - Part 1 (2012)
Jennifer Lawrence & Bradley Cooper in Silver Linings Playbook (2013)
Emma Roberts, Jennifer Aniston & Will Poulter in We're the Millers (2014)
Ansel Elgort & Shailene Woodley in The Fault in Our Stars (2015)
Rebel Wilson & Adam DeVine in Pitch Perfect 2 (2016)
Ashton Sanders & Jharrel Jerome in Moonlight (2017)
Nick Robinson & Keiynan Lonsdale in Love, Simon (2018)
Noah Centineo & Lana Condor in To All the Boys I've Loved Before (2019)
2020s
No award (2020)
Chase Stokes & Madelyn Cline in Outer Banks (2021)
Poopies & the Snake in Jackass Forever (2022)
Madison Bailey & Rudy Pankow in Outer Banks (2023)
Authority control databases International
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Germany
Israel
United States
Other
IdRef
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Academy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Awards"},{"link_name":"Moonlight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonlight_(2016_film)"},{"link_name":"The Equalizer 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Equalizer_2"},{"link_name":"All Day and a Night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Day_and_a_Night"},{"link_name":"Judas and the Black Messiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judas_and_the_Black_Messiah"},{"link_name":"Bigger Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bigger_Thomas"},{"link_name":"Native Son","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Son_(2019_film)"},{"link_name":"Bobby Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Brown"},{"link_name":"Whitney Houston: I Wanna Dance with Somebody","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_Houston:_I_Wanna_Dance_with_Somebody"}],"text":"Ashton Durrand Sanders (born October 24, 1995)[2] is an American actor best known for his portrayal of teenage Chiron in the Academy Award-winning film Moonlight (2016). He has since acted in films such as The Equalizer 2 (2017), All Day and a Night (2020), and Judas and the Black Messiah (2020). He portrayed Bigger Thomas in Native Son (2019) and Bobby Brown in Whitney Houston: I Wanna Dance with Somebody (2022).","title":"Ashton Sanders"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Grand Arts High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramon_C._Cortines_School_of_Visual_and_Performing_Arts"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"BFA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Fine_Arts"},{"link_name":"The Theatre School at DePaul University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Theatre_School_at_DePaul_University"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Sanders was born in Carson, California. He attended Grand Arts High School in Downtown Los Angeles, from which he graduated in 2014.[3] He was studying towards a BFA at The Theatre School at DePaul University, before leaving after three years in 2016 to focus on his acting career.[4][5]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Retrieval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Retrieval"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"South by Southwest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_by_Southwest"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"limited release","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limited_release"},{"link_name":"Variance Films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variance_Films"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Straight Outta Compton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straight_Outta_Compton_(film)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Refinery29","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refinery29"},{"link_name":"web series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_series"},{"link_name":"The Skinny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skinny_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Moonlight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonlight_(2016_film)"},{"link_name":"Barry Jenkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Jenkins"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Telluride Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telluride_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"limited release","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limited_release"},{"link_name":"A24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A24"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"dozens of accolades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accolades_received_by_Moonlight_(2016_film)"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe Award for Best Picture – Drama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award_for_Best_Motion_Picture_%E2%80%93_Drama"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Academy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Awards"},{"link_name":"Best Picture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Picture"},{"link_name":"Best Adapted Screenplay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Adapted_Screenplay"},{"link_name":"Best Supporting Actor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor"},{"link_name":"Mahershala Ali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahershala_Ali"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"The Equalizer 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Equalizer_2"},{"link_name":"action film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_film"},{"link_name":"The Equalizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Equalizer_(film)"},{"link_name":"Denzel Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denzel_Washington"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Rupert Wyatt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupert_Wyatt"},{"link_name":"Captive State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captive_State"},{"link_name":"John Goodman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Goodman"},{"link_name":"Vera Farmiga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera_Farmiga"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Native Son","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Son_(2019_film)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Bobby Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Brown"},{"link_name":"Whitney Houston: I Wanna Dance with Somebody","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_Houston:_I_Wanna_Dance_with_Somebody"},{"link_name":"biopic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopic"},{"link_name":"Whitney Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_Houston"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"Sanders made his film debut in The Retrieval, directed by Chris Eska.[6] The film had its world premiere at South by Southwest on March 11, 2013.[7] It was released in a limited release on April 2, 2014, by Variance Films.[8][9]In 2015, Sanders had a small role in Straight Outta Compton.[10] In 2016, he appeared in an episode of Refinery29's web series The Skinny.[11]The same year, Sanders appeared in the drama film Moonlight, directed by Barry Jenkins.[12] The film had its world premiere at the Telluride Film Festival on September 2, 2016, and began a limited release on October 21, 2016, by A24.[13][14] Moonlight received massive critical acclaim as well dozens of accolades, including the Golden Globe Award for Best Picture – Drama.[15] The film also won three Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Supporting Actor for Mahershala Ali.[16] Sanders' role in the film was praised by critics;[17] Benjamin Lee of The Guardian called his performance \"powerful\".[18]Sanders co-starred in The Equalizer 2, a sequel to the hit action film The Equalizer, opposite Denzel Washington.[19] In 2019, Sanders starred in Rupert Wyatt's science fiction thriller film Captive State, opposite John Goodman and Vera Farmiga.[20] He also played the lead in HBO's adaptation of the novel Native Son. In November 2020, he was set to star in The Things They Carried, a Vietnam war movie featuring an ensemble cast.[21]In September 2021, Sanders was cast as Bobby Brown in Whitney Houston: I Wanna Dance with Somebody, a biopic feature on Whitney Houston.[22]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Film","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Television","title":"Filmography"}]
|
[]
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[{"reference":"\"Ashton Durrand Sanders (@ashtondsanders) • Instagram photos and videos\". www.instagram.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/ashtondsanders/","url_text":"\"Ashton Durrand Sanders (@ashtondsanders) • Instagram photos and videos\""}]},{"reference":"Robehmed, Natalie (January 6, 2017). \"Meet Ashton Sanders, Star Of 'Moonlight' And 30 Under 30 Honoree\". Forbes.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/natalierobehmed/2017/01/06/meet-ashton-sanders-star-of-moonlight-and-30-under-30-honoree/#1fc0ba2f35a0","url_text":"\"Meet Ashton Sanders, Star Of 'Moonlight' And 30 Under 30 Honoree\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes","url_text":"Forbes"}]},{"reference":"Duncan, Fiona. \"ASHTON SANDERS\". Wonderland Magazine. Retrieved September 18, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wonderlandmagazine.com/2017/03/13/ashton-sanders/","url_text":"\"ASHTON SANDERS\""}]},{"reference":"Cuby, Michael. \"\"Moonlight\"'s Ashton Sanders Opens Up About Being Bullied\". Teen Vogue. Retrieved March 6, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.teenvogue.com/story/moonlight-ashton-sanders-interview","url_text":"\"\"Moonlight\"'s Ashton Sanders Opens Up About Being Bullied\""}]},{"reference":"Mishra, Himani. \"Ashton Sanders Biography: Wiki, Early Life, Age, Career, Awards, Physical Appearance, Affair/Girlfriend, Family, Net Worth, Movies\". Latest In South. Latest In South. Retrieved November 20, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://latestinsouth.com/ashton-sanders-biography-wiki-early-life-age-career-awards-physical-appearance-affair-girlfriend-family-net-worth-movies/","url_text":"\"Ashton Sanders Biography: Wiki, Early Life, Age, Career, Awards, Physical Appearance, Affair/Girlfriend, Family, Net Worth, Movies\""}]},{"reference":"Harris, Brandon (April 3, 2014). \"Battle Cry: Chris Eska on The Retrieval\". Filmmaker Magazine. Retrieved October 24, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://filmmakermagazine.com/85240-battle-cry-chris-eska-on-the-retrieval/","url_text":"\"Battle Cry: Chris Eska on The Retrieval\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filmmaker_Magazine","url_text":"Filmmaker Magazine"}]},{"reference":"\"The Retrieval\". South by Southwest. Retrieved October 24, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://schedule.sxsw.com/2013/events/event_FS13757","url_text":"\"The Retrieval\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_by_Southwest","url_text":"South by Southwest"}]},{"reference":"McNary, Dave (February 13, 2014). \"SXSW Winner 'The Retrieval' Gets US Distribution\". Variety. Retrieved October 24, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2014/film/news/sxsw-winner-the-retrieval-gets-us-distribution-1201103006/","url_text":"\"SXSW Winner 'The Retrieval' Gets US Distribution\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)","url_text":"Variety"}]},{"reference":"\"The Retrieval\". Apple Trailers. Retrieved October 24, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://trailers.apple.com/trailers/independent/theretrieval/","url_text":"\"The Retrieval\""}]},{"reference":"Phillips, Michael (September 15, 2016). \"'Moonlight' reveals struggles of a young African-American man\". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved October 24, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/movies/ct-moonlight-writers-actor-mov-0916-20160915-column.html","url_text":"\"'Moonlight' reveals struggles of a young African-American man\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Tribune","url_text":"Chicago Tribune"}]},{"reference":"\"The Skinny\". Refinery29. Retrieved October 24, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.refinery29.com/the-skinny-tv","url_text":"\"The Skinny\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refinery29","url_text":"Refinery29"}]},{"reference":"McNary, Dave (October 21, 2015). \"Naomie Harris, Andre Holland, Mahershala Ali to Star in 'Moonlight'\". Variety. Retrieved October 24, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2015/film/news/naomie-harris-andre-holland-mahershala-ali-moonlight-1201623354/","url_text":"\"Naomie Harris, Andre Holland, Mahershala Ali to Star in 'Moonlight'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)","url_text":"Variety"}]},{"reference":"Hammond, Pete (September 1, 2016). \"Telluride Film Festival Lineup: 'Sully', 'La La Land', 'Arrival', 'Bleed For This' & More\". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved October 24, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2016/09/telluride-film-festival-2016-lineup-full-list-1201811906/","url_text":"\"Telluride Film Festival Lineup: 'Sully', 'La La Land', 'Arrival', 'Bleed For This' & More\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood","url_text":"Deadline Hollywood"}]},{"reference":"D'Alessandro, Anthony (June 28, 2016). \"A24 Sets Dates For 'Moonlight' & Cannes Jury Prize Winner 'American Honey'\". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved October 24, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2016/06/american-honey-moonlight-a24-release-dates-1201780991/","url_text":"\"A24 Sets Dates For 'Moonlight' & Cannes Jury Prize Winner 'American Honey'\""}]},{"reference":"Berman, Eliza. \"'Moonlight' Wins Golden Globe for Best Picture, Drama\". Time. Retrieved January 9, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://time.com/4626237/golden-globes-2017-moonlight-best-picture-drama/","url_text":"\"'Moonlight' Wins Golden Globe for Best Picture, Drama\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)","url_text":"Time"}]},{"reference":"Opam, Kwame (January 24, 2017). \"Oscar nominations 2017: Moonlight and La La Land will go head-to-head at the Academy Awards\". The Verge. Retrieved February 5, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theverge.com/2017/1/24/14368162/oscar-nominations-2017-la-la-land-moonlight","url_text":"\"Oscar nominations 2017: Moonlight and La La Land will go head-to-head at the Academy Awards\""}]},{"reference":"\"Meet 'Moonlight' Star Ashton Sanders\". EW.com. Retrieved January 9, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://ew.com/article/2016/10/27/moonlight-ashton-sanders-interview/","url_text":"\"Meet 'Moonlight' Star Ashton Sanders\""}]},{"reference":"Lee, Benjamin (April 22, 2017). \"Moonlight's Ashton Sanders: 'America isn't made for the black man'\". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved January 9, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2017/apr/22/moonlight-ashton-sanders-america-isnt-made-for-black-man","url_text":"\"Moonlight's Ashton Sanders: 'America isn't made for the black man'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077","url_text":"0261-3077"}]},{"reference":"Fleming, Mike Jr. (August 24, 2017). \"'Moonlight's Ashton Sanders Lands A Lead In 'Equalizer 2'\". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved January 9, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2017/08/ashton-sanders-equalizer-2-sequel-casting-moonlight-1202155794/","url_text":"\"'Moonlight's Ashton Sanders Lands A Lead In 'Equalizer 2'\""}]},{"reference":"\"'Moonlight' Breakout Ashton Sanders Joins John Goodman in 'Captive State' (Exclusive)\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 9, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/moonlight-breakout-ashton-sanders-boards-rupert-wyatts-captive-state-john-goodman-956371","url_text":"\"'Moonlight' Breakout Ashton Sanders Joins John Goodman in 'Captive State' (Exclusive)\""}]},{"reference":"\"'The Things They Carried': Tye Sheridan, Tom Hardy, Stephan James, Bill Skarsgard, Pete Davidson & Ashton Sanders Lead All-Star Vietnam War Movie — AFM Hot Pic\".","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2020/11/tom-hardy-pete-davidson-bill-skarsgard-vietnam-war-movie-things-they-carried-afm-1234606181/","url_text":"\"'The Things They Carried': Tye Sheridan, Tom Hardy, Stephan James, Bill Skarsgard, Pete Davidson & Ashton Sanders Lead All-Star Vietnam War Movie — AFM Hot Pic\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ashton Sanders To Play Bobby Brown In Whitney Houston Biopic As Black Label Media Joins As Co-Financier\".","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2021/09/ashton-sanders-bobby-brown-whitney-houston-biopic-black-label-media-1234840966/","url_text":"\"Ashton Sanders To Play Bobby Brown In Whitney Houston Biopic As Black Label Media Joins As Co-Financier\""}]},{"reference":"Shand, Rohan, Making Possibilities, Mandy Aceves-Lopez, Karina Maddox, Ashton Sanders, retrieved October 24, 2017","urls":[{"url":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2392546/","url_text":"Making Possibilities"}]}]
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Sanders Biography: Wiki, Early Life, Age, Career, Awards, Physical Appearance, Affair/Girlfriend, Family, Net Worth, Movies\""},{"Link":"http://filmmakermagazine.com/85240-battle-cry-chris-eska-on-the-retrieval/","external_links_name":"\"Battle Cry: Chris Eska on The Retrieval\""},{"Link":"http://schedule.sxsw.com/2013/events/event_FS13757","external_links_name":"\"The Retrieval\""},{"Link":"https://variety.com/2014/film/news/sxsw-winner-the-retrieval-gets-us-distribution-1201103006/","external_links_name":"\"SXSW Winner 'The Retrieval' Gets US Distribution\""},{"Link":"http://trailers.apple.com/trailers/independent/theretrieval/","external_links_name":"\"The Retrieval\""},{"Link":"https://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/movies/ct-moonlight-writers-actor-mov-0916-20160915-column.html","external_links_name":"\"'Moonlight' reveals struggles of a young African-American man\""},{"Link":"https://www.refinery29.com/the-skinny-tv","external_links_name":"\"The 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Tomis
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Archdiocese of Tomis
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["1 History","2 Ruling bishops","3 References"]
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Archbishop of TomisArchbishopricEastern Orthodox
Incumbent:Teodosie (Petrescu)LocationCountryRomaniaInformationEstablished303DioceseConstanțaCathedralCathedral of Saints Peter and PaulWebsitearhiepiscopiatomisului.ro
The Archdiocese of Tomis (Romanian: Arhiepiscopia Tomisului) is a diocese of the Romanian Orthodox Church within Constanța County. It is part of the Metropolis of Muntenia and Dobrudja. The seat is in Constanța. It is headed by Archbishop Teodosie Petrescu.
History
According to historical tradition, the apostles Andrew and Philip installed bishops here in the cities of the Roman province of Scythia Minor. Church historian Sozomen noted that in the IV century, these territories were part of a single diocese, which was governed by the Bishop of Tomis. First he mentioned the Bishop of Dobrudja was Evangelicus (approx. 303). Sozomen also wrote of a meeting in 369 between the Bishop of Tomis, Brittany, and the Eastern rimmian Emperor Valens. Bishop Gerontius of Tomis participated in the sessions of the Second Ecumenical Council in 381. It is believed that at this time the metropolis of Scythia was formed with a chair in Tomis. For this purpose, the Roman Emperor Theodosius I the Great (379–395) placed three dioceses on the Black Sea coast between the Crimea and modern-day Varna (Bulgaria) under the jurisdiction of the Tomis see. In 536, the diocese of Tomis was reorganized into a Metropolitan area and 14 subordinate Episcopal sees were established within the borders of Scythia Minor.
After the Slavic-Avar invasion, the see of Tomis became an autocephalous archdiocese. For a short time, the metropolis was restored in the X century, when Tomis was first mentioned in sources under the name of Constantia. The invasions of the XI—XII centuries, especially the Pechenegs, finally upset the Church organization in Dobrudja. Its restoration took place in the second half of the 13th century, along with the resumption of Byzantine control over the area. Since Constantia (Tomis) had suffered greatly from previous invasions, the see of the metropolis was transferred to Vicina in 1261. After the transfer of the last Metropolitan of Vicina, Hyacinth, to Wallachia (1359) and the formation of The Ungro-Wallachian metropolis, the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan of Silistra extended to the territory of Dobrudja. In 1388, Dobrudja became part of Wallachia. In 1417, Dobrudja was conquered by the Turks and came under the jurisdiction of the Silistrian metropolis.
In 1878, Dobrudja became part of Romania. In this situation, the entry of Dobrudja under the canonical jurisdiction of the Lower Danube Diocese (with a seat in Galaţi) on March 16, 1879, fulfilled the religious aspirations of the Romanians Dobrogea.
In 1923 the Diocese of Constantia (Tomis) was created, which included the counties of the southern part of Dobruja: Constanţa, Ialomița, Durostor and Caliacra. In 1949 Tulcea County was also assigned the Diocese of Constantia, but in 1950, the Diocese of Constantia was abolished, and its territory returned to the Lower Danube diocese, which became known as the Tomis and Lower Danube Archdiocese in 1975.
On February 12, 1990, the Archdiocese of Tomis and Lower Danube Archdiocese was split into Archdiocese of Tomis and Archdiocese of Lower Danube; the archdiocese covered all of Dobrudja. On April 15, 2004, the diocese of Tulcea was established in the territory of Northern Dobrudja.
Ruling bishops
The following is a list of bishops of Dobrudja:
Bishops of Scythia
Evangelicus (approx. 303)
unnamed, participant at the First Council of Nicaea (325)
Saint Bretanion, martyred under Valens (364–378)
Archbishops of Tomis
Gerontius or Terentius, participant at the First Council of Constantinople (381)
Saint Theotimos I (390–407)
Timotheus, participant at the First Council of Ephesus (431)
John I (448)
Alexander, participant at the Council of Chalcedon (451)
Theotimos II (457)
Peter (c. 470–496)
Metropolitans of Tomis
Paternus (519)
Valentinianus (550)
Aniketos (10th–11th century)
Basil (10th–11th century)
Orthodox Archbishops of Vicina
Theodore (1285–1292)
Luke (1302–1306)
Macarius (c.1337/1338–c.1347)
Cyril (1347)
Hyacinth (1348–1359)
Orthodox Metropolitans of Tulcea
Panaret (1839–1850)
Dionisie (1870–1877)
Nichifor (c. 1877–1878)
Bishops of Constanţa (Tomis)
Ilarie Teodorescu (1923–1925)
Gherontie Nicolau (1926–1942)
Eugenie Laiu (1942–1944), locum tenens
Chesarie Păunescu (1944–1950)
Archbishops of Tomis
Lucian Florea (1990–2001)
Teodosie Petrescu (2001–present)
References
^ a b c d e f g Э. Драгнев, А. С. Стыкалин. МУНТЕНИИ И ДОБРУДЖИ МИТРОПОЛИЯ // Православная энциклопедия. — М. : Церковно-научный центр «Православная энциклопедия», 2017. — Т. XLVII. — С. 651. — 752 с. — 39 000 экз. — ISBN 978-5-89572-054-7.
^ a b c "Istoric".
^ "Mii de oameni au participat astazi la inmormantarea fostului Arhiepiscop de Tomis, Lucian Florea". Basilica.ro (in Romanian). 2004-09-01.
vteRomanian Orthodox ChurchOrganization
Holy Synod
Basilica News Agency
Patriarch of All Romania
List of hierarchs
List of monasteries
History
Christianization of Romania
Usage of Church Slavonic
Nifon Rusailă
Secularization of monastic estates
Relationship with the Iron Guard
Romanian Orthodox Mission in Transnistria
In Communist Romania
Property dispute with the Romanian Greek Catholic Church
Tanacu exorcism scandal
SubdivisionsMetropolis of Munteniaand Dobruja
Bucharest*
Argeș and Muscel
Buzău and Vrancea
Lower Danube
Târgoviște
Tomis
Metropolis of Moldaviaand Bukovina
Iași*
Roman and Bacău
Suceava and Rădăuți
Huși
Metropolis of Transylvania
Sibiu*
Alba Iulia
Covasna and Harghita
Oradea
Deva and Hunedoara
Metropolis of Oltenia
Craiova*
Râmnic
Severin and Strehaia
Slatina and Romanați
Metropolis of Banat
Timișoara*
Arad
Caransebeș
Metropolis of Cluj,Maramureș and Sălaj
Vad, Feleac and Cluj*
Maramureș and Sătmar
Sălaj
Metropolis of Bessarabia
Chișinău*
Bălți
Dubăsari and Transnistria
Southern Bessarabia
Metropolis of Germanyand Central Europe
Germany*
Northern Europe
Metropolis of Westernand Southern Europe
Western Europe*
Italy
Spain and Portugal
Metropolis of the Americas
United States of America*
Canada
Dioceses directly subordinatedto the Patriarch of All Romania
Australia and New Zealand
Dacia Felix
Gyula
Romanian Army (1921–1948)
Vicariates
Ukrainian Orthodox Vicariate Sighetu Marmației
Former entities
Metropolis of Proilavia
Other
Army of the Lord
Icons
Archdioceses in bold; metropolis seats marked *
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It is headed by Archbishop Teodosie Petrescu.","title":"Archdiocese of Tomis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scythia Minor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia_Minor_(Roman_province)"},{"link_name":"Sozomen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozomen"},{"link_name":"Second Ecumenical Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Ecumenical_Council"},{"link_name":"Theodosius I the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_I_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Black Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea"},{"link_name":"Varna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pravenc-1"},{"link_name":"Constantia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba"},{"link_name":"Pechenegs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pechenegs"},{"link_name":"Dobrudja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobrudja"},{"link_name":"Wallachia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallachia"},{"link_name":"Silistra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silistra"},{"link_name":"Wallachia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallachia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pravenc-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pravenc-1"},{"link_name":"Galaţi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gala%C5%A3i"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pravenc-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-episcopiatulcii_istoric-2"},{"link_name":"Constanţa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba_County"},{"link_name":"Ialomița","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ialomi%C8%9Ba_County"},{"link_name":"Durostor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durostor_County"},{"link_name":"Caliacra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliacra_County"},{"link_name":"Tulcea County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulcea_County"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-episcopiatulcii_istoric-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pravenc-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pravenc-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pravenc-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-episcopiatulcii_istoric-2"}],"text":"According to historical tradition, the apostles Andrew and Philip installed bishops here in the cities of the Roman province of Scythia Minor. Church historian Sozomen noted that in the IV century, these territories were part of a single diocese, which was governed by the Bishop of Tomis. First he mentioned the Bishop of Dobrudja was Evangelicus (approx. 303). Sozomen also wrote of a meeting in 369 between the Bishop of Tomis, Brittany, and the Eastern rimmian Emperor Valens. Bishop Gerontius of Tomis participated in the sessions of the Second Ecumenical Council in 381. It is believed that at this time the metropolis of Scythia was formed with a chair in Tomis. For this purpose, the Roman Emperor Theodosius I the Great (379–395) placed three dioceses on the Black Sea coast between the Crimea and modern-day Varna (Bulgaria) under the jurisdiction of the Tomis see. In 536, the diocese of Tomis was reorganized into a Metropolitan area and 14 subordinate Episcopal sees were established within the borders of Scythia Minor.[1]After the Slavic-Avar invasion, the see of Tomis became an autocephalous archdiocese. For a short time, the metropolis was restored in the X century, when Tomis was first mentioned in sources under the name of Constantia. The invasions of the XI—XII centuries, especially the Pechenegs, finally upset the Church organization in Dobrudja. Its restoration took place in the second half of the 13th century, along with the resumption of Byzantine control over the area. Since Constantia (Tomis) had suffered greatly from previous invasions, the see of the metropolis was transferred to Vicina in 1261. After the transfer of the last Metropolitan of Vicina, Hyacinth, to Wallachia (1359) and the formation of The Ungro-Wallachian metropolis, the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan of Silistra extended to the territory of Dobrudja. In 1388, Dobrudja became part of Wallachia. In 1417, Dobrudja was conquered by the Turks and came under the jurisdiction of the Silistrian metropolis.[1]In 1878, Dobrudja became part of Romania.[1] In this situation, the entry of Dobrudja under the canonical jurisdiction of the Lower Danube Diocese (with a seat in Galaţi[1]) on March 16, 1879, fulfilled the religious aspirations of the Romanians Dobrogea.[2]In 1923 the Diocese of Constantia (Tomis) was created, which included the counties of the southern part of Dobruja: Constanţa, Ialomița, Durostor and Caliacra. In 1949 Tulcea County was also assigned the Diocese of Constantia,[2] but in 1950, the Diocese of Constantia was abolished, and its territory returned to the Lower Danube diocese, which became known as the Tomis and Lower Danube Archdiocese in 1975.[1]On February 12, 1990,[3] the Archdiocese of Tomis and Lower Danube Archdiocese was split into Archdiocese of Tomis and Archdiocese of Lower Danube; the archdiocese covered all of Dobrudja.[1] On April 15, 2004, the diocese of Tulcea was established in the territory of Northern Dobrudja.[1][2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dobrudja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobrudja"},{"link_name":"Scythia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia_Minor_(Roman_province)"},{"link_name":"First Council of Nicaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea"},{"link_name":"Saint Bretanion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Bretanion"},{"link_name":"Valens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valens"},{"link_name":"Tomis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba"},{"link_name":"First Council of Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople"},{"link_name":"First Council of Ephesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Ephesus"},{"link_name":"Council of Chalcedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon"},{"link_name":"Vicina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaccea"},{"link_name":"Tulcea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulcea"},{"link_name":"Constanţa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constan%C5%A3a"},{"link_name":"Ilarie Teodorescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ilarie_Teodorescu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Gherontie Nicolau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gherontie_Nicolau&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Eugenie Laiu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eugenie_Laiu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Chesarie Păunescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chesarie_P%C4%83unescu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lucian Florea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucian_Florea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Teodosie Petrescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodosie_Petrescu"}],"text":"The following is a list of bishops of Dobrudja:Bishops of ScythiaEvangelicus (approx. 303)\nunnamed, participant at the First Council of Nicaea (325)\nSaint Bretanion, martyred under Valens (364–378)Archbishops of TomisGerontius or Terentius, participant at the First Council of Constantinople (381)\nSaint Theotimos I (390–407)\nTimotheus, participant at the First Council of Ephesus (431)\nJohn I (448)\nAlexander, participant at the Council of Chalcedon (451)\nTheotimos II (457)\nPeter (c. 470–496)Metropolitans of TomisPaternus (519)\nValentinianus (550)\nAniketos (10th–11th century)\nBasil (10th–11th century)Orthodox Archbishops of VicinaTheodore (1285–1292)\nLuke (1302–1306)\nMacarius (c.1337/1338–c.1347)\nCyril (1347)\nHyacinth (1348–1359)Orthodox Metropolitans of TulceaPanaret (1839–1850)\nDionisie (1870–1877)\nNichifor (c. 1877–1878)Bishops of Constanţa (Tomis)Ilarie Teodorescu (1923–1925)\nGherontie Nicolau (1926–1942)\nEugenie Laiu (1942–1944), locum tenens\nChesarie Păunescu (1944–1950)Archbishops of TomisLucian Florea (1990–2001)\nTeodosie Petrescu (2001–present)","title":"Ruling bishops"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lya_Mara
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Lya Mara
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["1 Biography","2 Filmography","3 References","4 External links"]
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Polish actress (1897–1960)
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Lya MaraBornAleksandra Gudowicz(1897-08-01)1 August 1897Riga, Governorate of Livonia, Russian EmpireDied1 March 1960(1960-03-01) (aged 62)Canton of Ticino, SwitzerlandYears active1916–1931Spouse
Frederic Zelnik
(m. 1918; died 1950)
Lya Mara (born Aleksandra Gudowicz; 1 August 1897 – 1 March 1960) was a Polish actress. She was one of the biggest stars of the German silent cinema.
Biography
Lya Mara was born Aleksandra Gudowicz in a Polish family in Riga, Governorate of Livonia. As a young girl she wanted to become a chemist, as then famous Maria Skłodowska-Curie. Just before World War I, in 1913 Lya Mara moved with her family to Warsaw, as Poland and Latvia were part of the Russian Empire. There, she began her career as a dancer.
In Warsaw, Lya Mara played her first small part in a short fiction silent film under a characteristically simplified title We want husband (1916, as Mia Mara) and soon after in another film Bestia (The Beast, premiere on 5 January 1917) directed by a Polish director of older generation Alexander Hertz. Another Polish actress, Pola Negri, who later made an extraordinary career in Germany and in America, was the star of this film. Soon after that film, Negri left for Berlin and Lya Mara followed her steps. This occurred during World War I and after Poland was occupied in 1915 by the Germans, it became a part of the German Empire.
Lya Mara's first film in Germany was Halkas Gelöbnis (1918) directed by an Austrian director Alfred Halm, who also scripted her another film Jadwiga. Both films were produced by young and energetic director-producer Frederic Zelnik. Lya Mara married him in 1918.
Zelnik promoted Mara to a major star in Germany as she played mainly in films he directed and produced. In 1920, Zelnik's film production company was named Zelnik-Mara-Film GmbH. Mara played important parts such as Charlotte Corday, Anna Karenina (1919) and Manon, attracting audiences with her charm and youthful appeal. Mara and Zelnik became real celebrities, receiving at their home many known artists. Her popularity was further cemented by hundreds of her photographs issued as postcards, chocolate and cigarettes trade cards.
A serious car accident at the end of the 1920s interrupted her career.
Mara could not adapt her acting to the new artistic conditions after the introduction of sound in cinema in 1929, while Zelnik became the first director in Germany who postsynchronized foreign films. Lya Mara's only film from the sound era is Everyone Asks for Erika (1931) directed by her husband.
When Hitler took power in Germany (1933), Lya Mara left with Zelnik for London.
Frederic Zelnik died in London on 29 November 1950. Mara spent the last years of her life in Switzerland and died there on 1 March 1960.
Filmography
Chcemy męża (1916, as Mia Mara)
Wściekły rywal (1916, as Mia Mara)
Studenci (1916, as Mia Mara)
Bestia (1917, as Mia Mara)
Halkas Gelöbnis (1918)
Jadwiga (1918)
The Serenyi (1918)
Geschichte einer Gefallenen, Die (1918)
Das Geschlecht der Schelme 1. Teil (1918)
The Nun and the Harlequin (1918)
Die Rothenburger / Leib und Seele (1918)
Das Geschlecht der Schelme 2. (1918)
Charlotte Corday (1919)
Maria Evere (1919)
Die kleine Stasiewska (1919)
The Heiress of the Count of Monte Cristo (1919)
Das Haus der Unschuld (1919)
Anna Karenina (1920)
An der schönen blauen Donau (1920)
Eine Demimonde-Heirat (1920)
The Princess of the Nile (1920)
Yoshiwara (1920)
Fanny Elssler (1920)
Kri-Kri, the Duchess of Tarabac (1920)
The Apache Chief (1920)
Fasching (1920)
Wer unter Euch ohne Sünde ist... (1920)
Count Varenne's Lover (1921)
Miss Beryll (1921)
Memoirs of a Film Actress (1921)
Trix, the Romance of a Millionairess (1921)
Die Dame mit den Smaragden (1921)
The Girl from Piccadilly (1921, in two parts)
The Marriage of Princess Demidoff (1922)
The Mistress of the King (1922)
Yvette, the Fashion Princesss (1922)
Tania, the Woman in Chains (1922)
Napoleon's Daughter (1922)
Insulted and Humiliated (1922)
The Girl from Hell (1923)
The Men of Sybill (1923)
Lyda Ssanin (1923)
Daisy (1923)
Resurrection (1923)
Nelly, the Bride Without a Husband (1924)
The Mistress of Monbijou (1924)
The Girl from Capri (1924)
By Order of Pompadour (1924)
Joyless Street (1925, uncredited), with Greta Garbo in the main part
The Venus of Montmartre (1925)
Die Kirschenzeit (1925)
Women You Rarely Greet (1925)
The Bohemian Dancer (1926)
The Blue Danube (1926)
Fadette (1926)
The Gypsy Baron (1927)
The Weavers (1927)
Dancing Vienna (1927)
Mariett Dances Today (1928)
Mary Lou (1928)
My Heart is a Jazz Band (1929)
The Crimson Circle (1929)
Everyone Asks for Erika (1931)
References
^ Bock, Hans-Michael; Bergfelder, Tim, eds. (2009). The Concise Cinegraph: Encyclopaedia of German Cinema. New York: Berghahn Books. pp. 548–549. ISBN 978-1-57181-655-9.
^ Elsaesser, Thomas; Wedel, Michael, eds. (1999). The BFI Companion to German Cinema. London: British Film Institute. ISBN 978-0-85170-750-1.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lya Mara.
Lya Mara at IMDb
Lya Mara in the Online-Filmdatenbank (German)
Lya Mara
Photos of Lya Mara
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
Germany
United States
Poland
People
Deutsche Biographie
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_people"},{"link_name":"German silent cinema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_Germany"}],"text":"Lya Mara (born Aleksandra Gudowicz; 1 August 1897 – 1 March 1960) was a Polish actress. She was one of the biggest stars of the German silent cinema.","title":"Lya Mara"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Riga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riga"},{"link_name":"Governorate of Livonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governorate_of_Livonia"},{"link_name":"Maria Skłodowska-Curie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Sk%C5%82odowska-Curie"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Warsaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Latvia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia"},{"link_name":"Russian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Pola Negri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pola_Negri"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"German Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire"},{"link_name":"Frederic Zelnik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_Zelnik"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"trade cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_cards"},{"link_name":"postsynchronized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubbing_(filmmaking)"},{"link_name":"Everyone Asks for Erika","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everyone_Asks_for_Erika"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Hitler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitler"},{"link_name":"Frederic Zelnik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_Zelnik"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"}],"text":"Lya Mara was born Aleksandra Gudowicz in a Polish family in Riga, Governorate of Livonia. As a young girl she wanted to become a chemist, as then famous Maria Skłodowska-Curie. Just before World War I, in 1913 Lya Mara moved with her family to Warsaw, as Poland and Latvia were part of the Russian Empire. There, she began her career as a dancer.In Warsaw, Lya Mara played her first small part in a short fiction silent film under a characteristically simplified title We want husband (1916, as Mia Mara) and soon after in another film Bestia (The Beast, premiere on 5 January 1917) directed by a Polish director of older generation Alexander Hertz. Another Polish actress, Pola Negri, who later made an extraordinary career in Germany and in America, was the star of this film. Soon after that film, Negri left for Berlin and Lya Mara followed her steps. This occurred during World War I and after Poland was occupied in 1915 by the Germans, it became a part of the German Empire.Lya Mara's first film in Germany was Halkas Gelöbnis (1918) directed by an Austrian director Alfred Halm, who also scripted her another film Jadwiga. Both films were produced by young and energetic director-producer Frederic Zelnik. Lya Mara married him in 1918.[1]Zelnik promoted Mara to a major star in Germany as she played mainly in films he directed and produced. In 1920, Zelnik's film production company was named Zelnik-Mara-Film GmbH. Mara played important parts such as Charlotte Corday, Anna Karenina (1919) and Manon, attracting audiences with her charm and youthful appeal. Mara and Zelnik became real celebrities, receiving at their home many known artists. Her popularity was further cemented by hundreds of her photographs issued as postcards, chocolate and cigarettes trade cards.A serious car accident at the end of the 1920s interrupted her career.Mara could not adapt her acting to the new artistic conditions after the introduction of sound in cinema in 1929, while Zelnik became the first director in Germany who postsynchronized foreign films. Lya Mara's only film from the sound era is Everyone Asks for Erika (1931) directed by her husband.[2]When Hitler took power in Germany (1933), Lya Mara left with Zelnik for London.Frederic Zelnik died in London on 29 November 1950. Mara spent the last years of her life in Switzerland and died there on 1 March 1960.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bestia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bestia_(1917_film)"},{"link_name":"The Serenyi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Serenyi"},{"link_name":"The Nun and the Harlequin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nun_and_the_Harlequin"},{"link_name":"Charlotte Corday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Corday_(film)"},{"link_name":"The Heiress of the Count of Monte Cristo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Heiress_of_the_Count_of_Monte_Cristo"},{"link_name":"Anna Karenina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Karenina_(1920_film)"},{"link_name":"The Princess of the Nile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Princess_of_the_Nile"},{"link_name":"Yoshiwara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshiwara_(1920_film)"},{"link_name":"Fanny Elssler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanny_Elssler_(1920_film)"},{"link_name":"Kri-Kri, the Duchess of Tarabac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kri-Kri,_the_Duchess_of_Tarabac"},{"link_name":"The Apache Chief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Apache_Chief"},{"link_name":"Count Varenne's Lover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_Varenne%27s_Lover"},{"link_name":"Miss Beryll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss_Beryll"},{"link_name":"Memoirs of a Film Actress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoirs_of_a_Film_Actress"},{"link_name":"Trix, the Romance of a Millionairess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trix,_the_Romance_of_a_Millionairess"},{"link_name":"The Girl from Piccadilly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Girl_from_Piccadilly"},{"link_name":"The Marriage of Princess Demidoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Marriage_of_Princess_Demidoff"},{"link_name":"The Mistress of the King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mistress_of_the_King"},{"link_name":"Yvette, the Fashion Princesss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yvette,_the_Fashion_Princesss"},{"link_name":"Tania, the Woman in Chains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tania,_the_Woman_in_Chains"},{"link_name":"Napoleon's Daughter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon%27s_Daughter"},{"link_name":"Insulted and Humiliated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulted_and_Humiliated"},{"link_name":"The Girl from Hell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Girl_from_Hell"},{"link_name":"The Men of Sybill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Men_of_Sybill"},{"link_name":"Lyda Ssanin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyda_Ssanin"},{"link_name":"Daisy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daisy_(1923_film)"},{"link_name":"Resurrection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resurrection_(1923_film)"},{"link_name":"Nelly, the Bride Without a Husband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelly,_the_Bride_Without_a_Husband"},{"link_name":"The Mistress of Monbijou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mistress_of_Monbijou"},{"link_name":"The Girl from Capri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Girl_from_Capri"},{"link_name":"By Order of Pompadour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/By_Order_of_Pompadour"},{"link_name":"Joyless Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joyless_Street"},{"link_name":"The Venus of Montmartre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Venus_of_Montmartre"},{"link_name":"Women You Rarely Greet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_You_Rarely_Greet"},{"link_name":"The Bohemian Dancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bohemian_Dancer_(1926_film)"},{"link_name":"The Blue Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blue_Danube_(1926_film)"},{"link_name":"Fadette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fadette"},{"link_name":"The Gypsy Baron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gypsy_Baron_(1927_film)"},{"link_name":"The Weavers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Weavers_(1927_film)"},{"link_name":"Dancing Vienna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancing_Vienna"},{"link_name":"Mariett Dances Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariett_Dances_Today"},{"link_name":"Mary Lou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Lou_(1928_film)"},{"link_name":"My Heart is a Jazz Band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Heart_is_a_Jazz_Band"},{"link_name":"The Crimson Circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Crimson_Circle_(1929_film)"},{"link_name":"Everyone Asks for Erika","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everyone_Asks_for_Erika"}],"text":"Chcemy męża (1916, as Mia Mara)\nWściekły rywal (1916, as Mia Mara)\nStudenci (1916, as Mia Mara)\nBestia (1917, as Mia Mara)\nHalkas Gelöbnis (1918)\nJadwiga (1918)\nThe Serenyi (1918)\nGeschichte einer Gefallenen, Die (1918)\nDas Geschlecht der Schelme 1. Teil (1918)\nThe Nun and the Harlequin (1918)\nDie Rothenburger / Leib und Seele (1918)\nDas Geschlecht der Schelme 2. (1918)\nCharlotte Corday (1919)\nMaria Evere (1919)\nDie kleine Stasiewska (1919)\nThe Heiress of the Count of Monte Cristo (1919)\nDas Haus der Unschuld (1919)\nAnna Karenina (1920)\nAn der schönen blauen Donau (1920)\nEine Demimonde-Heirat (1920)\nThe Princess of the Nile (1920)\nYoshiwara (1920)\nFanny Elssler (1920)\nKri-Kri, the Duchess of Tarabac (1920)\nThe Apache Chief (1920)\nFasching (1920)\nWer unter Euch ohne Sünde ist... (1920)\nCount Varenne's Lover (1921)\nMiss Beryll (1921)\nMemoirs of a Film Actress (1921)\nTrix, the Romance of a Millionairess (1921)\nDie Dame mit den Smaragden (1921)\nThe Girl from Piccadilly (1921, in two parts)\nThe Marriage of Princess Demidoff (1922)\nThe Mistress of the King (1922)\nYvette, the Fashion Princesss (1922)\nTania, the Woman in Chains (1922)\nNapoleon's Daughter (1922)\nInsulted and Humiliated (1922)\nThe Girl from Hell (1923)\nThe Men of Sybill (1923)\nLyda Ssanin (1923)\nDaisy (1923)\nResurrection (1923)\nNelly, the Bride Without a Husband (1924)\nThe Mistress of Monbijou (1924)\nThe Girl from Capri (1924)\nBy Order of Pompadour (1924)\nJoyless Street (1925, uncredited), with Greta Garbo in the main part\nThe Venus of Montmartre (1925)\nDie Kirschenzeit (1925)\nWomen You Rarely Greet (1925)\nThe Bohemian Dancer (1926)\nThe Blue Danube (1926)\nFadette (1926)\nThe Gypsy Baron (1927)\nThe Weavers (1927)\nDancing Vienna (1927)\nMariett Dances Today (1928)\nMary Lou (1928)\nMy Heart is a Jazz Band (1929)\nThe Crimson Circle (1929)\nEveryone Asks for Erika (1931)","title":"Filmography"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"Bock, Hans-Michael; Bergfelder, Tim, eds. (2009). The Concise Cinegraph: Encyclopaedia of German Cinema. New York: Berghahn Books. pp. 548–549. ISBN 978-1-57181-655-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Michael_Bock","url_text":"Bock, Hans-Michael"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57181-655-9","url_text":"978-1-57181-655-9"}]},{"reference":"Elsaesser, Thomas; Wedel, Michael, eds. (1999). The BFI Companion to German Cinema. London: British Film Institute. ISBN 978-0-85170-750-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Elsaesser","url_text":"Elsaesser, Thomas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85170-750-1","url_text":"978-0-85170-750-1"}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Light_Fantastic
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The Light Fantastic
|
["1 Plot summary","2 Characters","3 Releases","4 Adaptations","4.1 Graphic novel","4.2 TV adaptation","5 Reception","6 Reviews","7 References","8 External links"]
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1986 Discworld novel by Terry Pratchett
For other uses, see Trip the light fantastic (disambiguation).
The Light Fantastic First editionAuthorTerry PratchettCover artistJosh KirbyLanguageEnglishSeriesDiscworld2nd novel – 2nd Rincewind storySubjectFantasy clichésCharacters:Rincewind, Twoflower, The Luggage, Cohen the BarbarianLocations:Ankh-Morpork, Dungeon DimensionsGenreFantasyPublisherColin SmythePublication date2 June 1986ISBN0-86140-203-0Preceded byThe Colour of Magic Followed byEqual Rites
The Light Fantastic is a comic fantasy novel by Terry Pratchett, the second of the Discworld series. It was published on 2 June 1986, the first printing being of 1,034 copies. The title is taken from L'Allegro, a poem by John Milton, and refers to dancing lightly with extravagance, although in the novel it is explained as "the light that lies on the far side of darkness, the light fantastic. It was a rather disappointing purple colour."
The events of the novel are a direct continuation of those in the preceding book, The Colour of Magic.
Plot summary
The book begins shortly after the ending of The Colour of Magic, with wizard Rincewind, the tourist Twoflower, and the Luggage falling from the Discworld. They are saved when the Octavo, the most powerful book of magic on the Discworld, readjusts reality to prevent the loss of one of its eight spells. The spell had lodged in Rincewind's head when he was a student at Unseen University. Rincewind, Twoflower and the Luggage end up in the Forest of Skund. The wizards of Ankh-Morpork use the Rite of Ashk-Ente to summon Death to find an explanation for the Octavo's actions. Death warns them that the Discworld will soon be destroyed by a huge red star unless the eight spells of the Octavo are read.
Several orders of wizards travel to the forest of Skund to capture Rincewind, who is currently staying with Twoflower and the Luggage in a gingerbread house in the forest. In the subsequent chaos, Rincewind and Twoflower escape on an old witch's broom. The Archchancellor of Unseen University attempts to obtain the spell, but accidentally summons the Luggage on top of him, crushing him to death. His apprentice, Ymper Trymon, uses the opportunity to advance his own power, intending to obtain the eight spells for himself.
Rincewind and Twoflower encounter a sect of druids who have assembled a "computer" from large standing stones, and learn of the approaching red star. As Twoflower attempts to stop the druids from sacrificing a young woman named Bethan, Cohen the Barbarian, an octogenarian parody of Conan, attacks the druids. Twoflower is poisoned in the battle, forcing Rincewind to travel to Death's Domain to rescue him. The pair narrowly avoid being killed by Ysabell, Death's adopted daughter. As they escape, the Octavo tells Rincewind that it had arranged for its eighth spell to escape into his head, to ensure the spells could not be used before the appointed time.
Rincewind and Twoflower travel with Cohen and Bethan to a nearby town, where the toothless Cohen leaves to have dentures made, having learned of them from Twoflower. Rincewind, Twoflower and Bethan are attacked by a mob of people who believe the star is coming to destroy the Discworld in response to the presence of magic. The trio escape into a magical travelling shop, one of many that sell strange and sinister goods and vanish inexplicably the next time a customer tries to find them. These shops travel the multiverse, set adrift by a sorcerer's curse on the shopkeeper for not having something in stock. The three are able to return to Ankh-Morpork via the shop.
As the star comes nearer and the magic on the Discworld weakens, Trymon tries to put the seven spells still in the Octavo into his mind, in an attempt to save the world and gain ultimate power. However, the spells prove too strong for him and his mind becomes a door into the "Dungeon Dimensions", home of terrifying eldritch creatures. Rincewind and Twoflower manage to kill the now-mutated Trymon.
Rincewind reads all eight of the Octavo's spells aloud. This causes eight moons of the red star to crack open, birthing eight infant world-turtles. They follow their parent Great A'Tuin, the massive turtle who carries the Discworld, on a course away from the star. The Octavo falls and is eaten by the Luggage.
Cohen and Bethan leave to get married. Twoflower and Rincewind part company as Twoflower decides to return home, leaving the Luggage with Rincewind as a parting gift. Rincewind decides to re-enroll in the university, believing that with the spell out of his head, he will finally be able to learn magic.
Characters
Rincewind
Twoflower
the Luggage
Ymper Trymon
Cohen
Releases
The cover of a United States paperback release features a mistake, with Cohen's name stated to be "Conan".
Adaptations
Graphic novel
A graphic novel adapted by Scott Rockwell and illustrated by Steven Ross and Joe Bennet, was first published as a four-part comic in June, August, December 1992 and February 1993 by the Innovative Corporation of Wheeling WV, before being published as a single volume by Corgi on 4 November 1993. It has been published in hardcover along with the graphic novel of The Colour of Magic, as The Discworld Graphic Novels. (ISBN 978-0-06-168596-5)
TV adaptation
Main article: The Colour of Magic (TV film)
The Mob Film Company and Sky One produced a miniseries, combining both The Colour of Magic and The Light Fantastic, broadcast on Easter Sunday and Monday 2008. Sir David Jason played the part of Rincewind. He was joined by David Bradley as Cohen the Barbarian, Sean Astin as Twoflower, Tim Curry as Trymon, and Christopher Lee taking over the role of Death from Ian Richardson (a role he previously portrayed in the animated series Soul Music and Wyrd Sisters).
The production team wanted to get fans involved in the adaptation so some of the extras used in the adaptation (in mob scenes and during the fight in the Broken Drum) were Discworld fans who were selected via various website and Newsletters.
Reception
Dave Langford reviewed The Light Fantastic for White Dwarf #83, and stated that "Abandoning the cruel fantasy parodies of his previous book, Pratchett leans more heavily on the one-line gags: the result isn't as pointedly funny, but still evokes more laughs than anything else around. Especially Thrud."
Reviews
Review by Barbara Davies (1986) in Vector 134
Review by Pauline E. Dungate (1986) in Fantasy Review, November 1986
Review by Wendy Graham (1986) in Adventurer, December 1986
Review by Ken Lake (1986) in Paperback Inferno, #63
Review by Neil Gaiman and Wendy Graham (1987) in Adventurer, January 1987
Review by Don D'Ammassa (1987) in Science Fiction Chronicle, #97 October 1987
Review by John C. Bunnell (1988) in Dragon Magazine, July 1988
Review by James Cawthorn and Michael Moorcock (1988) in Fantasy: The 100 Best Books
Review by Marc Lemosquet (1993) in Yellow Submarine, #106
References
^ Misprinted Cover scan from Amazon.com
^ "Harry Potter and the magical Midlanders". Sunday Mercury. 15 June 2007.
^ a b c "Colour of Magic Cast". Paul Kidby official website. 31 July 2007. Archived from the original on 15 March 2008.
^ Langford, Dave (November 1986). "Critical Mass". White Dwarf (83). Games Workshop: 8.
^ "Title: The Light Fantastic".
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to The Light Fantastic.
The Light Fantastic title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
Pages at LSpace.org for The Light Fantastic : Annotations | Quotes | Synopsis
Reading order guide
Preceded byThe Colour of Magic
2nd Discworld Novel
Succeeded byEqual Rites
Preceded byThe Colour of Magic
2nd Rincewind Story Published in 1986
Succeeded bySourcery
vteTerry Pratchett's DiscworldNovels
The Colour of Magic
The Light Fantastic
Equal Rites
Mort
Sourcery
Wyrd Sisters
Pyramids
Guards! Guards!
Eric
Moving Pictures
Reaper Man
Witches Abroad
Small Gods
Lords and Ladies
Men at Arms
Soul Music
Interesting Times
Maskerade
Feet of Clay
Hogfather
Jingo
The Last Continent
Carpe Jugulum
The Fifth Elephant
The Truth
Thief of Time
The Last Hero
The Amazing Maurice and His Educated Rodents
Night Watch
The Wee Free Men
Monstrous Regiment
A Hat Full of Sky
Going Postal
Thud!
Wintersmith
Making Money
Unseen Academicals
I Shall Wear Midnight
Snuff
Raising Steam
The Shepherd's Crown
Short stories
"Troll Bridge"
"Theatre of Cruelty"
"The Sea and Little Fishes"
"Death and What Comes Next"
"A Collegiate Casting-Out of Devilish Devices"
A Blink of the Screen
Other books
The Discworld Companion
The Science of Discworld
The Science of Discworld II: The Globe
The Science of Discworld III: Darwin's Watch
The Science of Discworld IV: Judgement Day
The Pratchett Portfolio
The Art of Discworld
The Unseen University Challenge
The Wyrdest Link
The Streets of Ankh-Morpork
The Discworld Mapp
A Tourist Guide to Lancre
Death's Domain
Nanny Ogg's Cookbook
The Discworld Almanak
Where's My Cow?
The Unseen University Cut Out Book
The Discworld Diaries
Once More* with Footnotes
The Wit and Wisdom of Discworld
The Folklore of Discworld
The World of Poo
Tiffany Aching's Guide to Being a Witch
Games
The Colour of Magic
Discworld MUD
Discworld
Discworld II
GURPS Discworld
Discworld Noir
Discworld: Ankh-Morpork
Films and TV series
Soul Music
Wyrd Sisters
Hogfather
The Colour of Magic
Going Postal
The Watch
The Amazing Maurice
Characters
Tiffany Aching
Death
Hex
Moist von Lipwig
Nanny Ogg
Rincewind
Susan Sto Helit
Lord Vetinari
Sam Vimes
Granny Weatherwax
Races and creatures
Dwarfs
Nac Mac Feegle
Locations
Discworld
Ankh-Morpork
Organisations
City Watch
Unseen University
The Witches
Other
Boots theory
Games of the Discworld
Lie-to-children
vteWorks by Terry PratchettDiscworldNovels
The Colour of Magic
The Light Fantastic
Equal Rites
Mort
Sourcery
Wyrd Sisters
Pyramids
Guards! Guards!
Eric
Moving Pictures
Reaper Man
Witches Abroad
Small Gods
Lords and Ladies
Men at Arms
Soul Music
Interesting Times
Maskerade
Feet of Clay
Hogfather
Jingo
The Last Continent
Carpe Jugulum
The Fifth Elephant
The Truth
Thief of Time
The Last Hero
The Amazing Maurice and His Educated Rodents
Night Watch
The Wee Free Men
Monstrous Regiment
A Hat Full of Sky
Going Postal
Thud!
Wintersmith
Making Money
Unseen Academicals
I Shall Wear Midnight
Snuff
Raising Steam
The Shepherd's Crown
Short stories
"Troll Bridge"
"Theatre of Cruelty"
"The Sea and Little Fishes"
"Death and What Comes Next"
"A Collegiate Casting-Out of Devilish Devices"
Maps
The Streets of Ankh-Morpork
The Discworld Mapp
A Tourist Guide to Lancre
Death's Domain
Science
The Science of Discworld
Lie-to-children
The Science of Discworld II: The Globe
The Science of Discworld III: Darwin's Watch
The Science of Discworld IV: Judgement Day
Art
The Pratchett Portfolio
The Art of Discworld
The Unseen University Cut Out Book
Other books
The Discworld Companion
Nanny Ogg's Cookbook
The Discworld Almanak
Where's My Cow?
Discworld Diary
Wit and Wisdom of Discworld
The Folklore of Discworld
The World of Poo
Johnny Maxwell
Only You Can Save Mankind
Johnny and the Dead
Johnny and the Bomb
The Long Earth (with Stephen Baxter)
The Long Earth
The Long War
The Long Mars
The Long Utopia
The Long Cosmos
Other novels
The Carpet People
The Dark Side of the Sun
Strata
The Unadulterated Cat
The Nome Trilogy
Good Omens (with Neil Gaiman)
Nation
Dodger
Collected shorts and nonfiction
Once More* with Footnotes
A Blink of the Screen
A Slip of the Keyboard
Authority control databases National
United States
Other
MusicBrainz release group
MusicBrainz work
2
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trip the light fantastic (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trip_the_light_fantastic_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"comic fantasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comic_fantasy"},{"link_name":"Terry Pratchett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Pratchett"},{"link_name":"Discworld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discworld"},{"link_name":"L'Allegro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Allegro"},{"link_name":"John Milton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Milton"},{"link_name":"The Colour of Magic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Colour_of_Magic"}],"text":"For other uses, see Trip the light fantastic (disambiguation).The Light Fantastic is a comic fantasy novel by Terry Pratchett, the second of the Discworld series. It was published on 2 June 1986, the first printing being of 1,034 copies. The title is taken from L'Allegro, a poem by John Milton, and refers to dancing lightly with extravagance, although in the novel it is explained as \"the light that lies on the far side of darkness, the light fantastic. It was a rather disappointing purple colour.\"The events of the novel are a direct continuation of those in the preceding book, The Colour of Magic.","title":"The Light Fantastic"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"wizard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_(Discworld)"},{"link_name":"Rincewind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rincewind"},{"link_name":"Twoflower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twoflower"},{"link_name":"Octavo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octavo_(Discworld)"},{"link_name":"Unseen University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unseen_University"},{"link_name":"Ankh-Morpork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankh-Morpork"},{"link_name":"Death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_(Discworld)"},{"link_name":"gingerbread house in the forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hansel_and_Gretel"},{"link_name":"standing stones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menhir"},{"link_name":"Conan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conan_the_Barbarian"},{"link_name":"Death's Domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death%27s_Domain"},{"link_name":"Ysabell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_(Discworld)#Lady_Ysabell,_Duchess_of_Sto_Helit"},{"link_name":"dentures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentures"},{"link_name":"eldritch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/eldritch"},{"link_name":"Great A'Tuin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discworld_(world)#Great_A'Tuin"}],"text":"The book begins shortly after the ending of The Colour of Magic, with wizard Rincewind, the tourist Twoflower, and the Luggage falling from the Discworld. They are saved when the Octavo, the most powerful book of magic on the Discworld, readjusts reality to prevent the loss of one of its eight spells. The spell had lodged in Rincewind's head when he was a student at Unseen University. Rincewind, Twoflower and the Luggage end up in the Forest of Skund. The wizards of Ankh-Morpork use the Rite of Ashk-Ente to summon Death to find an explanation for the Octavo's actions. Death warns them that the Discworld will soon be destroyed by a huge red star unless the eight spells of the Octavo are read.Several orders of wizards travel to the forest of Skund to capture Rincewind, who is currently staying with Twoflower and the Luggage in a gingerbread house in the forest. In the subsequent chaos, Rincewind and Twoflower escape on an old witch's broom. The Archchancellor of Unseen University attempts to obtain the spell, but accidentally summons the Luggage on top of him, crushing him to death. His apprentice, Ymper Trymon, uses the opportunity to advance his own power, intending to obtain the eight spells for himself.Rincewind and Twoflower encounter a sect of druids who have assembled a \"computer\" from large standing stones, and learn of the approaching red star. As Twoflower attempts to stop the druids from sacrificing a young woman named Bethan, Cohen the Barbarian, an octogenarian parody of Conan, attacks the druids. Twoflower is poisoned in the battle, forcing Rincewind to travel to Death's Domain to rescue him. The pair narrowly avoid being killed by Ysabell, Death's adopted daughter. As they escape, the Octavo tells Rincewind that it had arranged for its eighth spell to escape into his head, to ensure the spells could not be used before the appointed time.Rincewind and Twoflower travel with Cohen and Bethan to a nearby town, where the toothless Cohen leaves to have dentures made, having learned of them from Twoflower. Rincewind, Twoflower and Bethan are attacked by a mob of people who believe the star is coming to destroy the Discworld in response to the presence of magic. The trio escape into a magical travelling shop, one of many that sell strange and sinister goods and vanish inexplicably the next time a customer tries to find them. These shops travel the multiverse, set adrift by a sorcerer's curse on the shopkeeper for not having something in stock. The three are able to return to Ankh-Morpork via the shop.As the star comes nearer and the magic on the Discworld weakens, Trymon tries to put the seven spells still in the Octavo into his mind, in an attempt to save the world and gain ultimate power. However, the spells prove too strong for him and his mind becomes a door into the \"Dungeon Dimensions\", home of terrifying eldritch creatures. Rincewind and Twoflower manage to kill the now-mutated Trymon.Rincewind reads all eight of the Octavo's spells aloud. This causes eight moons of the red star to crack open, birthing eight infant world-turtles. They follow their parent Great A'Tuin, the massive turtle who carries the Discworld, on a course away from the star. The Octavo falls and is eaten by the Luggage.Cohen and Bethan leave to get married. Twoflower and Rincewind part company as Twoflower decides to return home, leaving the Luggage with Rincewind as a parting gift. Rincewind decides to re-enroll in the university, believing that with the spell out of his head, he will finally be able to learn magic.","title":"Plot summary"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Rincewind\nTwoflower\nthe Luggage\nYmper Trymon\nCohen","title":"Characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Conan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conan_the_Barbarian"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"The cover of a United States paperback release features a mistake, with Cohen's name stated to be \"Conan\".[1]","title":"Releases"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Innovative Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation_Publishing"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-06-168596-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-168596-5"}],"sub_title":"Graphic novel","text":"A graphic novel adapted by Scott Rockwell and illustrated by Steven Ross and Joe Bennet, was first published as a four-part comic in June, August, December 1992 and February 1993 by the Innovative Corporation of Wheeling WV, before being published as a single volume by Corgi on 4 November 1993. It has been published in hardcover along with the graphic novel of The Colour of Magic, as The Discworld Graphic Novels. (ISBN 978-0-06-168596-5)","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Mob Film Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mob_Film_Company"},{"link_name":"Sky One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky_One"},{"link_name":"David Jason","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Jason"},{"link_name":"David Bradley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bradley_(English_actor)"},{"link_name":"Cohen the Barbarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohen_the_Barbarian"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Sean Astin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Astin"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kidbycast-3"},{"link_name":"Tim Curry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Curry"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kidbycast-3"},{"link_name":"Christopher Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Lee"},{"link_name":"Ian Richardson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Richardson"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kidbycast-3"},{"link_name":"Soul Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_Music_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Wyrd Sisters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyrd_Sisters_(TV_series)"}],"sub_title":"TV adaptation","text":"The Mob Film Company and Sky One produced a miniseries, combining both The Colour of Magic and The Light Fantastic, broadcast on Easter Sunday and Monday 2008. Sir David Jason played the part of Rincewind. He was joined by David Bradley as Cohen the Barbarian,[2] Sean Astin as Twoflower,[3] Tim Curry as Trymon,[3] and Christopher Lee taking over the role of Death from Ian Richardson[3] (a role he previously portrayed in the animated series Soul Music and Wyrd Sisters).The production team wanted to get fans involved in the adaptation so some of the extras used in the adaptation (in mob scenes and during the fight in the Broken Drum) were Discworld fans who were selected via various website and Newsletters.","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dave Langford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Langford"},{"link_name":"White Dwarf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Dwarf_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Thrud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrud_the_Barbarian"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WD83-4"}],"text":"Dave Langford reviewed The Light Fantastic for White Dwarf #83, and stated that \"Abandoning the cruel fantasy parodies of his previous book, Pratchett leans more heavily on the one-line gags: the result isn't as pointedly funny, but still evokes more laughs than anything else around. Especially Thrud.\"[4]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Fantasy Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_Review"},{"link_name":"Science Fiction Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fiction_Chronicle"},{"link_name":"Dragon Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_(magazine)"}],"text":"Review by Barbara Davies (1986) in Vector 134[5]\nReview by Pauline E. Dungate [as by Pauline Morgan] (1986) in Fantasy Review, November 1986\nReview by Wendy Graham (1986) in Adventurer, December 1986\nReview by Ken Lake (1986) in Paperback Inferno, #63\nReview by Neil Gaiman and Wendy Graham (1987) in Adventurer, January 1987\nReview by Don D'Ammassa (1987) in Science Fiction Chronicle, #97 October 1987\nReview by John C. Bunnell (1988) in Dragon Magazine, July 1988\nReview by James Cawthorn and Michael Moorcock (1988) in Fantasy: The 100 Best Books\nReview [French] by Marc Lemosquet (1993) in Yellow Submarine, #106","title":"Reviews"}]
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[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Harry Potter and the magical Midlanders\". Sunday Mercury. 15 June 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://icbirmingham.icnetwork.co.uk/sundaymercury/features/tm_headline=harry-potter-and-the-magical-midlanders%26method=full%26objectid=19463171%26siteid=50002-name_page.html","url_text":"\"Harry Potter and the magical Midlanders\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_Mercury","url_text":"Sunday Mercury"}]},{"reference":"\"Colour of Magic Cast\". Paul Kidby official website. 31 July 2007. Archived from the original on 15 March 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080315034636/http://www.paulkidby.com/news/jul2007.html","url_text":"\"Colour of Magic Cast\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Kidby","url_text":"Paul Kidby"},{"url":"http://www.paulkidby.com/news/jul2007.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Langford, Dave (November 1986). \"Critical Mass\". White Dwarf (83). Games Workshop: 8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Langford","url_text":"Langford, Dave"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Dwarf_(magazine)","url_text":"White Dwarf"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_Workshop","url_text":"Games Workshop"}]},{"reference":"\"Title: The Light Fantastic\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?2209","url_text":"\"Title: The Light Fantastic\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070929143425/http://ec1.images-amazon.com/images/I/517Y7ZRFX4L._SS500_.jpg","external_links_name":"Misprinted Cover"},{"Link":"http://icbirmingham.icnetwork.co.uk/sundaymercury/features/tm_headline=harry-potter-and-the-magical-midlanders%26method=full%26objectid=19463171%26siteid=50002-name_page.html","external_links_name":"\"Harry Potter and the magical Midlanders\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080315034636/http://www.paulkidby.com/news/jul2007.html","external_links_name":"\"Colour of Magic Cast\""},{"Link":"http://www.paulkidby.com/news/jul2007.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?2209","external_links_name":"\"Title: The Light Fantastic\""},{"Link":"https://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?2209","external_links_name":"The Light Fantastic"},{"Link":"http://www.lspace.org/books/apf/the-light-fantastic.html","external_links_name":"Annotations"},{"Link":"http://www.lspace.org/books/pqf/the-light-fantastic.html","external_links_name":"Quotes"},{"Link":"http://www.lspace.org/books/synopses/the-light-fantastic.html","external_links_name":"Synopsis"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no2016117378","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/release-group/49c1d848-a672-42ad-9bbd-0a0217935032","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz release group"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/work/fafc000a-a211-48ca-a9f7-22be8014fd10","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz work"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/work/9ac1cc88-21f9-4132-a980-a1fc674b9df3","external_links_name":"2"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embiez
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Embiez
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["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]
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Coordinates: 43°04′32.82″N 5°47′2.1″E / 43.0757833°N 5.783917°E / 43.0757833; 5.783917The Embiez islands, at south of the commune of Six-Fours-les-Plages
The Île des Embiez (pronounced ]) is a French island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is the largest island in the Embiez archipelago. It is located off the coast of the port of Le Brusc in the commune of Six-Fours-les-Plages, in the Var department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in South Eastern France. The island has a permanent population of 10.
A frequent daily ferry service runs to the island from Le Brusc. Summer boat trips leave from Sanary. The island is 0.9 square kilometers (0.35 sq mi) in size, and its shoreline is 6 kilometers (3.7 mi) long. The island's highest peak is 57 meters (187 feet) high. The port has moorings for 750 boats, and is the home of Le Garlaban, a three mast sailing boat that belonged to Paul Ricard and is now a seafood restaurant (only open in July and August).
The island has a strict environmental policy and its port was the first in the Var to be awarded ISO 14001 certification. The island also has Blue Flag beaches and the surface is protected under Natura 2000. Birds visible on the island include the avocet, the plover, the grey heron, the cormorant and the kingfisher.
The Île des Embiez has a main hotel with 60 rooms and one suite and 150 appartements, one hotel in the pinewood with 20 rooms and a house for private or professional events. The island also has five restaurants, and is the location of the Paul Ricard Oceanographic Institute (Institut océanographique Paul Ricard). Natural attractions include seven beaches, a pine forest and nature trail, and a vineyard. Sporting facilities include tennis pitches and pétanque.
The 10 hectare (25 acre) vineyard is part of the Côtes de Provence AOC region. Its Côtes de Provence wine is made from Grenache and Cinsaut grapes. Its 'Pays des Embiez' wines are available in rosé, (made from Cinsaut and Grenache grape varieties); white wine, (made from Ugni and Sauvignon), and red wine, with (Merlot and Cabernet grapes).
In 1958, the island was bought by industrialist Paul Ricard (1909-1997) the founder of Ricard, the pastis (liquor) manufacturer. Ricard is buried on the Île des Embiez. His grave is on the island's highest point, facing the sea. The island commemorates Ricard's birthday on the 9 July every year.
See also
The island of Bendor, bought by Ricard in 1950.
References
^ a b c d "Embeiz - Handy Guide". Embeiz Island. Archived from the original on 23 May 2013. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
^ "Embeiz - Welcome". Embeiz Island. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
^ Charles Arnold (1 August 2008). Mediterranean Islands. Survival Books. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-9556489-1-5.
^ a b c "Embeiz - Commitment to the Environment". Embeiz Island. Archived from the original on 8 February 2013. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
^ a b "Embeiz - Explore the island". Embeiz Island. Archived from the original on 8 February 2013. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
^ a b "Embeiz - Vineyards". Embeiz Island. Archived from the original on 8 February 2013. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
^ "Bendor - Paul Ricard". Bendor Island. Archived from the original on 15 January 2013. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
^ "Embeiz - Diary". Embeiz Island. Archived from the original on 8 February 2013. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
External links
Official website
43°04′32.82″N 5°47′2.1″E / 43.0757833°N 5.783917°E / 43.0757833; 5.783917
Authority control databases: National
Germany
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%C3%8Eles_des_Embiez.jpg"},{"link_name":"[il de [embiez]]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/French"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea"},{"link_name":"Embiez archipelago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Embiez_archipelago&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Six-Fours-les-Plages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-Fours-les-Plages"},{"link_name":"Var","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Var_(department)"},{"link_name":"department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Departments_of_France"},{"link_name":"Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provence-Alpes-C%C3%B4te_d%27Azur"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EmbiezGuide-1"},{"link_name":"Sanary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanary"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EmbiezSite-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Arnold2008-3"},{"link_name":"Paul Ricard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ricard"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EmbiezGuide-1"},{"link_name":"ISO 14001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_14000"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EmbiezEnviroment-4"},{"link_name":"Blue Flag beaches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Flag_beach"},{"link_name":"Natura 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natura_2000"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EmbiezEnviroment-4"},{"link_name":"avocet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avocet"},{"link_name":"plover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plover"},{"link_name":"grey heron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey_heron"},{"link_name":"cormorant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cormorant"},{"link_name":"kingfisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingfisher"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EmbiezEnviroment-4"},{"link_name":"Paul Ricard Oceanographic Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ricard_Oceanographic_Institute"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EmbiezGuide-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EmbiezGuide-1"},{"link_name":"pétanque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9tanque"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EmbiezExplore-5"},{"link_name":"Côtes de Provence AOC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provence_wine#C%C3%B4tes_de_Provence_AOC"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EmbiezVineyard-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EmbiezVineyard-6"},{"link_name":"Paul Ricard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ricard"},{"link_name":"Ricard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pernod_Ricard"},{"link_name":"pastis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastis"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BendorRicard-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EmbiezExplore-5"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EmbiezDiary-8"}],"text":"The Embiez islands, at south of the commune of Six-Fours-les-PlagesThe Île des Embiez (pronounced [il de [embiez]]) is a French island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is the largest island in the Embiez archipelago. It is located off the coast of the port of Le Brusc in the commune of Six-Fours-les-Plages, in the Var department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in South Eastern France. The island has a permanent population of 10.[1]A frequent daily ferry service runs to the island from Le Brusc. Summer boat trips leave from Sanary. The island is 0.9 square kilometers (0.35 sq mi) in size, and its shoreline is 6 kilometers (3.7 mi) long. The island's highest peak is 57 meters (187 feet) high.[2][3] The port has moorings for 750 boats, and is the home of Le Garlaban, a three mast sailing boat that belonged to Paul Ricard and is now a seafood restaurant (only open in July and August).[1]The island has a strict environmental policy and its port was the first in the Var to be awarded ISO 14001 certification.[4] The island also has Blue Flag beaches and the surface is protected under Natura 2000.[4] Birds visible on the island include the avocet, the plover, the grey heron, the cormorant and the kingfisher.[4]The Île des Embiez has a main hotel with 60 rooms and one suite and 150 appartements, one hotel in the pinewood with 20 rooms and a house for private or professional events. The island also has five restaurants, and is the location of the Paul Ricard Oceanographic Institute (Institut océanographique Paul Ricard).[1] Natural attractions include seven beaches, a pine forest and nature trail, and a vineyard.[1] Sporting facilities include tennis pitches and pétanque.[5]The 10 hectare (25 acre) vineyard is part of the Côtes de Provence AOC region.[6] Its Côtes de Provence wine is made from Grenache and Cinsaut grapes. Its 'Pays des Embiez' wines are available in rosé, (made from Cinsaut and Grenache grape varieties); white wine, (made from Ugni and Sauvignon), and red wine, with (Merlot and Cabernet grapes).[6]In 1958, the island was bought by industrialist Paul Ricard (1909-1997) the founder of Ricard, the pastis (liquor) manufacturer.[7] Ricard is buried on the Île des Embiez. His grave is on the island's highest point, facing the sea.[5] The island commemorates Ricard's birthday on the 9 July every year.[8]","title":"Embiez"}]
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[{"image_text":"The Embiez islands, at south of the commune of Six-Fours-les-Plages","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/%C3%8Eles_des_Embiez.jpg/220px-%C3%8Eles_des_Embiez.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Bendor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bendor_Island"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_Office_of_the_Republic_of_Latvia
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Patent Office of the Republic of Latvia
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["1 External links"]
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Patent office based in Latvia
This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Patent Office of the Republic of Latvia" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
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Patent Office of the Republic of LatviaLatvijas Republikas Patentu valdeFormationFebruary 5, 1920; 104 years ago (1920-02-05)TypeGovernmental organizationHeadquartersRigaDirectorAgris BatalauskisParent organizationMinistry of JusticeWebsitewww.lrpv.gov.lv/en
Politics of Latvia
Constitution
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Edgars Rinkēvičs
Government
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Evika Siliņa
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Siliņa
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Edvards Smiltēns
Dissolution
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Recent elections
Saeima: 20182022next
Presidential: 201520192023
European: 201420192024
Political parties
JV
ZZS
AS
NA
ST!
LPV
PRO
Administrative divisions
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Ministers of Foreign Affairs
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Other countries
vte
The Patent Office of the Republic of Latvia (Latvian: Patentu valde) is an independent state institution operating under the supervision of the Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Latvia. It is the central authority in the field of industrial property protection in Latvia.
External links
Official website
vtePatent offices in Europe
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This article about politics in Latvia is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glassing
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Glassing
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["1 Tempered glass as policy response","1.1 Australia","1.2 United Kingdom","2 References","3 Further reading"]
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Attack using a glass or bottle as a weapon
This article is about the attack. For other uses, see Glassing (disambiguation).
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
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A broken bottle for glassing.
Glassing (or bottling in New Zealand) is a physical attack using a glass or bottle as a weapon. Glassings can occur at bars or pubs where alcohol is served and such items are readily available. The most common method of glassing involves the attacker smashing an intact glass vessel in the face of the victim, though it can also be smashed onto a surface, then gripped by the remaining base of the glass or neck of the bottle with the broken shards protruding outwards and used in a manner similar to a knife.
Common injuries resulting from glassings are heavy blood loss, permanent scarring, disfigurement and loss of sight through ocular injury. In the United Kingdom, there are over 5,000 injuries per year. Glassing is a relatively small portion of all alcohol-related violence, constituting 9% of injuries from alcohol-related violence in New South Wales, from 1999 to 2011, for instance.
A step to prevent glassing before it happens is to produce bottles utilizing plastic instead, which cannot shatter into jagged pieces, and has the advantage of being closed using a screw cap to retain a drink's carbonation. But in practice, the use of plastic is thought of as making an alcoholic drink look "downmarket", as many discount brands of liquor use plastic rather than glass and the liquor industry has not switched higher-end brands to plastic, and the latter is thought of as a higher-end container.
A filled plastic bottle can also be used as a blunt instrument which causes just as much danger and injury as a glassing. This was seen in a riotous incident which took place during a National Football League game in Cleveland, Ohio in 2001 where plastic beer bottles thrown by angry fans became blunt missiles, and which was known as the "Bottlegate" game. The incident effectively ended any further serious marketing of mass-market beer in plastic bottles.
Alcoholic drinks can be served in tempered glasses instead of traditional glassware, which results in a broken glass breaking into safer chunks unable to be weaponized, but is more costly to purchase for bars and pubs.
Tempered glass as policy response
Further information: Tempered glass
Australia
At least three states in Australia are addressing glassing incidents by introducing regulations for liquor-licensed venues:
New South Wales introduced many restrictions in 2008, including the removal of glass after midnight for high-risk venues. This has resulted in a significant reduction in the number of glassings.
In 2011, the government of Western Australia made recommendations to the state hospitality industry on the use of tempered glass in hotels in response to glassing violence. The state government and the Australian Hotels Association created a self-regulatory program on the rollout of tempered glass in pubs, with most hotels and bars expected to change over to tempered beer glasses in six to 12 months. Royal Perth Hospital's head of plastic surgery Mark Duncan-Smith described it as an important step in protecting the public.
In Queensland, in response to continuing glassing incidents despite limited glass bans, state Liquor Licensing Minister Paul Lucas predicted in 2011 that almost all Queensland pubs and clubs would be (standard) glass-free in 10 years.
United Kingdom
In 2000, following a series of glassing attacks in Manchester, Greater Manchester Police and the Manchester Evening News launched a campaign Safe Glass Safe City promoting the use of toughened glass in pubs and clubs to prevent such attacks.
References
^ Ian Craig (2002-10-22). "Calling time on pub pint glasses". Manchester Evening News.
^ a b Alcohol-related violence: Is “glassing” the big issue?, October 15, 2013
^ Pakulski, Gary (25 December 2001). "Plastic-bottle makers could take lumps from stadium incidents". The Blade (Toledo, Ohio). Retrieved 6 November 2021.
^ Withers, Tom (2 August 2002). "Browns Ban Plastic Bottles Of Beer". WOIO via The Associated Press. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
^ a b c Glenn Cordingley (February 26, 2011). "WA leads in fight against glassing with tempered glassware in Perth pubs and bars". PerthNow. Retrieved 2014-04-28.
^ Alison Sandy (March 12, 2011). "All pubs set to become glass-free". The Courier-Mail. Retrieved 2014-04-28.
^ Ronald V. Clarke and Graeme R. Newman (2005). "Modifying Criminogenic Products: What Role for the Government?". Crime Prevention Studies. 18: 49–51. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.108.2808.
Further reading
"Surgeon on glass bottle "weapon"". BBC News. 2003-10-24.
"Glassed". Risky Single Occasion Drinking. BBC News. Archived from the original on June 17, 2005.
Brian Ferguson (2006-01-03). "Bars face glass ban in violence crackdown". Edinburgh Evening News. The Scotsman.
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For other uses, see Glassing (disambiguation).A broken bottle for glassing.Glassing (or bottling in New Zealand) is a physical attack using a glass or bottle as a weapon. Glassings can occur at bars or pubs where alcohol is served and such items are readily available. The most common method of glassing involves the attacker smashing an intact glass vessel in the face of the victim, though it can also be smashed onto a surface, then gripped by the remaining base of the glass or neck of the bottle with the broken shards protruding outwards and used in a manner similar to a knife.Common injuries resulting from glassings are heavy blood loss, permanent scarring, disfigurement and loss of sight through ocular injury. In the United Kingdom, there are over 5,000 injuries per year.[1] Glassing is a relatively small portion of all alcohol-related violence, constituting 9% of injuries from alcohol-related violence in New South Wales, from 1999 to 2011, for instance.[2]A step to prevent glassing before it happens is to produce bottles utilizing plastic instead, which cannot shatter into jagged pieces, and has the advantage of being closed using a screw cap to retain a drink's carbonation. But in practice, the use of plastic is thought of as making an alcoholic drink look \"downmarket\", as many discount brands of liquor use plastic rather than glass and the liquor industry has not switched higher-end brands to plastic, and the latter is thought of as a higher-end container.A filled plastic bottle can also be used as a blunt instrument which causes just as much danger and injury as a glassing. This was seen in a riotous incident which took place during a National Football League game in Cleveland, Ohio in 2001 where plastic beer bottles thrown by angry fans became blunt missiles, and which was known as the \"Bottlegate\" game. The incident effectively ended any further serious marketing of mass-market beer in plastic bottles.[3][4]Alcoholic drinks can be served in tempered glasses instead of traditional glassware, which results in a broken glass breaking into safer chunks unable to be weaponized, but is more costly to purchase for bars and pubs.","title":"Glassing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tempered glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempered_glass"}],"text":"Further information: Tempered glass","title":"Tempered glass as policy response"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New South Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wiley-2"},{"link_name":"government of Western Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Western_Australia"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-perthnow-5"},{"link_name":"Australian Hotels Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Hotels_Association"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-perthnow-5"},{"link_name":"Royal Perth Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Perth_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-perthnow-5"},{"link_name":"Queensland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Australia","text":"At least three states in Australia are addressing glassing incidents by introducing regulations for liquor-licensed venues:New South Wales introduced many restrictions in 2008, including the removal of glass after midnight for high-risk venues. This has resulted in a significant reduction in the number of glassings.[2]In 2011, the government of Western Australia made recommendations to the state hospitality industry on the use of tempered glass in hotels in response to glassing violence.[5] The state government and the Australian Hotels Association created a self-regulatory program on the rollout of tempered glass in pubs, with most hotels and bars expected to change over to tempered beer glasses in six to 12 months.[5] Royal Perth Hospital's head of plastic surgery Mark Duncan-Smith described it as an important step in protecting the public.[5]In Queensland, in response to continuing glassing incidents despite limited glass bans, state Liquor Licensing Minister Paul Lucas predicted in 2011 that almost all Queensland pubs and clubs would be (standard) glass-free in 10 years.[6]","title":"Tempered glass as policy response"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester"},{"link_name":"Greater Manchester Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Manchester_Police"},{"link_name":"Manchester Evening News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Evening_News"},{"link_name":"toughened glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toughened_glass"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"United Kingdom","text":"In 2000, following a series of glassing attacks in Manchester, Greater Manchester Police and the Manchester Evening News launched a campaign Safe Glass Safe City promoting the use of toughened glass in pubs and clubs to prevent such attacks.[7]","title":"Tempered glass as policy response"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Surgeon on glass bottle \"weapon\"\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/3211769.stm"},{"link_name":"\"Glassed\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20050617082723/http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/rsod/stories/1.shtml"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.bbc.co.uk/wales/rsod/stories/1.shtml"},{"link_name":"\"Bars face glass ban in violence crackdown\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//edinburghnews.scotsman.com/edinburgh/Bars-face-glass-ban-in.2739133.jp"}],"text":"\"Surgeon on glass bottle \"weapon\"\". 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[{"reference":"Ian Craig (2002-10-22). \"Calling time on pub pint glasses\". Manchester Evening News.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/s/22/22330_calling_time_on_pub_pint_glasses.html","url_text":"\"Calling time on pub pint glasses\""}]},{"reference":"Pakulski, Gary (25 December 2001). \"Plastic-bottle makers could take lumps from stadium incidents\". The Blade (Toledo, Ohio). Retrieved 6 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.toledoblade.com/local/2001/12/25/Plastic-bottle-makers-could-take-lumps-from-stadium-incidents/stories/200112250034","url_text":"\"Plastic-bottle makers could take lumps from stadium incidents\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blade_(Toledo,_Ohio)","url_text":"The Blade (Toledo, Ohio)"}]},{"reference":"Withers, Tom (2 August 2002). \"Browns Ban Plastic Bottles Of Beer\". WOIO via The Associated Press. Retrieved 18 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cleveland19.com/story/890359/browns-ban-plastic-bottles-of-beer","url_text":"\"Browns Ban Plastic Bottles Of Beer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WOIO","url_text":"WOIO"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Associated_Press","url_text":"The Associated Press"}]},{"reference":"Glenn Cordingley (February 26, 2011). \"WA leads in fight against glassing with tempered glassware in Perth pubs and bars\". PerthNow. Retrieved 2014-04-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.perthnow.com.au/news/western-australia/wa-leads-in-fight-against-glassing-with-tempered-glassware-in-perth-pubs-and-bars/story-e6frg13u-1226012509118","url_text":"\"WA leads in fight against glassing with tempered glassware in Perth pubs and bars\""}]},{"reference":"Alison Sandy (March 12, 2011). \"All pubs set to become glass-free\". The Courier-Mail. Retrieved 2014-04-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.couriermail.com.au/ipad/all-pubs-set-to-become-glass-free/story-fn6ck51p-1226020075518","url_text":"\"All pubs set to become glass-free\""}]},{"reference":"Ronald V. Clarke and Graeme R. Newman (2005). \"Modifying Criminogenic Products: What Role for the Government?\". Crime Prevention Studies. 18: 49–51. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.108.2808.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.108.2808","url_text":"10.1.1.108.2808"}]},{"reference":"\"Surgeon on glass bottle \"weapon\"\". BBC News. 2003-10-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/3211769.stm","url_text":"\"Surgeon on glass bottle \"weapon\"\""}]},{"reference":"\"Glassed\". Risky Single Occasion Drinking. BBC News. Archived from the original on June 17, 2005.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050617082723/http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/rsod/stories/1.shtml","url_text":"\"Glassed\""},{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/rsod/stories/1.shtml","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Brian Ferguson (2006-01-03). \"Bars face glass ban in violence crackdown\". Edinburgh Evening News. The Scotsman.","urls":[{"url":"http://edinburghnews.scotsman.com/edinburgh/Bars-face-glass-ban-in.2739133.jp","url_text":"\"Bars face glass ban in violence crackdown\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Lamb_(composer)
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Joseph Lamb (composer)
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["1 Life and career","2 Rags Published By John Stark","3 Additional rags (1959 - 1966)","4 Other Selected Songs, Waltzes, and Marches.[8]","5 References","6 External links"]
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American composer of ragtime music
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Joseph Lamb, ca. 1915
Joseph Francis Lamb (December 6, 1887 – September 3, 1960) was an American composer of ragtime music. Lamb, of Irish descent, was the only non-African American of the "Big Three" composers of classical ragtime, the other two being Scott Joplin and James Scott. The ragtime of Joseph Lamb ranges from standard popular fare to complex and highly engaging. His use of long phrases was influenced by classical works he had learned from his sister and others while growing up, but his sense of structure was potentially derived from his study of Joplin's piano rags. By the time he added some polish to his later works in the 1950s, Lamb had mastered the classic rag genre in a way that almost no other composer was able to approach at that time, and continued to play it passably as well, as evidenced by at least two separate recordings done in his home, as well as a few recorded interviews.
Life and career
"Sensation", Joseph Lamb's first rag was published under John Stark's label.
"The Top Liner Rag" from 1916
Lamb was born in Montclair, New Jersey. The youngest of four children, he taught himself to play the piano and admired the early ragtime publications of Scott Joplin. His first known works were "Meet Me at the Chutes," and "Idle Dreams", at the age of 13 in 1900, but they are unpublished and assumed lost.
While living in Toronto, Canada in his teenage years, he published several march and waltz compositions for Harry H. Sparks Music Publisher. Most notable were "The Lilliputian's Bazaar", "Celestine Waltzes", and "Florentine". Most were published after he left Canada.
He dropped out of St. Jerome's College in 1904 to work for a dry goods company. He met Joplin in 1907 while purchasing the latest Joplin and Scott sheet music in the offices of John Stark & Son. Joplin was impressed with Lamb's compositions and recommended him to ragtime publisher John Stark. Stark published Lamb's music for the next decade, starting with "Sensation".
Lamb's twelve rags published by Stark from 1908 to 1919 can be divided into two groups. The "heavy" rags are incorporated with Joplin's melody–dominated style and Scott's expansive use of the keyboard registers. This style includes "Ethiopia Rag" (1909), "Excelsior Rag" (1909), "American Beauty Rag" (1913), "Nightingale Rag" (1915), and "The Top Liner Rag" (1916). The "light" rags with the cakewalk tradition show the narrow-range melodies inspired by Joplin. This style of rags includes "Champagne Rag" (1910), "Cleopatra Rag" (1915), "Reindeer: Ragtime Two Step" (1915), and "Bohemia Rag" (1919). "Contentment Rag" (1915) and "Patricia Rag" (1916) have characteristics of both "heavy" and "light" rags.
Lamb used sequence for development purposes. He emphasized the harmonic sonority of the diminished seventh with upper-neighbor appoggiatura. He surpassed ragtime's usual four-measure phrase structure.
Lamb, Nightingale Rag
Performed by Constantin Stephan
Problems playing this file? See media help.
In 1911, Lamb married his first wife, Henrietta Schultz, and moved to Brooklyn, New York. He worked as an arranger for the J. Fred Helf Music Publishing Company and later, starting in April 1914, as an accountant for L. F. Dommerich & Company. They had one son, Joseph Jr., together, in 1915. Henrietta died of influenza in 1920 about the same time that popular music interest shifted from ragtime to jazz. Lamb stopped publishing his music, playing and composing only as a hobby. "Bohemia Rag" was published in 1919.
Jack Mills, Inc. hired Lamb to write four novelty piano solos, (being 'Cinders', 'Shooting the Works', 'Chime In', and 'Crimson Rambler') in the early 1920s, but these were unpublished and lost until the 2010s.
Lamb married Amelia Collins in 1922. They had four children; Patricia (1924–2022), Richard (1926-?) Robert (1927–2023), and
Donald (1930–2003).
With the revival of interest in ragtime in the 1950s, Lamb shared his memories of Joplin and other early ragtime figures with music historians. Many were surprised to find that not only was he still living but that he was white. He composed new rags, brought out compositions that had never been published, and made recordings. A year before his death in 1960 the album Joseph Lamb: A Study in Classic Ragtime was released by Folkways Records. He died of a heart attack in Brooklyn at age 72.
Rags Published By John Stark
Sensation Rag (1908)
Ethiopia Rag (1909)
Excelsior Rag (1909)
Champagne Rag (1910)
American Beauty Rag (1913)
Contentment Rag (1915)
Ragtime Nightingale (1915)
Cleopatra Rag (1915)
Reindeer Rag (1915)
Top Liner Rag (1916)
Patricia Rag (1916)
Bohemia Rag (1919)
Additional rags (1959 - 1966)
Alabama Rag
Alaskan Rag
Arctic Sunset
Beehive Rag
Bird Brain Rag
Blue Grass Rag
Chasin' the Chippies (1914)
Chimes of Dixie
Chime In
Cinders
Cottontail Rag
Crimson Rambler
Firefly Rag
Good and Plenty Rag
Greased Lightning (c. 1907)
Hot Cinders
Hyacinth - A Rag (1907)
Jersey Rag
Joe Lamb's Old Rag (c. 1908 ‘’Originally titled: “Dynamite Rag”’’)
The Old Home Rag
Ragged Rapids Rag (1905)
Ragtime Bobolink
Ragtime Special (c. 1908)
Rapid Transit (c. 1907)
Ragtime Reverie
Shootin’ the Works
Spanish Fly (1912)
Thoroughbred Rag
Toad Stool Rag
Walper House Rag (1903)
Other Selected Songs, Waltzes, and Marches.
Celestine Waltzes (1905)
Doin' the Lonesome Slow Drag
Don't You Be Lonely
Florentine (1906)
Florida (1905)
Golden Leaves (1903)
Gee, Kid! But I Like You (1908)
I'd Like You to Love Me
I'll Follow the Crowd to Coney (1913)
Ilo-Ilo
I'm Going to Somewhere
I Want to Be a Birdman (1913)
Joe Lamb's Medley Overture No.1 (1908)
Joe Lamb's Medley Overture No. 2
Le Premier (1903)
The Lilliputian's Bazaar (1905)
Lorne Scots on Parade (1904)
Love In Absence (1909)
Mignonne (1901)
Muskoka Falls (1902)
My Queen of Zanzibar (1904)
Red Feather (1906)
Since You Took My Heart Away
Sourdough March (1906)
22nd Regiment March
References
^ a b Tjaden, Ted. "Joseph Lamb: The Humble Ragtime "Sensation" by Ted Tjaden". www.ragtimepiano.ca. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
^ a b c Edwards, Bill. "RagPiano.com - Notable Ragtime Composers Biographies and Information (Page 1)". RagPiano.com. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
^ Hasse, John (1985). Ragtime: Its History, Composers, and Music. New York, N.Y.: Schirmer Books. pp. 245–246. ISBN 0-02-871650-7.
^ "Patricia Conn Obituary". www.tributearchive.com. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
^ Home, John E. Day Funeral. "Tribute for Robert J. Lamb | John E. Day Funeral Home". Tribute for Robert J. Lamb | John E. Day Funeral Home. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
^ "Donald Lamb Obituary (2003) - Zephyrhills, FL - Tampa Bay Times". Legacy.com. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
^ "Joseph Lamb: A Study in Classic Ragtime". Smithsonian Folkways Recordings. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
^ Blesh; Janis, Rudi; Harriet (1950). They All Played Ragtime (4th ed.). New York: Oak Publications. pp. 283, 298. ISBN 0-8256-0091-X.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Works cited
Jasen, David A.; Trebor Jay Tichenor (1978). Rags and Ragtime: A Musical History. New York, NY: Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 122–133. ISBN 0-486-25922-6.
External links
Archives at
LocationMusic Division, Library of CongressSourceJoseph Lamb collection
How to use archival material
Biography portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Joseph Lamb.
"Patricia Lamb Conn: Connecting with Ragtime's Glory Days" - reminiscences of Lamb's daughter, with family photographs
Joseph Lamb Mini Biography
"Perfessor" Bill Edwards plays many Lamb rags, with stories
Article: "Joseph Lamb: The Humble Ragtime 'Sensation'" by Ted Tjaden
Lamb and his compositions on grainger.de
Joseph Lamb at Find a Grave
Free scores by Joseph Lamb (composer) at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
Germany
Italy
Israel
United States
Czech Republic
Artists
MusicBrainz
Other
SNAC
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His use of long phrases was influenced by classical works he had learned from his sister and others while growing up, but his sense of structure was potentially derived from his study of Joplin's piano rags. By the time he added some polish to his later works in the 1950s, Lamb had mastered the classic rag genre in a way that almost no other composer was able to approach at that time, and continued to play it passably as well, as evidenced by at least two separate recordings done in his home, as well as a few recorded interviews.","title":"Joseph Lamb (composer)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sensation_Rag_Sheet_Music.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Top_Liner_Rag.jpg"},{"link_name":"Montclair, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montclair,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Scott Joplin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Joplin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Toronto, Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"St. Jerome's College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Jerome%27s_College"},{"link_name":"John Stark & Son","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stillwell_Stark"},{"link_name":"cakewalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cakewalk"},{"link_name":"appoggiatura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appoggiatura"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Lamb, Nightingale Rag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lamb-Ragtime_Nightingale.ogg"},{"link_name":"media help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media"},{"link_name":"J. Fred Helf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Fred_Helf"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"jazz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz"},{"link_name":"Jack Mills, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Mills,_Inc."},{"link_name":"novelty piano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novelty_piano"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Folkways Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkways_Records"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"\"Sensation\", Joseph Lamb's first rag was published under John Stark's label.\"The Top Liner Rag\" from 1916Lamb was born in Montclair, New Jersey. The youngest of four children, he taught himself to play the piano and admired the early ragtime publications of Scott Joplin. His first known works were \"Meet Me at the Chutes,\" and \"Idle Dreams\", at the age of 13 in 1900, but they are unpublished and assumed lost.[1]While living in Toronto, Canada in his teenage years, he published several march and waltz compositions for Harry H. Sparks Music Publisher. Most notable were \"The Lilliputian's Bazaar\", \"Celestine Waltzes\", and \"Florentine\". Most were published after he left Canada.[2]He dropped out of St. Jerome's College in 1904 to work for a dry goods company. He met Joplin in 1907 while purchasing the latest Joplin and Scott sheet music in the offices of John Stark & Son. Joplin was impressed with Lamb's compositions and recommended him to ragtime publisher John Stark. Stark published Lamb's music for the next decade, starting with \"Sensation\".Lamb's twelve rags published by Stark from 1908 to 1919 can be divided into two groups. The \"heavy\" rags are incorporated with Joplin's melody–dominated style and Scott's expansive use of the keyboard registers. This style includes \"Ethiopia Rag\" (1909), \"Excelsior Rag\" (1909), \"American Beauty Rag\" (1913), \"Nightingale Rag\" (1915), and \"The Top Liner Rag\" (1916). The \"light\" rags with the cakewalk tradition show the narrow-range melodies inspired by Joplin. This style of rags includes \"Champagne Rag\" (1910), \"Cleopatra Rag\" (1915), \"Reindeer: Ragtime Two Step\" (1915), and \"Bohemia Rag\" (1919). \"Contentment Rag\" (1915) and \"Patricia Rag\" (1916) have characteristics of both \"heavy\" and \"light\" rags.Lamb used sequence for development purposes. He emphasized the harmonic sonority of the diminished seventh with upper-neighbor appoggiatura. He surpassed ragtime's usual four-measure phrase structure.[3]Lamb, Nightingale Rag\n\nPerformed by Constantin Stephan\nProblems playing this file? See media help.In 1911, Lamb married his first wife, Henrietta Schultz, and moved to Brooklyn, New York. He worked as an arranger for the J. Fred Helf Music Publishing Company and later, starting in April 1914, as an accountant for L. F. Dommerich & Company. They had one son, Joseph Jr., together,[2] in 1915. Henrietta died of influenza in 1920 about the same time that popular music interest shifted from ragtime to jazz. Lamb stopped publishing his music, playing and composing only as a hobby. \"Bohemia Rag\" was published in 1919.Jack Mills, Inc. hired Lamb to write four novelty piano solos, (being 'Cinders', 'Shooting the Works', 'Chime In', and 'Crimson Rambler') in the early 1920s, but these were unpublished and lost until the 2010s.[1]Lamb married Amelia Collins in 1922.[2] They had four children; Patricia (1924–2022),[4] Richard (1926-?) Robert (1927–2023),[5] andDonald (1930–2003).[6]With the revival of interest in ragtime in the 1950s, Lamb shared his memories of Joplin and other early ragtime figures with music historians. Many were surprised to find that not only was he still living but that he was white. He composed new rags, brought out compositions that had never been published, and made recordings. A year before his death in 1960 the album Joseph Lamb: A Study in Classic Ragtime was released by Folkways Records.[7] He died of a heart attack in Brooklyn at age 72.","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Sensation Rag (1908)\nEthiopia Rag (1909)\nExcelsior Rag (1909)\nChampagne Rag (1910)\nAmerican Beauty Rag (1913)\nContentment Rag (1915)\nRagtime Nightingale (1915)\nCleopatra Rag (1915)\nReindeer Rag (1915)\nTop Liner Rag (1916)\nPatricia Rag (1916)\nBohemia Rag (1919)","title":"Rags Published By John Stark"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Alabama Rag\nAlaskan Rag\nArctic Sunset\nBeehive Rag\nBird Brain Rag\nBlue Grass Rag\nChasin' the Chippies (1914)\nChimes of Dixie\nChime In\nCinders\nCottontail Rag\nCrimson Rambler\nFirefly Rag\nGood and Plenty Rag\nGreased Lightning (c. 1907)\nHot Cinders\nHyacinth - A Rag (1907)\nJersey Rag\nJoe Lamb's Old Rag (c. 1908 ‘’Originally titled: “Dynamite Rag”’’)\nThe Old Home Rag\nRagged Rapids Rag (1905)\nRagtime Bobolink\nRagtime Special (c. 1908)\nRapid Transit (c. 1907)\nRagtime Reverie\nShootin’ the Works\nSpanish Fly (1912)\nThoroughbred Rag\nToad Stool Rag\nWalper House Rag (1903)","title":"Additional rags (1959 - 1966)"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Celestine Waltzes (1905)\nDoin' the Lonesome Slow Drag\nDon't You Be Lonely\nFlorentine (1906)\nFlorida (1905)\nGolden Leaves (1903)\nGee, Kid! But I Like You (1908)\nI'd Like You to Love Me\nI'll Follow the Crowd to Coney (1913)\nIlo-Ilo\nI'm Going to Somewhere\nI Want to Be a Birdman (1913)\nJoe Lamb's Medley Overture No.1 (1908)\nJoe Lamb's Medley Overture No. 2\nLe Premier (1903)\nThe Lilliputian's Bazaar (1905)\nLorne Scots on Parade (1904)\nLove In Absence (1909)\nMignonne (1901)\nMuskoka Falls (1902)\nMy Queen of Zanzibar (1904)\nRed Feather (1906)\nSince You Took My Heart Away\nSourdough March (1906)\n\n22nd Regiment March","title":"Other Selected Songs, Waltzes, and Marches."}]
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[{"reference":"Tjaden, Ted. \"Joseph Lamb: The Humble Ragtime \"Sensation\" by Ted Tjaden\". www.ragtimepiano.ca. Retrieved 2023-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ragtimepiano.ca/rags/lamb.htm","url_text":"\"Joseph Lamb: The Humble Ragtime \"Sensation\" by Ted Tjaden\""}]},{"reference":"Edwards, Bill. \"RagPiano.com - Notable Ragtime Composers Biographies and Information (Page 1)\". RagPiano.com. Retrieved 2023-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://ragpiano.com/ragtime3.shtml","url_text":"\"RagPiano.com - Notable Ragtime Composers Biographies and Information (Page 1)\""}]},{"reference":"Hasse, John (1985). Ragtime: Its History, Composers, and Music. New York, N.Y.: Schirmer Books. pp. 245–246. ISBN 0-02-871650-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ragtimeitshistor00hass/page/245","url_text":"Ragtime: Its History, Composers, and Music"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ragtimeitshistor00hass/page/245","url_text":"245–246"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-871650-7","url_text":"0-02-871650-7"}]},{"reference":"\"Patricia Conn Obituary\". www.tributearchive.com. Retrieved 2023-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tributearchive.com/obituaries/24115863/patricia-conn","url_text":"\"Patricia Conn Obituary\""}]},{"reference":"Home, John E. Day Funeral. \"Tribute for Robert J. Lamb | John E. Day Funeral Home\". Tribute for Robert J. Lamb | John E. Day Funeral Home. Retrieved 2023-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.johnedayfuneralhome.com/tributes/Robert-Lamb","url_text":"\"Tribute for Robert J. Lamb | John E. Day Funeral Home\""}]},{"reference":"\"Donald Lamb Obituary (2003) - Zephyrhills, FL - Tampa Bay Times\". Legacy.com. Retrieved 2023-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.legacy.com/us/obituaries/tampabaytimes/name/donald-lamb-obituary?id=10422574","url_text":"\"Donald Lamb Obituary (2003) - Zephyrhills, FL - Tampa Bay Times\""}]},{"reference":"\"Joseph Lamb: A Study in Classic Ragtime\". Smithsonian Folkways Recordings. Retrieved 2023-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://folkways.si.edu/joseph-lamb/a-study-in-classic-ragtime/jazz/music/album/smithsonian","url_text":"\"Joseph Lamb: A Study in Classic Ragtime\""}]},{"reference":"Blesh; Janis, Rudi; Harriet (1950). They All Played Ragtime (4th ed.). New York: Oak Publications. pp. 283, 298. ISBN 0-8256-0091-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8256-0091-X","url_text":"0-8256-0091-X"}]},{"reference":"Jasen, David A.; Trebor Jay Tichenor (1978). Rags and Ragtime: A Musical History. New York, NY: Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 122–133. ISBN 0-486-25922-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ragsragtimemusic00jasen/page/122","url_text":"Rags and Ragtime: A Musical History"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ragsragtimemusic00jasen/page/122","url_text":"122–133"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-25922-6","url_text":"0-486-25922-6"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI_and_Islam
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Pope Benedict XVI and Islam
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["1 Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy","2 Immigration","3 Concerning the war in Iraq","4 Concerning Iran","5 Concerning the Middle East conflict","6 Concerning the Islam controversy","7 Concerning Turkey","8 Somalia","9 Sudan","10 Saudi Arabia","11 References","12 External links"]
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During his papal tenure, Pope Benedict XVI focused on building on the outreach of his predecessors towards Islam, particularly on the efforts of Pope John Paul II, who experts say established trust and opened opportunities for dialogue with Muslims. One of the important milestones in the Pope's efforts included a religious and peaceful initiative called A Common Word. This was provoked by an ill-conceived 2006 lecture he delivered at a university in Regensburg, Germany, which prompted Muslim leaders to gather and make overtures to their Christian and Jewish counterparts. Later on, Pope Benedict pursued key initiatives that helped foster Christian and Muslim dialogue. These were founded on the Pope's belief that Christians and Muslims have shared religious experience and that Christianity and Islam are both theologically founded in "God's irruptive call ... heard in the midst of man's ordinary daily existence."
Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
The Pope strongly condemned the Mohammed cartoons, first published by a Danish newspaper and later in other European papers, saying "In the international context we are living at present, the Catholic Church continues convinced that, to foster peace and understanding between peoples and men, it is necessary and urgent that religions and their symbols be respected." He also added that this implies that "believers not be the object of provocations that wound their lives and religious sentiments." Pope Benedict XVI noted that "for believers, as for all people of good will, the only path that can lead to peace and fraternity is respect for the convictions and religious practices of others."
Immigration
Pope Benedict XVI has called for Christians as "to open their arms and hearts" to Muslim immigrants and "to dialogue" with them on religious issues. The Pope told participants that the Catholic Church is "increasingly aware" that "interreligious dialogue is a part of its commitment to the service of humanity in the modern world." In fact, this "conviction" has become "the daily bread" of those who work with migrants, refugees and itinerant peoples, he said. Pope Benedict described this dialogue between Christians and Muslims as "important and delicate". Many communities have experienced this, he said, as they worked "to build relations of mutual knowledge and respect with (Muslim) immigrants, which are extremely useful in overcoming prejudices and closed minds". For this reason, he added, Christians "are called to open their arms and hearts to everyone, whatever their country of origin, leaving the task of formulating appropriate laws for the promotion of healthy existence to the authorities responsible for public life".
On September 11, 2006, the leaders of Muslim communities in Italy endorsed statements by Pope Benedict XVI who warned that Africa and Asia feel threatened by the West's materialism and secularism. "We agree with the Pope," said Roberto Piccardo, the spokesman of Italy's largest Muslim group UCOII. "It is true that Muslims are puzzled by a West which is hostage to a materialistic system." Mario Scialoja, the former president of the World Muslim League, also expressed support for the pope's words, saying that the "West's exclusion of God leads to the wrong life models." On October 21 the Vatican for the first time released a document in Arabic, a speech of the Vatican UNESCO representative which addresses scientific and ethical issues. The next day the Pope sent his "cordial greetings" to Muslims as they celebrated the ending of the holy month of Ramadan. "I am happy to send cordial greetings to Muslims around the world who are these days celebrating the end of the Ramadan fasting month", said the Pope at the Vatican."I send them all my wishes for serenity and peace", he added.
The October 2006 edition of La Civiltà Cattolica – the authoritative magazine of the Rome Jesuits printed with the supervision and authorization of the Vatican authorities – opened with an editorial on Islam that furnished a very detailed and alarming description of fundamentalist and terrorist Islam, behind which “there are great and powerful Islamic states”: an Islam aiming at the conquest of the world and fostered by violence “for the cause of Allah". But it does this without even the slightest note of criticism of this nexus of violence and faith. And it is as if this nexus were an inescapable reality, against which the West and the Church should do little or nothing: little at the practical level – it’s enough to look over the scant measures against terrorism that are recommended – and nothing at the theoretical level. For its part, the editorial seems to say that Islam is the way it is and must be accepted as such.
On November 10, 2006, Pope Benedict urged his fellow German Catholics to discuss their faith in Jesus Christ openly with the Muslims living there. The Pontiff said the Roman Catholic Church viewed Muslims "with respect and good will. They mostly hold on to their religious convictions and rites with great seriousness and have a right to see our humble and strong witness for Jesus Christ", he said after noting that modern German society had been largely secularized. "To do this convincingly, we need to make serious efforts. So wherever there are many Muslims, there should be Catholics with sufficient knowledge of languages and Church history to enable them to talk with Muslims." The same month the Pope received in audience an Algerian Muslim philosopher known for his commitment to battling religious hatred. "I was impressed by his welcome and attention, face to face," Mustapha Chérif , an expert on Islam at the University of Algiers, told the Zenit News Service. The Pope said dialogue among Christians, Muslims and Jews was vital and urged Christians in the Middle East not to abandon the region. "Inter-religious and inter-cultural dialogue is not just an option, but a vital necessity for our times", he told members of a foundation on inter-religious dialogue. Christians needed to find "the ties that unite" them with the world's other two great monotheistic religions.
Cardinal Secretary of State Tarcisio Bertone said in an interview in an Italian newspaper that the Pontifical Council for Inter-Religious Dialogue, which specializes in relations with Muslims, would be made a separate office and no longer merged with the Vatican's cultural office.
Concerning the war in Iraq
The head of the Vatican's Pontifical Council for Interfaith Dialogue said on March 26, 2006 that the war in Iraq should not be viewed as a "crusade" launched by Christian countries against Muslims, and that "Western" was not synonymous to "Christian". "Pope Benedict XVI, like his predecessor John Paul II, never ceases to say this and show it by his acts, such as opposition to armed intervention in Iraq." He said that the church is not "western", but "catholic".
Pope Benedict XVI condemned pre-emptive war. It was the Pope's view that the invasion of Iraq "has no moral justification". As a cardinal, Benedict was critical about President George W. Bush's choice of sending an army into the heart of Islam to impose democracy. "The damage would be greater than the values one hopes to save", he concluded. He also said that "The concept of preventive war does not appear in The Catechism of the Catholic Church."
The Vatican condemned the execution of Saddam Hussein as a "tragic" event and warned that it risked fomenting a spirit of vendetta and sowing fresh violence in Iraq. "A capital punishment is always tragic news, a reason for sadness, even if it deals with a person who was guilty of grave crimes," said Vatican spokesman Father Federico Lombardi. "The position of the Church (against capital punishment) has been restated often", he said. "The killing of the guilty party is not the way to reconstruct justice and reconcile society. On the contrary, there is a risk that it will feed a spirit of vendetta and sow new violence", he said.
At Easter, Pope Benedict XVI lamented the continual slaughter in Iraq and unrest in Afghanistan as he denounced violence in the name of religion.
"Afghanistan is marked by growing unrest and instability, Benedict said. "In the Middle East, besides some signs of hope in the dialogue between Israel and the Palestinian Authority, unfortunately, nothing positive comes from Iraq, torn apart by continual slaughter as the civil population flees."
Concerning Iran
Pope Benedict XVI, in his first Easter message on April 16, 2006, called for a peaceful solution in the nuclear standoff with Iran, saying, "Concerning the international crises linked to nuclear power, may an honorable solution be found for all parties through serious and honest negotiations." Tony Blair was granted a private audience with the Pope in June at the Vatican at the end of a week-long trip to Italy. The Pope told the Prime Minister to pursue diplomatic solutions to problems with states in the Middle East, including Iran. A Vatican spokesman said: "The Pope did stress that diplomacy and not conflict was the best way forward". The two leaders also discussed how "moderate voices" from the world's main religions need to work together to tackle extremism and reduce the risk of terrorism.
German Chancellor Angela Merkel discussed the Middle East and Iran with Pope Benedict in a private audience in August 2006. She came out of her hour-long audience saying it was a “very impressive” experience. “We had a very intense exchange on world politics, especially on the Middle East, but also on how the international community should deal with Iran". Pope Benedict has been contacted by Iran’s President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad as Tehran faces international isolation for its nuclear program.
The following month Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad expressed respect for Pope Benedict XVI and said the pontiff had "modified" his remarks that offended Muslims worldwide."We respect the Pope and all those interested in peace and justice", Ahmadinejad told a news conference before departing for Venezuela. "I understand that he has modified the remarks he made."
The Pope met Iran's Foreign Minister Manouchehr Mottaki in December and called for dialogue to overcome conflicts, in an apparent reference to Tehran's standoff with the West over its atomic programme. The Vatican said in a statement that the Pope exchanged "warm wishes" with Mottaki."The problems of people are always resolved through dialogue, mutual comprehension and in peace," the Vatican said. Mottaki, during a private audience with the leader of the world's 1,000 million Roman Catholics, delivered a letter to the Pope from Ahmadinejad. "The message is completely non-political", Ehsan Jahandideh, a presidential office spokesman was quoted as saying by Iran's ISNA students news agency."The president has emphasised in the message that cooperation of divine religions will help resolving problems of mankind", it said.
On May 4, 2007, former Iranian president Mohammad Khatami met Pope Benedict and said the wounds between Christians and Muslims were still "very deep", including those caused by a controversial papal speech last September. Khatami became one of the most prominent Muslim clerics to visit the Vatican since the Pope's controversial Regensburg speech which angered Muslims by appearing to link Islam and violence.The Vatican said Khatami and the Pope met for about 30 minutes and spoke through interpreters about the "dialogue among cultures" to overcome current tensions and promote peace. In talks that a spokesman called cordial, they also discussed the problems of minority Christians in Iran and the Middle East and encouraged peace efforts such as the conference on Iraq's future taking place in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt. In December Iran's President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad sent a Christmas message to the Pope saying that he hoped the Christian feast would "bring peace and tranquility, founded upon justice and spirituality, to the international community." He told the Pontiff that he hoped the new year 2008 would bring "the elimination of oppression, of violence, and of discrimination."
Concerning the Middle East conflict
The Pope called for the establishment of a Palestinian state. He said: "May the international community, which re-affirms Israel's just right to exist in peace, assist the Palestinian people to overcome the precarious conditions in which they live and to build their future, moving towards the constitution of a state that is truly their own".
The Pope received the first Bethlehem Passport from Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas at the Vatican on December 3, 2005. The citation reads:
In that the bearer of this passport is a citizen of Bethlehem; that they recognise this ancient city provides a light to the world, and to all people who uphold the values of a just and open society; that they will remain a true friend to Bethlehem through its imprisonment, and that they will strive to keep the ideals of Bethlehem alive as long as the wall stands; we ask you to respect the bearer of the passport and to let them pass freely.
The passport is an initiative of the Open Bethlehem foundation, which was founded in November 2005 with the support of Bethlehem civil institutions and world figures including former USA President Jimmy Carter and Archbishop Desmond Tutu.
On June 14, 2006, Pope Benedict XVI urged Israelis and Palestinians in his weekly general audience to return to negotiation after the "increasingly blind" tit-for-tat violence. The Vatican said in a statement that the pope felt close to the innocent victims of such violence and that the Holy Land had become "hostage to those who delude themselves they can solve the ever more dramatic problems of the region by force or unilateral action". The Vatican appealed to both sides "to show due respect for human life, especially that of unarmed civilians and children". In its statement, the Vatican urged the resumption "with courage of the path of negotiations, the only one that can lead to the just and lasting peace we all aspire to." It also urged the international community to "rapidly activate" funds for humanitarian aid to Palestinians. Later that month the Pope called for 'serene and peaceful co-existence' in the Middle East. Referring to Eastern Catholic Churches in the Holy Land, the Pope said
"the serious difficulties it is going through because of profound insecurity, lack of work, innumerable restrictions and consequent growing poverty, are a cause of pain for us all... I invite pastors, faithful, and everyone in positions of responsibility in the civil community, to favour mutual respect between cultures and religions, and to create as soon as possible the conditions for serene and peaceful coexistence throughout the Middle East."
On July 14, 2006, The Vatican condemned Israel's strikes on Lebanon, saying they were "an attack" on a sovereign nation. Cardinal Secretary of State Angelo Sodano said Pope Benedict and his aides were very worried that the developments in the Middle East risked degenerating into "a conflict with international repercussions." "In particular, the Holy See deplores right now the attack on Lebanon, a free and sovereign nation, and assures its closeness to these people who already have suffered so much to defend their independence", he told Vatican Radio.
Two days later the Pope prayed that God grant “the fundamental gift of harmony, bringing political leaders back on the path of reason and opening new possibilities for dialogue and understanding.” “In these days, the news from the Holy Land are all cause for new, grave worry, in particular, the widening of belligerent actions even in Lebanon, and for the numerous victims among the civilian population. At the origin of these merciless conflicts are, unfortunately, objective situations of violation of rights and of justice. But neither terrorist acts nor retaliation, above all when there are tragic consequences for the civilian population, can be justified, going down such roads – bitter experience has shown – does not bring positive results." Later that month, Pope Benedict stated that he did not plan to intervene diplomatically in the Middle East fighting, but called on people of all religions to join Sunday's worldwide day of prayers for peace. "I think it is best to leave that to the diplomats, because we don't enter politics. But we do everything for peace. Our goal is simply peace, and we will do everything to help attain peace," Benedict told reporters as he returned from an hour-long hike in the Italian Alps. The Pope has set aside Sunday as a worldwide day of prayers for peace, hoping the prayers will bring a halt to the fighting. Benedict invited everyone to pray, "especially Muslims and Jews." Benedict said he had heard from Catholic communities in Lebanon and Israel, "...especially from Lebanon, who implored us, as they have implored the Italian government, to help. We will help with our prayers and with the people we have in ... in Lebanon".
Pope Benedict XVI appealed on July 30, 2006 for an immediate cease-fire in the Middle East, hours after the deadliest attack in nearly three weeks of fighting between Israel and Hezbollah. "In the name of God, I appeal to all those responsible for this spiral of violence, so that they immediately put down their arms on all sides. Immediately. I appeal to governing leaders and to international institutions not to spare any effort to obtain this necessary cessation of hostilities. In this moment I cannot help but think of the situation, ever more grave and more tragic, that the Middle East is going through: hundreds of dead, so many wounded, a huge number of the homeless and refugees, houses, cities and infrastructure destroyed. These facts demonstrate clearly that you cannot re-establish justice, create a new order and build authentic peace when you resort to instruments of violence".
With the war in Lebanon, the Vatican's Middle East policies under Pope Benedict XVI came into clearer focus. Pope Benedict's pleas to stop the carnage, particularly after an Israeli air raid killed many civilians in Qana, echoed the dramatic appeals of Pope John Paul during times of Mideast conflict. In private talks, Vatican officials asked that the U.S. government use its influence with Israel to bring an immediate halt to hostilities. To the Israelis, the Vatican made it clear that it views its military offensive in Lebanon as a disproportionate use of force. On August 7, 2006, Pope Benedict XVI renewed his appeal for peace in the Middle East and said he was deeply disappointed that calls for an immediate cease-fire in Lebanon had been ignored. "Faced with the bitter fact that up to now the calls for an immediate cease-fire in that martyred region have been disregarded, I feel impelled to renew my pressing appeal to that effect, asking everyone to offer their real contribution to the construction of a just and lasting peace." Pope Benedict donated two ambulances and emergency medical supplies to Caritas Lebanon.
"War is the worst solution for everyone," he has said. "It brings nothing of good for anyone, not even for the apparent victors. We know this well in Europe, after the two world wars. What everyone needs is peace. There are moral forces ready to help people understand that the only solution is that we must live together". He said the Vatican's actions and his own appeals were designed to mobilize all the potential forces of peace.
Pope Benedict sent a special envoy to Lebanon to lead prayers for peace. The Pope has asked Roger Etchegaray, a French Cardinal who was often the late Pope John Paul's special envoy to trouble spots, "to transmit to the suffering population ... his spiritual proximity and real solidarity". While the French cardinal's mission is "essentially religious" to try to celebrate Mass on Sunday with the patriarch of Lebanon's Maronite church, the Vatican says he may also meet President Émile Lahoud and Prime Minister Fouad Siniora. Etchegaray, 83-year-old president of the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, was sent by Pope John Paul to Iraq in early 2003 to meet Saddam Hussein and try to avert war.
The Pope encouraged Syria to use its influence to help resolve Middle East conflicts and counter terrorism. He told Syria's ambassador that he was heartened by the diplomat's assurances that Damascus is committed to "counter this growing threat to peace and stability. The world looks especially to countries with significant influence in the Middle East in the hopeful expectation of signs of progress toward the resolution of these long-standing conflicts", the Pope said. A U.N. General Assembly resolution in September demanded that Israel withdraw from the Golan Heights, which it annexed from Syria in 1967. "You have spoken of your government's concern over the annexation of the Golan Heights by Israel in 1967," Benedict said, referring to a speech that was just delivered by the ambassador, Makram Obeid, as the envoy presented his credentials". Like many impartial observers, the Holy See believes that solutions are possible within the framework of international law through the implementation of the relevant United Nations resolutions," the pontiff said.
The Pope met Palestinian Authority president Mahmoud Abbas in April 2007 for talks that focused on the situation in the Middle East, the Vatican said in a statement. "In particular an appreciation was expressed for the relaunch, also thanks to the efforts of the international community, of the peace process between Israelis and Palestinians," the statement said. Benedict also discussed the "difficulty faced by Catholics" in the Palestinian territories and "the value of their contribution to that society," it added.
Concerning the Islam controversy
Main article: Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy
On September 12, 2006, while lecturing on "Faith, Reason and the University" at the University of Regensburg, where he was formerly a professor, Pope Benedict quoted the opinion of Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos, "Show me just what Muhammad brought that was new and there you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached". In the original German, Benedict XVI described this critical opinion of Manuel II as "addressed... with a startling brusqueness" ("in erstaunlich schroffer, uns überraschend schroffer Form" ).
The Pope later explained that the remark was meant to compare early Muslim teaching on religious freedom with the later teaching on jihad, and was cited as part of a larger theological assertion, that "reason and faith go hand in hand, and that the concept of a holy war is always unreasonable, and against the nature of God, Muslim or Christian"
The quotation from this medieval text drew criticism from a number of individual governmental representatives and Muslim religious leaders, including Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, Hamza Yusuf, and Ali Bardakoğlu, the Director of Religious Affairs of Turkey, as well as the governments of Somalia and Pakistan and India's major political parties. Some critics claimed the Pope made a number of historical errors. The main one being that, although the Pope had said that verse 2:256 stating "There is no compulsion in religion..." was an early verse when Mohamed was powerless in Mecca, this verse was one of the latest verses to be added to the Quran in Medina at a time when the Muslim state was powerful thereby taking a lot of weight out of the Pope's statement. Others have noted a heavy reliance on analogia entis rather than analogia fidei, and to consider "faith as the common ground" in the approach to Islam.
The Director of the Vatican press office, Federico Lombardi, explained the Pope's statement: "It was certainly not the intention of the Holy Father to undertake a comprehensive study of the jihad and of Muslim ideas on the subject, still less to offend the sensibilities of Muslim faithful. Quite the contrary, what emerges clearly from the Holy Father’s discourses is a warning, addressed to Western culture, to avoid 'the contempt for God and the cynicism that considers mockery of the sacred to be an exercise of freedom'".
There were public protests, including violent ones in the West Bank where two churches were firebombed, over his comments in various countries in the subsequent days. There has been a death threat on the Pope since the lecture from a group linked to Al Qaeda.
Pope Benedict expressed his regret for any offense his words had given: "The Holy Father is very sorry that some passages of his speech may have sounded offensive to the sensibilities of Muslim believers," said Cardinal Secretary of State Tarcisio Bertone in a statement. According to CNN, the Vatican comments fell short of a literal apology.
On September 17, 2006, from the balcony at his residence at Castel Gandolfo outside Rome, Pope Benedict publicly expressed that he was 'deeply sorry for the reactions in some countries' and stressed that the words which 'were considered offensive' were not his own, but were quoted from a medieval text, and that his speech was intended to act as an invitation to mutually respectful dialogue with Muslims, rather than an attempt to cause offense. A few days later the Pope held a meeting at his summer residence in Castel Gandolfo with approximately 20 Muslim diplomats. At this meeting the Pope Benedict expressed "total and profound respect for all Muslims". Among the ambassadors invited included Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Morocco, and many other nations and Islamic Groups.
The following month Pope Benedict XVI took another step to placate anger in the Islamic world over his remarks on holy war, making additions to his original text affirming that a quotation from a 14th-century Byzantine emperor was not his personal opinion. The original said the emperor's remark was made "somewhat brusquely". In the new version, it says it was made with "a brusqueness that we find unacceptable." Benedict added in a footnote: "In the Muslim world, this quotation has unfortunately been taken as an expression of my personal position, thus arousing understandable indignation. I hope that the reader of my text can see immediately that this sentence does not express my personal view of the Quran, for which I have the respect due to the holy book of a great religion." He said he cited the text as part of an examination of the "relationship between faith and reason".
An open letter was sent to Pope Benedict XVI by 38 Muslim authorities (later extended to 100) express an acceptance for his apology over his remarks on Islam. The signatories to the letter declare that they accept the Pope's "personal expression of sorrow and assurance that the controversial quote did not reflect his personal opinion". Some of the clerics who signed the letter were Shaikh Habib Ali of the Tabah Institute in Abu Dhabi and Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad, the special adviser to Jordan's King Abdullah II. Others who signed the letter include the grand muftis of Egypt, Russia, Bosnia, Croatia, Kosovo and Metohija (Serbia), Turkey, Uzbekistan and Oman, as well as the Iranian Shiite cleric Ayatollah Mohammad Ali Taskhiri, and Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr of George Washington University, Washington.
Concerning Turkey
Pope Benedict XVI said his forthcoming visit to Turkey in 2006 was a sign of the friendship he held for the Turkish people. “As you all know I am leaving for Turkey on Tuesday,” the Pontiff said in his weekly Angelus prayer in Rome on the preceding Sunday. “Starting right now, I want to send a cordial greeting to the dear Turkish people, rich in history and culture. To these people and their representatives I express feelings of esteem and sincere friendship.” The Pope said he backed Turkey's bid to join the European Union, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said after meeting the pontiff upon his arrival in Ankara for his first visit to a Muslim country. The Pope told Erdoğan that while the Vatican seeks to stay out of politics it "desires Turkey's membership in the EU".
The Pope had reversed his earlier opposition to Turkey's efforts to join the EU, appearing to back the overwhelmingly Muslim country's hard-fought push towards membership at the start of his visit. The Pope expressed hope that Turkey would join the EU. A papal spokesman later clarified the remarks, saying the Pope had told the Turkish leader the Vatican did not have the power to intervene, but "viewed positively and encouraged" the process of Turkey's entry into the EU "on the basis of common values and principles". Mr Erdoğan said: “The most important message the Pope gave was toward Islam, reiterating his view of Islam as peaceful and affectionate.”
Pope Benedict XVI visited one of Turkey's most famous mosques in what was seen as an attempt to mend relations with the Muslim community. During his tour of the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, accompanied by local art historian Dr. Sedat Bornovalı, the pontiff turned towards Mecca in a gesture of Muslim prayer, together with Prof. Dr. Mustafa Çağrıcı, Mufti of İstanbul. It marked only the second papal visit in history to a Muslim place of worship. Earlier, the Pope visited the nearby Hagia Sophia Museum - a site heavy with Christian and Muslim symbolism - drawing a large crowd of protesters.
The Papal trip to Turkey was widely hailed as a success. The aim was to mend fences there and, as he was greeted on his return by Italian leader Romano Prodi, the pontiff appeared to have succeeded in this. Ilter Turan, a professor of political science in Istanbul, said: “Visiting the Blue Mosque and praying with the Muslims indicated that maybe he had not expressed himself carefully in his earlier conversations with students at Regensburg and certainly his gestures will go a long way to alleviate the initial scar that was left by his remarks”. The Pope also praised Islam as a peaceful faith and expressed support for Turkey's bid to join the EU.
The prayer in Istanbul’s Blue Mosque was “not initially planned but it turned out to be very meaningful”. It was a prayer to the “one Lord of heaven and earth, merciful father of all mankind”. Addressing today’s general audience, this was how Benedict XVI described his silent prayer on 30 November in Istanbul. The Pope “thanked divine Providence for this” and said: “May all believers identify themselves with the one God and bear witness to true brotherhood.” The Pontiff augured that Turkey “will be a bridge of friendship and collaboration between East and West” and he thanked the Turkish people “for the cordiality and sympathy” they showed him throughout his stay, when “he felt loved and understood”.
The Vatican considered Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan's strong victory in the 2007 general election in Turkey "the best result for Europe and for the Christian churches." In an interview published by Italian daily Corriere della Sera, Cardinal Sergio Sebastiani also invited the European Union to resume talks with Ankara on Turkey's entry to the bloc.
Somalia
Pope Benedict XVI called for negotiations to end fighting in Somalia, Associated Press reported from the Vatican City. In a speech to diplomats recently on global issues, the Pontiff recalled an Italian nun who was slain in Somalia last September, who he said would inspire efforts to end conflict in the Horn of Africa, where an Islamist movement threatening to overthrow the Western-backed dictatorship of Somalia has been ousted. Benedict called on all sides to lay down their arms and negotiate.
Sudan
Pope Benedict XVI, meeting with Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir on 14 September 2007, voiced his "heartfelt hope" for the success of peace talks next month for the war-torn region of Darfur, the Vatican said. "It is the Holy See's heartfelt hope that these negotiations prove successful in order to put an end to the suffering and insecurity of those peoples," the Vatican said in a statement.
Saudi Arabia
Pope Benedict XVI welcomed King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia to the Vatican on November 6, 2007, marking the first time that a Saudi king has officially held talks with the Pope. During their encounter, the two leaders discussed religious freedom, inter-religious and inter-cultural dialogue and the need to resolve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The Pope received King Abdullah warmly, grasping both his hands and leading him into his library where they spoke in Italian and Arabic for 30 minutes. The meeting was arranged for at the request of the king who was on a tour of Europe.
References
^ Walsh, Mary Ann (2005). From Pope John Paul II to Benedict XVI: An Inside Look at the End of an Era, the Beginning of a New One, and the Future of the Church. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 181. ISBN 9781580512022.
^ Friend, Theodore (2012). Woman, Man, and God in Modern Islam. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 8. ISBN 9780802866738.
^ Viviano, Rocco (2016-11-07). "Benedict XVI, Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations". The Downside Review. 135 (1): 55–75. doi:10.1177/0012580616676234. ISSN 0012-5806. S2CID 151537373.
^ "Pope Says Peace Implies Respect for Religious Symbols: And Condemns Violence as a Response to Offenses". Zenit. 2006-02-20. Archived from the original on 2016-08-14. Retrieved 2016-08-13.
^ Open arms to Muslim immigrants Archived 2007-02-22 at the Wayback Machine
^ ITALIAN MUSLIMS ENDORSE POPE'S CRITICISM OF WEST
^ Vatican releases document in Arabic
^ Pope Benedict XVI sends 'cordial greetings' to Muslims
^ "Jihad Finds a Strange Advocate: "La Civiltà Cattolica"". Archived from the original on 2007-01-09. Retrieved 2006-11-08.
^ Pope urges German Catholics to talk with Muslims
^ Muslim philosopher, Pope Benedict hold dialogue Archived 2006-11-17 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Muslim-Christian-Jewish dialogue vital: Pope". Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
^ Pope Restoring Vatican's Muslim Office
^ "Islam-Online.net - Church is 'Catholic', not 'western'". Archived from the original on 2006-10-16. Retrieved 2006-10-31.
^ Condemnation of preventive war
^ Vatican calls Saddam execution 'tragic'
^ Pope Mourns Iraq's 'Continual Slaughter'
^ a b "The Australian - Establishment of Palestinian State". Archived from the original on 2006-09-18. Retrieved 2006-10-31.
^ "Pope warns Blair against Iran attack". Archived from the original on 2007-09-30. Retrieved 2006-10-31.
^ Merkel, Pope discuss Mideast situation
^ Iranian President expresses 'respect' for Pope
^ Pope meets Iran's Mottaki, urges dialogue Archived 2006-01-18 at the Wayback Machine
^ Christian-Muslim wounds still "very deep": Khatami
^ Iranian leader sends Christmas greeting to Pontiff
^ "Pope Benedict receives Bethlehem passport". Archived from the original on 2006-05-23. Retrieved 2006-10-31.
^ Vatican: Pope urges Mideast talks Archived 2006-06-20 at the Wayback Machine
^ Pope calls for 'serene and peaceful coexistence' in Middle East Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
^ Vatican condemns Israel for attacks on Lebanon Archived 2010-02-13 at the Wayback Machine
^ Pope urges talks in Lebanon conflict
^ Pope calls for prayers for Mideast peace
^ Pope Appeals for immediate Middle East Cease-Fire
^ Pope disappointed about ignored peace calls
^ Pope to send special envoy to Lebanon
^ Pope encourages Syria to use its influence in Middle East to help resolve conflicts
^ VATICAN: POPE BENEDICT XVI MEETS PALESTINIAN PRESIDENT
^ Meeting with the representatives of science at the University of Regensburg
^ Treffen mit den Vertretern der Wissenschaften in der Aula Magna der Universität Regensburg
^ "Pope upset that Muslims offended". CNN. Archived from the original on October 4, 2006.
^ YouTube – Broadening the Scope of the Pope
^ Perspectives: A Journal of Reformed Thought, November 2006
^ Pope's Islam comments condemned - CNN, 15 September 2006
^ "Italian nun killed by Somali gunmen", CBC.
^ "West Bank churches struck after pope remarks", NBC.
^ Death threat
^ Pope apologises to Muslims, Reuters, 16 September 2006
^ Pope 'sincerely regrets' he offended Muslims, AP, 16 September 2006
^ "Pope shows concern but no apology for Islam comments". CNN. September 16, 2006. Archived from the original on May 18, 2008. Retrieved September 1, 2010.
^ "Pope sorry for offending Muslims". BBC News. September 17, 2006. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
^ "Pope: 'Total and profound respect for Muslims". CNN. September 25, 2006. Archived from the original on April 13, 2008. Retrieved September 1, 2010.
^ Pope makes additions to text on Islam
^ Islamica Magazine – Open Letter to His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI Archived 2006-10-30 at the Wayback Machine
^ Top clerics accept Pope's apology
^ Visit of friendship to Turkey
^ Pope Benedict Backs Turkey's European Union Bid
^ Pope turns other cheek to Muslim Turkey
^ "Pope Benedict XVI with Dr. Sedat Bornovalı during his visit at the Blue Mosque". Life Magazine. Archived from the original on 6 September 2012. Retrieved 25 December 2011.
^ Pope makes Turkish mosque visit
^ Turkey trip hailed as success for Pope Benedict Archived 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine
^ Pope: In mosque I prayed to the one God for all mankind
^ Erdogan victory 'best result possible,' Vatican official says
^ Pope Calls for Negotiations to End Somalia Fighting
^ "Sudan's Bashir meets Pope Benedict". Archived from the original on 2011-05-15. Retrieved 2007-09-14.
^ "Pope And Saudi King Meet at Vatican". VOA News. Voice of America. VOA News. November 6, 2007. Archived from the original on 2008-11-15.
^ Pope and Saudi king deal with issues “close to the heart”
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[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Pope Benedict XVI and Islam"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mohammed cartoons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jyllands-Posten_Muhammad_cartoons_controversy"},{"link_name":"Danish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The Pope strongly condemned the Mohammed cartoons, first published by a Danish newspaper and later in other European papers, saying \"In the international context we are living at present, the Catholic Church continues convinced that, to foster peace and understanding between peoples and men, it is necessary and urgent that religions and their symbols be respected.\" He also added that this implies that \"believers [of various religions] not be the object of provocations that wound their lives and religious sentiments.\" Pope Benedict XVI noted that \"for believers, as for all people of good will, the only path that can lead to peace and fraternity is respect for the convictions and religious practices of others.\"[4]","title":"Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_catholicism"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Muslim communities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Italy"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa"},{"link_name":"Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia"},{"link_name":"UCOII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCOII"},{"link_name":"World Muslim League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Muslim_League"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Ramadan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadan"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"La Civiltà Cattolica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Civilt%C3%A0_Cattolica"},{"link_name":"Jesuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuit"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Jesus Christ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Christ"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Mustapha Chérif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mustapha_Ch%C3%A9rif&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustapha_Ch%C3%A9rif"},{"link_name":"University of Algiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Algiers"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew"},{"link_name":"monotheistic religions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheism"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Cardinal Secretary of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_Secretary_of_State"},{"link_name":"Tarcisio Bertone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarcisio_Bertone"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Pope Benedict XVI has called for Christians as \"to open their arms and hearts\" to Muslim immigrants and \"to dialogue\" with them on religious issues. The Pope told participants that the Catholic Church is \"increasingly aware\" that \"interreligious dialogue is a part of its commitment to the service of humanity in the modern world.\" In fact, this \"conviction\" has become \"the daily bread\" of those who work with migrants, refugees and itinerant peoples, he said. Pope Benedict described this dialogue between Christians and Muslims as \"important and delicate\". Many communities have experienced this, he said, as they worked \"to build relations of mutual knowledge and respect with (Muslim) immigrants, which are extremely useful in overcoming prejudices and closed minds\". For this reason, he added, Christians \"are called to open their arms and hearts to everyone, whatever their country of origin, leaving the task of formulating appropriate laws for the promotion of healthy existence to the authorities responsible for public life\".[5]On September 11, 2006, the leaders of Muslim communities in Italy endorsed statements by Pope Benedict XVI who warned that Africa and Asia feel threatened by the West's materialism and secularism. \"We agree with the Pope,\" said Roberto Piccardo, the spokesman of Italy's largest Muslim group UCOII. \"It is true that Muslims are puzzled by a West which is hostage to a materialistic system.\" Mario Scialoja, the former president of the World Muslim League, also expressed support for the pope's words, saying that the \"West's exclusion of God leads to the wrong life models.\"[6] On October 21 the Vatican for the first time released a document in Arabic, a speech of the Vatican UNESCO representative which addresses scientific and ethical issues.[7] The next day the Pope sent his \"cordial greetings\" to Muslims as they celebrated the ending of the holy month of Ramadan. \"I am happy to send cordial greetings to Muslims around the world who are these days celebrating the end of the Ramadan fasting month\", said the Pope at the Vatican.\"I send them all my wishes for serenity and peace\", he added.[8]The October 2006 edition of La Civiltà Cattolica – the authoritative magazine of the Rome Jesuits printed with the supervision and authorization of the Vatican authorities – opened with an editorial on Islam that furnished a very detailed and alarming description of fundamentalist and terrorist Islam, behind which “there are great and powerful Islamic states”: an Islam aiming at the conquest of the world and fostered by violence “for the cause of Allah\". But it does this without even the slightest note of criticism of this nexus of violence and faith. And it is as if this nexus were an inescapable reality, against which the West and the Church should do little or nothing: little at the practical level – it’s enough to look over the scant measures against terrorism that are recommended – and nothing at the theoretical level. For its part, the editorial seems to say that Islam is the way it is and must be accepted as such.[9]On November 10, 2006, Pope Benedict urged his fellow German Catholics to discuss their faith in Jesus Christ openly with the Muslims living there. The Pontiff said the Roman Catholic Church viewed Muslims \"with respect and good will. They mostly hold on to their religious convictions and rites with great seriousness and have a right to see our humble and strong witness for Jesus Christ\", he said after noting that modern German society had been largely secularized. \"To do this convincingly, we need to make serious efforts. So wherever there are many Muslims, there should be Catholics with sufficient knowledge of languages and Church history to enable them to talk with Muslims.\"[10] The same month the Pope received in audience an Algerian Muslim philosopher known for his commitment to battling religious hatred. \"I was impressed by his welcome and attention, face to face,\" Mustapha Chérif [fr], an expert on Islam at the University of Algiers, told the Zenit News Service.[11] The Pope said dialogue among Christians, Muslims and Jews was vital and urged Christians in the Middle East not to abandon the region. \"Inter-religious and inter-cultural dialogue is not just an option, but a vital necessity for our times\", he told members of a foundation on inter-religious dialogue. Christians needed to find \"the ties that unite\" them with the world's other two great monotheistic religions.[12]Cardinal Secretary of State Tarcisio Bertone said in an interview in an Italian newspaper that the Pontifical Council for Inter-Religious Dialogue, which specializes in relations with Muslims, would be made a separate office and no longer merged with the Vatican's cultural office.[13]","title":"Immigration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"war in Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_War"},{"link_name":"crusade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusade"},{"link_name":"Muslims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"pre-emptive war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-emptive_war"},{"link_name":"cardinal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_(Catholicism)"},{"link_name":"George W. Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush"},{"link_name":"democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"execution of Saddam Hussein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution_of_Saddam_Hussein"},{"link_name":"capital punishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_punishment"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Easter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"The head of the Vatican's Pontifical Council for Interfaith Dialogue said on March 26, 2006 that the war in Iraq should not be viewed as a \"crusade\" launched by Christian countries against Muslims, and that \"Western\" was not synonymous to \"Christian\". \"Pope Benedict XVI, like his predecessor John Paul II, never ceases to say this and show it by his acts, such as opposition to armed intervention in Iraq.\" He said that the church is not \"western\", but \"catholic\".[14]Pope Benedict XVI condemned pre-emptive war. It was the Pope's view that the invasion of Iraq \"has no moral justification\". As a cardinal, Benedict was critical about President George W. Bush's choice of sending an army into the heart of Islam to impose democracy. \"The damage would be greater than the values one hopes to save\", he concluded. He also said that \"The concept of preventive war does not appear in The Catechism of the Catholic Church.\"[15]The Vatican condemned the execution of Saddam Hussein as a \"tragic\" event and warned that it risked fomenting a spirit of vendetta and sowing fresh violence in Iraq. \"A capital punishment is always tragic news, a reason for sadness, even if it deals with a person who was guilty of grave crimes,\" said Vatican spokesman Father Federico Lombardi. \"The position of the Church (against capital punishment) has been restated often\", he said. \"The killing of the guilty party is not the way to reconstruct justice and reconcile society. On the contrary, there is a risk that it will feed a spirit of vendetta and sow new violence\", he said.[16]At Easter, Pope Benedict XVI lamented the continual slaughter in Iraq and unrest in Afghanistan as he denounced violence in the name of religion. \n\"Afghanistan is marked by growing unrest and instability, Benedict said. \"In the Middle East, besides some signs of hope in the dialogue between Israel and the Palestinian Authority, unfortunately, nothing positive comes from Iraq, torn apart by continual slaughter as the civil population flees.\"[17]","title":"Concerning the war in Iraq"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"nuclear power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-easter1-18"},{"link_name":"Tony Blair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Blair"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"German Chancellor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany_(Federal_Republic)"},{"link_name":"Angela Merkel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Merkel"},{"link_name":"Mahmoud Ahmadinejad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Mahmoud Ahmadinejad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Manouchehr Mottaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manouchehr_Mottaki"},{"link_name":"Tehran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehran"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Khatami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Khatami"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Mahmoud Ahmadinejad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"Pope Benedict XVI, in his first Easter message on April 16, 2006, called for a peaceful solution in the nuclear standoff with Iran, saying, \"Concerning the international crises linked to nuclear power, may an honorable solution be found for all parties through serious and honest negotiations.\"[18] Tony Blair was granted a private audience with the Pope in June at the Vatican at the end of a week-long trip to Italy. The Pope told the Prime Minister to pursue diplomatic solutions to problems with states in the Middle East, including Iran. A Vatican spokesman said: \"The Pope did stress that diplomacy and not conflict was the best way forward\". The two leaders also discussed how \"moderate voices\" from the world's main religions need to work together to tackle extremism and reduce the risk of terrorism.[19]German Chancellor Angela Merkel discussed the Middle East and Iran with Pope Benedict in a private audience in August 2006. She came out of her hour-long audience saying it was a “very impressive” experience. “We had a very intense exchange on world politics, especially on the Middle East, but also on how the international community should deal with Iran\". Pope Benedict has been contacted by Iran’s President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad as Tehran faces international isolation for its nuclear program.[20]The following month Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad expressed respect for Pope Benedict XVI and said the pontiff had \"modified\" his remarks that offended Muslims worldwide.\"We respect the Pope and all those interested in peace and justice\", Ahmadinejad told a news conference before departing for Venezuela. \"I understand that he has modified the remarks he made.\"[21]The Pope met Iran's Foreign Minister Manouchehr Mottaki in December and called for dialogue to overcome conflicts, in an apparent reference to Tehran's standoff with the West over its atomic programme. The Vatican said in a statement that the Pope exchanged \"warm wishes\" with Mottaki.\"The problems of people are always resolved through dialogue, mutual comprehension and in peace,\" the Vatican said. Mottaki, during a private audience with the leader of the world's 1,000 million Roman Catholics, delivered a letter to the Pope from Ahmadinejad. \"The message is completely non-political\", Ehsan Jahandideh, a presidential office spokesman was quoted as saying by Iran's ISNA students news agency.\"The president has emphasised in the message that cooperation of divine religions will help resolving problems of mankind\", it said.[22]On May 4, 2007, former Iranian president Mohammad Khatami met Pope Benedict and said the wounds between Christians and Muslims were still \"very deep\", including those caused by a controversial papal speech last September. Khatami became one of the most prominent Muslim clerics to visit the Vatican since the Pope's controversial Regensburg speech which angered Muslims by appearing to link Islam and violence.The Vatican said Khatami and the Pope met for about 30 minutes and spoke through interpreters about the \"dialogue among cultures\" to overcome current tensions and promote peace. In talks that a spokesman called cordial, they also discussed the problems of minority Christians in Iran and the Middle East and encouraged peace efforts such as the conference on Iraq's future taking place in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt.[23] In December Iran's President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad sent a Christmas message to the Pope saying that he hoped the Christian feast would \"bring peace and tranquility, founded upon justice and spirituality, to the international community.\" He told the Pontiff that he hoped the new year 2008 would bring \"the elimination of oppression, of violence, and of discrimination.\"[24]","title":"Concerning Iran"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Palestinian state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_state"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel"},{"link_name":"Palestinian people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_people"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-easter1-18"},{"link_name":"Bethlehem Passport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bethlehem_Passport&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mahmoud Abbas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmoud_Abbas"},{"link_name":"Open Bethlehem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Open_Bethlehem&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Bethlehem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem"},{"link_name":"USA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Carter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Carter"},{"link_name":"Desmond Tutu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmond_Tutu"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon"},{"link_name":"sovereign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"terrorist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorist"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Italian Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Alps"},{"link_name":"Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel"},{"link_name":"Hezbollah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah"},{"link_name":"homeless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeless"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Qana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qana"},{"link_name":"ambulances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambulance"},{"link_name":"Caritas Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caritas_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Roger Etchegaray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Etchegaray"},{"link_name":"Maronite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maronite"},{"link_name":"Émile Lahoud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Lahoud"},{"link_name":"Fouad Siniora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fouad_Siniora"},{"link_name":"Saddam Hussein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"},{"link_name":"Damascus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"text":"The Pope called for the establishment of a Palestinian state. He said: \"May the international community, which re-affirms Israel's just right to exist in peace, assist the Palestinian people to overcome the precarious conditions in which they live and to build their future, moving towards the constitution of a state that is truly their own\".[18]The Pope received the first Bethlehem Passport from Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas at the Vatican on December 3, 2005. The citation reads:In that the bearer of this passport is a citizen of Bethlehem; that they recognise this ancient city provides a light to the world, and to all people who uphold the values of a just and open society; that they will remain a true friend to Bethlehem through its imprisonment, and that they will strive to keep the ideals of Bethlehem alive as long as the wall stands; we ask you to respect the bearer of the passport and to let them pass freely.The passport is an initiative of the Open Bethlehem foundation, which was founded in November 2005 with the support of Bethlehem civil institutions and world figures including former USA President Jimmy Carter and Archbishop Desmond Tutu.[25]On June 14, 2006, Pope Benedict XVI urged Israelis and Palestinians in his weekly general audience to return to negotiation after the \"increasingly blind\" tit-for-tat violence. The Vatican said in a statement that the pope felt close to the innocent victims of such violence and that the Holy Land had become \"hostage to those who delude themselves they can solve the ever more dramatic problems of the region by force or unilateral action\". The Vatican appealed to both sides \"to show due respect for human life, especially that of unarmed civilians and children\". In its statement, the Vatican urged the resumption \"with courage of the path of negotiations, the only one that can lead to the just and lasting peace we all aspire to.\" It also urged the international community to \"rapidly activate\" funds for humanitarian aid to Palestinians.[26] Later that month the Pope called for 'serene and peaceful co-existence' in the Middle East. Referring to Eastern Catholic Churches in the Holy Land, the Pope said\"the serious difficulties it is going through because of profound insecurity, lack of work, innumerable restrictions and consequent growing poverty, are a cause of pain for us all... I invite pastors, faithful, and everyone in positions of responsibility in the civil community, to favour mutual respect between cultures and religions, and to create as soon as possible the conditions for serene and peaceful coexistence throughout the Middle East.\"[27]On July 14, 2006, The Vatican condemned Israel's strikes on Lebanon, saying they were \"an attack\" on a sovereign nation. Cardinal Secretary of State Angelo Sodano said Pope Benedict and his aides were very worried that the developments in the Middle East risked degenerating into \"a conflict with international repercussions.\" \"In particular, the Holy See deplores right now the attack on Lebanon, a free and sovereign nation, and assures its closeness to these people who already have suffered so much to defend their independence\", he told Vatican Radio.[28]Two days later the Pope prayed that God grant “the fundamental gift of harmony, bringing political leaders back on the path of reason and opening new possibilities for dialogue and understanding.” “In these days, the news from the Holy Land are all cause for new, grave worry, in particular, the widening of belligerent actions even in Lebanon, and for the numerous victims among the civilian population. At the origin of these merciless conflicts are, unfortunately, objective situations of violation of rights and of justice. But neither terrorist acts nor retaliation, above all when there are tragic consequences for the civilian population, can be justified, going down such roads – bitter experience has shown – does not bring positive results.\"[29] Later that month, Pope Benedict stated that he did not plan to intervene diplomatically in the Middle East fighting, but called on people of all religions to join Sunday's worldwide day of prayers for peace. \"I think it is best to leave that to the diplomats, because we don't enter politics. But we do everything for peace. Our goal is simply peace, and we will do everything to help attain peace,\" Benedict told reporters as he returned from an hour-long hike in the Italian Alps. The Pope has set aside Sunday as a worldwide day of prayers for peace, hoping the prayers will bring a halt to the fighting. Benedict invited everyone to pray, \"especially Muslims and Jews.\" Benedict said he had heard from Catholic communities in Lebanon and Israel, \"...especially from Lebanon, who implored us, as they have implored the Italian government, to help. We will help with our prayers and with the people we have in ... in Lebanon\".[30]Pope Benedict XVI appealed on July 30, 2006 for an immediate cease-fire in the Middle East, hours after the deadliest attack in nearly three weeks of fighting between Israel and Hezbollah. \"In the name of God, I appeal to all those responsible for this spiral of violence, so that they immediately put down their arms on all sides. Immediately. I appeal to governing leaders and to international institutions not to spare any effort to obtain this necessary cessation of hostilities. In this moment I cannot help but think of the situation, ever more grave and more tragic, that the Middle East is going through: hundreds of dead, so many wounded, a huge number of the homeless and refugees, houses, cities and infrastructure destroyed. These facts demonstrate clearly that you cannot re-establish justice, create a new order and build authentic peace when you resort to instruments of violence\".[31]With the war in Lebanon, the Vatican's Middle East policies under Pope Benedict XVI came into clearer focus. Pope Benedict's pleas to stop the carnage, particularly after an Israeli air raid killed many civilians in Qana, echoed the dramatic appeals of Pope John Paul during times of Mideast conflict. In private talks, Vatican officials asked that the U.S. government use its influence with Israel to bring an immediate halt to hostilities. To the Israelis, the Vatican made it clear that it views its military offensive in Lebanon as a disproportionate use of force. On August 7, 2006, Pope Benedict XVI renewed his appeal for peace in the Middle East and said he was deeply disappointed that calls for an immediate cease-fire in Lebanon had been ignored. \"Faced with the bitter fact that up to now the calls for an immediate cease-fire in that martyred region have been disregarded, I feel impelled to renew my pressing appeal to that effect, asking everyone to offer their real contribution to the construction of a just and lasting peace.\" Pope Benedict donated two ambulances and emergency medical supplies to Caritas Lebanon.\"War is the worst solution for everyone,\" he has said. \"It brings nothing of good for anyone, not even for the apparent victors. We know this well in Europe, after the two world wars. What everyone needs is peace. There are moral forces ready to help people understand that the only solution is that we must live together\". He said the Vatican's actions and his own appeals were designed to mobilize all the potential forces of peace.[32]Pope Benedict sent a special envoy to Lebanon to lead prayers for peace. The Pope has asked Roger Etchegaray, a French Cardinal who was often the late Pope John Paul's special envoy to trouble spots, \"to transmit to the suffering population ... his spiritual proximity and real solidarity\". While the French cardinal's mission is \"essentially religious\" to try to celebrate Mass on Sunday with the patriarch of Lebanon's Maronite church, the Vatican says he may also meet President Émile Lahoud and Prime Minister Fouad Siniora. Etchegaray, 83-year-old president of the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, was sent by Pope John Paul to Iraq in early 2003 to meet Saddam Hussein and try to avert war.[33]The Pope encouraged Syria to use its influence to help resolve Middle East conflicts and counter terrorism. He told Syria's ambassador that he was heartened by the diplomat's assurances that Damascus is committed to \"counter this growing threat to peace and stability. The world looks especially to countries with significant influence in the Middle East in the hopeful expectation of signs of progress toward the resolution of these long-standing conflicts\", the Pope said. A U.N. General Assembly resolution in September demanded that Israel withdraw from the Golan Heights, which it annexed from Syria in 1967. \"You have spoken of your government's concern over the annexation of the Golan Heights by Israel in 1967,\" Benedict said, referring to a speech that was just delivered by the ambassador, Makram Obeid, as the envoy presented his credentials\". Like many impartial observers, the Holy See believes that solutions are possible within the framework of international law through the implementation of the relevant United Nations resolutions,\" the pontiff said.[34]The Pope met Palestinian Authority president Mahmoud Abbas in April 2007 for talks that focused on the situation in the Middle East, the Vatican said in a statement. \"In particular an appreciation was expressed for the relaunch, also thanks to the efforts of the international community, of the peace process between Israelis and Palestinians,\" the statement said. Benedict also discussed the \"difficulty faced by Catholics\" in the Palestinian territories and \"the value of their contribution to that society,\" it added.[35]","title":"Concerning the Middle East conflict"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Regensburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Regensburg"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Manuel II Palaiologos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaiologos"},{"link_name":"Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Muslim religious leaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_religious_leaders"},{"link_name":"Yusuf Al-Qaradawi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yusuf_Al-Qaradawi"},{"link_name":"Hamza Yusuf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamza_Yusuf"},{"link_name":"Ali Bardakoğlu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Bardako%C4%9Flu"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Federico Lombardi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Lombardi"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"West Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bank"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Al Qaeda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Qaeda"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Castel Gandolfo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castel_Gandolfo"},{"link_name":"Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Shaikh Habib Ali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habib_Ali_al-Jifri"},{"link_name":"Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Ghazi_bin_Muhammad"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Ali Taskhiri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Taskhiri"},{"link_name":"Seyyed Hossein Nasr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"text":"On September 12, 2006, while lecturing on \"Faith, Reason and the University\" at the University of Regensburg, where he was formerly a professor, Pope Benedict quoted the opinion of Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos, \"Show me just what Muhammad brought that was new and there you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached\". In the original German, Benedict XVI described this critical opinion of Manuel II as \"addressed... with a startling brusqueness\"[36] (\"in erstaunlich schroffer, uns überraschend schroffer Form\"[37] ).\nThe Pope later explained that the remark was meant to compare early Muslim teaching on religious freedom with the later teaching on jihad, and was cited as part of a larger theological assertion, that \"reason and faith go hand in hand, and that the concept of a holy war is always unreasonable, and against the nature of God, Muslim or Christian\"[38]The quotation from this medieval text drew criticism from a number of individual governmental representatives and Muslim religious leaders, including Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, Hamza Yusuf, and Ali Bardakoğlu, the Director of Religious Affairs of Turkey, as well as the governments of Somalia and Pakistan and India's major political parties. Some critics claimed the Pope made a number of historical errors. The main one being that, although the Pope had said that verse 2:256 stating \"There is no compulsion in religion...\" was an early verse when Mohamed was powerless in Mecca, this verse was one of the latest verses to be added to the Quran in Medina at a time when the Muslim state was powerful thereby taking a lot of weight out of the Pope's statement.[39] Others have noted a heavy reliance on analogia entis rather than analogia fidei, and to consider \"faith as the common ground\" in the approach to Islam.[40]The Director of the Vatican press office, Federico Lombardi, explained the Pope's statement: \"It was certainly not the intention of the Holy Father to undertake a comprehensive study of the jihad and of Muslim ideas on the subject, still less to offend the sensibilities of Muslim faithful. Quite the contrary, what emerges clearly from the Holy Father’s discourses is a warning, addressed to Western culture, to avoid 'the contempt for God and the cynicism that considers mockery of the sacred to be an exercise of freedom'\".[41]There were public protests, including violent ones in the West Bank where two churches were firebombed, over his comments in various countries in the subsequent days.[42][43] There has been a death threat on the Pope since the lecture from a group linked to Al Qaeda.[44] \nPope Benedict expressed his regret for any offense his words had given: \"The Holy Father is very sorry that some passages of his speech may have sounded offensive to the sensibilities of Muslim believers,\" said Cardinal Secretary of State Tarcisio Bertone in a statement.[45][46] According to CNN, the Vatican comments fell short of a literal apology.[47]On September 17, 2006, from the balcony at his residence at Castel Gandolfo outside Rome, Pope Benedict publicly expressed that he was 'deeply sorry for the reactions in some countries' and stressed that the words which 'were considered offensive' were not his own, but were quoted from a medieval text, and that his speech was intended to act as an invitation to mutually respectful dialogue with Muslims, rather than an attempt to cause offense.[48] A few days later the Pope held a meeting at his summer residence in Castel Gandolfo with approximately 20 Muslim diplomats. At this meeting the Pope Benedict expressed \"total and profound respect for all Muslims\". Among the ambassadors invited included Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Morocco, and many other nations and Islamic Groups.[49]The following month Pope Benedict XVI took another step to placate anger in the Islamic world over his remarks on holy war, making additions to his original text affirming that a quotation from a 14th-century Byzantine emperor was not his personal opinion. The original said the emperor's remark was made \"somewhat brusquely\". In the new version, it says it was made with \"a brusqueness that we find unacceptable.\" Benedict added in a footnote: \"In the Muslim world, this quotation has unfortunately been taken as an expression of my personal position, thus arousing understandable indignation. I hope that the reader of my text can see immediately that this sentence does not express my personal view of the Quran, for which I have the respect due to the holy book of a great religion.\" He said he cited the text as part of an examination of the \"relationship between faith and reason\".[50]An open letter[51] was sent to Pope Benedict XVI by 38 Muslim authorities (later extended to 100) express an acceptance for his apology over his remarks on Islam. The signatories to the letter declare that they accept the Pope's \"personal expression of sorrow and assurance that the controversial quote did not reflect his personal opinion\". Some of the clerics who signed the letter were Shaikh Habib Ali of the Tabah Institute in Abu Dhabi and Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad, the special adviser to Jordan's King Abdullah II. Others who signed the letter include the grand muftis of Egypt, Russia, Bosnia, Croatia, Kosovo and Metohija (Serbia), Turkey, Uzbekistan and Oman, as well as the Iranian Shiite cleric Ayatollah Mohammad Ali Taskhiri, and Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr of George Washington University, Washington.[52]","title":"Concerning the Islam controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"Recep Tayyip Erdoğan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan"},{"link_name":"Ankara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankara"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Blue Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_Ahmed_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Istanbul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul"},{"link_name":"Sedat Bornovalı","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedat_Bornoval%C4%B1"},{"link_name":"Mecca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecca"},{"link_name":"Muslim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim"},{"link_name":"Mufti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mufti"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Hagia Sophia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophia"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Romano Prodi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romano_Prodi"},{"link_name":"Istanbul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul"},{"link_name":"Blue Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_Ahmed_Mosque"},{"link_name":"EU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Blue Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_Ahmed_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Istanbul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Recep Tayyip Erdogan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdogan"},{"link_name":"2007 general election in Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_Turkish_general_election"},{"link_name":"Sergio Sebastiani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergio_Sebastiani"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"}],"text":"Pope Benedict XVI said his forthcoming visit to Turkey in 2006 was a sign of the friendship he held for the Turkish people. “As you all know I am leaving for Turkey on Tuesday,” the Pontiff said in his weekly Angelus prayer in Rome on the preceding Sunday. “Starting right now, I want to send a cordial greeting to the dear Turkish people, rich in history and culture. To these people and their representatives I express feelings of esteem and sincere friendship.”[53] The Pope said he backed Turkey's bid to join the European Union, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said after meeting the pontiff upon his arrival in Ankara for his first visit to a Muslim country. The Pope told Erdoğan that while the Vatican seeks to stay out of politics it \"desires Turkey's membership in the EU\".[54]The Pope had reversed his earlier opposition to Turkey's efforts to join the EU, appearing to back the overwhelmingly Muslim country's hard-fought push towards membership at the start of his visit. The Pope expressed hope that Turkey would join the EU. A papal spokesman later clarified the remarks, saying the Pope had told the Turkish leader the Vatican did not have the power to intervene, but \"viewed positively and encouraged\" the process of Turkey's entry into the EU \"on the basis of common values and principles\". Mr Erdoğan said: “The most important message the Pope gave was toward Islam, reiterating his view of Islam as peaceful and affectionate.”[55]Pope Benedict XVI visited one of Turkey's most famous mosques in what was seen as an attempt to mend relations with the Muslim community. During his tour of the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, accompanied by local art historian Dr. Sedat Bornovalı, the pontiff turned towards Mecca in a gesture of Muslim prayer, together with Prof. Dr. Mustafa Çağrıcı, Mufti of İstanbul.[56] It marked only the second papal visit in history to a Muslim place of worship. Earlier, the Pope visited the nearby Hagia Sophia Museum - a site heavy with Christian and Muslim symbolism - drawing a large crowd of protesters.[57]The Papal trip to Turkey was widely hailed as a success. The aim was to mend fences there and, as he was greeted on his return by Italian leader Romano Prodi, the pontiff appeared to have succeeded in this. Ilter Turan, a professor of political science in Istanbul, said: “Visiting the Blue Mosque and praying with the Muslims indicated that maybe he had not expressed himself carefully in his earlier conversations with students at Regensburg and certainly his gestures will go a long way to alleviate the initial scar that was left by his remarks”. The Pope also praised Islam as a peaceful faith and expressed support for Turkey's bid to join the EU.[58]The prayer in Istanbul’s Blue Mosque was “not initially planned but it turned out to be very meaningful”. It was a prayer to the “one Lord of heaven and earth, merciful father of all mankind”. Addressing today’s general audience, this was how Benedict XVI described his silent prayer on 30 November in Istanbul. The Pope “thanked divine Providence for this” and said: “May all believers identify themselves with the one God and bear witness to true brotherhood.” The Pontiff augured that Turkey “will be a bridge of friendship and collaboration between East and West” and he thanked the Turkish people “for the cordiality and sympathy” they showed him throughout his stay, when “he felt loved and understood”.[59]The Vatican considered Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan's strong victory in the 2007 general election in Turkey \"the best result for Europe and for the Christian churches.\" In an interview published by Italian daily Corriere della Sera, Cardinal Sergio Sebastiani also invited the European Union to resume talks with Ankara on Turkey's entry to the bloc.[60]","title":"Concerning Turkey"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"}],"text":"Pope Benedict XVI called for negotiations to end fighting in Somalia, Associated Press reported from the Vatican City. In a speech to diplomats recently on global issues, the Pontiff recalled an Italian nun who was slain in Somalia last September, who he said would inspire efforts to end conflict in the Horn of Africa, where an Islamist movement threatening to overthrow the Western-backed dictatorship of Somalia has been ousted. Benedict called on all sides to lay down their arms and negotiate.[61]","title":"Somalia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Omar al-Bashir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_al-Bashir"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"text":"Pope Benedict XVI, meeting with Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir on 14 September 2007, voiced his \"heartfelt hope\" for the success of peace talks next month for the war-torn region of Darfur, the Vatican said. \"It is the Holy See's heartfelt hope that these negotiations prove successful in order to put an end to the suffering and insecurity of those peoples,\" the Vatican said in a statement.[62]","title":"Sudan"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"King Abdullah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdullah_of_Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Saudi Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"}],"text":"Pope Benedict XVI welcomed King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia to the Vatican on November 6, 2007, marking the first time that a Saudi king has officially held talks with the Pope.[63] During their encounter, the two leaders discussed religious freedom, inter-religious and inter-cultural dialogue and the need to resolve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The Pope received King Abdullah warmly, grasping both his hands and leading him into his library where they spoke in Italian and Arabic for 30 minutes. The meeting was arranged for at the request of the king who was on a tour of Europe.[64]","title":"Saudi Arabia"}]
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[{"reference":"Walsh, Mary Ann (2005). From Pope John Paul II to Benedict XVI: An Inside Look at the End of an Era, the Beginning of a New One, and the Future of the Church. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 181. ISBN 9781580512022.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781580512022","url_text":"9781580512022"}]},{"reference":"Friend, Theodore (2012). Woman, Man, and God in Modern Islam. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 8. ISBN 9780802866738.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802866738","url_text":"9780802866738"}]},{"reference":"Viviano, Rocco (2016-11-07). \"Benedict XVI, Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations\". The Downside Review. 135 (1): 55–75. doi:10.1177/0012580616676234. ISSN 0012-5806. 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Retrieved 2007-09-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110515122903/http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=22178","url_text":"\"Sudan's Bashir meets Pope Benedict\""},{"url":"http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=22178","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Pope And Saudi King Meet at Vatican\". VOA News. Voice of America. VOA News. November 6, 2007. Archived from the original on 2008-11-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081115172839/http://voanews.com/english/archive/2007-11/2007-11-06-voa48.cfm","url_text":"\"Pope And Saudi King Meet at Vatican\""},{"url":"http://voanews.com/english/archive/2007-11/2007-11-06-voa48.cfm","url_text":"the original"}]}]
|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996_Spengler_Cup
|
1996 Spengler Cup
|
["1 Teams participating","2 Tournament","2.1 Round-Robin results","2.2 Finals","3 External links"]
|
International ice hockey competition
1996 Spengler CupDavos, SwitzerlandTournament detailsHost country SwitzerlandVenue(s)Eisstadion Davos, DavosDates26 – 31 December 1996Teams5Final positionsChampions Team Canada (6th title)Runner-up HC DavosTournament statisticsGames played11Goals scored87 (7.91 per game)Scoring leader(s)Sylvain Turgeon (7 pts)← 19951997 →
The 1996 Spengler Cup was held in Davos, Switzerland from December 26 to December 31, 1996. All matches were played at HC Davos's home arena, Eisstadion Davos. The final was won 6-2 by Team Canada over HC Davos.
Teams participating
Team Canada
HC Davos
Rochester Americans
Jokerit
Leksands IF
Tournament
Round-Robin results
Team
Pld
W
L
GF
GA
GD
Pts
Team Canada
4
3
1
17
15
+2
6
HC Davos
4
3
1
24
14
+10
6
Rochester Americans
4
2
2
13
19
−6
4
Jokerit
4
2
2
14
14
0
4
Leksands IF
4
0
4
11
17
−6
0
Source:
December 26, 1996 HC Davos9–2 Rochester AmericansEisstadion Davos
December 26, 1996 Team Canada4–2 Leksands IFEisstadion Davos
December 27, 1996 Jokerit6–3 Team CanadaEisstadion Davos
December 27, 1996 HC Davos5–4 Leksands IFEisstadion Davos
December 28, 1996 Rochester Americans3–5 Team CanadaEisstadion Davos
December 28, 1996 Jokerit3–2 Leksands IFEisstadion Davos
December 29, 1996 Leksands IF3–5 Rochester AmericansEisstadion Davos
December 29, 1996 HC Davos6–3 JokeritEisstadion Davos
December 30, 1996 Jokerit2–3 SO Rochester AmericansEisstadion Davos
December 30, 1996 HC Davos4–5 Team CanadaEisstadion Davos
Finals
December 31, 199612:00 Team Canada6 – 2(1–1, 2–1, 3–0) HC DavosEisstadion Davos
External links
Spenglercup.ch
vteSpengler Cup
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Spengler Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spengler_Cup"},{"link_name":"Davos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davos"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"HC Davos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HC_Davos"},{"link_name":"Eisstadion Davos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaillant_Arena"},{"link_name":"Team Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_men%27s_national_ice_hockey_team"},{"link_name":"HC Davos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HC_Davos"}],"text":"International ice hockey competitionThe 1996 Spengler Cup was held in Davos, Switzerland from December 26 to December 31, 1996. All matches were played at HC Davos's home arena, Eisstadion Davos. The final was won 6-2 by Team Canada over HC Davos.","title":"1996 Spengler Cup"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Team Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_men%27s_national_ice_hockey_team"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"HC Davos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HC_Davos"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Rochester Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester_Americans"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"Jokerit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jokerit"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"Leksands IF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leksands_IF"}],"text":"Team Canada\n HC Davos\n Rochester Americans\n Jokerit\n Leksands IF","title":"Teams participating"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Tournament"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Round-Robin results","text":"Source: [citation needed]","title":"Tournament"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Finals","title":"Tournament"}]
|
[]
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[]
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[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110707003309/http://www.spenglercup.ch/spenglercup/en/teams.html","external_links_name":"Spenglercup.ch"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Bremerhaven
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Ports of Bremen
|
["1 History","1.1 Medieval harbours","1.2 Outer Harbours","1.3 Emigrants","1.4 Weser Correction and modern basins","1.5 Since mid 20th century","2 List of basins and other sites","2.1 Bremen","2.2 Bremerhaven","3 Sources & weblinks"]
|
Coordinates: 53°34′12″N 8°32′38″E / 53.5700°N 8.5440°E / 53.5700; 8.5440Ports and harbours in Bremen and Bremerhaven, Germany
Bremerhaven container terminal of Bremen Ports, 2012
The Ports of Bremen, Bremen Ports or Bremish Ports, in German "Bremische Häfen" consist of the commercial ports in Bremen and Bremerhaven. They are managed by bremenports GmbH & Co. KG, a company of private status in public property.
In 2011, in the Ports of Bremen more than 60 million tons of goods were transported, including 6 million containers and 2.1 million cars. Bremerhaven Harbour is the world's busiest port transporting cars.
History
Holz- und Fabrikenhafen ("Wood & Factories Harbour")
Medieval harbours
The first port of Bremen was the Balge, a narrow branch of the Weser river. In the mid-13th century, on Bremen city's riverside of the main river, a quay was built, called the Schlachte. For about three centuries, both ports were used in parallel, before Balge harbour stopped being used.
Outer Harbours
Like in many other European regions, the medieval extension of agriculture increased erosion of soil in the Weser basin. Since about 1400, the bed of the lower Weser was choked with sand, dramatically. Laden sea vessels could no longer run upriver to Bremen city.
Ships were discharged on riverboats in the open lower Weser. In 1622/23, Bremen's first outer harbour was founded in Vegesack, 20 km downstream of Bremen. Soon it was lacking depth, too.
Finding a more durable outer harbour site was difficult, as the neighbouring territorial states preferred to patronize their own ports. Finally in 1827, the state of Bremen succeeded to buy the ground of the relics of Swedish foundation Carlsburg on the mouth of the Geeste river into the Weser estuary. In 1830 the first port of Bremerhaven was opened.
Emigrants
In 1832, Bremen passed a law for human standards for emigrant passengers in overseas traffic. For some decades the ports of Bremen became the most important emigrant harbour of central Europe.
Weser Correction and modern basins
Bremen free port in 1918
After Bremen in 1847 was linked to the Royal Hanoverian State Railways, the Bremish state built its own short railway line from the (Hanoverian) station to the bank of the river Weser near the edge of the old city. The goods station on the new quay, called Weserbahnhof, was one of the most modern links between land transport and sea trade of that age.
In the last quarter of the 19th century, a way was found to employ the help of natural powers to use the lower Weser as an efficient waterway for modern sea vessels. Ludwig Franzius, building superintendent of Bremen, recorded the hydrology of the lower Weser for several years. In 1881, he published a convincing project. In 1887 to 1895, works were done under his management. In the meantime, in Bremen city some modern basins were built. When in 1888 the state of Bremen joined the German Customs Union, the Europahafen became a free port that was later enlarged by other new basins.
Since mid 20th century
Converted warehouses in Überseestadt
Over the last decades, the ports of Bremen have seen the same developments as most other ports of the world:
Overseas passenger traffic has switched to air transport.
Mixed cargo has been displaced by container transport.
The increase of the size of sea vessels.
The reactions were:
In 1964, Bremen's first container port was opened, the Neustädter Hafen.
Since the 1970s, a line of container terminals were built north of the older ports of Bremerhaven, on the bank of the Weser estuary on the edge of the open sea.
The Überseehafen, which opened in 1906, was taken out of service in 1991. In 1998, the basin was filled up with soil excavated in the maintaining of the shipping lane of outer Weser estuary. This reclaimed land has provided space for a new urban district, called Überseestadt.
List of basins and other sites
– except for marinas and regional passenger traffic –
Neustädter Hafen
Bremen
Hemelingen urban district comprises the basins for inland navigation:
Fuldahafen
Werrahafen
Allerhafen
Überseestadt urban area, besides the former Überseehafen area, still contains some active basins:
Europahafen
Holz- und Fabrikenhafen ("Wood and Factories Harbour")
Getreidehafen ("Cereal Harbour")
Häfen urban district, right bank:
Dock harbours, protected by Oslebshausen lock: 7 basins called Industriehäfen ("Industrial Harbours")
open river bank beneath Stahlwerke Bremen metallurgic plant: Mittelsbürener Hafen, also called Klöcknerhafen from a former owner of the plant
Häfen urban district, left bank:
the small Hohentorshafen
Neustädter Hafen (named from the urban district of Neustadt – "New City") with 2 basins near the dispatching area of Güterverkehrszentrum Bremen
Blumenthal urban district:
the sea port of Farge power station
the petrol port of a federal petrol reserve
the car shipping port on the quay of the former Bremer Vulkan shipyard.
Bremerhaven
Bremerhaven container terminal
Fischereihafen urban district:
Dock harbour of deep-sea fishery
Exclave of Bremen city:
Dockports:
Kaiserhäfen ("Emperor's Ports")
Car shipping port
Lloyd Werft shipyard
Passenger port Columbuskaje
Open container terminals I to III
Weddewarden urban district:
Open container terminal IV
Sources & weblinks
Manfred Rech, Gefundene Vergangenheit – Archäologie des Mittelalters in Bremen, Bremer Archäologische Blätter, Beiheft 3/2004, ISBN 3-7749-3233-6, (background informations of an exhibition on archeological findings of medieval Bremen in Bremen state museum of cultural history), p. 104 ff., chap. IV.C.: Die Häfen an Balge und Schlachte ("The ports on Balge river and Schlachte quay")https://www.bremenports.de/en/
Ludwig Franzius: Die Korrektion der Unterweser (1888), with a collection of maps as supplement, available without reservation in the reading-room of Staatsarchiv Bremen
http://www.bremenports.de/files/2/65/128/ZahlenDatenFakten.pdf PDF
Heinrich Flügel (1914, thesis): Die deutschen Welthäfen Hamburg und Bremen. 420 pages (Reprint 2012, ISBN 9783954270972) example of the text (PDF; 2,3 MB)
www.bremenports.de
WeserKontor GmbH (26. Februar 2014): Seehäfen & Seeschifffahrt → Bremische Häfen
Senator für Wirtschaft, Arbeit und Häfen (Bremish Department for Economics & Ports, 06.03.2014): Neues Hafenkonzept setzt auf Nachhaltigkeit
53°34′12″N 8°32′38″E / 53.5700°N 8.5440°E / 53.5700; 8.5440
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2012-05-28_Fotoflug_Cuxhaven_Wilhelmshaven_DSCF9381.jpg"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"Bremen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremen"},{"link_name":"Bremerhaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremerhaven"}],"text":"Ports and harbours in Bremen and Bremerhaven, GermanyBremerhaven container terminal of Bremen Ports, 2012The Ports of Bremen, Bremen Ports or Bremish Ports, in German \"Bremische Häfen\" consist of the commercial ports in Bremen and Bremerhaven. They are managed by bremenports GmbH & Co. KG, a company of private status in public property.In 2011, in the Ports of Bremen more than 60 million tons of goods were transported, including 6 million containers and 2.1 million cars. Bremerhaven Harbour is the world's busiest port transporting cars.","title":"Ports of Bremen"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:061011-120307-%C3%9Cberseestadt-HuFhafen.jpg"}],"text":"Holz- und Fabrikenhafen (\"Wood & Factories Harbour\")","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Balge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balge_(river)"},{"link_name":"Weser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weser"},{"link_name":"Schlachte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlachte"}],"sub_title":"Medieval harbours","text":"The first port of Bremen was the Balge, a narrow branch of the Weser river. In the mid-13th century, on Bremen city's riverside of the main river, a quay was built, called the Schlachte. For about three centuries, both ports were used in parallel, before Balge harbour stopped being used.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vegesack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegesack"},{"link_name":"state of Bremen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremen_(state)"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"Carlsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlsburg,_Weser"},{"link_name":"Geeste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geeste_(river)"},{"link_name":"Weser estuary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weser"}],"sub_title":"Outer Harbours","text":"Like in many other European regions, the medieval extension of agriculture increased erosion of soil in the Weser basin. Since about 1400, the bed of the lower Weser was choked with sand, dramatically. Laden sea vessels could no longer run upriver to Bremen city.\nShips were discharged on riverboats in the open lower Weser. In 1622/23, Bremen's first outer harbour was founded in Vegesack, 20 km downstream of Bremen. Soon it was lacking depth, too.Finding a more durable outer harbour site was difficult, as the neighbouring territorial states preferred to patronize their own ports. Finally in 1827, the state of Bremen succeeded to buy the ground of the relics of Swedish foundation Carlsburg on the mouth of the Geeste river into the Weser estuary. In 1830 the first port of Bremerhaven was opened.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Emigrants","text":"In 1832, Bremen passed a law for human standards for emigrant passengers in overseas traffic. For some decades the ports of Bremen became the most important emigrant harbour of central Europe.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bremen_Freihafen_1918.jpg"},{"link_name":"Royal Hanoverian State Railways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Hanoverian_State_Railways"},{"link_name":"Ludwig Franzius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ludwig_Franzius&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"German Customs Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Customs_Union"},{"link_name":"free port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_port"}],"sub_title":"Weser Correction and modern basins","text":"Bremen free port in 1918After Bremen in 1847 was linked to the Royal Hanoverian State Railways, the Bremish state built its own short railway line from the (Hanoverian) station to the bank of the river Weser near the edge of the old city. The goods station on the new quay, called Weserbahnhof, was one of the most modern links between land transport and sea trade of that age.In the last quarter of the 19th century, a way was found to employ the help of natural powers to use the lower Weser as an efficient waterway for modern sea vessels. Ludwig Franzius, building superintendent of Bremen, recorded the hydrology of the lower Weser for several years. In 1881, he published a convincing project. In 1887 to 1895, works were done under his management. In the meantime, in Bremen city some modern basins were built. When in 1888 the state of Bremen joined the German Customs Union, the Europahafen became a free port that was later enlarged by other new basins.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:061011-120443-%C3%9Cberseestadt-SpeicherXI.jpg"},{"link_name":"air transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_transport"},{"link_name":"container terminals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_terminal"},{"link_name":"Überseestadt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%9Cberseestadt&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Since mid 20th century","text":"Converted warehouses in ÜberseestadtOver the last decades, the ports of Bremen have seen the same developments as most other ports of the world:Overseas passenger traffic has switched to air transport.\nMixed cargo has been displaced by container transport.\nThe increase of the size of sea vessels.The reactions were:In 1964, Bremen's first container port was opened, the Neustädter Hafen.\nSince the 1970s, a line of container terminals were built north of the older ports of Bremerhaven, on the bank of the Weser estuary on the edge of the open sea.\nThe Überseehafen, which opened in 1906, was taken out of service in 1991. In 1998, the basin was filled up with soil excavated in the maintaining of the shipping lane of outer Weser estuary. This reclaimed land has provided space for a new urban district, called Überseestadt.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"marinas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HafenBremenNeustadt-02.jpg"}],"text":"– except for marinas and regional passenger traffic –Neustädter Hafen","title":"List of basins and other sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stahlwerke Bremen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArcelorMittal"},{"link_name":"Klöcknerhafen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kl%C3%B6ckner"},{"link_name":"Bremer Vulkan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremer_Vulkan"}],"sub_title":"Bremen","text":"Hemelingen urban district comprises the basins for inland navigation:Fuldahafen\nWerrahafen\nAllerhafenÜberseestadt urban area, besides the former Überseehafen area, still contains some active basins:Europahafen\nHolz- und Fabrikenhafen (\"Wood and Factories Harbour\")\nGetreidehafen (\"Cereal Harbour\")Häfen urban district, right bank:Dock harbours, protected by Oslebshausen lock: 7 basins called Industriehäfen (\"Industrial Harbours\")\nopen river bank beneath Stahlwerke Bremen metallurgic plant: Mittelsbürener Hafen, also called Klöcknerhafen from a former owner of the plantHäfen urban district, left bank:the small Hohentorshafen\nNeustädter Hafen (named from the urban district of Neustadt – \"New City\") with 2 basins near the dispatching area of Güterverkehrszentrum BremenBlumenthal urban district:the sea port of Farge power station\nthe petrol port of a federal petrol reserve\nthe car shipping port on the quay of the former Bremer Vulkan shipyard.","title":"List of basins and other sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MSC_Venezuela.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lloyd Werft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyd_Werft"}],"sub_title":"Bremerhaven","text":"Bremerhaven container terminalFischereihafen urban district:Dock harbour of deep-sea fisheryExclave of Bremen city:Dockports:\nKaiserhäfen (\"Emperor's Ports\")\nCar shipping port\nLloyd Werft shipyard\nPassenger port Columbuskaje\nOpen container terminals I to IIIWeddewarden urban district:Open container terminal IV","title":"List of basins and other sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-7749-3233-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7749-3233-6"},{"link_name":"https://www.bremenports.de/en/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.bremenports.de/en/"},{"link_name":"Staatsarchiv Bremen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.staatsarchiv-bremen.de/"},{"link_name":"http://www.bremenports.de/files/2/65/128/ZahlenDatenFakten.pdf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bremenports.de/files/2/65/128/ZahlenDatenFakten.pdf"},{"link_name":"permanent dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9783954270972","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783954270972"},{"link_name":"example of the text","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140329024354/http://maritimepress.de/examples/9783954270972.pdf"},{"link_name":"www.bremenports.de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.bremenports.de/en/"},{"link_name":"WeserKontor GmbH (26. Februar 2014): Seehäfen & Seeschifffahrt → Bremische Häfen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140329002803/http://www.weser.de/index.php?id=29"},{"link_name":"Senator für Wirtschaft, Arbeit und Häfen (Bremish Department for Economics & Ports, 06.03.2014): Neues Hafenkonzept setzt auf Nachhaltigkeit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//senatspressestelle.bremen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id=82582"},{"link_name":"53°34′12″N 8°32′38″E / 53.5700°N 8.5440°E / 53.5700; 8.5440","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Ports_of_Bremen¶ms=53.5700_N_8.5440_E_source:wikidata"}],"text":"Manfred Rech, Gefundene Vergangenheit – Archäologie des Mittelalters in Bremen, Bremer Archäologische Blätter, Beiheft 3/2004, ISBN 3-7749-3233-6, (background informations of an exhibition on archeological findings of medieval Bremen in Bremen state museum of cultural history), p. 104 ff., chap. IV.C.: Die Häfen an Balge und Schlachte (\"The ports on Balge river and Schlachte quay\")https://www.bremenports.de/en/\nLudwig Franzius: Die Korrektion der Unterweser (1888), with a collection of maps as supplement, available without reservation in the reading-room of Staatsarchiv Bremen\nhttp://www.bremenports.de/files/2/65/128/ZahlenDatenFakten.pdf[permanent dead link] PDF\nHeinrich Flügel (1914, thesis): Die deutschen Welthäfen Hamburg und Bremen. 420 pages (Reprint 2012, ISBN 9783954270972) example of the text (PDF; 2,3 MB)\nwww.bremenports.de\nWeserKontor GmbH (26. Februar 2014): Seehäfen & Seeschifffahrt → Bremische Häfen\nSenator für Wirtschaft, Arbeit und Häfen (Bremish Department for Economics & Ports, 06.03.2014): Neues Hafenkonzept setzt auf Nachhaltigkeit53°34′12″N 8°32′38″E / 53.5700°N 8.5440°E / 53.5700; 8.5440","title":"Sources & weblinks"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Bremerhaven container terminal of Bremen Ports, 2012","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/2012-05-28_Fotoflug_Cuxhaven_Wilhelmshaven_DSCF9381.jpg/220px-2012-05-28_Fotoflug_Cuxhaven_Wilhelmshaven_DSCF9381.jpg"},{"image_text":"Holz- und Fabrikenhafen (\"Wood & Factories Harbour\")","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/061011-120307-%C3%9Cberseestadt-HuFhafen.jpg/170px-061011-120307-%C3%9Cberseestadt-HuFhafen.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bremen free port in 1918","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Bremen_Freihafen_1918.jpg/220px-Bremen_Freihafen_1918.jpg"},{"image_text":"Converted warehouses in Überseestadt","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/061011-120443-%C3%9Cberseestadt-SpeicherXI.jpg/220px-061011-120443-%C3%9Cberseestadt-SpeicherXI.jpg"},{"image_text":"Neustädter Hafen","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/HafenBremenNeustadt-02.jpg/220px-HafenBremenNeustadt-02.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bremerhaven container terminal","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/MSC_Venezuela.jpg/220px-MSC_Venezuela.jpg"}]
| null |
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minami_Kyushu_Junior_College
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Minami Kyushu University
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["1 See also","2 External links"]
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Coordinates: 31°56′11″N 131°24′55″E / 31.93639°N 131.41528°E / 31.93639; 131.41528Higher education institution in Miyazaki Prefecture, Japan
Minami Kyushu University Miyazaki Campus
Minami Kyushu Junior College南九州短期大学TypePrivateJunior collegeEstablished1965LocationMiyazaki, Miyazaki, JapanWebsitewww.mkjc.ac.jp
Minami Kyushu Junior College (南九州短期大学, Minami Kyūshū Tanki Daigakubu) is a private junior college in Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan.
The junior college was founded in 1965 as a coeducational college, but later became women-only. From April 1, 1999, it became coeducational again. It offers courses in international studies.
See also
List of junior colleges in Japan
External links
Official website (in Japanese)
Official website (in Japanese)
31°56′11″N 131°24′55″E / 31.93639°N 131.41528°E / 31.93639; 131.41528
Authority control databases
ISNI
VIAF
This article on a Miyazaki Prefecture institute of higher education or related topic is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Minamikyusyuudaigaku6.JPG"},{"link_name":"junior college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junior_college"},{"link_name":"Miyazaki, Miyazaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miyazaki,_Miyazaki"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Higher education institution in Miyazaki Prefecture, JapanMinami Kyushu University Miyazaki CampusMinami Kyushu Junior College (南九州短期大学, Minami Kyūshū Tanki Daigakubu) is a private junior college in Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan.The junior college was founded in 1965 as a coeducational college, but later became women-only. From April 1, 1999, it became coeducational again.[citation needed] It offers courses in international studies.","title":"Minami Kyushu University"}]
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[{"image_text":"Minami Kyushu University Miyazaki Campus","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Minamikyusyuudaigaku6.JPG/250px-Minamikyusyuudaigaku6.JPG"}]
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[{"title":"List of junior colleges in Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_junior_colleges_in_Japan"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleksii_Hunovskyi
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Oleksii Hunovskyi
|
["1 Biography","2 Family","3 Honoring the memory","4 References"]
|
Ukrainian Greek Catholic priest, composer, public figure
Oleksii HunovskyiОлексій ГуньовськийBorn1882Didyliv, Lviv Oblast, Austria-HungaryDiedMay 1961Borshchiv, Ternopil OblastNationalityUkrainianAlma materLviv Theological Seminarie, Przemyśl Theological Seminarie
Oleksii Danylovych Hunovskyi (Ukrainian: Олексіій Данилович Гуньовський; 1882, Didyliv, Lviv Oblast, Austria-Hungary – May 1961, Borshchiv, Ternopil Oblast) was a Ukrainian Greek Catholic priest, composer, public figure, educator, and political prisoner. Head of the Chortkiv District National Council of the ZUNR.
Biography
Oleksii Hunovskyi was born in 1882 in Didyliv, now the Novyi Yarychiv Hromada of the Lviv Raion of the Lviv Oblast of Ukraine.
Huniovskyi graduated from the Lviv and Przemyśl Theological Seminaries.
On 2 September 1906, he was ordained a priest by Bishop Hryhoriy Khomyshyn. He served as the fourth (1906–1909), third (1909–1910) cathedral staff member and catechist at the separate school on Knihynyn-Hirka in Stanyslaviv (now Ivano-Frankivsk), and from 1911 in Chortkiv, where he was a staff member of the Church of the Dormition and a catechist at the teacher's seminary and a private gymnasium.
During the period of the ZUNR, he headed the Chortkiv District National Council.
In 1920, he was appointed as a superior in the village of Ozeriany of the Skala Deanery. From 1921 he was at the parish in the village of Lanivtsi, where he founded a cooperative, a drama club, and the mixed choir "Prosvita".
On 24 November 1924, he was granted the right to wear a pelerine, named the mayor of Skalskyi and made a school commissioner.
After the beginning of the oppression of the Greek Catholic Church, he held services in Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast underground. In 1947, he was arrested by the Borshchiv District Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (Article 54-10 of the Criminal Code of the Ukrainian SSR). According to the decision of the Ombudsman's Office of the USSR Ministry of State Security, he was exiled to Siberia. He was released in 1956 and returned to western Ukraine. Later he lived in Borshchiv.
He wrote spiritual songs and carols and was acquainted with the Ukrainian writer Bohdan Lepkyi. He played the zither well, for which he wrote down notes.
Hunovskyi died in May 1961 in Borshchiv, Ternopil Oblast. He was buried with his wife in the village of Lanivtsi near Borshchiv (according to other sources – in Borshchiv).
Family
In 1906, he married Olena Radzykevych, the daughter of Oleksandr Radzykevych. Together they raised seven children: Nadiia, Bohdan, Mariia, Dariia, Sofia, Volodymyr-Rostyslav, and Hanna (wife of at. Antonii Kaznovskyi's son Stepan).
Honoring the memory
A plaque in honor of at. Oleksandr Ulianytskyi and at. Oleksii Hunovskyi was installed on the facade of the Greek Catholic Church of Saint Michael church in Lanivtsi.
References
^ a b c d e f g Гуньовський Олексій, Реабілітовані історією. Тернопільська область : у 5 кн., О. Бажан, Є. Гасай, П. Гуцал (упорядники), Тернопіль : Терно-граф, 2020, Кн. 6, s. 142–143, ISBN 978-966-457-402-7.
^ a b c d e f g h i Добрий пастир, композитор, патріот, На перевалі духу, С. Флис, о. І. Лозинський; Івано-Франків. обл. орг. Нац. спілки краєзнавців України , Івано-Франківськ, 2013, s. 81—86.
^ a b c (in English) Hun'ovs'kyj Oleksij // Dmytro Blazheyovskyi. Historical sematism of the Eparchy of Stanyslaviv: From its establishment until the outbreak of World War II (1885–1938), Записки ЧСВВ, Секція I, Т. 51, Lviv: Misioner, 2002, S. 303, ISBN 966-658-228-4.
^ (in English) Cortkiv // Dmytro Blazheyovskyi. Historical sematism of the Eparchy of Stanyslaviv: From its establishment until the outbreak of World War II (1885–1938), Записки ЧСВВ, Секція I, Т. 51, Lviv: Misioner, 2002, S. 56, ISBN 966-658-228-4.
^ Чортківська округа. Історично-мемуарний збірник, ред. колегія О. Соневицької та інші, Париж — Сидней — Торонто : НТШ, Український архів, 1974, Т. XXVII, s. 139.
^ Чортківська округа. Історично-мемуарний збірник, ред. колегія О. Соневицької та інші, Париж — Сидней — Торонто : НТШ, Український архів, 1974, Т. XXVII, s. 488, 543, 606.
^ Парафія с. Ланівці. Церква святого архистратига Михаїла, Бучацька єпархія УГКЦ. Парафії, монастирі, храми. Шематизм, Автор концепції Куневич Б.; керівник проєкту, науковий редактор Стоцький Я., Тернопіль : ТОВ «Новий колір», 2014, s. 31. : іл., ISBN 978-966-2061-30-7.
^ a b Лист Борщівської міської ради від 26.04.2023 r. № 41/0310.
^ Західноукраїнська Народна Республіка 1918—1923. Енциклопедія : у 4 т., редкол.: М. Кугутяк та ін., Івано-Франківськ : ПП «Манускрипт-Львів», 2019, Т. 2 : З — О, s. 590, ISBN невідомо.
|
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Head of the Chortkiv District National Council of the ZUNR.","title":"Oleksii Hunovskyi"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Didyliv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didyliv"},{"link_name":"Lviv Raion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lviv_Raion"},{"link_name":"Lviv Oblast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lviv_Oblast"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"Lviv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lviv"},{"link_name":"Przemyśl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przemy%C5%9Bl"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Hryhoriy Khomyshyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hryhoriy_Khomyshyn"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"Stanyslaviv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanyslaviv"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-%D1%881-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Church of the Dormition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_the_Dormition_in_Chortkiv"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-%D1%881-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"ZUNR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Lanivtsi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanivtsi,_Chortkiv_Raion,_Ternopil_Oblast"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-%D1%881-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Prosvita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosvita"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"pelerine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelerine"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"Ukrainian SSR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic"},{"link_name":"Siberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Bohdan Lepkyi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohdan_Lepky"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"Borshchiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borshchiv"},{"link_name":"Ternopil Oblast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternopil_Oblast"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:%D1%96%D0%B7-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Oleksii Hunovskyi was born in 1882 in Didyliv, now the Novyi Yarychiv Hromada of the Lviv Raion of the Lviv Oblast of Ukraine.[1][2]Huniovskyi graduated from the Lviv and Przemyśl Theological Seminaries.[1]On 2 September 1906, he was ordained a priest by Bishop Hryhoriy Khomyshyn.[1][2] He served as the fourth (1906–1909), third (1909–1910) cathedral staff member and catechist at the separate school on Knihynyn-Hirka in Stanyslaviv (now Ivano-Frankivsk),[3] and from 1911 in Chortkiv,[1] where he was a staff member of the Church of the Dormition[4] and a catechist at the teacher's seminary and a private gymnasium.[3][5][2]During the period of the ZUNR, he headed the Chortkiv District National Council.[1]In 1920, he was appointed as a superior in the village of Ozeriany of the Skala Deanery. From 1921 he was at the parish in the village of Lanivtsi,[3][6][7] where he founded a cooperative, a drama club, and the mixed choir \"Prosvita\".[2]On 24 November 1924, he was granted the right to wear a pelerine, named the mayor of Skalskyi and made a school commissioner.[2]After the beginning of the oppression of the Greek Catholic Church, he held services in Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast underground.[2] In 1947, he was arrested by the Borshchiv District Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (Article 54-10 of the Criminal Code of the Ukrainian SSR). According to the decision of the Ombudsman's Office of the USSR Ministry of State Security, he was exiled to Siberia. He was released in 1956 and returned to western Ukraine. Later he lived in Borshchiv.[1]He wrote spiritual songs and carols[1] and was acquainted with the Ukrainian writer Bohdan Lepkyi. He played the zither well, for which he wrote down notes.[2]Hunovskyi died in May 1961 in Borshchiv, Ternopil Oblast.[2] He was buried with his wife in the village of Lanivtsi near Borshchiv[8] (according to other sources – in Borshchiv[9]).","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"}],"text":"In 1906, he married Olena Radzykevych, the daughter of Oleksandr Radzykevych. Together they raised seven children: Nadiia, Bohdan, Mariia, Dariia, Sofia, Volodymyr-Rostyslav, and Hanna (wife of at. Antonii Kaznovskyi's son Stepan).[2]","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Saint Michael church in Lanivtsi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Michael_church,_Lanivtsi"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:%D1%96%D0%B7-8"}],"text":"A plaque in honor of at. Oleksandr Ulianytskyi and at. Oleksii Hunovskyi was installed on the facade of the Greek Catholic Church of Saint Michael church in Lanivtsi.[8]","title":"Honoring the memory"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_Miser
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The Year Without a Santa Claus
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["1 Plot","2 Voice cast","3 Songs","4 Television rights","5 Home video","5.1 DVD details","6 Live-action remake","6.1 Cast","7 Sequel","8 See also","9 References","9.1 Notes","10 External links"]
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1974 stop-motion television special
"Heat Miser" redirects here. For the American alternative rock band, see Heatmiser.
The Year Without a Santa ClausOfficial logoBased onThe Year Without a Santa Clausby Phyllis McGinleyWritten byWilliam KeenanDirected byJules BassArthur Rankin Jr.Voices ofShirley BoothMickey RooneyDick ShawnGeorge S. IrvingNarrated byShirley BoothComposerMaury LawsCountry of originUnited StatesJapanProductionProducersJules BassArthur Rankin Jr.CinematographyAkikazu KonoIchiro KomuroRunning time51 minsProduction companyRankin/Bass ProductionsOriginal releaseNetworkABCReleaseDecember 10, 1974 (1974-12-10)Related
Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer (1964)
Frosty the Snowman (1969)
Santa Claus is Comin' to Town (1970)
Here Comes Peter Cottontail (1971)
'Twas the Night Before Christmas (1974)
The Year Without a Santa Claus (1974)
The First Easter Rabbit (1976)
Frosty's Winter Wonderland (1976)
Rudolph's Shiny New Year (1976)
The Easter Bunny is Comin' to Town (1977)
Nestor, the Long-Eared Christmas Donkey (1977)
The Stingiest Man in Town (1978)
Jack Frost (1979)
Rudolph and Frosty's Christmas in July (1979)
Pinocchio's Christmas (1980)
Frosty Returns (1992)
Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer and the Island of Misfit Toys (2001)
The Legend of Frosty the Snowman (2005)
A Miser Brothers' Christmas (2008)
The Year Without a Santa Claus is a 1974 stop motion animated Christmas television special produced by Rankin/Bass Productions. The story is based on Phyllis McGinley's 1956 book of the same name. It is narrated by Shirley Booth (her final acting credit before her retirement from acting) and starring the voices of Mickey Rooney, Dick Shawn, and George S. Irving. It was originally broadcast on December 10, 1974, on ABC.
Plot
Santa Claus wakes up with a cold sometime before Christmas Eve. When the Christmas elf doctor sarcastically says that nobody believes in him anymore, Santa decides to forego his annual Christmas Eve run. Mrs. Claus enlists two Christmas elf brothers named Jingle and Jangle to find evidence of Christmas spirit in hopes of changing Santa's mind.
Jingle and Jangle set out with Santa's youngest reindeer Vixen and come upon a small community in the southern United States called Southtown. However, their efforts at finding Christmas spirit are in vain and Vixen is caught by a dog-catcher and taken to the pound.
Santa hears Vixen is missing and travels to Southtown while disguised as a civilian named "Klaus." While there, he meets a boy named Ignatius "Iggy" Thistlewhite and his family. When Santa leaves to retrieve Vixen, Iggy realizes his true identity and resolves to help Jingle and Jangle.
The town's police officer refers Jingle, Jangle, and Iggy to the town's mayor who laughs at their story. He agrees to free Vixen if they can prove they are elves by making it snow in Southtown on Christmas.
Iggy joins Mrs. Claus when she arrives to pick up Jingle and Jangle. Together, they visit the Miser Brothers.
Unbeknownst to Mrs. Claus, Jingle and Jangle, or Iggy, Santa Claus has already rescued Vixen from the dog pound and is on his way up to the North Pole.
They ask Snow Miser, who controls cold weather, to send snow to Southtown for a day. He is agreeable, but says he cannot as it is part of Heat Miser's territory. They then ask Heat Miser who pretends that he will comply if Snow Miser turns the North Pole over to him in exchange. He actually plans to pick another fight with his more popular brother and it works. Mrs. Claus states that she has no other choice but to "go over their heads" as the Miser Brothers blame each other for her going to see their mother. This leads to Mrs. Claus visiting Mother Nature who convinces her sons to compromise.
As Christmas approaches, the world's children send their own presents to Santa, setting off international headlines. One little girl is saddened by Santa's decision to skip his Christmas Eve journey, and she writes that she'll have a "Blue Christmas".
Touched by the outpouring of caring and generosity, Santa awakens from a sleep and declares "I've dreamed unhappy things!" (contributing to a theory that the entire film was a dream). He then gets up from his bed to dress himself, hitches his reindeer up and his sleigh loaded with gifts, and he takes off to make his Christmas Eve journey after all, bringing the joy of Christmas to the children of the world.
On Christmas Day, the children of Southtown were very happy ("Here Comes Santa Claus") with their presents they found under their trees; Ignatius even discovers that he's been given a bicycle, while he gives his parents their presents.
As the special closes, Mrs. Claus remarks that somehow, "yearly, newly, faithfully and truly somehow Santa Claus always comes", and the soundtrack's chorus sings "There'll Be No Year Without a Santa Claus".
Voice cast
Shirley Booth as Mrs. Claus
Mickey Rooney as Santa Claus
Dick Shawn as Snow Miser
George S. Irving as Heat Miser
Bob McFadden as Jingle Bells and Elf Doctor
Bradley Bolke as Jangle Bells and Police Officer
Rhoda Mann as Mother Nature and Mrs. Thistlewhite
Ron Marshall as Mr. Thistlewhite and Mayor of Southtown
Colin Duffy as Ignatius "Iggy" Thistlewhite
Christine Winter as the Blue Christmas Girl
The Wee Winter Singers as the Children Choir
Songs
"Sleigh Ride" (instrumental)
"The Year Without a Santa Claus"
"I Could Be Santa Claus"
"I Believe in Santa Claus"
"It's Gonna Snow Right Here in Dixie"
"The Snow Miser Song"
"The Heat Miser Song"
"Blue Christmas"
"Sleigh Ride" (instrumental)
"Here Comes Santa Claus"
"The Year Without a Santa Claus (reprise)"
Television rights
An advertisement for a rerun of the special in 1998.
The special premiered in 1974 on ABC and aired annually on Freeform during its 25 Days of Christmas programming block until 2017. As of 2018, AMC: American Movie Classics currently airs the special uncut as part of the Best Christmas Ever block. Warner Bros. Entertainment currently distributes the special through their ownership of the post-1974 Rankin/Bass Productions library.
Home video
The special was first released on VHS by Vestron Video on September 5, 1991, as part of their Christmas Classics Series, which is distributed by Family Home Entertainment. Warner Home Video released the special on VHS on September 2, 1992, and re-released it on VHS on September 28, 1999. The special was then released on DVD on October 31, 2000, and re-released on the Deluxe Edition DVD on October 2, 2007. Warner Home Video released the special on Blu-ray on October 5, 2010, making it the first Rankin/Bass production to be released on that format.
DVD details
Release date: October 31, 2000 (Original DVD), January 17, 2004 (30th Anniversary Edition DVD), October 2, 2007 (Deluxe Edition DVD), October 5, 2010 (Blu-ray)
Full Screen
Region: 1
Aspect Ratios: 1.33:1
Audio tracks: English
Special Features:
Rudolph's Shiny New Year
Nestor, The Long-Eared Christmas Donkey
Stop Motion 101 (Deluxe Edition Exclusive)
We Are Santa's Elves: Profiling Arthur Rankin Jr. & Jules Bass (Deluxe Edition Exclusive)
Live-action remake
A live-action remake of The Year Without a Santa Claus premiered on NBC on December 11, 2006, and was released on DVD the following day. It follows largely the same plot as the original special.
Paul Mavis, for Drunk TV, wrote, "A live-action remake from The Wolper Company and Warner Bros. of the 1974 Rankin/Bass stop motion animated classic, The Year Without a Santa Claus is a nauseating, angry, joyless little holiday confection sure to poison any child unlucky enough to chance upon it. This hate-filled stocking stuffer has nothing but contempt for its intended audience, promoting the worst possible beliefs about people, while cloaking itself, incredibly, in the fake guise of a meaningful lesson about the holidays: the gall that the cretinous makers of this film have is really quite audacious."
Cast
John Goodman as Santa Claus
Delta Burke as Mrs. Claus
Michael McKean as Snow Miser
Harvey Fierstein as Heat Miser
Ethan Suplee as Jingle Bells
Eddie Griffin as Jangle Bells
Chris Kattan as Sparky
Dylan Minnette as Ignatius "Iggy" Thistlewhite
Billy Slaughter as Nerd Elf
Carol Kane as Mother Nature
Carson Kressley as the elf costumer
Laura Schlessinger, "Dr. Laura", as herself
Jack LaLanne as Hercules
Sequel
A sequel, titled A Miser Brothers' Christmas, was produced in 2008 by Warner Bros. Animation and Cuppa Coffee Studios, and it also used stop-motion animation. Mickey Rooney, age 88, reprised his role as Santa Claus, and George S. Irving, age 86, reprised his role as Heat Miser. Juan Chioran and Catherine Disher replaced Dick Shawn and Shirley Booth as Snow Miser and Mrs. Claus, respectively, Shawn and Booth having died prior to the film's production.
See also
List of Christmas films
Santa Claus in film
List of animated feature films
List of stop-motion films
List of Rankin/Bass Productions films
References
^ Crump, William D. (2019). Happy Holidays—Animated! A Worldwide Encyclopedia of Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa and New Year's Cartoons on Television and Film. McFarland & Co. pp. 348–349. ISBN 9781476672939.
^ Woolery, George W. (1989). Animated TV Specials: The Complete Directory to the First Twenty-Five Years, 1962-1987. Scarecrow Press. pp. 461–463. ISBN 0-8108-2198-2. Retrieved March 27, 2020.
^ RoyalBlueWriter (December 1, 2020). "'The Year Without A Santa Claus' is all Santa's dream". r/FanTheories. Reddit. Retrieved December 18, 2023.
^ "AMC PRESENTS ITS LARGEST SLATE OF HOLIDAY PROGRAMMING WITH 'AMC BEST CHRISTMAS EVER'". November 8, 2018. Retrieved November 27, 2018.
^ The Year Without a Santa Claus starring John Goodman, Chris Kattan, Ethan Suplee, Eddie Griffin, Carol Kane from Warner Home Video on DVD – Widescreen, Original Aspect Ratio – 1.78 Archived August 16, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
^ The Year Without a Santa Claus: Drunk TV Review of the DVD Video https://drunktv.net/2017/12/22/the-year-without-a-santa-claus-2006-nominee-for-worst-ever-christmas-movie/
Notes
^ Recurring characters include Rudolph (voiced by Billie Mae Richards), Santa Claus (voiced by Stan Francis), and Mrs. Claus (voiced by Peg Dixon) in this special. Various actors portray the other reindeer.
^ Recurring characters include Frosty the Snowman (voiced by Jackie Vernon), Santa (voiced by Paul Frees), and Professor Hinkle Tinkerton (voiced by Billy De Wolfe) in this special. Santa's reindeer also feature.
^ Recurring characters include Santa (voiced by Mickey Rooney), Mrs. Jessica Claus (voiced by Robie Lester), and S.D. Kluger (voiced by Fred Astaire) in this special. Rudolph and Santa's other reindeer also feature.
^ Recurring characters include the Easter Bunny (voiced by Casey Kasem), and Santa (voiced by Frees) in this special. Santa's reindeer also feature.
^ Recurring characters in this special include Santa (voiced by Allen Swift), alongside his featured reindeer.
^ Recurring characters include Santa (voiced by Rooney), Mrs. Claus (voiced by Shirley Booth), Snow Miser (voiced by Dick Shawn), Heat Miser (voiced by George S. Irving), and Mother Nature (voiced by Rhoda Mann) in this special. Rudolph and Santa's other reindeer also feature.
^ Recurring characters include Easter Bunny (voiced by Robert Morse and Burl Ives), and Santa (voiced by Frees) in this special. Santa's reindeer also feature.
^ Recurring characters include Frosty (voiced by Vernon), Mrs. Crystal Frosty (voiced by Shelley Winters), and Jack Frost (voiced by Frees) in this special.
^ Recurring characters include Rudolph (voiced by Richards) and Santa (voiced by Frees) in this special. Santa's other reindeer also feature.
^ Recurring characters include Easter Bunny (voiced by Skip Hinnant), and S.D. Kluger (voiced by Astaire) in this special.
^ Recurring characters in this special include Santa (voiced by Frees), alongside Rudolph and his other featured reindeer.
^ Recurring characters in this special include Santa Claus during a scene which compares the Ghost of Christmas Present to him (both characters were voiced by Frees).
^ The recurring character is Jack Frost (voiced by Robert Morse) in this special.
^ Recurring characters include Rudolph (voiced by Richards), Frosty (voiced by Vernon), Santa (voiced by Rooney), Mrs. Claus (voiced by Darlene Conley), Crystal (voiced by Winters), and Jack Frost (voiced by Frees) in this special. Santa's other reindeer also feature.
^ The recurring characters in the special include Santa (voiced by Swift), alongside his featured reindeer.
^ The recurring character is Frosty (voiced by John Goodman) in this special. Mother Nature is also referenced in the short.
^ Recurring characters include Rudolph (voiced by Kathleen Barr), Santa (voiced by Garry Chalk), and Mrs. Claus (also voiced by Barr) in this film. Santa's other reindeer, and various other characters from the 1964 original also feature.
^ Recurring characters include Frosty (voiced by Bill Fagerbakke), and Professor Tinkerton (voiced by Kath Soucie) in this special.
^ Recurring characters include Snow Miser (voiced by Juan Chioran), Heat Miser (voiced by Irving), Santa (voiced by Rooney), Mrs. Claus (voiced by Catherine Disher), and Mother Earth (voiced by Patricia Hamilton) in this special. Santa's reindeer also feature.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to The Year Without a Santa Claus.
The Year Without a Santa Claus at IMDb
Review by critic Jayson Harsin at Blogcritics Magazine
vteRankin/Bass ProductionsArthur Rankin Jr.Jules BassTelevision specials
Return to Oz
Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer
The Edgar Bergen & Charlie McCarthy Show
The Ballad of Smokey the Bear
Cricket on the Hearth
The Mouse on the Mayflower
The Little Drummer Boy
Frosty the Snowman
The Mad, Mad, Mad Comedians
Santa Claus Is Comin' To Town
Here Comes Peter Cottontail
The Enchanted World of Danny Kaye: The Emperor's New Clothes
Mad Mad Mad Monsters
Willie Mays and the Say-Hey Kid
The Red Baron
That Girl in Wonderland
'Twas the Night Before Christmas
The Year Without a Santa Claus
The First Christmas: The Story of the First Christmas Snow
The First Easter Rabbit
Frosty's Winter Wonderland
Rudolph's Shiny New Year
The Little Drummer Boy, Book II
The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town
The Hobbit
Nestor, the Long-Eared Christmas Donkey
The Stingiest Man in Town
Jack Frost
The Return of the King
Pinocchio's Christmas
The Leprechaun's Christmas Gold
The Flight of Dragons
The Coneheads
The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus
The Wind in the Willows
Feature films
Willy McBean and His Magic Machine
The Daydreamer
The Wacky World of Mother Goose
Mad Monster Party?
King Kong Escapes
Marco
The Last Dinosaur
The Bermuda Depths
Rudolph and Frosty's Christmas in July
The Bushido Blade
The Ivory Ape
The Last Unicorn
The Sins of Dorian Gray
The King and I
Television series
The New Adventures of Pinocchio
Tales of the Wizard of Oz
The King Kong Show
The Smokey Bear Show
The Tomfoolery Show
The Reluctant Dragon & Mr. Toad Show
The Jackson 5ive Show
The Osmonds
Kid Power
Festival of Family Classics
ThunderCats
SilverHawks
The Comic Strip
TigerSharks
See also
Best Christmas Ever
25 Days of Christmas
Filmography
Elf (film)
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Heatmiser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heatmiser"},{"link_name":"stop motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_motion"},{"link_name":"animated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animation"},{"link_name":"Christmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas"},{"link_name":"television special","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_special"},{"link_name":"Rankin/Bass Productions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rankin/Bass_Productions"},{"link_name":"Phyllis McGinley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phyllis_McGinley"},{"link_name":"Shirley Booth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Booth"},{"link_name":"Mickey Rooney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mickey_Rooney"},{"link_name":"Dick Shawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Shawn"},{"link_name":"George S. Irving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_S._Irving"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"ABC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Specials-21"}],"text":"\"Heat Miser\" redirects here. For the American alternative rock band, see Heatmiser.The Year Without a Santa Claus is a 1974 stop motion animated Christmas television special produced by Rankin/Bass Productions. The story is based on Phyllis McGinley's 1956 book of the same name. It is narrated by Shirley Booth (her final acting credit before her retirement from acting) and starring the voices of Mickey Rooney, Dick Shawn, and George S. Irving.[1] It was originally broadcast on December 10, 1974, on ABC.[2]","title":"The Year Without a Santa Claus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Santa Claus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Claus"},{"link_name":"cold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_cold"},{"link_name":"Christmas elf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_elf"},{"link_name":"Mrs. Claus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrs._Claus"},{"link_name":"reindeer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Claus%27s_reindeer"},{"link_name":"southern United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_United_States"},{"link_name":"pound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_shelter"},{"link_name":"North Pole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Pole"},{"link_name":"Mother Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_Nature"},{"link_name":"Blue Christmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Christmas_(song)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Here Comes Santa Claus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Here_Comes_Santa_Claus"}],"text":"Santa Claus wakes up with a cold sometime before Christmas Eve. When the Christmas elf doctor sarcastically says that nobody believes in him anymore, Santa decides to forego his annual Christmas Eve run. Mrs. Claus enlists two Christmas elf brothers named Jingle and Jangle to find evidence of Christmas spirit in hopes of changing Santa's mind.Jingle and Jangle set out with Santa's youngest reindeer Vixen and come upon a small community in the southern United States called Southtown. However, their efforts at finding Christmas spirit are in vain and Vixen is caught by a dog-catcher and taken to the pound.Santa hears Vixen is missing and travels to Southtown while disguised as a civilian named \"Klaus.\" While there, he meets a boy named Ignatius \"Iggy\" Thistlewhite and his family. When Santa leaves to retrieve Vixen, Iggy realizes his true identity and resolves to help Jingle and Jangle.The town's police officer refers Jingle, Jangle, and Iggy to the town's mayor who laughs at their story. He agrees to free Vixen if they can prove they are elves by making it snow in Southtown on Christmas.Iggy joins Mrs. Claus when she arrives to pick up Jingle and Jangle. Together, they visit the Miser Brothers.Unbeknownst to Mrs. Claus, Jingle and Jangle, or Iggy, Santa Claus has already rescued Vixen from the dog pound and is on his way up to the North Pole.They ask Snow Miser, who controls cold weather, to send snow to Southtown for a day. He is agreeable, but says he cannot as it is part of Heat Miser's territory. They then ask Heat Miser who pretends that he will comply if Snow Miser turns the North Pole over to him in exchange. He actually plans to pick another fight with his more popular brother and it works. Mrs. Claus states that she has no other choice but to \"go over their heads\" as the Miser Brothers blame each other for her going to see their mother. This leads to Mrs. Claus visiting Mother Nature who convinces her sons to compromise.As Christmas approaches, the world's children send their own presents to Santa, setting off international headlines. One little girl is saddened by Santa's decision to skip his Christmas Eve journey, and she writes that she'll have a \"Blue Christmas\".Touched by the outpouring of caring and generosity, Santa awakens from a sleep and declares \"I've dreamed unhappy things!\" (contributing to a theory that the entire film was a dream[3]). He then gets up from his bed to dress himself, hitches his reindeer up and his sleigh loaded with gifts, and he takes off to make his Christmas Eve journey after all, bringing the joy of Christmas to the children of the world.On Christmas Day, the children of Southtown were very happy (\"Here Comes Santa Claus\") with their presents they found under their trees; Ignatius even discovers that he's been given a bicycle, while he gives his parents their presents.As the special closes, Mrs. Claus remarks that somehow, \"yearly, newly, faithfully and truly somehow Santa Claus always comes\", and the soundtrack's chorus sings \"There'll Be No Year Without a Santa Claus\".","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shirley Booth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Booth"},{"link_name":"Mickey Rooney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mickey_Rooney"},{"link_name":"Dick Shawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Shawn"},{"link_name":"George S. Irving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_S._Irving"},{"link_name":"Bob McFadden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_McFadden"},{"link_name":"Bradley Bolke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradley_Bolke"}],"text":"Shirley Booth as Mrs. Claus\nMickey Rooney as Santa Claus\nDick Shawn as Snow Miser\nGeorge S. Irving as Heat Miser\nBob McFadden as Jingle Bells and Elf Doctor\nBradley Bolke as Jangle Bells and Police Officer\nRhoda Mann as Mother Nature and Mrs. Thistlewhite\nRon Marshall as Mr. Thistlewhite and Mayor of Southtown\nColin Duffy as Ignatius \"Iggy\" Thistlewhite\nChristine Winter as the Blue Christmas Girl\nThe Wee Winter Singers as the Children Choir","title":"Voice cast"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sleigh Ride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleigh_Ride"},{"link_name":"Blue Christmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Christmas_(song)"},{"link_name":"Here Comes Santa Claus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Here_Comes_Santa_Claus"}],"text":"\"Sleigh Ride\" (instrumental)\n\"The Year Without a Santa Claus\"\n\"I Could Be Santa Claus\"\n\"I Believe in Santa Claus\"\n\"It's Gonna Snow Right Here in Dixie\"\n\"The Snow Miser Song\"\n\"The Heat Miser Song\"\n\"Blue Christmas\"\n\"Sleigh Ride\" (instrumental)\n\"Here Comes Santa Claus\"\n\"The Year Without a Santa Claus (reprise)\"","title":"Songs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Year_Wihtout_a_Santa_Claus_ad.jpg"},{"link_name":"ABC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"Freeform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeform_(TV_channel)"},{"link_name":"25 Days of Christmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25_Days_of_Christmas"},{"link_name":"AMC: American Movie Classics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMC_(TV_channel)"},{"link_name":"Best Christmas Ever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Christmas_Ever_(TV_programming_block)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Warner Bros. Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Bros._Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Rankin/Bass Productions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rankin/Bass_Productions"}],"text":"An advertisement for a rerun of the special in 1998.The special premiered in 1974 on ABC and aired annually on Freeform during its 25 Days of Christmas programming block until 2017. As of 2018, AMC: American Movie Classics currently airs the special uncut as part of the Best Christmas Ever block.[4] Warner Bros. Entertainment currently distributes the special through their ownership of the post-1974 Rankin/Bass Productions library.","title":"Television rights"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"VHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHS"},{"link_name":"Vestron Video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestron_Video"},{"link_name":"Family Home Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Home_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Warner Home Video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Home_Video"},{"link_name":"DVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD"},{"link_name":"Blu-ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blu-ray"}],"text":"The special was first released on VHS by Vestron Video on September 5, 1991, as part of their Christmas Classics Series, which is distributed by Family Home Entertainment. Warner Home Video released the special on VHS on September 2, 1992, and re-released it on VHS on September 28, 1999. The special was then released on DVD on October 31, 2000, and re-released on the Deluxe Edition DVD on October 2, 2007. Warner Home Video released the special on Blu-ray on October 5, 2010, making it the first Rankin/Bass production to be released on that format.","title":"Home video"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rudolph's Shiny New Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph%27s_Shiny_New_Year"},{"link_name":"Nestor, The Long-Eared Christmas Donkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestor,_The_Long-Eared_Christmas_Donkey"}],"sub_title":"DVD details","text":"Release date: October 31, 2000 (Original DVD), January 17, 2004 (30th Anniversary Edition DVD), October 2, 2007 (Deluxe Edition DVD), October 5, 2010 (Blu-ray)\nFull Screen\nRegion: 1\nAspect Ratios: 1.33:1\nAudio tracks: English\nSpecial Features:\nRudolph's Shiny New Year\nNestor, The Long-Eared Christmas Donkey\nStop Motion 101 (Deluxe Edition Exclusive)\nWe Are Santa's Elves: Profiling Arthur Rankin Jr. & Jules Bass (Deluxe Edition Exclusive)","title":"Home video"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"live-action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live-action"},{"link_name":"NBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"A live-action remake of The Year Without a Santa Claus premiered on NBC on December 11, 2006, and was released on DVD the following day.[5] It follows largely the same plot as the original special.Paul Mavis, for Drunk TV, wrote, \"A live-action remake from The Wolper Company and Warner Bros. of the 1974 Rankin/Bass stop motion animated classic, The Year Without a Santa Claus is a nauseating, angry, joyless little holiday confection sure to poison any child unlucky enough to chance upon it. This hate-filled stocking stuffer has nothing but contempt for its intended audience, promoting the worst possible beliefs about people, while cloaking itself, incredibly, in the fake guise of a meaningful lesson about the holidays: the gall that the cretinous makers of this film have is really quite audacious.\"[6]","title":"Live-action remake"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Goodman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Goodman"},{"link_name":"Santa Claus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Claus"},{"link_name":"Delta Burke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Burke"},{"link_name":"Mrs. Claus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrs._Claus"},{"link_name":"Michael McKean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_McKean"},{"link_name":"Harvey Fierstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_Fierstein"},{"link_name":"Ethan Suplee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethan_Suplee"},{"link_name":"Eddie Griffin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie_Griffin"},{"link_name":"Chris Kattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Kattan"},{"link_name":"Dylan Minnette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dylan_Minnette"},{"link_name":"Billy Slaughter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Slaughter"},{"link_name":"Carol Kane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_Kane"},{"link_name":"Mother Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_Nature"},{"link_name":"Carson Kressley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carson_Kressley"},{"link_name":"Laura Schlessinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Schlessinger"},{"link_name":"Jack LaLanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_LaLanne"}],"sub_title":"Cast","text":"John Goodman as Santa Claus\nDelta Burke as Mrs. Claus\nMichael McKean as Snow Miser\nHarvey Fierstein as Heat Miser\nEthan Suplee as Jingle Bells\nEddie Griffin as Jangle Bells\nChris Kattan as Sparky\nDylan Minnette as Ignatius \"Iggy\" Thistlewhite\nBilly Slaughter as Nerd Elf\nCarol Kane as Mother Nature\nCarson Kressley as the elf costumer\nLaura Schlessinger, \"Dr. Laura\", as herself\nJack LaLanne as Hercules","title":"Live-action remake"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A Miser Brothers' Christmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Miser_Brothers%27_Christmas"},{"link_name":"Warner Bros. Animation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Bros._Animation"},{"link_name":"Cuppa Coffee Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuppa_Coffee_Studios"},{"link_name":"stop-motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop-motion"},{"link_name":"Mickey Rooney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mickey_Rooney"},{"link_name":"George S. Irving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_S._Irving"},{"link_name":"Juan Chioran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Chioran"},{"link_name":"Catherine Disher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Disher"},{"link_name":"Dick Shawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Shawn"},{"link_name":"Shirley Booth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Booth"}],"text":"A sequel, titled A Miser Brothers' Christmas, was produced in 2008 by Warner Bros. Animation and Cuppa Coffee Studios, and it also used stop-motion animation. Mickey Rooney, age 88, reprised his role as Santa Claus, and George S. Irving, age 86, reprised his role as Heat Miser. Juan Chioran and Catherine Disher replaced Dick Shawn and Shirley Booth as Snow Miser and Mrs. Claus, respectively, Shawn and Booth having died prior to the film's production.","title":"Sequel"}]
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[{"image_text":"An advertisement for a rerun of the special in 1998.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/52/The_Year_Wihtout_a_Santa_Claus_ad.jpg/220px-The_Year_Wihtout_a_Santa_Claus_ad.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"List of Christmas films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Christmas_films"},{"title":"Santa Claus in film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Claus_in_film"},{"title":"List of animated feature films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animated_feature_films"},{"title":"List of stop-motion films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stop-motion_films"},{"title":"List of Rankin/Bass Productions films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Rankin/Bass_Productions_films"}]
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[{"reference":"Crump, William D. (2019). Happy Holidays—Animated! A Worldwide Encyclopedia of Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa and New Year's Cartoons on Television and Film. McFarland & Co. pp. 348–349. ISBN 9781476672939.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781476672939","url_text":"9781476672939"}]},{"reference":"Woolery, George W. (1989). Animated TV Specials: The Complete Directory to the First Twenty-Five Years, 1962-1987. Scarecrow Press. pp. 461–463. ISBN 0-8108-2198-2. Retrieved March 27, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/animatedtvspecia0000wool/page/460/mode/2up","url_text":"Animated TV Specials: The Complete Directory to the First Twenty-Five Years, 1962-1987"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8108-2198-2","url_text":"0-8108-2198-2"}]},{"reference":"RoyalBlueWriter (December 1, 2020). \"'The Year Without A Santa Claus' is all Santa's dream\". r/FanTheories. Reddit. Retrieved December 18, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reddit.com/r/FanTheories/comments/k4wpt5/the_year_without_a_santa_claus_is_all_santas_dream/","url_text":"\"'The Year Without A Santa Claus' is all Santa's dream\""}]},{"reference":"\"AMC PRESENTS ITS LARGEST SLATE OF HOLIDAY PROGRAMMING WITH 'AMC BEST CHRISTMAS EVER'\". November 8, 2018. Retrieved November 27, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amcnetworks.com/press-releases/amc-presents-its-largest-slate-of-holiday-programming-with-amc-best-christmas-ever/","url_text":"\"AMC PRESENTS ITS LARGEST SLATE OF HOLIDAY PROGRAMMING WITH 'AMC BEST CHRISTMAS EVER'\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/animatedtvspecia0000wool/page/460/mode/2up","external_links_name":"Animated TV Specials: The Complete Directory to the First Twenty-Five Years, 1962-1987"},{"Link":"https://www.reddit.com/r/FanTheories/comments/k4wpt5/the_year_without_a_santa_claus_is_all_santas_dream/","external_links_name":"\"'The Year Without A Santa Claus' is all Santa's dream\""},{"Link":"https://www.amcnetworks.com/press-releases/amc-presents-its-largest-slate-of-holiday-programming-with-amc-best-christmas-ever/","external_links_name":"\"AMC PRESENTS ITS LARGEST SLATE OF HOLIDAY PROGRAMMING WITH 'AMC BEST CHRISTMAS EVER'\""},{"Link":"https://www.wbshop.com/on/demandware.store/Sites-WB-Site/default/Product-Show?pid=1000003962","external_links_name":"The Year Without a Santa Claus starring John Goodman, Chris Kattan, Ethan Suplee, Eddie Griffin, Carol Kane from Warner Home Video on DVD – Widescreen, Original Aspect Ratio – 1.78"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110816123347/http://www.wbshop.com/on/demandware.store/Sites-WB-Site/default/Product-Show?pid=1000003962","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://drunktv.net/2017/12/22/the-year-without-a-santa-claus-2006-nominee-for-worst-ever-christmas-movie/","external_links_name":"https://drunktv.net/2017/12/22/the-year-without-a-santa-claus-2006-nominee-for-worst-ever-christmas-movie/"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0072424/","external_links_name":"The Year Without a Santa Claus"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111126032655/http://blogcritics.org/video/article/movie-review-in-praise-of-the/","external_links_name":"Review by critic Jayson Harsin at Blogcritics Magazine"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_176
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Texas State Highway 176
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["1 History","2 Major intersections","3 References"]
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State highway in Texas
State Highway 176Andrews HighwaySH 176, highlighted in redRoute informationMaintained by TxDOTLength90.00 mi (144.84 km)Existed1953 (1990)–presentMajor junctionsWest end NM 176 near Eunice, NMMajor intersections US 385 in Andrews SH 349 in TarzanEast end I-20 in Big Spring
LocationCountryUnited StatesStateTexasCountiesAndrews, Martin, Howard
Highway system
Highways in Texas
Interstate
US
State
Toll
Loops
Spurs
FM/RM
Park
Rec
← SH 175→ SH 177
State Highway 176 (SH 176) is a Texas state highway running from the New Mexico state line east to Big Spring. It is most commonly known as the Andrews Highway.
History
SH 176 was originally designated on September 22, 1932, as a connector route between Tyler and the Gregg–Rusk county line. On May 23, 1933, SH 176 was extended to Kilgore. On September 26, 1939, this route had been reassigned to SH 31 when its path was shifted south.
The current routing was first cosigned, but not designated, on September 29, 1953, concurrent with FM 87. On August 29, 1990, this route was officially designated, canceling FM 87.
Major intersections
CountyLocationmikmDestinationsNotes
Andrews0.000.00 NM 176 westContinuation into New Mexico
Andrews30.4048.92 SH 115 west – KermitWestern terminus of concurrency with SH 115
31.5050.69 US 385 – Andrews
33.9054.56 SH 115 east – PatriciaEastern terminus of concurrency with SH 115
MartinTarzan53.6086.26 SH 349 – Lamesa, MidlandDiamond interchange
Lenorah74.60120.06 SH 137 – Lamesa, Stanton
HowardBig Spring93.00149.67 I-20 – Colorado City, MidlandExit 176 on I-20
1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi Concurrency terminus
References
^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 176". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.
^ "TxDOT plans road work in Andrews County". Oaoa.com. February 1, 2017.
^ "Minutes" (PDF). publicdocs.txdot.gov. Texas Department of Transportation. September 19, 1932. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2018. Retrieved May 1, 2023.
^ "Minutes" (PDF). publicdocs.txdot.gov. Texas Department of Transportation. May 22, 1933. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 2, 2018. Retrieved May 1, 2023.
^ "Minutes" (PDF). publicdocs.txdot.gov. Texas Department of Transportation. August 29, 1990. Retrieved May 1, 2023.
^ a b Google (January 21, 2016). "Texas State Highway 176" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved January 21, 2016.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Texas state highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_state_highway"},{"link_name":"New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"Big Spring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Spring,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"State Highway 176 (SH 176) is a Texas state highway running from the New Mexico state line east to Big Spring. It is most commonly known as the Andrews Highway.[2]","title":"Texas State Highway 176"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tyler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyler,_TX"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Kilgore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilgore,_TX"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"SH 31","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_31_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"FM 87","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_87"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"SH 176 was originally designated on September 22, 1932, as a connector route between Tyler and the Gregg–Rusk county line.[3] On May 23, 1933, SH 176 was extended to Kilgore.[4] On September 26, 1939, this route had been reassigned to SH 31 when its path was shifted south.The current routing was first cosigned, but not designated, on September 29, 1953, concurrent with FM 87. On August 29, 1990, this route was officially designated, canceling FM 87.[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Major intersections"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 176\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0176.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 176\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"\"TxDOT plans road work in Andrews County\". Oaoa.com. February 1, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.oaoa.com/news/traffic_transportation/roads/article_fae90a00-e8d1-11e6-8ef6-b37bea19ac9a.html","url_text":"\"TxDOT plans road work in Andrews County\""}]},{"reference":"\"Minutes\" (PDF). publicdocs.txdot.gov. Texas Department of Transportation. September 19, 1932. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2018. Retrieved May 1, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673819.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180131024721/https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673819.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Minutes\" (PDF). publicdocs.txdot.gov. Texas Department of Transportation. May 22, 1933. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 2, 2018. Retrieved May 1, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673828.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180202071749/https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673828.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Minutes\" (PDF). publicdocs.txdot.gov. Texas Department of Transportation. August 29, 1990. Retrieved May 1, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003687187.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Google (January 21, 2016). \"Texas State Highway 176\" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved January 21, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google","url_text":"Google"},{"url":"https://goo.gl/maps/Rbz7meQ5BRp","url_text":"\"Texas State Highway 176\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Maps","url_text":"Google Maps"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0176.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 176\""},{"Link":"http://www.oaoa.com/news/traffic_transportation/roads/article_fae90a00-e8d1-11e6-8ef6-b37bea19ac9a.html","external_links_name":"\"TxDOT plans road work in Andrews County\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673819.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Minutes\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180131024721/https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673819.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673828.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Minutes\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180202071749/https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673828.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003687187.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Minutes\""},{"Link":"https://goo.gl/maps/Rbz7meQ5BRp","external_links_name":"\"Texas State Highway 176\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trill_(Star_Trek)
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List of Star Trek aliens
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[]
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Extraterrestrials in the science fiction franchise
This Star Trek-related article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in-universe style. Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective. (February 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Star Trek is a science fiction media franchise that began with Gene Roddenberry's launch of the original Star Trek television series in 1966. Its success led to numerous films, novels, comics, and spinoff series. A major motif of the franchise involves encounters with various alien races throughout the galaxy. These fictional alien races are listed here.
Notable Star Trek races include Vulcans, Klingons, and the Borg. Some aspects of these fictional races became well known in American pop culture, such as the Vulcan salute and the Borg phrase, "Resistance is futile."
Star Trek aliens have been featured in Time magazine, which described how they are essential to the franchise's narrative.
Contents
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Notes
External links
Key
Abbreviation
Title
Date(s)
Medium
TC
"The Cage" (Star Trek: The Original Series)
1966
TV
TOS
Star Trek: The Original Series
1966–1969
TV
TAS
Star Trek: The Animated Series
1973–1974
TV
TMP
Star Trek: The Motion Picture
1979
film
TWOK
Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan
1982
film
TSFS
Star Trek III: The Search for Spock
1984
film
TVH
Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home
1986
film
TFF
Star Trek V: The Final Frontier
1989
film
TUC
Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country
1991
film
TNG
Star Trek: The Next Generation
1987–1994
TV
DS9
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine
1993–1999
TV
GEN
Star Trek Generations
1994
film
VOY
Star Trek: Voyager
1995–2001
TV
FC
Star Trek: First Contact
1996
film
INS
Star Trek: Insurrection
1998
film
NEM
Star Trek: Nemesis
2002
film
ENT
Star Trek: Enterprise
2001–2005
TV
ST09
Star Trek (2009)
2009
film
STID
Star Trek Into Darkness
2013
film
STB
Star Trek Beyond
2016
film
DSC
Star Trek: Discovery
2017–present
TV
SHO
Star Trek: Short Treks
2018–2020
TV
PIC
Star Trek: Picard
2020–2023
TV
LOW
Star Trek: Lower Decks
2020–present
TV
PRO
Star Trek: Prodigy
2021–present
TV
SNW
Star Trek: Strange New Worlds
2022–present
TV
A
Race
Description
Episodes (M = mention only)
Aenar
Andoria, Alpha Quadrant
"United" (ENT), "Strange New Worlds" (SNW)
Aenar, along with the Andorians, inhabit the world of Andoria. In many regards, they are similar to the Andorians in physical appearance. Unlike the Andorians, their skin is light blue/white, they are almost blind, and they have powerful telepathic abilities. Aenar are pacifistic and do not use their mind-reading abilities against the will of another individual. Their blindness does not appear to hinder their abilities.
Aenar government has little structure; leaders of Aenar society are chosen as the need arises, usually when contact with outsiders is called for. The Aenar are generally considered a different ethnicity of the Andorian race, not a separate species.
The Aenar population is about 11,000 in size, and they inhabit the polar region of their world.
Based on Talla, Shran's daughter from "These Are the Voyages..." (ENT), it has been speculated that mixed-race individuals of Andorian and Aenar origin would be a greenish color, perhaps explaining the greenish Andorian seen in Star Trek: The Next Generation.
Andorian
Andoria, Alpha Quadrant
"Journey to Babel" (TOS), "United" (ENT)
Main article: Andorian
Andorians are a humanoid species with blue skin and antennae. They consider themselves a warrior race, contrasting with the pacifist Aenar. They are native to the moon Andoria, which orbits the planet Andor. They were a founding member of the United Federation of Planets.
Angosian
"The Hunted" (TNG)
Usually considered non-violent, Angosian authorities were responsible for genetically and chemically engineering soldiers to fight in their Tarsian Wars. Such process was irreversible, and the 'super soldiers' were considered outcasts and criminals that could not coexist alongside the normal population of Angosian society. As such, they were forced to be permanently confined to a penal settlement on an Angosian moon. A non-canon novel trilogy, Star Trek: The Q Continuum, shows that the Angosians have had some success in later efforts to reintegrate the soldiers, as one now serves on the Enterprise-E.
Antedean
Antede III
"Manhunt" (TNG)
The Antedeans from Antede III is an ichthyohumanoid species that resemble fish with a strong distaste for space flight. Although the Antedeans are a space-going race, space travel is quite traumatic. For individuals to deal with this problem, they induce a catatonic state while in space flight. To awaken from this state takes several hours. Once awakened from this sleep, Antedeans are generally greedy and eat large portions of vermicula.
The Antedean race is divided over whether membership in the Federation is good.
Arcadian
Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home
Arcadians have large, round, doll-like heads and have hair on the left and right sides of their heads with none in the middle. They are a member of the United Federation of Planets with a representative on the Federation Council. They joined at least as early as the 2280s.
Arcturian
Arcturus
Star Trek: The Motion Picture
Arcturians are known for their clones, which have the appearance of melted skin and hail from the densely populated world Arcturus.
Nothing has been revealed about them in dialogue, so their backstory (by Fred Phillips and Robert Fletcher) is considered semi-canon.
Axanar
"Fight or Flight" (ENT), "Whom Gods Destroy" (TOS) M
The 'Axanar are the first extraterrestrial race befriended by Earth people aboard the NX-01 Enterprise.
One of James T. Kirk's earliest commendations is the Palm Leaf of Axanar Peace Mission, following the Battle of Axanar; However, the exact nature of the conflict is unrevealed; it is revealed in the episode "Whom Gods Destroy" that Starfleet Captain Garth of Izar achieved a great victory on behalf of the Federation, and his strategies became required reading at Starfleet Academy (since Kirk himself studied these strategies, the Battle of Axanar must thus have occurred well before Kirk entered Starfleet Academy in 2250, which was itself almost 20 years before "Whom Gods Destroy"). Kirk claims that the Axanar Peace Mission "topped with a greater one" and preserved the civilization that made Spock and himself "brothers," implying that the mission may have contributed to healing a severe rift in the Federation at that time.
B
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Bajoran
Bajor (M-class)
"Ensign Ro" (TNG) "Emissary" (DS9)
Main article: Bajoran
The Bajorans are a humanoid species with characteristic nose creases. They live on the planet Bajor. They are deeply spiritual people who worship The Prophets. They are enemies of the Cardassians, who occupied Bajor and treated the Bajorans as enslaved in the early 24th century.
Time Magazine called the Bajorans "a proud people struggling to recover from another species's hostile occupation of their world."
Ba'ku
Unknown, The Briar Patch
Star Trek: Insurrection
For broader coverage of this topic, see Star Trek: Insurrection § Plot.
The Ba'ku people were a technologically advanced humanoid civilization. In the early 21st century, the race developed the means of building weapons of mass destruction and was on the brink of self-annihilation. A small enlightened group of the Ba'ku people escaped this horror and found an isolated planet.
This group of Ba'ku followed a simple way of life and disdained the use of technology. (As shown in the film Star Trek: Insurrection, however, the Ba'ku still possessed some form of technology and the ability to use it in emergencies since they had attempted to repair the damaged Data.) At first, the Ba'ku were unaware of the metaphasic radiation in the planet's rings, which caused their aging process to decelerate significantly, although it was later discovered and cherished.
The Ba'ku society consisted of strong bonds between individuals, as fewer than a thousand lived in a village. Their more straightforward way of life eventually prompted some of the younger Ba'ku villagers – who wanted to explore the galaxy with off-landers – to rebel against their elders, and an attempt was made to take over the village. When they were unsuccessful, they were exiled and eventually became the Son'a people.
In 2375, peace on the Ba'ku planet was restored, and several members of the Son'a returned to their families.
Bandi
Deneb IV, fourth planet in the Alpha Cygni system
"Encounter at Farpoint" (TNG)
The Bandi are a humanoid species native to the planet Deneb IV in the Alpha Quadrant. The Bandi applied to the United Federation of Planets for membership in 2364 but were rejected because they had captured and enslaved an alien life form.
Perhaps purely by coincidence, "Bandi" was the name of a vaguely ursine empathic parasite in an early Star Trek story premise by David Gerrold, who was involved in the development of Star Trek: The Next Generation and novelized "Encounter at Farpoint."
Ba'ul
Kaminar
"The Sound of Thunder" (DSC)
Ba'ul are a race who use their technological superiority to feast upon the Kelpien people.
Berellian
Unknown
"Redemption" (TNG) M
When Lieutenant Commander Data takes temporary command of the USS Sutherland during the Klingon Civil War, his first officer on the Sutherland, Lieutenant Commander Thomas Hobson, argues that, as an android, Data is out of place commanding a Federation starship. Hobson compares the presumed incompatibility of Data's nature and his assigned duty (or function) as a Starfleet commander to that presented by a hypothesized Klingon counselor or Berellian engineer; "they're just not suited for those positions."
Benzite
Benzar
"Coming of Age", "A Matter of Honor" (TNG)
Benzites are a humanoid race from the planet Benzar, a member of the United Federation of Planets.
Benzites possess smooth, hairless skin; they may range in color from bluish-purple to green-blue. A thick protrusion of the Benzite skull extends down over the face, displaying a prominent nasal lobe and brow. Two fish-like barbels droop down from above the upper lip. Benzites are highly resistant to poisons and other harmful substances. They can digest and derive nutrition from almost any organic compound. All Benzites from the same geostructure are physically similar, so much so that they are indistinguishable from a non-Benzite.
Betazoid
Betazed
"Encounter at Farpoint" (TNG) "Tin Man" "Caretaker" (VOY) "Empathological Fallacies" (LOW)
The Betazoid are a humanoid species originating from the planet Betazed, a member of the United Federation of Planets. They are telepathic. Star Trek: The Next Generation features Counsellor Deanna Troi, a half-Betazoid half-human, as a prominent cast member and part of the bridge crew. She is featured in almost all TNG episodes and movies, and several episodes focus on the Betazoid people. These include shows with her mother, Lwaxana Troi. Her romantic interests, family, and personal life are plot elements in many Star Trek: The Next Generation episodes throughout the series. Episodes usually feature Troi using her telepathic abilities to help the crew better understand enemies and allies.
Customs: The word Imzadi, meaning 'Beloved,' is often used between a Betazoid and their partner, whether they are of the same species or not. Betazoid weddings are conducted with the bride, groom, and several participants completely naked. The newlyweds possibly remain so for the duration of the honeymoon (TNG episode "Haven," novel The Persistence of Memory). A Betazoid woman's sex drive quadruples (at the least) when she reaches a certain age (TNG episode "Manhunt").
Bolian
Bolarus IX
"Conspiracy" (TNG) "Emissary" (DS9) "Caretaker" (VOY)
Bolians are humanoids with blue skin and a small ridge running from the back of their heads to their noses. They were named after a regular Star Trek director, Cliff Bole. As an in-joke, there have been references to the "Cliffs of Bole" on their planet. Neelix remarks that malfunctioning toilets will mainly affect the Bolians. During medical examinations, 24th-century doctors commonly ask if a human patient has had sexual relations with a Bolian.
The Bolian world has been an active member of the Federation since 2320. Aside from contributing to the ranks of Starfleet, they have a delegation within the Diplomatic Corps. In 2366, the Bolian government was maintaining an uneasy truce with the Moropa (TNG: "Allegiance").
The Bolians are known to make crystal steel that is highly prized. They also own and operate the famous Bank of Bolius. In 2373, the Bolian government authorized the Ferengi Gaming Commission to manage their gambling emporiums.
During the Bolian Middle Ages, the Bolians developed the medical philosophy known as the "Double Effect Principle" about euthanasia. This form of assisted suicide states that while euthanasia has the effect of relieving suffering, it also has the effect of causing death. Bolian marriages often involve more than two members. Any additional spouse is referred to as a "co-husband" or "co-wife." Bolian blues is a highly appreciated musical genre among Federation species.
Borg
Unknown
"Q Who?" (TNG) "The Best of Both Worlds" (TNG) "I, Borg" (TNG) "Descent."
(TNG) "Scorpion"
(VOY) "Unimatrix Zero" (VOY) "Endgame" (VOY) "Regeneration" (ENT) Star Trek: First Contact
Main article: Borg (Star Trek)
While encountered in the Enterprise episode "Regeneration," the Borg, a pseudo-species of cybernetically enhanced individuals, were not fully identified as the single greatest threat to the Federation until the events of The Next Generation episode "Q Who?".
The Borg were discovered to be a group without individuality, where every member is a part of a collective consciousness in an attempt to achieve perfection. They assimilate any species they come into contact with for either biological aspects (for example, Talaxians would be incorporated for their dense physical structure, helpful in producing solid and resilient drones) or technological aspects (a species that has developed advanced engines or weaponry would be a sufficiently desirable target for assimilation) all in an attempt to improve further the overall perfection of the Borg as a whole.
The Borg have encountered and assimilated thousands of species, quantity most notable by their designation of Species 8472, although more may have been added to the total since that encounter.
The Borg are not a species but a collection of species. In their assimilated state, most races are altered or augmented with cybernetic enhancements that make them all look similar or instantly identifiable as Borg, making them a pseudo-species.
Encounters with the Borg have varied in type, from the disastrous defense of the Wolf 359 system ("The Best of Both Worlds"), in which many Federation ships were lost, the successful repelling of two Borg cubes from Sector 001 on two separate occasions ("The Best of Both Worlds" "Star Trek: First Contact") and the infiltration, usage of and destruction of a Borg transwarp hub (a critical part of their interstellar menace) by the USS Voyager ("Endgame").
Breen
Breen, Alpha Quadrant
"Season 7 (1998–99)" (DS9) "Trusted Sources" (LOW)
Main article: Breen (Star Trek)
The Breen are a mysterious race who joined the Dominion during the Dominion War.
Brikar
Unknown
Season 1 (PROD)
Brikar are a large, rock-like species. First-known examples are both young: 8-year-old Rok-Tahk from Star Trek: Prodigy, and young adult Zak Kebron from the Star Trek: New Frontier series of novels. According to the novelization, Brikar experience puberty later than humans.
C
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Cardassian
Cardassia Prime, Alpha Quadrant
Introduced in "The Wounded" (TNG); many TNG/DS9/VOY appearances.
Main article: Cardassian
The Cardassians are enemies of the United Federation of Planets and are mentioned in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Star Trek: The Next Generation, and Star Trek: Voyager. They have noticeable ridges along their foreheads and necks and a crest on their foreheads, earning them the nickname, Spoonheads. Their government is a military dictatorship.
Production design: Their makeup design was done by Michael Westmore, and their costumes by Robert Blackman.
Major Cardassian characters: Garak, Gul Dukat.
Changeling
Unknown, Gamma Quadrant
"The Next Generation". (PIC). Season 3. Episode 1."Disengage". (PIC). Season 3. Episode 2."Seventeen Seconds". (PIC). Season 3. Episode 3."No Win Scenario". (PIC). Season 3. Episode 4. Odo, Seasons 1–7 (DS9)
A race of fluid shapeshifters, who founded the Dominion by genetically engineering organisms to operate the military and logistics. These organisms call their rulers the Founders, who refer to most humanoid species as "solids."
D
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Deltan
Unknown
Star Trek: The Motion Picture (TOS)
Humanoids from Delta IV. They are assumed to have superior attraction characteristics. For them to serve in Starfleet, an oath of celibacy must be recorded in Star Fleet records.
Denobulan
Denobula, Alpha Quadrant
"Broken Bow" (ENT)
Denobulans are a Humanoid species that hail from the planet of Denobula of the Denobula Triaxa system. Denobulans only require 144 hours of sleep per year, although some Denobulans, such as Doctor Phlox of the Enterprise NX-01, can sleep as little as 48 hours per year. It is customary for adult Denobulans to have three spouses each. Denobulans also have ridges running down their forehead, cheeks, and spine.
Dosi
Dosi II, Gamma Quadrent
"Rules of Acquisition" (DS9)
A Humanoid species from Dosi II known for their commerce practices and aggression. The main producer of tulaberry wine.
Douwd
Unknown
"The Survivors" (TNG)
Immortal energy beings with vast powers. Only one is known to exist, choosing to live alone in human form on the planet Delta Rana IV. That one committed xenocide against the Husnock.
According to Time Magazine, Captain Picard found the Douwd he met an alien "being of extraordinary power and conscience" and felt they should be left alone.
E
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Edosian
Edos
Edosians (aka Edoans) are a race of sentient tripedal beings. Edosians have an orange complexion, two yellow eyes, three arms, and three dog-like legs. Navigator Lieutenant Arex was introduced in Star Trek: The Animated Series, but his planet of origin, Edos, was mentioned only in the background material. Passing references to Edosian flora and fauna have been made in episodes of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and Star Trek: Enterprise. In some tie-in novels and short stories, Arex is mentioned as a Triexian, with the Edosians being a near-identical race.
El-Aurian
El-Auria, Delta Quadrant
"Rivals" (DS9)
El-Aurians (referred to as a Race of Listeners by Dr. Tolian Soran, the El-Aurian antagonist in Star Trek Generations) are a humanoid race first introduced in the second season of Star Trek: The Next Generation with the character Guinan. The species was named in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Rivals."
El-Aurians appear outwardly identical to humans and have a variety of ethnic types, with both dark- and light-skinned members of the race being shown in various Star Trek movies and television episodes. They can live well over 700 years. They are considered a race of listeners and often appear patient and wise.
El-Auria, the El-Aurian homeworld, was located in the Delta Quadrant and was destroyed by the Borg in the mid-23rd century. Few survived, and those who did were scattered throughout the galaxy. Some of the refugees came to the United Federation of Planets.
F
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Image
Description
Ferengi
Ferenginar, Alpha Quadrant
"The Last Outpost" (TNG) and several later episodes Many (DS9) episodes "False Profits" (VOY) "Mugato, Gumato" (LOW) "Parth Ferengi's Heart Place" (LOW)
Main article: Ferengi
At the start of Star Trek: The Next Generation, the Ferengi are considered a mysterious race who care only about profit. They feature as major characters in Deep Space Nine.
One of the noted Ferengi is Quark. The race is known for its Rules of Acquisition, sacred precepts that they try to live by.
G
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Gorn
Unknown, Beta Quadrant
"Arena" (TOS)"The Time Trap" (TAS)"In a Mirror, Darkly Part 2" (ENT) "Memento Mori" (SNW)"Hegemony" (SNW)
Main article: GornThe Gorn are a violent species who are known for kidnapping large groups of people to serve as incubators for their eggs which they implant inside the body, typically killing the individual when the eggs hatch.
Kirk fights with this lizard-like alien in the 1967 "Arena" episode of the original Star Trek series.
Several Gorn ships attack the Enterprise while under Captain Pike's command (SNW).
In 2017, Den of Geek ranked Gorn the 23rd best alien species of the Star Trek franchise.
H
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Hirogen
Unknown, Delta Quadrant
"Message in a Bottle"(VOY)"Hunters" (VOY)"Prey" (VOY)"The Killing Game" Parts 1 & 2 (VOY)"Tsunkatse" (VOY)"Flesh and Blood" Parts 1 & 2 (VOY)
The Hirogen are a violent Delta quadrant species encountered by the USS Voyager. The Hirogen culture is based around hunting other sentient species, whom they regard as "prey." They are humanoid but larger than humans.
Reception
In 2017, ScreenRant ranked the Hirogen the 10th most bizarre aliens in the Star Trek franchise up to that time.
Horta
Janus VI, Alpha Quadrant
"The Devil in the Dark" (TOS)
These are silicon-based life forms that eat rock on the planet Janus VI. The appearance of the only Horta shown in the original series Star Trek episode "The Devil in the Dark," was that of a lump with gray and red all over with no discernable features, looking very much like a giant rock.
Every 50,000 years, the entire species die off, except for one mother, who lays thousands of eggs and protects them from danger. In that episode, the creature clashes with a mining colony due to a misunderstanding.
I
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Illyrian
Illyria
"Damage" (ENT)
"Ghosts of Illyria" (SNW)
"Ad Astra per Aspera" (SNW)
The Illyrians are a species first encountered by the Enterprise NX-01. They are a race that holds genetic augmentation as a tradition, with their species adapting themselves genetically to be able to survive almost anywhere.
J
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Jem'Hadar
Unknown, Gamma Quadrant
"The Jem'Hadar" (DS9); Star Trek: Deep Space Nine passim
The Jem'Hadar feature in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, first introduced in the episode "The Jem'Hadar". They are the shock troops of the powerful Dominion, located in the Gamma Quadrant. Genetically engineered for strength and resolve, they are also short-lived and believe that "victory is life". They are bred to perceive the Founders – enigmatic shape shifters who rule the massive Dominion – as gods and are incapable of harming them. The Jem'Hadar are noted as being able to camouflage themselves with their surroundings and depend upon the drug Ketracel White, a substance made and distributed by the Founders as a means of control; their ships have no chairs, replicators, or medical facilities. The Jem'Hadar's numbers are unknown, but they are produced by the thousands as needed.
Conceived as "more than just another fearsome alien", the Deep Space Nine makeup department searched for concepts depicting "toughness and resiliency" in the design of the Jem'Hadar. The final design was based on a rhinoceros, with some added ceratopian traits. Originally designed on the premise that they were all clones, the first Jem'Hadar seen onscreen were all made to look identical to one another. However, as they became more deeply woven into the storylines, each Jem'Hadar was given a distinctive look.
In 2017, ScreenRant ranked the Jem'Hadar as the 7th most bizarre aliens in Star Trek.
In 2017, Den of Geek ranked the Jem'Hadar the 11th best aliens of the Star Trek franchise.
K
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Kazon
Nomadic
"Caretaker" "State of Flux" "Initiations" "Maneuvers" (VOY)
Main article: Kazon
The Kazon aliens were introduced on Star Trek: Voyager.
Kelpien
Kaminar
The Kelpiens lived on the terrestrial planet Kaminar, the earth from which Commander Saru hailed in Star Trek: Discovery. The Ba'ul suppressed the Kelpiens for many generations. This race used its technological superiority to feast upon the Kelpien people and prevent them from experiencing Va'Harai and gaining greater consciousness. In S2E7 of Discovery, "Light and Shadows," the Kelpiens, with the help of an energy source associated with the Red Angel, all experienced Va'Harai. They lost their innate fear of the Ba'ul. After that, they plan to live in peace with their former tormentors.
Klingon
Kronos, Beta Quadrant
Introduced in "Errand of Mercy" (TOS)
Main article: Klingon
The Klingons are a warrior race with a strict honor code. Their popularity is strong for a fictional race, and they had real language written for them that is spoken in the real world, unique among science fiction aliens.
Although the Klingons look very human-like in the original series, they underwent a design change for The Next Generation, explained in the show as a massive genetic alteration that added the iconic ridged foreheads.
Kzinti
Kzin
"The Slaver Weapon" (TAS)
Main article: Kzinti
The Kzinti are feline warriors that appear in the TAS episode The Slaver Weapon, who originated in Larry Niven's Known Space universe. The Kzinti had four wars with humanity. According to Sulu, the last one was 200 years before their appearance in the episode. In the STP episode Nepenthe, Riker says that Kzinti are present on the titular planet.
L
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Lanthanite
Unknown
Introduced in "The Broken Circle" (SNW)
The Lanthanites were introduced in the person of Chief Engineer Pelia in the first episode of the second season of Star Trek: Strange New Worlds. Long-lived, they are noted for having surreptitiously been present, unnoticed, on Earth until the 22nd-century. They serve at Star Fleet Academy and in the fleet.
O
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Organian
Organia, Alpha Quadrant
"Errand of Mercy" (TOS)"Observer Effect" (ENT)
The Organians are incorporeal energy creatures ("pure energy, pure thought"). After the climax of the episode "Errand of Mercy," Spock comments that they are "as far above us on the evolutionary scale as we are above the amoeba." They assumed humanoid form to "interact" with the Federation representatives and the Klingons. They render all weapons belonging to the opposing parties inoperable through extreme heat and then vanish.
The Organians were a race of beings who had evolved into pure conceptual beings, the essence of thought with no human bodies. In some ways, they were similar to Q for power levels and abilities. In the novel Q Strike, the Organians appear to observe a battle between members of the Q Continuum and other seemingly omnipotent beings from the Star Trek universe. The original Q identifies them after being asked by Captain Jean-Luc Picard who they are and is rather dismissive, remarking that "compared to their code of noninvolvement, your Prime Directive is practically an incitement to riot."
The Organians also appeared on Star Trek: Enterprise in the episode "Observer Effect," where they observed members of the crew infected with a silicon-based virus to decide whether or not they should make first contact with humans. They did not technically appear onscreen; they only manifested themselves by possessing the bodies of several members of the Enterprise crew.
In 2017, Den of Geek ranked Organians the 20th best aliens of the Star Trek franchise. In 2020, ScreenRant ranked them the 5th smartest aliens of the Star Trek franchise.
Orion
Orion, Beta Quadrant
"The Cage"(TC)(TAS)(DS9)(VOY)(DIS)(ENT)(LOW)
Main article: Orion (Star Trek)
Orions are a green-skinned, humanoid alien species in the Star Trek universe. An Orion was first portrayed as an illusion in the original Star Trek pilot. She was seen as well in the broadcast series when this original pilot was incorporated into a two-part episode (episodes 11 and 12) in the first season. Orions are also portrayed in Star Trek: The Animated Series, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Star Trek: Voyager, Star Trek: Discovery, Star Trek: Enterprise, and Star Trek: Lower Decks. Rachel Nichols played Orion Starfleet cadet Gaila in the 2009 Star Trek film.
P
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Pakled
Pakled Planet
"Samaritan Snare" (TNG)"Brothers" (TNG) M"No Small Parts," "The Spy Humongous," "we Duj" (LOW)"First First Contact" (LOW) M.
The Pakled are a species of spacefaring humanoids who obtain technology from other races (rather than developing it themselves), often through trickery. They first appeared in the TNG episode "Samaritan Snare," where the Pakled ship Mondor feigned needing repairs. After Chief Engineer Geordi La Forge was transported to the Mondor and completed repairs, the Pakled captured him and demanded weapons technologies. The Pakled do not appear again but are mentioned in the TNG episode "Brothers" as the Pakleds inadvertently having rescued Data's brother Lore, who was beamed into space at the end of "Datalore." They appeared again in Star Trek: Lower Decks Season 1 episode "No Small Parts" as the antagonists. The Pakleds, having upgraded their ships using scavenged technology from dozens of species, destroy the U.S.S. Solvang, and cause severe damage to the U.S.S. Cerritos, before being chased away by the Cerritos and U.S.S. Titan commanded by Captain William T. Riker.
Q
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Q
Unknown
"Encounter at Farpoint", "Q Who", "Deja Q", "Hide and Q", "Devil's Due", "Qpid", "True Q", "Tapestry", "All Good Things..." (TNG)"Q-Less" (DS9)"Death Wish", "The Q and the Grey", "Q2" (VOY)"Cupid's Errant Arrow" (LOW) M"Veritas" (LOW)
Main article: Q (Star Trek)
The Q is immortal, seemingly omnipotent creatures, all named Q. Q is their collective name and the name of their Continuum. One Q is particularly interested in humanity and enjoys repeatedly causing trouble for Captains Picard and Janeway and once for Sisko. The proper Q form is never seen as they claim other races cannot comprehend it.
The Q was introduced on Star Trek: The Next Generation.
R
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Romulan
Romulus, Beta Quadrant (historically, Vulcan in the Alpha Quadrant)
"Balance of Terror", "The Enterprise Incident (TOS)"The Deadly Years" (TOS) MStar Trek: Nemesis(PIC)
Main article: Romulan
Romulans are humanoid extraterrestrials that appear in the Star Trek television series, where members of their race often serve as antagonists. They are a violent, treacherous offshoot of the Vulcans and rule the militaristic Romulan Empire.
They prominently feature in the film Star Trek: Nemesis.
Reman
Remus, Beta Quadrant
Star Trek: Nemesis"United", "The Aenar" (ENT)
Remans are a humanoid caste related to the Romulans, forced to live as enslaved under the Romulans and work in the hazardous dilithium mines on Remus. They also prominently feature in Star Trek: Nemesis.
S
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Son'a
Unknown, The Briar Patch
Star Trek: Insurrection
Main article: Star Trek: Insurrection
Once members of the neo-luddite race the Ba'ku, the Son'a were exiled from their home planet by their fellows for trying to overthrow the leadership and embracing more advanced technology. Now separated from the rejuvenating properties of the Ba'ku planet, they attempt to avoid death through medical procedures. The Son'a use of technology, including weaponry, was banned within the Federation. Nonetheless, in 2375 the Federation allied with the Son'a to take advantage of their technology to gather rejuvenating 'metaphasic particles' emanating from the rings of the Ba'ku planet, which is in Federation space. After the operation, which involved the forced relocation or genocide of the Ba'ku, was called into question and stopped by the crew of the Enterprise, a number of the Son'a reintegrated into the Ba'ku population. Others later joined the Dominion. The Son'a have subjugated two peoples as their slaves: the Ellora and the Tarlac.
Species 8472
Unknown, Fluidic Space
"Scorpion Part 1 & 2", "Prey", "In the Flesh" (VOY) "Unimatrix Zero Part 2", "Someone to Watch Over Me", "The Omega Directive", "Q2" (VOY) M
Main article: Species 8472
Species 8472 appeared in four episodes of Star Trek: Voyager. While passing through Borg space, Voyager encounters Species 8472, a race that surpasses the Borg in combat prowess.
T
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Talaxian
Talax, Delta Quadrant
"Dragon's Teeth", "Jetrel", "Fair Trade", "Homestead", "The Raven", "Investigations", "Basics Part II","Caretaker", "Random Thoughts" (VOY)
On Star Trek: Voyager, the ship's cook Neelix is a Talaxian, first appearing in "Caretaker".
In 2017, Den of Geek ranked Talaxians the 21st best aliens of the Star Trek franchise.
Talosian
Talos IV, Alpha Quadrant
"The Cage", "The Menagerie" (TOS), "If Memory Serves" (DIS)
The Talosians were the first race encountered in the Star Trek franchise.
They are a race that used to be technologically advanced and warp-capable, but a nuclear holocaust devastated their homeworld.
The Talosians are noted for their power of illusions.
In 2017, Den of Geek ranked Talosians the 16th best aliens of the Star Trek franchise.
Tellarite
Tellar Prime, Alpha Quadrant
"Journey to Babel", "Whom Gods destroy" (TOS), "The Time Trap" (TAS), "Carbon Creek", "Babel One", "Dead Stop", "Civilization", "Bounty", "Borderland", "United", "Terra Prime" (ENT), "Dream Catcher", (PRO) "The Red Angel", "Through the Valley of Shadows" (DIS)
The Tellarites have a facial appearance created by having the actors wearing converted pig masks. Culturally, they are known for their love of arguing and blunt, forceful speech, which most other cultures would consider rude; if Tellarite speech is answered in kind, they will typically consider it an honor.
Tellarites did not appear in the TNG-era shows, but on Enterprise they are a significant part of several episodes, becoming one of the founding species of the United Federation of Planets. They also appear in Discovery, in which Gorch, a Tellarite Starfleet admiral, is depicted. The animated series Lower Decks depicted a Tellarite captain in the episode "Moist Vessel." In the animated series Prodigy one of the main characters, Jankom Pog, is a 16-year-old Tellarite.
In 2017, Den of Geek ranked Tellarites the 25th best aliens of the Star Trek franchise.
Tholian
Unknown, Alpha Quadrant
"The Tholian Web" (TOS), In a Mirror, Darkly, " "Future Tense" (ENT)
The Tholians are an extremely xenophobic, non-humanoid hermaphroditic species with a propensity for precision. They first appear in the original series episode, "The Tholian Web", where Spock remarks when fired upon by the Tholians: "The renowned Tholian punctuality." Tholian biology required high temperatures around 480 Kelvin (207 °C, 404 °F). They could tolerate lower temperatures for a brief period; if they were exposed to temperatures around 380 Kelvin or less, their carapace would crack. This was painful or distressing; a Tholian subjected to such a temperature regime could be coerced to cooperate. In temperatures even lower, a Tholian would freeze solid and shatter.
Tribble
Iota Geminorum IV, Beta Quadrant
"The Trouble with Tribbles" (TOS), "More Tribbles, More Troubles" (TAS), "Trials and Tribble-ations" (DS9), "The Breach" (ENT), "Context is for Kings", "Despite Yourself" (DIS), "The Bounty" (PIC), "No Small Parts (LOW)
Main article: Tribble
Tribbles are a small, harmless species noted primarily for their ability to reproduce extremely quickly; this rapid reproduction creates massive Tribble colonies which can be dangerous to any ecosystem.
Trill
Trill, Alpha Quadrant
The Trill are a humanoid species. A small minority, after a rigorous selection process, are permitted to join with a sentient, intelligent symbiont. The symbiont is long-lived and can pass from host to host, carrying all the prior host's memories, skills, and experiences. Trill symbionts are also capable of joining with human hosts.
The Trill made their debut on television in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "The Host" (May 11, 1991), and were further developed in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. The Trill Jadzia Dax is the 8th host of the symbiont Dax, and together they are one of the main characters of Deep Space Nine for the first six seasons; when Jadzia is killed, Ezri Dax, becomes the next Dax host for the seventh and final season. This species was also briefly represented as a holonovel character corresponding to Ensign Harry Kim on Star Trek: Voyager in "Author, Author" (April 18, 2001).
Adira Tal, a human joined with a Trill symbiont, appears in the third season of Star Trek: Discovery. A Trill doctor, Naáshala Kunamadéstifee, appears in Star Trek: Picard, and several Trill also feature in Lower Decks.
Trill have been studied in analyzing the biology of Star Trek, especially regarding the symbionts.
There are two contrasting concepts for Trill. One is that a symbiont is essentially an alien person; nonetheless, the joined Trill still mixes the original person with the memories and some of the personality of the symbiont. Only a tiny percentage of Trill are joined, and being accepted for the process is considered an honor. For joined Trill, a symbiont's memories, and to some extent personality, are synthesized with the existing Trill's character. Joined Trill have been studied in the philosophies of Star Trek, in particular, whether a person is essentially the sum of their memories (the philosopher Locke's "memory theory"). This concept was explored in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine television episode "Dax." (see Personal identity § Locke's conception)
The contrasting philosophy of the symbiont is called "functionalism," according to Star Trek and Philosophy: The Wrath of Kant, in which people are defined by their actions as opposed to memories. The symbionts have been dismissed as "just memories" rather than an actual person, although in other cases they are described as a "sentient symbiotic organism."
V
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Vidiian
Vidiia Prime, Delta Quadrant
"Phage", "Faces", "Lifesigns", "Deadlock", "Resolutions", "Coda", "Think Tank", "Fury" (VOY)
Main article: Vidiians
The Vidiians are encountered in the Delta Quadrant by Voyager.
Vorta
Kurill Prime, Gamma Quadrant
Seasons 2-7 (DS9)
Vorta are a member race of the Dominion. One family of then-primitive Vorta once saved one of the Changelings, the rulers of the Dominion. For this, they were genetically engineered into an intelligent species thoroughly loyal to the Changelings and, since then, acted as Dominion administrators, field commanders, scientists, and diplomats. They have direct authority over the Jem'Hadar and are tasked with dispensing doses of Ketracel White to them.
In 2017, Den of Geek ranked the Vorta the 15th best aliens of the Star Trek franchise.
Vulcan
Vulcan, Alpha Quadrant
Introduced in "The Cage" (TOS)
Main article: Vulcan (Star Trek)
Vulcans are an advanced, brilliant, warp-capable humanoid species from the planet Vulcan. In the past, they were emotional and highly violent until the philosopher Surak convinced most of them to strive to suppress their emotions. War broke out between Surak's followers and those who refused to accept his teachings. Eventually, the latter left Vulcan; one of these factions became the Romulans.
While modern Vulcans still feel emotions, they consider it shameful to display or be governed by them. They seek to act by logic alone.
X
Race
Home planet
Episodes (M = mention only)
Description
Xindi
Xindus, Delphic Expanse
"The Expanse" (ENT)Season 3 (ENT)Star Trek: Beyond M
XindiStar Trek raceIn-universe informationHome worldXindusLanguageVarious native languagesAffiliationSphere Builders (22nd century), United Federation of Planets (26th century)LeaderGoverned by the Xindi Council
The Xindi /ˈzɪndi/ is the collective term for six fictional races in the science fiction television series Star Trek: Enterprise. The entire third season, broadcast from 2003 to 2004, centered on this group of previously unknown aliens. They are native to the planet Xindus in a region of space known as the Delphic Expanse. They consist of five species resembling familiar Earth animals (a rarity for alien races in Star Trek) and a sixth resembling humans. At first, they appeared as violent enemies wanting no interaction with humanity. Still, the common ground gradually emerged as the crew of the Enterprise discovered that the Xindi were being manipulated into this hostility by the Sphere Builders. Some Xindi became important recurring characters as the 24-episode story arc unfolded.
During the thirteenth live-action film in the series, Star Trek Beyond, the Xindi were mentioned along with the Romulans as aliens that humanity fought wars against in the years leading up to the formation of the Federation. Their defeat and the eventual alliance were the cause behind Edison's mutiny against the Federation, leading him to become the villain Krall.
First appearance
The Xindi's presence was established in the second-season finale of Star Trek: Enterprise, "The Expanse", in which the Xindi launched a probe that attacked Earth in April 2153, killing seven million people in a strip of destruction stretching from Florida to Venezuela. They appeared again in the third-season premiere, "The Xindi," to play a significant role in the primary story arc of season three.
Xindi history
See also: Star Trek: Enterprise season 3
The Xindi are a collective of six intelligent species that evolved simultaneously on the same planet (Xindus). Despite the radically different appearance of all six species, they all share identical ridges on their cheekbones and have very similar DNA. All six of these species were involved in a war lasting about 100 years and ending in the 2030s. Alliances among the Xindi species were forged and changed continuously throughout the war, so much that most Xindi forgot what started it 50–60 years into the fight. Everyone remembered how it ended, however. In desperation, the Insectoids and Reptilians detonated several charges beneath the eight most enormous seismic fissures of the geologically unstable planet Xindus, leading to its destruction and, ultimately, the extinction of the Avian race.
After the war, the Xindi scattered throughout the Expanse into several colonies. They are passionate about establishing a new homeworld and unifying all Xindi. Still, they differ significantly on how to accomplish this and who should hold the ultimate reins of power. The Xindi then spent the early part of 2153 deciding how to confront the threat of humanity and planned a biological weapon based on the human genetic profile. This was ultimately rejected by the Xindi Council (the Reptilians went ahead with the bio-weapon but were eventually foiled), so they worked on a weapon to destroy Earth. (Although they technically succeeded, the timeline in which this occurred was undone.)
In Star Trek Beyond, Krall, formerly Captain Balthazar Edison, is mentioned to have fought the Xindi and is enraged by the idea of making peace with them and other enemies such as the Romulans.
Sphere Builders
The Xindi were pawns in the Temporal Cold War, as interference in their history began shortly after the ending of their civil war, with the appearance of a trans-dimensional alien race who guided them to new homelands and resources. The Xindi came to revere these "Guardians," whom they later understood to be the same species as the "Sphere Builders." These aliens were also similarly revered by the Trianon, who believed that deities, which they called "The Makers," constructed the spheres to transform the expanse into a paradise. This led to a devastating religious civil war, as seen in the episode "Chosen Realm."
The Xindi were also informed by the Guardians, at least as early as 2152, that they would be victims of a genocidal attack from humans in the 26th century. Following their guidance, the Xindi launched a preemptive test strike on Earth as a precursor to a devastating second attack. In Daniels' timeline, Xindi crewmen serve in the Federation in the 26th century, in a battle with humans, and Xindi against the Sphere Builders. With the help of Captain Archer's evidence of future cooperation, the Xindi Council began to split over the issue of whether the Guardians were the real enemy. The split widened when Reptilian Council Member Dolim killed Primate Council Member Degra.
With the help of the Guardians, the Reptilians and Insectoids then took control of the finished Xindi weapon and set on a course for Earth, thus triggering a new civil war. A combined fleet of Arboreals, Primates, and Aquatics pursued the weapon. En route to Earth, a rift appeared in the Reptilian-Insectoid alliance when the Insectoids proposed delaying the destruction of Earth in light of Archer's revelation about the true nature of the Sphere Builders. The Reptilians determined to see the task completed and eliminated the accompanying Insectoid vessel. Arriving near Earth, an Andorian ship, commanded by Shran, suddenly destroyed the Reptilian ship, allowing humans to board the Xindi weapon and destroy it. At the same time, Enterprise was able to destroy the entire sphere network, stopping the spatial anomalies. With the Sphere Builder threat ended, the Xindi Council reconvened (the Reptilians were eventually convinced to return), and the Xindi abandoned their belief in the Guardians and their hostile intent toward humans.
Xindi species
Xindi-Aquatics
Xindi-Aquatics resemble Earth sirenians, swimming underwater and speaking through echolocation. Aquatics have a reputation for taking a long time to make a decision but are more readily convinced by visual evidence. The Xindi have a saying, "It's easier to count the stars than it is for an Aquatic to reach a decision." The appearance of the Aquatics in the series was inspired by the Mosasaurus.
Even though the Aquatics are peaceful, they have a strong military. Their warships resemble large Earth manta rays and are filled with water. At least one section of the ship is sealed and filled with air for land-based races. This room also has a window so the visitors can communicate with the Aquatic crew. Marine vessels can emit a field that disrupts targeting scanners. This can also be applied to protect other ships. However, their boats are very slow and cannot travel much faster than Warp 2. Sunken ships also carry potent weapons and are more than a match for Insectoid and Reptilian ships. Sunken warships are enormous, and one of them was depicted carrying the Enterprise NX-01 to Earth inside a chamber within the vessel after the Xindi weapon was destroyed.
Xindi-Arboreals
Xindi-Arboreals are covered with hair and resemble Earth sloths. They run kemocyte-production facilities throughout the Delphic Expanse. Gralik, a Xindi-Arboreal, gave Degra a shipment of impure kemacite to sabotage the production of the Council's weapon prototype. They have shown the least interest in destroying humanity. Arboreals are also afraid of the water. They are well-known as scientists. Jannar was a friend of Degra and an ally of Captain Archer.
Xindi-Avians
Xindi-Avians were birdlike Xindi with the ability to fly, although all that is ever seen of this species is a single skull, identical to that of a giraffe. They once darkened the skies of Xindus, the Xindi homeworld. They are considered extinct since the Reptilians and Insectoids planted explosives that destroyed the Xindi homeworld after the Hundred-Year War. The Avians, having primitive technology, could not leave the planet and were wiped out. Because of this, the Reptilians say that their lair, in which the Xindi Council now convenes, has a "stench of failure."
Xindi-Insectoids
Xindi-Insectoids resemble a cross between six-foot Earth praying mantids, flies, and ants. Insectoids have an average life span of 10–12 years. They reproduce asexually by laying eggs, which take about a week to mature. Egg sacs are suspended from ceilings, and tubules connected to them spray chemicals that cause passersby to reverse imprint on the hatchlings, protecting them as a parent would. Hatchlings are so crucial to Insectoids that hatcheries aboard starships are heavily shielded. As seen in the episode "Hatchery," the Insectoid crew will sacrifice themselves to preserve their unborn offspring.
They speak a clicking language, of which there are 67 known dialects. Insectoid iconography is radically different from that of other Xindi. Insectoid personal names get longer with age. Insectoids have a reputation for rushing into decisions. Insectoid starships are designed differently from other vessels. They don't have one area designated for bridge duties; command functions are distributed throughout the ship. Insectoid chairs and assault vehicles are designed for Insectoid anatomy and not humanoids. They have a longstanding alliance with the Reptilians, and together they destroyed the Xindi homeworld after the Hundred-Year War.
Xindi-Primates
Xindi-Primates resemble Earth humans and have a similar brain structure to the Xindi-Reptilians. They were one of the first Xindi species (including the Reptilians) to be informed of the "threat" posed by humanity. Degra, a Xindi-Primate, was assigned to develop the weapon to destroy Earth. In late 2153, the crew of the Enterprise boarded and studied a Primate's vessel and interrogated the crew. In the episode "Stratagem," Archer learned from Degra that a colony of Primates resides on Azati Prime, where the weapon was being constructed. Like humans, Xindi-Primates have differences in skin tone. The chairman of the Xindi council was a Xindi-Primate.
Xindi-Reptilians
Xindi-Reptilians resemble a cross between several Earth lizards. This species is responsible for a preemptive attack on Earth in 2153. Aided by trans-dimensional beings, the Reptilians also traveled to 2004 to collect blood samples for their bioweapon in the future but were foiled by Jonathan Archer and T'Pol. Reptilians prefer to be low to the ground instead of in highrise buildings. They use weapons with regenerative biometric power cells that overload if another species tries to use them. They use thermal chambers on board their ships to keep their energy. They are the most aggressive race of Xindi and seem more interested than the other races in destroying Earth. The military leadership of the Reptilians appears to be obsessed with eugenics. The Xindi-Insectoids is the race that the Reptilians are closest to.
Along with the Insectoids, they are responsible for destroying the Xindi homeworld. The attack squadrons seen at Azati Prime consisted of two Reptilian and Insectoid ships. Commander Dolim was the Xindi-Reptilian representative on the Council.
Xindi Council
The Xindi Council is the joint governmental body of the Xindi races, as seen in Season three of Star Trek: Enterprise. The Council was formed after the destruction of the Xindi homeworld Xindus in the 2030s. It consisted of two representatives of each Xindi species and was created to find a new homeworld for all the Xindi races. Although they found a few suitable planets, they could never agree on a final choice. The Council chamber is located on a world 15.6 light-years from Azati Prime. The land-based races sit at a large round table in the center of the room, while the Aquatics look on from a large tank adjoining the chamber by a window. The section has built-in equipment for holographic and a viewscreen for telemetry. The room was a stronghold built by the Xindi-Avians before they were wiped out.
Circa 2152, the council discovered that humans would destroy them in four hundred years. In a panic, they assigned the Primate scientist, Degra, to construct a weapon to destroy Earth. After several disagreements, the Council was dissolved. To do the Sphere Builders' bidding, the Reptilians and Insectoids broke away from the Primates, Arboreals, and Aquatics. Civil war ultimately broke out when Commander Dolim killed Degra. After Dolim was killed, the Sphere Builders were discredited, the super-weapon destroyed, and the Council reconvened. The names of council representatives as revealed in "The Council" were:
Arboreals: Jannar
Aquatics: Kiaphet Amman'sor
Insectoids: unknown (most Xindi Insectoid names are unpronounceable by humans; called "Shrest" in the novelizations)
Primates: The Chairman, Degra
Reptilians: regimental commander Dolim
Other significant Xindi characters
Kessick – Primate, enslaved on a Trellium-D mine
Thalen – Primate, Degra's assistant
Gralik – Arboreal, chief technician of kemocite facility
Reception
In 2017, ScreenRant ranked the Xindi the 13th most bizarre aliens in Star Trek.
In 2017, Den of Geek ranked Xindi the 14th best aliens of the Star Trek franchise.
See also
List of fictional extraterrestrials
References
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^ Hise, James Van (1993). Trek Versus Next Generation. Pioneer Books. p. 157. ISBN 978-1-55698-370-2.
^ Reeves-Stevens, Judith (1997-10-01). The Art of Star Trek. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-0855-0.
^ Reeves-Stevens, Judith; Reeves-Stevens, Garfield (1997). The Continuing Mission: A Tenth Anniversary Tribute. Pocket Books/Star Trek. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-671-87429-2.
^ Nguyen, Will (2015-04-10). "A Mirror for Humanity: Why the Cardassians are Trek's Best Alien Race". TREKNEWS.NET | Your daily dose of Star Trek news and opinion. Retrieved 2021-02-28.
^ a b c d e f g h Elizabeth Howell (2017-09-22). "15 of the Most Bizarre Alien Species Featured in 'Star Trek'". Space.com. Retrieved 2019-06-08.
^ Biography of Lt. Arex published by Lincoln Enterprises in 1974
^ Britt, Ryan (March 10, 2021). "Strange New Worlds rumors: 5 old Star Trek characters that could return". Inverse. Retrieved May 4, 2023.
^ Hastie, A. Fabricated Space: Assimilating the Individual on Star Trek: The Next Generation in Enterprise Zones: Critical Positions on Star Trek. Eds. Harrison et al. (Westview Press: Boulder, 1996).
^ a b Stone, Sam (May 26, 2022). "Star Trek: Strange New Worlds Season 1, Episode 4, 'Memento Mori', Recap & Spoilers". Comic Book Resources. Retrieved May 4, 2023.
^ a b c d e f g h i Marc Buxton (2017-10-12). "Star Trek: The 50 Best Alien Races". Den of Geek. Retrieved 2021-03-01.
^ "Star Trek: The 15 Strongest Species, Ranked From Weakest To Most Powerful". ScreenRant. 2018-03-29. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
^ a b "Star Trek: The 5 Coolest Aliens (and the 5 Lamest)". CBR. 2020-03-30. Retrieved 2021-03-01.
^ "Star Trek: Who Are The Illyrians?". Game Rant. 2023-01-09. Retrieved 2023-06-27.
^ "Illyrians explained in Star Trek Strange New Worlds". The Digital Fix. 2023-06-22. Retrieved 2023-06-27.
^ "Star Trek: The 15 Strongest Species, Ranked From Weakest To Most Powerful". ScreenRant. 2018-03-29. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
^ Westmore, Michael; Sims, Alan; Look, Bradley M.; Birnes, William J. (2000). Star Trek: Aliens and Artifacts. pp. 208. ISBN 0-671-04299-8.
^ "Star Trek's Klingon transformation explained". H&I. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
^ Orquiola, John (March 8, 2020). "Picard Makes Star Trek: The Animated Series Aliens Canon". Screen Rant. Retrieved June 24, 2022.
^ Polo, Susana (June 15, 2023). "Star Trek: Strange New Worlds is upending canon for its new engineer". Polygon. Retrieved August 14, 2023.
^ "Star Trek: 10 Smartest Alien Races, Ranked". ScreenRant. 2020-02-15. Retrieved 2021-03-01.
^ Jill Sherwin, The Definitive Star Trek Trivia Book: Volume 2 (New York: Pocket Books, 2001)
^ Terry J. Erdmann (Sep 23, 2008). Star Trek 101: A Practical Guide to Who, What, Where, and Why. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9781439117873.
^ Diana M. A. Relke (2006). Drones, Clones, and Alpha Babes: Retrofitting Star Trek's Humanism, Post-9/11. University of Calgary Press. p. 103. species 8472.
^ The Star Trek Book: Strange New Worlds Boldly Explained. Dorling Kindersley Limited. June 1, 2016. ISBN 9780241289709 – via Google Books.
^ Clark, Mark (April 1, 2012). Star Trek FAQ: Everything Left to Know About the First Voyages of the Starship Enterprise. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781557839640 – via Google Books.
^ DeCandido, Keith R. A. (January 4, 2019). "Here's Mudd in Your Eye — Star Trek's "The Escape Artist"". Tor.com.
^ "Talking Tellarites with Harry Judge". Star Trek. 24 July 2023.
^ Pascale, Anthony. "Review: 'Star Trek: Lower Decks' Ranks Up In "Moist Vessel"". TrekMovie.com.
^ Milligan, Mercedes (2021-06-14). "Meet the Starship Crew in Paramount+ Original 'Star Trek: Prodigy'". Animation Magazine. Retrieved 2021-10-29.
^ Britt, Ryan (29 October 2020). "'Star Trek: Discovery's latest twist is an unexpected 'TNG' Easter egg". Inverse.
^ Keng, Diana (March 9, 2021). "Dr. Naáshala Kunamadéstifee – Star Trek: Picard Season 1 Episode 2". TV Fanatic.
^ "Star Trek: Lower Decks Season 2 Episode 1 Easter Eggs & References". Den of Geek. August 12, 2021.
^ Perry, Alex (August 6, 2020). "STAR TREK: LOWER DECKS Review: "Second Contact"".
^ a b The Biology of Star Trek -Susan C. Jenkins, Robert Jenkins 1998 (Page 89)
^ a b c d e Kind, Amy (2 October 2015). Persons and Personal Identity. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781509500246 – via Google Books.
^ a b Eberl, Jason T.; Decker, Kevin S. (30 April 2018). Star Trek and Philosophy: The Wrath of Kant. Open Court Publishing. ISBN 9780812696493 – via Google Books.
^ Eberl, Jason T.; Decker, Kevin S. (August 30, 2008). Star Trek and Philosophy: The Wrath of Kant. Open Court Publishing. ISBN 9780812696493 – via Google Books.
^ Farghaly, Nadine; Bacon, Simon (2 June 2017). To Boldly Go: Essays on Gender and Identity in the Star Trek Universe. McFarland. ISBN 9781476629315 – via Google Books.
^ The Expanse by J.M. Dillard, the novelization of Star Trek: Enterprise episodes "The Expanse" and "The Xindi."
Further reading
Michael Okuda and Denise Okuda (1999). The Star Trek Encyclopedia: A Reference Guide to the Future. New York: Pocket Books. ISBN 0-671-53609-5.
External links
Races and cultures at Memory Alpha
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Star Trek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Trek"},{"link_name":"science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Gene Roddenberry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Roddenberry"},{"link_name":"original Star Trek television series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Trek:_The_Original_Series"},{"link_name":"spinoff series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin-off_(media)"},{"link_name":"Vulcans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan_(Star_Trek)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fitzpatrick-1"},{"link_name":"Klingons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klingon"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fitzpatrick-1"},{"link_name":"Borg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fitzpatrick-1"},{"link_name":"pop culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_culture"},{"link_name":"Vulcan salute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan_salute"},{"link_name":"Time magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fitzpatrick-1"},{"link_name":"A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#A"},{"link_name":"B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#B"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#C"},{"link_name":"D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#D"},{"link_name":"E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#E"},{"link_name":"F","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#F"},{"link_name":"G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#G"},{"link_name":"H","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#H"},{"link_name":"I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#I"},{"link_name":"J","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#J"},{"link_name":"K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#K"},{"link_name":"L","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#L"},{"link_name":"M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#M"},{"link_name":"N","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#N"},{"link_name":"O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#O"},{"link_name":"P","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#P"},{"link_name":"Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Q"},{"link_name":"R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#R"},{"link_name":"S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#S"},{"link_name":"T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#T"},{"link_name":"U","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#U"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#V"},{"link_name":"W","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#W"},{"link_name":"X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#X"},{"link_name":"Y","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Y"},{"link_name":"Z","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Z"},{"link_name":"Notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Notes"},{"link_name":"External links","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#External_links"}],"text":"Star Trek is a science fiction media franchise that began with Gene Roddenberry's launch of the original Star Trek television series in 1966. Its success led to numerous films, novels, comics, and spinoff series. A major motif of the franchise involves encounters with various alien races throughout the galaxy. These fictional alien races are listed here.Notable Star Trek races include Vulcans,[1] Klingons,[1] and the Borg.[1] Some aspects of these fictional races became well known in American pop culture, such as the Vulcan salute and the Borg phrase, \"Resistance is futile.\"Star Trek aliens have been featured in Time magazine, which described how they are essential to the franchise's narrative.[1]Contents\n \nA\nB\nC\nD\nE\nF\nG\nH\nI\nJ\nK\nL\nM\nN\nO\nP\nQ\nR\nS\nT\nU\nV\nW\nX\nY\nZ \n \n\nNotes\nExternal links","title":"List of Star Trek aliens"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Key"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"A"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"B"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"C"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"D"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"E"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"F"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"G"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"H"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"I"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"J"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"K"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"L"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"O"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"P"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Q","title":"P"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"R"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"S"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"T"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"V"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"X"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-671-53609-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-53609-5"}],"text":"Michael Okuda and Denise Okuda (1999). The Star Trek Encyclopedia: A Reference Guide to the Future. New York: Pocket Books. ISBN 0-671-53609-5.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"List of fictional extraterrestrials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_extraterrestrials"}]
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[{"reference":"Alex Fitzpatrick (July 21, 2016). \"Why Aliens Are So Important to 'Star Trek'\". Time. Retrieved 2021-04-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://time.com/4412821/star-trek-tv-aliens/","url_text":"\"Why Aliens Are So Important to 'Star Trek'\""}]},{"reference":"Britt, Ryan (May 13, 2022). \"Strange New Worlds actor reveals why Hemmer is Star Trek's own 'Daredevil'\". Inverse. Retrieved June 2, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.inverse.com/entertainment/bruce-horak-interview-strange-new-worlds-hemmer-star-trek","url_text":"\"Strange New Worlds actor reveals why Hemmer is Star Trek's own 'Daredevil'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_(website)","url_text":"Inverse"}]},{"reference":"Orquiola, John (June 15, 2021). \"Star Trek: Every TOS & New Alien In Prodigy's Cast\". ScreenRant. Retrieved November 4, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://screenrant.com/star-trek-prodigy-cast-aliens-tos-new-explained/","url_text":"\"Star Trek: Every TOS & New Alien In Prodigy's Cast\""}]},{"reference":"Hise, James Van (1993). Trek Versus Next Generation. Pioneer Books. p. 157. ISBN 978-1-55698-370-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BKrz3NsBzrkC&q=cardassians+introduced","url_text":"Trek Versus Next Generation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55698-370-2","url_text":"978-1-55698-370-2"}]},{"reference":"Reeves-Stevens, Judith (1997-10-01). The Art of Star Trek. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-0855-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9sa2dhO0rikC&q=cardassians+introduced&pg=PA110","url_text":"The Art of Star Trek"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-0855-0","url_text":"978-1-4391-0855-0"}]},{"reference":"Reeves-Stevens, Judith; Reeves-Stevens, Garfield (1997). The Continuing Mission: A Tenth Anniversary Tribute. Pocket Books/Star Trek. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-671-87429-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9BNwn8Rhr2UC&q=cardassians+introduced","url_text":"The Continuing Mission: A Tenth Anniversary Tribute"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-87429-2","url_text":"978-0-671-87429-2"}]},{"reference":"Nguyen, Will (2015-04-10). \"A Mirror for Humanity: Why the Cardassians are Trek's Best Alien Race\". TREKNEWS.NET | Your daily dose of Star Trek news and opinion. Retrieved 2021-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://treknews.net/2015/04/10/why-the-cardassians-are-treks-best-alien-race/","url_text":"\"A Mirror for Humanity: Why the Cardassians are Trek's Best Alien Race\""}]},{"reference":"Elizabeth Howell (2017-09-22). \"15 of the Most Bizarre Alien Species Featured in 'Star Trek'\". Space.com. Retrieved 2019-06-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.space.com/38243-wildest-aliens-of-star-trek/2.html","url_text":"\"15 of the Most Bizarre Alien Species Featured in 'Star Trek'\""}]},{"reference":"Britt, Ryan (March 10, 2021). \"Strange New Worlds rumors: 5 old Star Trek characters that could return\". Inverse. Retrieved May 4, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.inverse.com/entertainment/strange-new-worlds-could-reboot-these-5-forgotten-star-trek-characters","url_text":"\"Strange New Worlds rumors: 5 old Star Trek characters that could return\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_(website)","url_text":"Inverse"}]},{"reference":"Stone, Sam (May 26, 2022). \"Star Trek: Strange New Worlds Season 1, Episode 4, 'Memento Mori', Recap & Spoilers\". Comic Book Resources. Retrieved May 4, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cbr.com/star-trek-strange-new-worlds-recap-spoilers-season-1-episode-4/","url_text":"\"Star Trek: Strange New Worlds Season 1, Episode 4, 'Memento Mori', Recap & Spoilers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comic_Book_Resources","url_text":"Comic Book Resources"}]},{"reference":"Marc Buxton (2017-10-12). \"Star Trek: The 50 Best Alien Races\". Den of Geek. Retrieved 2021-03-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.denofgeek.com/movies/star-trek-the-50-best-alien-races/","url_text":"\"Star Trek: The 50 Best Alien Races\""}]},{"reference":"\"Star Trek: The 15 Strongest Species, Ranked From Weakest To Most Powerful\". ScreenRant. 2018-03-29. Retrieved 2019-04-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://screenrant.com/star-trek-species-ranked-weakest-powerful/","url_text":"\"Star Trek: The 15 Strongest Species, Ranked From Weakest To Most Powerful\""}]},{"reference":"\"Star Trek: The 5 Coolest Aliens (and the 5 Lamest)\". CBR. 2020-03-30. Retrieved 2021-03-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cbr.com/star-trek-aliens-coolest-lamest/","url_text":"\"Star Trek: The 5 Coolest Aliens (and the 5 Lamest)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Star Trek: Who Are The Illyrians?\". Game Rant. 2023-01-09. Retrieved 2023-06-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://gamerant.com/star-trek-illyrians-explained/","url_text":"\"Star Trek: Who Are The Illyrians?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Illyrians explained in Star Trek Strange New Worlds\". The Digital Fix. 2023-06-22. Retrieved 2023-06-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thedigitalfix.com/star-trek/illyrians-explained","url_text":"\"Illyrians explained in Star Trek Strange New Worlds\""}]},{"reference":"\"Star Trek: The 15 Strongest Species, Ranked From Weakest To Most Powerful\". ScreenRant. 2018-03-29. Retrieved 2019-04-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://screenrant.com/star-trek-species-ranked-weakest-powerful/","url_text":"\"Star Trek: The 15 Strongest Species, Ranked From Weakest To Most Powerful\""}]},{"reference":"Westmore, Michael; Sims, Alan; Look, Bradley M.; Birnes, William J. (2000). Star Trek: Aliens and Artifacts. pp. 208. ISBN 0-671-04299-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/startrekaliensar00mich","url_text":"Star Trek: Aliens and Artifacts"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/startrekaliensar00mich/page/208","url_text":"208"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-04299-8","url_text":"0-671-04299-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Star Trek's Klingon transformation explained\". H&I. Retrieved 2023-11-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.handitv.com/stories/star-trek-s-klingon-transformation-explained","url_text":"\"Star Trek's Klingon transformation explained\""}]},{"reference":"Orquiola, John (March 8, 2020). \"Picard Makes Star Trek: The Animated Series Aliens Canon\". Screen Rant. Retrieved June 24, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://screenrant.com/star-trek-picard-tas-kzinti-aliens-canon/","url_text":"\"Picard Makes Star Trek: The Animated Series Aliens Canon\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_Rant","url_text":"Screen Rant"}]},{"reference":"Polo, Susana (June 15, 2023). \"Star Trek: Strange New Worlds is upending canon for its new engineer\". Polygon. Retrieved August 14, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.polygon.com/23755316/star-trek-strange-new-worlds-lanthanites-pelia-species-carol-kane","url_text":"\"Star Trek: Strange New Worlds is upending canon for its new engineer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygon_(website)","url_text":"Polygon"}]},{"reference":"\"Star Trek: 10 Smartest Alien Races, Ranked\". ScreenRant. 2020-02-15. Retrieved 2021-03-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://screenrant.com/star-trek-smartest-alien-races-ranked/","url_text":"\"Star Trek: 10 Smartest Alien Races, Ranked\""}]},{"reference":"Terry J. Erdmann (Sep 23, 2008). Star Trek 101: A Practical Guide to Who, What, Where, and Why. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9781439117873.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yi0xvGuzVC0C&q=species+8472&pg=PA192","url_text":"Star Trek 101: A Practical Guide to Who, What, Where, and Why"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster","url_text":"Simon & Schuster"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781439117873","url_text":"9781439117873"}]},{"reference":"Diana M. A. Relke (2006). Drones, Clones, and Alpha Babes: Retrofitting Star Trek's Humanism, Post-9/11. University of Calgary Press. p. 103. species 8472.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/Dronesclones2006","url_text":"Drones, Clones, and Alpha Babes: Retrofitting Star Trek's Humanism, Post-9/11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Calgary_Press","url_text":"University of Calgary Press"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/Dronesclones2006/page/n126","url_text":"103"}]},{"reference":"The Star Trek Book: Strange New Worlds Boldly Explained. Dorling Kindersley Limited. June 1, 2016. ISBN 9780241289709 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RUoxDAAAQBAJ&q=Tellarites&pg=PT59","url_text":"The Star Trek Book: Strange New Worlds Boldly Explained"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780241289709","url_text":"9780241289709"}]},{"reference":"Clark, Mark (April 1, 2012). Star Trek FAQ: Everything Left to Know About the First Voyages of the Starship Enterprise. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781557839640 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ptCGDwAAQBAJ&q=Tellarites&pg=PT272","url_text":"Star Trek FAQ: Everything Left to Know About the First Voyages of the Starship Enterprise"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781557839640","url_text":"9781557839640"}]},{"reference":"DeCandido, Keith R. A. (January 4, 2019). \"Here's Mudd in Your Eye — Star Trek's \"The Escape Artist\"\". Tor.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tor.com/2019/01/04/heres-mudd-in-your-eye-star-treks-the-escape-artist/","url_text":"\"Here's Mudd in Your Eye — Star Trek's \"The Escape Artist\"\""}]},{"reference":"\"Talking Tellarites with Harry Judge\". Star Trek. 24 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.startrek.com/news/talking-tellarites-with-harry-judge","url_text":"\"Talking Tellarites with Harry Judge\""}]},{"reference":"Pascale, Anthony. \"Review: 'Star Trek: Lower Decks' Ranks Up In \"Moist Vessel\"\". TrekMovie.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://trekmovie.com/2020/08/27/review-star-trek-lower-decks-ranks-up-in-moist-vessel/","url_text":"\"Review: 'Star Trek: Lower Decks' Ranks Up In \"Moist Vessel\"\""}]},{"reference":"Milligan, Mercedes (2021-06-14). \"Meet the Starship Crew in Paramount+ Original 'Star Trek: Prodigy'\". Animation Magazine. Retrieved 2021-10-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.animationmagazine.net/streaming/meet-the-starship-crew-in-paramount-original-star-trek-prodigy/","url_text":"\"Meet the Starship Crew in Paramount+ Original 'Star Trek: Prodigy'\""}]},{"reference":"Britt, Ryan (29 October 2020). \"'Star Trek: Discovery's latest twist is an unexpected 'TNG' Easter egg\". Inverse.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.inverse.com/entertainment/star-trek-discovery-tng-trill-riker-adira","url_text":"\"'Star Trek: Discovery's latest twist is an unexpected 'TNG' Easter egg\""}]},{"reference":"Keng, Diana (March 9, 2021). \"Dr. Naáshala Kunamadéstifee – Star Trek: Picard Season 1 Episode 2\". TV Fanatic.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tvfanatic.com/gallery/dr-naashala-kunamadestifee-star-trek-picard-s1e2/","url_text":"\"Dr. Naáshala Kunamadéstifee – Star Trek: Picard Season 1 Episode 2\""}]},{"reference":"\"Star Trek: Lower Decks Season 2 Episode 1 Easter Eggs & References\". Den of Geek. August 12, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.denofgeek.com/tv/star-trek-lower-decks-season-2-episode-1-easter-eggs-references/","url_text":"\"Star Trek: Lower Decks Season 2 Episode 1 Easter Eggs & References\""}]},{"reference":"Perry, Alex (August 6, 2020). \"STAR TREK: LOWER DECKS Review: \"Second Contact\"\".","urls":[{"url":"https://blog.trekcore.com/2020/08/star-trek-lower-decks-review-second-contact/","url_text":"\"STAR TREK: LOWER DECKS Review: \"Second Contact\"\""}]},{"reference":"Kind, Amy (2 October 2015). Persons and Personal Identity. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781509500246 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SiuwCgAAQBAJ&q=Trill+stores+memories+star+trek&pg=PT75","url_text":"Persons and Personal Identity"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781509500246","url_text":"9781509500246"}]},{"reference":"Eberl, Jason T.; Decker, Kevin S. (30 April 2018). Star Trek and Philosophy: The Wrath of Kant. Open Court Publishing. ISBN 9780812696493 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=M0lfQWZL7EUC&q=Trill+stores+memories+star+trek&pg=PT167","url_text":"Star Trek and Philosophy: The Wrath of Kant"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812696493","url_text":"9780812696493"}]},{"reference":"Eberl, Jason T.; Decker, Kevin S. (August 30, 2008). Star Trek and Philosophy: The Wrath of Kant. Open Court Publishing. ISBN 9780812696493 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=M0lfQWZL7EUC&q=Trill+stores+memories+star+trek&pg=PT167","url_text":"Star Trek and Philosophy: The Wrath of Kant"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812696493","url_text":"9780812696493"}]},{"reference":"Farghaly, Nadine; Bacon, Simon (2 June 2017). To Boldly Go: Essays on Gender and Identity in the Star Trek Universe. McFarland. ISBN 9781476629315 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=b4wmDwAAQBAJ&q=Trill+stores+memories+star+trek&pg=PT93","url_text":"To Boldly Go: Essays on Gender and Identity in the Star Trek Universe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781476629315","url_text":"9781476629315"}]},{"reference":"Michael Okuda and Denise Okuda (1999). The Star Trek Encyclopedia: A Reference Guide to the Future. New York: Pocket Books. ISBN 0-671-53609-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-53609-5","url_text":"0-671-53609-5"}]}]
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Arex"},{"Link":"https://www.inverse.com/entertainment/strange-new-worlds-could-reboot-these-5-forgotten-star-trek-characters","external_links_name":"\"Strange New Worlds rumors: 5 old Star Trek characters that could return\""},{"Link":"https://www.cbr.com/star-trek-strange-new-worlds-recap-spoilers-season-1-episode-4/","external_links_name":"\"Star Trek: Strange New Worlds Season 1, Episode 4, 'Memento Mori', Recap & Spoilers\""},{"Link":"https://www.denofgeek.com/movies/star-trek-the-50-best-alien-races/","external_links_name":"\"Star Trek: The 50 Best Alien Races\""},{"Link":"https://screenrant.com/star-trek-species-ranked-weakest-powerful/","external_links_name":"\"Star Trek: The 15 Strongest Species, Ranked From Weakest To Most Powerful\""},{"Link":"https://www.cbr.com/star-trek-aliens-coolest-lamest/","external_links_name":"\"Star Trek: The 5 Coolest Aliens (and the 5 Lamest)\""},{"Link":"https://gamerant.com/star-trek-illyrians-explained/","external_links_name":"\"Star Trek: Who Are The Illyrians?\""},{"Link":"https://www.thedigitalfix.com/star-trek/illyrians-explained","external_links_name":"\"Illyrians explained in Star Trek Strange New Worlds\""},{"Link":"https://screenrant.com/star-trek-species-ranked-weakest-powerful/","external_links_name":"\"Star Trek: The 15 Strongest Species, Ranked From Weakest To Most Powerful\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/startrekaliensar00mich","external_links_name":"Star Trek: Aliens and Artifacts"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/startrekaliensar00mich/page/208","external_links_name":"208"},{"Link":"https://www.handitv.com/stories/star-trek-s-klingon-transformation-explained","external_links_name":"\"Star Trek's Klingon transformation explained\""},{"Link":"https://screenrant.com/star-trek-picard-tas-kzinti-aliens-canon/","external_links_name":"\"Picard Makes Star Trek: The Animated Series Aliens Canon\""},{"Link":"https://www.polygon.com/23755316/star-trek-strange-new-worlds-lanthanites-pelia-species-carol-kane","external_links_name":"\"Star Trek: Strange New Worlds is upending canon for its new engineer\""},{"Link":"https://screenrant.com/star-trek-smartest-alien-races-ranked/","external_links_name":"\"Star Trek: 10 Smartest Alien Races, Ranked\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yi0xvGuzVC0C&q=species+8472&pg=PA192","external_links_name":"Star Trek 101: A Practical Guide to Who, What, Where, and Why"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/Dronesclones2006","external_links_name":"Drones, Clones, and Alpha Babes: Retrofitting Star Trek's Humanism, Post-9/11"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/Dronesclones2006/page/n126","external_links_name":"103"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RUoxDAAAQBAJ&q=Tellarites&pg=PT59","external_links_name":"The Star Trek Book: Strange New Worlds Boldly Explained"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ptCGDwAAQBAJ&q=Tellarites&pg=PT272","external_links_name":"Star Trek FAQ: Everything Left to Know About the First Voyages of the Starship Enterprise"},{"Link":"https://www.tor.com/2019/01/04/heres-mudd-in-your-eye-star-treks-the-escape-artist/","external_links_name":"\"Here's Mudd in Your Eye — Star Trek's \"The Escape Artist\"\""},{"Link":"https://www.startrek.com/news/talking-tellarites-with-harry-judge","external_links_name":"\"Talking Tellarites with Harry Judge\""},{"Link":"https://trekmovie.com/2020/08/27/review-star-trek-lower-decks-ranks-up-in-moist-vessel/","external_links_name":"\"Review: 'Star Trek: Lower Decks' Ranks Up In \"Moist Vessel\"\""},{"Link":"https://www.animationmagazine.net/streaming/meet-the-starship-crew-in-paramount-original-star-trek-prodigy/","external_links_name":"\"Meet the Starship Crew in Paramount+ Original 'Star Trek: Prodigy'\""},{"Link":"https://www.inverse.com/entertainment/star-trek-discovery-tng-trill-riker-adira","external_links_name":"\"'Star Trek: Discovery's latest twist is an unexpected 'TNG' Easter egg\""},{"Link":"https://www.tvfanatic.com/gallery/dr-naashala-kunamadestifee-star-trek-picard-s1e2/","external_links_name":"\"Dr. Naáshala Kunamadéstifee – Star Trek: Picard Season 1 Episode 2\""},{"Link":"https://www.denofgeek.com/tv/star-trek-lower-decks-season-2-episode-1-easter-eggs-references/","external_links_name":"\"Star Trek: Lower Decks Season 2 Episode 1 Easter Eggs & References\""},{"Link":"https://blog.trekcore.com/2020/08/star-trek-lower-decks-review-second-contact/","external_links_name":"\"STAR TREK: LOWER DECKS Review: \"Second Contact\"\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_SEgAGExTDcC&q=Trill+Star+Trek","external_links_name":"The Biology of Star Trek -Susan C. Jenkins, Robert Jenkins 1998"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SiuwCgAAQBAJ&q=Trill+stores+memories+star+trek&pg=PT75","external_links_name":"Persons and Personal Identity"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=M0lfQWZL7EUC&q=Trill+stores+memories+star+trek&pg=PT167","external_links_name":"Star Trek and Philosophy: The Wrath of Kant"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=M0lfQWZL7EUC&q=Trill+stores+memories+star+trek&pg=PT167","external_links_name":"Star Trek and Philosophy: The Wrath of Kant"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=b4wmDwAAQBAJ&q=Trill+stores+memories+star+trek&pg=PT93","external_links_name":"To Boldly Go: Essays on Gender and Identity in the Star Trek Universe"},{"Link":"https://memory-alpha.fandom.com/wiki/Races_and_cultures","external_links_name":"Races and cultures"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUS_reporter_system
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GUS reporter system
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["1 Purpose","2 Substrates","3 History","4 Target organisms","5 Benefits and limitations","6 Other reporter systems","7 Other uses","8 Sources"]
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Molecular biology technique
Rice anthers and style showing GUS expression
The GUS reporter system (GUS: β-glucuronidase) is a reporter gene system, particularly useful in plant molecular biology and microbiology. Several kinds of GUS reporter gene assay are available, depending on the substrate used. The term GUS staining refers to the most common of these, a histochemical technique.
Purpose
The purpose of this technique is to analyze the activity of a gene transcription promoter (in terms of expression of a so-called reporter gene under the regulatory control of that promoter) either in a quantitative manner, involving some measure of activity, or qualitatively (on versus off) through visualization of its activity in different cells, tissues, or organs. The technique utilizes the uidA gene of Escherichia coli, which codes for the enzyme, β-glucuronidase; this enzyme, when incubated with specific colorless or non-fluorescent substrates, can convert them into stable colored or fluorescent products. The presence of the GUS-induced color indicates where the gene has been actively expressed. In this way, strong promoter activity produces much staining and weak promoter activity produces less staining.
The uidA gene can also be fused to a gene of interest, creating a gene fusion. The insertion of the uidA gene will cause production of GUS, which can then be detected using various glucuronides as substrates.
Substrates
There are different possible glucuronides that can be used as substrates for the β-glucuronidase, depending on the type of detection needed (histochemical, spectrophotometrical, fluorimetrical). The most common substrate for GUS histochemical staining is 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl glucuronide (X-Gluc). X-Gluc is hydrolyzed by GUS into the product 5,5'-dibromo-4,4'-dichloro-indigo (diX-indigo). DiX-indigo will appear blue, and can be seen using light microscopy. This process is analogous to hydrolysis of X-gal by Beta-galactosidase to produce blue cells as is commonly practiced in bacterial reporter gene assays.
For other types of detection, common substrates are p-nitrophenyl β-D-glucuronide for the spectrophotometric assay and 4-methylumbelliferyl-beta-D-glucuronide (MUG) for the fluorimetric assay.
History
The system was originally developed by Richard Anthony Jefferson during his Ph.D. at the University of Colorado at Boulder. He adapted the technique for the use with plants as he worked in the Plant Breeding Institute of Cambridge, between 1985 and 1987. Since then thousands of labs have used the system, making it one of the most widely used tools in plant molecular biology, as underlined by thousands of citations in scientific literature.Rice embryo showing GUS expression
Target organisms
An organism is suitable for a GUS assay if it lacks naturally occurring β-glucuronidase activity or if the activity is very low (background activity). For this reason, the assay is not useful in most vertebrates and many molluscs. Since there is no detectable GUS activity in higher plants, mosses, algae, ferns, fungi and most bacteria, the assay is ideally suited for gene expression studies in these organisms, and considered the reporter gene of choice for in plant science.
Benefits and limitations
The GUS assay does not require the presence of any cofactors or ions for function. Beta-glucuronidase can function through a wide range of pH values, and is fairly resistant to thermal inactivation. However, GUS is susceptible to inhibition from certain heavy metal ions, such as Cu2+ and Zn2+.
Additionally, the interpretation of the assay is limited by the movement of diX-indigo throughout the cell. DiX-indigo, can associate with lipids to diffuse far from the site of enzyme activity, which shows a lack of cytosolic localization and irregularity of substrate penetration. This can potentially lead to an incorrect interpretation of GUS protein localization. Despite a lack of cellular localization, nuclear localization of GUS has been well observed. GUS assays can be carried out in the presence of potassium ferricyanide to prevent the stain from diffusing.
Other reporter systems
The GUS system is not the only available gene reporter system for the analysis of promoter activity. Other competing systems are based on e.g. luciferase, GFP, beta-galactosidase, chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT), alkaline phosphatase. The use of one or the other system is mainly dependent on the organism of interest and the imaging and microscopy technologies available to the laboratories conducting the research.
Other uses
Rice seed aleurone layer showing GUSPlus expression
The GUS assay, as well as other reporter gene systems, can be used for other kinds of studies other than the classical promoter activity assay. Reporter systems have been used for the determination of the efficiency of gene delivery systems, the intracellular localization of a gene product, the detection of protein-protein or protein-DNA interactions, the efficiency of translation initiation signals and the success of molecular cloning efforts.
Sources
^ a b Jefferson, R. A.; Kavanagh, T. A.; Bevan, M. W. (1987). "GUS fusions: β-glucuronidase as a sensitive and versatile gene fusion marker in higher plants". The EMBO Journal. 6 (13): 3901–7. doi:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1987.tb02730.x. PMC 553867. PMID 3327686.
^ Vande Broek, Ann; Lambrecht, Mark; Vanderleyden, Jos (1998). "Bacterial chemotactic motility is important for the initiation of wheat root colonization by Azospirillum brasilense". Microbiology. 144 (9): 2599–606. doi:10.1099/00221287-144-9-2599. PMID 9782509.
^ Blanco, C; Ritzenthaler, P; Mata-Gilsinger, M (1982). "Cloning and endonuclease restriction analysis of uidA and uidR genes in Escherichia coli K-12: Determination of transcription direction for the uidA gene". Journal of Bacteriology. 149 (2): 587–94. doi:10.1128/JB.149.2.587-594.1982. PMC 216546. PMID 6276362.
^ a b Jefferson, R. A.; Burgess, S. M.; Hirsh, D (1986). "β-Glucuronidase from Escherichia coli as a gene-fusion marker". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 83 (22): 8447–51. Bibcode:1986PNAS...83.8447J. doi:10.1073/pnas.83.22.8447. PMC 386947. PMID 3534890.
^ a b c Guivarc'h, A.; Caissard, J. C.; Azmi, A.; Elmayan, T.; Chriqui, D.; Tepfer, M. (1996-09-01). "In situ detection of expression of thegus reporter gene in transgenic plants: ten years of blue genes". Transgenic Research. 5 (5): 281–288. doi:10.1007/BF01968938. ISSN 1573-9368. S2CID 21151079.
^ a b c U.S. patent 5,268,463
^ a b Cambia Organization Website: biography of Richard A. Jefferson Archived 2006-08-19 at the Wayback Machine
^ Jefferson, Richard A. (1987-12-01). "Assaying chimeric genes in plants: The GUS gene fusion system". Plant Molecular Biology Reporter. 5 (4): 387–405. doi:10.1007/BF02667740. ISSN 1572-9818. S2CID 5619830.
^ Caissard, Jean-Claude; Guivarc'h, Anne; Rembur, Jacques; Azmi, Abdelkrim; Chriqui, Dominique (1994-05-01). "Spurious localizations of diX-indigo microcrystals generated by the histochemical GUS assay". Transgenic Research. 3 (3): 176–181. doi:10.1007/BF01973985. ISSN 1573-9368. S2CID 797978.
^ Citovsky, V.; Zupan, J.; Warnick, D.; Zambryski, P. (1992-06-26). "Nuclear localization of Agrobacterium VirE2 protein in plant cells". Science. 256 (5065): 1802–1805. Bibcode:1992Sci...256.1802C. doi:10.1126/science.1615325. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 1615325.
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The term GUS staining refers to the most common of these, a histochemical technique.","title":"GUS reporter system"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"promoter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promoter_(biology)"},{"link_name":"expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_expression"},{"link_name":"tissues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_(biology)"},{"link_name":"Escherichia coli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli"},{"link_name":"β-glucuronidase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92-glucuronidase"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"substrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate_(biology)"},{"link_name":"colored","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color"},{"link_name":"fluorescent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-original_paper-4"},{"link_name":"gene fusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_gene"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-original_paper-4"}],"text":"The purpose of this technique is to analyze the activity of a gene transcription promoter (in terms of expression of a so-called reporter gene under the regulatory control of that promoter) either in a quantitative manner, involving some measure of activity, or qualitatively (on versus off) through visualization of its activity in different cells, tissues, or organs. The technique utilizes the uidA gene of Escherichia coli, which codes for the enzyme, β-glucuronidase;[3] this enzyme, when incubated with specific colorless or non-fluorescent substrates, can convert them into stable colored or fluorescent products.[4] The presence of the GUS-induced color indicates where the gene has been actively expressed. In this way, strong promoter activity produces much staining and weak promoter activity produces less staining.The uidA gene can also be fused to a gene of interest, creating a gene fusion. The insertion of the uidA gene will cause production of GUS, which can then be detected using various glucuronides as substrates.[4]","title":"Purpose"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"glucuronides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucuronide"},{"link_name":"histochemical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histology"},{"link_name":"spectrophotometrical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrophotometer"},{"link_name":"fluorimetrical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorimeter"},{"link_name":"5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl glucuronide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl_glucuronide"},{"link_name":"X-Gluc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Gluc"},{"link_name":"hydrolyzed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolysis"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"X-gal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-gal"},{"link_name":"Beta-galactosidase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-galactosidase"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"p-nitrophenyl β-D-glucuronide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/p-nitrophenyl-beta-D-glucuronide"},{"link_name":"4-methylumbelliferyl-beta-D-glucuronide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/4-Methylumbelliferyl-glucuronide"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-patent1-6"}],"text":"There are different possible glucuronides that can be used as substrates for the β-glucuronidase, depending on the type of detection needed (histochemical, spectrophotometrical, fluorimetrical). The most common substrate for GUS histochemical staining is 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl glucuronide (X-Gluc). X-Gluc is hydrolyzed by GUS into the product 5,5'-dibromo-4,4'-dichloro-indigo (diX-indigo). DiX-indigo will appear blue, and can be seen using light microscopy.[5] This process is analogous to hydrolysis of X-gal by Beta-galactosidase[5] to produce blue cells as is commonly practiced in bacterial reporter gene assays.For other types of detection, common substrates are p-nitrophenyl β-D-glucuronide for the spectrophotometric assay and 4-methylumbelliferyl-beta-D-glucuronide (MUG) for the fluorimetric assay.[6]","title":"Substrates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Richard Anthony Jefferson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Anthony_Jefferson"},{"link_name":"Ph.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph.D."},{"link_name":"University of Colorado at Boulder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Colorado_at_Boulder"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cambia-7"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GUS_in_plants-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cambia-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rice_embryo.png"}],"text":"The system was originally developed by Richard Anthony Jefferson during his Ph.D. at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[7] He adapted the technique for the use with plants as he worked in the Plant Breeding Institute of Cambridge, between 1985 and 1987.[1] Since then thousands of labs have used the system, making it one of the most widely used tools in plant molecular biology, as underlined by thousands of citations in scientific literature.[7]Rice embryo showing GUS expression","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vertebrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate"},{"link_name":"molluscs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molluscs"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-patent1-6"},{"link_name":"higher plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermatophyte"},{"link_name":"mosses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moss"},{"link_name":"algae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae"},{"link_name":"ferns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern"},{"link_name":"fungi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus"},{"link_name":"bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-patent1-6"}],"text":"An organism is suitable for a GUS assay if it lacks naturally occurring β-glucuronidase activity or if the activity is very low (background activity). For this reason, the assay is not useful in most vertebrates and many molluscs.[6] Since there is no detectable GUS activity in higher plants, mosses, algae, ferns, fungi and most bacteria,[6] the assay is ideally suited for gene expression studies in these organisms, and considered the reporter gene of choice for in plant science.","title":"Target organisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"potassium ferricyanide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_ferricyanide"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"}],"text":"The GUS assay does not require the presence of any cofactors or ions for function. Beta-glucuronidase can function through a wide range of pH values, and is fairly resistant to thermal inactivation.[8] However, GUS is susceptible to inhibition from certain heavy metal ions, such as Cu2+ and Zn2+.Additionally, the interpretation of the assay is limited by the movement of diX-indigo throughout the cell. DiX-indigo, can associate with lipids to diffuse far from the site of enzyme activity, which shows a lack of cytosolic localization and irregularity of substrate penetration. This can potentially lead to an incorrect interpretation of GUS protein localization.[9] Despite a lack of cellular localization, nuclear localization of GUS has been well observed.[10] GUS assays can be carried out in the presence of potassium ferricyanide to prevent the stain from diffusing.[5]","title":"Benefits and limitations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"luciferase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luciferase"},{"link_name":"GFP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein"},{"link_name":"beta-galactosidase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-galactosidase"},{"link_name":"chloramphenicol acetyltransferase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloramphenicol_acetyltransferase"},{"link_name":"alkaline phosphatase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_phosphatase"}],"text":"The GUS system is not the only available gene reporter system for the analysis of promoter activity. Other competing systems are based on e.g. luciferase, GFP, beta-galactosidase, chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT), alkaline phosphatase. The use of one or the other system is mainly dependent on the organism of interest and the imaging and microscopy technologies available to the laboratories conducting the research.","title":"Other reporter systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rice_aleurone.png"}],"text":"Rice seed aleurone layer showing GUSPlus expressionThe GUS assay, as well as other reporter gene systems, can be used for other kinds of studies other than the classical promoter activity assay. Reporter systems have been used for the determination of the efficiency of gene delivery systems, the intracellular localization of a gene product, the detection of protein-protein or protein-DNA interactions, the efficiency of translation initiation signals and the success of molecular cloning efforts.","title":"Other uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-GUS_in_plants_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-GUS_in_plants_1-1"},{"link_name":"Jefferson, R. A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Anthony_Jefferson"},{"link_name":"Bevan, M. W.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_W._Bevan"},{"link_name":"\"GUS fusions: β-glucuronidase as a sensitive and versatile gene fusion marker in higher plants\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC553867"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1002/j.1460-2075.1987.tb02730.x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1460-2075.1987.tb02730.x"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"553867","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC553867"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3327686","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3327686"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-GUS_in_microbes_2-0"},{"link_name":"\"Bacterial chemotactic motility is important for the initiation of wheat root colonization by Azospirillum brasilense\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1099%2F00221287-144-9-2599"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1099/00221287-144-9-2599","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1099%2F00221287-144-9-2599"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9782509","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9782509"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"Cloning and endonuclease restriction analysis of uidA and uidR genes in Escherichia coli K-12: Determination of transcription direction for the uidA gene\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC216546"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1128/JB.149.2.587-594.1982","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1128%2FJB.149.2.587-594.1982"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"216546","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC216546"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"6276362","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6276362"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-original_paper_4-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-original_paper_4-1"},{"link_name":"\"β-Glucuronidase from Escherichia coli as a gene-fusion marker\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC386947"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1986PNAS...83.8447J","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986PNAS...83.8447J"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1073/pnas.83.22.8447","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.83.22.8447"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"386947","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC386947"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3534890","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3534890"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_5-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_5-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_5-2"},{"link_name":"\"In situ detection of expression of thegus reporter gene in transgenic plants: ten years of blue genes\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007/BF01968938"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/BF01968938","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01968938"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1573-9368","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1573-9368"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"21151079","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21151079"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-patent1_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-patent1_6-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-patent1_6-2"},{"link_name":"U.S. patent 5,268,463","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//patents.google.com/patent/US5268463"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-cambia_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-cambia_7-1"},{"link_name":"biography of Richard A. Jefferson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cambia.org/daisy/cambia/478.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20060819065329/http://cambia.org/daisy/cambia/478.html"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Assaying chimeric genes in plants: The GUS gene fusion system\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007/BF02667740"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/BF02667740","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02667740"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1572-9818","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1572-9818"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"5619830","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5619830"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"\"Spurious localizations of diX-indigo microcrystals generated by the histochemical GUS assay\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007/BF01973985"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/BF01973985","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01973985"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1573-9368","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1573-9368"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"797978","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:797978"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"Nuclear localization of Agrobacterium VirE2 protein in plant cells\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1615325"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1992Sci...256.1802C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992Sci...256.1802C"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1126/science.1615325","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1615325"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0036-8075","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1615325","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1615325"}],"text":"^ a b Jefferson, R. A.; Kavanagh, T. A.; Bevan, M. W. (1987). \"GUS fusions: β-glucuronidase as a sensitive and versatile gene fusion marker in higher plants\". The EMBO Journal. 6 (13): 3901–7. doi:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1987.tb02730.x. PMC 553867. PMID 3327686.\n\n^ Vande Broek, Ann; Lambrecht, Mark; Vanderleyden, Jos (1998). \"Bacterial chemotactic motility is important for the initiation of wheat root colonization by Azospirillum brasilense\". Microbiology. 144 (9): 2599–606. doi:10.1099/00221287-144-9-2599. PMID 9782509.\n\n^ Blanco, C; Ritzenthaler, P; Mata-Gilsinger, M (1982). \"Cloning and endonuclease restriction analysis of uidA and uidR genes in Escherichia coli K-12: Determination of transcription direction for the uidA gene\". Journal of Bacteriology. 149 (2): 587–94. doi:10.1128/JB.149.2.587-594.1982. PMC 216546. PMID 6276362.\n\n^ a b Jefferson, R. A.; Burgess, S. M.; Hirsh, D (1986). \"β-Glucuronidase from Escherichia coli as a gene-fusion marker\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 83 (22): 8447–51. Bibcode:1986PNAS...83.8447J. doi:10.1073/pnas.83.22.8447. PMC 386947. PMID 3534890.\n\n^ a b c Guivarc'h, A.; Caissard, J. C.; Azmi, A.; Elmayan, T.; Chriqui, D.; Tepfer, M. (1996-09-01). \"In situ detection of expression of thegus reporter gene in transgenic plants: ten years of blue genes\". Transgenic Research. 5 (5): 281–288. doi:10.1007/BF01968938. ISSN 1573-9368. S2CID 21151079.\n\n^ a b c U.S. patent 5,268,463\n\n^ a b Cambia Organization Website: biography of Richard A. Jefferson Archived 2006-08-19 at the Wayback Machine\n\n^ Jefferson, Richard A. (1987-12-01). \"Assaying chimeric genes in plants: The GUS gene fusion system\". Plant Molecular Biology Reporter. 5 (4): 387–405. doi:10.1007/BF02667740. ISSN 1572-9818. S2CID 5619830.\n\n^ Caissard, Jean-Claude; Guivarc'h, Anne; Rembur, Jacques; Azmi, Abdelkrim; Chriqui, Dominique (1994-05-01). \"Spurious localizations of diX-indigo microcrystals generated by the histochemical GUS assay\". Transgenic Research. 3 (3): 176–181. doi:10.1007/BF01973985. ISSN 1573-9368. S2CID 797978.\n\n^ Citovsky, V.; Zupan, J.; Warnick, D.; Zambryski, P. (1992-06-26). \"Nuclear localization of Agrobacterium VirE2 protein in plant cells\". Science. 256 (5065): 1802–1805. Bibcode:1992Sci...256.1802C. doi:10.1126/science.1615325. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 1615325.","title":"Sources"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Rice anthers and style showing GUS expression","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/RiceGUS.png"},{"image_text":"Rice embryo showing GUS expression","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Rice_embryo.png/220px-Rice_embryo.png"},{"image_text":"Rice seed aleurone layer showing GUSPlus expression","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Rice_aleurone.png/220px-Rice_aleurone.png"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Jefferson, R. A.; Kavanagh, T. A.; Bevan, M. W. (1987). \"GUS fusions: β-glucuronidase as a sensitive and versatile gene fusion marker in higher plants\". The EMBO Journal. 6 (13): 3901–7. doi:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1987.tb02730.x. PMC 553867. PMID 3327686.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Anthony_Jefferson","url_text":"Jefferson, R. A."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_W._Bevan","url_text":"Bevan, M. W."},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC553867","url_text":"\"GUS fusions: β-glucuronidase as a sensitive and versatile gene fusion marker in higher plants\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1460-2075.1987.tb02730.x","url_text":"10.1002/j.1460-2075.1987.tb02730.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC553867","url_text":"553867"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3327686","url_text":"3327686"}]},{"reference":"Vande Broek, Ann; Lambrecht, Mark; Vanderleyden, Jos (1998). \"Bacterial chemotactic motility is important for the initiation of wheat root colonization by Azospirillum brasilense\". Microbiology. 144 (9): 2599–606. doi:10.1099/00221287-144-9-2599. PMID 9782509.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1099%2F00221287-144-9-2599","url_text":"\"Bacterial chemotactic motility is important for the initiation of wheat root colonization by Azospirillum brasilense\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1099%2F00221287-144-9-2599","url_text":"10.1099/00221287-144-9-2599"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9782509","url_text":"9782509"}]},{"reference":"Blanco, C; Ritzenthaler, P; Mata-Gilsinger, M (1982). \"Cloning and endonuclease restriction analysis of uidA and uidR genes in Escherichia coli K-12: Determination of transcription direction for the uidA gene\". Journal of Bacteriology. 149 (2): 587–94. doi:10.1128/JB.149.2.587-594.1982. PMC 216546. PMID 6276362.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC216546","url_text":"\"Cloning and endonuclease restriction analysis of uidA and uidR genes in Escherichia coli K-12: Determination of transcription direction for the uidA gene\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FJB.149.2.587-594.1982","url_text":"10.1128/JB.149.2.587-594.1982"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC216546","url_text":"216546"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6276362","url_text":"6276362"}]},{"reference":"Jefferson, R. A.; Burgess, S. M.; Hirsh, D (1986). \"β-Glucuronidase from Escherichia coli as a gene-fusion marker\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 83 (22): 8447–51. Bibcode:1986PNAS...83.8447J. doi:10.1073/pnas.83.22.8447. PMC 386947. PMID 3534890.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC386947","url_text":"\"β-Glucuronidase from Escherichia coli as a gene-fusion marker\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986PNAS...83.8447J","url_text":"1986PNAS...83.8447J"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.83.22.8447","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.83.22.8447"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC386947","url_text":"386947"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3534890","url_text":"3534890"}]},{"reference":"Guivarc'h, A.; Caissard, J. C.; Azmi, A.; Elmayan, T.; Chriqui, D.; Tepfer, M. (1996-09-01). \"In situ detection of expression of thegus reporter gene in transgenic plants: ten years of blue genes\". Transgenic Research. 5 (5): 281–288. doi:10.1007/BF01968938. ISSN 1573-9368. S2CID 21151079.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01968938","url_text":"\"In situ detection of expression of thegus reporter gene in transgenic plants: ten years of blue genes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01968938","url_text":"10.1007/BF01968938"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1573-9368","url_text":"1573-9368"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21151079","url_text":"21151079"}]},{"reference":"Jefferson, Richard A. (1987-12-01). \"Assaying chimeric genes in plants: The GUS gene fusion system\". Plant Molecular Biology Reporter. 5 (4): 387–405. doi:10.1007/BF02667740. ISSN 1572-9818. S2CID 5619830.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02667740","url_text":"\"Assaying chimeric genes in plants: The GUS gene fusion system\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02667740","url_text":"10.1007/BF02667740"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1572-9818","url_text":"1572-9818"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5619830","url_text":"5619830"}]},{"reference":"Caissard, Jean-Claude; Guivarc'h, Anne; Rembur, Jacques; Azmi, Abdelkrim; Chriqui, Dominique (1994-05-01). \"Spurious localizations of diX-indigo microcrystals generated by the histochemical GUS assay\". Transgenic Research. 3 (3): 176–181. doi:10.1007/BF01973985. ISSN 1573-9368. S2CID 797978.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01973985","url_text":"\"Spurious localizations of diX-indigo microcrystals generated by the histochemical GUS assay\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01973985","url_text":"10.1007/BF01973985"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1573-9368","url_text":"1573-9368"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:797978","url_text":"797978"}]},{"reference":"Citovsky, V.; Zupan, J.; Warnick, D.; Zambryski, P. (1992-06-26). \"Nuclear localization of Agrobacterium VirE2 protein in plant cells\". Science. 256 (5065): 1802–1805. Bibcode:1992Sci...256.1802C. doi:10.1126/science.1615325. ISSN 0036-8075. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acting_Very_Strange
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Acting Very Strange
|
["1 History","2 Reception","3 Track listing","4 Non-album tracks","5 Personnel","6 Production","7 Charts","8 References"]
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1982 studio album by Mike RutherfordActing Very StrangeStudio album by Mike RutherfordReleased7 September 1982Recorded1982StudioThe Farm (Chiddingfold, Surrey) The Town House (London)GenrePop rock, Progressive rockLength38:43LabelAtlantic, WEAProducerMike Rutherford; assisted by Nick LaunayMike Rutherford chronology
Smallcreep's Day(1980)
Acting Very Strange(1982)
Mike + The Mechanics(1985)
Singles from Acting Very Strange
"Halfway There"Released: August 1982
"Maxine"Released: August 1982
"Acting Very Strange"Released: October 1982
"Hideaway"Released: January 1983
Acting Very Strange is the second and final solo album by Genesis guitarist/bassist Mike Rutherford and the only album to feature him on lead vocals. It was released on 7 September 1982. Unlike the previous album Smallcreep's Day, Acting Very Strange uses a very raw and unpolished sound. None of the album's singles charted in the US or UK top 100, but the lead single "Maxine" did make US Billboard charts' Mainstream Rock Tracks Chart at No. 37. The song was also a top 40 pop hit in Canada, peaking at No. 39. The album itself was much more successful, reaching number 23 in the UK.
History
Rutherford opted to do the lead vocals on the album himself, simply because, in his words, "It does feel odd when someone does... a solo album and they don't sing, because the voice is so much the character of a song. So I thought, 'What the hell? I'm gonna give it a shot.'" However, this proved to be easier said than done; he recounted that recording the backing tracks for the album was very easy and enjoyable, but that the vocals were "hard work".
Stewart Copeland of The Police was notably invited to play drums on the record - specifically two of the songs according to a September 1982 newsletter from The Police’s official fan club (without specifying which songs). Drumming duties for remaining tracks with real drums were handled by Pete Phipps. The Linn drum machine is also credited individually for providing some of the drum tracks.
Looking back on Acting Very Strange in later years, Rutherford was not proud of the album, saying he felt that the songs were very good but poorly executed on the actual recordings. He singled out "Hideaway" as the only track which he felt worked. Dissatisfied with his solo work (and with his vocals in particular), Rutherford curtailed his solo career to form Mike + The Mechanics. (However, Rutherford did sing lead on one more solo track, "Making a Big Mistake", which appears on the soundtrack to "Against All Odds".)
"Halfway There", "I Don't Wanna Know" and "Maxine" were performed live on Mike + The Mechanics' first tour in 1986, with Paul Young singing lead vocals on all three songs.
Reception
Professional ratingsReview scoresSourceRatingAllmusic
In their retrospective review, Allmusic said that most of the songs were weak, and that even the few good ones would have been better had Rutherford not done the lead vocals himself: "There's no denying his sincerity, but he should let his fingers do the talking."
Track listing
All tracks are written by Mike Rutherford, with additional writers notedNo.TitleWriter(s)Length1."Acting Very Strange" 4:582."A Day to Remember" 4:593."Maxine"Pete Bellotte5:244."Halfway There"Florrie Palmer4:115."Who's Fooling Who"Palmer4:476."Couldn't Get Arrested"Bellotte3:507."I Don't Wanna Know" 4:368."Hideaway" 5:58Total length:38:43
Non-album tracks
Another song recorded during the album sessions, "Calypso", was released as the B-side to the single "Hideaway". Remixes of "Acting Very Strange" and "Couldn't Get Arrested" were featured on a 12" single and also used as B-sides for "Acting Very Strange".
Personnel
Mike Rutherford – lead and backing vocals, keyboards, guitars, bass, Linn programming
Paul Fishman – keyboards
J. Peter Robinson – keyboards
John Alexander – guitars
Daryl Stuermer – guitars
Stewart Copeland – drums
Pete Phipps – drums
Gary Barnacle – saxophones
Luke Tunney – trumpet
Martyn Ford – string arrangements and conductor
Steve Gould – backing vocals
Noel McCalla – backing vocals
Dale Newman – backing vocals
Production
Producer – Mike Rutherford
Assistant Producer and Engineer – Nick Launay
Assistant Engineer – Geoff Callingham
Recorded at The Farm (Surrey, UK), The Town House (London, UK) and Manor Mobile (Oxfordshire, UK).
Equipment – Dale Newman, Geoff Callingham, Steve Jones and Geoff Banks.
Tape Operator – Howard Gray
Cover Coordinator – Bill Smith
Photography – Gered Mankowitz
Management – Tony Smith and Carol Willis at Hit & Run Music.
Charts
Chart (1982)
Peak position
Canada Top Albums/CDs (RPM)
32
UK Albums (OCC)
23
US Billboard 200
145
References
^ Jason Ankeny (2 October 1950). "Mike Rutherford | Awards". AllMusic. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
^ "Item Display – RPM – Library and Archives Canada". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Archived from the original on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
^ Mike Rutherford in the UK Charts, The Official Charts. Retrieved 27 September 2011.
^ a b c d Neer, Dan (1985). Mike on Mike , Atlantic Recording Corporation.
^ Outlandos Fan Club Newsletter September 1982, page 8
^ Drummer of the Week -- Pete Phipps
^ The Genesis Archive: Single – Against All Odds / Making A Big Mistake
^ a b Steve McMullen. "Acting Very Strange – Mike Rutherford | Songs, Reviews, Credits, Awards". AllMusic. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
^ "Top RPM Albums: Issue 6922a". RPM. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved March 10, 2024.
^ "Official Albums Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved March 10, 2024.
^ "Mike Rutherford Chart History (Billboard 200)". Billboard. Retrieved March 10, 2024.
vteMike and the Mechanics
Mike Rutherford
Anthony Drennan
Tim Howar
Luke Juby
Andrew Roachford
Gary Wallis
Paul Carrack
Adrian Lee
Peter Van Hooke
Paul Young
Studio albums
Mike + The Mechanics
Living Years
Word of Mouth
Beggar on a Beach of Gold
Mike & The Mechanics
Rewired
The Road
Let Me Fly
Out of the Blue
Mike Rutherford solo
Smallcreep's Day
Acting Very Strange
Compilation albums
Hits
Singles
"Silent Running (On Dangerous Ground)"
"All I Need Is a Miracle"
"Taken In"
"The Living Years"
"Word of Mouth"
"Over My Shoulder"
Related
Discography
Genesis
Christopher Neil
BA Robertson
Authority control databases
MusicBrainz release group
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_(band)"},{"link_name":"Mike Rutherford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Rutherford"},{"link_name":"Billboard charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_charts"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UK_charts-3"}],"text":"1982 studio album by Mike RutherfordActing Very Strange is the second and final solo album by Genesis guitarist/bassist Mike Rutherford and the only album to feature him on lead vocals. It was released on 7 September 1982. Unlike the previous album Smallcreep's Day, Acting Very Strange uses a very raw and unpolished sound. None of the album's singles charted in the US or UK top 100, but the lead single \"Maxine\" did make US Billboard charts' Mainstream Rock Tracks Chart at No. 37.[1] The song was also a top 40 pop hit in Canada, peaking at No. 39.[2] The album itself was much more successful, reaching number 23 in the UK.[3]","title":"Acting Very Strange"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mike_on_Mike-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mike_on_Mike-4"},{"link_name":"Stewart Copeland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart_Copeland"},{"link_name":"The Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Police"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Pete Phipps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Phipps"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-phipps-6"},{"link_name":"Linn drum machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linn_LM-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mike_on_Mike-4"},{"link_name":"Mike + The Mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_%2B_The_Mechanics"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mike_on_Mike-4"},{"link_name":"soundtrack to \"Against All Odds\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_All_Odds_(soundtrack)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Paul Young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Young_(singer,_born_1947)"}],"text":"Rutherford opted to do the lead vocals on the album himself, simply because, in his words, \"It does feel odd when someone does... a solo album and they don't sing, because the voice is so much the character of a song. So I thought, 'What the hell? I'm gonna give it a shot.'\"[4] However, this proved to be easier said than done; he recounted that recording the backing tracks for the album was very easy and enjoyable, but that the vocals were \"hard work\".[4]Stewart Copeland of The Police was notably invited to play drums on the record - specifically two of the songs according to a September 1982 newsletter from The Police’s official fan club (without specifying which songs).[5] Drumming duties for remaining tracks with real drums were handled by Pete Phipps.[6] The Linn drum machine is also credited individually for providing some of the drum tracks.Looking back on Acting Very Strange in later years, Rutherford was not proud of the album, saying he felt that the songs were very good but poorly executed on the actual recordings. He singled out \"Hideaway\" as the only track which he felt worked.[4] Dissatisfied with his solo work (and with his vocals in particular), Rutherford curtailed his solo career to form Mike + The Mechanics.[4] (However, Rutherford did sing lead on one more solo track, \"Making a Big Mistake\", which appears on the soundtrack to \"Against All Odds\".)[7]\"Halfway There\", \"I Don't Wanna Know\" and \"Maxine\" were performed live on Mike + The Mechanics' first tour in 1986, with Paul Young singing lead vocals on all three songs.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Allmusic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allmusic"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allmusic-8"}],"text":"In their retrospective review, Allmusic said that most of the songs were weak, and that even the few good ones would have been better had Rutherford not done the lead vocals himself: \"There's no denying his sincerity, but he should let his fingers do the talking.\"[8]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pete Bellotte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Bellotte"}],"text":"All tracks are written by Mike Rutherford, with additional writers notedNo.TitleWriter(s)Length1.\"Acting Very Strange\" 4:582.\"A Day to Remember\" 4:593.\"Maxine\"Pete Bellotte5:244.\"Halfway There\"Florrie Palmer4:115.\"Who's Fooling Who\"Palmer4:476.\"Couldn't Get Arrested\"Bellotte3:507.\"I Don't Wanna Know\" 4:368.\"Hideaway\" 5:58Total length:38:43","title":"Track listing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"B-side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-side"}],"text":"Another song recorded during the album sessions, \"Calypso\", was released as the B-side to the single \"Hideaway\". Remixes of \"Acting Very Strange\" and \"Couldn't Get Arrested\" were featured on a 12\" single and also used as B-sides for \"Acting Very Strange\".","title":"Non-album tracks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mike Rutherford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Rutherford"},{"link_name":"Linn programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linn_LM-1"},{"link_name":"J. Peter Robinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Peter_Robinson"},{"link_name":"Daryl Stuermer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daryl_Stuermer"},{"link_name":"Stewart Copeland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart_Copeland"},{"link_name":"Pete Phipps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Phipps_(drummer)"},{"link_name":"Gary Barnacle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Barnacle"},{"link_name":"Martyn Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyn_Ford"},{"link_name":"Steve Gould","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Gould_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Noel McCalla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noel_McCalla"}],"text":"Mike Rutherford – lead and backing vocals, keyboards, guitars, bass, Linn programming\nPaul Fishman – keyboards\nJ. Peter Robinson – keyboards\nJohn Alexander – guitars\nDaryl Stuermer – guitars\nStewart Copeland – drums\nPete Phipps – drums\nGary Barnacle – saxophones\nLuke Tunney – trumpet\nMartyn Ford – string arrangements and conductor\nSteve Gould – backing vocals\nNoel McCalla – backing vocals\nDale Newman – backing vocals","title":"Personnel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nick Launay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Launay"},{"link_name":"The Farm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Farm_(recording_studio)"},{"link_name":"The Town House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townhouse_Studios"},{"link_name":"Manor Mobile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Manor_Studio"},{"link_name":"Howard Gray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Gray"},{"link_name":"Gered Mankowitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gered_Mankowitz"},{"link_name":"Tony Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Smith_(manager)"},{"link_name":"Hit & Run Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hit_%26_Run_Music_Publishing"}],"text":"Producer – Mike Rutherford\nAssistant Producer and Engineer – Nick Launay\nAssistant Engineer – Geoff Callingham\nRecorded at The Farm (Surrey, UK), The Town House (London, UK) and Manor Mobile (Oxfordshire, UK).\nEquipment – Dale Newman, Geoff Callingham, Steve Jones and Geoff Banks.\nTape Operator – Howard Gray\nCover Coordinator – Bill Smith\nPhotography – Gered Mankowitz\nManagement – Tony Smith and Carol Willis at Hit & Run Music.","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Charts"}]
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[]
| null |
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundeswettbewerb_Gesang_Berlin
|
Bundeswettbewerb Gesang
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["1 Recipients","1.1 Musical / Chanson","1.2 Opera / Operetta / Concert","2 References","3 External links"]
|
Classical music competition
The German national competition Bundeswettbewerb Gesang Berlin was inaugurated in 1966 as a competition for solo singing. Beginning in 1979, it has been held annually, for the categories Musical and Chanson in uneven years, for Opera, Operetta and concert singing in even years. The patron of the competition is the mayor of Berlin, where the competition is organized and held by the association Bundeswettbewerb Gesang Berlin.
The competition supports young singers for stages in German-speaking countries who have to display varied repertory. They have to be of German nationality and finished school in Germany. The final rounds are held in public in Berlin, where also concerts of the winners are presented in the city's music theatres. The prize money of around 50,000 Euro comes from the mayor of Berlin for the first prize in the main competition, and additionally from the Deutscher Bühnenverein, Berlin Opera houses, foundations and private sponsors for the other prizes.
Recipients
Musical / Chanson
Among the recipients were:
Tom Beck (2001)
Adrian Becker (1997)
Katja Berg (2001)
Antonia Bill (2011)
Winnie Böwe (2001)
Vera Bolten (1995, 1997, 1999)
Rasmus Borkowski (2003)
Robin Brosch (1987)
Tatjana Clasing (1983)
Krisha Dalke (2005)
Jana Werner (1991)
Kinga Dobay (1999)
Gisa Flake (2009)
Michael Frowin (1993)
Julia Gámez Martin (2009)
Andreas Gergen (1997)
Holger Hauer (1987)
Alen Hodzovic (1999)
Milica Jovanovic (2007)
Sebastian Krämer (2001, 2003)
Katharine Mehrling (1995)
Maike Katrin Merkel (2001, 2003)
Christian Alexander Müller (2001)
Max Raabe (1987)
Lars Redlich (2007)
Uli Scherbel (1995)
Bodo Wartke (1999, 2001)
Christiane Weber (2001)
Nicky Wuchinger (2009, 2011)
Opera / Operetta / Concert
Among the recipients were:
Lioba Braun (1986)
Björn Bürger (2012)
Ingeborg Danz (1986)
Albert Dohmen (1976)
Stella Doufexis (1994)
Mojca Erdmann (1992, 1994, 2002)
Christof Fischesser (2000)
Christina Gerstberger (1998)
Dietrich Henschel (1988)
Claudia Mahnke (1994)
Eleonore Marguerre (2000)
Nadja Michael (1990, 1994)
Hanno Müller-Brachmann (1994, 1996)
Marlis Petersen (1990)
Christoph Prégardien (1978)
Thomas Quasthoff (1984, 1986)
Maria Radner (2006)
Detlef Roth (1990)
Christine Schäfer (1988)
Andreas Schmidt (1982)
Wolfgang Schöne (1968)
Barbara Senator (2004)
Doris Soffel (1972)
Caroline Stein (1990)
Iris Vermillion (1986)
Michael Volle (1990)
Sebastian Wartig (2014)
Bernd Weikl (1968)
References
^ Preisträger Oper / Alle Preisträger Musical/Chanson 1979–2015 Bundeswettbewerb Gesang
^ Preisträger Oper / Alle Preisträger Oper/Operette/Konzert 1966–2014 Bundeswettbewerb Gesang
External links
Official website
Bundeswettbewerb Gesang Berlin Deutsches Musikinformationszentrum
Förderung von Musikerinnen und Musikern Beauftragter der Bundesregierung für Kultur und Medien
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Musical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_theatre"},{"link_name":"Chanson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanson"},{"link_name":"Opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera"},{"link_name":"Operetta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operetta"},{"link_name":"mayor of Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor_of_Berlin"}],"text":"The German national competition Bundeswettbewerb Gesang Berlin was inaugurated in 1966 as a competition for solo singing. Beginning in 1979, it has been held annually, for the categories Musical and Chanson in uneven years, for Opera, Operetta and concert singing in even years. The patron of the competition is the mayor of Berlin, where the competition is organized and held by the association Bundeswettbewerb Gesang Berlin.The competition supports young singers for stages in German-speaking countries who have to display varied repertory. They have to be of German nationality and finished school in Germany. The final rounds are held in public in Berlin, where also concerts of the winners are presented in the city's music theatres. The prize money of around 50,000 Euro comes from the mayor of Berlin for the first prize in the main competition, and additionally from the Deutscher Bühnenverein, Berlin Opera houses, foundations and private sponsors for the other prizes.","title":"Bundeswettbewerb Gesang"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Recipients"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Tom Beck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Beck_(entertainer)"},{"link_name":"Adrian Becker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adrian_Becker&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Katja Berg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Katja_Berg&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Antonia Bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antonia_Bill&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Winnie Böwe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Winnie_B%C3%B6we&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vera Bolten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vera_Bolten&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Rasmus Borkowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rasmus_Borkowski&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Robin Brosch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robin_Brosch&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tatjana Clasing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tatjana_Clasing&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Krisha Dalke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Krisha_Dalke&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Jana Werner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jana_Werner&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kinga Dobay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kinga_Dobay&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Gisa Flake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gisa_Flake"},{"link_name":"Michael Frowin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael_Frowin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Julia Gámez Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julia_G%C3%A1mez_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Andreas Gergen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Gergen&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Holger Hauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holger_Hauer&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Alen Hodzovic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alen_Hodzovic"},{"link_name":"Milica Jovanovic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milica_Jovanovic"},{"link_name":"Sebastian Krämer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sebastian_Kr%C3%A4mer&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Katharine Mehrling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Katharine_Mehrling&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Maike Katrin Merkel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maike_Katrin_Merkel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Christian Alexander Müller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian_Alexander_M%C3%BCller&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Max Raabe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Raabe"},{"link_name":"Lars Redlich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lars_Redlich&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Uli Scherbel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uli_Scherbel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Bodo Wartke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bodo_Wartke&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Christiane Weber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christiane_Weber_(singer)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Nicky Wuchinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nicky_Wuchinger&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Musical / Chanson","text":"Among the recipients were:[1]Tom Beck (2001)\nAdrian Becker (1997)\nKatja Berg (2001)\nAntonia Bill (2011)\nWinnie Böwe (2001)\nVera Bolten (1995, 1997, 1999)\nRasmus Borkowski (2003)\nRobin Brosch (1987)\nTatjana Clasing (1983)\nKrisha Dalke (2005)\nJana Werner (1991)\nKinga Dobay (1999)\nGisa Flake (2009)\nMichael Frowin (1993)\nJulia Gámez Martin (2009)\nAndreas Gergen (1997)\nHolger Hauer (1987)\nAlen Hodzovic (1999)\nMilica Jovanovic (2007)\nSebastian Krämer (2001, 2003)\nKatharine Mehrling (1995)\nMaike Katrin Merkel (2001, 2003)\nChristian Alexander Müller (2001)\nMax Raabe (1987)\nLars Redlich (2007)\nUli Scherbel (1995)\nBodo Wartke (1999, 2001)\nChristiane Weber (2001)\nNicky Wuchinger (2009, 2011)","title":"Recipients"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Lioba Braun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lioba_Braun"},{"link_name":"Björn Bürger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_B%C3%BCrger"},{"link_name":"Ingeborg Danz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingeborg_Danz"},{"link_name":"Albert Dohmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Dohmen"},{"link_name":"Stella Doufexis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stella_Doufexis"},{"link_name":"Mojca Erdmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojca_Erdmann"},{"link_name":"Christina Gerstberger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Gerstberger"},{"link_name":"Dietrich Henschel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietrich_Henschel"},{"link_name":"Claudia Mahnke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudia_Mahnke"},{"link_name":"Eleonore Marguerre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleonore_Marguerre"},{"link_name":"Nadja Michael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadja_Michael"},{"link_name":"Hanno Müller-Brachmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanno_M%C3%BCller-Brachmann"},{"link_name":"Marlis Petersen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlis_Petersen"},{"link_name":"Christoph Prégardien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_Pr%C3%A9gardien"},{"link_name":"Thomas Quasthoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Quasthoff"},{"link_name":"Maria Radner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Radner"},{"link_name":"Detlef Roth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detlef_Roth"},{"link_name":"Christine Schäfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Sch%C3%A4fer"},{"link_name":"Andreas Schmidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Schmidt_(baritone)"},{"link_name":"Wolfgang Schöne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Sch%C3%B6ne"},{"link_name":"Barbara Senator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barbara_Senator&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Doris Soffel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_Soffel"},{"link_name":"Caroline Stein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_Stein"},{"link_name":"Iris Vermillion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris_Vermillion"},{"link_name":"Michael Volle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Volle"},{"link_name":"Sebastian Wartig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_Wartig"},{"link_name":"Bernd Weikl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernd_Weikl"}],"sub_title":"Opera / Operetta / Concert","text":"Among the recipients were:[2]Lioba Braun (1986)\nBjörn Bürger (2012)\nIngeborg Danz (1986)\nAlbert Dohmen (1976)\nStella Doufexis (1994)\nMojca Erdmann (1992, 1994, 2002)\nChristof Fischesser (2000)\nChristina Gerstberger (1998)\nDietrich Henschel (1988)\nClaudia Mahnke (1994)\nEleonore Marguerre (2000)\nNadja Michael (1990, 1994)\nHanno Müller-Brachmann (1994, 1996)\nMarlis Petersen (1990)\nChristoph Prégardien (1978)\nThomas Quasthoff (1984, 1986)\nMaria Radner (2006)\nDetlef Roth (1990)\nChristine Schäfer (1988)\nAndreas Schmidt (1982)\nWolfgang Schöne (1968)\nBarbara Senator (2004)\nDoris Soffel (1972)\nCaroline Stein (1990)\nIris Vermillion (1986)\nMichael Volle (1990)\nSebastian Wartig (2014)\nBernd Weikl (1968)","title":"Recipients"}]
|
[]
| null |
[]
|
[{"Link":"https://www.bwgesang.de/mc/preistraeger-mc/alle-preistraeger-musical-chanson/","external_links_name":"Preisträger Oper / Alle Preisträger Musical/Chanson 1979–2015"},{"Link":"https://www.bwgesang.de/ook/preistraeger-ook/alle-preistraeger-oper-operette-konzert/","external_links_name":"Preisträger Oper / Alle Preisträger Oper/Operette/Konzert 1966–2014"},{"Link":"http://www.bwgesang.de/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"http://www.miz.org/details_9243.html","external_links_name":"Bundeswettbewerb Gesang Berlin"},{"Link":"http://www.bundesregierung.de/Content/DE/Artikel/BKM/2006-11-30-musikfoerderung.html?nn=437032#doc187956bodyText7","external_links_name":"Förderung von Musikerinnen und Musikern"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Charles_(film)
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Jean Charles (film)
|
["1 Cast","2 References","3 External links"]
|
2009 film directed by Henrique Goldman
Jean CharlesDirected byHenrique GoldmanWritten byHenrique GoldmanMarcelo StarobinasProduced byHenrique GoldmanLuke SchillerCarlos NaderStephen Frears (Executive)Rebecca O'Brien (Executive)StarringSelton MelloVanessa GiácomoCinematographyGuillermo EscalonEdited byKerry KohlerMusic byNitin SawhneyProductioncompaniesUK Film CouncilMango FilmsDistributed byImagem Filmes (Brazil)Release date
26 June 2009 (2009-06-26) (Brazil)
Running time93 minutesCountriesUnited KingdomBrazilLanguagesEnglishPortuguese
Jean Charles is a 2009 British-Brazilian feature film depicting the life of Jean Charles de Menezes, the Brazilian immigrant wrongly shot dead by the Metropolitan Police at Stockwell tube station in London on 22 July 2005, after being mistaken for a terrorist.
The film was directed by Henrique Goldman and received its international premiere at the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival. Selton Mello stars as Jean Charles with many of the other roles played by the actual friends and family of Jean Charles de Menezes. Award-winning director Stephen Frears was an executive producer for the film.
Cast
Selton Mello as Jean Charles
Vanessa Giácomo as Vivian
Marek Oravec as Iatzek
Luís Miranda as Alex
Patricia Armani as Patricia
Maurício Varlotta as Maurício
Sidney Magal as himself
Daniel de Oliveira as Marcelo
Marcelo Soares as Chuliquinha
Rogério Dionísio as Bisley
Julian Harries as English Man
Denise Stephenson as Female Police Liaison Officer
Christopher Pencakowski as Male Police Liaison Officer
References
^ "Jean Charles".
^ "Carlos Nader leva o filme "Jean Charles" para o Festival de Cinema de Toronto. – Glamurama". 31 August 2009.
"Jean Charles vê o drama de brasileiros no exterior". Gazeta Do Povo (in Portuguese). 26 June 2009. Archived from the original on 31 December 2012. Retrieved 31 October 2009.
Cooper, Sarah (3 July 2009). "De Menezes film sees strong opening in Brazil". Screen International. EMAP Media. Retrieved 31 October 2009.
External links
Jean Charles at IMDb
This article about a biographical film is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This article related to a Brazilian film of the 2000s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This article related to a British film of the 2000s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jean Charles de Menezes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Charles_de_Menezes"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Police"},{"link_name":"Stockwell tube station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockwell_tube_station"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"2009 Toronto International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_Toronto_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"Selton Mello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selton_Mello"},{"link_name":"Stephen Frears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Frears"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Jean Charles is a 2009 British-Brazilian feature film depicting the life of Jean Charles de Menezes, the Brazilian immigrant wrongly shot dead by the Metropolitan Police at Stockwell tube station in London on 22 July 2005, after being mistaken for a terrorist.[1]The film was directed by Henrique Goldman and received its international premiere at the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival. Selton Mello stars as Jean Charles with many of the other roles played by the actual friends and family of Jean Charles de Menezes. Award-winning director Stephen Frears was an executive producer for the film.[2]","title":"Jean Charles (film)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Selton Mello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selton_Mello"},{"link_name":"Vanessa Giácomo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanessa_Gi%C3%A1como"},{"link_name":"Marek Oravec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marek_Oravec"},{"link_name":"Sidney Magal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Magal"},{"link_name":"Daniel de Oliveira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_de_Oliveira_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Marcelo Soares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcelo_Soares"}],"text":"Selton Mello as Jean Charles\nVanessa Giácomo as Vivian\nMarek Oravec as Iatzek\nLuís Miranda as Alex\nPatricia Armani as Patricia\nMaurício Varlotta as Maurício\nSidney Magal as himself\nDaniel de Oliveira as Marcelo\nMarcelo Soares as Chuliquinha\nRogério Dionísio as Bisley\nJulian Harries as English Man\nDenise Stephenson as Female Police Liaison Officer\nChristopher Pencakowski as Male Police Liaison Officer","title":"Cast"}]
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[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Jean Charles\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cineclick.com.br/filmes/ficha/nomefilme/jean-charles/id/15846","url_text":"\"Jean Charles\""}]},{"reference":"\"Carlos Nader leva o filme \"Jean Charles\" para o Festival de Cinema de Toronto. – Glamurama\". 31 August 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://glamurama.uol.com.br/passos-largos-30389/","url_text":"\"Carlos Nader leva o filme \"Jean Charles\" para o Festival de Cinema de Toronto. – Glamurama\""}]},{"reference":"\"Jean Charles vê o drama de brasileiros no exterior\". Gazeta Do Povo (in Portuguese). 26 June 2009. Archived from the original on 31 December 2012. Retrieved 31 October 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20121231194738/http://portal.rpc.com.br/gazetadopovo/cadernog/conteudo.phtml?tl=1&id=899609&tit=Jean-Charles-ve-o-drama-de-brasileiros-no-exterior","url_text":"\"Jean Charles vê o drama de brasileiros no exterior\""},{"url":"http://portal.rpc.com.br/gazetadopovo/cadernog/conteudo.phtml?tl=1&id=899609&tit=Jean-Charles-ve-o-drama-de-brasileiros-no-exterior","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Cooper, Sarah (3 July 2009). \"De Menezes film sees strong opening in Brazil\". Screen International. EMAP Media. Retrieved 31 October 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.screendaily.com/news/box-office/us-americas/de-menezes-film-sees-strong-opening-in-brazil/5003181.article","url_text":"\"De Menezes film sees strong opening in Brazil\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://www.cineclick.com.br/filmes/ficha/nomefilme/jean-charles/id/15846","external_links_name":"\"Jean Charles\""},{"Link":"http://glamurama.uol.com.br/passos-largos-30389/","external_links_name":"\"Carlos Nader leva o filme \"Jean Charles\" para o Festival de Cinema de Toronto. – Glamurama\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20121231194738/http://portal.rpc.com.br/gazetadopovo/cadernog/conteudo.phtml?tl=1&id=899609&tit=Jean-Charles-ve-o-drama-de-brasileiros-no-exterior","external_links_name":"\"Jean Charles vê o drama de brasileiros no exterior\""},{"Link":"http://portal.rpc.com.br/gazetadopovo/cadernog/conteudo.phtml?tl=1&id=899609&tit=Jean-Charles-ve-o-drama-de-brasileiros-no-exterior","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.screendaily.com/news/box-office/us-americas/de-menezes-film-sees-strong-opening-in-brazil/5003181.article","external_links_name":"\"De Menezes film sees strong opening in Brazil\""},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0989007/","external_links_name":"Jean Charles"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Charles_(film)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Charles_(film)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Charles_(film)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Halford
|
Charles Halford
|
["1 Filmography","1.1 Film","1.2 Television","1.3 Video games","2 External links"]
|
American actor (born 1980)
This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately from the article and its talk page, especially if potentially libelous.Find sources: "Charles Halford" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Charles HalfordBorn (1980-02-28) February 28, 1980 (age 44)Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S.Other namesCharlie HalfordOccupationActorYears active2001–present
Charles Halford (born February 28, 1980) is an American actor. He is best known for playing Chas Chandler on the NBC series Constantine, Yago in Episode 4 Season 8 of The Walking Dead, Big John in Outer Banks, Earl in Logan Lucky and Sammy Wilds in Bad Times at the El Royale. Known for his distinctively deep voice, he also provided the voices of Konstantin in Rise of the Tomb Raider, Gorilla Grodd in Injustice 2 and Bibbo Bibbowski and the Eradicator in The Death of Superman and Reign of the Supermen.
Filmography
Film
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2001
Ocean's Eleven
Bellagio Security Guard
Uncredited
2004
Baptists at Our Barbecue
Rich Paddlefin
2005
The World's Fastest Indian
Gas Station Attendant
2006
Blind Dating
Basketball Player
Uncredited
2007
American Pastime
Corporal Norris
2008
The Adventures of Food Boy
Golf Coach
2008
Friends for Life
Rutgers
2009
The Cell 2
Deputy Finch
Direct-to-video
2009
Evil Angel
Ray
2010
Waiting for Forever
State Trooper
2012
Darling Companion
Christus
2014
Small Time
Redneck
2015
H8RZ
Officer Randals
2015
Being Charlie
Harry
2017
The Clapper
Ronnie
2017
Logan Lucky
Earl
2018
The Death of Superman
Bibbo Bibbowski (voice)
Direct-to-video
2018
Armed
Meth
2018
Bad Times at the El Royale
Sammy Wilds
2019
Reign of the Supermen
Bibbo Bibbowski, Eradicator (voices)
Direct-to-video
2019
The Laundromat
Pyro Guy
Uncredited
2020
Joe Bell
Will
2022
Kimi
Tall Thug
2023
Scooby-Doo! and Krypto, Too!
Lex Luthor (voice)
Direct-to-video
2023
Riddle of Fire
John Redrye
2024
Horizon: An American Saga – Chapter 1
James Sykes
Television
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2001
Cover Me: Based on the True Life of an FBI Family
James Hench
Episode: "RashoMom"
2001
The Luck of the Irish
McDermott
Television film
2006
Lightspeed
General Haade
2007
Ice Spiders
Coach Mike
2009
Dadnapped
Skunk
2010
Zeke and Luther
Man with Dog
Episode: "Local Heroes"
2010
Dark Blue
Cousin Red
Episode: "Home Sweet Home"
2011
The Event
Roman
3 episodes
2012
Body of Proof
Quentin Whitsett
Episode: "Shades of Blue"
2013
Vegas
Tony
Episode: "From This Day Forward"
2013–14
Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.
Agent Shaw
2 episodes
2014
True Detective
Reggie Ledoux
2 episodes
2014–15
Constantine
Chas Chandler
10 episodes
2015
NCIS: Los Angeles
Decker
Episode: "Rage"
2015
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit
Johnny Drake
2 episodes
2015
Supergirl
Jemm
Episode: "Human for a Day"
2016
The Night Shift
Justin Wilson
2 episodes
2016
Lucifer
Boris Sokolov
Episode: "My Little Monkey"
2016
Rectify
Nate
4 episodes
2017
Blindspot
Abel Marx
Episode: "Devil Never Even Lived"
2017
Longmire
Hawk Robinson
Episode: "Thank You, Victoria"
2017
The Walking Dead
Yago
2 episodes
2017–20
Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure
Vladimir (voice)
10 episodes
2019
Into the Dark
Gerald
Episode: "I'm Just F*cking with You"
2019
Reprisal
Percy Montgomery
3 episodes
2020–23
Outer Banks
Big John
13 episodes
2021
Chicago P.D.
Logan Teague
Episode: "Instinct"
2021
Blade Runner: Black Lotus
Gang Leader (voice)
English dubEpisode: "City of Angels"
Video games
Year
Title
Role
2011
Star Wars: The Old Republic
Captain Cormac, Gezda, Zank Helrott
2015
Fallout 4
Knight Gavil, Winlock
2015
Rise of the Tomb Raider
Konstantin
2016
The Walking Dead: A New Frontier
Lonnie
2017
Injustice 2
Gorilla Grodd
2018
God of War
Additional Voices
2018
Spyro Reignited Trilogy
External links
Charles Halford at IMDb
Charles Halford Demo on YouTube
Authority control databases International
VIAF
WorldCat
National
United States
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chas Chandler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chas_Chandler_(comics)"},{"link_name":"NBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC"},{"link_name":"Constantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"The Walking Dead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walking_Dead_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Outer Banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_Banks_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Logan Lucky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logan_Lucky"},{"link_name":"Bad Times at the El Royale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Times_at_the_El_Royale"},{"link_name":"Rise of the Tomb Raider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_of_the_Tomb_Raider"},{"link_name":"Gorilla Grodd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorilla_Grodd"},{"link_name":"Injustice 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injustice_2"},{"link_name":"Bibbo Bibbowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibbo_Bibbowski"},{"link_name":"Eradicator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eradicator_(character)"},{"link_name":"The Death of Superman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Death_of_Superman_(film)"},{"link_name":"Reign of the Supermen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reign_of_the_Supermen_(film)"}],"text":"Charles Halford (born February 28, 1980) is an American actor. He is best known for playing Chas Chandler on the NBC series Constantine, Yago in Episode 4 Season 8 of The Walking Dead, Big John in Outer Banks, Earl in Logan Lucky and Sammy Wilds in Bad Times at the El Royale. Known for his distinctively deep voice, he also provided the voices of Konstantin in Rise of the Tomb Raider, Gorilla Grodd in Injustice 2 and Bibbo Bibbowski and the Eradicator in The Death of Superman and Reign of the Supermen.","title":"Charles Halford"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Film","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Television","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Video games","title":"Filmography"}]
|
[]
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[]
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[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Charles+Halford%22","external_links_name":"\"Charles Halford\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Charles+Halford%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Charles+Halford%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Charles+Halford%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Charles+Halford%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Charles+Halford%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0355155/","external_links_name":"Charles Halford"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtLSdMNsgiE","external_links_name":"Charles Halford Demo"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/91151230","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJwd8Ymj76JDG7g6Hchyh3","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no2009107909","external_links_name":"United States"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProTV
|
Pro TV
|
["1 Programs","2 Știrile PRO TV","3 Newscasters and celebrities","4 Former stars","5 Sub-channels and subsidiaries","6 Awards","7 Logos","8 Sports competitions","9 PRO TV HD","10 Slogans","11 References","12 External links"]
|
Television channel
PRO TVPRO TV logo since 2017CountryRomaniaMoldovaHeadquartersBucharest, RomaniaProgrammingLanguage(s)RomanianPicture format1080i HDTV(downscaled to 16:9 576i for the SDTV feed)OwnershipOwnerPRO TV SRL through Central European Media Enterprises (CME) owned by PPF GroupSister channelsAcasă TVPRO ArenaPRO CinemaAcasă GoldPRO TV InternaționalHistoryLaunched1 December 1995; 28 years ago (1995-12-01)ReplacedCanal 31 (1993–1995)LinksWebsiteprotv.ro
PRO TV (Romanian pronunciation: , often stylized as PRO•TV as of 2017) is a Romanian free-to-air television network, launched on 1 December 1995 as the fourth private TV channel in the country (after TV SOTI, Antena 1, and the now-defunct, but online Tele7ABC). It is owned by CME (Central European Media Enterprises), which is owned by PPF Group.
Since 3 September 1999, the company has also been broadcasting its own signal for the Republic of Moldova, under the PRO TV Chișinău brand. It broadcasts, in addition to PRO TV Bucharest programs (according to its own grid, different from the Romanian one), a series of local news and programs and its own advertising slots throughout the day.
Targeting urban adults aged 21 to 54, PRO TV uses a programming strategy of top international series and movies, as well as a wide variety of local productions including news programming, local entertainment and local fiction.
On 29 August 2014, PRO TV launched its own streaming service, called PRO TV Plus, dedicated to original series. Later, in 2021, it was replaced by VOYO(Romanian), which has the same series and original shows of the PRO channels, plus some other exclusives and original content. PRO TV Plus still exists, although VOYO is now promoted much more. Also, unlike PRO TV Plus, which could be used for free, VOYO has monthly or annual subscriptions.
Since 2014, the idents for commercials and promos have become more different from those of other stations, focusing on the stars appearing in the station's shows. During the summer, idents are used that present activities that are practiced in the summer, while in the winter, idents are used that present things and activities related to the winter holidays, but also things related to winter.
Programs
The station's local productions include entertainment shows, news programs and TV series.
Program name
English name
Summary
Știrile PRO TV
PRO TV News
A news program, highly followed by Romanian audiences, with clear leadership numbers. In 2008, Știrile PRO TV won the International Emmy Awards.
Ce spun românii
Family Feud
The Romanian version of the Family Feud franchise. The show is presented by Cabral Ibacka.
Românii au talent
Romania's Got Talent
The Romanian version of the Got Talent franchise. The show is presented by Smiley and Pavel Bartoș.
Vocea României
The Voice of Romania
The Romanian version of The Voice franchise.
Las Fierbinți
The Hotties
A Romanian sitcom set in a rural place. The series follows the social and romantic lives of the inhabitants of the village. The series has reached its 20th season in 2022.
Batem palma
Make a deal?
The Romanian version of Deal or No Deal.
România, te iubesc!
Romania, I Love You
A current affairs program that features 6 reporters who show the beauty of the country and some special people who make Romania better. The reporters also make documentaries and investigations to reveal local illegalities, which the authorities fix under public pressure.
I like IT
N/A
A TV programme featuring technology and IT news, as well as computer games and robots. The programme's host are Iulia Ionescu and Marian Andrei.
Doctor de bine
Doctor for good
A programme dealing with health problems, nutrition, maintaining health and self-care strategies. The programme is presented by Mihaela Bilic.
Apropo TV
N/A
An entertainment programme presented by Andi Moisescu discussing social themes, popular culture and local/worldwide ads.
MasterChef România
MasterChef Romania
The Romanian version of the MasterChef franchise.
SuperStar România
SuperStar Romania
The Romanian version of the Idols franchise.
Imperiul Leilor
Empire of the Lions
The Romanian version of the Dragons' Den franchise.
Survivor România
N/A
The Romanian version of the most provocative reality show in the world, Survivor (franchise), hosted by Daniel Pavel.
Clanul
The gang
The Romanian adaptation of İçerde
Lecṭii de viață
Life lessons
An antalogic drama series that presents dramatic situations that happen in many people's life.
La Măruță
At Măruță
A day-time talk show presented by Cătălin Măruță.
Şef sub acoperire
Undercover boss
The Romanian version of Undercover Boss.
Love Island România
Love Island Romania
The Romanian version of the Love Island franchise, hosted by Romanian influencer Alina Ceusan.
Știrile PRO TV
Știrile PRO TV (English: PRO TV News) is one of the most popular news programs in Romania, with an average rating of 9.3 points and 25.1% market share, being watched by over a million urban viewers. According to 2022 report of Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, 76% of the interviewed persons confirmed that PRO TV news are the most trusted ones. According to different research studies, PRO TV has at this moment a reach of 63% in terms of weekly use, 51% of the people watching the programs at least three times per week.
Știrile PRO TV won the International Emmy Award News of 2008 in September 2008.
Andreea Esca is the longest-standing newscaster in Romania. She began her career over 25 years ago, and has spent 23 years with PRO TV.
PRO TV news programs are broadcast daily, multiple times per day.
Newscasters and celebrities
Amalia Enache
Andra
Andreea Esca
Andi Moisescu
Carmen Tănase
Cătălin Măruță
Cătălin Radu Tănase
Cristian Leonte
Corina Caragea
Ramona Păun
Vadim Vîjeu
Florin Busuioc
Iulia Pârlea
Magda Pălimariu
Daniel Nițoiu
Mihai Dedu
Lavinia Petrea
Andreea Marinescu
Roxana Hulpe
Ovidiu Oanță
Smiley
Pavel Bartoș
Tudor Chirilă
Marius Moga
Carla's Dreams
Diana Enache
Monica Dascălu
Cabral
Cosmin Seleși
Mihaela Radulescu
Dragoș Bucur
Mihai Bobonete
Irina Rimes
Inna
Horia Brenciu
Daniel Pavel
Theo Rose
Denis Roabeș
Adela Popescu
Bogdan Ciudoiu
Shurubel
Lili Sandu
Chef FOA
Chef Joseph Hadad
Chef Radu Dumitrescu
Former stars
Alina Eremia (Pariu cu viața, O nouă viață)
Bebe Cotimanis (Pariu cu viața, O nouă viață, Românii au talent)
Cătălin Scărlătescu (MasterChef Romania)
Corina Dănilă
Cosmin Natantincu (Pe Bune?!)
Cove (Vorbește lumea)
Cristian Tabără (Te vezi la Știrile PRO TV, Dăruești și Câștigi)
Cristina Ciobănescu (Pariu cu viața, O nouă viață)
Dan C. Mihăilescu (Omul care aduce cartea)
Dorian Popa (Pariu cu viața, O nouă viață)
Florin Călinescu (Românii au talent)
Florin Dumitrescu (MasterChef Romania)
Ioana Cosma (Ora Exactă în Sport)
Ioana Maria Moldovan (Poveștiri Adevărate)
Irina Fodor (Poveștiri de Noapte, Vocea României)
Iulia Albu
Loredana Groza (Vocea României)
Mihai Codreanu (Știrile PRO TV)
Mihai Mironică (Ora Exactă în Sport)
Mihai Petre (Dansez pentru tine, Românii au talent, Uite cine dansează)
Mircea Solcanu (Poveștiri de Noapte)
Mugur Mihăiescu (Vacanța Mare)
Oana Stern-Cuzino (Ce se întâmplă doctore?)
Oana Zăvoranu
Octavian Strunilă (Jocuri de celebritate, Fort Boyard)
Paul Ipate (Jocuri de celebritate, Fort Boyard)
Raluca Arvat (Știrile din sport)
Ramona Păuleanu (Vremea)
Răzvan Fodor (MasterChef Romania)
Sorin Bontea (MasterChef Romania)
Ștefan Bănică (Dansez pentru tine)
Teo Trandafir (Teo Show)
Toni Grecu (Serviciul Român de Comedie, Divertis)
Victor Slav (Vremea)
Vlad Gherman (Pariu cu viața, O nouă viață)
Sub-channels and subsidiaries
PRO TV International
Acasă
PRO Cinema
PRO Arena
Acasă GOLD
PRO TV Chișinău
Awards
In September 2008, Știrile PRO TV's social campaign “Any idea what your kid is doing right now?” (Romanian: Tu știi ce mai face copilul tău?) won the International Emmy Awards for “News”, being the first TV station in Eastern Europe to win this award.
At the beginning of 2009, PRO TV won the NAB International Broadcasting Excellence Award for the social campaigns Știrile PRO TV had developed in the previous two years.
Logos
2015–15 January 2016
15 January 2016 – 28 August 2017
28 August 2017–present
The bevels and glossy effects were taken away in 2015, and the PRO TV logo is now enclosed in a blue square box.
On 15 January 2016, PRO TV's logo became monochrome and the well-known red-green-blue stripes were removed.
On 28 August 2017, PRO TV changed its logo and graphics again including with other MediaPro neighboring channels, with the exception that Acasă TV changed its name to PRO 2, Acasă Gold to PRO GOLD and Sport.ro to PRO X. On that same day, Știrile PRO TV was rebranded with a new logo and look.
In April 2022, PRO 2 and PRO GOLD reverted to Acasă and Acasă Gold.
Sports competitions
PRO TV was the main television channel to broadcast the UEFA Champions League in Romania between 2000 and 2009. From 2009 to 2015, it broadcast Cupa României (Romanian Cup), at football, the matches with Romanian teams from UEFA Europa League, and the preliminaries of the UEFA Champions League. From 2015, PRO TV took back the rights for UEFA Champions League and in 2016 it obtained the rights for UEFA Euro 2016. From 2021, PRO TV took back the rights for UEFA Europa League, and also for UEFA Europa Conference League and FA Cup.
PRO TV HD
PRO TV HD logo
On 1 December 2006, PRO TV started to broadcast the 7:00 p.m. newscast in high-definition, thus becoming the first terrestrial television network in Romania to air in HD, starting terrestrial transmission until 2015. The station could be received via DVB-T (digital terrestrial transmission) on Channel 30 in Bucharest.
Slogans
Year of first usage
Slogans
Translated
1995-1999
Te uiţi şi câştigi
You watch and win
1999-2001
Românii au PRO TV
Romanians have PRO TV
2001-2012
Gândeşte liber!
Think freely!
2012-2016
Trăieşte PRO TV
Long live PRO TV
2016-2017
Ai ce trebuie
You've got what it takes
2017-2018
Ştii ce vrei! Vrei PRO TV
You know what you want! You want PRO TV
2018-2021, 2022-prezent
Ăsta-i spectacolul, asta-i televiziunea
This is the show, this is television
2021-2022
Ai ce vrei! Ai PRO TV
You have what you want! You have PRO TV
References
^ "Grupul de investiții PPF din Cehia a finalizat cu succes achiziția CME". Retrieved 13 October 2020.
^ "Pro TV lansează Pro TV Plus". Pro TV. 29 August 2014. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
^ "Știrile Pro TV, lider de audiență, stiri.rol.ro". Archived from the original on 1 May 2009. Retrieved 4 January 2009.
^ Știrile Pro TV, 1 mil. telespectatori pe minut, zf.ro
^ Raluca-Nicoleta, Radu (15 June 2022). "Romania". Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism.
^ "Tu stii ce mai face copilul tau? E la Emmy!". October 2022.
^ "Frocus .:. Noutati .:. Sumar de noutati".
External links
PRO TV
Știrile PRO TV
Pro TV on Instagram
vte Television in RomaniaA&E
Crime & Investigation
History
Aleph Media
Aleph Business
Aleph News
Smart TV
AMC
AMC
CBS Reality
Extreme Sports Channel
Film Cafe
Film Mania
JimJam
Minimax
TV Paprika
Antenna
AXN Black
AXN Europe
AXN White
AXN Spin
Kiss TV
Magic TV
Rock TV
CNM
Favorit TV
Național TV
Național 24 Plus
Clever Group
Agro TV
Cinemaraton
Prima Sport
1
2
3
4
5
Medika TV
Prima TV
Prima Comedy
Prima World
Prima History
Prima News
Profit News
Digital Broadcast
Mooz Dance
Mooz Hits
Mooz Ro
Sport Extra
Disney Romania
BabyTV
Disney Channel
Disney Junior
Nat Geo People
National Geographic
National Geographic Wild
Doğan Holding
Kanal D
Kanal D2
Intact
Antena 1
Antena Stars
Antena 3 CNN
Antena Internațional
Happy Channel
ZU TV
Antena Monden@
Comedy Play@
Cook & Play@
ISG Media
Bollywood Classic
Bollywood Film
Bollywood TV
Kino Polska
360 TuneBox
DocuBox
Erox
Eroxxx
FashionBox
Fast&FunBox
FilmBox
FilmBox Arthouse
FilmBox Extra HD
FilmBox Family
FilmBox Premium
FilmBox Plus
FightBox
FunBox UHD
GameToon
TDC
NBCUniversal
Diva
E!
Paramount
Club MTV
Comedy Central
MTV 80s
MTV 90s
MTV 00s
MTV Europe
MTV Hits
MTV Live
MTV Music
Nickelodeon
Nick Jr. Channel
Nicktoons
TeenNick
Pro TV
Acasă
Acasă Gold
Pro TV
Pro TV Internațional
Pro Cinema
Pro Arena
Pro TV News@
RCS & RDS
Digi24
Digi 4K
Digi Animal World
Digi Life
Digi Sport
1
2
3
4
Digi World
Film Now
H!T Music Channel
Hora TV
Music Channel
U TV
Orange
Orange Sport
1
2
3
4
Orange Info
Tematic Media
Duck TV
The Fishing & Hunting Channel
ShortsTV
TVR
TVR1
TVR2
TVR3
TVR Cultural
TVRi
TVR Info
TVR Folclor
TVR Sport
Viasat World
Epic Drama
TV1000 Balkan
Viasat Explore
Viasat History
Viasat Nature
Warner Bros.Discovery
Animal Planet
Cartoonito
Cartoon Network
Discovery Channel
Eurosport 1
Eurosport 2
Eurosport 4K
Food Network
Cinemax
Cinemax 2
HBO
HBO 2
HBO 3
HGTV
ID Xtra
TLC
Travel Channel
Warner TV
OthersLocal
Apollonia TV
Ardeal TV
Columna TV
Dobrogea TV
Dunărea TV
Erdély TV
Infinit TV
Job TV
Litoral TV
QUB TV
Sud Vest TV
Super TV
Tele M
TeleMoldova PLUS
TV City
Valea Prahovei TV
VTV
National
24 Mix Teleshop
A7TV
Alfa Omega TV
Angelus TV
Atomic TV
B1 TV
Balcan Music Television
BBC Earth
BBC First
Canal 33
Cinethronix
Credo TV
Disco Mix
Emi TV
Etno TV
Euronews România
Exploris
Focus Sat TV
Global News
Inedit TV
Kapital TV
LinkPress TV
Love Nature
Maria TV
MeteoTV.TV
Metropola TV
Moldova TV
Money News
Nașul TV
NCN
Orizont TV
Party Mix
Rapsodia TV
Realitatea Plus
Realitatea Sportivă
Realitatea Star
România TV
Sens TV
SperanțaTV
SuperOne
Taraf TV
Tele7ABC
Telestar 1
Top Shop TV
Traditional TV
TraLaLa
Travel Mix
Trinitas TV
TV5Monde
TVSE
Z-TV.TV
Defunct
Boom Sport One
Boom Sport Two
Telesport
OTV
DDTV
Animax
Sport Klub
GSP TV
Giga TV
Sport1
MGM Channel
Universal Channel
Sci Fi Romania
The Money Channel
TVR News
BBC Entertainment
Spark
Sundance TV
TVH
MTV Romania
TVR HD
Realitatea TV
Megamax
Neptun TV
6TV
TTM
Discovery Channel Romania
Fine Living
Paramount Channel
TNT
Discovery Science
DTX
Key
@ = exclusively online
(italic) = local/regional
Local versions: TVR Cluj, TVR Craiova, TVR Iași, TVR Tîrgu Mureș, TVR Timișoara.
Local versions: Antena 3 Alexandria, ...Brașov, ...Constanța, ...Deva, ...Iași, ...Pitești, ...Ploiești, ...Suceava.
Local versions: Prima TV Slatina.
vteTelevision in MoldovaTeleradio-Moldova
Moldova 1
Moldova 2
TVMI
Private
Prime
ProTV Chișinău
Publika TV
Jurnal TV
TV8
Muz TV Moldova
Realitatea TV
Euronova TV
TV Albasat
DTV
See also
List of Romanian language television channels
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[pro teˈve]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Romanian"},{"link_name":"Romanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"free-to-air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-to-air"},{"link_name":"television network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_network"},{"link_name":"Antena 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antena_1_(Romania)"},{"link_name":"Tele7ABC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tele7ABC"},{"link_name":"CME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_European_Media_Enterprises"},{"link_name":"PPF Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PPF_(company)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Republic of Moldova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldova"},{"link_name":"PRO TV Chișinău","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProTV_Chi%C8%99in%C4%83u"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Romanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/VOYO"},{"link_name":"idents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Station_identification"}],"text":"PRO TV (Romanian pronunciation: [pro teˈve], often stylized as PRO•TV as of 2017) is a Romanian free-to-air television network, launched on 1 December 1995 as the fourth private TV channel in the country (after TV SOTI, Antena 1, and the now-defunct, but online Tele7ABC). It is owned by CME (Central European Media Enterprises), which is owned by PPF Group.[1]Since 3 September 1999, the company has also been broadcasting its own signal for the Republic of Moldova, under the PRO TV Chișinău brand. It broadcasts, in addition to PRO TV Bucharest programs (according to its own grid, different from the Romanian one), a series of local news and programs and its own advertising slots throughout the day.Targeting urban adults aged 21 to 54, PRO TV uses a programming strategy of top international series and movies, as well as a wide variety of local productions including news programming, local entertainment and local fiction.On 29 August 2014, PRO TV launched its own streaming service, called PRO TV Plus, dedicated to original series.[2] Later, in 2021, it was replaced by VOYO(Romanian), which has the same series and original shows of the PRO channels, plus some other exclusives and original content. PRO TV Plus still exists, although VOYO is now promoted much more. Also, unlike PRO TV Plus, which could be used for free, VOYO has monthly or annual subscriptions.Since 2014, the idents for commercials and promos have become more different from those of other stations, focusing on the stars appearing in the station's shows. During the summer, idents are used that present activities that are practiced in the summer, while in the winter, idents are used that present things and activities related to the winter holidays, but also things related to winter.","title":"Pro TV"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The station's local productions include entertainment shows, news programs and TV series.","title":"Programs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters_Institute_for_the_Study_of_Journalism"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Emmy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_Awards"},{"link_name":"Andreea Esca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreea_Esca"}],"text":"Știrile PRO TV (English: PRO TV News) is one of the most popular news programs in Romania, with an average rating of 9.3 points and 25.1% market share, being watched by over a million urban[3][4] viewers. According to 2022 report of Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, 76% of the interviewed persons confirmed that PRO TV news are the most trusted ones. According to different research studies, PRO TV has at this moment a reach of 63% in terms of weekly use, 51% of the people watching the programs at least three times per week.[5]Știrile PRO TV won the International Emmy Award News of 2008 in September 2008.Andreea Esca is the longest-standing newscaster in Romania. She began her career over 25 years ago, and has spent 23 years with PRO TV.PRO TV news programs are broadcast daily, multiple times per day.","title":"Știrile PRO TV"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Amalia Enache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amalia_Enache&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Andra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andra_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Andreea Esca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreea_Esca"},{"link_name":"Andi Moisescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andi_Moisescu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Carmen Tănase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmen_T%C4%83nase"},{"link_name":"Cătălin Măruță","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%83t%C4%83lin_M%C4%83ru%C8%9B%C4%83"},{"link_name":"Cătălin Radu Tănase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=C%C4%83t%C4%83lin_Radu_T%C4%83nase&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cristian Leonte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cristian_Leonte&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Corina Caragea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corina_Caragea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ramona Păun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramona_P%C4%83un&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vadim Vîjeu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vadim_V%C3%AEjeu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Florin Busuioc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Florin_Busuioc&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Iulia Pârlea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iulia_P%C3%A2rlea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Magda Pălimariu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Magda_P%C4%83limariu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Daniel Nițoiu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Ni%C8%9Boiu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mihai Dedu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mihai_Dedu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lavinia Petrea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lavinia_Petrea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Andreea Marinescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andreea_Marinescu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Roxana Hulpe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roxana_Hulpe&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ovidiu Oanță","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ovidiu_Oan%C8%9B%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Smiley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smiley_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Pavel Bartoș","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavel_Barto%C8%99"},{"link_name":"Tudor Chirilă","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_Chiril%C4%83"},{"link_name":"Marius Moga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marius_Moga"},{"link_name":"Carla's Dreams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carla%27s_Dreams"},{"link_name":"Diana Enache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_Enache"},{"link_name":"Monica Dascălu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monica_Dasc%C4%83lu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cabral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabral_Ibacka"},{"link_name":"Cosmin Seleși","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cosmin_Sele%C8%99i&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mihaela Radulescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihaela_R%C4%83dulescu"},{"link_name":"Dragoș Bucur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drago%C8%99_Bucur"},{"link_name":"Mihai Bobonete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mihai_Bobonete&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Irina Rimes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irina_Rimes"},{"link_name":"Inna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inna"},{"link_name":"Horia Brenciu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horia_Brenciu"},{"link_name":"Daniel Pavel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Pavel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Theo Rose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theo_Rose&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Denis Roabeș","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Motans"},{"link_name":"Adela Popescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adela_Popescu"},{"link_name":"Bogdan Ciudoiu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bogdan_Ciudoiu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Shurubel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shurubel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lili Sandu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lili_Sandu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Chef FOA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chef_FOA&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Chef Joseph Hadad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chef_Joseph_Hadad&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Chef Radu Dumitrescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chef_Radu_Dumitrescu&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"Amalia Enache\nAndra\nAndreea Esca\nAndi Moisescu\nCarmen Tănase\nCătălin Măruță\nCătălin Radu Tănase\nCristian Leonte\nCorina Caragea\nRamona Păun\nVadim Vîjeu\nFlorin Busuioc\nIulia Pârlea\nMagda Pălimariu\nDaniel Nițoiu\nMihai Dedu\nLavinia Petrea\nAndreea Marinescu\nRoxana Hulpe\nOvidiu Oanță\nSmiley\nPavel Bartoș\nTudor Chirilă\nMarius Moga\nCarla's Dreams\nDiana Enache\nMonica Dascălu\nCabral\nCosmin Seleși\nMihaela Radulescu\nDragoș Bucur\nMihai Bobonete\nIrina Rimes\nInna\nHoria Brenciu\nDaniel Pavel\nTheo Rose\nDenis Roabeș\nAdela Popescu\nBogdan Ciudoiu\nShurubel\nLili Sandu\nChef FOA\nChef Joseph Hadad\nChef Radu Dumitrescu","title":"Newscasters and celebrities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alina Eremia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alina_Eremia"},{"link_name":"Pariu cu viața","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pariu_cu_via%C8%9Ba"},{"link_name":"O nouă viață","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=O_nou%C4%83_via%C8%9B%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Bebe Cotimanis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bebe_Cotimanis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Pariu cu viața","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pariu_cu_via%C8%9Ba"},{"link_name":"O nouă viață","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=O_nou%C4%83_via%C8%9B%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Românii au talent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom%C3%A2nii_au_talent"},{"link_name":"Cătălin Scărlătescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=C%C4%83t%C4%83lin_Sc%C4%83rl%C4%83tescu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"MasterChef Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MasterChef_Romania"},{"link_name":"Corina Dănilă","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corina_D%C4%83nil%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cosmin Natantincu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cosmin_Natantincu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Pe Bune?!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pe_Bune%3F!&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gabriel_Cove%C8%99eanu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vorbește lumea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vorbe%C8%99te_lumea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cristian Tabără","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cristian_Tab%C4%83r%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Te vezi la Știrile PRO TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Te_vezi_la_%C8%98tirile_PRO_TV&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dăruești și Câștigi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=D%C4%83rue%C8%99ti_%C8%99i_C%C3%A2%C8%99tigi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cristina Ciobănescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cristina_Ciob%C4%83nescu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Pariu cu viața","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pariu_cu_via%C8%9Ba"},{"link_name":"O nouă viață","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=O_nou%C4%83_via%C8%9B%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dan C. Mihăilescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dan_C._Mih%C4%83ilescu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Omul care aduce cartea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Omul_care_aduce_cartea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dorian Popa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dorian_Popa&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Pariu cu viața","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pariu_cu_via%C8%9Ba"},{"link_name":"O nouă viață","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=O_nou%C4%83_via%C8%9B%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Florin Călinescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florin_C%C4%83linescu"},{"link_name":"Românii au talent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom%C3%A2nii_au_talent"},{"link_name":"Florin Dumitrescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Florin_Dumitrescu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"MasterChef Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MasterChef_Romania"},{"link_name":"Ioana Cosma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ioana_Cosma&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ora Exactă în Sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ora_Exact%C4%83_%C3%AEn_Sport&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ioana Maria Moldovan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ioana_Maria_Moldovan&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Poveștiri Adevărate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pove%C8%99tiri_Adev%C4%83rate&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Irina Fodor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irina_Fodor&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Poveștiri de Noapte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pove%C8%99tiri_de_Noapte&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vocea României","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocea_Rom%C3%A2niei"},{"link_name":"Iulia Albu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iulia_Albu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Loredana Groza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loredana_Groza"},{"link_name":"Vocea României","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocea_Rom%C3%A2niei"},{"link_name":"Mihai Codreanu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihai_Codreanu"},{"link_name":"Știrile PRO TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C8%98tirile_PRO_TV&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mihai Mironică","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mihai_Mironic%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ora Exactă în Sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ora_Exact%C4%83_%C3%AEn_Sport&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mihai Petre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mihai_Petre&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dansez pentru tine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dansez_pentru_tine"},{"link_name":"Românii au talent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom%C3%A2nii_au_talent"},{"link_name":"Uite cine dansează","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uite_cine_danseaz%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mircea Solcanu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Solcanu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Poveștiri de Noapte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pove%C8%99tiri_de_Noapte&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mugur Mihăiescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mugur_Mih%C4%83iescu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vacanța Mare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacan%C8%9Ba_Mare"},{"link_name":"Oana Stern-Cuzino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oana_Stern-Cuzino&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ce se întâmplă doctore?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ce_se_%C3%AEnt%C3%A2mpl%C4%83_doctore%3F&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Oana Zăvoranu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oana_Z%C4%83voranu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Octavian Strunilă","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Octavian_Strunil%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Jocuri de celebritate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jocuri_de_celebritate&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Fort Boyard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Boyard_(game_show)"},{"link_name":"Paul Ipate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ipate"},{"link_name":"Jocuri de celebritate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jocuri_de_celebritate&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Fort Boyard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Boyard_(game_show)"},{"link_name":"Raluca Arvat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raluca_Arvat&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Știrile din sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C8%98tirile_din_sport&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ramona Păuleanu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramona_P%C4%83uleanu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vremea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vremea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Răzvan Fodor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zvan_Fodor"},{"link_name":"MasterChef Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MasterChef_Romania"},{"link_name":"Sorin Bontea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sorin_Bontea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"MasterChef Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MasterChef_Romania"},{"link_name":"Ștefan Bănică","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98tefan_B%C4%83nic%C4%83_Jr."},{"link_name":"Dansez pentru tine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dansez_pentru_tine"},{"link_name":"Teo Trandafir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teo_Trandafir&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Teo Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teo_Show&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Toni Grecu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toni_Grecu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Serviciul Român de Comedie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Serviciul_Rom%C3%A2n_de_Comedie&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Divertis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Divertis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Victor Slav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Victor_Slav&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vremea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vremea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vlad Gherman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vlad_Gherman&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Pariu cu viața","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pariu_cu_via%C8%9Ba"},{"link_name":"O nouă viață","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=O_nou%C4%83_via%C8%9B%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"Alina Eremia (Pariu cu viața, O nouă viață)\nBebe Cotimanis (Pariu cu viața, O nouă viață, Românii au talent)\nCătălin Scărlătescu (MasterChef Romania)\nCorina Dănilă\nCosmin Natantincu (Pe Bune?!)\nCove (Vorbește lumea)\nCristian Tabără (Te vezi la Știrile PRO TV, Dăruești și Câștigi)\nCristina Ciobănescu (Pariu cu viața, O nouă viață)\nDan C. Mihăilescu (Omul care aduce cartea)\nDorian Popa (Pariu cu viața, O nouă viață)\nFlorin Călinescu (Românii au talent)\nFlorin Dumitrescu (MasterChef Romania)\nIoana Cosma (Ora Exactă în Sport)\nIoana Maria Moldovan (Poveștiri Adevărate)\nIrina Fodor (Poveștiri de Noapte, Vocea României)\nIulia Albu\nLoredana Groza (Vocea României)\nMihai Codreanu (Știrile PRO TV)\nMihai Mironică (Ora Exactă în Sport)\nMihai Petre (Dansez pentru tine, Românii au talent, Uite cine dansează)\nMircea Solcanu (Poveștiri de Noapte)\nMugur Mihăiescu (Vacanța Mare)\nOana Stern-Cuzino (Ce se întâmplă doctore?)\nOana Zăvoranu\nOctavian Strunilă (Jocuri de celebritate, Fort Boyard)\nPaul Ipate (Jocuri de celebritate, Fort Boyard)\nRaluca Arvat (Știrile din sport)\nRamona Păuleanu (Vremea)\nRăzvan Fodor (MasterChef Romania)\nSorin Bontea (MasterChef Romania)\nȘtefan Bănică (Dansez pentru tine)\nTeo Trandafir (Teo Show)\nToni Grecu (Serviciul Român de Comedie, Divertis)\nVictor Slav (Vremea)\nVlad Gherman (Pariu cu viața, O nouă viață)","title":"Former stars"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PRO TV International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PRO.TV_Interna%C8%9Bional"},{"link_name":"Acasă","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acas%C4%83"},{"link_name":"PRO Cinema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PRO_Cinema"},{"link_name":"PRO Arena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro_Arena"},{"link_name":"Acasă GOLD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acas%C4%83_GOLD&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"PRO TV Chișinău","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProTV_Chi%C8%99in%C4%83u"}],"text":"PRO TV International\nAcasă\nPRO Cinema\nPRO Arena\nAcasă GOLD\nPRO TV Chișinău","title":"Sub-channels and subsidiaries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Romanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_language"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"In September 2008, Știrile PRO TV's social campaign “Any idea what your kid is doing right now?” (Romanian: Tu știi ce mai face copilul tău?) won the International Emmy Awards for “News”, being the first TV station in Eastern Europe to win this award.[6]At the beginning of 2009, PRO TV won the NAB International Broadcasting Excellence Award for the social campaigns Știrile PRO TV had developed in the previous two years.","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PRO_TV_Logo_(2015-2016).svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Logo_Pro_TV_(2016).svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Logo_Pro_TV_(2017).svg"}],"text":"2015–15 January 2016\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t15 January 2016 – 28 August 2017\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t28 August 2017–presentThe bevels and glossy effects were taken away in 2015, and the PRO TV logo is now enclosed in a blue square box.On 15 January 2016, PRO TV's logo became monochrome and the well-known red-green-blue stripes were removed.On 28 August 2017, PRO TV changed its logo and graphics again including with other MediaPro neighboring channels, with the exception that Acasă TV changed its name to PRO 2, Acasă Gold to PRO GOLD and Sport.ro to PRO X. On that same day, Știrile PRO TV was rebranded with a new logo and look.In April 2022, PRO 2 and PRO GOLD reverted to Acasă and Acasă Gold.","title":"Logos"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"UEFA Champions League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League"},{"link_name":"Cupa României","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupa_Rom%C3%A2niei"},{"link_name":"UEFA Europa League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Europa_League"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"UEFA Euro 2016","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2016"},{"link_name":"UEFA Europa League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Europa_League"},{"link_name":"UEFA Europa Conference League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Europa_Conference_League"},{"link_name":"FA Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_Cup"}],"text":"PRO TV was the main television channel to broadcast the UEFA Champions League in Romania between 2000 and 2009. From 2009 to 2015, it broadcast Cupa României (Romanian Cup), at football, the matches with Romanian teams from UEFA Europa League, and the preliminaries of the UEFA Champions League.[7] From 2015, PRO TV took back the rights for UEFA Champions League and in 2016 it obtained the rights for UEFA Euro 2016. From 2021, PRO TV took back the rights for UEFA Europa League, and also for UEFA Europa Conference League and FA Cup.","title":"Sports competitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pro_TV_HD_logo_2017.png"},{"link_name":"high-definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-definition_television"},{"link_name":"terrestrial television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_television"}],"text":"PRO TV HD logoOn 1 December 2006, PRO TV started to broadcast the 7:00 p.m. newscast in high-definition, thus becoming the first terrestrial television network in Romania to air in HD, starting terrestrial transmission until 2015. The station could be received via DVB-T (digital terrestrial transmission) on Channel 30 in Bucharest.","title":"PRO TV HD"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Slogans"}]
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[{"image_text":"PRO TV HD logo","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Pro_TV_HD_logo_2017.png/220px-Pro_TV_HD_logo_2017.png"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilakku_Vacha_Nerathula
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Vilakku Vacha Nerathula
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["1 Plot","2 Cast","2.1 Main cast","2.2 Additional cast","3 Airing history","4 International broadcast","5 References","6 External links"]
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Vilakku Vacha Nerathula" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
TV series or program
Vilakku Vacha Nerathulaவிளக்கு வச்ச நேரத்துலேGenreSoap operaWritten byK. BhagyarajScreenplay byK. BhagyarajDirected byC. RanganathanCreative directorSubhaa VenkatStarringSujitha Sanjeev Anuradha Krishnamoorthy Kaushik Delhi KumarTheme music composerDeva (Title Song)Kiran (Background Score)Opening theme"Vilakku Vacha Nerathula"(Vocals)S. P. BalasubrahmanyamAnuradha SriramVairamuthu (Lyrics)Original languageTamilNo. of episodes578ProductionCamera setupMulti-cameraRunning timeapprox. 20-22 minutes per episodeProduction companyEver SmileOriginal releaseNetworkKalaignar TVRelease18 January 2009 (2009-01-18) –10 October 2012 (2012-10-10)
Vilakku Vacha Nerathula (Tamil: விளக்கு வச்ச நேரத்துலே) is an Indian Tamil-language soap opera that aired on Kalaignar TV. The show premiered on 18 January 2009. It aired Monday through Friday at 8:00PM IST. The show starring by Sujitha, Sanjeev, Anuradha Krishnamoorthy, Kaushik and Delhi Kumar.
The show Written and Screenplay by K. Bhagyaraj, Directed by C. Ranganathan and Production by Ever Smile. The show last aired on 10 October 2012 and ended with 287 episodes.
Plot
An educated girl named Pavithra lives in a village where her father runs a finance company. Pavithra's mother wants her married to her brother's son. Due to some misunderstanding the families are not in terms with each other. So Pavithra's family decided to avoid this and began to look for another proposal for her. Pavithra's mother visits an astrologer for advice. In the meanwhile Pratap, a NRI from Singapore meets Pavithra at a bus stop and falls in love with her . Before leaving to Singapore he asks his friend to gather information about Pavithra. Mentally challenged Chelladurai, a landlord in Pavithra's village along with his mother. Chelladurai mother believes that marriage will solve his problems. On seeing Pavithra's horoscope the astrologer tells her mother about some problem. After hearing this Pavithra's mother hides what the astrologer told her. The story unfolds from here.
Cast
Main cast
Sujitha as Pavithira
Sanjeev
Kaushik
Additional cast
Anuradha Krishnamoorthy
Delhi Kumar
Sivan Srinivasan
Kalaranjani
Koushik
Dev Anand
Baboos
Kaveri
Theni Rajesh
Sundari
Sruthi
Sathya
Banumathi
Airing history
The show started airing on Kalaignar TV on 18 January 2010. It aired on Monday to Friday 8:00PM. Later its timing changed to Monday to Friday at 9:30PM.
International broadcast
It aired in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh on RVS TV Dubbed in Telugu language.
In Indian Tamil Channel on Mega TV
References
^ "Vilakku Vacha Nerathula new serial on Kalaignar TV". tamil.filmibeat.com.
^ "Vilakku Vacha Nerathula new serial". Dinamalar.
^ "Vilakku Vacha Nerathula new serial Launch Stills". www.indiancinemagallery.com.
^ "Vilakku Vacha Nerathula serial gallery". southdreamz.com.
External links
Official website
vteKalaignar TV by showsOriginal serials
Gowri
Kannedhirey Thondrinal
Ranjithame
Serials (re-telecast)
Kula Deivam
Deivamagal
Nadhaswaram
Thirumathi Selvam
Shows
Vaazhthu Kaatuvom
Vaa Thamizha Vaa 3
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_v._Brailsford_(disambiguation)
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Georgia v. Brailsford
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[]
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Georgia v. Brailsford is the name of three decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States:
Georgia v. Brailsford (1792) 2 U.S. 402, involving state rights to collect debt from foreign citizens
Georgia v. Brailsford (1793) 2 U.S. 415, continuing the case of Georgia v. Brailsford (1792)
Georgia v. Brailsford (1794) 3 U.S. 1, concluding the case for the defendants
Topics referred to by the same termThis disambiguation page lists articles about court cases which are associated with the same title.If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
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[]
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[]
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[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere/Georgia_v._Brailsford&namespace=0","external_links_name":"internal link"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evening_Urgant
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Evening Urgant
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["1 Format and structure","2 Filming and airing","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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Russian late-night talk show
Evening UrgantAlso known asUrgant ShowCreated byIvan UrgantWritten byDenis RtischevKonstantin AnisimovPavel VinogradovAlexander GudkovDmitry EmelyanenkovRoman KimVladimir MakovGarik OganisyanVyacheslav OmutovDmitry PepelyaevPavel ProkopyevVadim SeleznyovMikhail SemichevIvan UrgantDenis KhoreshkoAndrey ShavkeroGrigory ShatokhinDirected byRoman ButovskyAlex BoltenkoPresented byIvan UrgantStarringIvan UrgantAlexander GudkovDmitry KhrustalevNarrated byAlexander GudkovDmitry KhrustalevOpening theme"Evening Urgant"Country of originRussiaOriginal languageRussianNo. of seasons10No. of episodes1603 (as of February 21, 2022)ProductionExecutive producerDmitry KoshkinProducersIvan UrgantAndrey BoltenkoAlexander FayfmanKonstantin ErnstProduction locationsOstankino, MoscowRunning time30-50 minutesOriginal releaseNetworkChannel OneRelease16 April 2012 (2012-04-16) –21 February 2022 (2022-02-21) (suspended, allegedly)
Evening Urgant (Russian: Вечерний Ургант, romanized: Vecherniy Urgant) is a Russian late-night talk show hosted by Ivan Urgant on Channel One, a show based on similarly styled American late-night shows. The first episode aired on 16 April 2012. Ivan Urgant has said that he received advice from western television producers, and cites Jimmy Fallon and David Letterman as inspirations.
According to several sources, the show was suspended in February 2022 after Urgant expressed his opposition to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, while Channel One claimed that there was just a scheduling issue. As of December 2023, the program has yet to resume.
Format and structure
Each episode begins with a cold opening, featuring jokes usually associated with the guests of the night. This is followed by the premiere of "credit sequence" with a series of night shots of Moscow, the street which is Urgant. Back in the Studio, Urgant delivers an introductory monologue containing jokes about current events, pop culture or politics. After the monologue, the show may show one or more Comedy parodies or recurring segments, after which Urgant brings out the famous guests of that evening for a one-on-one interview. The final segment of the show features a live performance from a musical guest.
The main focus of the show is on the portion containing celebrity interviews. The show's house band is The Fruits (Russian: Фрукты, romanized: Frukty), hailing from Saint Petersburg.
Filming and airing
The show is taped in front of a live audience at 4:30 pm MSK on the day the episode is due to be aired. Some interviews may be recorded days in advance, depending on the availability of the guest. Anyone over 16 years old can fill out an application on the show's website to be a member of the studio audience.
See also
Prozhektorperiskhilton
Ciao, 2020!
References
^ Eurovision Belgium • Netherlands 25.02.22, twitter.com
^ Иван Ургант рассказал о своей программе. April 20, 2012. (in Russian)
^ Eurovision Belgium • Netherlands 25.02.22, twitter.com
^ Roth, Andrew (25 February 2022). "Prominent Russians join protests against Ukraine war amid 1,800 arrests". the Guardian. Archived from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
^ "Группа "Фрукты": На шоу "Вечерний Ургант" мы попали через... новогодние елки". Komsomolskaya Pravda.
^ Записаться на шоу - Вечерний Ургант (in Russian). Channel One.
External links
Official website
|
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|
[]
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[{"title":"Prozhektorperiskhilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prozhektorperiskhilton"},{"title":"Ciao, 2020!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciao,_2020!"}]
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[{"reference":"Roth, Andrew (25 February 2022). \"Prominent Russians join protests against Ukraine war amid 1,800 arrests\". the Guardian. Archived from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 7 March 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220226220804/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/25/prominent-russians-join-protests-against-ukraine-war-amid-1800-arrests-putin","url_text":"\"Prominent Russians join protests against Ukraine war amid 1,800 arrests\""},{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/25/prominent-russians-join-protests-against-ukraine-war-amid-1800-arrests-putin","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Группа \"Фрукты\": На шоу \"Вечерний Ургант\" мы попали через... новогодние елки\". Komsomolskaya Pravda.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kp.ru/daily/26180.2/3066535/","url_text":"\"Группа \"Фрукты\": На шоу \"Вечерний Ургант\" мы попали через... новогодние елки\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komsomolskaya_Pravda","url_text":"Komsomolskaya Pravda"}]},{"reference":"Записаться на шоу - Вечерний Ургант (in Russian). Channel One.","urls":[{"url":"http://urgantshow.ru/form","url_text":"Записаться на шоу - Вечерний Ургант"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_One_(Russia)","url_text":"Channel One"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://twitter.com/escbenl/status/1497290366529294339","external_links_name":"Eurovision Belgium • Netherlands"},{"Link":"http://urgantshow.ru/page/15123","external_links_name":"Иван Ургант рассказал о своей программе."},{"Link":"https://twitter.com/escbenl/status/1497290366529294339","external_links_name":"Eurovision Belgium • Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220226220804/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/25/prominent-russians-join-protests-against-ukraine-war-amid-1800-arrests-putin","external_links_name":"\"Prominent Russians join protests against Ukraine war amid 1,800 arrests\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/25/prominent-russians-join-protests-against-ukraine-war-amid-1800-arrests-putin","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.kp.ru/daily/26180.2/3066535/","external_links_name":"\"Группа \"Фрукты\": На шоу \"Вечерний Ургант\" мы попали через... новогодние елки\""},{"Link":"http://urgantshow.ru/form","external_links_name":"Записаться на шоу - Вечерний Ургант"},{"Link":"http://urgantshow.ru/","external_links_name":"Official website"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Southern_Airlines_Flight_3456
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China Southern Airlines Flight 3456
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["1 Background","1.1 Aircraft","1.2 Flight crew","1.3 Weather","2 Accident","3 Crash site","4 Victims","5 Cockpit voice recording","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
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Coordinates: 22°38′25″N 113°48′39″E / 22.6402°N 113.8109°E / 22.6402; 113.81091997 passenger plane crash in Shenzhen, China
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "China Southern Airlines Flight 3456" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message)China Southern Airlines Flight 3456A China Southern Airlines 737-300, similar to the aircraft involvedAccidentDate8 May 1997 (1997-05-08)SummaryPilot error aggravated by severe weatherSiteShenzhen Huangtian Airport, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China 22°38′25″N 113°48′39″E / 22.6402°N 113.8109°E / 22.6402; 113.8109AircraftAircraft typeBoeing 737-31BOperatorChina Southern AirlinesRegistrationB-2925Flight originChongqing Jiangbei International AirportDestinationShenzhen Huangtian AirportOccupants74Passengers65Crew9Fatalities35Injuries9Survivors39
China Southern Airlines Flight 3456 (CZ3456/CSN3456) was a scheduled domestic passenger flight from Chongqing Jiangbei International Airport to Shenzhen Huangtian Airport (now Shenzhen Bao'an International Airport). On 8 May 1997, the Boeing 737 performing this route crashed during the second attempt to land in a thunderstorm.
The flight number 3456 is still used by China Southern and for the Chongqing-Shenzhen route but now with the Airbus A320 family or Boeing 737 Next Generation aircraft.
Background
Aircraft
The aircraft was a Boeing 737-31B registered as B-2925 and with serial number 27288. The aircraft was delivered to China Southern on 2 February 1994, and had recorded over 8,500 hours before the crash. The aircraft was powered by 2 CFM International CFM56-3C1 turbofan engines.
Flight crew
The captain in command was 45-year-old Lin Yougui (Chinese: 林友贵), he had logged more than 12,700 hours of total flying time, including 9,100 hours as Radio Operator and 3,600 hours as a pilot. The first officer was 36-year-old Kong Dexin (孔德新), he had logged over 15,500 hours of total flying time, of which 11,200 hours as flight engineer and 4,300 hours as a pilot.
Weather
The weather reported by Shenzhen Airport from 17:00 of 8 May to 02:00 of 9 May was: "170 degrees wind at 7 m/s (14 kn; 25 km/h; 16 mph) with rain, visibility 6,000 metres (20,000 ft), overcast at 1,500 metres (4,900 ft), variable winds at 15 metres per second (29 kn; 54 km/h; 34 mph), thunderstorm may appear."
At 18:00, on 8 May, a severe weather warning was issued: "report to airports, air traffic controls and airline companies: Thunderstorm with strong winds will appear, all departments including the crew who will be taking off should be notified." At 21:33, the weather recorded was 290 degrees wind at 7 m/s (14 kn; 25 km/h; 16 mph), visibility 2,000 metres (6,600 ft), showers, low clouds at 210 metres (690 ft), cumulonimbus at 1,200 metres (3,900 ft), temperature at 23 °C (73 °F).
Accident
On 8 May 1997, Flight 3456 took off from Chongqing Jiangbei International Airport at 19:45 local time (UTC+8), expected to arrive Shenzhen Huangtian Airport at 21:30. At 21:07, the Shenzhen Airport approach controller cleared the flight to the approach of Runway 33. At 21:17, the Tower informed the crew "heavy rain on final, advise when spotting the runway". At 21:18:07, the crew stated they have established ILS approach. At 21:18:53, the crew advised ATC that they spotted the approach lightings, and the controller cleared the aircraft to land. The controller was able to see the landing light of the plane, but it was not clear due to the rain. At 21:19:33, the aircraft touched down on the south of the runway, bounced three times, and damaged the aircraft's nose gear, hydraulic systems and flaps. The crew decided to go around.
The aircraft made a left turn while climbing up to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft). The crew were asked to turn on the transponder to show the ATC their position, but the secondary surveillance radar did not receive any signal from the aircraft, indicating the transponder was off. At 21:23:57, the crew informed the ATC they were on the downwind side, and requested other aircraft to clear off the airspace for Flight 3456's landing. At 21:24:40, the crew declared an emergency and requested to clear the approach again. At the time, the main warning, hydraulic system warning and the gear warning were all triggered in the cockpit. At 21:24:58, the crew asked for a full emergency airfield support. The aircraft then turned around, reporting it would land toward the south, which was approved. At 21:28:30, the aircraft skidded off the runway, broke into three pieces and caught on fire, killing 33 passengers and 2 crew members.
Crash site
The first landing attempt was toward north. Debris from the nose gear was found scattered near the southern end of the runway, indicating the left front tyre had exploded during the first touch down. Fallouts including rivets, metal sheets, rubber tube and retaining clip could also be found on the runway surface.
The second landing attempt was toward south. A clear surface scratch from the fuselage was found 427 metres (1,401 ft) from the runway threshold. The aircraft disintegrated after rolling approximately 600 metres (2,000 ft) across the runway and burst into flames. The central part of the fuselage and the trailing edge of the right wing received the most severe burning damage. The front section of the fuselage was 12 metres (39 ft) long with nose pointing north, partially damaged, showing rolling and rotating trace but no signs of burning. A large amount of mire was filled in the deformed cockpit. The rear section was relatively intact, and was the only section not destroyed.: 5.2 The left main gear and the right engine were scattered on the left side of the runway.: 2
Victims
On 9 May 1997, News at 6:30, a national news show aired at TVB Jade, provided a casualty list for the accident.
Nationality
Passengers
Crew
Fatalities
Total
China
42
9
19 (Including 2 crew)
51
Thailand
21
0
16
21
Taiwan
1
0
0
1
Hong Kong
1
0
0
1
Total
65
9
35
74
Cockpit voice recording
External videos CVR - China Southern 3456 on YouTube
In June 2007, an audio recording reputed to be the last 12 minutes 27 seconds recorded by the cockpit voice recorder of Flight 3456 was leaked on the Internet. According to an expert from the Civil Aviation Administration of China, the recording is unlikely to be fake.
Partial cockpit communications (translated from Chinese)
Flight 822's F/O: 1,800 meters (5,900 ft).
CAP: Extend the gear.
APP: 822, descend to 1,500 meters (4,900 ft) immediately.
Flight 822's CAP: Clear to descend to 1,500 meters. Still have visual contact right now.
APP: There is a plane close to you ahead.
Flight 822's CAP: Roger.
CAP: Affirmative, channel intercepted.
APP: You have no visual in the cloud, right, 822?
Flight 822's CAP: Yes,
APP: CZ308, descend to 1,800 meters (5,900 ft) immediately.
(Auto pilot disengaged)
APP: 308, altitude 2,001 meters (6,565 ft), is it enough?
Flight CA1305's CAP: Request to descend due to bad weather.
APP: Negative, maintain 1,500 meters.
F/O: Three greens for landing gear, greens for flaps 25° AoA and air brakes indicators,
Flight CA1305's CAP: How about 1,400 meters (4,600 ft)?
APP: Negative, what's your desired heading?
Flight CA1305's CAP: Heading 150 now. I can see the bad weather above the runway.
F/O: Watch the altitude.
CAP: OK.
APP: 822, descend to 900 meters (3,000 ft).
CAP: 3456 is establishing the ILS approach.
F/O: 3456 is contacting Huangtian tower. 1855, goodbye.
CAP: Watch the altitude.
CAP: 3456 established approach, Huangtian.
TWR: Affirmative. watch the heavy rain.
CAP: Huangtian to 3456.
TWR: Go ahead.
CAP: Er ... we are established approach now.
TWR: Watch the heading. About 330° wind at 2 m/s on the ground.
CAP: Roger.
F/O: Course set to 3.
CAP: 3.
TWR: Decision altitude is 60 meters (200 ft), 3456. Go around if fails (to land).
CAP: Affirmative.
Flight CA1305's CAP: Do you copy, Shenzhen Ground?
TWR: Check your bad radio quality.
CAP: Take your time before turning on landing light.
F/O: Power ready.
CAP: Power ready.
F/O: (Heading) 1 ... 138.
CAP: Approach lightings in the front. Don't look outside!
CAP: It's raining heavily, huh.
F/O: Right.
CAP: 3456, approach lightings in sight.
TWR: Land after checking. About 330° wind at 2 m/s (3.9 kn; 7.2 km/h; 4.5 mph) on the ground now.
CAP: OK.
F/O: Decision altitude. We are landing. Runway lights in sight. *cough*
CAP: Roger.
CAP: Release the rain repellent later.
FE: OK, I pushed the button for you right now.
CAP: Glide Slope indicates it is too low.
F/O: Glide Slope indicates it is too low.
(GPWS warning: GLIDE SLOPE!)
F/O: Watch your speed! Watch your speed!
CAP: It's alright to be a little bit higher.
F/O: Turn left a little bit ...
CAP: No, don't decrease the power so fast ...
CAP: Hold, hold on, hold on ...
(1st and 2nd ground contacts)
CAP: Go around! Increase! Increase the power!
CAP: Increase the power! Go around!
(3rd ground contact)(EFIS Master Warning: configuration damage)
CAP: Increase the power!
CAP: Flaps 15°.
F/O: 15°.
CAP: I can't feel any weight from the yoke!
FE: What?
CAP: The yoke is lost control.
F/O: It's climbing.
CAP: Gear up!
FE: It's broken.
F/O: Failed to gear up?
FE: Speed (meter) fails, too.
F/O: *cough*
CAP: Don't, don't climb too fast. Take it down a little bit.
F/O: All for nothing, huh?
CAP: Gears failed right?
FE: Failed.
CAP: Don't hurry, don't hurry, don't hurry.
FE: The rain is so intense, I can't see the ground.
CAP: Climb! Climb! Climb! Climb a little bit! A little bit!
F/O: The light is off, pushing the button is useless!
FE: The yoke is out of control.
TWR: Huangtian to CZ3456.
F/O: The warnings keeps ringing.
CAP: It's just a ringing speaker, clear the warnings.
(EFIS hydraulic system alarm)
CAP: Climb to altitude 1,200 meters (3,900 ft) now.
F/O: Ok.
F/O: The yoke is so light.
FE: The yoke lost control!
CAP: Don't climb so fast! Don't climb so fast!
CAP: CZ3456, go around.
TWR: Huangtian to 3456.
CAP: 3456, go around.
TWR: Is this 3456?
CAP: Er ... Excuse me?
TWR: Is this 3456?
CAP: This is 3456.
F/O: We can just turn around to land.
TWR: Can you turn on the transponder? I can't see you.
F/O: How about turning around to land towards the reverse direction?
CAP: Not right now, it's raining heavily. Climb to 1,200 meters (3,900 ft) first.
F/O: It ... It's raining heavily, right?
CAP: Check my position, 3456.
TWR: You haven't turn on the transponder yet, identify yourself.
CAP: I'm identifying.
TWR: How about the weather there?
CAP: Power supply is working properly right now.
F/O: Turn right now?
CAP: Where to turn?
FE: Turn right.
F/O: How about turning left?
FE: It's bad weather on left side.
F/O: No problem.
TWR: Report your position.
CAP: I just went past Shatian Road, ready to turn left. Check my position using your radar.
TWR: I don't have you on my radar, report your position.
F/O: We are now turning left into downwind leg.
TWR: Keep in downwind, planes on short final.
F/O: Tell him to go ground, it's not working on my side.
TWR: What is your altitude right now?
CAP: Maintaining altitude 1,200 meters (3,900 ft).
TWR: Maintaining altitude 1,200 meters, right?
CAP: Right.
APP: Shenzhen Ground to 3456.
CAP: Yes, 3456.
APP: Give me your position, 3456.
CAP: I am turning to downwind leg right now, notify other planes to avoid.
APP: Negative, there's a plane 14 kilometers (8.7 mi; 7.6 nmi) away from touchdown point at the altitude of 600 meters (2,000 ft).
F/O: Tell them we would make a forced landing, we declare a emergency!! Emergency!!
CAP: We declare a emergency!! Clear them off!!
F/O: Huh, the brake still works.
FE: Change to 111.3.
F/O: Which 111.3?
FE: ILS frequency.
F/O: Okay.
TWR: Huangtian to 3456.
CAP: Go ahead.
TWR: Thunders from the south, watch the weather.
(GPWS warning: WIND SHEAR!)
CAP: Notify other plane to avoid us, we declare an emergency. My plane is warning, clear other planes off.
TWR: I notified them already. Are you on the downwind leg?
CAP: Yes, we are on the downwind leg.
TWR: What's your DME?
CAP: DME shows 6 nmi (6.9 mi; 11 km) now.
F/O: Change the frequency to 111.3, right?
FE: Yes.
F/O: Turning around to land towards the reverse direction, and we can get down if the weather changes for the better.
CAP: Isn't it raining heavily right now?
CAP: Ah, there's the runway.
F/O: Do we need to choose another brake?
FE: Do we need one more circle (of hovering)?
CAP: Er ... 3456 to Huangtian, clear off the other plane. We declare an emergency!!
TWR: I've already notified them to clear off.
F/O: I think we lost control.
(Landing gear warning)
F/O: Request firefighters and ambulances when returned.
CAP: Er ... Request firefighters and ambulances when landed.
TWR: Affirmative, I notified them already. I've already notified all the planes to clear off. Cleared to land nomally.
CAP: Affirmative. I will turn around again to land toward ... toward the south.
TWR: Land toward the south?!
CAP: Give me my position.
TWR: What is your position, 3456? I can't see you! Where are you?
CAP: Altitude 1,200, I am ...
F/O: Watch the altitude of plane.
CAP: Er ... I guess I am turning left. North of airport, turning left.
CAP: Stop descending! Don't descend!
TWR: I clear off other plane to avoid you.
CAP: Affirmative.
TWR: What's your landing direction right now? It's calm wind on the ground.
CAP: Er ... Report the wind speed for me.
TWR: It's calm wind on the ground.
CAP: Er ... Affirmative.
(The CVR got several seconds of damaged recording)
CAP: I bet the gears are not in good condition. Pay more attention.
F/O: OK.
(Flaps warning)
F/O: Have all the planes already cleaned off?
CAP: Don't ... Don't turn this on!
TWR: There is no plane left, cleared to land, both runways are clear.
F/O: I don't know our position.
CAP: Watch the navigation station.
TWR: (Other plane) turn right forward, hurry up!
CAP: In position.
F/O: Is that the runway?
FE: I see the runway.
CAP: Keep your eyes on the runway.
F/O: I can see the runway!
FE: Saw it.
F/O: We are landing.
CAP: Okay.
TWR: Huangtian to 3456.
CAP: Go ahead.
TWR: Clear to land runway 3 or 4 ... runway 15.
CAP: Roger, runway in sight, prepare to land.
TWR: It's cloudy on the south, heavy rain on final.
CAP: Roger, I am going to land.
TWR: What is your position now?
CAP: I am turning on final.
CP: Is everything all right?
CAP: Not good. Prepare for the emergency evacuation when landed at worst.
CP: Alright, anything else?
CAP: No. Only one minute ’till landing.
F/O: Watch the speed and the altitude.
CAP: Hold the throttle.
F/O: Pay attention ...
F/O: Are we too high? It's the end of the runway!
F/O: It's too high, pull back the throttle.
(GPWS warning: SINK RATE! PULL UP!)
F/O: Hold on!
CAP: Pull up! Pull up!
F/O: Sink rate is too high!!
CAP: Pull up! Pull up! Pull up!
F/O: Sink rate is too high!!!!!
(Sound of impact)
(End of recording after 15 seconds)
See also
China portalAviation portal1990s portal
List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft
Garuda Indonesia Flight 200
Delta Airlines Flight 191
Flydubai Flight 981
Aeroflot Flight 1492, an accident in which the airplane also bounced off twice upon landing
Pakistan International Airlines Flight 8303
References
^ a b c d e f g "China Southern May 8th aircraft accident official report" (in Chinese). Retrieved 2016-05-30.
^ "China Southern Flight 3456 tracking". Flightaware. Retrieved 2016-05-30.
^ "Flight 3456 info on airdisaster.com". airdisaster.com. Archived from the original on 24 May 2013. Retrieved 11 Jun 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ "B-2925 China Southern Airlines Boeing 737-300". www.planespotters.net. Retrieved 2020-06-13.
^ "China Southern Airlines B-2925 (Boeing 737 - MSN 27288)". www.airfleets.net. Airfleets aviation. Retrieved 2020-06-13.
^ 南航空難黑盒錄音11年後重現 (in Chinese (Hong Kong)). Sina. 2008-03-07. Archived from the original on 2008-03-11.
^ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-31B B-2925 Shenzhen Airport (SZX)". aviation-safety.net. Retrieved 2018-10-02.
^ 無線1997年5月9日深圳黃田機場空難35死 . YouTube (in Chinese (Hong Kong)). Archived from the original on 2021-12-21.
^ "CAAC: It doesn't seem false". Archived from the original on March 11, 2008.
External links
Accident photo (Archive)
vteAviation accidents and incidents in ChinaBefore 1949
1922 Beijing-Han Airlines crash (March 1922)
1931 Jinan air crash (November 1931)
Kweilin Incident (August 1938)
Chungking Incident (October 1940)
1945 Peip'ing C-46 crash (October 1945)
1946 United States Air Force C-47 Crash at Yan'an (April 1946)
Miss Macao (July 1948)
1950–1979
Cathay Pacific Douglas DC-4 shootdown (July 1954)
Lin Biao incident (September 1971)
1980s
CAAC Flight 3303 (April 1982)
CAAC Flight 2311 (December 1982)
CAAC Flight 296 (May 1983)
Guilin Airport collision (September 1983)
Aeroflot Flight 101/435 (December 1985)
China Airlines Flight 334 (May 1986)
China Southwest Airlines Flight 4146 (January 1988)
China Eastern Airlines Flight 5510 (August 1989)
1990s
Guangzhou Baiyun airport collisions (October 1990)
China General Aviation Flight 7552 (July 1992)
China Southern Airlines Flight 3943 (November 1992)
China Northwest Airlines Flight 2119 (July 1993)
China Eastern Airlines Flight 5398 (October 1993)
China Northern Airlines Flight 6901 (November 1993)
China Northwest Airlines Flight 2303 (June 1994)
China Southern Airlines Flight 3456 (May 1997)
China Southwest Airlines Flight 4509 (February 1999)
Korean Air Cargo Flight 6316 (April 1999)
2000s
Wuhan Airlines Flight 343 (June 2000)
Hainan Island incident (April 2001)
China Northern Airlines Flight 6136 (May 2002)
China Eastern Airlines Flight 5210 (November 2004)
PLAAF KJ-200 crash (June 2006)
Avient Aviation Flight 324 (November 2009)
2010s
Henan Airlines Flight 8387 (August 2010)
Tianjin Airlines Flight 7554 (June 2012)
Sichuan Airlines Flight 8633 (May 2018)
2020s
China Eastern Airlines Flight 5735 (March 2022)
Tibet Airlines Flight 9833 (May 2022)
Accidents and incidents in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan are not included.
vteAviation accidents and incidents in 1997 (1997)
Jan 9 Comair Flight 3272Feb 4 Israeli helicopter disasterMar 18 Stavropolskaya AA Flight 1023Apr 19 Merpati Nusantara Airlines Flight 106May 8 China Southern Airlines Flight 3456Jul 17 Sempati Air Flight 304Jul 30 Air Littoral Flight 701Jul 31 FedEx Express Flight 14Aug 6 Korean Air Flight 801Aug 7 Fine Air Flight 101Aug 10 Formosa Airlines Flight 7601Sep 3 Vietnam Airlines Flight 815Sep 6 Royal Brunei Airlines Flight 238Sep 8 Helikopter Service Flight 451Sep 13 Namibia mid-air collisionSep 26 Garuda Indonesia Flight 152Oct 10 Austral Líneas Aéreas Flight 2553Oct 12 John DenverNov 5 Virgin Atlantic Flight 024Dec 6 Russian Air Force Antonov An-124Dec 15 Tajikistan Airlines Flight 3183Dec 16 Air Canada Flight 646Dec 17 Aerosvit Flight 241Dec 19 SilkAir Flight 185Dec 28 United Airlines Flight 826
1996 ◄
► 1998
vteChina Southern AirlinesFormer SkyTeam memberServices
China Southern Airlines destinations
Sky Pearl Club
Predecessor
CAAC Airlines
Acquisitions and mergers
China Northern Airlines
China Northern Swan Airlines
China Xinjiang Airlines
Guizhou Airlines
Zhongyuan Airlines
Subsidiaries
Chongqing Airlines (60%)
GAMECO
Sichuan Airlines (39%)
XiamenAir (55%)
Xiongan Airlines
Incidents and accidents
CZ3523 (1990)
CZ3943 (1992)
CZ3456 (1997)
Category
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On 8 May 1997, the Boeing 737 performing this route crashed during the second attempt to land in a thunderstorm.[1] \nThe flight number 3456 is still used by China Southern and for the Chongqing-Shenzhen route but now with the Airbus A320 family or Boeing 737 Next Generation aircraft.[2]","title":"China Southern Airlines Flight 3456"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boeing 737-31B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_737-300"},{"link_name":"China Southern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Southern_Airlines"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Report-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Aircraft","text":"The aircraft was a Boeing 737-31B registered as B-2925 and with serial number 27288. The aircraft was delivered to China Southern on 2 February 1994, and had recorded over 8,500 hours before the crash. The aircraft was powered by 2 CFM International CFM56-3C1 turbofan engines.[1][3][4][5]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"Radio Operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radio_Operator&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"flight engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_engineer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Report-1"}],"sub_title":"Flight crew","text":"The captain in command was 45-year-old Lin Yougui (Chinese: 林友贵), he had logged more than 12,700 hours of total flying time, including 9,100 hours as Radio Operator and 3,600 hours as a pilot. The first officer was 36-year-old Kong Dexin (孔德新), he had logged over 15,500 hours of total flying time, of which 11,200 hours as flight engineer and 4,300 hours as a pilot.[1]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cumulonimbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulonimbus"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Report-1"}],"sub_title":"Weather","text":"The weather reported by Shenzhen Airport from 17:00 of 8 May to 02:00 of 9 May was: \"170 degrees wind at 7 m/s (14 kn; 25 km/h; 16 mph) with rain, visibility 6,000 metres (20,000 ft), overcast at 1,500 metres (4,900 ft), variable winds at 15 metres per second (29 kn; 54 km/h; 34 mph), thunderstorm may appear.\"At 18:00, on 8 May, a severe weather warning was issued: \"report to airports, air traffic controls and airline companies: Thunderstorm with strong winds will appear, all departments including the crew who will be taking off should be notified.\" At 21:33, the weather recorded was 290 degrees wind at 7 m/s (14 kn; 25 km/h; 16 mph), visibility 2,000 metres (6,600 ft), showers, low clouds at 210 metres (690 ft), cumulonimbus at 1,200 metres (3,900 ft), temperature at 23 °C (73 °F).[1]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chongqing Jiangbei International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chongqing_Jiangbei_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"UTC+8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTC%2B8"},{"link_name":"Shenzhen Huangtian Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenzhen_Bao%27an_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"ILS approach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_landing_system"},{"link_name":"approach lightings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approach_lighting_system"},{"link_name":"nose gear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nose_gear"},{"link_name":"hydraulic systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_system"},{"link_name":"flaps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flaps_(aircraft)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"secondary surveillance radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_surveillance_radar"},{"link_name":"downwind side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfield_traffic_pattern#Layout"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Report-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ASN-7"}],"text":"On 8 May 1997, Flight 3456 took off from Chongqing Jiangbei International Airport at 19:45 local time (UTC+8), expected to arrive Shenzhen Huangtian Airport at 21:30. At 21:07, the Shenzhen Airport approach controller cleared the flight to the approach of Runway 33. At 21:17, the Tower informed the crew \"heavy rain on final, advise when spotting the runway\". At 21:18:07, the crew stated they have established ILS approach. At 21:18:53, the crew advised ATC that they spotted the approach lightings, and the controller cleared the aircraft to land. The controller was able to see the landing light of the plane, but it was not clear due to the rain. At 21:19:33, the aircraft touched down on the south of the runway, bounced three times, and damaged the aircraft's nose gear, hydraulic systems and flaps. The crew decided to go around.[6]The aircraft made a left turn while climbing up to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft). The crew were asked to turn on the transponder to show the ATC their position, but the secondary surveillance radar did not receive any signal from the aircraft, indicating the transponder was off. At 21:23:57, the crew informed the ATC they were on the downwind side, and requested other aircraft to clear off the airspace for Flight 3456's landing. At 21:24:40, the crew declared an emergency and requested to clear the approach again. At the time, the main warning, hydraulic system warning and the gear warning were all triggered in the cockpit. At 21:24:58, the crew asked for a full emergency airfield support. The aircraft then turned around, reporting it would land toward the south, which was approved. At 21:28:30, the aircraft skidded off the runway, broke into three pieces and caught on fire, killing 33 passengers and 2 crew members.[1][7]","title":"Accident"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"trailing edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trailing_edge"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Report-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Report-1"}],"text":"The first landing attempt was toward north. Debris from the nose gear was found scattered near the southern end of the runway, indicating the left front tyre had exploded during the first touch down. Fallouts including rivets, metal sheets, rubber tube and retaining clip could also be found on the runway surface.The second landing attempt was toward south. A clear surface scratch from the fuselage was found 427 metres (1,401 ft) from the runway threshold. The aircraft disintegrated after rolling approximately 600 metres (2,000 ft) across the runway and burst into flames. The central part of the fuselage and the trailing edge of the right wing received the most severe burning damage. The front section of the fuselage was 12 metres (39 ft) long with nose pointing north, partially damaged, showing rolling and rotating trace but no signs of burning. A large amount of mire was filled in the deformed cockpit. The rear section was relatively intact, and was the only section not destroyed.[1]: 5.2 The left main gear and the right engine were scattered on the left side of the runway.[1]: 2","title":"Crash site"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"News at 6:30","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_at_6:30"},{"link_name":"TVB Jade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TVB_Jade"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"On 9 May 1997, News at 6:30, a national news show aired at TVB Jade, provided a casualty list for the accident.[8]","title":"Victims"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cockpit voice recorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockpit_voice_recorder"},{"link_name":"Civil Aviation Administration of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Aviation_Administration_of_China"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"In June 2007, an audio recording reputed to be the last 12 minutes 27 seconds recorded by the cockpit voice recorder of Flight 3456 was leaked on the Internet. According to an expert from the Civil Aviation Administration of China, the recording is unlikely to be fake.[9]","title":"Cockpit voice recording"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"China portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:China"},{"title":"Aviation portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Aviation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EC1835_C_cut.jpg"},{"title":"1990s portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:1990s"},{"title":"List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accidents_and_incidents_involving_commercial_aircraft"},{"title":"Garuda Indonesia Flight 200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garuda_Indonesia_Flight_200"},{"title":"Delta Airlines Flight 191","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines_Flight_191"},{"title":"Flydubai Flight 981","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flydubai_Flight_981"},{"title":"Aeroflot Flight 1492","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeroflot_Flight_1492"},{"title":"Pakistan International Airlines Flight 8303","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_International_Airlines_Flight_8303"}]
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[{"reference":"\"China Southern May 8th aircraft accident official report\" (in Chinese). Retrieved 2016-05-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://wenku.baidu.com/link?url=kUeWi3ngT8HU9A3jp7AkX28lKA-9c-wNVVYj28zmpawE_7VTb07KYHhcZuxJwcSCNu-VOFGWk66cy15v6wSjjZ04d1ITwPVnRwvXMR2yC6m","url_text":"\"China Southern May 8th aircraft accident official report\""}]},{"reference":"\"China Southern Flight 3456 tracking\". Flightaware. Retrieved 2016-05-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://flightaware.com/live/flight/CSN3456","url_text":"\"China Southern Flight 3456 tracking\""}]},{"reference":"\"Flight 3456 info on airdisaster.com\". airdisaster.com. Archived from the original on 24 May 2013. Retrieved 11 Jun 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130524145940/http://www.airdisaster.com/cgi-bin/view_details.cgi?date=05081997®=B-2925&airline=China+Southern+Airlines","url_text":"\"Flight 3456 info on airdisaster.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"B-2925 China Southern Airlines Boeing 737-300\". www.planespotters.net. Retrieved 2020-06-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.planespotters.net/airframe/boeing-737-300-b-2925-china-southern-airlines/e56yvr","url_text":"\"B-2925 China Southern Airlines Boeing 737-300\""}]},{"reference":"\"China Southern Airlines B-2925 (Boeing 737 - MSN 27288)\". www.airfleets.net. Airfleets aviation. Retrieved 2020-06-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.airfleets.net/ficheapp/plane-b737-27288.htm","url_text":"\"China Southern Airlines B-2925 (Boeing 737 - MSN 27288)\""}]},{"reference":"南航空難黑盒錄音11年後重現 [South Air's hard black box recording reappears after 11 years] (in Chinese (Hong Kong)). Sina. 2008-03-07. Archived from the original on 2008-03-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080311021142/http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2008-03-07/101615097334.shtml","url_text":"南航空難黑盒錄音11年後重現"},{"url":"http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2008-03-07/101615097334.shtml","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ranter, Harro. \"ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-31B B-2925 Shenzhen Airport (SZX)\". aviation-safety.net. Retrieved 2018-10-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19970508-0","url_text":"\"ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-31B B-2925 Shenzhen Airport (SZX)\""}]},{"reference":"無線1997年5月9日深圳黃田機場空難35死 [Wireless, May 9, 1997, Shenzhen Huangtian Airport crashed 35 dead]. YouTube (in Chinese (Hong Kong)). Archived from the original on 2021-12-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bzeo-r3KUV0","url_text":"無線1997年5月9日深圳黃田機場空難35死"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube","url_text":"YouTube"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/Bzeo-r3KUV0","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"CAAC: It doesn't seem false\". Archived from the original on March 11, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080311021142/http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2008-03-07/101615097334.shtml","url_text":"\"CAAC: It doesn't seem false\""},{"url":"http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2008-03-07/101615097334.shtml","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=China_Southern_Airlines_Flight_3456¶ms=22.6402_N_113.8109_E_type:event_region:CN-44","external_links_name":"22°38′25″N 113°48′39″E / 22.6402°N 113.8109°E / 22.6402; 113.8109"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22China+Southern+Airlines+Flight+3456%22","external_links_name":"\"China Southern Airlines Flight 3456\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22China+Southern+Airlines+Flight+3456%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22China+Southern+Airlines+Flight+3456%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22China+Southern+Airlines+Flight+3456%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22China+Southern+Airlines+Flight+3456%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22China+Southern+Airlines+Flight+3456%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=China_Southern_Airlines_Flight_3456¶ms=22.6402_N_113.8109_E_type:event_region:CN-44","external_links_name":"22°38′25″N 113°48′39″E / 22.6402°N 113.8109°E / 22.6402; 113.8109"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iwRNhbD1mgA","external_links_name":"CVR - China Southern 3456"},{"Link":"http://wenku.baidu.com/link?url=kUeWi3ngT8HU9A3jp7AkX28lKA-9c-wNVVYj28zmpawE_7VTb07KYHhcZuxJwcSCNu-VOFGWk66cy15v6wSjjZ04d1ITwPVnRwvXMR2yC6m","external_links_name":"\"China Southern May 8th aircraft accident official report\""},{"Link":"https://flightaware.com/live/flight/CSN3456","external_links_name":"\"China Southern Flight 3456 tracking\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130524145940/http://www.airdisaster.com/cgi-bin/view_details.cgi?date=05081997®=B-2925&airline=China+Southern+Airlines","external_links_name":"\"Flight 3456 info on airdisaster.com\""},{"Link":"https://www.planespotters.net/airframe/boeing-737-300-b-2925-china-southern-airlines/e56yvr","external_links_name":"\"B-2925 China Southern Airlines Boeing 737-300\""},{"Link":"https://www.airfleets.net/ficheapp/plane-b737-27288.htm","external_links_name":"\"China Southern Airlines B-2925 (Boeing 737 - MSN 27288)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080311021142/http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2008-03-07/101615097334.shtml","external_links_name":"南航空難黑盒錄音11年後重現"},{"Link":"http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2008-03-07/101615097334.shtml","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19970508-0","external_links_name":"\"ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-31B B-2925 Shenzhen Airport (SZX)\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bzeo-r3KUV0","external_links_name":"無線1997年5月9日深圳黃田機場空難35死"},{"Link":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/Bzeo-r3KUV0","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080311021142/http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2008-03-07/101615097334.shtml","external_links_name":"\"CAAC: It doesn't seem false\""},{"Link":"http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2008-03-07/101615097334.shtml","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20130116140623/http://www.airdisaster.com/photos/cs3456/photo.shtml","external_links_name":"Accident photo"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070927200258/http://www.airdisaster.com/photos/cs3456/photo.shtml","external_links_name":"Archive"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25th_Army_Tank_Brigade
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25th Army Tank Brigade (United Kingdom)
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["1 History","2 Commanding officers","3 Order of battle","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References","7 External links"]
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25th Army Tank Brigade2nd Motor Machine Gun Brigade25th Army Tank Brigade25th Tank BrigadeChurchill tanks of the 25th Tank Brigade going forward to support the 1st Canadian Division, Italy, 17 May 1944. This was the first deployment of Churchills in the Italian Campaign.Active1939–1945Country United KingdomBranch British ArmyTypeArmouredSizeBrigadeEngagementsTunisia Campaign, Italian CampaignMilitary unit
25th Army Tank Brigade (September 1939)Parent unitNorthern CommandComponents43rd Royal Tank Regiment 49th Royal Tank Regiment 51st Royal Tank Regiment
25th Army Tank Brigade (December 1940)Parent unitNorthern CommandComponents11th Royal Tank Regiment 12th Royal Tank Regiment 51st Royal Tank Regiment
25th Tank Brigade (June 1942)Parent unit43rd (Wessex) Infantry DivisionComponents11th Royal Tank Regiment 51st Royal Tank Regiment 142nd Regiment, RAC
The 25th Army Tank Brigade was an armoured brigade formation of the British Army that was active before and during the Second World War. It served with the British First Army and the British Eighth Army during the battles in North Africa and Italy.
History
The unit was formed on 3 September 1939 as a 2nd Line Territorial Army Tank Brigade, but had very few tanks. On 28 May 1940, it was converted to the 2nd Motor Machine Gun Brigade in recognition of this lack of tanks, but converted back to an Army Tank Brigade on 10 December 1940. It was redesignated the 25th Tank Brigade on 1 June 1942.
Churchill tanks of 51st Royal Tank Regiment move forward near Isola del Piano in support of 138th Brigade during the advance on the Gothic Line, Italy.
It fought in Tunisia under the British First Army and in the Italy as part of the British Eighth Army.
Commanding officers
Brig. T.D. Murray
Brig. R.H. Maxwell
Lieut. Col. D. Dawnay (acting)
Brig. James Noel Tetley
Brig. E.W.H. Clarke
Order of battle
43rd Royal Tank Regiment (until 28 May 1940, rejoined 27 April, left 17 October 1941)
49th Royal Tank Regiment (until 28 May 1940, rejoined 27 April 1941, left 28 February 1942)
51st (Leeds Rifles) Royal Tank Regiment (until 28 May, rejoined 10 December 1940, left 1 January 1945)
11th Royal Tank Regiment (from 10 December 1940, left 26 April 1941, rejoined 29 February, left 5 August 1942)
12th Royal Tank Regiment (from 10 December 1940, left 26 April 1941)
142nd Regiment Royal Armoured Corps (from 9 November 1941, disbanded 18 December 1944)
151st Regiment Royal Armoured Corps (from 5 August, left 2 September 1942)
North Irish Horse (from 3 September 1942 until 3 December 1944)
See also
United Kingdom portal
British Armoured formations of World War II
British Army Order of Battle (September 1939)
List of British brigades of the Second World War
Notes
^ Joslen, p. 203
^ "Organization of British Tank Brigades Structure and Brigade Elemental Assignments by Regiment 1939-1945" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 16 June 2015. citing Joslen 1960
References
Hughes, David; Ryan, David A.; Rothwell, Steve (2002). Volume Four: British Tank and Armoured Brigades, 79th Armoured Division, Armoured Car Regiments, African, Malayan and other Colonial Forces. The British Armies in World War Two: An Organizational History. George F. Nafziger. ISBN 1-58545-085-5.
Joslen, H. F. (2003) . Orders of Battle: Second World War, 1939–1945. Uckfield, East Sussex: Naval and Military Press. ISBN 978-1-84342-474-1.
External links
"25 Army Tank Brigade". Orders of Battle.com.
vteBritish mobile brigades of the Second World WarArmoured
1st
1st Royal Engineers
2nd
3rd
4th
5th Guards
6th Guards
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
20th
21st
22nd
23rd
24th
25th Royal Engineers
26th
27th
28th
29th
30th
31st
33rd
34th
35th
74th (Dummy Tanks)
87th (Dummy Tanks)
137th
Armoured Reconnaissance:
1st
2nd
Cavalry:
4th
5th
6th
Motor Machine Gun:
1st
2nd
3rd
Support Group:
Guards
1st
2nd
6th
7th
8th
9th
11th
42nd
Tank:
1st
6th Guards
10th
11th
21st
23rd
24th
25th
31st
32nd
33rd
34th
35th
36th
This article about a specific British military unit is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Northern Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Command_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"43rd Royal Tank Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/43rd_Royal_Tank_Regiment"},{"link_name":"49th Royal Tank Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/49th_Royal_Tank_Regiment"},{"link_name":"51st Royal Tank Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/51st_Royal_Tank_Regiment"},{"link_name":"Northern Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Command_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"11th Royal Tank Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_Royal_Tank_Regiment"},{"link_name":"51st Royal Tank Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/51st_Royal_Tank_Regiment"},{"link_name":"43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/43rd_(Wessex)_Infantry_Division"},{"link_name":"11th Royal Tank Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_Royal_Tank_Regiment"},{"link_name":"51st Royal Tank Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/51st_Royal_Tank_Regiment"},{"link_name":"142nd Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/142nd_Regiment_Royal_Armoured_Corps"},{"link_name":"RAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Armoured_Corps"},{"link_name":"armoured","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armoured_warfare"},{"link_name":"brigade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigade"},{"link_name":"British Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Army"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"British First Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Army_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"British Eighth Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Army_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"}],"text":"Military unit25th Army Tank Brigade (September 1939)Parent unitNorthern CommandComponents43rd Royal Tank Regiment 49th Royal Tank Regiment 51st Royal Tank Regiment25th Army Tank Brigade (December 1940)Parent unitNorthern CommandComponents11th Royal Tank Regiment 12th Royal Tank Regiment 51st Royal Tank Regiment25th Tank Brigade (June 1942)Parent unit43rd (Wessex) Infantry DivisionComponents11th Royal Tank Regiment 51st Royal Tank Regiment 142nd Regiment, RACThe 25th Army Tank Brigade was an armoured brigade formation of the British Army that was active before and during the Second World War. It served with the British First Army and the British Eighth Army during the battles in North Africa and Italy.","title":"25th Army Tank Brigade (United Kingdom)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Territorial Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Reserve_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Churchill_tanks_advance_to_Gothic_Line_August_1944_IWM_NA_18088.jpg"},{"link_name":"Isola del Piano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isola_del_Piano"},{"link_name":"Tunisia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisian_Campaign"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)"}],"text":"The unit was formed on 3 September 1939 as a 2nd Line Territorial Army Tank Brigade, but had very few tanks. On 28 May 1940, it was converted to the 2nd Motor Machine Gun Brigade in recognition of this lack of tanks, but converted back to an Army Tank Brigade on 10 December 1940. It was redesignated the 25th Tank Brigade on 1 June 1942.[1]Churchill tanks of 51st Royal Tank Regiment move forward near Isola del Piano in support of 138th Brigade during the advance on the Gothic Line, Italy.It fought in Tunisia under the British First Army and in the Italy as part of the British Eighth Army.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"James Noel Tetley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Noel_Tetley"}],"text":"Brig. T.D. Murray\nBrig. R.H. Maxwell\nLieut. Col. D. Dawnay (acting)\nBrig. James Noel Tetley\nBrig. E.W.H. Clarke","title":"Commanding officers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"43rd Royal Tank Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/43rd_Royal_Tank_Regiment"},{"link_name":"49th Royal Tank Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/49th_Royal_Tank_Regiment"},{"link_name":"51st (Leeds Rifles) Royal Tank Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/51st_(Leeds_Rifles)_Royal_Tank_Regiment"},{"link_name":"11th Royal Tank Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_Royal_Tank_Regiment"},{"link_name":"12th Royal Tank Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=12th_Royal_Tank_Regiment&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"142nd Regiment Royal Armoured Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/142nd_Regiment_Royal_Armoured_Corps"},{"link_name":"151st Regiment Royal Armoured Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/151st_Regiment_Royal_Armoured_Corps"},{"link_name":"North Irish Horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Irish_Horse"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"43rd Royal Tank Regiment (until 28 May 1940, rejoined 27 April, left 17 October 1941)\n49th Royal Tank Regiment (until 28 May 1940, rejoined 27 April 1941, left 28 February 1942)\n51st (Leeds Rifles) Royal Tank Regiment (until 28 May, rejoined 10 December 1940, left 1 January 1945)\n11th Royal Tank Regiment (from 10 December 1940, left 26 April 1941, rejoined 29 February, left 5 August 1942)\n12th Royal Tank Regiment (from 10 December 1940, left 26 April 1941)\n142nd Regiment Royal Armoured Corps (from 9 November 1941, disbanded 18 December 1944)\n151st Regiment Royal Armoured Corps (from 5 August, left 2 September 1942)\nNorth Irish Horse (from 3 September 1942 until 3 December 1944)[2]","title":"Order of battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"Organization of British Tank Brigades Structure and Brigade Elemental Assignments by Regiment 1939-1945\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20150923202832/http://www.cgsc.edu/CARL/nafziger/939BXAC.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cgsc.edu/CARL/nafziger/939BXAC.pdf"}],"text":"^ Joslen, p. 203\n\n^ \"Organization of British Tank Brigades Structure and Brigade Elemental Assignments by Regiment 1939-1945\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 16 June 2015. citing Joslen 1960","title":"Notes"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Churchill tanks of 51st Royal Tank Regiment move forward near Isola del Piano in support of 138th Brigade during the advance on the Gothic Line, Italy.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Churchill_tanks_advance_to_Gothic_Line_August_1944_IWM_NA_18088.jpg/220px-Churchill_tanks_advance_to_Gothic_Line_August_1944_IWM_NA_18088.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Organization of British Tank Brigades Structure and Brigade Elemental Assignments by Regiment 1939-1945\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 16 June 2015. citing Joslen 1960","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202832/http://www.cgsc.edu/CARL/nafziger/939BXAC.pdf","url_text":"\"Organization of British Tank Brigades Structure and Brigade Elemental Assignments by Regiment 1939-1945\""},{"url":"http://www.cgsc.edu/CARL/nafziger/939BXAC.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hughes, David; Ryan, David A.; Rothwell, Steve (2002). Volume Four: British Tank and Armoured Brigades, 79th Armoured Division, Armoured Car Regiments, African, Malayan and other Colonial Forces. The British Armies in World War Two: An Organizational History. George F. Nafziger. ISBN 1-58545-085-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58545-085-5","url_text":"1-58545-085-5"}]},{"reference":"Joslen, H. F. (2003) [1960]. Orders of Battle: Second World War, 1939–1945. Uckfield, East Sussex: Naval and Military Press. ISBN 978-1-84342-474-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84342-474-1","url_text":"978-1-84342-474-1"}]},{"reference":"\"25 Army Tank Brigade\". Orders of Battle.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ordersofbattle.com/Units/UnitData?UniX=1467","url_text":"\"25 Army Tank Brigade\""}]}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pehr_Hillestr%C3%B6m
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Pehr Hilleström
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["1 Biography","2 Style","3 Personal life","4 Gallery","5 References","6 Other sources","7 Further reading","8 External links"]
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Swedish artist (1732–1816)
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Pehr HilleströmSelf portrait (belongs National Portrait Gallery, Gripsholm Castle)Born(1732-11-18)18 November 1732Väddö, SwedenDied13 August 1816(1816-08-13) (aged 83)Stockholm, SwedenNationalitySwedishKnown forPainting, Tapestry weaving
Pehr Hilleström (18 November 1732 – 13 August 1816) was a Swedish artist. He served as a professor and director at the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts.
Biography
Hilleström was born on the island of Väddö in the district of Roslagen, Sweden where his uncle who was the vicar. He was the eldest of twelve children. He was first trained by landscape artist Johan Philip Korn (1727–1796).
He received training at the Royal Swedish Academy of Fine Arts from artist Guillaume Taraval (1701–1750) and architect Jean Eric Rehn (1717–1793). Between 1757 and 1758, Hilleström made a study trip abroad. The journey went to Paris, Belgium and Holland. He furthered his education in the tapestry techniques and became a master tapestry weaver.
From 1759, he operated a weaving workshop in Stockholm. In 1773, Hilleström became a member of the board of the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts. The academy appointed him a professor in drawing in 1794. In 1805 he received the post of Vice-Chancellor of the academy and in 1810 he succeeded Louis Masreliez (1748–1810) as Director.
Style
Hilleström painted some thirty portraits. He also performed a large number of depictions from the environments of the time.
He produced numerous genre paintings of people at their daily tasks inside upper- and middle-class homes in Stockholm. Dresses and furniture were painted exactly the way they looked and provide a valuable source of information about what life was like in those days. In addition to this, he painted craftsmen in action at mills and other early industrial workplaces. In later years, he also began to paint historic paintings and religious motives.
Personal life
In 1759 he married Ulrica Lode (1737–1779). Hilleström was the father of the artist Carl Petter Hilleström (1760–1812). His descendants included author and museum curator, Gustaf Hilleström (1911–1994).
Gallery
In the Anchor-Forge at Söderfors. The Smiths Hard at Work (Nationalmuseum)
People from Mora in Dalecarlia
A maid taking soup from a pot
Portrait of Carl Michael Bellman
Egg testing
Convivial Scene in a Peasant's Cottage
The enchanted forest, tournament at Drottningholm
Two Maid-Servants at a Brook
The Morning Toilet
Still Life
Gustavian Style Interior with Cardplayers, c. 1779
References
^ Gustaf Hilleström. "Pehr Hilleström". Svenskt biografiskt lexikon. Retrieved March 1, 2019.
^ a b c "Hilleström, Per". Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon. Retrieved March 1, 2019.
^ "Johan Philip Korn". nationalmuseum. Retrieved March 1, 2019.
^ "Guillaume Thomas Taraval". Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon. Retrieved March 1, 2019.
^ "Jean Eric Rehn (1717-1793), architect, Surveyor of the Court". wikidata.org. Retrieved March 1, 2019.
^ Åke Meyerson. "Louis A Masreliez". Svenskt biografiskt lexikon. Retrieved March 1, 2019.
^ "Carl Peter Hilleström". Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon. Retrieved March 1, 2019.
^ "Hilleström, Gustaf (1911-1994)". L’Abes. Retrieved March 1, 2019.
Other sources
Pehr Hilleström in Nordisk Familjebok (in Swedish)
Historiesajten.se (in Swedish)
Further reading
Kruse, Hans; Winqvist, Margareta (1979). Pehr Hilleström. Sweden: Nationalmuseum. p. 39. ISBN 91-7100-159-X.
External links
Media related to Pehr Hilleström at Wikimedia Commons
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
France
BnF data
Germany
United States
Sweden
Artists
Scientific illustrators
KulturNav
RKD Artists
ULAN
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"Royal Swedish Academy of Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Arts"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Pehr Hilleström (18 November 1732 – 13 August 1816) was a Swedish artist. He served as a professor and director at the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts.[1]","title":"Pehr Hilleström"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Väddö","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4dd%C3%B6"},{"link_name":"Roslagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roslagen"},{"link_name":"Johan Philip Korn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Philip_Korn"},{"link_name":"Royal Swedish Academy of Fine Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Fine_Arts"},{"link_name":"Guillaume Taraval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_Taraval"},{"link_name":"Jean Eric Rehn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Eric_Rehn"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"Holland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland"},{"link_name":"tapestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapestry"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sbl-2"},{"link_name":"Louis Masreliez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Masreliez"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Hilleström was born on the island of Väddö in the district of Roslagen, Sweden where his uncle who was the vicar. He was the eldest of twelve children. He was first trained by landscape artist Johan Philip Korn (1727–1796).\nHe received training at the Royal Swedish Academy of Fine Arts from artist Guillaume Taraval (1701–1750) and architect Jean Eric Rehn (1717–1793). Between 1757 and 1758, Hilleström made a study trip abroad. The journey went to Paris, Belgium and Holland. He furthered his education in the tapestry techniques and became a master tapestry weaver.[2]From 1759, he operated a weaving workshop in Stockholm. In 1773, Hilleström became a member of the board of the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts. The academy appointed him a professor in drawing in 1794. In 1805 he received the post of Vice-Chancellor of the academy and in 1810 he succeeded Louis Masreliez (1748–1810) as Director.[3][4][5][6]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"genre paintings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre_paintings"},{"link_name":"Stockholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sbl-2"}],"text":"Hilleström painted some thirty portraits. He also performed a large number of depictions from the environments of the time. \nHe produced numerous genre paintings of people at their daily tasks inside upper- and middle-class homes in Stockholm. Dresses and furniture were painted exactly the way they looked and provide a valuable source of information about what life was like in those days. In addition to this, he painted craftsmen in action at mills and other early industrial workplaces. In later years, he also began to paint historic paintings and religious motives.[2]","title":"Style"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sbl-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"In 1759 he married Ulrica Lode (1737–1779). Hilleström was the father of the artist Carl Petter Hilleström (1760–1812). His descendants included author and museum curator, Gustaf Hilleström (1911–1994).[2][7][8]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:In_the_Anchor-Forge_at_S%C3%B6derfors._The_Smiths_Hard_at_Work_(Pehr_Hillestr%C3%B6m_d.%C3%A4.)_-_Nationalmuseum_-_17964.tif"},{"link_name":"Nationalmuseum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalmuseum"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pehr_Hillestr%C3%B6m_-_People_from_Mora_in_Dalecarlia_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pehr_Hillestr%C3%B6m-En_piga_h%C3%B6ser_s%C3%A5ppa_utur_en_kiettel_-_i_en_sk%C3%A5l.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pehr_Hillestr%C3%B6m-Carl_Michael_Bellman.jpg"},{"link_name":"Carl Michael Bellman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Michael_Bellman"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Testing_Eggs._Interior_of_a_Kitchen_(Pehr_Hillestr%C3%B6m_d.%C3%A4.)_-_Nationalmuseum_-_18113.tif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pehr_Hillestr%C3%B6m-Bordss%C3%A4llskap_i_en_bondstuga.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pehr_Hillestr%C3%B6m_-_Den_f%C3%B6rtrollade_skogen.jpg"},{"link_name":"tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tournament_(medieval)"},{"link_name":"Drottningholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drottningholm"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pehr_Hillestr%C3%B6m-Tv%C3%A5_tj%C3%A4nsteflickor_vid_en_b%C3%A4ck.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Morning_Toilet._Boudoir_Scene_(Pehr_Hillestr%C3%B6m_d.%C3%A4.)_-_Nationalmuseum_-_18152.tif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pehr_Hillestr%C3%B6m-Stilleben.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gustavian_Style_Interior_with_Cardplayers_(Pehr_Hillestr%C3%B6m_d.%C3%A4.)_-_Nationalmuseum_-_19464.tif"},{"link_name":"Gustavian Style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustavian_Style"}],"text":"In the Anchor-Forge at Söderfors. The Smiths Hard at Work (Nationalmuseum)\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPeople from Mora in Dalecarlia\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA maid taking soup from a pot\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPortrait of Carl Michael Bellman\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tEgg testing\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tConvivial Scene in a Peasant's Cottage\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe enchanted forest, tournament at Drottningholm\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTwo Maid-Servants at a Brook\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Morning Toilet\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tStill Life\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGustavian Style Interior with Cardplayers, c. 1779","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pehr Hilleström in Nordisk Familjebok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//runeberg.org/nfbk/0369.html"},{"link_name":"Historiesajten.se","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.historiesajten.se/visainfo.asp?id=584"}],"text":"Pehr Hilleström in Nordisk Familjebok (in Swedish)\nHistoriesajten.se (in Swedish)","title":"Other sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nationalmuseum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalmuseum"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"91-7100-159-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/91-7100-159-X"}],"text":"Kruse, Hans; Winqvist, Margareta (1979). Pehr Hilleström. Sweden: Nationalmuseum. p. 39. ISBN 91-7100-159-X.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMS_Teodo
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SMS Teodo
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["1 History","1.1 Convoys","2 Official number and code letters","3 External links","4 References"]
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Coordinates: 54°0′N 18°0′W / 54.000°N 18.000°W / 54.000; -18.000Collier
History
Austria-Hungary
NameSMS Teodo
NamesakeTeodo (Tivat)
BuilderStabilimento Tecnico Triestino (STT), Trieste
Yard number501
Laid down14 March 1914
Launched8 January 1915
Completed17 February 1916
FateCeded to Italy as war reparation, 1921
History
Name
1921: Teodo
1924: Barbana
1926: Barbana G
1940: Empire Airman
Owner
1921: Italian Government, Ministry of Transport
1924: Ministry of Marine, Italy
1926: Società Anonima di Navigazione Garibaldi, Genoa
1940: Ministry of War Transport
Operator
Owner operated except:-
Mark Whitwill & Son Ltd, Bristol (1940)
Port of registry
1921: Genoa
1940: Newcastle upon Tyne
Identification
Italian official number 1496 (1926-40)
UK Official Number 165788 (1940)
Code letters NFVG (1926-40)
Code letters GLZT (1940)
FateSunk by U-100, 23 September 1940
General characteristics
Tonnage6,561 GRT
Displacement13,200 tons
Length449 ft 8 in (137.06 m)
Beam55 ft 6 in (16.92 m)
Depth34 ft 1 in (10.39 m)
Propulsion1 × triple-expansion steam engine (STT) 369 hp (275 kW)
Speed14 knots (26 km/h; 16 mph)
Complement112 (as SMS Teodo)
Crew37 (as Empire Airman)
class=notpageimage| Approximate location of the sinking of Empire Airman.
SMS Teodo was a 6,561 ton collier built in 1915 for the Austro-Hungarian Navy. She was ceded to Italy in 1921 as a war reparation. She was renamed Barbana in 1924 and Barbana G in 1926. In 1940, she was seized by the United Kingdom and renamed Empire Airman. On 21 September 1940, Empire Airman was torpedoed and sunk by U-100.
History
SMS Teodo was built by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino, Trieste as yard number 501 and launched on 8 January 1913, being completed on 17 February 1916. SMS Teodo was a Pola Class collier of the Austro-Hungarian Navy. At the end of the First World War, under Article 137 of the Treaty of Saint-Germain, SMS Teodo was classed as a merchant ship and passed to the Italian Government Ministry of Transport. In 1924, she was passed to the Italian Ministry of Marine, and renamed Barbana. In 1926, she was sold to the Società Anonima di Navigazione Garibaldi, Genoa and renamed Barbana G. On 6 November 1929, she collided with the Italian cargo ship Atlantide in the Nieuwe Waterweg at Rotterdam, South Holland, Netherlands. Atlantide was consequently beached. Barbana G was captured off Leith and taken to Methil on 10 June 1940 and passed to the Ministry of War Transport, being renamed Empire Airman under the management of Mark Whitwill & Sons Ltd, Bristol.
Convoys
HX 72
Convoy HX 72 sailed from Halifax, Nova Scotia on 9 September 1940. Empire Airman was carrying a cargo of iron ore, she was bound for Cardiff. At 00:22 on 22 September, Empire Airman was hit by a torpedo fired by U-100. The ship was taken in tow, but sank on 23 September at 55°11′N 15°07′W / 55.183°N 15.117°W / 55.183; -15.117. Thirty three of the thirty seven crew were killed in the attack. Four survivors were rescued by HMS La Malouine. Those lost on Empire Airman are commemorated at the Tower Hill Memorial, London.
Official number and code letters
Official Numbers were a forerunner to IMO Numbers.
Barbana G had the Official Number 1496 on the Italian register. Empire Airman had the Official Number 165788 on Lloyds Register.
Barbana G used the Code Letters NFVZ. Empire Airman used the Code Letters GLZT
External links
List of dead from Empire Airman Archived 7 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine
References
^ a b "Teodo 17 Feb 1916". stile.coventry.ac. Archived from the original on 20 February 2006. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
^ a b c d "Empire Airman". uboat.net. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
^ "1165788". Miramar Ship Index. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
^ "Colliers". hicon.pl. Archived from the original on 25 January 2009. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
^ "Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Austria; Protocol, Declaration and Special Declaration" (PDF). emersonkent.com. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
^ "Casualty reports". The Times. No. 45354. London. 7 November 1929. col A, p. 25.
^ "Empire - A". Mariners. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
^ a b c "NAVIRES A VAPEUR ET A MOTEURS" (PDF). Plimsollshipdata. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
^ "The Attack on Convoy HX 72". Annemarie Purnell. Archived from the original on 21 September 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
^ "The Attack on Convoy HX 72". Annemarie Purnell. Archived from the original on 22 January 2009. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
^ "EMPIRE AIRMAN". Ubootwaffe.net. Archived from the original on 25 March 2007. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
^ "Ship Index A-F". Brian Watson. Archived from the original on 6 October 2011. Retrieved 20 May 2011.
^ a b "NAVIRES A VAPEUR ET A MOTEURS" (PDF). Plimsoll Ship Data. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
54°0′N 18°0′W / 54.000°N 18.000°W / 54.000; -18.000
Pola-class colliers
Pola
Teodo
List of ships of the Austro-Hungarian Navy
vteShipwrecks and maritime incidents in 1929Shipwrecks
16 Jan: Hsin Wah
12 Feb: Alloway
19 Feb: Kanowna
22 Mar: I'm Alone
25 Mar: Muggia
29 Mar: Selje
26 May: Aleutian
9 Jul: HMS H47
17 Jul: USS General Alava
1 Aug: Asakaze
30 Aug: San Juan
7 Sep: Kuru
9 Sep: Andaste
11 Sep: Acielle
2 Oct: Commandant Bultinck
22 Oct: Milwaukee
29 Oct: Wisconsin
31 Oct: Senator
4 Nov: Gilbert San
29 Nov: Norwich City
7 Dec: Ägir
18 Dec: Fort Victoria
Unknown date: San Antonio
Other incidents
5 Jan: Siboney
20 Jan: President Garfield
29 Jan: City of Cairo
28 Feb: Liberty Glo
7 Mar: Thétis
10 Mar: Pengreep
22 Mar: USCGC Dexter
25 Mar: Germaine L D
26 Mar: Europa
28 Mar: Libia
30 Mar: Naïade
6 Apr USS Childs
7 Apr Paris
18 Apr Paris
27 Apr: Duchess of Richmond
April (unknown date) Franconia
15 May: Irwell
May (unknown date): Duke of Lancaster, Duke of Rothesay
9 Jul: HMS L12
11 Jul: I-55, Kinugasa
3 Aug: Medway Queen
9 Aug: Viceroy of India
20 Aug Paris
September (unknown date): Binnendijk, Eider
5 Oct: NRP Adamastor
12 Oct: USFS Widgeon
13 Oct: Empress of Canada
19 Oct: Bowes Castle
20 Oct: USAT Liberty
6 Nov: Barbana G
13 Nov: Ro-63
22 Nov: Parizhskaya Kommuna
18 Dec: Algonquin
24 Dec: Roosevelt
1928 1930
vteShipwrecks and maritime incidents in June 1940Shipwrecks
1 Jun: HMS Basilisk, Foudroyant, HMS Havant, Ioanna, HMS Keith, Scotia
7 Jun: HMS Carinthia
8 Jun: HMS Acasta, HMS Ardent, HMS Glorious, HMT Juniper
9 Jun: Max Wolf, Prins Olav
10 Jun: Olterra
11 Jun: Bruges
12 Jun: HMS Calypso, C 60
13 Jun: HNLMS O 13, HMS Odin, Train Ferry No. 2
15 Jun: HMS Andania
16 Jun: HMS Grampus, Rastrello
17 Jun: Champlain, HMS Lancastria, Ingénieur Riebell
18 Jun: Achille, Agosta, Clemenceau, Cyclone, Dordogne, Kergroise, Ouessant, Pasteur
19 Jun: Mexique, Niagara, HMS Orpheus
20 Jun: Empire Conveyor
21 Jun: Vliereede
23 Jun: HMS Khartoum
25 Jun: HMCS Fraser
27 Jun: Console Generale Liuzzi
29 Jun: Uebi Scebeli
Unknown date: U-122
Other incidents
9 Jun: Empire Commerce
10 Jun: Barbana G, Monte Piana
25 Jun: HMS Calcutta
Unknown date: Mari Chandris
1939 1940 1941 May 1940 July 1940
vteShipwrecks and maritime incidents in September 1940Shipwrecks
1 Sep: HMS Ivanhoe
2 Sep: UJ-121 Jochen
3 Sep: U-57
5 Sep: V 201 Gebrüder Kähler, V 403 Deutschland
7 Sep: HMS Inanda, HMS Inkosi
8 Sep: Antonios Chandris
13 Sep: Flandre
15 Sep: HMS Dundee
17 Sep: Borea, Aquilone, Crown Arun, HMS Sussex, Tregenna, V 304 Breslau
18 Sep: City of Benares
20 Sep: Commissaire Ramel, Java, New Sevilla
21 Sep: Canonesa
23 Sep: Empire Adventure, Empire Airman, L'Audacieux, Persée
24 Sep: Ajax, HMS Wellesley
Other incidents
4 Sep: Sakito Maru
7 Sep: Méduse
21 Sep: Empire Adventure
25 Sep: HMS Resolution
1939 1940 1941 August 1940 October 1940
vteEmpire shipsBy suffix, Empire x
A
B
Ca–Cl
Co–Cy
D
E
F
G
H
I–J
K
L
M
N
O
P
R
Sa–Sh
Si–Sy
Ta–Te
Th–Ty
U–Z
See also: Fort ship, Liberty ship, Park ship, Ocean ship, Victory ship.
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On 21 September 1940, Empire Airman was torpedoed and sunk by U-100.","title":"SMS Teodo"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabilimento_Tecnico_Triestino"},{"link_name":"Trieste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trieste"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miramar-3"},{"link_name":"Austro-Hungarian Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Navy"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pola-4"},{"link_name":"First World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_War"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Saint-Germain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_(1919)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Germaine-5"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Uboat-2"},{"link_name":"Atlantide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS_Atlantide_(1898)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Nieuwe Waterweg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuwe_Waterweg"},{"link_name":"Rotterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam"},{"link_name":"South Holland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Holland"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Times071129a-6"},{"link_name":"Leith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leith"},{"link_name":"Methil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methil"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Uboat-2"},{"link_name":"Ministry of War Transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_War_Transport"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mariner-7"},{"link_name":"Bristol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Airman-8"}],"text":"SMS Teodo was built by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino, Trieste as yard number 501 and launched on 8 January 1913, being completed on 17 February 1916.[3] SMS Teodo was a Pola Class collier of the Austro-Hungarian Navy.[4] At the end of the First World War, under Article 137 of the Treaty of Saint-Germain, SMS Teodo was classed as a merchant ship[5] and passed to the Italian Government Ministry of Transport. In 1924, she was passed to the Italian Ministry of Marine, and renamed Barbana. In 1926, she was sold to the Società Anonima di Navigazione Garibaldi, Genoa and renamed Barbana G.[2] On 6 November 1929, she collided with the Italian cargo ship Atlantide in the Nieuwe Waterweg at Rotterdam, South Holland, Netherlands. Atlantide was consequently beached.[6] Barbana G was captured off Leith and taken to Methil[2] on 10 June 1940 and passed to the Ministry of War Transport, being renamed Empire Airman[7] under the management of Mark Whitwill & Sons Ltd, Bristol.[8]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Convoy HX 72","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convoy_HX_72"},{"link_name":"Halifax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halifax_Regional_Municipality"},{"link_name":"Nova Scotia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_Scotia"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Halifax-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Halifax2-10"},{"link_name":"Cardiff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiff"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ubootwaffe-11"},{"link_name":"U-100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-100_(1940)"},{"link_name":"55°11′N 15°07′W / 55.183°N 15.117°W / 55.183; -15.117","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=SMS_Teodo¶ms=55_11_N_15_07_W_"},{"link_name":"HMS La Malouine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_La_Malouine_(K46)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Uboat-2"},{"link_name":"Tower Hill Memorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_Hill_Memorial"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-THM-12"}],"sub_title":"Convoys","text":"HX 72Convoy HX 72 sailed from Halifax, Nova Scotia on 9 September 1940.[9] Empire Airman was carrying a cargo of iron ore,[10] she was bound for Cardiff.[11] At 00:22 on 22 September, Empire Airman was hit by a torpedo fired by U-100. The ship was taken in tow, but sank on 23 September at 55°11′N 15°07′W / 55.183°N 15.117°W / 55.183; -15.117. Thirty three of the thirty seven crew were killed in the attack. Four survivors were rescued by HMS La Malouine.[2] Those lost on Empire Airman are commemorated at the Tower Hill Memorial, London.[12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IMO Numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMO_ship_identification_number"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Barbanag-13"},{"link_name":"Lloyds Register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyds_Register"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Airman-8"},{"link_name":"Code Letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_Letters"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Barbanag-13"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Airman-8"}],"text":"Official Numbers were a forerunner to IMO Numbers.Barbana G had the Official Number 1496 on the Italian register.[13] Empire Airman had the Official Number 165788 on Lloyds Register.[8]Barbana G used the Code Letters NFVZ.[13] Empire Airman used the Code Letters GLZT[8]","title":"Official number and code letters"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chak_Rud
|
Chak Rud
|
["1 References"]
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Coordinates: 36°50′07″N 50°03′19″E / 36.83528°N 50.05528°E / 36.83528; 50.05528Village in Gilan, IranChak Rud
چاكرودvillageChak RudCoordinates: 36°50′07″N 50°03′19″E / 36.83528°N 50.05528°E / 36.83528; 50.05528Country IranProvinceGilanCountySiahkalBakhshDeylamanRural DistrictPir KuhPopulation (2006) • Total33Time zoneUTC+3:30 (IRST) • Summer (DST)UTC+4:30 (IRDT)
Chak Rud (Persian: چاكرود, also Romanized as Chāk Rūd) is a village in Pir Kuh Rural District, Deylaman District, Siahkal County, Gilan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 33, in 8 families.
References
^ Chak Rud can be found at GEOnet Names Server, at this link, by opening the Advanced Search box, entering "-3057744" in the "Unique Feature Id" form, and clicking on "Search Database".
^ "Census of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1385 (2006)" (Excel). Statistical Center of Iran. Archived from the original on 2011-09-20.
vte Siahkal CountyCapital
Siahkal
DistrictsCentralCities
Siahkal
Rural Districts and villagesKhara Rud
Bozgah
Chaleshom
Chehel Gacheh
Dehgah
Doktor Yusefpur Fishery
Dusatlat
Eshkorab
Fashtal
Gand Lavar
Gavkul
Gerdkuh
Gilbam
Golestan Sara
Kajan
Kajil
Khara Rud
Kolamsar
Lishak
Madar Sara
Malek Rud
Panabandan
Radar Poshteh
Rudbar Sara
Salash
Salash-e Disam
Sardarabad
Su Sara
Tazehabad-e Jankah
Tui Dasht
Malfejan
Alibeyk Sara
Bala Kala Gavabar
Bar Poshteh Sar
Bidrun
Bijar Posht
Butestan
Chufolki
Chushal
Dazrud
Deh Boneh
Dima Sara
Ezbaram
Galesh-e Musha
Gil-e Musha
Halestan
Kal Sar
Karaf Kol
Karafestan
Khushal
Kish Mahalleh
Kolah Duz Mahalleh
Lashkarian
Lelam
Maldeh
Malfejan
Namak Rudbar
Nayaji
Nowruzabad
Pain Kala Gavabar
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Jan Sherud
Kalnadan-e Bala
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Kashki
Kia Rud
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Kolandi
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Korf Poshteh-ye Ilyati
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Lashkaj
Lialehkal-e Bala
Lialehkal-e Pain
Lish
Lunak
Lusha Deh
Mehraban
Nispey
Pileh Sara
Saleh Kuh
Seh Chekeh
Shabkhus Lat
Siah Bijar
Sikash
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Tushi
Tutaki
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DeylamanCities
Deylaman
Rural Districts and villagesDeylaman
Ali Va
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Gisel
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Ishku-ye Bala
Ishku-ye Pain
Khak Shur
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Zenash Darreh
Iran portal
This Siahkal County location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
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[]
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[{"reference":"\"Census of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1385 (2006)\" (Excel). Statistical Center of Iran. Archived from the original on 2011-09-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amar.org.ir/Portals/0/census/1385/results/all/01.xls","url_text":"\"Census of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1385 (2006)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_Center_of_Iran","url_text":"Statistical Center of Iran"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110920084728/http://www.amar.org.ir/DesktopModules/FTPManager/upload/upload2360/newjkh/newjkh/01.xls","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chak_Rud¶ms=36_50_07_N_50_03_19_E_region:IR_type:city(33)","external_links_name":"36°50′07″N 50°03′19″E / 36.83528°N 50.05528°E / 36.83528; 50.05528"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chak_Rud¶ms=36_50_07_N_50_03_19_E_region:IR_type:city(33)","external_links_name":"36°50′07″N 50°03′19″E / 36.83528°N 50.05528°E / 36.83528; 50.05528"},{"Link":"http://geonames.nga.mil/namesgaz/","external_links_name":"this link"},{"Link":"https://www.amar.org.ir/Portals/0/census/1385/results/all/01.xls","external_links_name":"\"Census of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1385 (2006)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110920084728/http://www.amar.org.ir/DesktopModules/FTPManager/upload/upload2360/newjkh/newjkh/01.xls","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chak_Rud&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_conditioning
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Digital signal conditioning
|
["1 Introduction and digital fundamentals","2 Digital information","3 Digital words","4 Digital whole numbers","5 Some examples","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
|
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In digital instrumentation system, especially in digital electronics, digital computers have taken a major role in near every aspect of life in our modern world. Digital electronics is at the heart of computers, but there are many direct applications of digital electronics.
All these digital electronics need data to be presented to them in a digital format (i.e. the data have to be digitally conditioned). This is called digital conditioning.
Since computers are electronics devices, all the information they work with has to be digitally formatted. Therefore, if they are used to control a variable such as temperature, then the temperature has to be represented digitally. That's why we need digital signal conditioning to condition process-control signal to be an approximated digital format.
Introduction and digital fundamentals
Digital signal conditioning in process control means finding a way to represent analog process information in digital format.
Use of in control system is particularly valuable number of other reasons, however:
A computer can control multivibrator process-control system.
Nonlinearities in sensor output can be linearized by the computer.
Complicated control equation can be solved quickly and modified as needed.
Networking of control computers allow a large process-control complex to operate in a fully integrated fashion.
Digital information
The use of digital techniques in process control system hat process variable measurements and control information be encoded into a digital form. Digital signals themselves are simply two-scale (binary) These levels may be represented in many ways. For example, two volts, two currents, two frequencies etc.
Digital words
Given the simple binary information that is carried by signal digital, it is clear that multiple signals must be used to describe analog information. Generally, this is done by using an assemblage of digital levels to construct a binary number, often called a word. The individual digital levels are referred to as bits of the word. Thus, for example, a 6-bit word consists of six independent digital levels, such as
101011
2
{\displaystyle 101011_{2}}
, which can be thought of as a six-digit base 2 number. An important consideration, then, is how the analog information is encoded into this digital word.
Digital whole numbers
One of the most common schemes for encoding analog into s digital words is to use the straight counting of decimal (or base 10) and binary numbers representations.
Some examples
E
x
.1
.
{\displaystyle Ex.1.}
Find the base 10 equivalent of the binary whole number
00100111
2
{\displaystyle 00100111_{2}}
?
Solution.
As in the base 10 system, zero preceding the first significant digit do not contribute. Thus, the binary number is actually
100111
{\displaystyle 100111}
, and
n
=
5
{\displaystyle n=5}
, decimal equivalent can be computed as follows:
N
1
0
=
a
5
2
5
+
a
4
2
4
+
.
.
.
.
+
a
1
2
1
+
a
0
2
0
{\displaystyle N_{1}0=a_{5}2^{5}+a_{4}2^{4}+....+a_{1}2^{1}+a_{0}2^{0}}
N
1
0
=
(
1
)
2
5
+
(
0
)
2
4
+
(
0
)
2
3
+
(
1
)
2
2
+
(
1
)
2
1
+
(
1
)
2
0
{\displaystyle N_{1}0=(1)2^{5}+(0)2^{4}+(0)2^{3}+(1)2^{2}+(1)2^{1}+(1)2^{0}}
N
1
0
=
32
+
4
+
2
+
1
{\displaystyle N_{1}0=32+4+2+1}
N
1
0
=
39
{\displaystyle N_{1}0=39}
See also
Signal conditioning
References
^ Curtis D. Johnson, "Process Control Instrumentation Technology" Sep 6, 2006. ISBN 0-13-441305-9
^ Ramón Pallás-Areny, John G. Webster, "Sensors and Signal Conditioning, 2nd Edition", November 2000. ISBN 978-0-471-33232-9
^ Goodwin, Graham C., Richard H. Middleton, and H. Vincent Poor. "High-speed digital signal processing and control." Proceedings of the IEEE 80.2 (1992).
External links
http://iopscience.iop.org/0022-3735/15/8/001
http://www.hbm.com/en/menu/products/industrial-amplifiers/
http://sine.ni.com/np/app/main/p/ap/daq/lang/en/pg/1/sn/n17:daq,n21:11/fmid/2998/
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[]
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[{"title":"Signal conditioning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_conditioning"}]
|
[]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_diagram
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Mathematical diagram
|
["1 Specific types of mathematical diagrams","1.1 Argand diagram","1.2 Butterfly diagram","1.3 Commutative diagram","1.4 Hasse diagrams","1.5 Knot diagrams","1.6 Venn diagram","1.7 Voronoi diagram","1.8 Wallpaper group diagrams","1.9 Young diagram","1.10 Other mathematical diagrams","2 See also","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"]
|
Visual representation of a mathematical relationship
Euclid's Elements, ms. from Lüneburg, A.D. 1200
Mathematical diagrams, such as charts and graphs, are mainly designed to convey mathematical relationships—for example, comparisons over time.
Specific types of mathematical diagrams
Argand diagram
Argand diagram.
A complex number can be visually represented as a pair of numbers forming a vector on a diagram called an Argand diagram
The complex plane is sometimes called the Argand plane because it is used in Argand diagrams. These are named after Jean-Robert Argand (1768–1822), although they were first described by Norwegian-Danish land surveyor and mathematician Caspar Wessel (1745–1818). Argand diagrams are frequently used to plot the positions of the poles and zeroes of a function in the complex plane.
The concept of the complex plane allows a geometric interpretation of complex numbers. Under addition, they add like vectors. The multiplication of two complex numbers can be expressed most easily in polar coordinates — the magnitude or modulus of the product is the product of the two absolute values, or moduli, and the angle or argument of the product is the sum of the two angles, or arguments. In particular, multiplication by a complex number of modulus 1 acts as a rotation.
Butterfly diagram
Butterfly diagram
In the context of fast Fourier transform algorithms, a butterfly is a portion of the computation that combines the results of smaller discrete Fourier transforms (DFTs) into a larger DFT, or vice versa (breaking a larger DFT up into subtransforms). The name "butterfly" comes from the shape of the data-flow diagram in the radix-2 case, as described below. The same structure can also be found in the Viterbi algorithm, used for finding the most likely sequence of hidden states.
The butterfly diagram show a data-flow diagram connecting the inputs x (left) to the outputs y that depend on them (right) for a "butterfly" step of a radix-2 Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm. This diagram resembles a butterfly as in the Morpho butterfly shown for comparison, hence the name.
A commutative diagram depicting the five lemma
Commutative diagram
Main article: Commutative diagram
In mathematics, and especially in category theory, a commutative diagram is a diagram of objects, also known as vertices, and morphisms, also known as arrows or edges, such that when selecting two objects any directed path through the diagram leads to the same result by composition.
Commutative diagrams play the role in category theory that equations play in algebra.
Hasse diagram.
Hasse diagrams
A Hasse diagram is a simple picture of a finite partially ordered set, forming a drawing of the partial order's transitive reduction. Concretely, one represents each element of the set as a vertex on the page and draws a line segment or curve that goes upward from x to y precisely when x < y and there is no z such that x < z < y. In this case, we say y covers x, or y is an immediate successor of x. In a Hasse diagram, it is required that the curves be drawn so that each meets exactly two vertices: its two endpoints. Any such diagram (given that the vertices are labeled) uniquely determines a partial order, and any partial order has a unique transitive reduction, but there are many possible placements of elements in the plane, resulting in different Hasse diagrams for a given order that may have widely varying appearances.
Knot diagram.
Knot diagrams
In Knot theory a useful way to visualise and manipulate knots is to project the knot onto a plane—;think of the knot casting a shadow on the wall. A small perturbation in the choice of projection will ensure that it is one-to-one except at the double points, called crossings, where the "shadow" of the knot crosses itself once transversely
At each crossing we must indicate which section is "over" and which is "under", so as to be able to recreate the original knot. This is often done by creating a break in the strand going underneath. If by following the diagram the knot alternately crosses itself "over" and "under", then the diagram represents a particularly well-studied class of knot, alternating knots.
Venn diagram.
Venn diagram
A Venn diagram is a representation of mathematical sets: a mathematical diagram representing sets as circles, with their relationships to each other expressed through their overlapping positions, so that all possible relationships between the sets are shown.
The Venn diagram is constructed with a collection of simple closed curves drawn in the plane. The principle of these diagrams is that classes be represented by regions in such relation to one another that all the possible logical relations of these classes can be indicated in the same diagram. That is, the diagram initially leaves room for any possible relation of the classes, and the actual or given relation, can then be specified by indicating that some particular region is null or is not null.
Voronoi centerlines.
Voronoi diagram
A Voronoi diagram is a special kind of decomposition of a metric space determined by distances to a specified discrete set of objects in the space, e.g., by a discrete set of points. This diagram is named after Georgy Voronoi, also called a Voronoi tessellation, a Voronoi decomposition, or a Dirichlet tessellation after Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet.
In the simplest case, we are given a set of points S in the plane, which are the Voronoi sites. Each site s has a Voronoi cell V(s) consisting of all points closer to s than to any other site. The segments of the Voronoi diagram are all the points in the plane that are equidistant to two sites. The Voronoi nodes are the points equidistant to three (or more) sites
Wallpaper group diagram.
Wallpaper group diagrams
A wallpaper group or plane symmetry group or plane crystallographic group is a mathematical classification of a two-dimensional repetitive pattern, based on the symmetries in the pattern. Such patterns occur frequently in architecture and decorative art. There are 17 possible distinct groups.
Wallpaper groups are two-dimensional symmetry groups, intermediate in complexity between the simpler frieze groups and the three-dimensional crystallographic groups, also called space groups. Wallpaper groups categorize patterns by their symmetries. Subtle differences may place similar patterns in different groups, while patterns which are very different in style, color, scale or orientation may belong to the same group.
Young diagram
A Young diagram or Young tableau, also called Ferrers diagram, is a finite collection of boxes, or cells, arranged in left-justified rows, with the row sizes weakly decreasing (each row has the same or shorter length than its predecessor).
Young diagram.
Listing the number of boxes in each row gives a partition
λ
{\displaystyle \lambda }
of a positive integer n, the total number of boxes of the diagram. The Young diagram is said to be of shape
λ
{\displaystyle \lambda }
, and it carries the same information as that partition. Listing the number of boxes in each column gives another partition, the conjugate or transpose partition of
λ
{\displaystyle \lambda }
; one obtains a Young diagram of that shape by reflecting the original diagram along its main diagonal.
Young tableaux were introduced by Alfred Young, a mathematician at Cambridge University, in 1900. They were then applied to the study of symmetric group by Georg Frobenius in 1903. Their theory was further developed by many mathematicians.
Other mathematical diagrams
Cremona diagram
De Finetti diagram
Dynkin diagram
Elementary diagram
Euler diagram
Stellation diagram
Ulam spiral
Van Kampen diagram
Taylor diagram
See also
Category theory
Logic diagram
Mathematical jargon
Mathematical model
Mathematics as a language
Mathematical visualization
Statistical model
References
^ Working with diagrams at LearningSpace.
^ Wessel's memoir was presented to the Danish Academy in 1797; Argand's paper was published in 1806.(Whittaker, Edmund Taylor; Watson, G.N. (1927). A Course of Modern Analysis: An Introduction to the General Theory of Infinite Processes and of Analytic Functions, with an Account of the Principal Transcendental Functions. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-521-58807-2.)
^ Rolfsen, Dale (1976). Knots and links. Publish or Perish. ISBN 978-0-914098-16-4.
^ "Venn diagram" Archived 2009-11-07 at the Wayback Machine, Encarta World English Dictionary, North American Edition 2007. Archived 2009-11-01.
^ Clarence Irving Lewis (1918). A Survey of Symbolic Logic. Republished in part by Dover in 1960. p. 157.
Further reading
Barker-Plummer, Dave; Bailin, Sidney C. (1997). "The Role of Diagrams in Mathematical Proofs". Machine Graphics and Vision. 6 (1): 25–56. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.49.4712. (Special Issue on Diagrammatic Representation and Reasoning).
Barker-Plummer, Dave; Bailin, Sidney C. (2001). "On the practical semantics of mathematical diagrams". In Anderson, M. (ed.). Reasoning with Diagrammatic Representations. Springer Verlag. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.30.9246. ISBN 978-1-85233-242-6.
Kidman, G. (2002). "The Accuracy of mathematical diagrams in curriculum materials". In Cockburn, A.; Nardi, E. (eds.). Proceedings of the PME 26. Vol. 3. University of East Anglia. pp. 201–8.
Kulpa, Zenon (2004). "On Diagrammatic Representation of Mathematical Knowledge". In Andréa Asperti; Bancerek, Grzegorz; Trybulec, Andrzej (eds.). Mathematical knowledge management: third international conference, MKM 2004, Białowieża, Poland, September 19–21, 2004 : Proceedings. Springer. pp. 191–204. ISBN 978-3-540-23029-8.
Puphaiboon, K.; Woodcock, A.; Scrivener, S. (25 March 2005). "Design method for developing mathematical diagrams". In Bust, Philip D.; McCabe, P.T. (eds.). Contemporary ergonomics 2005 Proceedings of the International Conference on Contemporary Ergonomics (CE2005). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-37448-4.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mathematical diagram.
"Diagrams". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Fall 2008.
Kulpa, Zenon. "Diagrammatics: The art of thinking with diagrams". Archived from the original on April 25, 2013.
One of the oldest extant diagrams from Euclid by Otto Neugebauer
Lomas, Dennis (1998). "Diagrams in Mathematical Education: A Philosophical Appraisal". Philosophy of Education Society. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21.
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19th century
Charles Dupin
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Toussaint Loua
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Early 20th century
Edward Walter Maunder
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Mid 20th century
Jacques Bertin
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Borden Dent
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Michael Friendly
Howard Wainer
Clifford A. Pickover
Lawrence J. Rosenblum
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Cynthia Brewer
Miriah Meyer
Jock D. Mackinlay
Alan MacEachren
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Ben Fry
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Euclid_Lueneburg_ms_page_8.jpg"},{"link_name":"Euclid's Elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements"},{"link_name":"charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chart"},{"link_name":"graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_of_a_function"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Euclid's Elements, ms. from Lüneburg, A.D. 1200Mathematical diagrams, such as charts and graphs, are mainly designed to convey mathematical relationships—for example, comparisons over time.[1]","title":"Mathematical diagram"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Specific types of mathematical diagrams"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Complex_number_illustration.svg"},{"link_name":"complex number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"Argand diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argand_diagram"},{"link_name":"complex plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_plane"},{"link_name":"Jean-Robert Argand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Robert_Argand"},{"link_name":"Caspar Wessel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspar_Wessel"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"poles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pole_(complex_analysis)"},{"link_name":"zeroes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_of_a_function"},{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_function"},{"link_name":"geometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric"},{"link_name":"addition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition"},{"link_name":"vectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(spatial)"},{"link_name":"multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication"},{"link_name":"polar coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_coordinates"},{"link_name":"absolute values","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_value"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Butterfly-FFT.png"}],"sub_title":"Argand diagram","text":"Argand diagram.A complex number can be visually represented as a pair of numbers forming a vector on a diagram called an Argand diagram\nThe complex plane is sometimes called the Argand plane because it is used in Argand diagrams. These are named after Jean-Robert Argand (1768–1822), although they were first described by Norwegian-Danish land surveyor and mathematician Caspar Wessel (1745–1818).[2] Argand diagrams are frequently used to plot the positions of the poles and zeroes of a function in the complex plane.The concept of the complex plane allows a geometric interpretation of complex numbers. Under addition, they add like vectors. The multiplication of two complex numbers can be expressed most easily in polar coordinates — the magnitude or modulus of the product is the product of the two absolute values, or moduli, and the angle or argument of the product is the sum of the two angles, or arguments. In particular, multiplication by a complex number of modulus 1 acts as a rotation.Butterfly diagram","title":"Specific types of mathematical diagrams"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fast Fourier transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Fourier_transform"},{"link_name":"butterfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly_diagram"},{"link_name":"discrete Fourier transforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_Fourier_transform"},{"link_name":"Viterbi algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viterbi_algorithm"},{"link_name":"butterfly diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly_diagram"},{"link_name":"Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooley%E2%80%93Tukey_FFT_algorithm"},{"link_name":"butterfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly"},{"link_name":"Morpho butterfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morpho_(genus)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:5_lemma.svg"},{"link_name":"five lemma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_lemma"}],"sub_title":"Butterfly diagram","text":"In the context of fast Fourier transform algorithms, a butterfly is a portion of the computation that combines the results of smaller discrete Fourier transforms (DFTs) into a larger DFT, or vice versa (breaking a larger DFT up into subtransforms). The name \"butterfly\" comes from the shape of the data-flow diagram in the radix-2 case, as described below. The same structure can also be found in the Viterbi algorithm, used for finding the most likely sequence of hidden states.The butterfly diagram show a data-flow diagram connecting the inputs x (left) to the outputs y that depend on them (right) for a \"butterfly\" step of a radix-2 Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm. This diagram resembles a butterfly as in the Morpho butterfly shown for comparison, hence the name.A commutative diagram depicting the five lemma","title":"Specific types of mathematical diagrams"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"category theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_theory"},{"link_name":"objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"morphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hasse_diagram_of_powerset_of_3.svg"}],"sub_title":"Commutative diagram","text":"In mathematics, and especially in category theory, a commutative diagram is a diagram of objects, also known as vertices, and morphisms, also known as arrows or edges, such that when selecting two objects any directed path through the diagram leads to the same result by composition.Commutative diagrams play the role in category theory that equations play in algebra.Hasse diagram.","title":"Specific types of mathematical diagrams"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hasse diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasse_diagram"},{"link_name":"partially ordered set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set"},{"link_name":"drawing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_drawing"},{"link_name":"transitive reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_reduction"},{"link_name":"covers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covering_relation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TrefoilKnot_01.svg"}],"sub_title":"Hasse diagrams","text":"A Hasse diagram is a simple picture of a finite partially ordered set, forming a drawing of the partial order's transitive reduction. Concretely, one represents each element of the set as a vertex on the page and draws a line segment or curve that goes upward from x to y precisely when x < y and there is no z such that x < z < y. In this case, we say y covers x, or y is an immediate successor of x. In a Hasse diagram, it is required that the curves be drawn so that each meets exactly two vertices: its two endpoints. Any such diagram (given that the vertices are labeled) uniquely determines a partial order, and any partial order has a unique transitive reduction, but there are many possible placements of elements in the plane, resulting in different Hasse diagrams for a given order that may have widely varying appearances.Knot diagram.","title":"Specific types of mathematical diagrams"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Knot theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knot_theory"},{"link_name":"one-to-one","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injective_function"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"alternating knots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_knot"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Venn_diagram_cmyk.svg"}],"sub_title":"Knot diagrams","text":"In Knot theory a useful way to visualise and manipulate knots is to project the knot onto a plane—;think of the knot casting a shadow on the wall. A small perturbation in the choice of projection will ensure that it is one-to-one except at the double points, called crossings, where the \"shadow\" of the knot crosses itself once transversely[3]At each crossing we must indicate which section is \"over\" and which is \"under\", so as to be able to recreate the original knot. This is often done by creating a break in the strand going underneath. If by following the diagram the knot alternately crosses itself \"over\" and \"under\", then the diagram represents a particularly well-studied class of knot, alternating knots.Venn diagram.","title":"Specific types of mathematical diagrams"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Venn diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venn_diagram"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voronoi_centerlines_skeleton.gif"}],"sub_title":"Venn diagram","text":"A Venn diagram is a representation of mathematical sets: a mathematical diagram representing sets as circles, with their relationships to each other expressed through their overlapping positions, so that all possible relationships between the sets are shown.[4]The Venn diagram is constructed with a collection of simple closed curves drawn in the plane. The principle of these diagrams is that classes be represented by regions in such relation to one another that all the possible logical relations of these classes can be indicated in the same diagram. That is, the diagram initially leaves room for any possible relation of the classes, and the actual or given relation, can then be specified by indicating that some particular region is null or is not null.[5]Voronoi centerlines.","title":"Specific types of mathematical diagrams"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Voronoi diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voronoi_diagram"},{"link_name":"metric space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_space"},{"link_name":"discrete set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_set"},{"link_name":"Georgy Voronoi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgy_Voronoi"},{"link_name":"tessellation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tessellation"},{"link_name":"Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gustav_Lejeune_Dirichlet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wallpaper_group_diagram_p4m_square.svg"}],"sub_title":"Voronoi diagram","text":"A Voronoi diagram is a special kind of decomposition of a metric space determined by distances to a specified discrete set of objects in the space, e.g., by a discrete set of points. This diagram is named after Georgy Voronoi, also called a Voronoi tessellation, a Voronoi decomposition, or a Dirichlet tessellation after Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet.In the simplest case, we are given a set of points S in the plane, which are the Voronoi sites. Each site s has a Voronoi cell V(s) consisting of all points closer to s than to any other site. The segments of the Voronoi diagram are all the points in the plane that are equidistant to two sites. The Voronoi nodes are the points equidistant to three (or more) sitesWallpaper group diagram.","title":"Specific types of mathematical diagrams"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"wallpaper group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallpaper_group"},{"link_name":"groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"symmetry groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_groups"},{"link_name":"frieze groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frieze_group"},{"link_name":"crystallographic groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallographic_group"},{"link_name":"space groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_group"}],"sub_title":"Wallpaper group diagrams","text":"A wallpaper group or plane symmetry group or plane crystallographic group is a mathematical classification of a two-dimensional repetitive pattern, based on the symmetries in the pattern. Such patterns occur frequently in architecture and decorative art. There are 17 possible distinct groups.Wallpaper groups are two-dimensional symmetry groups, intermediate in complexity between the simpler frieze groups and the three-dimensional crystallographic groups, also called space groups. Wallpaper groups categorize patterns by their symmetries. Subtle differences may place similar patterns in different groups, while patterns which are very different in style, color, scale or orientation may belong to the same group.","title":"Specific types of mathematical diagrams"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Young tableau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_tableau"},{"link_name":"Ferrers diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrers_diagram"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_diagram_for_541_partition.svg"},{"link_name":"partition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_(number_theory)"},{"link_name":"Alfred Young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Young_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"mathematician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Georg Frobenius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Frobenius"}],"sub_title":"Young diagram","text":"A Young diagram or Young tableau, also called Ferrers diagram, is a finite collection of boxes, or cells, arranged in left-justified rows, with the row sizes weakly decreasing (each row has the same or shorter length than its predecessor).Young diagram.Listing the number of boxes in each row gives a partition \n \n \n \n λ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lambda }\n \n of a positive integer n, the total number of boxes of the diagram. The Young diagram is said to be of shape \n \n \n \n λ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lambda }\n \n, and it carries the same information as that partition. Listing the number of boxes in each column gives another partition, the conjugate or transpose partition of \n \n \n \n λ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lambda }\n \n; one obtains a Young diagram of that shape by reflecting the original diagram along its main diagonal.Young tableaux were introduced by Alfred Young, a mathematician at Cambridge University, in 1900. They were then applied to the study of symmetric group by Georg Frobenius in 1903. Their theory was further developed by many mathematicians.","title":"Specific types of mathematical diagrams"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cremona diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cremona_diagram"},{"link_name":"De Finetti diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Finetti_diagram"},{"link_name":"Dynkin diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynkin_diagram"},{"link_name":"Elementary diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_diagram"},{"link_name":"Euler diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_diagram"},{"link_name":"Stellation diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellation_diagram"},{"link_name":"Ulam spiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulam_spiral"},{"link_name":"Van Kampen diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Kampen_diagram"},{"link_name":"Taylor diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_diagram"}],"sub_title":"Other mathematical diagrams","text":"Cremona diagram\nDe Finetti diagram\nDynkin diagram\nElementary diagram\nEuler diagram\nStellation diagram\nUlam spiral\nVan Kampen diagram\nTaylor diagram","title":"Specific types of mathematical diagrams"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CiteSeerX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1.1.49.4712","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.49.4712"},{"link_name":"Springer Verlag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Verlag"},{"link_name":"CiteSeerX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1.1.30.9246","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.30.9246"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-85233-242-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85233-242-6"},{"link_name":"Kulpa, Zenon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenon_Kulpa"},{"link_name":"\"On Diagrammatic Representation of Mathematical Knowledge\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=j8bdlF8-2sIC&pg=PA191"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-540-23029-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-23029-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-415-37448-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-37448-4"}],"text":"Barker-Plummer, Dave; Bailin, Sidney C. (1997). \"The Role of Diagrams in Mathematical Proofs\". Machine Graphics and Vision. 6 (1): 25–56. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.49.4712. (Special Issue on Diagrammatic Representation and Reasoning).\nBarker-Plummer, Dave; Bailin, Sidney C. (2001). \"On the practical semantics of mathematical diagrams\". In Anderson, M. (ed.). Reasoning with Diagrammatic Representations. Springer Verlag. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.30.9246. ISBN 978-1-85233-242-6.\nKidman, G. (2002). \"The Accuracy of mathematical diagrams in curriculum materials\". In Cockburn, A.; Nardi, E. (eds.). Proceedings of the PME 26. Vol. 3. University of East Anglia. pp. 201–8.\nKulpa, Zenon (2004). \"On Diagrammatic Representation of Mathematical Knowledge\". In Andréa Asperti; Bancerek, Grzegorz; Trybulec, Andrzej (eds.). Mathematical knowledge management: third international conference, MKM 2004, Białowieża, Poland, September 19–21, 2004 : Proceedings. Springer. pp. 191–204. ISBN 978-3-540-23029-8.\nPuphaiboon, K.; Woodcock, A.; Scrivener, S. (25 March 2005). \"Design method for developing mathematical diagrams\". In Bust, Philip D.; McCabe, P.T. (eds.). Contemporary ergonomics 2005 Proceedings of the International Conference on Contemporary Ergonomics (CE2005). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-37448-4.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Euclid's Elements, ms. from Lüneburg, A.D. 1200","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Euclid_Lueneburg_ms_page_8.jpg/280px-Euclid_Lueneburg_ms_page_8.jpg"},{"image_text":"Argand diagram.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Complex_number_illustration.svg/120px-Complex_number_illustration.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Butterfly diagram","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Butterfly-FFT.png/120px-Butterfly-FFT.png"},{"image_text":"A commutative diagram depicting the five lemma","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/5_lemma.svg/300px-5_lemma.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Hasse diagram.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Hasse_diagram_of_powerset_of_3.svg/120px-Hasse_diagram_of_powerset_of_3.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Knot diagram.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/TrefoilKnot_01.svg/120px-TrefoilKnot_01.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Venn diagram.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Venn_diagram_cmyk.svg/120px-Venn_diagram_cmyk.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Voronoi centerlines.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Voronoi_centerlines_skeleton.gif/120px-Voronoi_centerlines_skeleton.gif"},{"image_text":"Wallpaper group diagram.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Wallpaper_group_diagram_p4m_square.svg/120px-Wallpaper_group_diagram_p4m_square.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Young diagram.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Young_diagram_for_541_partition.svg/120px-Young_diagram_for_541_partition.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Category theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_theory"},{"title":"Logic diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_diagram"},{"title":"Mathematical jargon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_jargon"},{"title":"Mathematical model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_model"},{"title":"Mathematics as a language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_as_a_language"},{"title":"Mathematical visualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_visualization"},{"title":"Statistical model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_model"}]
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[{"reference":"Whittaker, Edmund Taylor; Watson, G.N. (1927). A Course of Modern Analysis: An Introduction to the General Theory of Infinite Processes and of Analytic Functions, with an Account of the Principal Transcendental Functions. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-521-58807-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Course_of_Modern_Analysis","url_text":"A Course of Modern Analysis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58807-2","url_text":"978-0-521-58807-2"}]},{"reference":"Rolfsen, Dale (1976). Knots and links. Publish or Perish. ISBN 978-0-914098-16-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qFLvAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Knots and links"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-914098-16-4","url_text":"978-0-914098-16-4"}]},{"reference":"Barker-Plummer, Dave; Bailin, Sidney C. (1997). \"The Role of Diagrams in Mathematical Proofs\". Machine Graphics and Vision. 6 (1): 25–56. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.49.4712.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.49.4712","url_text":"10.1.1.49.4712"}]},{"reference":"Barker-Plummer, Dave; Bailin, Sidney C. (2001). \"On the practical semantics of mathematical diagrams\". In Anderson, M. (ed.). Reasoning with Diagrammatic Representations. Springer Verlag. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.30.9246. ISBN 978-1-85233-242-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Verlag","url_text":"Springer Verlag"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.30.9246","url_text":"10.1.1.30.9246"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85233-242-6","url_text":"978-1-85233-242-6"}]},{"reference":"Kidman, G. (2002). \"The Accuracy of mathematical diagrams in curriculum materials\". In Cockburn, A.; Nardi, E. (eds.). Proceedings of the PME 26. Vol. 3. University of East Anglia. pp. 201–8.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kulpa, Zenon (2004). \"On Diagrammatic Representation of Mathematical Knowledge\". In Andréa Asperti; Bancerek, Grzegorz; Trybulec, Andrzej (eds.). Mathematical knowledge management: third international conference, MKM 2004, Białowieża, Poland, September 19–21, 2004 : Proceedings. Springer. pp. 191–204. ISBN 978-3-540-23029-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenon_Kulpa","url_text":"Kulpa, Zenon"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=j8bdlF8-2sIC&pg=PA191","url_text":"\"On Diagrammatic Representation of Mathematical Knowledge\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-23029-8","url_text":"978-3-540-23029-8"}]},{"reference":"Puphaiboon, K.; Woodcock, A.; Scrivener, S. (25 March 2005). \"Design method for developing mathematical diagrams\". In Bust, Philip D.; McCabe, P.T. (eds.). Contemporary ergonomics 2005 Proceedings of the International Conference on Contemporary Ergonomics (CE2005). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-37448-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-37448-4","url_text":"978-0-415-37448-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Diagrams\". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Fall 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/diagrams/","url_text":"\"Diagrams\""}]},{"reference":"Kulpa, Zenon. \"Diagrammatics: The art of thinking with diagrams\". Archived from the original on April 25, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenon_Kulpa","url_text":"Kulpa, Zenon"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130425225258/http://www.ippt.gov.pl/~zkulpa/diagrams/","url_text":"\"Diagrammatics: The art of thinking with diagrams\""},{"url":"http://www.ippt.gov.pl/~zkulpa/diagrams/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Lomas, Dennis (1998). \"Diagrams in Mathematical Education: A Philosophical Appraisal\". Philosophy of Education Society. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110721195349/http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/eps/PES-Yearbook/1998/lomas.html","url_text":"\"Diagrams in Mathematical Education: A Philosophical Appraisal\""},{"url":"http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/eps/PES-Yearbook/1998/lomas.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F.lux
|
f.lux
|
["1 Functionality","2 Platforms","3 Efficacy","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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Program to adjust a display to reduce eye strain
Not to be confused with Flux (software) or Flux (software company).
f.luxTwo photos of a screen stitched together, f.lux disabled (on the left), and f.lux's default settings (on the right)Original author(s)Michael Herf, Lorna HerfDeveloper(s)F.lux Software LLCInitial releaseFebruary 2009; 15 years ago (2009-02)Stable releaseWindows: v4.120 macOS: 41.5iOS: 0.9986
Operating systemWindows, macOS, Linux, Android, iOSAvailable inEnglishLicenseFreewareWebsitejustgetflux.com
f.lux (pronounced "flux") is a cross-platform computer program that adjusts a display's color temperature according to location and time of day, offering functional respite for the eyes. The program is designed to reduce eye strain during night-time use, helping to reduce disruption of sleep patterns.
Functionality
A screen in F.lux's "darkroom mode"
On installation, the user can choose a location based on geographic coordinates, a ZIP code, or the name of a location. The program then automatically calibrates the device display's color temperature to account for time of day, based on sunrise and sunset at the chosen location. At sunset, it will gradually change the color temperature to a warmer color and restore the original color at sunrise.
f.lux offers a variety of color profiles and pre-defined temperature values, modifying program behaviour for specific programs or activities; including a mode for film watching, decreasing red tinge (for 2.5 hours), and a darkroom mode that does not affect night-adapted vision. Times can be inverted on f.lux for PC to provide warm lighting during the daytime (for people who work at night). The program can control Philips Hue LED lighting, so that the color temperature of house lights follows f.lux's settings.
Platforms
The program is available for Microsoft Windows, macOS and Linux (except for Ubuntu 18.04 LTS). It is also available for Apple iOS devices, although it requires the device to be jailbroken. Apple has not allowed the application in its App Store due to its use of restricted developer tools. The developer briefly hosted an Xcode project on GitHub, allowing iOS 9 users to sideload the application onto their devices, but retracted it at the request of Apple. Following Apple's announcement of a similar function, called Night Shift, in iOS 9.3, the developer called upon Apple to provide developer tools and to allow their application into the App Store. A preview version for Google's Android system is available.
Efficacy
Reducing exposure to bright (1000 lux) blue lights at night time was linked to increased melatonin secretion in a 1996 study but a 2018 study showed that changing the spectral composition of self-luminous displays without changing their brightness settings may be insufficient for preventing impacts on melatonin suppression.
f.lux proponents hypothesize that altering the color temperature of a display to reduce the prominence of white–blue light at night will improve the effectiveness of sleep. Although the developer provides a list of relevant research on their website, the program itself has not been scientifically tested to determine its efficacy, and the equivalent Apple program, Night Shift, was shown to have no effect on sleep outcomes (sleep latency, duration, efficiency and wake after sleep onset) in a 2021 study on 167 college undergraduates. f.lux has been widely and positively reviewed by technology journalists, bloggers, and users.
See also
Electronic media and sleep
Oswald Labs § Agastya
Purkinje effect § Use of red lights
Red Moon (software)
Redshift (software)
Light-on-dark color scheme
References
^ "f.lux for iOS". f.lux. Retrieved October 13, 2018.
^ a b c d Zukerman, Erez (October 31, 2013). "Review: f.lux makes your computer usable at night". PC World. Retrieved 3 March 2015.
^ a b c d Tanous, Jim (October 15, 2014). "Save Your Eyes and Improve Your Sleep with f.lux for OS X and Windows". TekRevue. Archived from the original on October 17, 2014. Retrieved January 15, 2016.
^ "f.lux: F.A.Q. - I work nights. How do I flip the day and night settings?". justgetflux.com. Retrieved 31 October 2016.
^ "f.lux has been updated to a new version". justgetflux.com. Retrieved 31 October 2016.
^ a b Hoffman, Chris (October 23, 2014). "Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer". How-To Geek. Retrieved January 15, 2016.
^ Hern, Alex (January 12, 2016). "Apple promises a good night's sleep with new iPhone feature". The Guardian. Retrieved January 20, 2016.
^ Tepper, Fitz (November 12, 2015). "F.uxd: Apple Says Screen Brightness App Violates Developer Agreement". TechCrunch. Retrieved January 15, 2016.
^ Perez, Sarah (January 15, 2016). "F.lux Asks Apple To Let Its Screen Color Adjustment App Back Into App Store". TechCrunch. Retrieved January 20, 2016.
^ "f.lux Home Page". f.lux. Retrieved September 21, 2016.
^ Takeshi, Morita; Hiromi, Tokura (1996). "Effects of Lights of Different Colour Temperature on the Nocturnal Changes in Core Temperature and Melatonin in Humans". Journal of Physiological Anthropology. 15 (5): 243–6. doi:10.2114/jpa.15.243. PMID 8979406.
^ Nagare, R; Plitnick, B; Figueiro, Mg (May 2019). "Does the iPad Night Shift mode reduce melatonin suppression?". Lighting Research & Technology. 51 (3): 373–383. doi:10.1177/1477153517748189. PMC 6561503. PMID 31191118. Archived from the original on 2022-01-15. Retrieved 2021-09-16.
^ Duraccio, Kara M.; Zaugg, Kelsey K.; Blackburn, Robyn C.; Jensen, Chad D. (August 2021). "Does iPhone night shift mitigate negative effects of smartphone use on sleep outcomes in emerging adults?". Sleep Health. 7 (4): 478–484. doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2021.03.005. PMID 33867308. S2CID 233299395.
External links
Official website
|
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The program is designed to reduce eye strain during night-time use, helping to reduce disruption of sleep patterns.[2][3]","title":"f.lux"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F.lux_Darkroom_mode.jpg"},{"link_name":"geographic coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"ZIP code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZIP_code"},{"link_name":"color temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature"},{"link_name":"sunrise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunrise"},{"link_name":"sunset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Philips Hue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips_Hue"},{"link_name":"LED lighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED_lighting"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"A screen in F.lux's \"darkroom mode\"On installation, the user can choose a location based on geographic coordinates, a ZIP code, or the name of a location. The program then automatically calibrates the device display's color temperature to account for time of day, based on sunrise and sunset at the chosen location. 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It is also available for Apple iOS devices, although it requires the device to be jailbroken.[6] Apple has not allowed the application in its App Store due to its use of restricted developer tools.[7] The developer briefly hosted an Xcode project on GitHub, allowing iOS 9 users to sideload the application onto their devices, but retracted it at the request of Apple.[8] Following Apple's announcement of a similar function, called Night Shift, in iOS 9.3, the developer called upon Apple to provide developer tools and to allow their application into the App Store.[9] A preview version for Google's Android system is available.[10]","title":"Platforms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lux"},{"link_name":"melatonin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melatonin"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"the effectiveness of sleep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_effects_of_high-energy_visible_light"},{"link_name":"Night Shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_Shift_(software)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"technology journalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_journalism"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-6"}],"text":"Reducing exposure to bright (1000 lux) blue lights at night time was linked to increased melatonin secretion in a 1996 study[11] but a 2018 study showed that changing the spectral composition of self-luminous displays without changing their brightness settings may be insufficient for preventing impacts on melatonin suppression.[12]f.lux proponents hypothesize that altering the color temperature of a display to reduce the prominence of white–blue light at night will improve the effectiveness of sleep. Although the developer provides a list of relevant research on their website, the program itself has not been scientifically tested to determine its efficacy, and the equivalent Apple program, Night Shift, was shown to have no effect on sleep outcomes (sleep latency, duration, efficiency and wake after sleep onset) in a 2021 study on 167 college undergraduates.[13] f.lux has been widely and positively reviewed by technology journalists, bloggers, and users.[2][3][6]","title":"Efficacy"}]
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[{"image_text":"A screen in F.lux's \"darkroom mode\"","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/F.lux_Darkroom_mode.jpg/220px-F.lux_Darkroom_mode.jpg"}]
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Retrieved January 15, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/","url_text":"\"Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer\""}]},{"reference":"Hern, Alex (January 12, 2016). \"Apple promises a good night's sleep with new iPhone feature\". The Guardian. Retrieved January 20, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/jan/12/apple-good-sleep-new-iphone-feature-night-shift","url_text":"\"Apple promises a good night's sleep with new iPhone feature\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"Tepper, Fitz (November 12, 2015). \"F.uxd: Apple Says Screen Brightness App Violates Developer Agreement\". TechCrunch. Retrieved January 15, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2015/11/12/f-uxd-apple-says-screen-brightness-app-violates-developer-agreement/","url_text":"\"F.uxd: Apple Says Screen Brightness App Violates Developer Agreement\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechCrunch","url_text":"TechCrunch"}]},{"reference":"Perez, Sarah (January 15, 2016). \"F.lux Asks Apple To Let Its Screen Color Adjustment App Back Into App Store\". TechCrunch. Retrieved January 20, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2016/01/15/f-lux-asks-apple-to-let-its-screen-brightness-app-back-into-app-store/","url_text":"\"F.lux Asks Apple To Let Its Screen Color Adjustment App Back Into App Store\""}]},{"reference":"\"f.lux Home Page\". f.lux. Retrieved September 21, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://justgetflux.com/","url_text":"\"f.lux Home Page\""}]},{"reference":"Takeshi, Morita; Hiromi, Tokura (1996). \"Effects of Lights of Different Colour Temperature on the Nocturnal Changes in Core Temperature and Melatonin in Humans\". Journal of Physiological Anthropology. 15 (5): 243–6. doi:10.2114/jpa.15.243. PMID 8979406.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2114%2Fjpa.15.243","url_text":"\"Effects of Lights of Different Colour Temperature on the Nocturnal Changes in Core Temperature and Melatonin in Humans\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2114%2Fjpa.15.243","url_text":"10.2114/jpa.15.243"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8979406","url_text":"8979406"}]},{"reference":"Nagare, R; Plitnick, B; Figueiro, Mg (May 2019). \"Does the iPad Night Shift mode reduce melatonin suppression?\". Lighting Research & Technology. 51 (3): 373–383. doi:10.1177/1477153517748189. PMC 6561503. PMID 31191118. Archived from the original on 2022-01-15. Retrieved 2021-09-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220115220031/https://www.lrc.rpi.edu/resources/newsroom/pr_story.asp?id=383","url_text":"\"Does the iPad Night Shift mode reduce melatonin suppression?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighting_Research_%26_Technology","url_text":"Lighting Research & Technology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1477153517748189","url_text":"10.1177/1477153517748189"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6561503","url_text":"6561503"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31191118","url_text":"31191118"},{"url":"https://www.lrc.rpi.edu/resources/newsroom/pr_story.asp?id=383","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Duraccio, Kara M.; Zaugg, Kelsey K.; Blackburn, Robyn C.; Jensen, Chad D. (August 2021). \"Does iPhone night shift mitigate negative effects of smartphone use on sleep outcomes in emerging adults?\". Sleep Health. 7 (4): 478–484. doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2021.03.005. PMID 33867308. S2CID 233299395.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.byu.edu/intellect/is-night-shift-really-helping-you-sleep-better","url_text":"\"Does iPhone night shift mitigate negative effects of smartphone use on sleep outcomes in emerging adults?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sleh.2021.03.005","url_text":"10.1016/j.sleh.2021.03.005"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33867308","url_text":"33867308"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233299395","url_text":"233299395"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://justgetflux.com/","external_links_name":"justgetflux.com"},{"Link":"https://justgetflux.com/cydia/","external_links_name":"\"f.lux for iOS\""},{"Link":"http://www.pcworld.com/article/2056895/review-f-lux-makes-your-computer-usable-at-night.html","external_links_name":"\"Review: f.lux makes your computer usable at night\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141017175819/http://www.tekrevue.com/f-lux-review/","external_links_name":"\"Save Your Eyes and Improve Your Sleep with f.lux for OS X and Windows\""},{"Link":"http://www.tekrevue.com/f-lux-review/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://justgetflux.com/faq.html","external_links_name":"\"f.lux: F.A.Q. - I work nights. How do I flip the day and night settings?\""},{"Link":"https://justgetflux.com/news/pages/bigupdate/","external_links_name":"\"f.lux has been updated to a new version\""},{"Link":"https://www.howtogeek.com/199303/reduce-eye-strain-and-get-better-sleep-by-using-f.lux-on-your-computer/","external_links_name":"\"Reduce Eye Strain and Get Better Sleep by Using f.lux on Your Computer\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/jan/12/apple-good-sleep-new-iphone-feature-night-shift","external_links_name":"\"Apple promises a good night's sleep with new iPhone feature\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2015/11/12/f-uxd-apple-says-screen-brightness-app-violates-developer-agreement/","external_links_name":"\"F.uxd: Apple Says Screen Brightness App Violates Developer Agreement\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2016/01/15/f-lux-asks-apple-to-let-its-screen-brightness-app-back-into-app-store/","external_links_name":"\"F.lux Asks Apple To Let Its Screen Color Adjustment App Back Into App Store\""},{"Link":"https://justgetflux.com/","external_links_name":"\"f.lux Home Page\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2114%2Fjpa.15.243","external_links_name":"\"Effects of Lights of Different Colour Temperature on the Nocturnal Changes in Core Temperature and Melatonin in Humans\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2114%2Fjpa.15.243","external_links_name":"10.2114/jpa.15.243"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8979406","external_links_name":"8979406"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220115220031/https://www.lrc.rpi.edu/resources/newsroom/pr_story.asp?id=383","external_links_name":"\"Does the iPad Night Shift mode reduce melatonin suppression?\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1477153517748189","external_links_name":"10.1177/1477153517748189"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6561503","external_links_name":"6561503"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31191118","external_links_name":"31191118"},{"Link":"https://www.lrc.rpi.edu/resources/newsroom/pr_story.asp?id=383","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://news.byu.edu/intellect/is-night-shift-really-helping-you-sleep-better","external_links_name":"\"Does iPhone night shift mitigate negative effects of smartphone use on sleep outcomes in emerging adults?\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sleh.2021.03.005","external_links_name":"10.1016/j.sleh.2021.03.005"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33867308","external_links_name":"33867308"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233299395","external_links_name":"233299395"},{"Link":"https://justgetflux.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FASTRAND
|
UNIVAC FASTRAND
|
["1 Specifications (FASTRAND II)","2 Storage allocation","3 See also","4 External links"]
|
Magnetic drum mass storage system
FASTRAND was a magnetic drum mass storage system built by Sperry Rand Corporation (later Sperry Univac) for their UNIVAC 1100 series and 418/490/494 series computers. A FASTRAND subsystem consisted of one or two Control Units and up to eight FASTRAND units. A dual-access FASTRAND subsystem included two complete control units, and provided parallel data paths that allowed simultaneous operations on any two FASTRAND units in the subsystem. Each control unit interfaced to one (optionally two) 1100 Series (36-bit), or 490 Series (30-bit), parallel I/O channels.
A voice coil actuator moved a bar containing multiple single track recording heads, so these drums operated much like moving head disk drives with multiple disks. The heads "flew" on self-acting hydrodynamic air bearings. The drums had a plated magnetic recording surface. An optional feature called Fastband included 24 additional tracks with fixed read/write heads. This feature provided rapid access (35 ms. average access time), and a write lockout feature.
The Fastrands were very heavy (5,000 pounds) and large, approximately 8' long. Due to their weight, FASTRAND units were usually not installed on "false floor", and required special rigging and mounts to move and/or install. There were reported cases of drum bearing failures that caused the machine to tear itself apart and send the heavy drum crashing through walls.
At the time of their introduction the storage capacity exceeded any other random access mass storage disk or drum.
There were three models of FASTRAND drives:
FASTRAND I had a single drum. The large mass of the rotating drum caused gyroscopic precession of the unit, making it tend to spin on the computer room floor as the Earth rotated under it. Very few of these devices were delivered.
FASTRAND II (the majority of units produced) had two counter-rotating drums to eliminate the gyroscopic effect. One actuator bar with heads was located between the drums.
FASTRAND III, introduced in 1970, was physically identical to the FASTRAND II, but increased the recording density by 50%.
Specifications (FASTRAND II)
Storage capacity: 22,020,096 36-bit words = 132,120,576 6-bit FIELDATA characters = 99 megabytes (8-bit bytes) per device
Drum rotation rate: 880 RPM (14.7 rotations per second)
Heads: 64
Sector size: 28 36-bit words
Track size: 64 sectors (1,792 36-bit words)
Track density: 105 tracks per inch
Average Access time (seek time plus rotational latency): 92 milliseconds
Data transfer rate: 26,283 36-bit words per second = 118 kilobytes per second (8-bit bytes) on 1100 series machines
Recording density, one-dimensional: 1,000 bits per inch (along one track)
Recording density, two-dimensional: 105,000 bits per square inch of drum surface
Max FASTRAND devices (drum units) per controller: 8
Controller price: $41,680 (1968 US dollars)
FASTRAND device price: $134,400 (1968 dollars, equivalent to $1.18 million in 2023 dollars)
Weight per FASTRAND device: 4,500 pounds
Weight per kilobyte: 6 ounces (170 g)
Storage allocation
Despite the name, FASTRAND was slow. The head positioning time was significant, so software allocated storage by tracks (1,792 words, 10,752 characters or 8,064 eight-bit bytes) or "positions", a group of 64 tracks (114,688 words, 688,128 characters or 510,096 eight-bit bytes) which were under the heads at a single time. This storage allocation method remained on the 1100 series machines long after drums had been replaced by disks.
The track storage units were checkboarded so that, with precise computation of the program's processing time, one could create software with processing time per unit of Fastrand blocks that resulted in a program running in synchronism with the data transfer rate of the drum. Further, the track-to-track head movement time afforded an additional processing speed coordination possibility that permitted the computational rate to match the data transfer rate for large (for the time) data sets without being delayed by losing synchronism with the mass storage transfers.
See also
List of UNIVAC products
History of computing hardware
The Story of Mel
External links
The FASTRAND II
YouTube video
vteUnisysHistory
Burroughs Corporation
System Development Corporation
Convergent Technologies
Sperry Corporation
Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation
Remington Rand
Mainframes
Burroughs Large Systems
MCP
UNIVAC 1100/2200 series
OS 2200
Products
Burroughs B1700
Burroughs B20
Burroughs B2500 and B4900
Command AND Edit
ES7000
HOLMES 2
LINC 4GL
MCP Compiler
New Executive Programming Language
Unisys Icon
UNIVAC
List of UNIVAC products
UNIVAC FASTRAND
People
Robert S. Barton
J. Presper Eckert
Peter Altabef
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"magnetic drum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_drum"},{"link_name":"Sperry Rand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperry_Rand"},{"link_name":"UNIVAC 1100 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC_1100/2200_series"},{"link_name":"gyroscopic precession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscopic_precession"}],"text":"FASTRAND was a magnetic drum mass storage system built by Sperry Rand Corporation (later Sperry Univac) for their UNIVAC 1100 series and 418/490/494 series computers. A FASTRAND subsystem consisted of one or two Control Units and up to eight FASTRAND units. A dual-access FASTRAND subsystem included two complete control units, and provided parallel data paths that allowed simultaneous operations on any two FASTRAND units in the subsystem. Each control unit interfaced to one (optionally two) 1100 Series (36-bit), or 490 Series (30-bit), parallel I/O channels.A voice coil actuator moved a bar containing multiple single track recording heads, so these drums operated much like moving head disk drives with multiple disks. The heads \"flew\" on self-acting hydrodynamic air bearings. The drums had a plated magnetic recording surface. An optional feature called Fastband included 24 additional tracks with fixed read/write heads. This feature provided rapid access (35 ms. average access time), and a write lockout feature.The Fastrands were very heavy (5,000 pounds) and large, approximately 8' long. Due to their weight, FASTRAND units were usually not installed on \"false floor\", and required special rigging and mounts to move and/or install. There were reported cases of drum bearing failures that caused the machine to tear itself apart and send the heavy drum crashing through walls.At the time of their introduction the storage capacity exceeded any other random access mass storage disk or drum.There were three models of FASTRAND drives:FASTRAND I had a single drum. The large mass of the rotating drum caused gyroscopic precession of the unit, making it tend to spin on the computer room floor as the Earth rotated under it. Very few of these devices were delivered.\nFASTRAND II (the majority of units produced) had two counter-rotating drums to eliminate the gyroscopic effect. One actuator bar with heads was located between the drums.\nFASTRAND III, introduced in 1970, was physically identical to the FASTRAND II, but increased the recording density by 50%.","title":"UNIVAC FASTRAND"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RPM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute"},{"link_name":"Heads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_read-and-write_head"},{"link_name":"Sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_read-and-write_head"},{"link_name":"Track","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cylinder_Head_Sector.svg"},{"link_name":"seek time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seek_time"},{"link_name":"rotational latency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotational_latency"},{"link_name":"Recording density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_storage_density"},{"link_name":"devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_device"},{"link_name":"Controller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_controller"}],"text":"Storage capacity: 22,020,096 36-bit words = 132,120,576 6-bit FIELDATA characters = 99 megabytes (8-bit bytes) per device\nDrum rotation rate: 880 RPM (14.7 rotations per second)\nHeads: 64\nSector size: 28 36-bit words\nTrack size: 64 sectors (1,792 36-bit words)\nTrack density: 105 tracks per inch\nAverage Access time (seek time plus rotational latency): 92 milliseconds\nData transfer rate: 26,283 36-bit words per second = 118 kilobytes per second (8-bit bytes) on 1100 series machines\nRecording density, one-dimensional: 1,000 bits per inch (along one track)\nRecording density, two-dimensional: 105,000 bits per square inch of drum surface\nMax FASTRAND devices (drum units) per controller: 8\nController price: $41,680 (1968 US dollars)\nFASTRAND device price: $134,400 (1968 dollars, equivalent to $1.18 million in 2023 dollars)\nWeight per FASTRAND device: 4,500 pounds\nWeight per kilobyte: 6 ounces (170 g)","title":"Specifications (FASTRAND II)"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Despite the name, FASTRAND was slow. The head positioning time was significant, so software allocated storage by tracks (1,792 words, 10,752 characters or 8,064 eight-bit bytes) or \"positions\", a group of 64 tracks (114,688 words, 688,128 characters or 510,096 eight-bit bytes) which were under the heads at a single time. This storage allocation method remained on the 1100 series machines long after drums had been replaced by disks.The track storage units were checkboarded so that, with precise computation of the program's processing time, one could create software with processing time per unit of Fastrand blocks that resulted in a program running in synchronism with the data transfer rate of the drum. Further, the track-to-track head movement time afforded an additional processing speed coordination possibility that permitted the computational rate to match the data transfer rate for large (for the time) data sets without being delayed by losing synchronism with the mass storage transfers.","title":"Storage allocation"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"List of UNIVAC products","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UNIVAC_products"},{"title":"History of computing hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware"},{"title":"The Story of Mel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Story_of_Mel"}]
|
[]
|
[{"Link":"http://www.fourmilab.ch/documents/univac/fastrand.html","external_links_name":"The FASTRAND II"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=luPM6XaKZuU","external_links_name":"YouTube video"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FOV
|
Field of view
|
["1 Humans and animals","2 Conversions","3 Machine vision","4 Tomography","5 Remote sensing","6 Astronomy","7 Photography","8 Microscopy","9 Video games","10 See also","11 References"]
|
Extent of the observable world seen at any given moment
For the Japanese band, see Field of View. For other uses, see Field of view (disambiguation).
FOV both eyes
Vertical FOV
Angle of view can be measured horizontally, vertically, or diagonally.
A 360-degree panorama of the Milky Way at the Very Large Telescope. In the image, the Milky Way appears like an arc of stars spanning horizon to horizon with two streams of stars seemingly cascading down like waterfalls.
The field of view (FOV) is the angular extent of the observable world that is seen at any given moment. In the case of optical instruments or sensors, it is a solid angle through which a detector is sensitive to electromagnetic radiation. It is further relevant in photography.
Humans and animals
In the context of human and primate vision, the term "field of view" is typically only used in the sense of a restriction to what is visible by external apparatus, like when wearing spectacles or virtual reality goggles. Note that eye movements are allowed in the definition but do not change the field of view when understood this way.
If the analogy of the eye's retina working as a sensor is drawn upon, the corresponding concept in human (and much of animal vision) is the visual field. It is defined as "the number of degrees of visual angle during stable fixation of the eyes". Note that eye movements are excluded in the visual field's definition. Humans have a slightly over 210-degree forward-facing horizontal arc of their visual field (i.e. without eye movements), (with eye movements included it is slightly larger, as you can try for yourself by wiggling a finger on the side), while some birds have a complete or nearly complete 360-degree visual field. The vertical range of the visual field in humans is around 150 degrees.
The range of visual abilities is not uniform across the visual field, and by implication the FoV, and varies between species. For example, binocular vision, which is the basis for stereopsis and is important for depth perception, covers 114 degrees (horizontally) of the visual field in humans; the remaining peripheral ~50 degrees on each side have no binocular vision (because only one eye can see those parts of the visual field). Some birds have a scant 10 to 20 degrees of binocular vision.
Similarly, color vision and the ability to perceive shape and motion vary across the visual field; in humans color vision and form perception are concentrated in the center of the visual field, while motion perception is only slightly reduced in the periphery and thus has a relative advantage there. The physiological basis for that is the much higher concentration of color-sensitive cone cells and color-sensitive parvocellular retinal ganglion cells in the fovea – the central region of the retina, together with a larger representation in the visual cortex – in comparison to the higher concentration of color-insensitive rod cells and motion-sensitive magnocellular retinal ganglion cells in the visual periphery, and smaller cortical representation. Since rod cells require considerably less light to be activated, the result of this distribution is further that peripheral vision is much more sensitive at night relative to foveal vision (sensitivity is highest at around 20 deg eccentricity).
Conversions
Many optical instruments, particularly binoculars or spotting scopes, are advertised with their field of view specified in one of two ways: angular field of view, and linear field of view. Angular field of view is typically specified in degrees, while linear field of view is a ratio of lengths. For example, binoculars with a 5.8 degree (angular) field of view might be advertised as having a (linear) field of view of 102 mm per meter. As long as the FOV is less than about 10 degrees or so, the following approximation formulas allow one to convert between linear and angular field of view. Let
A
{\displaystyle A}
be the angular field of view in degrees. Let
M
{\displaystyle M}
be the linear field of view in millimeters per meter. Then, using the small-angle approximation:
A
≈
360
∘
2
π
⋅
M
1000
≈
0.0573
×
M
{\displaystyle A\approx {360^{\circ } \over 2\pi }\cdot {M \over 1000}\approx 0.0573\times M}
M
≈
2
π
⋅
1000
360
∘
⋅
A
≈
17.45
×
A
{\displaystyle M\approx {2\pi \cdot 1000 \over 360^{\circ }}\cdot A\approx 17.45\times A}
Machine vision
In machine vision the lens focal length and image sensor size sets up the fixed relationship between the field of view and the working distance. Field of view is the area of the inspection captured on the camera’s imager. The size of the field of view and the size of the camera’s imager directly affect the image resolution (one determining factor in accuracy). Working distance is the distance between the back of the lens and the target object.
Tomography
In computed tomography (abdominal CT pictured), the field of view (FOV) multiplied by scan range creates a volume of voxels.
In tomography, the field of view is the area of each tomogram. In for example computed tomography, a volume of voxels can be created from such tomograms by merging multiple slices along the scan range.
Remote sensing
In remote sensing, the solid angle through which a detector element (a pixel sensor) is sensitive to electromagnetic radiation at any one time, is called instantaneous field of view or IFOV. A measure of the spatial resolution of a remote sensing imaging system, it is often expressed as dimensions of visible ground area, for some known sensor altitude. Single pixel IFOV is closely related to concept of resolved pixel size, ground resolved distance, ground sample distance and modulation transfer function.
Astronomy
In astronomy, the field of view is usually expressed as an angular area viewed by the instrument, in square degrees, or for higher magnification instruments, in square arc-minutes. For reference the Wide Field Channel on the Advanced Camera for Surveys on the Hubble Space Telescope has a field of view of 10 sq. arc-minutes, and the High Resolution Channel of the same instrument has a field of view of 0.15 sq. arc-minutes. Ground-based survey telescopes have much wider fields of view. The photographic plates used by the UK Schmidt Telescope had a field of view of 30 sq. degrees. The 1.8 m (71 in) Pan-STARRS telescope, with the most advanced digital camera to date has a field of view of 7 sq. degrees. In the near infra-red WFCAM on UKIRT has a field of view of 0.2 sq. degrees and the VISTA telescope has a field of view of 0.6 sq. degrees. Until recently digital cameras could only cover a small field of view compared to photographic plates, although they beat photographic plates in quantum efficiency, linearity and dynamic range, as well as being much easier to process.
Photography
Main article: Angle of view
In photography, the field of view is that part of the world that is visible through the camera at a particular position and orientation in space; objects outside the FOV when the picture is taken are not recorded in the photograph. It is most often expressed as the angular size of the view cone, as an angle of view. For a normal lens focused at infinity, the diagonal (or horizontal or vertical) field of view can be calculated as:
F
O
V
=
2
×
arctan
(
sensor size
2
f
)
{\displaystyle \mathrm {FOV} =2\times \arctan \left({\frac {\text{sensor size}}{2f}}\right)}
where
f
{\displaystyle f}
is the focal length, here the sensor size and
f
{\displaystyle f}
are in the same unit of length, FOV is in radians.
Microscopy
Field of view diameter in microscopy
In microscopy, the field of view in high power (usually a 400-fold magnification when referenced in scientific papers) is called a high-power field, and is used as a reference point for various classification schemes.
For an objective with magnification
m
{\displaystyle m}
, the FOV is related to the Field Number (FN) by
F
O
V
=
F
N
m
,
{\displaystyle \mathrm {FOV} ={\frac {\mathrm {FN} }{m}},}
if other magnifying lenses are used in the system (in addition to the objective), the total
m
{\displaystyle m}
for the projection is used.
Video games
Main article: Field of view in video games
The field of view in video games refers to the field of view of the camera looking at the game world, which is dependent on the scaling method used.
See also
Field of regard
Panorama
Perimetry
Peripheral vision
Visual perception
Useful field of view
35 mm equivalent focal length
Angle of view
Crop factor
Image sensor format
Line of sight
References
^ "Cascading Milky Way". ESO Picture of the Week. Retrieved 11 June 2012.
^ Alfano, P.L.; Michel, G.F. (1990). "Restricting the field of view: Perceptual and performance effects". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 70 (1): 35–45. doi:10.2466/pms.1990.70.1.35. PMID 2326136. S2CID 44599479.
^ a b Strasburger, Hans; Rentschler, Ingo; Jüttner, Martin (2011). "Peripheral vision and pattern recognition: a review". Journal of Vision. 11 (5): 1–82. doi:10.1167/11.5.13. PMC 11073400. PMID 22207654.
^ Strasburger, Hans; Pöppel, Ernst (2002). Visual Field. In G. Adelman & B.H. Smith (Eds): Encyclopedia of Neuroscience; 3rd edition, on CD-ROM. Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, New York.
^ a b Traquair, Harry Moss (1938). An Introduction to Clinical Perimetry, Chpt. 1. London: Henry Kimpton. pp. 4–5.
^ Strasburger, Hans (2020). "Seven myths on crowding and peripheral vision". i-Perception. 11 (2): 1–45. doi:10.1177/2041669520913052. PMC 7238452. PMID 32489576.
^ a b Strasburger, H; Jüttner, M (April 2024). "Erratum. Corrections to: Strasburger, Rentschler & Jüttner (2011), Peripheral Vision and Pattern Recognition". Journal of Vision. 24 (15).
^ Howard, Ian P.; Rogers, Brian J. (1995). Binocular vision and stereopsis. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-19-508476-4. Retrieved 3 June 2014.
^ Oxford Reference. "Quick Reference: instantaneous field of view". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
^ Wynne, James B. Campbell, Randolph H. (2011). Introduction to remote sensing (5th ed.). New York: Guilford Press. p. 261. ISBN 978-1609181765.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Authority control databases: National
Germany
Japan
Czech Republic
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Field of View","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_of_View"},{"link_name":"Field of view (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_of_view_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FOV_both_eyes.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vertical_FOV.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Angle_of_view.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cascading_Milky_Way.jpg"},{"link_name":"panorama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panorama"},{"link_name":"Milky Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way"},{"link_name":"Very Large Telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_Large_Telescope"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"angular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle"},{"link_name":"seen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perception"},{"link_name":"optical instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_instrument"},{"link_name":"solid angle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_angle"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation"},{"link_name":"photography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_of_view"}],"text":"For the Japanese band, see Field of View. For other uses, see Field of view (disambiguation).FOV both eyesVertical FOVAngle of view can be measured horizontally, vertically, or diagonally.A 360-degree panorama of the Milky Way at the Very Large Telescope. In the image, the Milky Way appears like an arc of stars spanning horizon to horizon with two streams of stars seemingly cascading down like waterfalls.[1]The field of view (FOV) is the angular extent of the observable world that is seen at any given moment. In the case of optical instruments or sensors, it is a solid angle through which a detector is sensitive to electromagnetic radiation. It is further relevant in photography.","title":"Field of view"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alfano-2"},{"link_name":"virtual reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality"},{"link_name":"visual field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_field"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strasburger-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strasburger_Poeppel-4"},{"link_name":"Humans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_eye#Field_of_view"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Traquair-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-myths-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-erratum-7"},{"link_name":"birds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_vision"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Traquair-5"},{"link_name":"species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species"},{"link_name":"binocular vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binocular_vision"},{"link_name":"stereopsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereopsis"},{"link_name":"depth perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_perception"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-erratum-7"},{"link_name":"color vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_vision"},{"link_name":"cone cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_cell"},{"link_name":"parvocellular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parvocellular_cell"},{"link_name":"retinal ganglion cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell"},{"link_name":"fovea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fovea_centralis"},{"link_name":"representation in the visual cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortical_magnification"},{"link_name":"rod cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_cell"},{"link_name":"magnocellular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnocellular_cell"},{"link_name":"retinal ganglion cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strasburger-3"}],"text":"In the context of human and primate vision, the term \"field of view\" is typically only used in the sense of a restriction to what is visible by external apparatus, like when wearing spectacles[2] or virtual reality goggles. Note that eye movements are allowed in the definition but do not change the field of view when understood this way.If the analogy of the eye's retina working as a sensor is drawn upon, the corresponding concept in human (and much of animal vision) is the visual field.[3] It is defined as \"the number of degrees of visual angle during stable fixation of the eyes\".[4] Note that eye movements are excluded in the visual field's definition. Humans have a slightly over 210-degree forward-facing horizontal arc of their visual field (i.e. without eye movements),[5][6][7] (with eye movements included it is slightly larger, as you can try for yourself by wiggling a finger on the side), while some birds have a complete or nearly complete 360-degree visual field. The vertical range of the visual field in humans is around 150 degrees.[5]The range of visual abilities is not uniform across the visual field, and by implication the FoV, and varies between species. For example, binocular vision, which is the basis for stereopsis and is important for depth perception, covers 114 degrees (horizontally) of the visual field in humans;[8] the remaining peripheral ~50 degrees on each side[7] have no binocular vision (because only one eye can see those parts of the visual field). Some birds have a scant 10 to 20 degrees of binocular vision.Similarly, color vision and the ability to perceive shape and motion vary across the visual field; in humans color vision and form perception are concentrated in the center of the visual field, while motion perception is only slightly reduced in the periphery and thus has a relative advantage there. The physiological basis for that is the much higher concentration of color-sensitive cone cells and color-sensitive parvocellular retinal ganglion cells in the fovea – the central region of the retina, together with a larger representation in the visual cortex – in comparison to the higher concentration of color-insensitive rod cells and motion-sensitive magnocellular retinal ganglion cells in the visual periphery, and smaller cortical representation. Since rod cells require considerably less light to be activated, the result of this distribution is further that peripheral vision is much more sensitive at night relative to foveal vision (sensitivity is highest at around 20 deg eccentricity).[3]","title":"Humans and animals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"binoculars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binoculars"},{"link_name":"degree (angular)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_(angle)"},{"link_name":"small-angle approximation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small-angle_approximation"}],"text":"Many optical instruments, particularly binoculars or spotting scopes, are advertised with their field of view specified in one of two ways: angular field of view, and linear field of view. Angular field of view is typically specified in degrees, while linear field of view is a ratio of lengths. For example, binoculars with a 5.8 degree (angular) field of view might be advertised as having a (linear) field of view of 102 mm per meter. As long as the FOV is less than about 10 degrees or so, the following approximation formulas allow one to convert between linear and angular field of view. Let \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n be the angular field of view in degrees. Let \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}\n \n be the linear field of view in millimeters per meter. Then, using the small-angle approximation:A\n ≈\n \n \n \n 360\n \n ∘\n \n \n \n 2\n π\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n M\n 1000\n \n \n ≈\n 0.0573\n ×\n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\approx {360^{\\circ } \\over 2\\pi }\\cdot {M \\over 1000}\\approx 0.0573\\times M}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n M\n ≈\n \n \n \n 2\n π\n ⋅\n 1000\n \n \n 360\n \n ∘\n \n \n \n \n ⋅\n A\n ≈\n 17.45\n ×\n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M\\approx {2\\pi \\cdot 1000 \\over 360^{\\circ }}\\cdot A\\approx 17.45\\times A}","title":"Conversions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"machine vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_vision"},{"link_name":"focal length","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length"},{"link_name":"image sensor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_sensor"}],"text":"In machine vision the lens focal length and image sensor size sets up the fixed relationship between the field of view and the working distance. Field of view is the area of the inspection captured on the camera’s imager. The size of the field of view and the size of the camera’s imager directly affect the image resolution (one determining factor in accuracy). Working distance is the distance between the back of the lens and the target object.","title":"Machine vision"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abdominal_CT_with_scan_range_and_field_of_view,_with_box_and_text.jpg"},{"link_name":"computed tomography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computed_tomography"},{"link_name":"abdominal CT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdominal_CT"},{"link_name":"voxels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voxel"},{"link_name":"tomography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomography"},{"link_name":"computed tomography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computed_tomography"},{"link_name":"voxels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voxel"}],"text":"In computed tomography (abdominal CT pictured), the field of view (FOV) multiplied by scan range creates a volume of voxels.In tomography, the field of view is the area of each tomogram. In for example computed tomography, a volume of voxels can be created from such tomograms by merging multiple slices along the scan range.","title":"Tomography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"remote sensing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensing"},{"link_name":"solid angle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_angle"},{"link_name":"spatial resolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_resolution"},{"link_name":"altitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altitude"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"ground resolved distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ground_resolved_distance&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ground sample distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_sample_distance"},{"link_name":"modulation transfer function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation_transfer_function"}],"text":"In remote sensing, the solid angle through which a detector element (a pixel sensor) is sensitive to electromagnetic radiation at any one time, is called instantaneous field of view or IFOV. A measure of the spatial resolution of a remote sensing imaging system, it is often expressed as dimensions of visible ground area, for some known sensor altitude.[9][10] Single pixel IFOV is closely related to concept of resolved pixel size, ground resolved distance, ground sample distance and modulation transfer function.","title":"Remote sensing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"angular area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_angle"},{"link_name":"square degrees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_degree"},{"link_name":"arc-minutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc-minute"},{"link_name":"Advanced Camera for Surveys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Camera_for_Surveys"},{"link_name":"Hubble Space Telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope"},{"link_name":"UK Schmidt Telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Schmidt_Telescope"},{"link_name":"Pan-STARRS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-STARRS"},{"link_name":"UKIRT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UKIRT"},{"link_name":"VISTA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VISTA_(telescope)"},{"link_name":"photographic plates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_plate"},{"link_name":"quantum efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_efficiency"}],"text":"In astronomy, the field of view is usually expressed as an angular area viewed by the instrument, in square degrees, or for higher magnification instruments, in square arc-minutes. For reference the Wide Field Channel on the Advanced Camera for Surveys on the Hubble Space Telescope has a field of view of 10 sq. arc-minutes, and the High Resolution Channel of the same instrument has a field of view of 0.15 sq. arc-minutes. Ground-based survey telescopes have much wider fields of view. The photographic plates used by the UK Schmidt Telescope had a field of view of 30 sq. degrees. The 1.8 m (71 in) Pan-STARRS telescope, with the most advanced digital camera to date has a field of view of 7 sq. degrees. In the near infra-red WFCAM on UKIRT has a field of view of 0.2 sq. degrees and the VISTA telescope has a field of view of 0.6 sq. degrees. Until recently digital cameras could only cover a small field of view compared to photographic plates, although they beat photographic plates in quantum efficiency, linearity and dynamic range, as well as being much easier to process.","title":"Astronomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"angle of view","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_of_view"},{"link_name":"focal length","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length"}],"text":"In photography, the field of view is that part of the world that is visible through the camera at a particular position and orientation in space; objects outside the FOV when the picture is taken are not recorded in the photograph. It is most often expressed as the angular size of the view cone, as an angle of view. For a normal lens focused at infinity, the diagonal (or horizontal or vertical) field of view can be calculated as:F\n O\n V\n \n =\n 2\n ×\n arctan\n \n \n (\n \n \n sensor size\n \n 2\n f\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {FOV} =2\\times \\arctan \\left({\\frac {\\text{sensor size}}{2f}}\\right)}where \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n is the focal length, here the sensor size and \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n are in the same unit of length, FOV is in radians.","title":"Photography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Field_of_view_diameter_in_microscopy.jpg"},{"link_name":"magnification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnification"},{"link_name":"high-power field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-power_field"}],"text":"Field of view diameter in microscopyIn microscopy, the field of view in high power (usually a 400-fold magnification when referenced in scientific papers) is called a high-power field, and is used as a reference point for various classification schemes.For an objective with magnification \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n, the FOV is related to the Field Number (FN) byF\n O\n V\n \n =\n \n \n \n F\n N\n \n m\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {FOV} ={\\frac {\\mathrm {FN} }{m}},}if other magnifying lenses are used in the system (in addition to the objective), the total \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n for the projection is used.","title":"Microscopy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"}],"text":"The field of view in video games refers to the field of view of the camera looking at the game world, which is dependent on the scaling method used.","title":"Video games"}]
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[{"image_text":"FOV both eyes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/FOV_both_eyes.svg/220px-FOV_both_eyes.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Vertical FOV","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Vertical_FOV.svg/220px-Vertical_FOV.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Angle of view can be measured horizontally, vertically, or diagonally.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Angle_of_view.svg/220px-Angle_of_view.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A 360-degree panorama of the Milky Way at the Very Large Telescope. In the image, the Milky Way appears like an arc of stars spanning horizon to horizon with two streams of stars seemingly cascading down like waterfalls.[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Cascading_Milky_Way.jpg/450px-Cascading_Milky_Way.jpg"},{"image_text":"In computed tomography (abdominal CT pictured), the field of view (FOV) multiplied by scan range creates a volume of voxels.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Abdominal_CT_with_scan_range_and_field_of_view%2C_with_box_and_text.jpg/220px-Abdominal_CT_with_scan_range_and_field_of_view%2C_with_box_and_text.jpg"},{"image_text":"Field of view diameter in microscopy","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Field_of_view_diameter_in_microscopy.jpg/220px-Field_of_view_diameter_in_microscopy.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Field of regard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_of_regard"},{"title":"Panorama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panorama"},{"title":"Perimetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perimetry"},{"title":"Peripheral vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_vision"},{"title":"Visual perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perception"},{"title":"Useful field of view","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Useful_field_of_view"},{"title":"35 mm equivalent focal length","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/35_mm_equivalent_focal_length"},{"title":"Angle of view","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_of_view"},{"title":"Crop factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crop_factor"},{"title":"Image sensor format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_sensor_format"},{"title":"Line of sight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sightline"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Cascading Milky Way\". ESO Picture of the Week. Retrieved 11 June 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1224a/","url_text":"\"Cascading Milky Way\""}]},{"reference":"Alfano, P.L.; Michel, G.F. (1990). \"Restricting the field of view: Perceptual and performance effects\". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 70 (1): 35–45. doi:10.2466/pms.1990.70.1.35. PMID 2326136. S2CID 44599479.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2466%2Fpms.1990.70.1.35","url_text":"10.2466/pms.1990.70.1.35"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2326136","url_text":"2326136"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44599479","url_text":"44599479"}]},{"reference":"Strasburger, Hans; Rentschler, Ingo; Jüttner, Martin (2011). \"Peripheral vision and pattern recognition: a review\". Journal of Vision. 11 (5): 1–82. doi:10.1167/11.5.13. PMC 11073400. PMID 22207654.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.journalofvision.org/content/11/5/13","url_text":"\"Peripheral vision and pattern recognition: a review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1167%2F11.5.13","url_text":"10.1167/11.5.13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11073400","url_text":"11073400"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22207654","url_text":"22207654"}]},{"reference":"Traquair, Harry Moss (1938). An Introduction to Clinical Perimetry, Chpt. 1. London: Henry Kimpton. pp. 4–5.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Strasburger, Hans (2020). \"Seven myths on crowding and peripheral vision\". i-Perception. 11 (2): 1–45. doi:10.1177/2041669520913052. PMC 7238452. PMID 32489576.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177/2041669520913052","url_text":"\"Seven myths on crowding and peripheral vision\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2041669520913052","url_text":"10.1177/2041669520913052"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7238452","url_text":"7238452"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32489576","url_text":"32489576"}]},{"reference":"Strasburger, H; Jüttner, M (April 2024). \"Erratum. Corrections to: Strasburger, Rentschler & Jüttner (2011), Peripheral Vision and Pattern Recognition\". Journal of Vision. 24 (15).","urls":[{"url":"https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2793585","url_text":"\"Erratum. Corrections to: Strasburger, Rentschler & Jüttner (2011), Peripheral Vision and Pattern Recognition\""}]},{"reference":"Howard, Ian P.; Rogers, Brian J. (1995). Binocular vision and stereopsis. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-19-508476-4. Retrieved 3 June 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=I8vqITdETe0C&pg=PA32","url_text":"Binocular vision and stereopsis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-508476-4","url_text":"0-19-508476-4"}]},{"reference":"Oxford Reference. \"Quick Reference: instantaneous field of view\". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 13 December 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100005771","url_text":"\"Quick Reference: instantaneous field of view\""}]},{"reference":"Wynne, James B. Campbell, Randolph H. (2011). Introduction to remote sensing (5th ed.). New York: Guilford Press. p. 261. ISBN 978-1609181765.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NkLmDjSS8TsC","url_text":"Introduction to remote sensing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1609181765","url_text":"978-1609181765"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijkstra%27s_algorithm
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Dijkstra's algorithm
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["1 History","2 Algorithm","3 Description","4 Pseudocode","4.1 Using a priority queue","5 Proof of correctness","6 Running time","6.1 Practical optimizations and infinite graphs","6.2 Specialized variants","7 Related problems and algorithms","7.1 Dynamic programming perspective","8 See also","9 Notes","10 References","11 External links"]
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Algorithm for finding shortest paths
Not to be confused with Dykstra's projection algorithm.
Dijkstra's algorithmDijkstra's algorithm to find the shortest path between a and b. It picks the unvisited vertex with the lowest distance, calculates the distance through it to each unvisited neighbor, and updates the neighbor's distance if smaller. Mark visited (set to red) when done with neighbors.ClassSearch algorithmGreedy algorithmDynamic programmingData structureGraphUsually used with priority queue or heap for optimizationWorst-case performance
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Dijkstra's algorithm (/ˈdaɪkstrəz/ DYKE-strəz) is an algorithm for finding the shortest paths between nodes in a weighted graph, which may represent, for example, road networks. It was conceived by computer scientist Edsger W. Dijkstra in 1956 and published three years later.
Dijkstra's algorithm finds the shortest path from a given source node to every other node.: 196–206 It can also be used to find the shortest path to a specific destination node, by terminating the algorithm once the shortest path to the destination node is known. For example, if the nodes of the graph represent cities, and the costs of edges represent the average distances between pairs of cities connected by a direct road, then Dijkstra's algorithm can be used to find the shortest route between one city and all other cities. A common application of shortest path algorithms is network routing protocols, most notably IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System) and OSPF (Open Shortest Path First). It is also employed as a subroutine in other algorithms such as Johnson's algorithm.
The algorithm uses a min-priority queue data structure for selecting the shortest paths known so far. Before more advanced priority queue structures were discovered, Dijkstra's original algorithm ran in
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time, where
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{\displaystyle |V|}
is the number of nodes. The idea of this algorithm is also given in Leyzorek et al. 1957. Fredman & Tarjan 1984 proposed using a Fibonacci heap priority queue to optimize the running time complexity to
Θ
(
|
E
|
+
|
V
|
log
|
V
|
)
{\displaystyle \Theta (|E|+|V|\log |V|)}
. This is asymptotically the fastest known single-source shortest-path algorithm for arbitrary directed graphs with unbounded non-negative weights. However, specialized cases (such as bounded/integer weights, directed acyclic graphs etc.) can indeed be improved further, as detailed in Specialized variants. Additionally, if preprocessing is allowed, algorithms such as contraction hierarchies can be up to seven orders of magnitude faster.
Dijkstra's algorithm is commonly used on graphs where the edge weights are positive integers or real numbers. It can be generalized to any graph where the edge weights are partially ordered, provided the subsequent labels (a subsequent label is produced when traversing an edge) are monotonically non-decreasing.
In many fields, particularly artificial intelligence, Dijkstra's algorithm or a variant of it is known as uniform cost search and formulated as an instance of the more general idea of best-first search.
History
What is the shortest way to travel from Rotterdam to Groningen, in general: from given city to given city. It is the algorithm for the shortest path, which I designed in about twenty minutes. One morning I was shopping in Amsterdam with my young fiancée, and tired, we sat down on the café terrace to drink a cup of coffee and I was just thinking about whether I could do this, and I then designed the algorithm for the shortest path. As I said, it was a twenty-minute invention. In fact, it was published in '59, three years later. The publication is still readable, it is, in fact, quite nice. One of the reasons that it is so nice was that I designed it without pencil and paper. I learned later that one of the advantages of designing without pencil and paper is that you are almost forced to avoid all avoidable complexities. Eventually, that algorithm became to my great amazement, one of the cornerstones of my fame.— Edsger Dijkstra, in an interview with Philip L. Frana, Communications of the ACM, 2001
Dijkstra thought about the shortest path problem when working at the Mathematical Center in Amsterdam in 1956 as a programmer to demonstrate the capabilities of a new computer called ARMAC. His objective was to choose both a problem and a solution (that would be produced by computer) that non-computing people could understand. He designed the shortest path algorithm and later implemented it for ARMAC for a slightly simplified transportation map of 64 cities in the Netherlands (64, so that 6 bits would be sufficient to encode the city number). A year later, he came across another problem from hardware engineers working on the institute's next computer: minimize the amount of wire needed to connect the pins on the back panel of the machine. As a solution, he re-discovered the algorithm known as Prim's minimal spanning tree algorithm (known earlier to Jarník, and also rediscovered by Prim). Dijkstra published the algorithm in 1959, two years after Prim and 29 years after Jarník.
Algorithm
Illustration of Dijkstra's algorithm finding a path from a start node (lower left, red) to a target node (upper right, green) in a robot motion planning problem. Open nodes represent the "tentative" set (aka set of "unvisited" nodes). Filled nodes are the visited ones, with color representing the distance: the greener, the closer. Nodes in all the different directions are explored uniformly, appearing more-or-less as a circular wavefront as Dijkstra's algorithm uses a heuristic of picking the shortest known path so far.
Let us choose a starting node, and let the distance of node N be the distance from the starting node to N. Dijkstra's algorithm will initially start with infinite distances and will try to improve them step by step.
Mark all nodes as unvisited. Create a set of all the unvisited nodes called the unvisited set.
Assign to every node a distance from start value: for the starting node, it is zero, and for all other nodes, it is infinity, since initially no path is known to these nodes. During execution of the algorithm, the distance of a node N is the length of the shortest path discovered so far between the starting node and N.
From the unvisited set, select the current node to be the one with the smallest finite distance; initially, this will be the starting node, which has distance zero. If the unvisited set is empty, or contains only nodes with infinite distance (which are unreachable), then the algorithm terminates by going to step 6. If we are only concerned about the path to a target node, we may terminate here if the current node is the target node. Otherwise, we can continue to find the shortest paths to all reachable nodes.
For the current node, consider all of its unvisited neighbors and update their distances through the current node; compare the newly calculated distance to the one currently assigned to the neighbor and assign it the smaller one. For example, if the current node A is marked with a distance of 6, and the edge connecting it with its neighbor B has length 2, then the distance to B through A is 6 + 2 = 8. If B was previously marked with a distance greater than 8, then update it to 8 (the path to B through A is shorter). Otherwise, keep its current distance (the path to B through A is not the shortest).
When we are done considering all of the unvisited neighbors of the current node, mark the current node as visited and remove it from the unvisited set. This is so that a visited node is never checked again, which is correct because the distance recorded on the current node is minimal (as ensured in step 3), and thus final. Go back to step 3.
Once the loop exits (steps 3–5), every visited node will contain its shortest distance from the starting node.
Description
Note: For ease of understanding, this discussion uses the terms intersection, road and map – however, in formal terminology these terms are vertex, edge and graph, respectively.
Suppose you would like to find the shortest path between two intersections on a city map: a starting point and a destination. Dijkstra's algorithm initially marks the distance (from the starting point) to every other intersection on the map with infinity. This is done not to imply that there is an infinite distance, but to note that those intersections have not been visited yet. Some variants of this method leave the intersections' distances unlabeled. Now select the current intersection at each iteration. For the first iteration, the current intersection will be the starting point, and the distance to it (the intersection's label) will be zero. For subsequent iterations (after the first), the current intersection will be a closest unvisited intersection to the starting point (this will be easy to find).
From the current intersection, update the distance to every unvisited intersection that is directly connected to it. This is done by determining the sum of the distance between an unvisited intersection and the value of the current intersection and then relabeling the unvisited intersection with this value (the sum) if it is less than the unvisited intersection's current value. In effect, the intersection is relabeled if the path to it through the current intersection is shorter than the previously known paths. To facilitate shortest path identification, in pencil, mark the road with an arrow pointing to the relabeled intersection if you label/relabel it, and erase all others pointing to it. After you have updated the distances to each neighboring intersection, mark the current intersection as visited and select an unvisited intersection with minimal distance (from the starting point) – or the lowest label—as the current intersection. Intersections marked as visited are labeled with the shortest path from the starting point to it and will not be revisited or returned to.
Continue this process of updating the neighboring intersections with the shortest distances, marking the current intersection as visited, and moving onto a closest unvisited intersection until you have marked the destination as visited. Once you have marked the destination as visited (as is the case with any visited intersection), you have determined the shortest path to it from the starting point and can trace your way back following the arrows in reverse. In the algorithm's implementations, this is usually done (after the algorithm has reached the destination node) by following the nodes' parents from the destination node up to the starting node; that's why we also keep track of each node's parent.
This algorithm makes no attempt of direct "exploration" towards the destination as one might expect. Rather, the sole consideration in determining the next "current" intersection is its distance from the starting point. This algorithm therefore expands outward from the starting point, interactively considering every node that is closer in terms of shortest path distance until it reaches the destination. When understood in this way, it is clear how the algorithm necessarily finds the shortest path. However, it may also reveal one of the algorithm's weaknesses: its relative slowness in some topologies.
Pseudocode
In the following pseudocode, dist is an array that contains the current distances from the source to other vertices, i.e. dist is the current distance from the source to the vertex u. The prev array contains pointers to previous-hop nodes on the shortest path from source to the given vertex (equivalently, it is the next-hop on the path from the given vertex to the source). The code u ← vertex in Q with min dist, searches for the vertex u in the vertex set Q that has the least dist value. Graph.Edges(u, v) returns the length of the edge joining (i.e. the distance between) the two neighbor-nodes u and v. The variable alt on line 14 is the length of the path from the source node to the neighbor node v if it were to go through u. If this path is shorter than the current shortest path recorded for v, then the distance of v is updated to alt.
A demo of Dijkstra's algorithm based on Euclidean distance. Red lines are the shortest path covering, i.e., connecting u and prev. Blue lines indicate where relaxing happens, i.e., connecting v with a node u in Q, which gives a shorter path from the source to v.
1 function Dijkstra(Graph, source):
2
3 for each vertex v in Graph.Vertices:
4 dist ← INFINITY
5 prev ← UNDEFINED
6 add v to Q
7 dist ← 0
8
9 while Q is not empty:
10 u ← vertex in Q with minimum dist
11 remove u from Q
12
13 for each neighbor v of u still in Q:
14 alt ← dist + Graph.Edges(u, v)
15 if alt < dist:
16 dist ← alt
17 prev ← u
18
19 return dist, prev
If we are only interested in a shortest path between vertices source and target, we can terminate the search after line 10 if u = target.
Now we can read the shortest path from source to target by reverse iteration:
1 S ← empty sequence
2 u ← target
3 if prev is defined or u = source: // Do something only if the vertex is reachable
4 while u is defined: // Construct the shortest path with a stack S
5 insert u at the beginning of S // Push the vertex onto the stack
6 u ← prev // Traverse from target to source
Now sequence S is the list of vertices constituting one of the shortest paths from source to target, or the empty sequence if no path exists.
A more general problem would be to find all the shortest paths between source and target (there might be several different ones of the same length). Then instead of storing only a single node in each entry of prev we would store all nodes satisfying the relaxation condition. For example, if both r and source connect to target and both of them lie on different shortest paths through target (because the edge cost is the same in both cases), then we would add both r and source to prev. When the algorithm completes, prev data structure will actually describe a graph that is a subset of the original graph with some edges removed. Its key property will be that if the algorithm was run with some starting node, then every path from that node to any other node in the new graph will be the shortest path between those nodes in the original graph, and all paths of that length from the original graph will be present in the new graph. Then to actually find all these shortest paths between two given nodes we would use a path finding algorithm on the new graph, such as depth-first search.
Using a priority queue
A min-priority queue is an abstract data type that provides 3 basic operations: add_with_priority(), decrease_priority() and extract_min(). As mentioned earlier, using such a data structure can lead to faster computing times than using a basic queue. Notably, Fibonacci heap or Brodal queue offer optimal implementations for those 3 operations. As the algorithm is slightly different in appearance, it is mentioned here, in pseudocode as well:
1 function Dijkstra(Graph, source):
2 create vertex priority queue Q
3
4 dist ← 0 // Initialization
5 Q.add_with_priority(source, 0) // associated priority equals dist
6
7 for each vertex v in Graph.Vertices:
8 if v ≠ source
9 prev ← UNDEFINED // Predecessor of v
10 dist ← INFINITY // Unknown distance from source to v
11 Q.add_with_priority(v, INFINITY)
12
13
14 while Q is not empty: // The main loop
15 u ← Q.extract_min() // Remove and return best vertex
16 for each neighbor v of u: // Go through all v neighbors of u
17 alt ← dist + Graph.Edges(u, v)
18 if alt < dist:
19 prev ← u
20 dist ← alt
21 Q.decrease_priority(v, alt)
22
23 return dist, prev
Instead of filling the priority queue with all nodes in the initialization phase, it is also possible to initialize it to contain only source; then, inside the if alt < dist block, the decrease_priority() becomes an add_with_priority() operation if the node is not already in the queue.: 198
Yet another alternative is to add nodes unconditionally to the priority queue and to instead check after extraction (u ← Q.extract_min()) that it isn't revisiting, or that no shorter connection was found yet in the if alt < dist block. This can be done by additionally extracting the associated priority p from the queue and only processing further if p == dist inside the while Q is not empty loop.
These alternatives can use entirely array-based priority queues without decrease-key functionality, which have been found to achieve even faster computing times in practice. However, the difference in performance was found to be narrower for denser graphs.
Proof of correctness
To prove the correctness of Dijkstra's algorithm, we proceed by mathematical induction on the number of visited nodes.
Invariant hypothesis: For each visited node v, dist is the shortest distance from source to v, and for each unvisited node u, dist is the shortest distance from source to u when traveling via visited nodes only, or infinity if no such path exists. (Note: we do not assume dist is the actual shortest distance for unvisited nodes, while dist is the actual shortest distance)[[
Base case:
The base case is when there is just one visited node, source. Its distance is defined to be zero, which is the shortest distance, since negative weights are not allowed. Hence, the hypothesis holds.
Inductive step:
Assume the hypothesis holds for
k
{\displaystyle k}
visited nodes. We wish to show it holds for
k
+
1
{\displaystyle k+1}
nodes. Let u be the next visited node according to the algorithm, i.e. the node with minimum dist. We claim that dist is the shortest distance from source to u.
To prove this claim, we proceed by contradiction. If there were a shorter path, then this shorter path either contains another unvisited node or not.
In the former case, let w be the first unvisited node on this shorter path. By the induction hypothesis, the shortest paths from source to u and w through visited nodes only have costs dist and dist respectively. This means the cost of going from source to u via w has the cost of at least dist + the minimal cost of going from w to u. As the edge costs are positive, the minimal cost of going from w to u is a positive number. However, dist is at most dist because otherwise w would have been picked by the priority queue instead of v. This is a contradiction, since it has already been established that dist + a positive number < dist.
In the latter case, let w be the last but one node on the shortest path. That means dist + Graph.Edges < dist. That is a contradiction because by the time w is visited, it should have set dist to at most dist + Graph.Edges.
For all other visited nodes v, the dist is already known to be the shortest distance from source already, because of the inductive hypothesis, and these values are unchanged.
After processing u, it will still be true that for each unvisited node w, dist will be the shortest distance from source to w using visited nodes only. If there were a shorter path that did not use u, we would have found it previously, and if there were a shorter path using u we would have updated it when processing u.
After all nodes are visited, the shortest path from source to any node v consists only of visited nodes. Therefore, dist is the shortest distance.
Running time
Bounds of the running time of Dijkstra's algorithm on a graph with edges E and vertices V can be expressed as a function of the number of edges, denoted
|
E
|
{\displaystyle |E|}
, and the number of vertices, denoted
|
V
|
{\displaystyle |V|}
, using big-O notation. The complexity bound depends mainly on the data structure used to represent the set Q. In the following, upper bounds can be simplified because
|
E
|
{\displaystyle |E|}
is
O
(
|
V
|
2
)
{\displaystyle O(|V|^{2})}
for any simple graph, but that simplification disregards the fact that in some problems, other upper bounds on
|
E
|
{\displaystyle |E|}
may hold.
For any data structure for the vertex set Q, the running time is in
Θ
(
|
E
|
⋅
T
d
k
+
|
V
|
⋅
T
e
m
)
,
{\displaystyle \Theta (|E|\cdot T_{\mathrm {dk} }+|V|\cdot T_{\mathrm {em} }),}
where
T
d
k
{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {dk} }}
and
T
e
m
{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {em} }}
are the complexities of the decrease-key and extract-minimum operations in Q, respectively.
The simplest version of Dijkstra's algorithm stores the vertex set Q as a linked list or array, and edges as an adjacency list or matrix. In this case, extract-minimum is simply a linear search through all vertices in Q, so the running time is
Θ
(
|
E
|
+
|
V
|
2
)
=
Θ
(
|
V
|
2
)
{\displaystyle \Theta (|E|+|V|^{2})=\Theta (|V|^{2})}
.
For sparse graphs, that is, graphs with far fewer than
|
V
|
2
{\displaystyle |V|^{2}}
edges, Dijkstra's algorithm can be implemented more efficiently by storing the graph in the form of adjacency lists and using a self-balancing binary search tree, binary heap, pairing heap, or Fibonacci heap as a priority queue to implement extracting minimum efficiently. To perform decrease-key steps in a binary heap efficiently, it is necessary to use an auxiliary data structure that maps each vertex to its position in the heap, and to keep this structure up to date as the priority queue Q changes. With a self-balancing binary search tree or binary heap, the algorithm requires
Θ
(
(
|
E
|
+
|
V
|
)
log
|
V
|
)
{\displaystyle \Theta ((|E|+|V|)\log |V|)}
time in the worst case; for connected graphs this time bound can be simplified to
Θ
(
|
E
|
log
|
V
|
)
{\displaystyle \Theta (|E|\log |V|)}
. The Fibonacci heap improves this to
Θ
(
|
E
|
+
|
V
|
log
|
V
|
)
.
{\displaystyle \Theta (|E|+|V|\log |V|).}
When using binary heaps, the average case time complexity is lower than the worst-case: assuming edge costs are drawn independently from a common probability distribution, the expected number of decrease-key operations is bounded by
Θ
(
|
V
|
log
(
|
E
|
/
|
V
|
)
)
{\displaystyle \Theta (|V|\log(|E|/|V|))}
, giving a total running time of: 199–200
O
(
|
E
|
+
|
V
|
log
|
E
|
|
V
|
log
|
V
|
)
.
{\displaystyle O\left(|E|+|V|\log {\frac {|E|}{|V|}}\log |V|\right).}
Practical optimizations and infinite graphs
In common presentations of Dijkstra's algorithm, initially all nodes are entered into the priority queue. This is, however, not necessary: the algorithm can start with a priority queue that contains only one item, and insert new items as they are discovered (instead of doing a decrease-key, check whether the key is in the queue; if it is, decrease its key, otherwise insert it).: 198 This variant has the same worst-case bounds as the common variant, but maintains a smaller priority queue in practice, speeding up the queue operations.
Moreover, not inserting all nodes in a graph makes it possible to extend the algorithm to find the shortest path from a single source to the closest of a set of target nodes on infinite graphs or those too large to represent in memory. The resulting algorithm is called uniform-cost search (UCS) in the artificial intelligence literature and can be expressed in pseudocode as
procedure uniform_cost_search(start) is
node ← start
frontier ← priority queue containing node only
expanded ← empty set
do
if frontier is empty then
return failure
node ← frontier.pop()
if node is a goal state then
return solution(node)
expanded.add(node)
for each of node's neighbors n do
if n is not in expanded and not in frontier then
frontier.add(n)
else if n is in frontier with higher cost
replace existing node with n
The complexity of this algorithm can be expressed in an alternative way for very large graphs: when C* is the length of the shortest path from the start node to any node satisfying the "goal" predicate, each edge has cost at least ε, and the number of neighbors per node is bounded by b, then the algorithm's worst-case time and space complexity are both in O(b1+⌊C* ⁄ ε⌋).
Further optimizations of Dijkstra's algorithm for the single-target case include bidirectional variants, goal-directed variants such as the A* algorithm (see § Related problems and algorithms), graph pruning to determine which nodes are likely to form the middle segment of shortest paths (reach-based routing), and hierarchical decompositions of the input graph that reduce s–t routing to connecting s and t to their respective "transit nodes" followed by shortest-path computation between these transit nodes using a "highway".
Combinations of such techniques may be needed for optimal practical performance on specific problems.
Specialized variants
When arc weights are small integers (bounded by a parameter
C
{\displaystyle C}
), specialized queues which take advantage of this fact can be used to speed up Dijkstra's algorithm. The first algorithm of this type was Dial's algorithm (Dial 1969) for graphs with positive integer edge weights, which uses a bucket queue to obtain a running time
O
(
|
E
|
+
|
V
|
C
)
{\displaystyle O(|E|+|V|C)}
. The use of a Van Emde Boas tree as the priority queue brings the complexity to
O
(
|
E
|
log
log
C
)
{\displaystyle O(|E|\log \log C)}
(Ahuja et al. 1990). Another interesting variant based on a combination of a new radix heap and the well-known Fibonacci heap runs in time
O
(
|
E
|
+
|
V
|
log
C
)
{\displaystyle O(|E|+|V|{\sqrt {\log C}})}
(Ahuja et al. 1990). Finally, the best algorithms in this special case are as follows. The algorithm given by (Thorup 2000) runs in
O
(
|
E
|
log
log
|
V
|
)
{\displaystyle O(|E|\log \log |V|)}
time and the algorithm given by (Raman 1997) runs in
O
(
|
E
|
+
|
V
|
min
{
(
log
|
V
|
)
1
/
3
+
ε
,
(
log
C
)
1
/
4
+
ε
}
)
{\displaystyle O(|E|+|V|\min\{(\log |V|)^{1/3+\varepsilon },(\log C)^{1/4+\varepsilon }\})}
time.
Related problems and algorithms
The functionality of Dijkstra's original algorithm can be extended with a variety of modifications. For example, sometimes it is desirable to present solutions which are less than mathematically optimal. To obtain a ranked list of less-than-optimal solutions, the optimal solution is first calculated. A single edge appearing in the optimal solution is removed from the graph, and the optimum solution to this new graph is calculated. Each edge of the original solution is suppressed in turn and a new shortest-path calculated. The secondary solutions are then ranked and presented after the first optimal solution.
Dijkstra's algorithm is usually the working principle behind link-state routing protocols, OSPF and IS-IS being the most common ones.
Unlike Dijkstra's algorithm, the Bellman–Ford algorithm can be used on graphs with negative edge weights, as long as the graph contains no negative cycle reachable from the source vertex s. The presence of such cycles means there is no shortest path, since the total weight becomes lower each time the cycle is traversed. (This statement assumes that a "path" is allowed to repeat vertices. In graph theory that is normally not allowed. In theoretical computer science it often is allowed.) It is possible to adapt Dijkstra's algorithm to handle negative weight edges by combining it with the Bellman-Ford algorithm (to remove negative edges and detect negative cycles); such an algorithm is called Johnson's algorithm.
The A* algorithm is a generalization of Dijkstra's algorithm that cuts down on the size of the subgraph that must be explored, if additional information is available that provides a lower bound on the "distance" to the target.
The process that underlies Dijkstra's algorithm is similar to the greedy process used in Prim's algorithm. Prim's purpose is to find a minimum spanning tree that connects all nodes in the graph; Dijkstra is concerned with only two nodes. Prim's does not evaluate the total weight of the path from the starting node, only the individual edges.
Breadth-first search can be viewed as a special-case of Dijkstra's algorithm on unweighted graphs, where the priority queue degenerates into a FIFO queue.
The fast marching method can be viewed as a continuous version of Dijkstra's algorithm which computes the geodesic distance on a triangle mesh.
Dynamic programming perspective
From a dynamic programming point of view, Dijkstra's algorithm is a successive approximation scheme that solves the dynamic programming functional equation for the shortest path problem by the Reaching method.
In fact, Dijkstra's explanation of the logic behind the algorithm, namely
Problem 2. Find the path of minimum total length between two given nodes
P
{\displaystyle P}
and
Q
{\displaystyle Q}
.
We use the fact that, if
R
{\displaystyle R}
is a node on the minimal path from
P
{\displaystyle P}
to
Q
{\displaystyle Q}
, knowledge of the latter implies the knowledge of the minimal path from
P
{\displaystyle P}
to
R
{\displaystyle R}
.
is a paraphrasing of Bellman's Principle of Optimality in the context of the shortest path problem.
See also
A* search algorithm
Bellman–Ford algorithm
Euclidean shortest path
Floyd–Warshall algorithm
Johnson's algorithm
Longest path problem
Parallel all-pairs shortest path algorithm
Notes
^ Controversial, see Moshe Sniedovich (2006). "Dijkstra's algorithm revisited: the dynamic programming connexion". Control and Cybernetics. 35: 599–620. and below part.
^ a b Cormen et al. 2001
^ a b Fredman & Tarjan 1987
^ Richards, Hamilton. "Edsger Wybe Dijkstra". A.M. Turing Award. Association for Computing Machinery. Retrieved 16 October 2017. At the Mathematical Centre a major project was building the ARMAC computer. For its official inauguration in 1956, Dijkstra devised a program to solve a problem interesting to a nontechnical audience: Given a network of roads connecting cities, what is the shortest route between two designated cities?
^ a b c Frana, Phil (August 2010). "An Interview with Edsger W. Dijkstra". Communications of the ACM. 53 (8): 41–47. doi:10.1145/1787234.1787249. S2CID 27009702.
^ Dijkstra, E. W. (1959). "A note on two problems in connexion with graphs". Numerische Mathematik. 1: 269–271. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.165.7577. doi:10.1007/BF01386390. S2CID 123284777.
^ a b c d e Mehlhorn, Kurt; Sanders, Peter (2008). "Chapter 10. Shortest Paths" (PDF). Algorithms and Data Structures: The Basic Toolbox. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-77978-0. ISBN 978-3-540-77977-3.
^ Schrijver, Alexander (2012). "On the history of the shortest path problem" (PDF). Documenta Mathematica. Documenta Mathematica Series: 155–167. doi:10.4171/dms/6/19. ISBN 978-3-936609-58-5.
^ Szcześniak, Ireneusz; Jajszczyk, Andrzej; Woźna-Szcześniak, Bożena (2019). "Generic Dijkstra for optical networks". Journal of Optical Communications and Networking. 11 (11): 568–577. arXiv:1810.04481. doi:10.1364/JOCN.11.000568. S2CID 52958911.
^ Szcześniak, Ireneusz; Woźna-Szcześniak, Bożena (2023), "Generic Dijkstra: Correctness and tractability", NOMS 2023-2023 IEEE/IFIP Network Operations and Management Symposium, pp. 1–7, arXiv:2204.13547, doi:10.1109/NOMS56928.2023.10154322, ISBN 978-1-6654-7716-1, S2CID 248427020
^ a b c Felner, Ariel (2011). Position Paper: Dijkstra's Algorithm versus Uniform Cost Search or a Case Against Dijkstra's Algorithm. Proc. 4th Int'l Symp. on Combinatorial Search. Archived from the original on 18 February 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2015. In a route-finding problem, Felner finds that the queue can be a factor 500–600 smaller, taking some 40% of the running time.
^ "ARMAC". Unsung Heroes in Dutch Computing History. 2007. Archived from the original on 13 November 2013.
^ Dijkstra, Edsger W., Reflections on "A note on two problems in connexion with graphs (PDF)
^ Tarjan, Robert Endre (1983), Data Structures and Network Algorithms, CBMS_NSF Regional Conference Series in Applied Mathematics, vol. 44, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, p. 75, The third classical minimum spanning tree algorithm was discovered by Jarník and rediscovered by Prim and Dikstra; it is commonly known as Prim's algorithm.
^ Prim, R.C. (1957). "Shortest connection networks and some generalizations" (PDF). Bell System Technical Journal. 36 (6): 1389–1401. Bibcode:1957BSTJ...36.1389P. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1957.tb01515.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 July 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2017.
^ V. Jarník: O jistém problému minimálním , Práce Moravské Přírodovědecké Společnosti, 6, 1930, pp. 57–63. (in Czech)
^ Gass, Saul; Fu, Michael (2013). "Dijkstra's Algorithm". In Gass, Saul I; Fu, Michael C (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science. Vol. 1. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7. ISBN 978-1-4419-1137-7 – via Springer Link.
^ Fredman & Tarjan 1984.
^ Observe that p < dist cannot ever hold because of the update dist ← alt when updating the queue. See https://cs.stackexchange.com/questions/118388/dijkstra-without-decrease-key for discussion.
^ Chen, M.; Chowdhury, R. A.; Ramachandran, V.; Roche, D. L.; Tong, L. (2007). Priority Queues and Dijkstra's Algorithm – UTCS Technical Report TR-07-54 – 12 October 2007 (PDF). Austin, Texas: The University of Texas at Austin, Department of Computer Sciences.
^ Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2022) . "22". Introduction to Algorithms (4th ed.). MIT Press and McGraw-Hill. pp. 622–623. ISBN 0-262-04630-X.
^ a b Russell, Stuart; Norvig, Peter (2009) . Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. pp. 75, 81. ISBN 978-0-13-604259-4.
^ Sometimes also least-cost-first search: Nau, Dana S. (1983). "Expert computer systems" (PDF). Computer. 16 (2). IEEE: 63–85. doi:10.1109/mc.1983.1654302. S2CID 7301753.
^ Wagner, Dorothea; Willhalm, Thomas (2007). Speed-up techniques for shortest-path computations. STACS. pp. 23–36.
^ Bauer, Reinhard; Delling, Daniel; Sanders, Peter; Schieferdecker, Dennis; Schultes, Dominik; Wagner, Dorothea (2010). "Combining hierarchical and goal-directed speed-up techniques for Dijkstra's algorithm". J. Experimental Algorithmics. 15: 2.1. doi:10.1145/1671970.1671976. S2CID 1661292.
^ Sniedovich, M. (2006). "Dijkstra's algorithm revisited: the dynamic programming connexion" (PDF). Journal of Control and Cybernetics. 35 (3): 599–620. Online version of the paper with interactive computational modules.
^ Denardo, E.V. (2003). Dynamic Programming: Models and Applications. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-42810-9.
^ Sniedovich, M. (2010). Dynamic Programming: Foundations and Principles. Francis & Taylor. ISBN 978-0-8247-4099-3.
^ Dijkstra 1959, p. 270
References
Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2001). "Section 24.3: Dijkstra's algorithm". Introduction to Algorithms (Second ed.). MIT Press and McGraw–Hill. pp. 595–601. ISBN 0-262-03293-7.
Dial, Robert B. (1969). "Algorithm 360: Shortest-path forest with topological ordering ". Communications of the ACM. 12 (11): 632–633. doi:10.1145/363269.363610. S2CID 6754003.
Fredman, Michael Lawrence; Tarjan, Robert E. (1984). Fibonacci heaps and their uses in improved network optimization algorithms. 25th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science. IEEE. pp. 338–346. doi:10.1109/SFCS.1984.715934.
Fredman, Michael Lawrence; Tarjan, Robert E. (1987). "Fibonacci heaps and their uses in improved network optimization algorithms". Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery. 34 (3): 596–615. doi:10.1145/28869.28874. S2CID 7904683.
Zhan, F. Benjamin; Noon, Charles E. (February 1998). "Shortest Path Algorithms: An Evaluation Using Real Road Networks". Transportation Science. 32 (1): 65–73. doi:10.1287/trsc.32.1.65. S2CID 14986297.
Leyzorek, M.; Gray, R. S.; Johnson, A. A.; Ladew, W. C.; Meaker, Jr., S. R.; Petry, R. M.; Seitz, R. N. (1957). Investigation of Model Techniques – First Annual Report – 6 June 1956 – 1 July 1957 – A Study of Model Techniques for Communication Systems. Cleveland, Ohio: Case Institute of Technology.
Knuth, D.E. (1977). "A Generalization of Dijkstra's Algorithm". Information Processing Letters. 6 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1016/0020-0190(77)90002-3.
Ahuja, Ravindra K.; Mehlhorn, Kurt; Orlin, James B.; Tarjan, Robert E. (April 1990). "Faster Algorithms for the Shortest Path Problem" (PDF). Journal of the ACM. 37 (2): 213–223. doi:10.1145/77600.77615. hdl:1721.1/47994. S2CID 5499589.
Raman, Rajeev (1997). "Recent results on the single-source shortest paths problem". SIGACT News. 28 (2): 81–87. doi:10.1145/261342.261352. S2CID 18031586.
Thorup, Mikkel (2000). "On RAM priority Queues". SIAM Journal on Computing. 30 (1): 86–109. doi:10.1137/S0097539795288246. S2CID 5221089.
Thorup, Mikkel (1999). "Undirected single-source shortest paths with positive integer weights in linear time". Journal of the ACM. 46 (3): 362–394. doi:10.1145/316542.316548. S2CID 207654795.
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Oral history interview with Edsger W. Dijkstra, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dykstra's projection algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dykstra%27s_projection_algorithm"},{"link_name":"/ˈdaɪkstrəz/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"DYKE-strəz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"shortest paths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_problem"},{"link_name":"nodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(abstract_data_type)"},{"link_name":"road networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_network"},{"link_name":"computer scientist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_scientist"},{"link_name":"Edsger W. Dijkstra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dijkstra_Interview-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dijkstra1959-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mehlhorn-7"},{"link_name":"routing protocols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing_protocol"},{"link_name":"IS-IS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IS-IS"},{"link_name":"OSPF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Shortest_Path_First"},{"link_name":"subroutine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subroutine"},{"link_name":"Johnson's algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson%27s_algorithm"},{"link_name":"min-priority queue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min-priority_queue"},{"link_name":"time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_complexity"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Leyzorek et al. 1957","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLeyzorekGrayJohnsonLadew1957"},{"link_name":"Fredman & Tarjan 1984","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFFredmanTarjan1984"},{"link_name":"Fibonacci heap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_heap"},{"link_name":"asymptotically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_computational_complexity"},{"link_name":"shortest-path algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_problem"},{"link_name":"directed graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_graph"},{"link_name":"Specialized variants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Specialized_variants"},{"link_name":"contraction hierarchies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraction_hierarchy"},{"link_name":"partially ordered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set"},{"link_name":"monotonically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotonic_function"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Generic_Dijkstra-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Generic_Dijkstra_correctness-10"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"uniform cost search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Practical_optimizations_and_infinite_graphs"},{"link_name":"best-first search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best-first_search"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-felner-11"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Dykstra's projection algorithm.Dijkstra's algorithm (/ˈdaɪkstrəz/ DYKE-strəz) is an algorithm for finding the shortest paths between nodes in a weighted graph, which may represent, for example, road networks. It was conceived by computer scientist Edsger W. Dijkstra in 1956 and published three years later.[4][5][6]Dijkstra's algorithm finds the shortest path from a given source node to every other node.[7]: 196–206 It can also be used to find the shortest path to a specific destination node, by terminating the algorithm once the shortest path to the destination node is known. For example, if the nodes of the graph represent cities, and the costs of edges represent the average distances between pairs of cities connected by a direct road, then Dijkstra's algorithm can be used to find the shortest route between one city and all other cities. A common application of shortest path algorithms is network routing protocols, most notably IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System) and OSPF (Open Shortest Path First). It is also employed as a subroutine in other algorithms such as Johnson's algorithm.The algorithm uses a min-priority queue data structure for selecting the shortest paths known so far. Before more advanced priority queue structures were discovered, Dijkstra's original algorithm ran in \n \n \n \n Θ\n (\n \n |\n \n V\n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Theta (|V|^{2})}\n \n time, where \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |V|}\n \n is the number of nodes.[8] The idea of this algorithm is also given in Leyzorek et al. 1957. Fredman & Tarjan 1984 proposed using a Fibonacci heap priority queue to optimize the running time complexity to \n \n \n \n Θ\n (\n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n +\n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n log\n \n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Theta (|E|+|V|\\log |V|)}\n \n. This is asymptotically the fastest known single-source shortest-path algorithm for arbitrary directed graphs with unbounded non-negative weights. However, specialized cases (such as bounded/integer weights, directed acyclic graphs etc.) can indeed be improved further, as detailed in Specialized variants. Additionally, if preprocessing is allowed, algorithms such as contraction hierarchies can be up to seven orders of magnitude faster.Dijkstra's algorithm is commonly used on graphs where the edge weights are positive integers or real numbers. It can be generalized to any graph where the edge weights are partially ordered, provided the subsequent labels (a subsequent label is produced when traversing an edge) are monotonically non-decreasing.[9][10]In many fields, particularly artificial intelligence, Dijkstra's algorithm or a variant of it is known as uniform cost search and formulated as an instance of the more general idea of best-first search.[11]","title":"Dijkstra's algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rotterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam"},{"link_name":"Groningen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groningen"},{"link_name":"It is the algorithm for the shortest path","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_problem"},{"link_name":"Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dijkstra_Interview-5"},{"link_name":"Mathematical Center in Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrum_Wiskunde_%26_Informatica"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dijkstra_Interview-5"},{"link_name":"Prim's minimal spanning tree algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prim%27s_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Jarník","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vojt%C4%9Bch_Jarn%C3%ADk"},{"link_name":"Prim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_C._Prim"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EWD841a-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"What is the shortest way to travel from Rotterdam to Groningen, in general: from given city to given city. It is the algorithm for the shortest path, which I designed in about twenty minutes. One morning I was shopping in Amsterdam with my young fiancée, and tired, we sat down on the café terrace to drink a cup of coffee and I was just thinking about whether I could do this, and I then designed the algorithm for the shortest path. As I said, it was a twenty-minute invention. In fact, it was published in '59, three years later. The publication is still readable, it is, in fact, quite nice. One of the reasons that it is so nice was that I designed it without pencil and paper. I learned later that one of the advantages of designing without pencil and paper is that you are almost forced to avoid all avoidable complexities. Eventually, that algorithm became to my great amazement, one of the cornerstones of my fame.— Edsger Dijkstra, in an interview with Philip L. Frana, Communications of the ACM, 2001[5]Dijkstra thought about the shortest path problem when working at the Mathematical Center in Amsterdam in 1956 as a programmer to demonstrate the capabilities of a new computer called ARMAC.[12] His objective was to choose both a problem and a solution (that would be produced by computer) that non-computing people could understand. He designed the shortest path algorithm and later implemented it for ARMAC for a slightly simplified transportation map of 64 cities in the Netherlands (64, so that 6 bits would be sufficient to encode the city number).[5] A year later, he came across another problem from hardware engineers working on the institute's next computer: minimize the amount of wire needed to connect the pins on the back panel of the machine. As a solution, he re-discovered the algorithm known as Prim's minimal spanning tree algorithm (known earlier to Jarník, and also rediscovered by Prim).[13][14] Dijkstra published the algorithm in 1959, two years after Prim and 29 years after Jarník.[15][16]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dijkstras_progress_animation.gif"},{"link_name":"robot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics"},{"link_name":"motion planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_planning"},{"link_name":"wavefront","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavefront"},{"link_name":"heuristic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent_heuristic"},{"link_name":"set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(abstract_data_type)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Illustration of Dijkstra's algorithm finding a path from a start node (lower left, red) to a target node (upper right, green) in a robot motion planning problem. Open nodes represent the \"tentative\" set (aka set of \"unvisited\" nodes). Filled nodes are the visited ones, with color representing the distance: the greener, the closer. Nodes in all the different directions are explored uniformly, appearing more-or-less as a circular wavefront as Dijkstra's algorithm uses a heuristic of picking the shortest known path so far.Let us choose a starting node, and let the distance of node N be the distance from the starting node to N. Dijkstra's algorithm will initially start with infinite distances and will try to improve them step by step.Mark all nodes as unvisited. Create a set of all the unvisited nodes called the unvisited set.\nAssign to every node a distance from start value: for the starting node, it is zero, and for all other nodes, it is infinity, since initially no path is known to these nodes. During execution of the algorithm, the distance of a node N is the length of the shortest path discovered so far between the starting node and N.[17]\nFrom the unvisited set, select the current node to be the one with the smallest finite distance; initially, this will be the starting node, which has distance zero. If the unvisited set is empty, or contains only nodes with infinite distance (which are unreachable), then the algorithm terminates by going to step 6. If we are only concerned about the path to a target node, we may terminate here if the current node is the target node. Otherwise, we can continue to find the shortest paths to all reachable nodes.\nFor the current node, consider all of its unvisited neighbors and update their distances through the current node; compare the newly calculated distance to the one currently assigned to the neighbor and assign it the smaller one. For example, if the current node A is marked with a distance of 6, and the edge connecting it with its neighbor B has length 2, then the distance to B through A is 6 + 2 = 8. If B was previously marked with a distance greater than 8, then update it to 8 (the path to B through A is shorter). Otherwise, keep its current distance (the path to B through A is not the shortest).\nWhen we are done considering all of the unvisited neighbors of the current node, mark the current node as visited and remove it from the unvisited set. This is so that a visited node is never checked again, which is correct because the distance recorded on the current node is minimal (as ensured in step 3), and thus final. Go back to step 3.\nOnce the loop exits (steps 3–5), every visited node will contain its shortest distance from the starting node.","title":"Algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"intersections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersection_(road)"},{"link_name":"relabeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_labeling"},{"link_name":"neighboring intersection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neighbourhood_(graph_theory)"}],"text":"Note: For ease of understanding, this discussion uses the terms intersection, road and map – however, in formal terminology these terms are vertex, edge and graph, respectively.Suppose you would like to find the shortest path between two intersections on a city map: a starting point and a destination. Dijkstra's algorithm initially marks the distance (from the starting point) to every other intersection on the map with infinity. This is done not to imply that there is an infinite distance, but to note that those intersections have not been visited yet. Some variants of this method leave the intersections' distances unlabeled. Now select the current intersection at each iteration. For the first iteration, the current intersection will be the starting point, and the distance to it (the intersection's label) will be zero. For subsequent iterations (after the first), the current intersection will be a closest unvisited intersection to the starting point (this will be easy to find).From the current intersection, update the distance to every unvisited intersection that is directly connected to it. This is done by determining the sum of the distance between an unvisited intersection and the value of the current intersection and then relabeling the unvisited intersection with this value (the sum) if it is less than the unvisited intersection's current value. In effect, the intersection is relabeled if the path to it through the current intersection is shorter than the previously known paths. To facilitate shortest path identification, in pencil, mark the road with an arrow pointing to the relabeled intersection if you label/relabel it, and erase all others pointing to it. After you have updated the distances to each neighboring intersection, mark the current intersection as visited and select an unvisited intersection with minimal distance (from the starting point) – or the lowest label—as the current intersection. Intersections marked as visited are labeled with the shortest path from the starting point to it and will not be revisited or returned to.Continue this process of updating the neighboring intersections with the shortest distances, marking the current intersection as visited, and moving onto a closest unvisited intersection until you have marked the destination as visited. Once you have marked the destination as visited (as is the case with any visited intersection), you have determined the shortest path to it from the starting point and can trace your way back following the arrows in reverse. In the algorithm's implementations, this is usually done (after the algorithm has reached the destination node) by following the nodes' parents from the destination node up to the starting node; that's why we also keep track of each node's parent.This algorithm makes no attempt of direct \"exploration\" towards the destination as one might expect. Rather, the sole consideration in determining the next \"current\" intersection is its distance from the starting point. This algorithm therefore expands outward from the starting point, interactively considering every node that is closer in terms of shortest path distance until it reaches the destination. When understood in this way, it is clear how the algorithm necessarily finds the shortest path. However, it may also reveal one of the algorithm's weaknesses: its relative slowness in some topologies.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pseudocode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudocode"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mehlhorn-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DijkstraDemo.gif"},{"link_name":"depth-first search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth-first_search"}],"text":"In the following pseudocode, dist is an array that contains the current distances from the source to other vertices, i.e. dist[u] is the current distance from the source to the vertex u. The prev array contains pointers to previous-hop nodes on the shortest path from source to the given vertex (equivalently, it is the next-hop on the path from the given vertex to the source). The code u ← vertex in Q with min dist[u], searches for the vertex u in the vertex set Q that has the least dist[u] value. Graph.Edges(u, v) returns the length of the edge joining (i.e. the distance between) the two neighbor-nodes u and v. The variable alt on line 14 is the length of the path from the source node to the neighbor node v if it were to go through u. If this path is shorter than the current shortest path recorded for v, then the distance of v is updated to alt.[7]A demo of Dijkstra's algorithm based on Euclidean distance. Red lines are the shortest path covering, i.e., connecting u and prev[u]. Blue lines indicate where relaxing happens, i.e., connecting v with a node u in Q, which gives a shorter path from the source to v.1 function Dijkstra(Graph, source):\n 2 \n 3 for each vertex v in Graph.Vertices:\n 4 dist[v] ← INFINITY\n 5 prev[v] ← UNDEFINED\n 6 add v to Q\n 7 dist[source] ← 0\n 8 \n 9 while Q is not empty:\n10 u ← vertex in Q with minimum dist[u]\n11 remove u from Q\n12 \n13 for each neighbor v of u still in Q:\n14 alt ← dist[u] + Graph.Edges(u, v)\n15 if alt < dist[v]:\n16 dist[v] ← alt\n17 prev[v] ← u\n18\n19 return dist[], prev[]If we are only interested in a shortest path between vertices source and target, we can terminate the search after line 10 if u = target.\nNow we can read the shortest path from source to target by reverse iteration:1 S ← empty sequence\n2 u ← target\n3 if prev[u] is defined or u = source: // Do something only if the vertex is reachable\n4 while u is defined: // Construct the shortest path with a stack S\n5 insert u at the beginning of S // Push the vertex onto the stack\n6 u ← prev[u] // Traverse from target to sourceNow sequence S is the list of vertices constituting one of the shortest paths from source to target, or the empty sequence if no path exists.A more general problem would be to find all the shortest paths between source and target (there might be several different ones of the same length). Then instead of storing only a single node in each entry of prev[] we would store all nodes satisfying the relaxation condition. For example, if both r and source connect to target and both of them lie on different shortest paths through target (because the edge cost is the same in both cases), then we would add both r and source to prev[target]. When the algorithm completes, prev[] data structure will actually describe a graph that is a subset of the original graph with some edges removed. Its key property will be that if the algorithm was run with some starting node, then every path from that node to any other node in the new graph will be the shortest path between those nodes in the original graph, and all paths of that length from the original graph will be present in the new graph. Then to actually find all these shortest paths between two given nodes we would use a path finding algorithm on the new graph, such as depth-first search.","title":"Pseudocode"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fibonacci heap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_heap"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFredmanTarjan1984-18"},{"link_name":"Brodal queue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodal_queue"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mehlhorn-7"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chen_07-20"}],"sub_title":"Using a priority queue","text":"A min-priority queue is an abstract data type that provides 3 basic operations: add_with_priority(), decrease_priority() and extract_min(). As mentioned earlier, using such a data structure can lead to faster computing times than using a basic queue. Notably, Fibonacci heap[18] or Brodal queue offer optimal implementations for those 3 operations. As the algorithm is slightly different in appearance, it is mentioned here, in pseudocode as well:1 function Dijkstra(Graph, source):\n2 create vertex priority queue Q\n3\n4 dist[source] ← 0 // Initialization\n5 Q.add_with_priority(source, 0) // associated priority equals dist[·]\n6\n7 for each vertex v in Graph.Vertices:\n8 if v ≠ source\n9 prev[v] ← UNDEFINED // Predecessor of v\n10 dist[v] ← INFINITY // Unknown distance from source to v\n11 Q.add_with_priority(v, INFINITY)\n12\n13\n14 while Q is not empty: // The main loop\n15 u ← Q.extract_min() // Remove and return best vertex\n16 for each neighbor v of u: // Go through all v neighbors of u\n17 alt ← dist[u] + Graph.Edges(u, v)\n18 if alt < dist[v]:\n19 prev[v] ← u\n20 dist[v] ← alt\n21 Q.decrease_priority(v, alt)\n22\n23 return dist, prevInstead of filling the priority queue with all nodes in the initialization phase, it is also possible to initialize it to contain only source; then, inside the if alt < dist[v] block, the decrease_priority() becomes an add_with_priority() operation if the node is not already in the queue.[7]: 198Yet another alternative is to add nodes unconditionally to the priority queue and to instead check after extraction (u ← Q.extract_min()) that it isn't revisiting, or that no shorter connection was found yet in the if alt < dist[v] block. This can be done by additionally extracting the associated priority p from the queue and only processing further if p == dist[u] inside the while Q is not empty loop.[19]These alternatives can use entirely array-based priority queues without decrease-key functionality, which have been found to achieve even faster computing times in practice. However, the difference in performance was found to be narrower for denser graphs.[20]","title":"Pseudocode"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"correctness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correctness_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"mathematical induction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_induction"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"To prove the correctness of Dijkstra's algorithm, we proceed by mathematical induction on the number of visited nodes.[21]Invariant hypothesis: For each visited node v, dist[v] is the shortest distance from source to v, and for each unvisited node u, dist[u] is the shortest distance from source to u when traveling via visited nodes only, or infinity if no such path exists. (Note: we do not assume dist[u] is the actual shortest distance for unvisited nodes, while dist[v] is the actual shortest distance)[[Base case:The base case is when there is just one visited node, source. Its distance is defined to be zero, which is the shortest distance, since negative weights are not allowed. Hence, the hypothesis holds.Inductive step:Assume the hypothesis holds for \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n visited nodes. We wish to show it holds for \n \n \n \n k\n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k+1}\n \n nodes. Let u be the next visited node according to the algorithm, i.e. the node with minimum dist[u]. We claim that dist[u] is the shortest distance from source to u.To prove this claim, we proceed by contradiction. If there were a shorter path, then this shorter path either contains another unvisited node or not.In the former case, let w be the first unvisited node on this shorter path. By the induction hypothesis, the shortest paths from source to u and w through visited nodes only have costs dist[u] and dist[w] respectively. This means the cost of going from source to u via w has the cost of at least dist[w] + the minimal cost of going from w to u. As the edge costs are positive, the minimal cost of going from w to u is a positive number. However, dist[u] is at most dist[w] because otherwise w would have been picked by the priority queue instead of v. This is a contradiction, since it has already been established that dist[w] + a positive number < dist[u].In the latter case, let w be the last but one node on the shortest path. That means dist[w] + Graph.Edges[w,u] < dist[u]. That is a contradiction because by the time w is visited, it should have set dist[u] to at most dist[w] + Graph.Edges[w,u].For all other visited nodes v, the dist[v] is already known to be the shortest distance from source already, because of the inductive hypothesis, and these values are unchanged.After processing u, it will still be true that for each unvisited node w, dist[w] will be the shortest distance from source to w using visited nodes only. If there were a shorter path that did not use u, we would have found it previously, and if there were a shorter path using u we would have updated it when processing u.After all nodes are visited, the shortest path from source to any node v consists only of visited nodes. Therefore, dist[v] is the shortest distance.","title":"Proof of correctness"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"big-O notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big-O_notation"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Intro-2"},{"link_name":"adjacency list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjacency_list"},{"link_name":"matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjacency_matrix"},{"link_name":"sparse graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparse_graph"},{"link_name":"self-balancing binary search tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-balancing_binary_search_tree"},{"link_name":"binary heap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_heap"},{"link_name":"pairing heap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pairing_heap"},{"link_name":"Fibonacci heap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_heap"},{"link_name":"priority queue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_queue"},{"link_name":"Fibonacci heap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_heap"},{"link_name":"average case","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best,_worst_and_average_case"},{"link_name":"probability distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_distribution"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mehlhorn-7"}],"text":"Bounds of the running time of Dijkstra's algorithm on a graph with edges E and vertices V can be expressed as a function of the number of edges, denoted \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |E|}\n \n, and the number of vertices, denoted \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |V|}\n \n, using big-O notation. The complexity bound depends mainly on the data structure used to represent the set Q. In the following, upper bounds can be simplified because \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |E|}\n \n is \n \n \n \n O\n (\n \n |\n \n V\n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(|V|^{2})}\n \n for any simple graph, but that simplification disregards the fact that in some problems, other upper bounds on \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |E|}\n \n may hold.For any data structure for the vertex set Q, the running time is in[2]Θ\n (\n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n ⋅\n \n T\n \n \n d\n k\n \n \n \n +\n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n ⋅\n \n T\n \n \n e\n m\n \n \n \n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Theta (|E|\\cdot T_{\\mathrm {dk} }+|V|\\cdot T_{\\mathrm {em} }),}where \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n d\n k\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T_{\\mathrm {dk} }}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n e\n m\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T_{\\mathrm {em} }}\n \n are the complexities of the decrease-key and extract-minimum operations in Q, respectively.The simplest version of Dijkstra's algorithm stores the vertex set Q as a linked list or array, and edges as an adjacency list or matrix. In this case, extract-minimum is simply a linear search through all vertices in Q, so the running time is \n \n \n \n Θ\n (\n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n +\n \n |\n \n V\n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n )\n =\n Θ\n (\n \n |\n \n V\n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Theta (|E|+|V|^{2})=\\Theta (|V|^{2})}\n \n.For sparse graphs, that is, graphs with far fewer than \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n V\n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |V|^{2}}\n \n edges, Dijkstra's algorithm can be implemented more efficiently by storing the graph in the form of adjacency lists and using a self-balancing binary search tree, binary heap, pairing heap, or Fibonacci heap as a priority queue to implement extracting minimum efficiently. To perform decrease-key steps in a binary heap efficiently, it is necessary to use an auxiliary data structure that maps each vertex to its position in the heap, and to keep this structure up to date as the priority queue Q changes. With a self-balancing binary search tree or binary heap, the algorithm requiresΘ\n (\n (\n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n +\n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n )\n log\n \n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Theta ((|E|+|V|)\\log |V|)}time in the worst case; for connected graphs this time bound can be simplified to \n \n \n \n Θ\n (\n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n log\n \n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Theta (|E|\\log |V|)}\n \n. The Fibonacci heap improves this toΘ\n (\n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n +\n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n log\n \n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Theta (|E|+|V|\\log |V|).}When using binary heaps, the average case time complexity is lower than the worst-case: assuming edge costs are drawn independently from a common probability distribution, the expected number of decrease-key operations is bounded by \n \n \n \n Θ\n (\n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n log\n \n (\n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n \n /\n \n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Theta (|V|\\log(|E|/|V|))}\n \n, giving a total running time of[7]: 199–200O\n \n (\n \n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n +\n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n log\n \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n \n \n \n log\n \n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n \n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O\\left(|E|+|V|\\log {\\frac {|E|}{|V|}}\\log |V|\\right).}","title":"Running time"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mehlhorn-7"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-felner-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-felner-11"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aima-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aima-22"},{"link_name":"bidirectional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidirectional_search"},{"link_name":"A* algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A*_algorithm"},{"link_name":"§ Related problems and algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Related_problems_and_algorithms"},{"link_name":"transit nodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit_Node_Routing"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-speedup-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Practical optimizations and infinite graphs","text":"In common presentations of Dijkstra's algorithm, initially all nodes are entered into the priority queue. This is, however, not necessary: the algorithm can start with a priority queue that contains only one item, and insert new items as they are discovered (instead of doing a decrease-key, check whether the key is in the queue; if it is, decrease its key, otherwise insert it).[7]: 198 This variant has the same worst-case bounds as the common variant, but maintains a smaller priority queue in practice, speeding up the queue operations.[11]Moreover, not inserting all nodes in a graph makes it possible to extend the algorithm to find the shortest path from a single source to the closest of a set of target nodes on infinite graphs or those too large to represent in memory. The resulting algorithm is called uniform-cost search (UCS) in the artificial intelligence literature[11][22][23] and can be expressed in pseudocode asprocedure uniform_cost_search(start) is\n node ← start\n frontier ← priority queue containing node only\n expanded ← empty set\n do\n if frontier is empty then\n return failure\n node ← frontier.pop()\n if node is a goal state then\n return solution(node)\n expanded.add(node)\n for each of node's neighbors n do\n if n is not in expanded and not in frontier then\n frontier.add(n)\n else if n is in frontier with higher cost\n replace existing node with nThe complexity of this algorithm can be expressed in an alternative way for very large graphs: when C* is the length of the shortest path from the start node to any node satisfying the \"goal\" predicate, each edge has cost at least ε, and the number of neighbors per node is bounded by b, then the algorithm's worst-case time and space complexity are both in O(b1+⌊C* ⁄ ε⌋).[22]Further optimizations of Dijkstra's algorithm for the single-target case include bidirectional variants, goal-directed variants such as the A* algorithm (see § Related problems and algorithms), graph pruning to determine which nodes are likely to form the middle segment of shortest paths (reach-based routing), and hierarchical decompositions of the input graph that reduce s–t routing to connecting s and t to their respective \"transit nodes\" followed by shortest-path computation between these transit nodes using a \"highway\".[24]\nCombinations of such techniques may be needed for optimal practical performance on specific problems.[25]","title":"Running time"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dial 1969","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDial1969"},{"link_name":"bucket queue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_queue"},{"link_name":"Van Emde Boas tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Emde_Boas_tree"},{"link_name":"Ahuja et al. 1990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFAhujaMehlhornOrlinTarjan1990"},{"link_name":"radix heap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radix_heap"},{"link_name":"Ahuja et al. 1990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFAhujaMehlhornOrlinTarjan1990"},{"link_name":"Thorup 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFThorup2000"},{"link_name":"Raman 1997","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRaman1997"}],"sub_title":"Specialized variants","text":"When arc weights are small integers (bounded by a parameter \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C}\n \n), specialized queues which take advantage of this fact can be used to speed up Dijkstra's algorithm. The first algorithm of this type was Dial's algorithm (Dial 1969) for graphs with positive integer edge weights, which uses a bucket queue to obtain a running time \n \n \n \n O\n (\n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n +\n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n C\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(|E|+|V|C)}\n \n. The use of a Van Emde Boas tree as the priority queue brings the complexity to \n \n \n \n O\n (\n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n log\n \n log\n \n C\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(|E|\\log \\log C)}\n \n (Ahuja et al. 1990). Another interesting variant based on a combination of a new radix heap and the well-known Fibonacci heap runs in time \n \n \n \n O\n (\n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n +\n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n \n \n log\n \n C\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(|E|+|V|{\\sqrt {\\log C}})}\n \n (Ahuja et al. 1990). Finally, the best algorithms in this special case are as follows. The algorithm given by (Thorup 2000) runs in \n \n \n \n O\n (\n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n log\n \n log\n \n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(|E|\\log \\log |V|)}\n \n time and the algorithm given by (Raman 1997) runs in \n \n \n \n O\n (\n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n +\n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n min\n {\n (\n log\n \n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n \n )\n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 3\n +\n ε\n \n \n ,\n (\n log\n \n C\n \n )\n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 4\n +\n ε\n \n \n }\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(|E|+|V|\\min\\{(\\log |V|)^{1/3+\\varepsilon },(\\log C)^{1/4+\\varepsilon }\\})}\n \n time.","title":"Running time"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"link-state routing protocols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link-state_routing_protocol"},{"link_name":"OSPF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSPF"},{"link_name":"IS-IS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IS-IS"},{"link_name":"Bellman–Ford algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellman%E2%80%93Ford_algorithm"},{"link_name":"negative cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_cycle"},{"link_name":"graph theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_theory"},{"link_name":"theoretical computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science"},{"link_name":"Johnson's algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson%27s_algorithm"},{"link_name":"A* algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-star_algorithm"},{"link_name":"greedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greedy_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Prim's algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prim%27s_algorithm"},{"link_name":"minimum spanning tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_spanning_tree"},{"link_name":"Breadth-first search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadth-first_search"},{"link_name":"fast marching method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_marching_method"}],"text":"The functionality of Dijkstra's original algorithm can be extended with a variety of modifications. For example, sometimes it is desirable to present solutions which are less than mathematically optimal. To obtain a ranked list of less-than-optimal solutions, the optimal solution is first calculated. A single edge appearing in the optimal solution is removed from the graph, and the optimum solution to this new graph is calculated. Each edge of the original solution is suppressed in turn and a new shortest-path calculated. The secondary solutions are then ranked and presented after the first optimal solution.Dijkstra's algorithm is usually the working principle behind link-state routing protocols, OSPF and IS-IS being the most common ones.Unlike Dijkstra's algorithm, the Bellman–Ford algorithm can be used on graphs with negative edge weights, as long as the graph contains no negative cycle reachable from the source vertex s. The presence of such cycles means there is no shortest path, since the total weight becomes lower each time the cycle is traversed. (This statement assumes that a \"path\" is allowed to repeat vertices. In graph theory that is normally not allowed. In theoretical computer science it often is allowed.) It is possible to adapt Dijkstra's algorithm to handle negative weight edges by combining it with the Bellman-Ford algorithm (to remove negative edges and detect negative cycles); such an algorithm is called Johnson's algorithm.The A* algorithm is a generalization of Dijkstra's algorithm that cuts down on the size of the subgraph that must be explored, if additional information is available that provides a lower bound on the \"distance\" to the target.The process that underlies Dijkstra's algorithm is similar to the greedy process used in Prim's algorithm. Prim's purpose is to find a minimum spanning tree that connects all nodes in the graph; Dijkstra is concerned with only two nodes. Prim's does not evaluate the total weight of the path from the starting node, only the individual edges.Breadth-first search can be viewed as a special-case of Dijkstra's algorithm on unweighted graphs, where the priority queue degenerates into a FIFO queue.The fast marching method can be viewed as a continuous version of Dijkstra's algorithm which computes the geodesic distance on a triangle mesh.","title":"Related problems and algorithms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dynamic programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_programming"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sniedovich_06-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-denardo_03-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sniedovich_10-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Bellman's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Bellman"},{"link_name":"Principle of Optimality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellman_equation#Bellman's_principle_of_optimality"}],"sub_title":"Dynamic programming perspective","text":"From a dynamic programming point of view, Dijkstra's algorithm is a successive approximation scheme that solves the dynamic programming functional equation for the shortest path problem by the Reaching method.[26][27][28]In fact, Dijkstra's explanation of the logic behind the algorithm,[29] namelyProblem 2. Find the path of minimum total length between two given nodes \n \n \n \n P\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P}\n \n and \n \n \n \n Q\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Q}\n \n.\nWe use the fact that, if \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R}\n \n is a node on the minimal path from \n \n \n \n P\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P}\n \n to \n \n \n \n Q\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Q}\n \n, knowledge of the latter implies the knowledge of the minimal path from \n \n \n \n P\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P}\n \n to \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R}\n \n.is a paraphrasing of Bellman's Principle of Optimality in the context of the shortest path problem.","title":"Related problems and algorithms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Dijkstra's algorithm revisited: the dynamic programming connexion\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.infona.pl/resource/bwmeta1.element.baztech-article-BAT5-0013-0005/tab/summary"},{"link_name":"below part","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Dynamic_programming_perspective"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Intro_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Intro_2-1"},{"link_name":"Cormen et al. 2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCormenLeisersonRivestStein2001"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FibonacciH_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FibonacciH_3-1"},{"link_name":"Fredman & Tarjan 1987","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFFredmanTarjan1987"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"Edsger Wybe Dijkstra\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//amturing.acm.org/award_winners/dijkstra_1053701.cfm"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Dijkstra_Interview_5-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Dijkstra_Interview_5-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Dijkstra_Interview_5-2"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1145/1787234.1787249","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1145%2F1787234.1787249"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"27009702","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27009702"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Dijkstra1959_6-0"},{"link_name":"Dijkstra, E. 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Publications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover_Publications"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-486-42810-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-42810-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-sniedovich_10_28-0"},{"link_name":"Francis & Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francis_%26_Taylor&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8247-4099-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-4099-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-29"},{"link_name":"Dijkstra 1959","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDijkstra1959"}],"text":"^ Controversial, see Moshe Sniedovich (2006). \"Dijkstra's algorithm revisited: the dynamic programming connexion\". Control and Cybernetics. 35: 599–620. and below part.\n\n^ a b Cormen et al. 2001\n\n^ a b Fredman & Tarjan 1987\n\n^ Richards, Hamilton. \"Edsger Wybe Dijkstra\". A.M. Turing Award. Association for Computing Machinery. Retrieved 16 October 2017. At the Mathematical Centre a major project was building the ARMAC computer. For its official inauguration in 1956, Dijkstra devised a program to solve a problem interesting to a nontechnical audience: Given a network of roads connecting cities, what is the shortest route between two designated cities?\n\n^ a b c Frana, Phil (August 2010). \"An Interview with Edsger W. Dijkstra\". Communications of the ACM. 53 (8): 41–47. doi:10.1145/1787234.1787249. S2CID 27009702.\n\n^ Dijkstra, E. W. (1959). \"A note on two problems in connexion with graphs\". Numerische Mathematik. 1: 269–271. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.165.7577. doi:10.1007/BF01386390. S2CID 123284777.\n\n^ a b c d e Mehlhorn, Kurt; Sanders, Peter (2008). \"Chapter 10. Shortest Paths\" (PDF). Algorithms and Data Structures: The Basic Toolbox. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-77978-0. ISBN 978-3-540-77977-3.\n\n^ Schrijver, Alexander (2012). \"On the history of the shortest path problem\" (PDF). Documenta Mathematica. Documenta Mathematica Series: 155–167. doi:10.4171/dms/6/19. ISBN 978-3-936609-58-5.\n\n^ Szcześniak, Ireneusz; Jajszczyk, Andrzej; Woźna-Szcześniak, Bożena (2019). \"Generic Dijkstra for optical networks\". Journal of Optical Communications and Networking. 11 (11): 568–577. arXiv:1810.04481. doi:10.1364/JOCN.11.000568. S2CID 52958911.\n\n^ Szcześniak, Ireneusz; Woźna-Szcześniak, Bożena (2023), \"Generic Dijkstra: Correctness and tractability\", NOMS 2023-2023 IEEE/IFIP Network Operations and Management Symposium, pp. 1–7, arXiv:2204.13547, doi:10.1109/NOMS56928.2023.10154322, ISBN 978-1-6654-7716-1, S2CID 248427020\n\n^ a b c Felner, Ariel (2011). Position Paper: Dijkstra's Algorithm versus Uniform Cost Search or a Case Against Dijkstra's Algorithm. Proc. 4th Int'l Symp. on Combinatorial Search. Archived from the original on 18 February 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2015. In a route-finding problem, Felner finds that the queue can be a factor 500–600 smaller, taking some 40% of the running time.\n\n^ \"ARMAC\". Unsung Heroes in Dutch Computing History. 2007. Archived from the original on 13 November 2013.\n\n^ Dijkstra, Edsger W., Reflections on \"A note on two problems in connexion with graphs (PDF)\n\n^ Tarjan, Robert Endre (1983), Data Structures and Network Algorithms, CBMS_NSF Regional Conference Series in Applied Mathematics, vol. 44, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, p. 75, The third classical minimum spanning tree algorithm was discovered by Jarník and rediscovered by Prim and Dikstra; it is commonly known as Prim's algorithm.\n\n^ Prim, R.C. (1957). \"Shortest connection networks and some generalizations\" (PDF). Bell System Technical Journal. 36 (6): 1389–1401. Bibcode:1957BSTJ...36.1389P. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1957.tb01515.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 July 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2017.\n\n^ V. Jarník: O jistém problému minimálním [About a certain minimal problem], Práce Moravské Přírodovědecké Společnosti, 6, 1930, pp. 57–63. (in Czech)\n\n^ Gass, Saul; Fu, Michael (2013). \"Dijkstra's Algorithm\". In Gass, Saul I; Fu, Michael C (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science. Vol. 1. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7. ISBN 978-1-4419-1137-7 – via Springer Link.\n\n^ Fredman & Tarjan 1984.\n\n^ Observe that p < dist[u] cannot ever hold because of the update dist[v] ← alt when updating the queue. See https://cs.stackexchange.com/questions/118388/dijkstra-without-decrease-key for discussion.\n\n^ Chen, M.; Chowdhury, R. A.; Ramachandran, V.; Roche, D. L.; Tong, L. (2007). Priority Queues and Dijkstra's Algorithm – UTCS Technical Report TR-07-54 – 12 October 2007 (PDF). Austin, Texas: The University of Texas at Austin, Department of Computer Sciences.\n\n^ Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2022) [1990]. \"22\". Introduction to Algorithms (4th ed.). MIT Press and McGraw-Hill. pp. 622–623. ISBN 0-262-04630-X.\n\n^ a b Russell, Stuart; Norvig, Peter (2009) [1995]. Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. pp. 75, 81. ISBN 978-0-13-604259-4.\n\n^ Sometimes also least-cost-first search: Nau, Dana S. (1983). \"Expert computer systems\" (PDF). Computer. 16 (2). IEEE: 63–85. doi:10.1109/mc.1983.1654302. S2CID 7301753.\n\n^ Wagner, Dorothea; Willhalm, Thomas (2007). Speed-up techniques for shortest-path computations. STACS. pp. 23–36.\n\n^ Bauer, Reinhard; Delling, Daniel; Sanders, Peter; Schieferdecker, Dennis; Schultes, Dominik; Wagner, Dorothea (2010). \"Combining hierarchical and goal-directed speed-up techniques for Dijkstra's algorithm\". J. Experimental Algorithmics. 15: 2.1. doi:10.1145/1671970.1671976. S2CID 1661292.\n\n^ Sniedovich, M. (2006). \"Dijkstra's algorithm revisited: the dynamic programming connexion\" (PDF). Journal of Control and Cybernetics. 35 (3): 599–620. Online version of the paper with interactive computational modules.\n\n^ Denardo, E.V. (2003). Dynamic Programming: Models and Applications. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-42810-9.\n\n^ Sniedovich, M. (2010). Dynamic Programming: Foundations and Principles. Francis & Taylor. ISBN 978-0-8247-4099-3.\n\n^ Dijkstra 1959, p. 270","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Illustration of Dijkstra's algorithm finding a path from a start node (lower left, red) to a target node (upper right, green) in a robot motion planning problem. Open nodes represent the \"tentative\" set (aka set of \"unvisited\" nodes). Filled nodes are the visited ones, with color representing the distance: the greener, the closer. Nodes in all the different directions are explored uniformly, appearing more-or-less as a circular wavefront as Dijkstra's algorithm uses a heuristic of picking the shortest known path so far.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Dijkstras_progress_animation.gif"},{"image_text":"A demo of Dijkstra's algorithm based on Euclidean distance. Red lines are the shortest path covering, i.e., connecting u and prev[u]. Blue lines indicate where relaxing happens, i.e., connecting v with a node u in Q, which gives a shorter path from the source to v.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DijkstraDemo.gif/220px-DijkstraDemo.gif"},{"image_text":"Optimization computes maxima and minima.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Max_paraboloid.svg/150px-Max_paraboloid.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"A* search algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A*_search_algorithm"},{"title":"Bellman–Ford algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellman%E2%80%93Ford_algorithm"},{"title":"Euclidean shortest path","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_shortest_path"},{"title":"Floyd–Warshall algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floyd%E2%80%93Warshall_algorithm"},{"title":"Johnson's algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson%27s_algorithm"},{"title":"Longest path problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longest_path_problem"},{"title":"Parallel all-pairs shortest path algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_all-pairs_shortest_path_algorithm"}]
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Communications of the ACM. 53 (8): 41–47. doi:10.1145/1787234.1787249. S2CID 27009702.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1787234.1787249","url_text":"10.1145/1787234.1787249"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27009702","url_text":"27009702"}]},{"reference":"Dijkstra, E. W. (1959). \"A note on two problems in connexion with graphs\". Numerische Mathematik. 1: 269–271. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.165.7577. doi:10.1007/BF01386390. S2CID 123284777.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra","url_text":"Dijkstra, E. W."},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=40368327ACB1D1FFF45671886D563916?doi=10.1.1.165.7577&rep=rep1&type=pdf","url_text":"\"A note on two problems in connexion with graphs\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.165.7577","url_text":"10.1.1.165.7577"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01386390","url_text":"10.1007/BF01386390"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123284777","url_text":"123284777"}]},{"reference":"Mehlhorn, Kurt; Sanders, Peter (2008). \"Chapter 10. Shortest Paths\" (PDF). Algorithms and Data Structures: The Basic Toolbox. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-77978-0. ISBN 978-3-540-77977-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Mehlhorn","url_text":"Mehlhorn, Kurt"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Sanders_(computer_scientist)","url_text":"Sanders, Peter"},{"url":"http://people.mpi-inf.mpg.de/~mehlhorn/ftp/Toolbox/ShortestPaths.pdf","url_text":"\"Chapter 10. Shortest Paths\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-77978-0","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-540-77978-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-77977-3","url_text":"978-3-540-77977-3"}]},{"reference":"Schrijver, Alexander (2012). \"On the history of the shortest path problem\" (PDF). Documenta Mathematica. Documenta Mathematica Series: 155–167. doi:10.4171/dms/6/19. ISBN 978-3-936609-58-5.","urls":[{"url":"http://ftp.gwdg.de/pub/misc/EMIS/journals/DMJDMV/vol-ismp/32_schrijver-alexander-sp.pdf","url_text":"\"On the history of the shortest path problem\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4171%2Fdms%2F6%2F19","url_text":"10.4171/dms/6/19"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-936609-58-5","url_text":"978-3-936609-58-5"}]},{"reference":"Szcześniak, Ireneusz; Jajszczyk, Andrzej; Woźna-Szcześniak, Bożena (2019). \"Generic Dijkstra for optical networks\". Journal of Optical Communications and Networking. 11 (11): 568–577. arXiv:1810.04481. doi:10.1364/JOCN.11.000568. S2CID 52958911.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.04481","url_text":"1810.04481"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1364%2FJOCN.11.000568","url_text":"10.1364/JOCN.11.000568"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52958911","url_text":"52958911"}]},{"reference":"Szcześniak, Ireneusz; Woźna-Szcześniak, Bożena (2023), \"Generic Dijkstra: Correctness and tractability\", NOMS 2023-2023 IEEE/IFIP Network Operations and Management Symposium, pp. 1–7, arXiv:2204.13547, doi:10.1109/NOMS56928.2023.10154322, ISBN 978-1-6654-7716-1, S2CID 248427020","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/2204.13547","url_text":"2204.13547"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FNOMS56928.2023.10154322","url_text":"10.1109/NOMS56928.2023.10154322"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-6654-7716-1","url_text":"978-1-6654-7716-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248427020","url_text":"248427020"}]},{"reference":"Felner, Ariel (2011). Position Paper: Dijkstra's Algorithm versus Uniform Cost Search or a Case Against Dijkstra's Algorithm. Proc. 4th Int'l Symp. on Combinatorial Search. Archived from the original on 18 February 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200218150924/https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/SOCS/SOCS11/paper/view/4017/4357","url_text":"Position Paper: Dijkstra's Algorithm versus Uniform Cost Search or a Case Against Dijkstra's Algorithm"},{"url":"http://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/SOCS/SOCS11/paper/view/4017/4357","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"ARMAC\". Unsung Heroes in Dutch Computing History. 2007. Archived from the original on 13 November 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131113021126/http://www-set.win.tue.nl/UnsungHeroes/machines/armac.html","url_text":"\"ARMAC\""},{"url":"http://www-set.win.tue.nl/UnsungHeroes/machines/armac.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Dijkstra, Edsger W., Reflections on \"A note on two problems in connexion with graphs (PDF)","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd08xx/EWD841a.PDF","url_text":"Reflections on \"A note on two problems in connexion with graphs"}]},{"reference":"Tarjan, Robert Endre (1983), Data Structures and Network Algorithms, CBMS_NSF Regional Conference Series in Applied Mathematics, vol. 44, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, p. 75, The third classical minimum spanning tree algorithm was discovered by Jarník and rediscovered by Prim and Dikstra; it is commonly known as Prim's algorithm.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Endre_Tarjan","url_text":"Tarjan, Robert Endre"}]},{"reference":"Prim, R.C. (1957). \"Shortest connection networks and some generalizations\" (PDF). Bell System Technical Journal. 36 (6): 1389–1401. Bibcode:1957BSTJ...36.1389P. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1957.tb01515.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 July 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170718230207/http://bioinfo.ict.ac.cn/~dbu/AlgorithmCourses/Lectures/Prim1957.pdf","url_text":"\"Shortest connection networks and some generalizations\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957BSTJ...36.1389P","url_text":"1957BSTJ...36.1389P"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1957.tb01515.x","url_text":"10.1002/j.1538-7305.1957.tb01515.x"},{"url":"http://bioinfo.ict.ac.cn/~dbu/AlgorithmCourses/Lectures/Prim1957.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gass, Saul; Fu, Michael (2013). \"Dijkstra's Algorithm\". In Gass, Saul I; Fu, Michael C (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science. Vol. 1. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7. ISBN 978-1-4419-1137-7 – via Springer Link.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7","url_text":"10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-1137-7","url_text":"978-1-4419-1137-7"}]},{"reference":"Chen, M.; Chowdhury, R. A.; Ramachandran, V.; Roche, D. L.; Tong, L. (2007). Priority Queues and Dijkstra's Algorithm – UTCS Technical Report TR-07-54 – 12 October 2007 (PDF). Austin, Texas: The University of Texas at Austin, Department of Computer Sciences.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cs.sunysb.edu/~rezaul/papers/TR-07-54.pdf","url_text":"Priority Queues and Dijkstra's Algorithm – UTCS Technical Report TR-07-54 – 12 October 2007"}]},{"reference":"Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2022) [1990]. \"22\". Introduction to Algorithms (4th ed.). MIT Press and McGraw-Hill. pp. 622–623. ISBN 0-262-04630-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_H._Cormen","url_text":"Cormen, Thomas H."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_E._Leiserson","url_text":"Leiserson, Charles E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Rivest","url_text":"Rivest, Ronald L."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Stein","url_text":"Stein, Clifford"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Algorithms","url_text":"Introduction to Algorithms"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-04630-X","url_text":"0-262-04630-X"}]},{"reference":"Russell, Stuart; Norvig, Peter (2009) [1995]. Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. pp. 75, 81. ISBN 978-0-13-604259-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_J._Russell","url_text":"Russell, Stuart"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Norvig","url_text":"Norvig, Peter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence:_A_Modern_Approach","url_text":"Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-604259-4","url_text":"978-0-13-604259-4"}]},{"reference":"Nau, Dana S. (1983). \"Expert computer systems\" (PDF). Computer. 16 (2). IEEE: 63–85. doi:10.1109/mc.1983.1654302. S2CID 7301753.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cs.umd.edu/~nau/papers/nau1983expert.pdf","url_text":"\"Expert computer systems\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2Fmc.1983.1654302","url_text":"10.1109/mc.1983.1654302"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7301753","url_text":"7301753"}]},{"reference":"Wagner, Dorothea; Willhalm, Thomas (2007). Speed-up techniques for shortest-path computations. STACS. pp. 23–36.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bauer, Reinhard; Delling, Daniel; Sanders, Peter; Schieferdecker, Dennis; Schultes, Dominik; Wagner, Dorothea (2010). \"Combining hierarchical and goal-directed speed-up techniques for Dijkstra's algorithm\". J. Experimental Algorithmics. 15: 2.1. doi:10.1145/1671970.1671976. S2CID 1661292.","urls":[{"url":"https://publikationen.bibliothek.kit.edu/1000014952","url_text":"\"Combining hierarchical and goal-directed speed-up techniques for Dijkstra's algorithm\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1671970.1671976","url_text":"10.1145/1671970.1671976"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1661292","url_text":"1661292"}]},{"reference":"Sniedovich, M. (2006). \"Dijkstra's algorithm revisited: the dynamic programming connexion\" (PDF). Journal of Control and Cybernetics. 35 (3): 599–620.","urls":[{"url":"http://matwbn.icm.edu.pl/ksiazki/cc/cc35/cc3536.pdf","url_text":"\"Dijkstra's algorithm revisited: the dynamic programming connexion\""}]},{"reference":"Denardo, E.V. (2003). Dynamic Programming: Models and Applications. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-42810-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover_Publications","url_text":"Dover Publications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-42810-9","url_text":"978-0-486-42810-9"}]},{"reference":"Sniedovich, M. (2010). Dynamic Programming: Foundations and Principles. Francis & Taylor. ISBN 978-0-8247-4099-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francis_%26_Taylor&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Francis & Taylor"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-4099-3","url_text":"978-0-8247-4099-3"}]},{"reference":"Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2001). \"Section 24.3: Dijkstra's algorithm\". Introduction to Algorithms (Second ed.). MIT Press and McGraw–Hill. pp. 595–601. ISBN 0-262-03293-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_H._Cormen","url_text":"Cormen, Thomas H."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_E._Leiserson","url_text":"Leiserson, Charles E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_L._Rivest","url_text":"Rivest, Ronald L."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Stein","url_text":"Stein, Clifford"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Algorithms","url_text":"Introduction to Algorithms"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Press","url_text":"MIT Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw%E2%80%93Hill","url_text":"McGraw–Hill"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-03293-7","url_text":"0-262-03293-7"}]},{"reference":"Dial, Robert B. (1969). \"Algorithm 360: Shortest-path forest with topological ordering [H]\". Communications of the ACM. 12 (11): 632–633. doi:10.1145/363269.363610. S2CID 6754003.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F363269.363610","url_text":"\"Algorithm 360: Shortest-path forest with topological ordering [H]\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_of_the_ACM","url_text":"Communications of the ACM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F363269.363610","url_text":"10.1145/363269.363610"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6754003","url_text":"6754003"}]},{"reference":"Fredman, Michael Lawrence; Tarjan, Robert E. (1984). Fibonacci heaps and their uses in improved network optimization algorithms. 25th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science. IEEE. pp. 338–346. doi:10.1109/SFCS.1984.715934.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Fredman","url_text":"Fredman, Michael Lawrence"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Tarjan","url_text":"Tarjan, Robert E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE","url_text":"IEEE"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FSFCS.1984.715934","url_text":"10.1109/SFCS.1984.715934"}]},{"reference":"Fredman, Michael Lawrence; Tarjan, Robert E. (1987). \"Fibonacci heaps and their uses in improved network optimization algorithms\". Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery. 34 (3): 596–615. doi:10.1145/28869.28874. S2CID 7904683.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Fredman","url_text":"Fredman, Michael Lawrence"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Tarjan","url_text":"Tarjan, Robert E."},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F28869.28874","url_text":"\"Fibonacci heaps and their uses in improved network optimization algorithms\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F28869.28874","url_text":"10.1145/28869.28874"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7904683","url_text":"7904683"}]},{"reference":"Zhan, F. Benjamin; Noon, Charles E. (February 1998). \"Shortest Path Algorithms: An Evaluation Using Real Road Networks\". Transportation Science. 32 (1): 65–73. doi:10.1287/trsc.32.1.65. 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Information Processing Letters. 6 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1016/0020-0190(77)90002-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Knuth","url_text":"Knuth, D.E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Processing_Letters","url_text":"Information Processing Letters"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0020-0190%2877%2990002-3","url_text":"10.1016/0020-0190(77)90002-3"}]},{"reference":"Ahuja, Ravindra K.; Mehlhorn, Kurt; Orlin, James B.; Tarjan, Robert E. (April 1990). \"Faster Algorithms for the Shortest Path Problem\" (PDF). Journal of the ACM. 37 (2): 213–223. doi:10.1145/77600.77615. hdl:1721.1/47994. 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problem\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.4171%2Fdms%2F6%2F19","external_links_name":"10.4171/dms/6/19"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.04481","external_links_name":"1810.04481"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1364%2FJOCN.11.000568","external_links_name":"10.1364/JOCN.11.000568"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52958911","external_links_name":"52958911"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/2204.13547","external_links_name":"2204.13547"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FNOMS56928.2023.10154322","external_links_name":"10.1109/NOMS56928.2023.10154322"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248427020","external_links_name":"248427020"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200218150924/https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/SOCS/SOCS11/paper/view/4017/4357","external_links_name":"Position Paper: Dijkstra's Algorithm versus Uniform Cost Search or a Case Against Dijkstra's Algorithm"},{"Link":"http://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/SOCS/SOCS11/paper/view/4017/4357","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131113021126/http://www-set.win.tue.nl/UnsungHeroes/machines/armac.html","external_links_name":"\"ARMAC\""},{"Link":"http://www-set.win.tue.nl/UnsungHeroes/machines/armac.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd08xx/EWD841a.PDF","external_links_name":"Reflections on \"A note on two problems in connexion with graphs"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170718230207/http://bioinfo.ict.ac.cn/~dbu/AlgorithmCourses/Lectures/Prim1957.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Shortest connection networks and some generalizations\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957BSTJ...36.1389P","external_links_name":"1957BSTJ...36.1389P"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1957.tb01515.x","external_links_name":"10.1002/j.1538-7305.1957.tb01515.x"},{"Link":"http://bioinfo.ict.ac.cn/~dbu/AlgorithmCourses/Lectures/Prim1957.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7","external_links_name":"10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7"},{"Link":"https://cs.stackexchange.com/questions/118388/dijkstra-without-decrease-key","external_links_name":"https://cs.stackexchange.com/questions/118388/dijkstra-without-decrease-key"},{"Link":"http://www.cs.sunysb.edu/~rezaul/papers/TR-07-54.pdf","external_links_name":"Priority Queues and Dijkstra's Algorithm – UTCS Technical Report TR-07-54 – 12 October 2007"},{"Link":"https://www.cs.umd.edu/~nau/papers/nau1983expert.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Expert computer systems\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2Fmc.1983.1654302","external_links_name":"10.1109/mc.1983.1654302"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7301753","external_links_name":"7301753"},{"Link":"https://publikationen.bibliothek.kit.edu/1000014952","external_links_name":"\"Combining hierarchical and goal-directed speed-up techniques for Dijkstra's algorithm\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1671970.1671976","external_links_name":"10.1145/1671970.1671976"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1661292","external_links_name":"1661292"},{"Link":"http://matwbn.icm.edu.pl/ksiazki/cc/cc35/cc3536.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Dijkstra's algorithm revisited: the dynamic programming connexion\""},{"Link":"http://www.ifors.ms.unimelb.edu.au/tutorial/dijkstra_new/index.html","external_links_name":"Online version of the paper with interactive computational modules."},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F363269.363610","external_links_name":"\"Algorithm 360: Shortest-path forest with topological ordering [H]\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F363269.363610","external_links_name":"10.1145/363269.363610"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6754003","external_links_name":"6754003"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FSFCS.1984.715934","external_links_name":"10.1109/SFCS.1984.715934"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F28869.28874","external_links_name":"\"Fibonacci heaps and their uses in improved network optimization algorithms\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F28869.28874","external_links_name":"10.1145/28869.28874"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7904683","external_links_name":"7904683"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1287%2Ftrsc.32.1.65","external_links_name":"10.1287/trsc.32.1.65"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14986297","external_links_name":"14986297"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0020-0190%2877%2990002-3","external_links_name":"10.1016/0020-0190(77)90002-3"},{"Link":"https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/47994/1/fasteralgorithms00sloa.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Faster Algorithms for the Shortest Path Problem\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F77600.77615","external_links_name":"10.1145/77600.77615"},{"Link":"https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F47994","external_links_name":"1721.1/47994"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5499589","external_links_name":"5499589"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F261342.261352","external_links_name":"\"Recent results on the single-source shortest paths problem\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F261342.261352","external_links_name":"10.1145/261342.261352"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18031586","external_links_name":"18031586"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1137%2FS0097539795288246","external_links_name":"10.1137/S0097539795288246"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5221089","external_links_name":"5221089"},{"Link":"http://www.diku.dk/~mthorup/PAPERS/sssp.ps.gz","external_links_name":"\"Undirected single-source shortest paths with positive integer weights in linear time\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F316542.316548","external_links_name":"10.1145/316542.316548"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207654795","external_links_name":"207654795"},{"Link":"http://purl.umn.edu/107247","external_links_name":"Oral history interview with Edsger W. Dijkstra"},{"Link":"http://blog.cleancoder.com/uncle-bob/2016/10/26/DijkstrasAlg.html","external_links_name":"Implementation of Dijkstra's algorithm using TDD"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_equation
|
Equation
|
["1 Description","2 Properties","3 Examples","3.1 Analogous illustration","3.2 Parameters and unknowns","3.3 Identities","4 Algebra","4.1 Polynomial equations","4.2 Systems of linear equations","5 Geometry","5.1 Analytic geometry","5.2 Cartesian equations","5.3 Parametric equations","6 Number theory","6.1 Diophantine equations","6.2 Algebraic and transcendental numbers","6.3 Algebraic geometry","7 Differential equations","7.1 Ordinary differential equations","7.2 Partial differential equations","8 Types of equations","9 See also","10 Notes","11 References","12 External links"]
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Mathematical formula expressing equality
For other uses, see Equation (disambiguation).You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in French. Click for important translation instructions.
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For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation.The first use of an equals sign, equivalent to 14x + 15 = 71 in modern notation. From The Whetstone of Witte by Robert Recorde of Wales (1557).
In mathematics, an equation is a mathematical formula that expresses the equality of two expressions, by connecting them with the equals sign =. The word equation and its cognates in other languages may have subtly different meanings; for example, in French an équation is defined as containing one or more variables, while in English, any well-formed formula consisting of two expressions related with an equals sign is an equation.
Solving an equation containing variables consists of determining which values of the variables make the equality true. The variables for which the equation has to be solved are also called unknowns, and the values of the unknowns that satisfy the equality are called solutions of the equation. There are two kinds of equations: identities and conditional equations. An identity is true for all values of the variables. A conditional equation is only true for particular values of the variables.
The "=" symbol, which appears in every equation, was invented in 1557 by Robert Recorde, who considered that nothing could be more equal than parallel straight lines with the same length.
Description
An equation is written as two expressions, connected by an equals sign ("="). The expressions on the two sides of the equals sign are called the "left-hand side" and "right-hand side" of the equation. Very often the right-hand side of an equation is assumed to be zero. This does not reduce the generality, as this can be realized by subtracting the right-hand side from both sides.
The most common type of equation is a polynomial equation (commonly called also an algebraic equation) in which the two sides are polynomials.
The sides of a polynomial equation contain one or more terms. For example, the equation
A
x
2
+
B
x
+
C
−
y
=
0
{\displaystyle Ax^{2}+Bx+C-y=0}
has left-hand side
A
x
2
+
B
x
+
C
−
y
{\displaystyle Ax^{2}+Bx+C-y}
, which has four terms, and right-hand side
0
{\displaystyle 0}
, consisting of just one term. The names of the variables suggest that x and y are unknowns, and that A, B, and C are parameters, but this is normally fixed by the context (in some contexts, y may be a parameter, or A, B, and C may be ordinary variables).
An equation is analogous to a scale into which weights are placed. When equal weights of something (e.g., grain) are placed into the two pans, the two weights cause the scale to be in balance and are said to be equal. If a quantity of grain is removed from one pan of the balance, an equal amount of grain must be removed from the other pan to keep the scale in balance. More generally, an equation remains in balance if the same operation is performed on its both sides.
Properties
Two equations or two systems of equations are equivalent, if they have the same set of solutions. The following operations transform an equation or a system of equations into an equivalent one – provided that the operations are meaningful for the expressions they are applied to:
Adding or subtracting the same quantity to both sides of an equation. This shows that every equation is equivalent to an equation in which the right-hand side is zero.
Multiplying or dividing both sides of an equation by a non-zero quantity.
Applying an identity to transform one side of the equation. For example, expanding a product or factoring a sum.
For a system: adding to both sides of an equation the corresponding side of another equation, multiplied by the same quantity.
If some function is applied to both sides of an equation, the resulting equation has the solutions of the initial equation among its solutions, but may have further solutions called extraneous solutions. For example, the equation
x
=
1
{\displaystyle x=1}
has the solution
x
=
1.
{\displaystyle x=1.}
Raising both sides to the exponent of 2 (which means applying the function
f
(
s
)
=
s
2
{\displaystyle f(s)=s^{2}}
to both sides of the equation) changes the equation to
x
2
=
1
{\displaystyle x^{2}=1}
, which not only has the previous solution but also introduces the extraneous solution,
x
=
−
1.
{\displaystyle x=-1.}
Moreover, if the function is not defined at some values (such as 1/x, which is not defined for x = 0), solutions existing at those values may be lost. Thus, caution must be exercised when applying such a transformation to an equation.
The above transformations are the basis of most elementary methods for equation solving, as well as some less elementary ones, like Gaussian elimination.
Examples
Analogous illustration
Illustration of a simple equation; x, y, z are real numbers, analogous to weights.
An equation is analogous to a weighing scale, balance, or seesaw.
Each side of the equation corresponds to one side of the balance. Different quantities can be placed on each side: if the weights on the two sides are equal, the scale balances, and in analogy, the equality that represents the balance is also balanced (if not, then the lack of balance corresponds to an inequality represented by an inequation).
In the illustration, x, y and z are all different quantities (in this case real numbers) represented as circular weights, and each of x, y, and z has a different weight. Addition corresponds to adding weight, while subtraction corresponds to removing weight from what is already there. When equality holds, the total weight on each side is the same.
Parameters and unknowns
See also: Expression (mathematics)
Equations often contain terms other than the unknowns. These other terms, which are assumed to be known, are usually called constants, coefficients or parameters.
An example of an equation involving x and y as unknowns and the parameter R is
x
2
+
y
2
=
R
2
.
{\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=R^{2}.}
When R is chosen to have the value of 2 (R = 2), this equation would be recognized in Cartesian coordinates as the equation for the circle of radius of 2 around the origin. Hence, the equation with R unspecified is the general equation for the circle.
Usually, the unknowns are denoted by letters at the end of the alphabet, x, y, z, w, ..., while coefficients (parameters) are denoted by letters at the beginning, a, b, c, d, ... . For example, the general quadratic equation is usually written ax2 + bx + c = 0.
The process of finding the solutions, or, in case of parameters, expressing the unknowns in terms of the parameters, is called solving the equation. Such expressions of the solutions in terms of the parameters are also called solutions.
A system of equations is a set of simultaneous equations, usually in several unknowns for which the common solutions are sought. Thus, a solution to the system is a set of values for each of the unknowns, which together form a solution to each equation in the system. For example, the system
3
x
+
5
y
=
2
5
x
+
8
y
=
3
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}3x+5y&=2\\5x+8y&=3\end{aligned}}}
has the unique solution x = −1, y = 1.
Identities
Main articles: Identity (mathematics) and List of trigonometric identities
An identity is an equation that is true for all possible values of the variable(s) it contains. Many identities are known in algebra and calculus. In the process of solving an equation, an identity is often used to simplify an equation, making it more easily solvable.
In algebra, an example of an identity is the difference of two squares:
x
2
−
y
2
=
(
x
+
y
)
(
x
−
y
)
{\displaystyle x^{2}-y^{2}=(x+y)(x-y)}
which is true for all x and y.
Trigonometry is an area where many identities exist; these are useful in manipulating or solving trigonometric equations. Two of many that involve the sine and cosine functions are:
sin
2
(
θ
)
+
cos
2
(
θ
)
=
1
{\displaystyle \sin ^{2}(\theta )+\cos ^{2}(\theta )=1}
and
sin
(
2
θ
)
=
2
sin
(
θ
)
cos
(
θ
)
{\displaystyle \sin(2\theta )=2\sin(\theta )\cos(\theta )}
which are both true for all values of θ.
For example, to solve for the value of θ that satisfies the equation:
3
sin
(
θ
)
cos
(
θ
)
=
1
,
{\displaystyle 3\sin(\theta )\cos(\theta )=1\,,}
where θ is limited to between 0 and 45 degrees, one may use the above identity for the product to give:
3
2
sin
(
2
θ
)
=
1
,
{\displaystyle {\frac {3}{2}}\sin(2\theta )=1\,,}
yielding the following solution for θ:
θ
=
1
2
arcsin
(
2
3
)
≈
20.9
∘
.
{\displaystyle \theta ={\frac {1}{2}}\arcsin \left({\frac {2}{3}}\right)\approx 20.9^{\circ }.}
Since the sine function is a periodic function, there are infinitely many solutions if there are no restrictions on θ. In this example, restricting θ to be between 0 and 45 degrees would restrict the solution to only one number.
Algebra
Algebra studies two main families of equations: polynomial equations and, among them, the special case of linear equations. When there is only one variable, polynomial equations have the form P(x) = 0, where P is a polynomial, and linear equations have the form ax + b = 0, where a and b are parameters. To solve equations from either family, one uses algorithmic or geometric techniques that originate from linear algebra or mathematical analysis. Algebra also studies Diophantine equations where the coefficients and solutions are integers. The techniques used are different and come from number theory. These equations are difficult in general; one often searches just to find the existence or absence of a solution, and, if they exist, to count the number of solutions.
Polynomial equations
Main article: Polynomial equation
The solutions –1 and 2 of the polynomial equation x2 – x + 2 = 0 are the points where the graph of the quadratic function y = x2 – x + 2 cuts the x-axis.
In general, an algebraic equation or polynomial equation is an equation of the form
P
=
0
{\displaystyle P=0}
, or
P
=
Q
{\displaystyle P=Q}
where P and Q are polynomials with coefficients in some field (e.g., rational numbers, real numbers, complex numbers). An algebraic equation is univariate if it involves only one variable. On the other hand, a polynomial equation may involve several variables, in which case it is called multivariate (multiple variables, x, y, z, etc.).
For example,
x
5
−
3
x
+
1
=
0
{\displaystyle x^{5}-3x+1=0}
is a univariate algebraic (polynomial) equation with integer coefficients and
y
4
+
x
y
2
=
x
3
3
−
x
y
2
+
y
2
−
1
7
{\displaystyle y^{4}+{\frac {xy}{2}}={\frac {x^{3}}{3}}-xy^{2}+y^{2}-{\frac {1}{7}}}
is a multivariate polynomial equation over the rational numbers.
Some polynomial equations with rational coefficients have a solution that is an algebraic expression, with a finite number of operations involving just those coefficients (i.e., can be solved algebraically). This can be done for all such equations of degree one, two, three, or four; but equations of degree five or more cannot always be solved in this way, as the Abel–Ruffini theorem demonstrates.
A large amount of research has been devoted to compute efficiently accurate approximations of the real or complex solutions of a univariate algebraic equation (see Root finding of polynomials) and of the common solutions of several multivariate polynomial equations (see System of polynomial equations).
Systems of linear equations
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is an anonymous 2nd-century Chinese book proposing a method of resolution for linear equations.
A system of linear equations (or linear system) is a collection of linear equations involving one or more variables. For example,
3
x
+
2
y
−
z
=
1
2
x
−
2
y
+
4
z
=
−
2
−
x
+
1
2
y
−
z
=
0
{\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{7}3x&&\;+\;&&2y&&\;-\;&&z&&\;=\;&&1&\\2x&&\;-\;&&2y&&\;+\;&&4z&&\;=\;&&-2&\\-x&&\;+\;&&{\tfrac {1}{2}}y&&\;-\;&&z&&\;=\;&&0&\end{alignedat}}}
is a system of three equations in the three variables x, y, z. A solution to a linear system is an assignment of numbers to the variables such that all the equations are simultaneously satisfied. A solution to the system above is given by
x
=
1
y
=
−
2
z
=
−
2
{\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{2}x&\,=\,&1\\y&\,=\,&-2\\z&\,=\,&-2\end{alignedat}}}
since it makes all three equations valid. The word "system" indicates that the equations are to be considered collectively, rather than individually.
In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is a fundamental part of linear algebra, a subject which is used in many parts of modern mathematics. Computational algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and play a prominent role in physics, engineering, chemistry, computer science, and economics. A system of non-linear equations can often be approximated by a linear system (see linearization), a helpful technique when making a mathematical model or computer simulation of a relatively complex system.
Geometry
Analytic geometry
The blue and red line is the set of all points (x,y) such that x+y=5 and -x+2y=4, respectively. Their intersection point, (2,3), satisfies both equations.Main article: Analytic geometry
In Euclidean geometry, it is possible to associate a set of coordinates to each point in space, for example by an orthogonal grid. This method allows one to characterize geometric figures by equations. A plane in three-dimensional space can be expressed as the solution set of an equation of the form
a
x
+
b
y
+
c
z
+
d
=
0
{\displaystyle ax+by+cz+d=0}
, where
a
,
b
,
c
{\displaystyle a,b,c}
and
d
{\displaystyle d}
are real numbers and
x
,
y
,
z
{\displaystyle x,y,z}
are the unknowns that correspond to the coordinates of a point in the system given by the orthogonal grid. The values
a
,
b
,
c
{\displaystyle a,b,c}
are the coordinates of a vector perpendicular to the plane defined by the equation. A line is expressed as the intersection of two planes, that is as the solution set of a single linear equation with values in
R
2
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}
or as the solution set of two linear equations with values in
R
3
.
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}.}
A conic section is the intersection of a cone with equation
x
2
+
y
2
=
z
2
{\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=z^{2}}
and a plane. In other words, in space, all conics are defined as the solution set of an equation of a plane and of the equation of a cone just given. This formalism allows one to determine the positions and the properties of the focuses of a conic.
The use of equations allows one to call on a large area of mathematics to solve geometric questions. The Cartesian coordinate system transforms a geometric problem into an analysis problem, once the figures are transformed into equations; thus the name analytic geometry. This point of view, outlined by Descartes, enriches and modifies the type of geometry conceived of by the ancient Greek mathematicians.
Currently, analytic geometry designates an active branch of mathematics. Although it still uses equations to characterize figures, it also uses other sophisticated techniques such as functional analysis and linear algebra.
Cartesian equations
Cartesian coordinate system with a circle of radius 2 centered at the origin marked in red. The equation of a circle is (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 where a and b are the coordinates of the center (a, b) and r is the radius.In Cartesian geometry, equations are used to describe geometric figures. As the equations that are considered, such as implicit equations or parametric equations, have infinitely many solutions, the objective is now different: instead of giving the solutions explicitly or counting them, which is impossible, one uses equations for studying properties of figures. This is the starting idea of algebraic geometry, an important area of mathematics.
One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by the use of three Cartesian coordinates, which are the signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines).
The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as curves) can be described by Cartesian equations: algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2 in a plane, centered on a particular point called the origin, may be described as the set of all points whose coordinates x and y satisfy the equation x2 + y2 = 4.
Parametric equations
Main article: Parametric equation
A parametric equation for a curve expresses the coordinates of the points of the curve as functions of a variable, called a parameter. For example,
x
=
cos
t
y
=
sin
t
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=\cos t\\y&=\sin t\end{aligned}}}
are parametric equations for the unit circle, where t is the parameter. Together, these equations are called a parametric representation of the curve.
The notion of parametric equation has been generalized to surfaces, manifolds and algebraic varieties of higher dimension, with the number of parameters being equal to the dimension of the manifold or variety, and the number of equations being equal to the dimension of the space in which the manifold or variety is considered (for curves the dimension is one and one parameter is used, for surfaces dimension two and two parameters, etc.).
Number theory
Diophantine equations
Main article: Diophantine equation
A Diophantine equation is a polynomial equation in two or more unknowns for which only the integer solutions are sought (an integer solution is a solution such that all the unknowns take integer values). A linear Diophantine equation is an equation between two sums of monomials of degree zero or one. An example of linear Diophantine equation is ax + by = c where a, b, and c are constants. An exponential Diophantine equation is one for which exponents of the terms of the equation can be unknowns.
Diophantine problems have fewer equations than unknown variables and involve finding integers that work correctly for all equations. In more technical language, they define an algebraic curve, algebraic surface, or more general object, and ask about the lattice points on it.
The word Diophantine refers to the Hellenistic mathematician of the 3rd century, Diophantus of Alexandria, who made a study of such equations and was one of the first mathematicians to introduce symbolism into algebra. The mathematical study of Diophantine problems that Diophantus initiated is now called Diophantine analysis.
Algebraic and transcendental numbers
Main articles: Algebraic number and Transcendental number
An algebraic number is a number that is a solution of a non-zero polynomial equation in one variable with rational coefficients (or equivalently — by clearing denominators — with integer coefficients). Numbers such as π that are not algebraic are said to be transcendental. Almost all real and complex numbers are transcendental.
Algebraic geometry
Main article: Algebraic geometry
Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics, classically studying solutions of polynomial equations. Modern algebraic geometry is based on more abstract techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry.
The fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, which are geometric manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Examples of the most studied classes of algebraic varieties are: plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves and quartic curves like lemniscates, and Cassini ovals. A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation. Basic questions involve the study of the points of special interest like the singular points, the inflection points and the points at infinity. More advanced questions involve the topology of the curve and relations between the curves given by different equations.
Differential equations
Main article: Differential equation
A strange attractor, which arises when solving a certain differential equation
A differential equation is a mathematical equation that relates some function with its derivatives. In applications, the functions usually represent physical quantities, the derivatives represent their rates of change, and the equation defines a relationship between the two. They are solved by finding an expression for the function that does not involve derivatives. Differential equations are used to model processes that involve the rates of change of the variable, and are used in areas such as physics, chemistry, biology, and economics.
In pure mathematics, differential equations are studied from several different perspectives, mostly concerned with their solutions — the set of functions that satisfy the equation. Only the simplest differential equations are solvable by explicit formulas; however, some properties of solutions of a given differential equation may be determined without finding their exact form.
If a self-contained formula for the solution is not available, the solution may be numerically approximated using computers. The theory of dynamical systems puts emphasis on qualitative analysis of systems described by differential equations, while many numerical methods have been developed to determine solutions with a given degree of accuracy.
Ordinary differential equations
Main article: Ordinary differential equation
An ordinary differential equation or ODE is an equation containing a function of one independent variable and its derivatives. The term "ordinary" is used in contrast with the term partial differential equation, which may be with respect to more than one independent variable.
Linear differential equations, which have solutions that can be added and multiplied by coefficients, are well-defined and understood, and exact closed-form solutions are obtained. By contrast, ODEs that lack additive solutions are nonlinear, and solving them is far more intricate, as one can rarely represent them by elementary functions in closed form: Instead, exact and analytic solutions of ODEs are in series or integral form. Graphical and numerical methods, applied by hand or by computer, may approximate solutions of ODEs and perhaps yield useful information, often sufficing in the absence of exact, analytic solutions.
Partial differential equations
Main article: Partial differential equation
A partial differential equation (PDE) is a differential equation that contains unknown multivariable functions and their partial derivatives. (This is in contrast to ordinary differential equations, which deal with functions of a single variable and their derivatives.) PDEs are used to formulate problems involving functions of several variables, and are either solved by hand, or used to create a relevant computer model.
PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena such as sound, heat, electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics. These seemingly distinct physical phenomena can be formalised similarly in terms of PDEs. Just as ordinary differential equations often model one-dimensional dynamical systems, partial differential equations often model multidimensional systems. PDEs find their generalisation in stochastic partial differential equations.
Types of equations
Equations can be classified according to the types of operations and quantities involved. Important types include:
An algebraic equation or polynomial equation is an equation in which both sides are polynomials (see also system of polynomial equations). These are further classified by degree:
linear equation for degree one
quadratic equation for degree two
cubic equation for degree three
quartic equation for degree four
quintic equation for degree five
sextic equation for degree six
septic equation for degree seven
octic equation for degree eight
A Diophantine equation is an equation where the unknowns are required to be integers
A transcendental equation is an equation involving a transcendental function of its unknowns
A parametric equation is an equation in which the solutions for the variables are expressed as functions of some other variables, called parameters appearing in the equations
A functional equation is an equation in which the unknowns are functions rather than simple quantities
Equations involving derivatives, integrals and finite differences:
A differential equation is a functional equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions, where the function and its derivatives are evaluated at the same point, such as
f
′
(
x
)
=
x
2
{\displaystyle f'(x)=x^{2}}
. Differential equations are subdivided into ordinary differential equations for functions of a single variable and partial differential equations for functions of multiple variables
An integral equation is a functional equation involving the antiderivatives of the unknown functions. For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from a differential equation primarily through a change of variable substituting the function by its derivative, however this is not the case when the integral is taken over an open surface
An integro-differential equation is a functional equation involving both the derivatives and the antiderivatives of the unknown functions. For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from integral and differential equations through a similar change of variable.
A functional differential equation of delay differential equation is a function equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions, evaluated at multiple points, such as
f
′
(
x
)
=
f
(
x
−
2
)
{\displaystyle f'(x)=f(x-2)}
A difference equation is an equation where the unknown is a function f that occurs in the equation through f(x), f(x−1), ..., f(x−k), for some whole integer k called the order of the equation. If x is restricted to be an integer, a difference equation is the same as a recurrence relation
A stochastic differential equation is a differential equation in which one or more of the terms is a stochastic process
See also
Formula
History of algebra
Indeterminate equation
List of equations
List of scientific equations named after people
Term (logic)
Theory of equations
Cancelling out
Notes
^ As such an equation can be rewritten P – Q = 0, many authors do not consider this case explicitly.
^ The subject of this article is basic in mathematics, and is treated in a lot of textbooks. Among them, Lay 2005, Meyer 2001, and Strang 2005 contain the material of this article.
References
^ a b Recorde, Robert, The Whetstone of Witte ... (London, England: Jhon Kyngstone, 1557), the third page of the chapter "The rule of equation, commonly called Algebers Rule."
^ a b "Equation - Math Open Reference". www.mathopenref.com. Retrieved 2020-09-01.
^ "Equations and Formulas". www.mathsisfun.com. Retrieved 2020-09-01.
^ Marcus, Solomon; Watt, Stephen M. "What is an Equation?". Retrieved 2019-02-27.
^ Lachaud, Gilles. "Équation, mathématique". Encyclopædia Universalis (in French).
^ "A statement of equality between two expressions. Equations are of two types, identities and conditional equations (or usually simply "equations")". « Equation », in Mathematics Dictionary, Glenn James et Robert C. James (éd.), Van Nostrand, 1968, 3 ed. 1st ed. 1948, p. 131.
^ Thomas, George B., and Finney, Ross L., Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Addison Wesley Publishing Co., fifth edition, 1979, p. 91.
^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Parametric Equations." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ParametricEquations.html
External links
Winplot: General Purpose plotter that can draw and animate 2D and 3D mathematical equations.
Equation plotter: A web page for producing and downloading pdf or postscript plots of the solution sets to equations and inequations in two variables (x and y).
Authority control databases: National
France
BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
Japan
Czech Republic
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Equation (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_Equation_Ever.png"},{"link_name":"The Whetstone of Witte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Whetstone_of_Witte"},{"link_name":"Robert Recorde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Recorde"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whetstone-1"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"mathematical formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_formula"},{"link_name":"equality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equality_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"expressions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"equals sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equals_sign"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"cognates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognate"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"well-formed formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-formed_formula"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Solving an equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_solving"},{"link_name":"solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution_(equation)"},{"link_name":"identities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"=","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%3D"},{"link_name":"Robert Recorde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Recorde"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whetstone-1"}],"text":"For other uses, see Equation (disambiguation).The first use of an equals sign, equivalent to 14x + 15 = 71 in modern notation. From The Whetstone of Witte by Robert Recorde of Wales (1557).[1]In mathematics, an equation is a mathematical formula that expresses the equality of two expressions, by connecting them with the equals sign =.[2][3] The word equation and its cognates in other languages may have subtly different meanings; for example, in French an équation is defined as containing one or more variables, while in English, any well-formed formula consisting of two expressions related with an equals sign is an equation.[4]Solving an equation containing variables consists of determining which values of the variables make the equality true. The variables for which the equation has to be solved are also called unknowns, and the values of the unknowns that satisfy the equality are called solutions of the equation. There are two kinds of equations: identities and conditional equations. An identity is true for all values of the variables. A conditional equation is only true for particular values of the variables.[5][6]The \"=\" symbol, which appears in every equation, was invented in 1557 by Robert Recorde, who considered that nothing could be more equal than parallel straight lines with the same length.[1]","title":"Equation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"expressions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"equals sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equals_sign"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"sides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sides_of_an_equation"},{"link_name":"polynomial equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_equation"},{"link_name":"polynomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"terms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition#Notation_and_terminology"},{"link_name":"variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"parameters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter"}],"text":"An equation is written as two expressions, connected by an equals sign (\"=\").[2] The expressions on the two sides of the equals sign are called the \"left-hand side\" and \"right-hand side\" of the equation. Very often the right-hand side of an equation is assumed to be zero. This does not reduce the generality, as this can be realized by subtracting the right-hand side from both sides.The most common type of equation is a polynomial equation (commonly called also an algebraic equation) in which the two sides are polynomials.\nThe sides of a polynomial equation contain one or more terms. For example, the equationA\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n B\n x\n +\n C\n −\n y\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Ax^{2}+Bx+C-y=0}has left-hand side \n \n \n \n A\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n B\n x\n +\n C\n −\n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Ax^{2}+Bx+C-y}\n \n, which has four terms, and right-hand side \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0}\n \n, consisting of just one term. The names of the variables suggest that x and y are unknowns, and that A, B, and C are parameters, but this is normally fixed by the context (in some contexts, y may be a parameter, or A, B, and C may be ordinary variables).An equation is analogous to a scale into which weights are placed. When equal weights of something (e.g., grain) are placed into the two pans, the two weights cause the scale to be in balance and are said to be equal. If a quantity of grain is removed from one pan of the balance, an equal amount of grain must be removed from the other pan to keep the scale in balance. More generally, an equation remains in balance if the same operation is performed on its both sides.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Adding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition"},{"link_name":"subtracting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtraction"},{"link_name":"Multiplying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication"},{"link_name":"dividing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"expanding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_expansion"},{"link_name":"factoring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factorization_of_polynomials"},{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"extraneous solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraneous_solution"},{"link_name":"equation solving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_solving"},{"link_name":"Gaussian elimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_elimination"}],"text":"Two equations or two systems of equations are equivalent, if they have the same set of solutions. The following operations transform an equation or a system of equations into an equivalent one – provided that the operations are meaningful for the expressions they are applied to:Adding or subtracting the same quantity to both sides of an equation. This shows that every equation is equivalent to an equation in which the right-hand side is zero.\nMultiplying or dividing both sides of an equation by a non-zero quantity.\nApplying an identity to transform one side of the equation. For example, expanding a product or factoring a sum.\nFor a system: adding to both sides of an equation the corresponding side of another equation, multiplied by the same quantity.If some function is applied to both sides of an equation, the resulting equation has the solutions of the initial equation among its solutions, but may have further solutions called extraneous solutions. For example, the equation \n \n \n \n x\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=1}\n \n has the solution \n \n \n \n x\n =\n 1.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=1.}\n \n Raising both sides to the exponent of 2 (which means applying the function \n \n \n \n f\n (\n s\n )\n =\n \n s\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(s)=s^{2}}\n \n to both sides of the equation) changes the equation to \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}=1}\n \n, which not only has the previous solution but also introduces the extraneous solution, \n \n \n \n x\n =\n −\n 1.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=-1.}\n \n Moreover, if the function is not defined at some values (such as 1/x, which is not defined for x = 0), solutions existing at those values may be lost. Thus, caution must be exercised when applying such a transformation to an equation.The above transformations are the basis of most elementary methods for equation solving, as well as some less elementary ones, like Gaussian elimination.","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Equation_illustration_colour.svg"},{"link_name":"weighing scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighing_scale"},{"link_name":"seesaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seesaw"},{"link_name":"inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inequality_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"inequation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inequation"},{"link_name":"real numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_numbers"}],"sub_title":"Analogous illustration","text":"Illustration of a simple equation; x, y, z are real numbers, analogous to weights.An equation is analogous to a weighing scale, balance, or seesaw.Each side of the equation corresponds to one side of the balance. Different quantities can be placed on each side: if the weights on the two sides are equal, the scale balances, and in analogy, the equality that represents the balance is also balanced (if not, then the lack of balance corresponds to an inequality represented by an inequation).In the illustration, x, y and z are all different quantities (in this case real numbers) represented as circular weights, and each of x, y, and z has a different weight. Addition corresponds to adding weight, while subtraction corresponds to removing weight from what is already there. When equality holds, the total weight on each side is the same.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Expression (mathematics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Cartesian coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinates"},{"link_name":"quadratic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_equation"},{"link_name":"solving the equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_solving"},{"link_name":"system of equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_equations"}],"sub_title":"Parameters and unknowns","text":"See also: Expression (mathematics)Equations often contain terms other than the unknowns. These other terms, which are assumed to be known, are usually called constants, coefficients or parameters.An example of an equation involving x and y as unknowns and the parameter R isx\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=R^{2}.}When R is chosen to have the value of 2 (R = 2), this equation would be recognized in Cartesian coordinates as the equation for the circle of radius of 2 around the origin. Hence, the equation with R unspecified is the general equation for the circle.Usually, the unknowns are denoted by letters at the end of the alphabet, x, y, z, w, ..., while coefficients (parameters) are denoted by letters at the beginning, a, b, c, d, ... . For example, the general quadratic equation is usually written ax2 + bx + c = 0.The process of finding the solutions, or, in case of parameters, expressing the unknowns in terms of the parameters, is called solving the equation. Such expressions of the solutions in terms of the parameters are also called solutions.A system of equations is a set of simultaneous equations, usually in several unknowns for which the common solutions are sought. Thus, a solution to the system is a set of values for each of the unknowns, which together form a solution to each equation in the system. For example, the system3\n x\n +\n 5\n y\n \n \n \n =\n 2\n \n \n \n \n 5\n x\n +\n 8\n y\n \n \n \n =\n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}3x+5y&=2\\\\5x+8y&=3\\end{aligned}}}has the unique solution x = −1, y = 1.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"difference of two squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difference_of_two_squares"},{"link_name":"Trigonometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometry"},{"link_name":"trigonometric equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometric_equation"},{"link_name":"sine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_function"},{"link_name":"cosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosine_function"},{"link_name":"periodic function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_function"}],"sub_title":"Identities","text":"An identity is an equation that is true for all possible values of the variable(s) it contains. Many identities are known in algebra and calculus. In the process of solving an equation, an identity is often used to simplify an equation, making it more easily solvable.In algebra, an example of an identity is the difference of two squares:x\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n (\n x\n +\n y\n )\n (\n x\n −\n y\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}-y^{2}=(x+y)(x-y)}which is true for all x and y.Trigonometry is an area where many identities exist; these are useful in manipulating or solving trigonometric equations. Two of many that involve the sine and cosine functions are:sin\n \n 2\n \n \n \n (\n θ\n )\n +\n \n cos\n \n 2\n \n \n \n (\n θ\n )\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sin ^{2}(\\theta )+\\cos ^{2}(\\theta )=1}andsin\n \n (\n 2\n θ\n )\n =\n 2\n sin\n \n (\n θ\n )\n cos\n \n (\n θ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sin(2\\theta )=2\\sin(\\theta )\\cos(\\theta )}which are both true for all values of θ.For example, to solve for the value of θ that satisfies the equation:3\n sin\n \n (\n θ\n )\n cos\n \n (\n θ\n )\n =\n 1\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 3\\sin(\\theta )\\cos(\\theta )=1\\,,}where θ is limited to between 0 and 45 degrees, one may use the above identity for the product to give:3\n 2\n \n \n sin\n \n (\n 2\n θ\n )\n =\n 1\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {3}{2}}\\sin(2\\theta )=1\\,,}yielding the following solution for θ:θ\n =\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n arcsin\n \n \n (\n \n \n 2\n 3\n \n \n )\n \n ≈\n \n 20.9\n \n ∘\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\theta ={\\frac {1}{2}}\\arcsin \\left({\\frac {2}{3}}\\right)\\approx 20.9^{\\circ }.}Since the sine function is a periodic function, there are infinitely many solutions if there are no restrictions on θ. In this example, restricting θ to be between 0 and 45 degrees would restrict the solution to only one number.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra"},{"link_name":"polynomial equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_equations"},{"link_name":"linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_equations"},{"link_name":"polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"parameters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter#Mathematical_functions"},{"link_name":"linear algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebra"},{"link_name":"mathematical analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_analysis"},{"link_name":"Diophantine equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine_equations"},{"link_name":"integers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integers"},{"link_name":"number theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory"}],"text":"Algebra studies two main families of equations: polynomial equations and, among them, the special case of linear equations. When there is only one variable, polynomial equations have the form P(x) = 0, where P is a polynomial, and linear equations have the form ax + b = 0, where a and b are parameters. To solve equations from either family, one uses algorithmic or geometric techniques that originate from linear algebra or mathematical analysis. Algebra also studies Diophantine equations where the coefficients and solutions are integers. The techniques used are different and come from number theory. These equations are difficult in general; one often searches just to find the existence or absence of a solution, and, if they exist, to count the number of solutions.","title":"Algebra"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polynomialdeg2.svg"},{"link_name":"graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_of_a_function"},{"link_name":"quadratic function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_function"},{"link_name":"polynomial equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_equation"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"polynomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"rational numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_number"},{"link_name":"real numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"complex numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"rational coefficients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_number"},{"link_name":"algebraic expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_expression"},{"link_name":"solved algebraically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_solution"},{"link_name":"degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_a_polynomial"},{"link_name":"Abel–Ruffini theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abel%E2%80%93Ruffini_theorem"},{"link_name":"real","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"Root finding of polynomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_finding_of_polynomials"},{"link_name":"System of polynomial equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_polynomial_equations"}],"sub_title":"Polynomial equations","text":"The solutions –1 and 2 of the polynomial equation x2 – x + 2 = 0 are the points where the graph of the quadratic function y = x2 – x + 2 cuts the x-axis.In general, an algebraic equation or polynomial equation is an equation of the formP\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P=0}\n \n, orP\n =\n Q\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P=Q}\n \n [a]where P and Q are polynomials with coefficients in some field (e.g., rational numbers, real numbers, complex numbers). An algebraic equation is univariate if it involves only one variable. On the other hand, a polynomial equation may involve several variables, in which case it is called multivariate (multiple variables, x, y, z, etc.).For example,x\n \n 5\n \n \n −\n 3\n x\n +\n 1\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{5}-3x+1=0}is a univariate algebraic (polynomial) equation with integer coefficients andy\n \n 4\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n x\n y\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n 3\n \n \n −\n x\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n \n 1\n 7\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y^{4}+{\\frac {xy}{2}}={\\frac {x^{3}}{3}}-xy^{2}+y^{2}-{\\frac {1}{7}}}is a multivariate polynomial equation over the rational numbers.Some polynomial equations with rational coefficients have a solution that is an algebraic expression, with a finite number of operations involving just those coefficients (i.e., can be solved algebraically). This can be done for all such equations of degree one, two, three, or four; but equations of degree five or more cannot always be solved in this way, as the Abel–Ruffini theorem demonstrates.A large amount of research has been devoted to compute efficiently accurate approximations of the real or complex solutions of a univariate algebraic equation (see Root finding of polynomials) and of the common solutions of several multivariate polynomial equations (see System of polynomial equations).","title":"Algebra"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.gif"},{"link_name":"The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nine_Chapters_on_the_Mathematical_Art"},{"link_name":"system of linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_linear_equations"},{"link_name":"linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_equation"},{"link_name":"variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(math)"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"solution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_solving"},{"link_name":"linear algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebra"},{"link_name":"algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"numerical linear algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_linear_algebra"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"},{"link_name":"system of non-linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_system"},{"link_name":"approximated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximation"},{"link_name":"linearization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linearization"},{"link_name":"mathematical model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_model"},{"link_name":"computer simulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_simulation"}],"sub_title":"Systems of linear equations","text":"The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is an anonymous 2nd-century Chinese book proposing a method of resolution for linear equations.A system of linear equations (or linear system) is a collection of linear equations involving one or more variables.[b] For example,3\n x\n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n 2\n y\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n z\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n x\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n 2\n y\n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n 4\n z\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n −\n x\n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n y\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n z\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{alignedat}{7}3x&&\\;+\\;&&2y&&\\;-\\;&&z&&\\;=\\;&&1&\\\\2x&&\\;-\\;&&2y&&\\;+\\;&&4z&&\\;=\\;&&-2&\\\\-x&&\\;+\\;&&{\\tfrac {1}{2}}y&&\\;-\\;&&z&&\\;=\\;&&0&\\end{alignedat}}}is a system of three equations in the three variables x, y, z. A solution to a linear system is an assignment of numbers to the variables such that all the equations are simultaneously satisfied. A solution to the system above is given byx\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n \n \n z\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{alignedat}{2}x&\\,=\\,&1\\\\y&\\,=\\,&-2\\\\z&\\,=\\,&-2\\end{alignedat}}}since it makes all three equations valid. The word \"system\" indicates that the equations are to be considered collectively, rather than individually.In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is a fundamental part of linear algebra, a subject which is used in many parts of modern mathematics. Computational algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and play a prominent role in physics, engineering, chemistry, computer science, and economics. A system of non-linear equations can often be approximated by a linear system (see linearization), a helpful technique when making a mathematical model or computer simulation of a relatively complex system.","title":"Algebra"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Geometry"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FunLin_04.svg"},{"link_name":"intersection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersection_(Euclidean_geometry)"},{"link_name":"Euclidean geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_geometry"},{"link_name":"conic section","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conic_section"},{"link_name":"cone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone"},{"link_name":"Cartesian coordinate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate"},{"link_name":"analytic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_geometry"},{"link_name":"Descartes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes"},{"link_name":"functional analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_analysis"},{"link_name":"linear algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebra"}],"sub_title":"Analytic geometry","text":"The blue and red line is the set of all points (x,y) such that x+y=5 and -x+2y=4, respectively. Their intersection point, (2,3), satisfies both equations.In Euclidean geometry, it is possible to associate a set of coordinates to each point in space, for example by an orthogonal grid. This method allows one to characterize geometric figures by equations. A plane in three-dimensional space can be expressed as the solution set of an equation of the form \n \n \n \n a\n x\n +\n b\n y\n +\n c\n z\n +\n d\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ax+by+cz+d=0}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n a\n ,\n b\n ,\n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a,b,c}\n \n and \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n {\\displaystyle d}\n \n are real numbers and \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ,\n z\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,y,z}\n \n are the unknowns that correspond to the coordinates of a point in the system given by the orthogonal grid. The values \n \n \n \n a\n ,\n b\n ,\n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a,b,c}\n \n are the coordinates of a vector perpendicular to the plane defined by the equation. A line is expressed as the intersection of two planes, that is as the solution set of a single linear equation with values in \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{2}}\n \n or as the solution set of two linear equations with values in \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n 3\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{3}.}A conic section is the intersection of a cone with equation \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n z\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=z^{2}}\n \n and a plane. In other words, in space, all conics are defined as the solution set of an equation of a plane and of the equation of a cone just given. This formalism allows one to determine the positions and the properties of the focuses of a conic.The use of equations allows one to call on a large area of mathematics to solve geometric questions. The Cartesian coordinate system transforms a geometric problem into an analysis problem, once the figures are transformed into equations; thus the name analytic geometry. This point of view, outlined by Descartes, enriches and modifies the type of geometry conceived of by the ancient Greek mathematicians.Currently, analytic geometry designates an active branch of mathematics. Although it still uses equations to characterize figures, it also uses other sophisticated techniques such as functional analysis and linear algebra.","title":"Geometry"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cartesian-coordinate-system-with-circle.svg"},{"link_name":"Cartesian geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_geometry"},{"link_name":"geometric figures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_figures"},{"link_name":"implicit equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_equation"},{"link_name":"parametric equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric_equation"},{"link_name":"algebraic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_geometry"},{"link_name":"dimensional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension"},{"link_name":"space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"René Descartes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes"},{"link_name":"Euclidean geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_geometry"},{"link_name":"algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra"},{"link_name":"curves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve"}],"sub_title":"Cartesian equations","text":"Cartesian coordinate system with a circle of radius 2 centered at the origin marked in red. The equation of a circle is (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 where a and b are the coordinates of the center (a, b) and r is the radius.In Cartesian geometry, equations are used to describe geometric figures. As the equations that are considered, such as implicit equations or parametric equations, have infinitely many solutions, the objective is now different: instead of giving the solutions explicitly or counting them, which is impossible, one uses equations for studying properties of figures. This is the starting idea of algebraic geometry, an important area of mathematics.One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by the use of three Cartesian coordinates, which are the signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines).The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as curves) can be described by Cartesian equations: algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2 in a plane, centered on a particular point called the origin, may be described as the set of all points whose coordinates x and y satisfy the equation x2 + y2 = 4.","title":"Geometry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"parametric equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric_equation"},{"link_name":"curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve"},{"link_name":"coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinates"},{"link_name":"variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"parameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"unit circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_circle"},{"link_name":"surfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_(topology)"},{"link_name":"manifolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifold"},{"link_name":"algebraic varieties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_variety"},{"link_name":"dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_of_a_manifold"}],"sub_title":"Parametric equations","text":"A parametric equation for a curve expresses the coordinates of the points of the curve as functions of a variable, called a parameter.[7][8] For example,x\n \n \n \n =\n cos\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n \n =\n sin\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}x&=\\cos t\\\\y&=\\sin t\\end{aligned}}}are parametric equations for the unit circle, where t is the parameter. Together, these equations are called a parametric representation of the curve.The notion of parametric equation has been generalized to surfaces, manifolds and algebraic varieties of higher dimension, with the number of parameters being equal to the dimension of the manifold or variety, and the number of equations being equal to the dimension of the space in which the manifold or variety is considered (for curves the dimension is one and one parameter is used, for surfaces dimension two and two parameters, etc.).","title":"Geometry"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Number theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"polynomial equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_equation"},{"link_name":"integer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_of_a_function#Polynomial_roots"},{"link_name":"monomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomials"},{"link_name":"degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_a_polynomial"},{"link_name":"algebraic curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_curve"},{"link_name":"algebraic surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_surface"},{"link_name":"lattice points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_point"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic mathematician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mathematics#Hellenistic"},{"link_name":"Diophantus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus"},{"link_name":"Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria"},{"link_name":"symbolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_symbol"},{"link_name":"algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra"}],"sub_title":"Diophantine equations","text":"A Diophantine equation is a polynomial equation in two or more unknowns for which only the integer solutions are sought (an integer solution is a solution such that all the unknowns take integer values). A linear Diophantine equation is an equation between two sums of monomials of degree zero or one. An example of linear Diophantine equation is ax + by = c where a, b, and c are constants. An exponential Diophantine equation is one for which exponents of the terms of the equation can be unknowns.Diophantine problems have fewer equations than unknown variables and involve finding integers that work correctly for all equations. In more technical language, they define an algebraic curve, algebraic surface, or more general object, and ask about the lattice points on it.The word Diophantine refers to the Hellenistic mathematician of the 3rd century, Diophantus of Alexandria, who made a study of such equations and was one of the first mathematicians to introduce symbolism into algebra. The mathematical study of Diophantine problems that Diophantus initiated is now called Diophantine analysis.","title":"Number theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"algebraic number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_number"},{"link_name":"polynomial equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_equation"},{"link_name":"rational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_number"},{"link_name":"clearing denominators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearing_denominators"},{"link_name":"integer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"π","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi"},{"link_name":"transcendental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_number"},{"link_name":"Almost all","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_all"},{"link_name":"real","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"}],"sub_title":"Algebraic and transcendental numbers","text":"An algebraic number is a number that is a solution of a non-zero polynomial equation in one variable with rational coefficients (or equivalently — by clearing denominators — with integer coefficients). Numbers such as π that are not algebraic are said to be transcendental. Almost all real and complex numbers are transcendental.","title":"Number theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Algebraic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_geometry"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"polynomial equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_equations"},{"link_name":"abstract algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_algebra"},{"link_name":"commutative algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_algebra"},{"link_name":"geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry"},{"link_name":"algebraic varieties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_variety"},{"link_name":"solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution_set"},{"link_name":"systems of polynomial equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_of_polynomial_equations"},{"link_name":"plane algebraic curves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_algebraic_curve"},{"link_name":"lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"circles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle"},{"link_name":"parabolas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabola"},{"link_name":"ellipses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipse"},{"link_name":"hyperbolas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbola"},{"link_name":"cubic curves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_curve"},{"link_name":"elliptic curves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_curve"},{"link_name":"lemniscates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemniscate_of_Bernoulli"},{"link_name":"Cassini ovals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassini_oval"},{"link_name":"singular points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_point_of_a_curve"},{"link_name":"inflection points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection_point"},{"link_name":"points at infinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_at_infinity"},{"link_name":"topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topology"}],"sub_title":"Algebraic geometry","text":"Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics, classically studying solutions of polynomial equations. Modern algebraic geometry is based on more abstract techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry.The fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, which are geometric manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Examples of the most studied classes of algebraic varieties are: plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves and quartic curves like lemniscates, and Cassini ovals. A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation. Basic questions involve the study of the points of special interest like the singular points, the inflection points and the points at infinity. More advanced questions involve the topology of the curve and relations between the curves given by different equations.","title":"Number theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Attracteur_%C3%A9trange_de_Lorenz.png"},{"link_name":"strange attractor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_attractor"},{"link_name":"differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation"},{"link_name":"differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation"},{"link_name":"mathematical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative"},{"link_name":"pure mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_mathematics"},{"link_name":"dynamical systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamical_systems"},{"link_name":"numerical methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_methods"}],"text":"A strange attractor, which arises when solving a certain differential equationA differential equation is a mathematical equation that relates some function with its derivatives. In applications, the functions usually represent physical quantities, the derivatives represent their rates of change, and the equation defines a relationship between the two. They are solved by finding an expression for the function that does not involve derivatives. Differential equations are used to model processes that involve the rates of change of the variable, and are used in areas such as physics, chemistry, biology, and economics.In pure mathematics, differential equations are studied from several different perspectives, mostly concerned with their solutions — the set of functions that satisfy the equation. Only the simplest differential equations are solvable by explicit formulas; however, some properties of solutions of a given differential equation may be determined without finding their exact form.If a self-contained formula for the solution is not available, the solution may be numerically approximated using computers. The theory of dynamical systems puts emphasis on qualitative analysis of systems described by differential equations, while many numerical methods have been developed to determine solutions with a given degree of accuracy.","title":"Differential equations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ordinary differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinary_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"independent variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_variable"},{"link_name":"partial differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"elementary functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_functions"},{"link_name":"numerical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_ordinary_differential_equations"}],"sub_title":"Ordinary differential equations","text":"An ordinary differential equation or ODE is an equation containing a function of one independent variable and its derivatives. The term \"ordinary\" is used in contrast with the term partial differential equation, which may be with respect to more than one independent variable.Linear differential equations, which have solutions that can be added and multiplied by coefficients, are well-defined and understood, and exact closed-form solutions are obtained. By contrast, ODEs that lack additive solutions are nonlinear, and solving them is far more intricate, as one can rarely represent them by elementary functions in closed form: Instead, exact and analytic solutions of ODEs are in series or integral form. Graphical and numerical methods, applied by hand or by computer, may approximate solutions of ODEs and perhaps yield useful information, often sufficing in the absence of exact, analytic solutions.","title":"Differential equations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"partial differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation"},{"link_name":"multivariable functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multivariable_calculus"},{"link_name":"partial derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_derivative"},{"link_name":"ordinary differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinary_differential_equations"},{"link_name":"computer model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_model"},{"link_name":"sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound"},{"link_name":"heat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat"},{"link_name":"electrostatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatics"},{"link_name":"electrodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodynamics"},{"link_name":"fluid flow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_flow"},{"link_name":"elasticity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)"},{"link_name":"quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"dynamical systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamical_systems"},{"link_name":"multidimensional systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multidimensional_systems"},{"link_name":"stochastic partial differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_partial_differential_equations"}],"sub_title":"Partial differential equations","text":"A partial differential equation (PDE) is a differential equation that contains unknown multivariable functions and their partial derivatives. (This is in contrast to ordinary differential equations, which deal with functions of a single variable and their derivatives.) PDEs are used to formulate problems involving functions of several variables, and are either solved by hand, or used to create a relevant computer model.PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena such as sound, heat, electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics. These seemingly distinct physical phenomena can be formalised similarly in terms of PDEs. Just as ordinary differential equations often model one-dimensional dynamical systems, partial differential equations often model multidimensional systems. PDEs find their generalisation in stochastic partial differential equations.","title":"Differential equations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"algebraic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_equation"},{"link_name":"polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"system of polynomial equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_polynomial_equations"},{"link_name":"degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_a_polynomial"},{"link_name":"linear equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_equation"},{"link_name":"quadratic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_equation"},{"link_name":"cubic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_equation"},{"link_name":"quartic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartic_equation"},{"link_name":"quintic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintic_equation"},{"link_name":"sextic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextic_equation"},{"link_name":"septic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septic_equation"},{"link_name":"octic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octic_equation"},{"link_name":"Diophantine equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine_equation"},{"link_name":"integers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"transcendental equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_equation"},{"link_name":"transcendental function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_function"},{"link_name":"parametric equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric_equation"},{"link_name":"parameters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter"},{"link_name":"functional equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_equation"},{"link_name":"functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation"},{"link_name":"derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative"},{"link_name":"ordinary differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinary_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"partial differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"integral equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral_equation"},{"link_name":"antiderivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiderivative"},{"link_name":"integro-differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integro-differential_equation"},{"link_name":"derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative"},{"link_name":"antiderivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiderivative"},{"link_name":"functional differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"delay differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delay_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative"},{"link_name":"difference equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difference_equation"},{"link_name":"recurrence relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrence_relation"},{"link_name":"stochastic differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"stochastic process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_process"}],"text":"Equations can be classified according to the types of operations and quantities involved. Important types include:An algebraic equation or polynomial equation is an equation in which both sides are polynomials (see also system of polynomial equations). These are further classified by degree:\nlinear equation for degree one\nquadratic equation for degree two\ncubic equation for degree three\nquartic equation for degree four\nquintic equation for degree five\nsextic equation for degree six\nseptic equation for degree seven\noctic equation for degree eight\nA Diophantine equation is an equation where the unknowns are required to be integers\nA transcendental equation is an equation involving a transcendental function of its unknowns\nA parametric equation is an equation in which the solutions for the variables are expressed as functions of some other variables, called parameters appearing in the equations\nA functional equation is an equation in which the unknowns are functions rather than simple quantities\nEquations involving derivatives, integrals and finite differences:\nA differential equation is a functional equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions, where the function and its derivatives are evaluated at the same point, such as \n \n \n \n \n f\n ′\n \n (\n x\n )\n =\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f'(x)=x^{2}}\n \n. Differential equations are subdivided into ordinary differential equations for functions of a single variable and partial differential equations for functions of multiple variables\nAn integral equation is a functional equation involving the antiderivatives of the unknown functions. For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from a differential equation primarily through a change of variable substituting the function by its derivative, however this is not the case when the integral is taken over an open surface\nAn integro-differential equation is a functional equation involving both the derivatives and the antiderivatives of the unknown functions. For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from integral and differential equations through a similar change of variable.\nA functional differential equation of delay differential equation is a function equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions, evaluated at multiple points, such as \n \n \n \n \n f\n ′\n \n (\n x\n )\n =\n f\n (\n x\n −\n 2\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f'(x)=f(x-2)}\n \n\nA difference equation is an equation where the unknown is a function f that occurs in the equation through f(x), f(x−1), ..., f(x−k), for some whole integer k called the order of the equation. If x is restricted to be an integer, a difference equation is the same as a recurrence relation\nA stochastic differential equation is a differential equation in which one or more of the terms is a stochastic process","title":"Types of equations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"}],"text":"^ As such an equation can be rewritten P – Q = 0, many authors do not consider this case explicitly.\n\n^ The subject of this article is basic in mathematics, and is treated in a lot of textbooks. Among them, Lay 2005, Meyer 2001, and Strang 2005 contain the material of this article.","title":"Notes"}]
|
[{"image_text":"The first use of an equals sign, equivalent to 14x + 15 = 71 in modern notation. From The Whetstone of Witte by Robert Recorde of Wales (1557).[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/First_Equation_Ever.png/300px-First_Equation_Ever.png"},{"image_text":"Illustration of a simple equation; x, y, z are real numbers, analogous to weights.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Equation_illustration_colour.svg/220px-Equation_illustration_colour.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The solutions –1 and 2 of the polynomial equation x2 – x + 2 = 0 are the points where the graph of the quadratic function y = x2 – x + 2 cuts the x-axis.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Polynomialdeg2.svg/220px-Polynomialdeg2.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is an anonymous 2nd-century Chinese book proposing a method of resolution for linear equations.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.gif/220px-%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.gif"},{"image_text":"The blue and red line is the set of all points (x,y) such that x+y=5 and -x+2y=4, respectively. Their intersection point, (2,3), satisfies both equations.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/FunLin_04.svg/220px-FunLin_04.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Cartesian coordinate system with a circle of radius 2 centered at the origin marked in red. The equation of a circle is (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 where a and b are the coordinates of the center (a, b) and r is the radius.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Cartesian-coordinate-system-with-circle.svg/220px-Cartesian-coordinate-system-with-circle.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A strange attractor, which arises when solving a certain differential equation","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Attracteur_%C3%A9trange_de_Lorenz.png/220px-Attracteur_%C3%A9trange_de_Lorenz.png"}]
|
[{"title":"Formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula"},{"title":"History of algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_algebra"},{"title":"Indeterminate equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminate_equation"},{"title":"List of equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_equations"},{"title":"List of scientific equations named after people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people"},{"title":"Term (logic)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_(logic)"},{"title":"Theory of equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_equations"},{"title":"Cancelling out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancelling_out"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Equation - Math Open Reference\". www.mathopenref.com. Retrieved 2020-09-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mathopenref.com/equation.html","url_text":"\"Equation - Math Open Reference\""}]},{"reference":"\"Equations and Formulas\". www.mathsisfun.com. Retrieved 2020-09-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/equation-formula.html","url_text":"\"Equations and Formulas\""}]},{"reference":"Marcus, Solomon; Watt, Stephen M. \"What is an Equation?\". Retrieved 2019-02-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Marcus","url_text":"Marcus"},{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/3287674","url_text":"\"What is an Equation?\""}]},{"reference":"Lachaud, Gilles. \"Équation, mathématique\". Encyclopædia Universalis (in French).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/NT01240/EQUATION_mathematique.htm","url_text":"\"Équation, mathématique\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://deepl.com/","external_links_name":"DeepL"},{"Link":"https://translate.google.com/","external_links_name":"Google Translate"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/stream/TheWhetstoneOfWitte#page/n237/mode/2up","external_links_name":"the third page of the chapter \"The rule of equation, commonly called Algebers Rule.\""},{"Link":"https://www.mathopenref.com/equation.html","external_links_name":"\"Equation - Math Open Reference\""},{"Link":"https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/equation-formula.html","external_links_name":"\"Equations and Formulas\""},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/3287674","external_links_name":"\"What is an Equation?\""},{"Link":"http://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/NT01240/EQUATION_mathematique.htm","external_links_name":"\"Équation, mathématique\""},{"Link":"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ParametricEquations.html","external_links_name":"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ParametricEquations.html"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090816161008/http://math.exeter.edu/rparris/winplot.html","external_links_name":"Winplot"},{"Link":"http://www.cs.cornell.edu/w8/~andru/relplot","external_links_name":"Equation plotter"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119470816","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119470816","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4021246-4","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007552900305171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85044510","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00563553","external_links_name":"Japan"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph125241&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_(linear_algebra)
|
Dimension (vector space)
|
["1 Examples","2 Properties","3 Generalizations","3.1 Trace","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References","7 Sources","8 External links"]
|
Number of vectors in any basis of the vector space
A diagram of dimensions 1, 2, 3, and 4
In mathematics, the dimension of a vector space V is the cardinality (i.e., the number of vectors) of a basis of V over its base field. It is sometimes called Hamel dimension (after Georg Hamel) or algebraic dimension to distinguish it from other types of dimension.
For every vector space there exists a basis, and all bases of a vector space have equal cardinality; as a result, the dimension of a vector space is uniquely defined. We say
V
{\displaystyle V}
is finite-dimensional if the dimension of
V
{\displaystyle V}
is finite, and infinite-dimensional if its dimension is infinite.
The dimension of the vector space
V
{\displaystyle V}
over the field
F
{\displaystyle F}
can be written as
dim
F
(
V
)
{\displaystyle \dim _{F}(V)}
or as
[
V
:
F
]
,
{\displaystyle ,}
read "dimension of
V
{\displaystyle V}
over
F
{\displaystyle F}
". When
F
{\displaystyle F}
can be inferred from context,
dim
(
V
)
{\displaystyle \dim(V)}
is typically written.
Examples
The vector space
R
3
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}}
has
{
(
1
0
0
)
,
(
0
1
0
)
,
(
0
0
1
)
}
{\displaystyle \left\{{\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}}\right\}}
as a standard basis, and therefore
dim
R
(
R
3
)
=
3.
{\displaystyle \dim _{\mathbb {R} }(\mathbb {R} ^{3})=3.}
More generally,
dim
R
(
R
n
)
=
n
,
{\displaystyle \dim _{\mathbb {R} }(\mathbb {R} ^{n})=n,}
and even more generally,
dim
F
(
F
n
)
=
n
{\displaystyle \dim _{F}(F^{n})=n}
for any field
F
.
{\displaystyle F.}
The complex numbers
C
{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }
are both a real and complex vector space; we have
dim
R
(
C
)
=
2
{\displaystyle \dim _{\mathbb {R} }(\mathbb {C} )=2}
and
dim
C
(
C
)
=
1.
{\displaystyle \dim _{\mathbb {C} }(\mathbb {C} )=1.}
So the dimension depends on the base field.
The only vector space with dimension
0
{\displaystyle 0}
is
{
0
}
,
{\displaystyle \{0\},}
the vector space consisting only of its zero element.
Properties
If
W
{\displaystyle W}
is a linear subspace of
V
{\displaystyle V}
then
dim
(
W
)
≤
dim
(
V
)
.
{\displaystyle \dim(W)\leq \dim(V).}
To show that two finite-dimensional vector spaces are equal, the following criterion can be used: if
V
{\displaystyle V}
is a finite-dimensional vector space and
W
{\displaystyle W}
is a linear subspace of
V
{\displaystyle V}
with
dim
(
W
)
=
dim
(
V
)
,
{\displaystyle \dim(W)=\dim(V),}
then
W
=
V
.
{\displaystyle W=V.}
The space
R
n
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}}
has the standard basis
{
e
1
,
…
,
e
n
}
,
{\displaystyle \left\{e_{1},\ldots ,e_{n}\right\},}
where
e
i
{\displaystyle e_{i}}
is the
i
{\displaystyle i}
-th column of the corresponding identity matrix. Therefore,
R
n
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}}
has dimension
n
.
{\displaystyle n.}
Any two finite dimensional vector spaces over
F
{\displaystyle F}
with the same dimension are isomorphic. Any bijective map between their bases can be uniquely extended to a bijective linear map between the vector spaces. If
B
{\displaystyle B}
is some set, a vector space with dimension
|
B
|
{\displaystyle |B|}
over
F
{\displaystyle F}
can be constructed as follows: take the set
F
(
B
)
{\displaystyle F(B)}
of all functions
f
:
B
→
F
{\displaystyle f:B\to F}
such that
f
(
b
)
=
0
{\displaystyle f(b)=0}
for all but finitely many
b
{\displaystyle b}
in
B
.
{\displaystyle B.}
These functions can be added and multiplied with elements of
F
{\displaystyle F}
to obtain the desired
F
{\displaystyle F}
-vector space.
An important result about dimensions is given by the rank–nullity theorem for linear maps.
If
F
/
K
{\displaystyle F/K}
is a field extension, then
F
{\displaystyle F}
is in particular a vector space over
K
.
{\displaystyle K.}
Furthermore, every
F
{\displaystyle F}
-vector space
V
{\displaystyle V}
is also a
K
{\displaystyle K}
-vector space. The dimensions are related by the formula
dim
K
(
V
)
=
dim
K
(
F
)
dim
F
(
V
)
.
{\displaystyle \dim _{K}(V)=\dim _{K}(F)\dim _{F}(V).}
In particular, every complex vector space of dimension
n
{\displaystyle n}
is a real vector space of dimension
2
n
.
{\displaystyle 2n.}
Some formulae relate the dimension of a vector space with the cardinality of the base field and the cardinality of the space itself.
If
V
{\displaystyle V}
is a vector space over a field
F
{\displaystyle F}
and if the dimension of
V
{\displaystyle V}
is denoted by
dim
V
,
{\displaystyle \dim V,}
then:
If dim
V
{\displaystyle V}
is finite then
|
V
|
=
|
F
|
dim
V
.
{\displaystyle |V|=|F|^{\dim V}.}
If dim
V
{\displaystyle V}
is infinite then
|
V
|
=
max
(
|
F
|
,
dim
V
)
.
{\displaystyle |V|=\max(|F|,\dim V).}
Generalizations
A vector space can be seen as a particular case of a matroid, and in the latter there is a well-defined notion of dimension. The length of a module and the rank of an abelian group both have several properties similar to the dimension of vector spaces.
The Krull dimension of a commutative ring, named after Wolfgang Krull (1899–1971), is defined to be the maximal number of strict inclusions in an increasing chain of prime ideals in the ring.
Trace
See also: Trace (linear algebra)
The dimension of a vector space may alternatively be characterized as the trace of the identity operator. For instance,
tr
id
R
2
=
tr
(
1
0
0
1
)
=
1
+
1
=
2.
{\displaystyle \operatorname {tr} \ \operatorname {id} _{\mathbb {R} ^{2}}=\operatorname {tr} \left({\begin{smallmatrix}1&0\\0&1\end{smallmatrix}}\right)=1+1=2.}
This appears to be a circular definition, but it allows useful generalizations.
Firstly, it allows for a definition of a notion of dimension when one has a trace but no natural sense of basis. For example, one may have an algebra
A
{\displaystyle A}
with maps
η
:
K
→
A
{\displaystyle \eta :K\to A}
(the inclusion of scalars, called the unit) and a map
ϵ
:
A
→
K
{\displaystyle \epsilon :A\to K}
(corresponding to trace, called the counit). The composition
ϵ
∘
η
:
K
→
K
{\displaystyle \epsilon \circ \eta :K\to K}
is a scalar (being a linear operator on a 1-dimensional space) corresponds to "trace of identity", and gives a notion of dimension for an abstract algebra. In practice, in bialgebras, this map is required to be the identity, which can be obtained by normalizing the counit by dividing by dimension (
ϵ
:=
1
n
tr
{\displaystyle \epsilon :=\textstyle {\frac {1}{n}}\operatorname {tr} }
), so in these cases the normalizing constant corresponds to dimension.
Alternatively, it may be possible to take the trace of operators on an infinite-dimensional space; in this case a (finite) trace is defined, even though no (finite) dimension exists, and gives a notion of "dimension of the operator". These fall under the rubric of "trace class operators" on a Hilbert space, or more generally nuclear operators on a Banach space.
A subtler generalization is to consider the trace of a family of operators as a kind of "twisted" dimension. This occurs significantly in representation theory, where the character of a representation is the trace of the representation, hence a scalar-valued function on a group
χ
:
G
→
K
,
{\displaystyle \chi :G\to K,}
whose value on the identity
1
∈
G
{\displaystyle 1\in G}
is the dimension of the representation, as a representation sends the identity in the group to the identity matrix:
χ
(
1
G
)
=
tr
I
V
=
dim
V
.
{\displaystyle \chi (1_{G})=\operatorname {tr} \ I_{V}=\dim V.}
The other values
χ
(
g
)
{\displaystyle \chi (g)}
of the character can be viewed as "twisted" dimensions, and find analogs or generalizations of statements about dimensions to statements about characters or representations. A sophisticated example of this occurs in the theory of monstrous moonshine: the
j
{\displaystyle j}
-invariant is the graded dimension of an infinite-dimensional graded representation of the monster group, and replacing the dimension with the character gives the McKay–Thompson series for each element of the Monster group.
See also
Fractal dimension – Ratio providing a statistical index of complexity variation with scale
Krull dimension – In mathematics, dimension of a ring
Matroid rank – Maximum size of an independent set of the matroid
Rank (linear algebra) – Dimension of the column space of a matrix
Topological dimension – Topologically invariant definition of the dimension of a spacePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets, also called Lebesgue covering dimension
Notes
^ if one assumes the axiom of choice
^ see dimension theorem for vector spaces
References
^ Itzkov, Mikhail (2009). Tensor Algebra and Tensor Analysis for Engineers: With Applications to Continuum Mechanics. Springer. p. 4. ISBN 978-3-540-93906-1.
^ Axler (2015) p. 44, §2.36
^ Gannon, Terry (2006), Moonshine beyond the Monster: The Bridge Connecting Algebra, Modular Forms and Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-83531-3
Sources
Axler, Sheldon (2015). Linear Algebra Done Right. Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics (3rd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-11079-0.
External links
MIT Linear Algebra Lecture on Independence, Basis, and Dimension by Gilbert Strang at MIT OpenCourseWare
vteDimensionDimensional spaces
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Affine space
Projective space
Free module
Manifold
Algebraic variety
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Other dimensions
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Lebesgue covering
Inductive
Hausdorff
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Degrees of freedom
Polytopes and shapes
Hyperplane
Hypersurface
Hypercube
Hyperrectangle
Demihypercube
Hypersphere
Cross-polytope
Simplex
Hyperpyramid
Dimensions by number
Zero
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
n-dimensions
See also
Hyperspace
Codimension
Category
vteLinear algebra
Outline
Glossary
Basic concepts
Scalar
Vector
Vector space
Scalar multiplication
Vector projection
Linear span
Linear map
Linear projection
Linear independence
Linear combination
Basis
Change of basis
Row and column vectors
Row and column spaces
Kernel
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Transpose
Linear equations
Matrices
Block
Decomposition
Invertible
Minor
Multiplication
Rank
Transformation
Cramer's rule
Gaussian elimination
Bilinear
Orthogonality
Dot product
Hadamard product
Inner product space
Outer product
Kronecker product
Gram–Schmidt process
Multilinear algebra
Determinant
Cross product
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Seven-dimensional cross product
Geometric algebra
Exterior algebra
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Category
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dimension_levels.svg"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space"},{"link_name":"cardinality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinality"},{"link_name":"basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basis_(linear_algebra)"},{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Georg Hamel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Hamel"},{"link_name":"dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"finite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/finite"},{"link_name":"infinite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinity"}],"text":"A diagram of dimensions 1, 2, 3, and 4In mathematics, the dimension of a vector space V is the cardinality (i.e., the number of vectors) of a basis of V over its base field.[1][2] It is sometimes called Hamel dimension (after Georg Hamel) or algebraic dimension to distinguish it from other types of dimension.For every vector space there exists a basis,[a] and all bases of a vector space have equal cardinality;[b] as a result, the dimension of a vector space is uniquely defined. We say \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is finite-dimensional if the dimension of \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is finite, and infinite-dimensional if its dimension is infinite.The dimension of the vector space \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n over the field \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n can be written as \n \n \n \n \n dim\n \n F\n \n \n \n (\n V\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\dim _{F}(V)}\n \n or as \n \n \n \n [\n V\n :\n F\n ]\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle [V:F],}\n \n read \"dimension of \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n over \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n\". When \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n can be inferred from context, \n \n \n \n dim\n \n (\n V\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\dim(V)}\n \n is typically written.","title":"Dimension (vector space)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"complex numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"}],"text":"The vector space \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{3}}\n \n has{\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n ,\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n ,\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n }\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left\\{{\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\0\\\\0\\end{pmatrix}},{\\begin{pmatrix}0\\\\1\\\\0\\end{pmatrix}},{\\begin{pmatrix}0\\\\0\\\\1\\end{pmatrix}}\\right\\}}standard basisdim\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n R\n \n \n 3\n \n \n )\n =\n 3.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\dim _{\\mathbb {R} }(\\mathbb {R} ^{3})=3.}dim\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n )\n =\n n\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\dim _{\\mathbb {R} }(\\mathbb {R} ^{n})=n,}dim\n \n F\n \n \n \n (\n \n F\n \n n\n \n \n )\n =\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\dim _{F}(F^{n})=n}fieldF\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F.}The complex numbers \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} }\n \n are both a real and complex vector space; we have \n \n \n \n \n dim\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n C\n \n )\n =\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\dim _{\\mathbb {R} }(\\mathbb {C} )=2}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n dim\n \n \n C\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n C\n \n )\n =\n 1.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\dim _{\\mathbb {C} }(\\mathbb {C} )=1.}\n \n So the dimension depends on the base field.The only vector space with dimension \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0}\n \n is \n \n \n \n {\n 0\n }\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{0\\},}\n \n the vector space consisting only of its zero element.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"linear subspace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_subspace"},{"link_name":"identity matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_matrix"},{"link_name":"isomorphic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomorphic"},{"link_name":"bijective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijective"},{"link_name":"rank–nullity theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank%E2%80%93nullity_theorem"},{"link_name":"linear maps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_map"},{"link_name":"field extension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_extension"},{"link_name":"cardinality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinality"}],"text":"If \n \n \n \n W\n \n \n {\\displaystyle W}\n \n is a linear subspace of \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n then \n \n \n \n dim\n \n (\n W\n )\n ≤\n dim\n \n (\n V\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\dim(W)\\leq \\dim(V).}To show that two finite-dimensional vector spaces are equal, the following criterion can be used: if \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is a finite-dimensional vector space and \n \n \n \n W\n \n \n {\\displaystyle W}\n \n is a linear subspace of \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n with \n \n \n \n dim\n \n (\n W\n )\n =\n dim\n \n (\n V\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\dim(W)=\\dim(V),}\n \n then \n \n \n \n W\n =\n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle W=V.}The space \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{n}}\n \n has the standard basis \n \n \n \n \n {\n \n \n e\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n e\n \n n\n \n \n \n }\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left\\{e_{1},\\ldots ,e_{n}\\right\\},}\n \n where \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle e_{i}}\n \n is the \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i}\n \n-th column of the corresponding identity matrix. Therefore, \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{n}}\n \n has dimension \n \n \n \n n\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n.}Any two finite dimensional vector spaces over \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n with the same dimension are isomorphic. Any bijective map between their bases can be uniquely extended to a bijective linear map between the vector spaces. If \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n is some set, a vector space with dimension \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n B\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |B|}\n \n over \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n can be constructed as follows: take the set \n \n \n \n F\n (\n B\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F(B)}\n \n of all functions \n \n \n \n f\n :\n B\n →\n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f:B\\to F}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n f\n (\n b\n )\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(b)=0}\n \n for all but finitely many \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n {\\displaystyle b}\n \n in \n \n \n \n B\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B.}\n \n These functions can be added and multiplied with elements of \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n to obtain the desired \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n-vector space.An important result about dimensions is given by the rank–nullity theorem for linear maps.If \n \n \n \n F\n \n /\n \n K\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F/K}\n \n is a field extension, then \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is in particular a vector space over \n \n \n \n K\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle K.}\n \n Furthermore, every \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n-vector space \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is also a \n \n \n \n K\n \n \n {\\displaystyle K}\n \n-vector space. The dimensions are related by the formuladim\n \n K\n \n \n \n (\n V\n )\n =\n \n dim\n \n K\n \n \n \n (\n F\n )\n \n dim\n \n F\n \n \n \n (\n V\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\dim _{K}(V)=\\dim _{K}(F)\\dim _{F}(V).}n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}2\n n\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2n.}Some formulae relate the dimension of a vector space with the cardinality of the base field and the cardinality of the space itself.\nIf \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is a vector space over a field \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n and if the dimension of \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is denoted by \n \n \n \n dim\n \n V\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\dim V,}\n \n then:If dim \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is finite then \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n =\n \n |\n \n F\n \n \n |\n \n \n dim\n \n V\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |V|=|F|^{\\dim V}.}\n \n\nIf dim \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is infinite then \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n =\n max\n (\n \n |\n \n F\n \n |\n \n ,\n dim\n \n V\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |V|=\\max(|F|,\\dim V).}","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"matroid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matroid"},{"link_name":"length of a module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length_of_a_module"},{"link_name":"rank of an abelian group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank_of_an_abelian_group"},{"link_name":"Krull dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krull_dimension"},{"link_name":"ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_(algebra)"},{"link_name":"Wolfgang Krull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Krull"},{"link_name":"prime ideals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_ideal"}],"text":"A vector space can be seen as a particular case of a matroid, and in the latter there is a well-defined notion of dimension. The length of a module and the rank of an abelian group both have several properties similar to the dimension of vector spaces.The Krull dimension of a commutative ring, named after Wolfgang Krull (1899–1971), is defined to be the maximal number of strict inclusions in an increasing chain of prime ideals in the ring.","title":"Generalizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trace (linear algebra)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_(linear_algebra)"},{"link_name":"trace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_(linear_algebra)"},{"link_name":"identity operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_operator"},{"link_name":"algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra_over_a_field"},{"link_name":"counit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counit"},{"link_name":"bialgebras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bialgebra"},{"link_name":"trace class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_class"},{"link_name":"Hilbert space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert_space"},{"link_name":"nuclear operators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_operator"},{"link_name":"Banach space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banach_space"},{"link_name":"representation theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_theory"},{"link_name":"character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"monstrous moonshine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monstrous_moonshine"},{"link_name":"j\n \n \n {\\displaystyle j}\n \n-invariant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J-invariant"},{"link_name":"graded dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graded_dimension"},{"link_name":"monster group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_group"},{"link_name":"McKay–Thompson series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McKay%E2%80%93Thompson_series"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gannon-5"}],"sub_title":"Trace","text":"See also: Trace (linear algebra)The dimension of a vector space may alternatively be characterized as the trace of the identity operator. For instance, \n\n \n \n \n tr\n \n \n \n id\n \n \n \n R\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n =\n tr\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n =\n 1\n +\n 1\n =\n 2.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {tr} \\ \\operatorname {id} _{\\mathbb {R} ^{2}}=\\operatorname {tr} \\left({\\begin{smallmatrix}1&0\\\\0&1\\end{smallmatrix}}\\right)=1+1=2.}\n \n \nThis appears to be a circular definition, but it allows useful generalizations.Firstly, it allows for a definition of a notion of dimension when one has a trace but no natural sense of basis. For example, one may have an algebra \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n with maps \n \n \n \n η\n :\n K\n →\n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\eta :K\\to A}\n \n (the inclusion of scalars, called the unit) and a map \n \n \n \n ϵ\n :\n A\n →\n K\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\epsilon :A\\to K}\n \n (corresponding to trace, called the counit). The composition \n \n \n \n ϵ\n ∘\n η\n :\n K\n →\n K\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\epsilon \\circ \\eta :K\\to K}\n \n is a scalar (being a linear operator on a 1-dimensional space) corresponds to \"trace of identity\", and gives a notion of dimension for an abstract algebra. In practice, in bialgebras, this map is required to be the identity, which can be obtained by normalizing the counit by dividing by dimension (\n \n \n \n ϵ\n :=\n \n \n \n 1\n n\n \n \n tr\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\epsilon :=\\textstyle {\\frac {1}{n}}\\operatorname {tr} }\n \n), so in these cases the normalizing constant corresponds to dimension.Alternatively, it may be possible to take the trace of operators on an infinite-dimensional space; in this case a (finite) trace is defined, even though no (finite) dimension exists, and gives a notion of \"dimension of the operator\". These fall under the rubric of \"trace class operators\" on a Hilbert space, or more generally nuclear operators on a Banach space.A subtler generalization is to consider the trace of a family of operators as a kind of \"twisted\" dimension. This occurs significantly in representation theory, where the character of a representation is the trace of the representation, hence a scalar-valued function on a group \n \n \n \n χ\n :\n G\n →\n K\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\chi :G\\to K,}\n \n whose value on the identity \n \n \n \n 1\n ∈\n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1\\in G}\n \n is the dimension of the representation, as a representation sends the identity in the group to the identity matrix: \n \n \n \n χ\n (\n \n 1\n \n G\n \n \n )\n =\n tr\n \n \n \n I\n \n V\n \n \n =\n dim\n \n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\chi (1_{G})=\\operatorname {tr} \\ I_{V}=\\dim V.}\n \n The other values \n \n \n \n χ\n (\n g\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\chi (g)}\n \n of the character can be viewed as \"twisted\" dimensions, and find analogs or generalizations of statements about dimensions to statements about characters or representations. A sophisticated example of this occurs in the theory of monstrous moonshine: the \n \n \n \n j\n \n \n {\\displaystyle j}\n \n-invariant is the graded dimension of an infinite-dimensional graded representation of the monster group, and replacing the dimension with the character gives the McKay–Thompson series for each element of the Monster group.[3]","title":"Generalizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"axiom of choice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_choice"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"dimension theorem for vector spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_theorem_for_vector_spaces"}],"text":"^ if one assumes the axiom of choice\n\n^ see dimension theorem for vector spaces","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Axler, Sheldon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheldon_Axler"},{"link_name":"Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undergraduate_Texts_in_Mathematics"},{"link_name":"Springer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-319-11079-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-11079-0"}],"text":"Axler, Sheldon (2015). Linear Algebra Done Right. Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics (3rd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-11079-0.","title":"Sources"}]
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[{"image_text":"A diagram of dimensions 1, 2, 3, and 4","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Dimension_levels.svg/220px-Dimension_levels.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Fractal dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal_dimension"},{"title":"Krull dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krull_dimension"},{"title":"Matroid rank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matroid_rank"},{"title":"Rank (linear algebra)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank_(linear_algebra)"},{"title":"Topological dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_dimension"}]
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[{"reference":"Itzkov, Mikhail (2009). Tensor Algebra and Tensor Analysis for Engineers: With Applications to Continuum Mechanics. Springer. p. 4. ISBN 978-3-540-93906-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVk_KRY7zwC&pg=PA4","url_text":"Tensor Algebra and Tensor Analysis for Engineers: With Applications to Continuum Mechanics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-93906-1","url_text":"978-3-540-93906-1"}]},{"reference":"Gannon, Terry (2006), Moonshine beyond the Monster: The Bridge Connecting Algebra, Modular Forms and Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-83531-3","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-83531-3","url_text":"0-521-83531-3"}]},{"reference":"Axler, Sheldon (2015). Linear Algebra Done Right. Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics (3rd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-11079-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheldon_Axler","url_text":"Axler, Sheldon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undergraduate_Texts_in_Mathematics","url_text":"Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media","url_text":"Springer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-11079-0","url_text":"978-3-319-11079-0"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVk_KRY7zwC&pg=PA4","external_links_name":"Tensor Algebra and Tensor Analysis for Engineers: With Applications to Continuum Mechanics"},{"Link":"http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mathematics/18-06-linear-algebra-spring-2010/video-lectures/lecture-9-independence-basis-and-dimension/","external_links_name":"MIT Linear Algebra Lecture on Independence, Basis, and Dimension by Gilbert Strang"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_Zorro_III
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Amiga Zorro III
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["1 Memory map","2 Physical","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "Amiga Zorro III" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Released as the expansion bus of the Commodore Amiga 3000 in 1990, the Zorro III computer bus was used to attach peripheral devices to an Amiga motherboard. Designed by Commodore International lead engineer Dave Haynie, the 32-bit Zorro III replaced the 16-bit Zorro II bus used in the Amiga 2000. As with the Zorro II bus, Zorro III allowed for true Plug and Play autodetection (similar to, and prior to, the PC's PCI bus) wherein devices were dynamically allocated the resources they needed on boot.
Zorro III continued Zorro II's direct memory-mapped address design (unlike 80x86 processors, the MC68K family used in the Amiga did not have a separate I/O address mechanism). Just as with Zorro II on 24-bit systems, Zorro III reserved a large chunk of 32-bit real memory address space for large memory mapped cards, a smaller chunk with smaller allocation granularity for "I/O" type board. Zorro III was never supported on 24-bit address or 16-bit data devices—it required a full 32-bit CPU. The CPU could directly address any Zorro III device as memory, so Zorro memory expansions could be made (and were made) as well as it being possible to use video memory on a video card to be as system RAM.
As an asynchronous bus, Zorro III specified bus cycles of set lengths during which a transaction conforming to the specifications of the bus could be carried out. The initial implementation of Zorro III was in Commodore's "Fat" Buster (BUS conTrollER) gate array, assisted by a very high speed PAL and numerous TTL buffer chips for bus buffering, isolation, and multiplexing. The Amiga 4000 implementation was fundamentally the same, but integrated a second gate-array to replace the TTL buffers. The Buster chip provided bus arbitration, translation between the MC68030 bus protocols and either Zorro II or Zorro III bus cycles (geographically mapped based on the Zorro bus address), and a vectored interrupt mechanism, generally not used. Zorro II bus masters were legal bus hogs, but Zorro III devices were fairly arbitrated and had controller-limited bus tenure.
Despite being a 32-bit bus, Zorro III used the same 100 way slot and edge connector as Zorro II. The extra address and data lines were provided by multiplexing some of the existing connections with the nature of the lines changing at different stages of the bus access cycle (e.g. address becoming data). However, the bus was not fully multiplexed; the lower 8-bits of address were available during data cycles, which allowed Zorro III to support a fast burst cycle in page-mode. Properly designed Zorro II expansion cards could coexist with Zorro III cards; it was not a requirement of a Zorro III bus master to support DMA access to Zorro II bus targets. Cards could detect a Zorro III vs. Zorro II backplane, allowing certain Zorro III cards to function when connected to the older Zorro II bus, though at Zorro II's reduced data rates.
The Zorro III bus has a theoretical bandwidth of 150 MByte/s, based on an ideal Zorro III master and slave device running with minimum setup and hold times. The real transfer speed between the Amiga 3000/4000 implementation of Zorro III and a Zorro III card is somewhere around 13.5 MByte/s due to the limitations of the Buster chip. This was comparable to Intel's first PCI implementation, which peaked at 25 MByte/s. Zorro III was optimized for future single-chip implementations of the protocol, but the resources available at Commodore in 1990 limited the initial implementation.
This is also the limiting factor with 3rd party Amiga PCI expansion boards like e.g. Elbox Mediator PCI or the Matay Prometheus PCI (about 12 MByte/s PCI to 68k-system). DMA transfers between two Zorro III cards (or PCI cards on an PCI expansion board) can be much faster.
Memory map
Address
Size
Description
0x0000 0000
2.0
Chip memory
0x0020 0000
8.0
Zorro II memory expansion space
0x00A0 0000
1.5
Zorro II I/O expansion space
0x00B8 0000
3.0
A2000 motherboard register space
0x00E8 0000
0.5
Zorro II I/O
0x00F0 0000
1.0
Motherboard ROM
0x0100 0000
112.0
A3000 motherboard space
0x0800 0000
128.0
32-Bit memory expansion space
0x1000 0000
1792.0
Zorro III expansion space
0x8000 0000
2032.0
Reserved
0xFF00 0000
64 KB
Zorro III Configuration unit
0xFF01 0000
16.0
Reserved
0xFFFF FFFF
Physical
The physical connector is a standard 2,54 mm spaced (100 mil) card edge connector with 2 × 50 rows of pins.
Power:
0+5
< 2.0
0−5
< 0.3
+12
< 8.0
−12
< 0.3
See also
Amiga portal
List of device bandwidths - Notes on Zorro III performance
References
^ Dave Haynie, designer of the Zorro III bus, claims in this posting that the theoretical max of the Zorro III bus can be derived by the timing information given in chapter 5 of the Zorro III technical specification Archived 2012-07-16 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Dave Haynie, designer of the Zorro III bus, claims in this posting that Zorro III is an asynchronous bus and with that does not have a classical MHz rating. A maximum theoretical MHz value may be derived by examining timing constraints detailed in the Zorro III technical specification Archived 2012-07-16 at the Wayback Machine, which should yield about 37.5 MHz. No existing implementation performs to this level.
^ Dave Haynie, designer of the Zorro III bus, claims in this posting that Zorro III has a max burst rate of 150 MB/s.
^ "amiga.org post by Michael Boehmer on real-life Zorro III speed". Archived from the original on 2012-02-29. Retrieved 2013-03-19.
^ czex.com - Prometheus FAQ
^ a b Haynie, Dave (20 March 1991). "The Zorro III Bus Specification" (PDF). Commodore-Amiga, Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2008. 090430 thule.no p16 fig1-1
^ "The Amiga 3000+ System Specification An enhanced Amiga 3000 family computer Document Revision 0.6 1991 DevCon Release by Dave Haynie July 17, 1991 Copyright 1991 Commodore-Amiga, Inc" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 16, 2012. Retrieved May 1, 2009. 090501 thule.no p14
^ "Replacement zorro slots? - English Amiga Board". 090501 eab.abime.net
External links
The Zorro III Bus Specification (PDF), thule.no
Amiga Hardware Database Descriptions and photos of Zorro III cards, amiga.resource.cx
The Big Book of Amiga Hardware, amigahardware.mariomisic.de
vteAmiga hardware (history)Amiga models
1000
500
500 Plus
600
1200
1500
2000
2500
3000
3000T
3000UX
4000
4000T
CD32
CDTV
AmigaOne models
AmigaOne
AmigaOne 500
AmigaOne X1000
AmigaOne X5000
Unofficial 68k models
Minimig
Natami
Unofficial PPC models
Pegasos
Efika
Sam440ep
Sam440ep-flex
Sam460ex
Sam460ex Lite
Amiga prototypes
Walker
Power A5000
Amiga chipsets
Original Chip Set (OCS)
Ranger Chipset
Enhanced Chipset (ECS)
Advanced Graphics Architecture (AGA)
Amiga Advanced Architecture chipset (AAA)
Commodore AA+ Chipset
Amiga Hombre chipset
Amiga custom chips
Agnus
Blitter
Copper
Alice (AGA)
Denise (OCS)
Lisa (AGA)
Paula
other Amiga custom chips
Hardware
Chip RAM
Hold-And-Modify
Extra Half-Brite
Kickstart
3rd Party Hardware
Flicker fixer
Action Replay
Amiga Sidecar
Amiga Zorro II
Amiga Zorro III
Amiga video connector
vteTechnical and de facto standards for wired computer busesGeneral
System bus
Front-side bus
Back-side bus
Daisy chain
Control bus
Address bus
Bus contention
Bus mastering
Network on a chip
Plug and play
List of bus bandwidths
Standards
SS-50 bus
S-100 bus
Multibus
Unibus
VAXBI
MBus
STD Bus
SMBus
Q-Bus
Europe Card Bus
ISA
STEbus
Zorro II
Zorro III
CAMAC
FASTBUS
LPC
HP Precision Bus
EISA
VME
VXI
VXS
NuBus
TURBOchannel
MCA
SBus
VLB
HP GSC bus
InfiniBand
Ethernet
UPA
PCI
PCI Extended (PCI-X)
PXI
PCI Express (PCIe)
AGP
Compute Express Link (CXL)
Direct Media Interface (DMI)
RapidIO
Intel QuickPath Interconnect
NVLink
HyperTransport
Infinity Fabric
Intel Ultra Path Interconnect
Coherent Accelerator Processor Interface (CAPI)
SpaceWire
Storage
ST-506
ESDI
IPI
SMD
Parallel ATA (PATA)
Bus and Tag
DSSI
HIPPI
Serial ATA (SATA)
SCSI
Parallel
SAS
ESCON
Fibre Channel
SSA
SATAe
PCI Express (via AHCI or NVMe logical device interface)
Peripheral
Apple Desktop Bus
Atari SIO
DCB
Commodore bus
HP-IL
HIL
MIDI
RS-232
RS-422
RS-423
RS-485
Lightning
DMX512-A
IEEE-488 (GPIB)
IEEE-1284 (parallel port)
IEEE-1394 (FireWire)
UNI/O
1-Wire
I²C (ACCESS.bus, PMBus, SMBus)
I3C
SPI
D²B
Parallel SCSI
Profibus
USB
Camera Link
External PCIe
Thunderbolt
Audio
ADAT Lightpipe
AES3
Intel HD Audio
I²S
MADI
McASP
S/PDIF
TOSLINK
Portable
PC Card
ExpressCard
Embedded
Multidrop bus
CoreConnect
AMBA (AXI)
Wishbone
SLIMbus
Interfaces are listed by their speed in the (roughly) ascending order, so the interface at the end of each section should be the fastest. Category
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Commodore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_International"},{"link_name":"Amiga 3000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_3000"},{"link_name":"computer bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_bus"},{"link_name":"peripheral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_peripheral"},{"link_name":"motherboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard"},{"link_name":"Dave Haynie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Haynie"},{"link_name":"32-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32-bit"},{"link_name":"16-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16-bit"},{"link_name":"Zorro II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zorro_II"},{"link_name":"Amiga 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_2000"},{"link_name":"PCI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_Component_Interconnect"},{"link_name":"RAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_access_memory"},{"link_name":"edge connector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_connector"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"PCI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_PCI"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Released as the expansion bus of the Commodore Amiga 3000 in 1990, the Zorro III computer bus was used to attach peripheral devices to an Amiga motherboard. Designed by Commodore International lead engineer Dave Haynie, the 32-bit Zorro III replaced the 16-bit Zorro II bus used in the Amiga 2000. As with the Zorro II bus, Zorro III allowed for true Plug and Play autodetection (similar to, and prior to, the PC's PCI bus) wherein devices were dynamically allocated the resources they needed on boot.Zorro III continued Zorro II's direct memory-mapped address design (unlike 80x86 processors, the MC68K family used in the Amiga did not have a separate I/O address mechanism). Just as with Zorro II on 24-bit systems, Zorro III reserved a large chunk of 32-bit real memory address space for large memory mapped cards, a smaller chunk with smaller allocation granularity for \"I/O\" type board. Zorro III was never supported on 24-bit address or 16-bit data devices—it required a full 32-bit CPU. The CPU could directly address any Zorro III device as memory, so Zorro memory expansions could be made (and were made) as well as it being possible to use video memory on a video card to be as system RAM.As an asynchronous bus, Zorro III specified bus cycles of set lengths during which a transaction conforming to the specifications of the bus could be carried out. The initial implementation of Zorro III was in Commodore's \"Fat\" Buster (BUS conTrollER) gate array, assisted by a very high speed PAL and numerous TTL buffer chips for bus buffering, isolation, and multiplexing. The Amiga 4000 implementation was fundamentally the same, but integrated a second gate-array to replace the TTL buffers. The Buster chip provided bus arbitration, translation between the MC68030 bus protocols and either Zorro II or Zorro III bus cycles (geographically mapped based on the Zorro bus address), and a vectored interrupt mechanism, generally not used. Zorro II bus masters were legal bus hogs, but Zorro III devices were fairly arbitrated and had controller-limited bus tenure.Despite being a 32-bit bus, Zorro III used the same 100 way slot and edge connector as Zorro II. The extra address and data lines were provided by multiplexing some of the existing connections with the nature of the lines changing at different stages of the bus access cycle (e.g. address becoming data). However, the bus was not fully multiplexed; the lower 8-bits of address were available during data cycles, which allowed Zorro III to support a fast burst cycle in page-mode. Properly designed Zorro II expansion cards could coexist with Zorro III cards; it was not a requirement of a Zorro III bus master to support DMA access to Zorro II bus targets. Cards could detect a Zorro III vs. Zorro II backplane, allowing certain Zorro III cards to function when connected to the older Zorro II bus, though at Zorro II's reduced data rates.The Zorro III bus has a theoretical bandwidth of 150 MByte/s, based on an ideal Zorro III master and slave device running with minimum setup and hold times.[1][2][3] The real transfer speed between the Amiga 3000/4000 implementation of Zorro III and a Zorro III card is somewhere around 13.5 MByte/s due to the limitations of the Buster chip.[4] This was comparable to Intel's first PCI implementation, which peaked at 25 MByte/s. Zorro III was optimized for future single-chip implementations of the protocol, but the resources available at Commodore in 1990 limited the initial implementation.This is also the limiting factor with 3rd party Amiga PCI expansion boards like e.g. Elbox Mediator PCI or the Matay Prometheus PCI (about 12 MByte/s PCI to 68k-system). DMA transfers between two Zorro III cards (or PCI cards on an PCI expansion board) can be much faster.[5]","title":"Amiga Zorro III"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Memory map"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eab_abime_net-showthread_php_p_411339-8"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thule_no_zorro3-6"}],"text":"The physical connector is a standard 2,54 mm spaced (100 mil) card edge connector with 2 × 50 rows of pins.[8]Power:[6]","title":"Physical"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Amiga portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Amiga"},{"title":"List of device bandwidths - Notes on Zorro III performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_device_bandwidths#note-4"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"amiga.org post by Michael Boehmer on real-life Zorro III speed\". Archived from the original on 2012-02-29. Retrieved 2013-03-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120229182347/http://www.amiga.org/forums/showthread.php?p=563681#post563681","url_text":"\"amiga.org post by Michael Boehmer on real-life Zorro III speed\""},{"url":"http://www.amiga.org/forums/showthread.php?p=563681#post563681","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Haynie, Dave (20 March 1991). \"The Zorro III Bus Specification\" (PDF). Commodore-Amiga, Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120716212151/http://www.thule.no/haynie/zorroiii/docs/zorro3.pdf","url_text":"\"The Zorro III Bus Specification\""},{"url":"http://www.thule.no/haynie/zorroiii/docs/zorro3.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Amiga 3000+ System Specification An enhanced Amiga 3000 family computer Document Revision 0.6 1991 DevCon Release by Dave Haynie July 17, 1991 Copyright 1991 Commodore-Amiga, Inc\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 16, 2012. Retrieved May 1, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120716212022/http://www.thule.no/haynie/research/a3000p/docs/a3000p.pdf","url_text":"\"The Amiga 3000+ System Specification An enhanced Amiga 3000 family computer Document Revision 0.6 1991 DevCon Release by Dave Haynie July 17, 1991 Copyright 1991 Commodore-Amiga, Inc\""},{"url":"http://www.thule.no/haynie/research/a3000p/docs/a3000p.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Replacement zorro slots? - English Amiga Board\".","urls":[{"url":"http://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?p=411339","url_text":"\"Replacement zorro slots? - English Amiga Board\""}]}]
|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_equations
|
Equation
|
["1 Description","2 Properties","3 Examples","3.1 Analogous illustration","3.2 Parameters and unknowns","3.3 Identities","4 Algebra","4.1 Polynomial equations","4.2 Systems of linear equations","5 Geometry","5.1 Analytic geometry","5.2 Cartesian equations","5.3 Parametric equations","6 Number theory","6.1 Diophantine equations","6.2 Algebraic and transcendental numbers","6.3 Algebraic geometry","7 Differential equations","7.1 Ordinary differential equations","7.2 Partial differential equations","8 Types of equations","9 See also","10 Notes","11 References","12 External links"]
|
Mathematical formula expressing equality
For other uses, see Equation (disambiguation).You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in French. Click for important translation instructions.
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For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation.The first use of an equals sign, equivalent to 14x + 15 = 71 in modern notation. From The Whetstone of Witte by Robert Recorde of Wales (1557).
In mathematics, an equation is a mathematical formula that expresses the equality of two expressions, by connecting them with the equals sign =. The word equation and its cognates in other languages may have subtly different meanings; for example, in French an équation is defined as containing one or more variables, while in English, any well-formed formula consisting of two expressions related with an equals sign is an equation.
Solving an equation containing variables consists of determining which values of the variables make the equality true. The variables for which the equation has to be solved are also called unknowns, and the values of the unknowns that satisfy the equality are called solutions of the equation. There are two kinds of equations: identities and conditional equations. An identity is true for all values of the variables. A conditional equation is only true for particular values of the variables.
The "=" symbol, which appears in every equation, was invented in 1557 by Robert Recorde, who considered that nothing could be more equal than parallel straight lines with the same length.
Description
An equation is written as two expressions, connected by an equals sign ("="). The expressions on the two sides of the equals sign are called the "left-hand side" and "right-hand side" of the equation. Very often the right-hand side of an equation is assumed to be zero. This does not reduce the generality, as this can be realized by subtracting the right-hand side from both sides.
The most common type of equation is a polynomial equation (commonly called also an algebraic equation) in which the two sides are polynomials.
The sides of a polynomial equation contain one or more terms. For example, the equation
A
x
2
+
B
x
+
C
−
y
=
0
{\displaystyle Ax^{2}+Bx+C-y=0}
has left-hand side
A
x
2
+
B
x
+
C
−
y
{\displaystyle Ax^{2}+Bx+C-y}
, which has four terms, and right-hand side
0
{\displaystyle 0}
, consisting of just one term. The names of the variables suggest that x and y are unknowns, and that A, B, and C are parameters, but this is normally fixed by the context (in some contexts, y may be a parameter, or A, B, and C may be ordinary variables).
An equation is analogous to a scale into which weights are placed. When equal weights of something (e.g., grain) are placed into the two pans, the two weights cause the scale to be in balance and are said to be equal. If a quantity of grain is removed from one pan of the balance, an equal amount of grain must be removed from the other pan to keep the scale in balance. More generally, an equation remains in balance if the same operation is performed on its both sides.
Properties
Two equations or two systems of equations are equivalent, if they have the same set of solutions. The following operations transform an equation or a system of equations into an equivalent one – provided that the operations are meaningful for the expressions they are applied to:
Adding or subtracting the same quantity to both sides of an equation. This shows that every equation is equivalent to an equation in which the right-hand side is zero.
Multiplying or dividing both sides of an equation by a non-zero quantity.
Applying an identity to transform one side of the equation. For example, expanding a product or factoring a sum.
For a system: adding to both sides of an equation the corresponding side of another equation, multiplied by the same quantity.
If some function is applied to both sides of an equation, the resulting equation has the solutions of the initial equation among its solutions, but may have further solutions called extraneous solutions. For example, the equation
x
=
1
{\displaystyle x=1}
has the solution
x
=
1.
{\displaystyle x=1.}
Raising both sides to the exponent of 2 (which means applying the function
f
(
s
)
=
s
2
{\displaystyle f(s)=s^{2}}
to both sides of the equation) changes the equation to
x
2
=
1
{\displaystyle x^{2}=1}
, which not only has the previous solution but also introduces the extraneous solution,
x
=
−
1.
{\displaystyle x=-1.}
Moreover, if the function is not defined at some values (such as 1/x, which is not defined for x = 0), solutions existing at those values may be lost. Thus, caution must be exercised when applying such a transformation to an equation.
The above transformations are the basis of most elementary methods for equation solving, as well as some less elementary ones, like Gaussian elimination.
Examples
Analogous illustration
Illustration of a simple equation; x, y, z are real numbers, analogous to weights.
An equation is analogous to a weighing scale, balance, or seesaw.
Each side of the equation corresponds to one side of the balance. Different quantities can be placed on each side: if the weights on the two sides are equal, the scale balances, and in analogy, the equality that represents the balance is also balanced (if not, then the lack of balance corresponds to an inequality represented by an inequation).
In the illustration, x, y and z are all different quantities (in this case real numbers) represented as circular weights, and each of x, y, and z has a different weight. Addition corresponds to adding weight, while subtraction corresponds to removing weight from what is already there. When equality holds, the total weight on each side is the same.
Parameters and unknowns
See also: Expression (mathematics)
Equations often contain terms other than the unknowns. These other terms, which are assumed to be known, are usually called constants, coefficients or parameters.
An example of an equation involving x and y as unknowns and the parameter R is
x
2
+
y
2
=
R
2
.
{\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=R^{2}.}
When R is chosen to have the value of 2 (R = 2), this equation would be recognized in Cartesian coordinates as the equation for the circle of radius of 2 around the origin. Hence, the equation with R unspecified is the general equation for the circle.
Usually, the unknowns are denoted by letters at the end of the alphabet, x, y, z, w, ..., while coefficients (parameters) are denoted by letters at the beginning, a, b, c, d, ... . For example, the general quadratic equation is usually written ax2 + bx + c = 0.
The process of finding the solutions, or, in case of parameters, expressing the unknowns in terms of the parameters, is called solving the equation. Such expressions of the solutions in terms of the parameters are also called solutions.
A system of equations is a set of simultaneous equations, usually in several unknowns for which the common solutions are sought. Thus, a solution to the system is a set of values for each of the unknowns, which together form a solution to each equation in the system. For example, the system
3
x
+
5
y
=
2
5
x
+
8
y
=
3
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}3x+5y&=2\\5x+8y&=3\end{aligned}}}
has the unique solution x = −1, y = 1.
Identities
Main articles: Identity (mathematics) and List of trigonometric identities
An identity is an equation that is true for all possible values of the variable(s) it contains. Many identities are known in algebra and calculus. In the process of solving an equation, an identity is often used to simplify an equation, making it more easily solvable.
In algebra, an example of an identity is the difference of two squares:
x
2
−
y
2
=
(
x
+
y
)
(
x
−
y
)
{\displaystyle x^{2}-y^{2}=(x+y)(x-y)}
which is true for all x and y.
Trigonometry is an area where many identities exist; these are useful in manipulating or solving trigonometric equations. Two of many that involve the sine and cosine functions are:
sin
2
(
θ
)
+
cos
2
(
θ
)
=
1
{\displaystyle \sin ^{2}(\theta )+\cos ^{2}(\theta )=1}
and
sin
(
2
θ
)
=
2
sin
(
θ
)
cos
(
θ
)
{\displaystyle \sin(2\theta )=2\sin(\theta )\cos(\theta )}
which are both true for all values of θ.
For example, to solve for the value of θ that satisfies the equation:
3
sin
(
θ
)
cos
(
θ
)
=
1
,
{\displaystyle 3\sin(\theta )\cos(\theta )=1\,,}
where θ is limited to between 0 and 45 degrees, one may use the above identity for the product to give:
3
2
sin
(
2
θ
)
=
1
,
{\displaystyle {\frac {3}{2}}\sin(2\theta )=1\,,}
yielding the following solution for θ:
θ
=
1
2
arcsin
(
2
3
)
≈
20.9
∘
.
{\displaystyle \theta ={\frac {1}{2}}\arcsin \left({\frac {2}{3}}\right)\approx 20.9^{\circ }.}
Since the sine function is a periodic function, there are infinitely many solutions if there are no restrictions on θ. In this example, restricting θ to be between 0 and 45 degrees would restrict the solution to only one number.
Algebra
Algebra studies two main families of equations: polynomial equations and, among them, the special case of linear equations. When there is only one variable, polynomial equations have the form P(x) = 0, where P is a polynomial, and linear equations have the form ax + b = 0, where a and b are parameters. To solve equations from either family, one uses algorithmic or geometric techniques that originate from linear algebra or mathematical analysis. Algebra also studies Diophantine equations where the coefficients and solutions are integers. The techniques used are different and come from number theory. These equations are difficult in general; one often searches just to find the existence or absence of a solution, and, if they exist, to count the number of solutions.
Polynomial equations
Main article: Polynomial equation
The solutions –1 and 2 of the polynomial equation x2 – x + 2 = 0 are the points where the graph of the quadratic function y = x2 – x + 2 cuts the x-axis.
In general, an algebraic equation or polynomial equation is an equation of the form
P
=
0
{\displaystyle P=0}
, or
P
=
Q
{\displaystyle P=Q}
where P and Q are polynomials with coefficients in some field (e.g., rational numbers, real numbers, complex numbers). An algebraic equation is univariate if it involves only one variable. On the other hand, a polynomial equation may involve several variables, in which case it is called multivariate (multiple variables, x, y, z, etc.).
For example,
x
5
−
3
x
+
1
=
0
{\displaystyle x^{5}-3x+1=0}
is a univariate algebraic (polynomial) equation with integer coefficients and
y
4
+
x
y
2
=
x
3
3
−
x
y
2
+
y
2
−
1
7
{\displaystyle y^{4}+{\frac {xy}{2}}={\frac {x^{3}}{3}}-xy^{2}+y^{2}-{\frac {1}{7}}}
is a multivariate polynomial equation over the rational numbers.
Some polynomial equations with rational coefficients have a solution that is an algebraic expression, with a finite number of operations involving just those coefficients (i.e., can be solved algebraically). This can be done for all such equations of degree one, two, three, or four; but equations of degree five or more cannot always be solved in this way, as the Abel–Ruffini theorem demonstrates.
A large amount of research has been devoted to compute efficiently accurate approximations of the real or complex solutions of a univariate algebraic equation (see Root finding of polynomials) and of the common solutions of several multivariate polynomial equations (see System of polynomial equations).
Systems of linear equations
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is an anonymous 2nd-century Chinese book proposing a method of resolution for linear equations.
A system of linear equations (or linear system) is a collection of linear equations involving one or more variables. For example,
3
x
+
2
y
−
z
=
1
2
x
−
2
y
+
4
z
=
−
2
−
x
+
1
2
y
−
z
=
0
{\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{7}3x&&\;+\;&&2y&&\;-\;&&z&&\;=\;&&1&\\2x&&\;-\;&&2y&&\;+\;&&4z&&\;=\;&&-2&\\-x&&\;+\;&&{\tfrac {1}{2}}y&&\;-\;&&z&&\;=\;&&0&\end{alignedat}}}
is a system of three equations in the three variables x, y, z. A solution to a linear system is an assignment of numbers to the variables such that all the equations are simultaneously satisfied. A solution to the system above is given by
x
=
1
y
=
−
2
z
=
−
2
{\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{2}x&\,=\,&1\\y&\,=\,&-2\\z&\,=\,&-2\end{alignedat}}}
since it makes all three equations valid. The word "system" indicates that the equations are to be considered collectively, rather than individually.
In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is a fundamental part of linear algebra, a subject which is used in many parts of modern mathematics. Computational algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and play a prominent role in physics, engineering, chemistry, computer science, and economics. A system of non-linear equations can often be approximated by a linear system (see linearization), a helpful technique when making a mathematical model or computer simulation of a relatively complex system.
Geometry
Analytic geometry
The blue and red line is the set of all points (x,y) such that x+y=5 and -x+2y=4, respectively. Their intersection point, (2,3), satisfies both equations.Main article: Analytic geometry
In Euclidean geometry, it is possible to associate a set of coordinates to each point in space, for example by an orthogonal grid. This method allows one to characterize geometric figures by equations. A plane in three-dimensional space can be expressed as the solution set of an equation of the form
a
x
+
b
y
+
c
z
+
d
=
0
{\displaystyle ax+by+cz+d=0}
, where
a
,
b
,
c
{\displaystyle a,b,c}
and
d
{\displaystyle d}
are real numbers and
x
,
y
,
z
{\displaystyle x,y,z}
are the unknowns that correspond to the coordinates of a point in the system given by the orthogonal grid. The values
a
,
b
,
c
{\displaystyle a,b,c}
are the coordinates of a vector perpendicular to the plane defined by the equation. A line is expressed as the intersection of two planes, that is as the solution set of a single linear equation with values in
R
2
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}
or as the solution set of two linear equations with values in
R
3
.
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}.}
A conic section is the intersection of a cone with equation
x
2
+
y
2
=
z
2
{\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=z^{2}}
and a plane. In other words, in space, all conics are defined as the solution set of an equation of a plane and of the equation of a cone just given. This formalism allows one to determine the positions and the properties of the focuses of a conic.
The use of equations allows one to call on a large area of mathematics to solve geometric questions. The Cartesian coordinate system transforms a geometric problem into an analysis problem, once the figures are transformed into equations; thus the name analytic geometry. This point of view, outlined by Descartes, enriches and modifies the type of geometry conceived of by the ancient Greek mathematicians.
Currently, analytic geometry designates an active branch of mathematics. Although it still uses equations to characterize figures, it also uses other sophisticated techniques such as functional analysis and linear algebra.
Cartesian equations
Cartesian coordinate system with a circle of radius 2 centered at the origin marked in red. The equation of a circle is (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 where a and b are the coordinates of the center (a, b) and r is the radius.In Cartesian geometry, equations are used to describe geometric figures. As the equations that are considered, such as implicit equations or parametric equations, have infinitely many solutions, the objective is now different: instead of giving the solutions explicitly or counting them, which is impossible, one uses equations for studying properties of figures. This is the starting idea of algebraic geometry, an important area of mathematics.
One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by the use of three Cartesian coordinates, which are the signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines).
The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as curves) can be described by Cartesian equations: algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2 in a plane, centered on a particular point called the origin, may be described as the set of all points whose coordinates x and y satisfy the equation x2 + y2 = 4.
Parametric equations
Main article: Parametric equation
A parametric equation for a curve expresses the coordinates of the points of the curve as functions of a variable, called a parameter. For example,
x
=
cos
t
y
=
sin
t
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=\cos t\\y&=\sin t\end{aligned}}}
are parametric equations for the unit circle, where t is the parameter. Together, these equations are called a parametric representation of the curve.
The notion of parametric equation has been generalized to surfaces, manifolds and algebraic varieties of higher dimension, with the number of parameters being equal to the dimension of the manifold or variety, and the number of equations being equal to the dimension of the space in which the manifold or variety is considered (for curves the dimension is one and one parameter is used, for surfaces dimension two and two parameters, etc.).
Number theory
Diophantine equations
Main article: Diophantine equation
A Diophantine equation is a polynomial equation in two or more unknowns for which only the integer solutions are sought (an integer solution is a solution such that all the unknowns take integer values). A linear Diophantine equation is an equation between two sums of monomials of degree zero or one. An example of linear Diophantine equation is ax + by = c where a, b, and c are constants. An exponential Diophantine equation is one for which exponents of the terms of the equation can be unknowns.
Diophantine problems have fewer equations than unknown variables and involve finding integers that work correctly for all equations. In more technical language, they define an algebraic curve, algebraic surface, or more general object, and ask about the lattice points on it.
The word Diophantine refers to the Hellenistic mathematician of the 3rd century, Diophantus of Alexandria, who made a study of such equations and was one of the first mathematicians to introduce symbolism into algebra. The mathematical study of Diophantine problems that Diophantus initiated is now called Diophantine analysis.
Algebraic and transcendental numbers
Main articles: Algebraic number and Transcendental number
An algebraic number is a number that is a solution of a non-zero polynomial equation in one variable with rational coefficients (or equivalently — by clearing denominators — with integer coefficients). Numbers such as π that are not algebraic are said to be transcendental. Almost all real and complex numbers are transcendental.
Algebraic geometry
Main article: Algebraic geometry
Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics, classically studying solutions of polynomial equations. Modern algebraic geometry is based on more abstract techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry.
The fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, which are geometric manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Examples of the most studied classes of algebraic varieties are: plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves and quartic curves like lemniscates, and Cassini ovals. A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation. Basic questions involve the study of the points of special interest like the singular points, the inflection points and the points at infinity. More advanced questions involve the topology of the curve and relations between the curves given by different equations.
Differential equations
Main article: Differential equation
A strange attractor, which arises when solving a certain differential equation
A differential equation is a mathematical equation that relates some function with its derivatives. In applications, the functions usually represent physical quantities, the derivatives represent their rates of change, and the equation defines a relationship between the two. They are solved by finding an expression for the function that does not involve derivatives. Differential equations are used to model processes that involve the rates of change of the variable, and are used in areas such as physics, chemistry, biology, and economics.
In pure mathematics, differential equations are studied from several different perspectives, mostly concerned with their solutions — the set of functions that satisfy the equation. Only the simplest differential equations are solvable by explicit formulas; however, some properties of solutions of a given differential equation may be determined without finding their exact form.
If a self-contained formula for the solution is not available, the solution may be numerically approximated using computers. The theory of dynamical systems puts emphasis on qualitative analysis of systems described by differential equations, while many numerical methods have been developed to determine solutions with a given degree of accuracy.
Ordinary differential equations
Main article: Ordinary differential equation
An ordinary differential equation or ODE is an equation containing a function of one independent variable and its derivatives. The term "ordinary" is used in contrast with the term partial differential equation, which may be with respect to more than one independent variable.
Linear differential equations, which have solutions that can be added and multiplied by coefficients, are well-defined and understood, and exact closed-form solutions are obtained. By contrast, ODEs that lack additive solutions are nonlinear, and solving them is far more intricate, as one can rarely represent them by elementary functions in closed form: Instead, exact and analytic solutions of ODEs are in series or integral form. Graphical and numerical methods, applied by hand or by computer, may approximate solutions of ODEs and perhaps yield useful information, often sufficing in the absence of exact, analytic solutions.
Partial differential equations
Main article: Partial differential equation
A partial differential equation (PDE) is a differential equation that contains unknown multivariable functions and their partial derivatives. (This is in contrast to ordinary differential equations, which deal with functions of a single variable and their derivatives.) PDEs are used to formulate problems involving functions of several variables, and are either solved by hand, or used to create a relevant computer model.
PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena such as sound, heat, electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics. These seemingly distinct physical phenomena can be formalised similarly in terms of PDEs. Just as ordinary differential equations often model one-dimensional dynamical systems, partial differential equations often model multidimensional systems. PDEs find their generalisation in stochastic partial differential equations.
Types of equations
Equations can be classified according to the types of operations and quantities involved. Important types include:
An algebraic equation or polynomial equation is an equation in which both sides are polynomials (see also system of polynomial equations). These are further classified by degree:
linear equation for degree one
quadratic equation for degree two
cubic equation for degree three
quartic equation for degree four
quintic equation for degree five
sextic equation for degree six
septic equation for degree seven
octic equation for degree eight
A Diophantine equation is an equation where the unknowns are required to be integers
A transcendental equation is an equation involving a transcendental function of its unknowns
A parametric equation is an equation in which the solutions for the variables are expressed as functions of some other variables, called parameters appearing in the equations
A functional equation is an equation in which the unknowns are functions rather than simple quantities
Equations involving derivatives, integrals and finite differences:
A differential equation is a functional equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions, where the function and its derivatives are evaluated at the same point, such as
f
′
(
x
)
=
x
2
{\displaystyle f'(x)=x^{2}}
. Differential equations are subdivided into ordinary differential equations for functions of a single variable and partial differential equations for functions of multiple variables
An integral equation is a functional equation involving the antiderivatives of the unknown functions. For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from a differential equation primarily through a change of variable substituting the function by its derivative, however this is not the case when the integral is taken over an open surface
An integro-differential equation is a functional equation involving both the derivatives and the antiderivatives of the unknown functions. For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from integral and differential equations through a similar change of variable.
A functional differential equation of delay differential equation is a function equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions, evaluated at multiple points, such as
f
′
(
x
)
=
f
(
x
−
2
)
{\displaystyle f'(x)=f(x-2)}
A difference equation is an equation where the unknown is a function f that occurs in the equation through f(x), f(x−1), ..., f(x−k), for some whole integer k called the order of the equation. If x is restricted to be an integer, a difference equation is the same as a recurrence relation
A stochastic differential equation is a differential equation in which one or more of the terms is a stochastic process
See also
Formula
History of algebra
Indeterminate equation
List of equations
List of scientific equations named after people
Term (logic)
Theory of equations
Cancelling out
Notes
^ As such an equation can be rewritten P – Q = 0, many authors do not consider this case explicitly.
^ The subject of this article is basic in mathematics, and is treated in a lot of textbooks. Among them, Lay 2005, Meyer 2001, and Strang 2005 contain the material of this article.
References
^ a b Recorde, Robert, The Whetstone of Witte ... (London, England: Jhon Kyngstone, 1557), the third page of the chapter "The rule of equation, commonly called Algebers Rule."
^ a b "Equation - Math Open Reference". www.mathopenref.com. Retrieved 2020-09-01.
^ "Equations and Formulas". www.mathsisfun.com. Retrieved 2020-09-01.
^ Marcus, Solomon; Watt, Stephen M. "What is an Equation?". Retrieved 2019-02-27.
^ Lachaud, Gilles. "Équation, mathématique". Encyclopædia Universalis (in French).
^ "A statement of equality between two expressions. Equations are of two types, identities and conditional equations (or usually simply "equations")". « Equation », in Mathematics Dictionary, Glenn James et Robert C. James (éd.), Van Nostrand, 1968, 3 ed. 1st ed. 1948, p. 131.
^ Thomas, George B., and Finney, Ross L., Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Addison Wesley Publishing Co., fifth edition, 1979, p. 91.
^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Parametric Equations." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ParametricEquations.html
External links
Winplot: General Purpose plotter that can draw and animate 2D and 3D mathematical equations.
Equation plotter: A web page for producing and downloading pdf or postscript plots of the solution sets to equations and inequations in two variables (x and y).
Authority control databases: National
France
BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
Japan
Czech Republic
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Equation (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_Equation_Ever.png"},{"link_name":"The Whetstone of Witte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Whetstone_of_Witte"},{"link_name":"Robert Recorde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Recorde"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whetstone-1"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"mathematical formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_formula"},{"link_name":"equality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equality_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"expressions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"equals sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equals_sign"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"cognates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognate"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"well-formed formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-formed_formula"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Solving an equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_solving"},{"link_name":"solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution_(equation)"},{"link_name":"identities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"=","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%3D"},{"link_name":"Robert Recorde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Recorde"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whetstone-1"}],"text":"For other uses, see Equation (disambiguation).The first use of an equals sign, equivalent to 14x + 15 = 71 in modern notation. From The Whetstone of Witte by Robert Recorde of Wales (1557).[1]In mathematics, an equation is a mathematical formula that expresses the equality of two expressions, by connecting them with the equals sign =.[2][3] The word equation and its cognates in other languages may have subtly different meanings; for example, in French an équation is defined as containing one or more variables, while in English, any well-formed formula consisting of two expressions related with an equals sign is an equation.[4]Solving an equation containing variables consists of determining which values of the variables make the equality true. The variables for which the equation has to be solved are also called unknowns, and the values of the unknowns that satisfy the equality are called solutions of the equation. There are two kinds of equations: identities and conditional equations. An identity is true for all values of the variables. A conditional equation is only true for particular values of the variables.[5][6]The \"=\" symbol, which appears in every equation, was invented in 1557 by Robert Recorde, who considered that nothing could be more equal than parallel straight lines with the same length.[1]","title":"Equation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"expressions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"equals sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equals_sign"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"sides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sides_of_an_equation"},{"link_name":"polynomial equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_equation"},{"link_name":"polynomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"terms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition#Notation_and_terminology"},{"link_name":"variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"parameters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter"}],"text":"An equation is written as two expressions, connected by an equals sign (\"=\").[2] The expressions on the two sides of the equals sign are called the \"left-hand side\" and \"right-hand side\" of the equation. Very often the right-hand side of an equation is assumed to be zero. This does not reduce the generality, as this can be realized by subtracting the right-hand side from both sides.The most common type of equation is a polynomial equation (commonly called also an algebraic equation) in which the two sides are polynomials.\nThe sides of a polynomial equation contain one or more terms. For example, the equationA\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n B\n x\n +\n C\n −\n y\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Ax^{2}+Bx+C-y=0}has left-hand side \n \n \n \n A\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n B\n x\n +\n C\n −\n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Ax^{2}+Bx+C-y}\n \n, which has four terms, and right-hand side \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0}\n \n, consisting of just one term. The names of the variables suggest that x and y are unknowns, and that A, B, and C are parameters, but this is normally fixed by the context (in some contexts, y may be a parameter, or A, B, and C may be ordinary variables).An equation is analogous to a scale into which weights are placed. When equal weights of something (e.g., grain) are placed into the two pans, the two weights cause the scale to be in balance and are said to be equal. If a quantity of grain is removed from one pan of the balance, an equal amount of grain must be removed from the other pan to keep the scale in balance. More generally, an equation remains in balance if the same operation is performed on its both sides.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Adding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition"},{"link_name":"subtracting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtraction"},{"link_name":"Multiplying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication"},{"link_name":"dividing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"expanding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_expansion"},{"link_name":"factoring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factorization_of_polynomials"},{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"extraneous solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraneous_solution"},{"link_name":"equation solving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_solving"},{"link_name":"Gaussian elimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_elimination"}],"text":"Two equations or two systems of equations are equivalent, if they have the same set of solutions. The following operations transform an equation or a system of equations into an equivalent one – provided that the operations are meaningful for the expressions they are applied to:Adding or subtracting the same quantity to both sides of an equation. This shows that every equation is equivalent to an equation in which the right-hand side is zero.\nMultiplying or dividing both sides of an equation by a non-zero quantity.\nApplying an identity to transform one side of the equation. For example, expanding a product or factoring a sum.\nFor a system: adding to both sides of an equation the corresponding side of another equation, multiplied by the same quantity.If some function is applied to both sides of an equation, the resulting equation has the solutions of the initial equation among its solutions, but may have further solutions called extraneous solutions. For example, the equation \n \n \n \n x\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=1}\n \n has the solution \n \n \n \n x\n =\n 1.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=1.}\n \n Raising both sides to the exponent of 2 (which means applying the function \n \n \n \n f\n (\n s\n )\n =\n \n s\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(s)=s^{2}}\n \n to both sides of the equation) changes the equation to \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}=1}\n \n, which not only has the previous solution but also introduces the extraneous solution, \n \n \n \n x\n =\n −\n 1.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=-1.}\n \n Moreover, if the function is not defined at some values (such as 1/x, which is not defined for x = 0), solutions existing at those values may be lost. Thus, caution must be exercised when applying such a transformation to an equation.The above transformations are the basis of most elementary methods for equation solving, as well as some less elementary ones, like Gaussian elimination.","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Equation_illustration_colour.svg"},{"link_name":"weighing scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighing_scale"},{"link_name":"seesaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seesaw"},{"link_name":"inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inequality_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"inequation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inequation"},{"link_name":"real numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_numbers"}],"sub_title":"Analogous illustration","text":"Illustration of a simple equation; x, y, z are real numbers, analogous to weights.An equation is analogous to a weighing scale, balance, or seesaw.Each side of the equation corresponds to one side of the balance. Different quantities can be placed on each side: if the weights on the two sides are equal, the scale balances, and in analogy, the equality that represents the balance is also balanced (if not, then the lack of balance corresponds to an inequality represented by an inequation).In the illustration, x, y and z are all different quantities (in this case real numbers) represented as circular weights, and each of x, y, and z has a different weight. Addition corresponds to adding weight, while subtraction corresponds to removing weight from what is already there. When equality holds, the total weight on each side is the same.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Expression (mathematics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Cartesian coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinates"},{"link_name":"quadratic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_equation"},{"link_name":"solving the equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_solving"},{"link_name":"system of equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_equations"}],"sub_title":"Parameters and unknowns","text":"See also: Expression (mathematics)Equations often contain terms other than the unknowns. These other terms, which are assumed to be known, are usually called constants, coefficients or parameters.An example of an equation involving x and y as unknowns and the parameter R isx\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=R^{2}.}When R is chosen to have the value of 2 (R = 2), this equation would be recognized in Cartesian coordinates as the equation for the circle of radius of 2 around the origin. Hence, the equation with R unspecified is the general equation for the circle.Usually, the unknowns are denoted by letters at the end of the alphabet, x, y, z, w, ..., while coefficients (parameters) are denoted by letters at the beginning, a, b, c, d, ... . For example, the general quadratic equation is usually written ax2 + bx + c = 0.The process of finding the solutions, or, in case of parameters, expressing the unknowns in terms of the parameters, is called solving the equation. Such expressions of the solutions in terms of the parameters are also called solutions.A system of equations is a set of simultaneous equations, usually in several unknowns for which the common solutions are sought. Thus, a solution to the system is a set of values for each of the unknowns, which together form a solution to each equation in the system. For example, the system3\n x\n +\n 5\n y\n \n \n \n =\n 2\n \n \n \n \n 5\n x\n +\n 8\n y\n \n \n \n =\n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}3x+5y&=2\\\\5x+8y&=3\\end{aligned}}}has the unique solution x = −1, y = 1.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"difference of two squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difference_of_two_squares"},{"link_name":"Trigonometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometry"},{"link_name":"trigonometric equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometric_equation"},{"link_name":"sine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_function"},{"link_name":"cosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosine_function"},{"link_name":"periodic function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_function"}],"sub_title":"Identities","text":"An identity is an equation that is true for all possible values of the variable(s) it contains. Many identities are known in algebra and calculus. In the process of solving an equation, an identity is often used to simplify an equation, making it more easily solvable.In algebra, an example of an identity is the difference of two squares:x\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n (\n x\n +\n y\n )\n (\n x\n −\n y\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}-y^{2}=(x+y)(x-y)}which is true for all x and y.Trigonometry is an area where many identities exist; these are useful in manipulating or solving trigonometric equations. Two of many that involve the sine and cosine functions are:sin\n \n 2\n \n \n \n (\n θ\n )\n +\n \n cos\n \n 2\n \n \n \n (\n θ\n )\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sin ^{2}(\\theta )+\\cos ^{2}(\\theta )=1}andsin\n \n (\n 2\n θ\n )\n =\n 2\n sin\n \n (\n θ\n )\n cos\n \n (\n θ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sin(2\\theta )=2\\sin(\\theta )\\cos(\\theta )}which are both true for all values of θ.For example, to solve for the value of θ that satisfies the equation:3\n sin\n \n (\n θ\n )\n cos\n \n (\n θ\n )\n =\n 1\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 3\\sin(\\theta )\\cos(\\theta )=1\\,,}where θ is limited to between 0 and 45 degrees, one may use the above identity for the product to give:3\n 2\n \n \n sin\n \n (\n 2\n θ\n )\n =\n 1\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {3}{2}}\\sin(2\\theta )=1\\,,}yielding the following solution for θ:θ\n =\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n arcsin\n \n \n (\n \n \n 2\n 3\n \n \n )\n \n ≈\n \n 20.9\n \n ∘\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\theta ={\\frac {1}{2}}\\arcsin \\left({\\frac {2}{3}}\\right)\\approx 20.9^{\\circ }.}Since the sine function is a periodic function, there are infinitely many solutions if there are no restrictions on θ. In this example, restricting θ to be between 0 and 45 degrees would restrict the solution to only one number.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra"},{"link_name":"polynomial equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_equations"},{"link_name":"linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_equations"},{"link_name":"polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"parameters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter#Mathematical_functions"},{"link_name":"linear algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebra"},{"link_name":"mathematical analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_analysis"},{"link_name":"Diophantine equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine_equations"},{"link_name":"integers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integers"},{"link_name":"number theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory"}],"text":"Algebra studies two main families of equations: polynomial equations and, among them, the special case of linear equations. When there is only one variable, polynomial equations have the form P(x) = 0, where P is a polynomial, and linear equations have the form ax + b = 0, where a and b are parameters. To solve equations from either family, one uses algorithmic or geometric techniques that originate from linear algebra or mathematical analysis. Algebra also studies Diophantine equations where the coefficients and solutions are integers. The techniques used are different and come from number theory. These equations are difficult in general; one often searches just to find the existence or absence of a solution, and, if they exist, to count the number of solutions.","title":"Algebra"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polynomialdeg2.svg"},{"link_name":"graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_of_a_function"},{"link_name":"quadratic function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_function"},{"link_name":"polynomial equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_equation"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"polynomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"rational numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_number"},{"link_name":"real numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"complex numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"rational coefficients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_number"},{"link_name":"algebraic expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_expression"},{"link_name":"solved algebraically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_solution"},{"link_name":"degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_a_polynomial"},{"link_name":"Abel–Ruffini theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abel%E2%80%93Ruffini_theorem"},{"link_name":"real","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"Root finding of polynomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_finding_of_polynomials"},{"link_name":"System of polynomial equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_polynomial_equations"}],"sub_title":"Polynomial equations","text":"The solutions –1 and 2 of the polynomial equation x2 – x + 2 = 0 are the points where the graph of the quadratic function y = x2 – x + 2 cuts the x-axis.In general, an algebraic equation or polynomial equation is an equation of the formP\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P=0}\n \n, orP\n =\n Q\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P=Q}\n \n [a]where P and Q are polynomials with coefficients in some field (e.g., rational numbers, real numbers, complex numbers). An algebraic equation is univariate if it involves only one variable. On the other hand, a polynomial equation may involve several variables, in which case it is called multivariate (multiple variables, x, y, z, etc.).For example,x\n \n 5\n \n \n −\n 3\n x\n +\n 1\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{5}-3x+1=0}is a univariate algebraic (polynomial) equation with integer coefficients andy\n \n 4\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n x\n y\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n 3\n \n \n −\n x\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n \n 1\n 7\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y^{4}+{\\frac {xy}{2}}={\\frac {x^{3}}{3}}-xy^{2}+y^{2}-{\\frac {1}{7}}}is a multivariate polynomial equation over the rational numbers.Some polynomial equations with rational coefficients have a solution that is an algebraic expression, with a finite number of operations involving just those coefficients (i.e., can be solved algebraically). This can be done for all such equations of degree one, two, three, or four; but equations of degree five or more cannot always be solved in this way, as the Abel–Ruffini theorem demonstrates.A large amount of research has been devoted to compute efficiently accurate approximations of the real or complex solutions of a univariate algebraic equation (see Root finding of polynomials) and of the common solutions of several multivariate polynomial equations (see System of polynomial equations).","title":"Algebra"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.gif"},{"link_name":"The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nine_Chapters_on_the_Mathematical_Art"},{"link_name":"system of linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_linear_equations"},{"link_name":"linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_equation"},{"link_name":"variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(math)"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"solution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_solving"},{"link_name":"linear algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebra"},{"link_name":"algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"numerical linear algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_linear_algebra"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"},{"link_name":"system of non-linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_system"},{"link_name":"approximated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximation"},{"link_name":"linearization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linearization"},{"link_name":"mathematical model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_model"},{"link_name":"computer simulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_simulation"}],"sub_title":"Systems of linear equations","text":"The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is an anonymous 2nd-century Chinese book proposing a method of resolution for linear equations.A system of linear equations (or linear system) is a collection of linear equations involving one or more variables.[b] For example,3\n x\n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n 2\n y\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n z\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n x\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n 2\n y\n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n 4\n z\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n −\n x\n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n y\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n z\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{alignedat}{7}3x&&\\;+\\;&&2y&&\\;-\\;&&z&&\\;=\\;&&1&\\\\2x&&\\;-\\;&&2y&&\\;+\\;&&4z&&\\;=\\;&&-2&\\\\-x&&\\;+\\;&&{\\tfrac {1}{2}}y&&\\;-\\;&&z&&\\;=\\;&&0&\\end{alignedat}}}is a system of three equations in the three variables x, y, z. A solution to a linear system is an assignment of numbers to the variables such that all the equations are simultaneously satisfied. A solution to the system above is given byx\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n \n \n z\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{alignedat}{2}x&\\,=\\,&1\\\\y&\\,=\\,&-2\\\\z&\\,=\\,&-2\\end{alignedat}}}since it makes all three equations valid. The word \"system\" indicates that the equations are to be considered collectively, rather than individually.In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is a fundamental part of linear algebra, a subject which is used in many parts of modern mathematics. Computational algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and play a prominent role in physics, engineering, chemistry, computer science, and economics. A system of non-linear equations can often be approximated by a linear system (see linearization), a helpful technique when making a mathematical model or computer simulation of a relatively complex system.","title":"Algebra"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Geometry"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FunLin_04.svg"},{"link_name":"intersection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersection_(Euclidean_geometry)"},{"link_name":"Euclidean geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_geometry"},{"link_name":"conic section","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conic_section"},{"link_name":"cone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone"},{"link_name":"Cartesian coordinate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate"},{"link_name":"analytic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_geometry"},{"link_name":"Descartes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes"},{"link_name":"functional analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_analysis"},{"link_name":"linear algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebra"}],"sub_title":"Analytic geometry","text":"The blue and red line is the set of all points (x,y) such that x+y=5 and -x+2y=4, respectively. Their intersection point, (2,3), satisfies both equations.In Euclidean geometry, it is possible to associate a set of coordinates to each point in space, for example by an orthogonal grid. This method allows one to characterize geometric figures by equations. A plane in three-dimensional space can be expressed as the solution set of an equation of the form \n \n \n \n a\n x\n +\n b\n y\n +\n c\n z\n +\n d\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ax+by+cz+d=0}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n a\n ,\n b\n ,\n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a,b,c}\n \n and \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n {\\displaystyle d}\n \n are real numbers and \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ,\n z\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,y,z}\n \n are the unknowns that correspond to the coordinates of a point in the system given by the orthogonal grid. The values \n \n \n \n a\n ,\n b\n ,\n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a,b,c}\n \n are the coordinates of a vector perpendicular to the plane defined by the equation. A line is expressed as the intersection of two planes, that is as the solution set of a single linear equation with values in \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{2}}\n \n or as the solution set of two linear equations with values in \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n 3\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{3}.}A conic section is the intersection of a cone with equation \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n z\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=z^{2}}\n \n and a plane. In other words, in space, all conics are defined as the solution set of an equation of a plane and of the equation of a cone just given. This formalism allows one to determine the positions and the properties of the focuses of a conic.The use of equations allows one to call on a large area of mathematics to solve geometric questions. The Cartesian coordinate system transforms a geometric problem into an analysis problem, once the figures are transformed into equations; thus the name analytic geometry. This point of view, outlined by Descartes, enriches and modifies the type of geometry conceived of by the ancient Greek mathematicians.Currently, analytic geometry designates an active branch of mathematics. Although it still uses equations to characterize figures, it also uses other sophisticated techniques such as functional analysis and linear algebra.","title":"Geometry"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cartesian-coordinate-system-with-circle.svg"},{"link_name":"Cartesian geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_geometry"},{"link_name":"geometric figures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_figures"},{"link_name":"implicit equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_equation"},{"link_name":"parametric equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric_equation"},{"link_name":"algebraic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_geometry"},{"link_name":"dimensional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension"},{"link_name":"space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"René Descartes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes"},{"link_name":"Euclidean geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_geometry"},{"link_name":"algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra"},{"link_name":"curves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve"}],"sub_title":"Cartesian equations","text":"Cartesian coordinate system with a circle of radius 2 centered at the origin marked in red. The equation of a circle is (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 where a and b are the coordinates of the center (a, b) and r is the radius.In Cartesian geometry, equations are used to describe geometric figures. As the equations that are considered, such as implicit equations or parametric equations, have infinitely many solutions, the objective is now different: instead of giving the solutions explicitly or counting them, which is impossible, one uses equations for studying properties of figures. This is the starting idea of algebraic geometry, an important area of mathematics.One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by the use of three Cartesian coordinates, which are the signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines).The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as curves) can be described by Cartesian equations: algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2 in a plane, centered on a particular point called the origin, may be described as the set of all points whose coordinates x and y satisfy the equation x2 + y2 = 4.","title":"Geometry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"parametric equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric_equation"},{"link_name":"curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve"},{"link_name":"coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinates"},{"link_name":"variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"parameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"unit circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_circle"},{"link_name":"surfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_(topology)"},{"link_name":"manifolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifold"},{"link_name":"algebraic varieties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_variety"},{"link_name":"dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_of_a_manifold"}],"sub_title":"Parametric equations","text":"A parametric equation for a curve expresses the coordinates of the points of the curve as functions of a variable, called a parameter.[7][8] For example,x\n \n \n \n =\n cos\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n \n =\n sin\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}x&=\\cos t\\\\y&=\\sin t\\end{aligned}}}are parametric equations for the unit circle, where t is the parameter. Together, these equations are called a parametric representation of the curve.The notion of parametric equation has been generalized to surfaces, manifolds and algebraic varieties of higher dimension, with the number of parameters being equal to the dimension of the manifold or variety, and the number of equations being equal to the dimension of the space in which the manifold or variety is considered (for curves the dimension is one and one parameter is used, for surfaces dimension two and two parameters, etc.).","title":"Geometry"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Number theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"polynomial equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_equation"},{"link_name":"integer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_of_a_function#Polynomial_roots"},{"link_name":"monomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomials"},{"link_name":"degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_a_polynomial"},{"link_name":"algebraic curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_curve"},{"link_name":"algebraic surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_surface"},{"link_name":"lattice points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_point"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic mathematician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mathematics#Hellenistic"},{"link_name":"Diophantus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus"},{"link_name":"Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria"},{"link_name":"symbolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_symbol"},{"link_name":"algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra"}],"sub_title":"Diophantine equations","text":"A Diophantine equation is a polynomial equation in two or more unknowns for which only the integer solutions are sought (an integer solution is a solution such that all the unknowns take integer values). A linear Diophantine equation is an equation between two sums of monomials of degree zero or one. An example of linear Diophantine equation is ax + by = c where a, b, and c are constants. An exponential Diophantine equation is one for which exponents of the terms of the equation can be unknowns.Diophantine problems have fewer equations than unknown variables and involve finding integers that work correctly for all equations. In more technical language, they define an algebraic curve, algebraic surface, or more general object, and ask about the lattice points on it.The word Diophantine refers to the Hellenistic mathematician of the 3rd century, Diophantus of Alexandria, who made a study of such equations and was one of the first mathematicians to introduce symbolism into algebra. The mathematical study of Diophantine problems that Diophantus initiated is now called Diophantine analysis.","title":"Number theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"algebraic number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_number"},{"link_name":"polynomial equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_equation"},{"link_name":"rational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_number"},{"link_name":"clearing denominators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearing_denominators"},{"link_name":"integer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"π","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi"},{"link_name":"transcendental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_number"},{"link_name":"Almost all","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_all"},{"link_name":"real","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"}],"sub_title":"Algebraic and transcendental numbers","text":"An algebraic number is a number that is a solution of a non-zero polynomial equation in one variable with rational coefficients (or equivalently — by clearing denominators — with integer coefficients). Numbers such as π that are not algebraic are said to be transcendental. Almost all real and complex numbers are transcendental.","title":"Number theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Algebraic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_geometry"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"polynomial equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_equations"},{"link_name":"abstract algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_algebra"},{"link_name":"commutative algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_algebra"},{"link_name":"geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry"},{"link_name":"algebraic varieties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_variety"},{"link_name":"solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution_set"},{"link_name":"systems of polynomial equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_of_polynomial_equations"},{"link_name":"plane algebraic curves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_algebraic_curve"},{"link_name":"lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"circles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle"},{"link_name":"parabolas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabola"},{"link_name":"ellipses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipse"},{"link_name":"hyperbolas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbola"},{"link_name":"cubic curves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_curve"},{"link_name":"elliptic curves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_curve"},{"link_name":"lemniscates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemniscate_of_Bernoulli"},{"link_name":"Cassini ovals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassini_oval"},{"link_name":"singular points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_point_of_a_curve"},{"link_name":"inflection points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection_point"},{"link_name":"points at infinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_at_infinity"},{"link_name":"topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topology"}],"sub_title":"Algebraic geometry","text":"Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics, classically studying solutions of polynomial equations. Modern algebraic geometry is based on more abstract techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry.The fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, which are geometric manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Examples of the most studied classes of algebraic varieties are: plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves and quartic curves like lemniscates, and Cassini ovals. A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation. Basic questions involve the study of the points of special interest like the singular points, the inflection points and the points at infinity. More advanced questions involve the topology of the curve and relations between the curves given by different equations.","title":"Number theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Attracteur_%C3%A9trange_de_Lorenz.png"},{"link_name":"strange attractor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_attractor"},{"link_name":"differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation"},{"link_name":"differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation"},{"link_name":"mathematical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative"},{"link_name":"pure mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_mathematics"},{"link_name":"dynamical systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamical_systems"},{"link_name":"numerical methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_methods"}],"text":"A strange attractor, which arises when solving a certain differential equationA differential equation is a mathematical equation that relates some function with its derivatives. In applications, the functions usually represent physical quantities, the derivatives represent their rates of change, and the equation defines a relationship between the two. They are solved by finding an expression for the function that does not involve derivatives. Differential equations are used to model processes that involve the rates of change of the variable, and are used in areas such as physics, chemistry, biology, and economics.In pure mathematics, differential equations are studied from several different perspectives, mostly concerned with their solutions — the set of functions that satisfy the equation. Only the simplest differential equations are solvable by explicit formulas; however, some properties of solutions of a given differential equation may be determined without finding their exact form.If a self-contained formula for the solution is not available, the solution may be numerically approximated using computers. The theory of dynamical systems puts emphasis on qualitative analysis of systems described by differential equations, while many numerical methods have been developed to determine solutions with a given degree of accuracy.","title":"Differential equations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ordinary differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinary_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"independent variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_variable"},{"link_name":"partial differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"elementary functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_functions"},{"link_name":"numerical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_ordinary_differential_equations"}],"sub_title":"Ordinary differential equations","text":"An ordinary differential equation or ODE is an equation containing a function of one independent variable and its derivatives. The term \"ordinary\" is used in contrast with the term partial differential equation, which may be with respect to more than one independent variable.Linear differential equations, which have solutions that can be added and multiplied by coefficients, are well-defined and understood, and exact closed-form solutions are obtained. By contrast, ODEs that lack additive solutions are nonlinear, and solving them is far more intricate, as one can rarely represent them by elementary functions in closed form: Instead, exact and analytic solutions of ODEs are in series or integral form. Graphical and numerical methods, applied by hand or by computer, may approximate solutions of ODEs and perhaps yield useful information, often sufficing in the absence of exact, analytic solutions.","title":"Differential equations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"partial differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation"},{"link_name":"multivariable functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multivariable_calculus"},{"link_name":"partial derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_derivative"},{"link_name":"ordinary differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinary_differential_equations"},{"link_name":"computer model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_model"},{"link_name":"sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound"},{"link_name":"heat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat"},{"link_name":"electrostatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatics"},{"link_name":"electrodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodynamics"},{"link_name":"fluid flow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_flow"},{"link_name":"elasticity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)"},{"link_name":"quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"dynamical systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamical_systems"},{"link_name":"multidimensional systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multidimensional_systems"},{"link_name":"stochastic partial differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_partial_differential_equations"}],"sub_title":"Partial differential equations","text":"A partial differential equation (PDE) is a differential equation that contains unknown multivariable functions and their partial derivatives. (This is in contrast to ordinary differential equations, which deal with functions of a single variable and their derivatives.) PDEs are used to formulate problems involving functions of several variables, and are either solved by hand, or used to create a relevant computer model.PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena such as sound, heat, electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics. These seemingly distinct physical phenomena can be formalised similarly in terms of PDEs. Just as ordinary differential equations often model one-dimensional dynamical systems, partial differential equations often model multidimensional systems. PDEs find their generalisation in stochastic partial differential equations.","title":"Differential equations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"algebraic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_equation"},{"link_name":"polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"system of polynomial equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_polynomial_equations"},{"link_name":"degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_a_polynomial"},{"link_name":"linear equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_equation"},{"link_name":"quadratic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_equation"},{"link_name":"cubic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_equation"},{"link_name":"quartic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartic_equation"},{"link_name":"quintic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintic_equation"},{"link_name":"sextic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextic_equation"},{"link_name":"septic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septic_equation"},{"link_name":"octic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octic_equation"},{"link_name":"Diophantine equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine_equation"},{"link_name":"integers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"transcendental equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_equation"},{"link_name":"transcendental function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_function"},{"link_name":"parametric equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric_equation"},{"link_name":"parameters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter"},{"link_name":"functional equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_equation"},{"link_name":"functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation"},{"link_name":"derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative"},{"link_name":"ordinary differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinary_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"partial differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"integral equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral_equation"},{"link_name":"antiderivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiderivative"},{"link_name":"integro-differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integro-differential_equation"},{"link_name":"derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative"},{"link_name":"antiderivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiderivative"},{"link_name":"functional differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"delay differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delay_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative"},{"link_name":"difference equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difference_equation"},{"link_name":"recurrence relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrence_relation"},{"link_name":"stochastic differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"stochastic process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_process"}],"text":"Equations can be classified according to the types of operations and quantities involved. Important types include:An algebraic equation or polynomial equation is an equation in which both sides are polynomials (see also system of polynomial equations). These are further classified by degree:\nlinear equation for degree one\nquadratic equation for degree two\ncubic equation for degree three\nquartic equation for degree four\nquintic equation for degree five\nsextic equation for degree six\nseptic equation for degree seven\noctic equation for degree eight\nA Diophantine equation is an equation where the unknowns are required to be integers\nA transcendental equation is an equation involving a transcendental function of its unknowns\nA parametric equation is an equation in which the solutions for the variables are expressed as functions of some other variables, called parameters appearing in the equations\nA functional equation is an equation in which the unknowns are functions rather than simple quantities\nEquations involving derivatives, integrals and finite differences:\nA differential equation is a functional equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions, where the function and its derivatives are evaluated at the same point, such as \n \n \n \n \n f\n ′\n \n (\n x\n )\n =\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f'(x)=x^{2}}\n \n. Differential equations are subdivided into ordinary differential equations for functions of a single variable and partial differential equations for functions of multiple variables\nAn integral equation is a functional equation involving the antiderivatives of the unknown functions. For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from a differential equation primarily through a change of variable substituting the function by its derivative, however this is not the case when the integral is taken over an open surface\nAn integro-differential equation is a functional equation involving both the derivatives and the antiderivatives of the unknown functions. For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from integral and differential equations through a similar change of variable.\nA functional differential equation of delay differential equation is a function equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions, evaluated at multiple points, such as \n \n \n \n \n f\n ′\n \n (\n x\n )\n =\n f\n (\n x\n −\n 2\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f'(x)=f(x-2)}\n \n\nA difference equation is an equation where the unknown is a function f that occurs in the equation through f(x), f(x−1), ..., f(x−k), for some whole integer k called the order of the equation. If x is restricted to be an integer, a difference equation is the same as a recurrence relation\nA stochastic differential equation is a differential equation in which one or more of the terms is a stochastic process","title":"Types of equations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"}],"text":"^ As such an equation can be rewritten P – Q = 0, many authors do not consider this case explicitly.\n\n^ The subject of this article is basic in mathematics, and is treated in a lot of textbooks. Among them, Lay 2005, Meyer 2001, and Strang 2005 contain the material of this article.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"The first use of an equals sign, equivalent to 14x + 15 = 71 in modern notation. From The Whetstone of Witte by Robert Recorde of Wales (1557).[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/First_Equation_Ever.png/300px-First_Equation_Ever.png"},{"image_text":"Illustration of a simple equation; x, y, z are real numbers, analogous to weights.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Equation_illustration_colour.svg/220px-Equation_illustration_colour.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The solutions –1 and 2 of the polynomial equation x2 – x + 2 = 0 are the points where the graph of the quadratic function y = x2 – x + 2 cuts the x-axis.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Polynomialdeg2.svg/220px-Polynomialdeg2.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is an anonymous 2nd-century Chinese book proposing a method of resolution for linear equations.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.gif/220px-%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.gif"},{"image_text":"The blue and red line is the set of all points (x,y) such that x+y=5 and -x+2y=4, respectively. Their intersection point, (2,3), satisfies both equations.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/FunLin_04.svg/220px-FunLin_04.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Cartesian coordinate system with a circle of radius 2 centered at the origin marked in red. The equation of a circle is (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 where a and b are the coordinates of the center (a, b) and r is the radius.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Cartesian-coordinate-system-with-circle.svg/220px-Cartesian-coordinate-system-with-circle.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A strange attractor, which arises when solving a certain differential equation","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Attracteur_%C3%A9trange_de_Lorenz.png/220px-Attracteur_%C3%A9trange_de_Lorenz.png"}]
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[{"title":"Formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula"},{"title":"History of algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_algebra"},{"title":"Indeterminate equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminate_equation"},{"title":"List of equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_equations"},{"title":"List of scientific equations named after people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people"},{"title":"Term (logic)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_(logic)"},{"title":"Theory of equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_equations"},{"title":"Cancelling out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancelling_out"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Equation - Math Open Reference\". www.mathopenref.com. Retrieved 2020-09-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mathopenref.com/equation.html","url_text":"\"Equation - Math Open Reference\""}]},{"reference":"\"Equations and Formulas\". www.mathsisfun.com. Retrieved 2020-09-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/equation-formula.html","url_text":"\"Equations and Formulas\""}]},{"reference":"Marcus, Solomon; Watt, Stephen M. \"What is an Equation?\". Retrieved 2019-02-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Marcus","url_text":"Marcus"},{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/3287674","url_text":"\"What is an Equation?\""}]},{"reference":"Lachaud, Gilles. \"Équation, mathématique\". Encyclopædia Universalis (in French).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/NT01240/EQUATION_mathematique.htm","url_text":"\"Équation, mathématique\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://deepl.com/","external_links_name":"DeepL"},{"Link":"https://translate.google.com/","external_links_name":"Google Translate"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/stream/TheWhetstoneOfWitte#page/n237/mode/2up","external_links_name":"the third page of the chapter \"The rule of equation, commonly called Algebers Rule.\""},{"Link":"https://www.mathopenref.com/equation.html","external_links_name":"\"Equation - Math Open Reference\""},{"Link":"https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/equation-formula.html","external_links_name":"\"Equations and Formulas\""},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/3287674","external_links_name":"\"What is an Equation?\""},{"Link":"http://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/NT01240/EQUATION_mathematique.htm","external_links_name":"\"Équation, mathématique\""},{"Link":"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ParametricEquations.html","external_links_name":"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ParametricEquations.html"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090816161008/http://math.exeter.edu/rparris/winplot.html","external_links_name":"Winplot"},{"Link":"http://www.cs.cornell.edu/w8/~andru/relplot","external_links_name":"Equation plotter"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119470816","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119470816","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4021246-4","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007552900305171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85044510","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00563553","external_links_name":"Japan"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph125241&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX
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SpaceX
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["1 History","1.1 2001–2004: Founding","1.2 2005–2009: Falcon 1 and first orbital launches","1.3 2010–2012: Falcon 9, Dragon, and NASA contracts","1.4 2013–2015: Commercial launches and rapid growth","1.5 2015–2017: Reusability milestones","1.6 2017–2018: Leading global commercial launch provider","1.7 Since 2019: Starship, first crewed launches, Starlink and general","1.7.1 Starship","1.7.2 Crewed launches","1.7.3 Starlink","1.8 Summary of achievements","2 Hardware","2.1 Launch vehicles","2.2 Rocket engines","2.3 Dragon spacecraft","2.4 Autonomous spaceport drone ships","2.5 Starlink","3 Other projects","4 Facilities","4.1 Headquarters, mission control, manufacturing, and refurbishment facilities","4.2 Development and test facilities","4.3 Launch facilities","5 Contracts","5.1 Cargo to ISS","5.2 Crewed","5.3 National defense","6 Launch market competition and pricing pressure","7 Corporate affairs","7.1 Finances","7.2 Board of directors","7.3 Leadership changes","7.4 Workplace culture","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]
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American private spacecraft company
This article is about the rocket and spacecraft manufacturer. For the British art gallery, see Spacex (art gallery).
"Space Exploration Technologies" redirects here. For the general topics, see Space exploration and Space technology.
Space Exploration Technologies CorporationHeadquarters in Hawthorne, CaliforniaTrade nameSpaceXCompany typePrivateIndustrySpaceTelecommunicationsFoundedMarch 14, 2002; 22 years ago (2002-03-14) in El Segundo, California, U.S.FounderElon MuskHeadquartersHawthorne, California, United StatesKey peopleElon Musk (CEO, Chair & CTO)Gwynne Shotwell (President & COO)ProductsLaunch vehiclesDragon capsulesStarshieldRevenue US$4.6 billion (2022)Net income −US$559 million (2022)OwnerElon Musk (42% equity; 79% voting control)Number of employees13,000+ (September 2023)SubsidiariesStarlinkSwarm TechnologiesWebsitespacex.com
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Space Exploration Technologies Corporation, commonly referred to as SpaceX, is an American spacecraft manufacturer, launch service provider and satellite communications company headquartered in Hawthorne, California. The company was founded in 2002 by Elon Musk with the goal of reducing space transportation costs and ultimately developing a sustainable colony on Mars. The company currently produces and operates the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets along with the Dragon and Starship spacecraft.
The company offers internet service via its Starlink subsidiary, which became the largest-ever satellite constellation in January 2020 and, as of April 2024, comprised more than 6,000 small satellites in orbit.
Meanwhile, the company is developing Starship, a human-rated, fully-reusable, super heavy-lift launch system for interplanetary and orbital spaceflight. On its first flight in April 2023, it became the largest and most powerful rocket ever flown. The rocket fully completed its test flight on its fourth flight by reaching space and returning both stages for a controlled splashdown in June 2024.
SpaceX is the first private company to develop a liquid-propellant rocket that has reached orbit; to launch, orbit, and recover a spacecraft; to send a spacecraft to the International Space Station; and to send astronauts to the International Space Station. It is also the first organization of any type to achieve a vertical propulsive landing of an orbital rocket booster and the first to reuse such a booster. The company's Falcon 9 rockets have landed and flown again more than 300 times. As of June 2024, SpaceX has around US$200 billion valuation.
History
Main article: History of SpaceX
See also: List of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches
2001–2004: Founding
In early 2001, Elon Musk met Robert Zubrin and donated US$100,000 to his Mars Society, joining its board of directors for a short time.: 30–31 He gave a plenary talk at their fourth convention where he announced Mars Oasis, a project to land a greenhouse and grow plants on Mars. Musk initially attempted to acquire a Dnepr intercontinental ballistic missile for the project through Russian contacts from Jim Cantrell.
Musk then returned with his team a second time to Moscow this time bringing Michael Griffin as well, but found the Russians increasingly unreceptive. On the flight home Musk announced he could start a company to build the affordable rockets they needed instead. By applying vertical integration, using cheap commercial off-the-shelf components when possible, and adopting the modular approach of modern software engineering, Musk believed SpaceX could significantly cut launch cost.
In early 2002, Elon Musk started to look for staff for his company, soon to be named SpaceX. Musk approached five people for the initial positions at the fledgling company, including Michael Griffin, who declined the position of Chief Engineer, Jim Cantrel and John Garvey (Cantrel and Garvey would later found the company Vector Launch), rocket engineer Tom Mueller, and Chris Thompson. SpaceX was first headquartered in a warehouse in El Segundo, California. Early SpaceX employees, such as Tom Mueller (CTO), Gwynne Shotwell (COO), and Chris Thompson (VP of Operations), came from neighboring TRW and Boeing corporations. By November 2005, the company had 160 employees. Musk personally interviewed and approved all of SpaceX's early employees.
Musk has stated that one of his goals with SpaceX is to decrease the cost and improve the reliability of access to space, ultimately by a factor of ten.
2005–2009: Falcon 1 and first orbital launches
Main article: Falcon 1
The first successful Falcon 1 launch in September 2008
SpaceX developed its first orbital launch vehicle, the Falcon 1, with internal funding. The Falcon 1 was an expendable two-stage-to-orbit small-lift launch vehicle. The total development cost of Falcon 1 was approximately $90 million to $100 million. The Falcon rocket series was named after Star Wars's Millennium Falcon fictional spacecraft.
In 2004, SpaceX protested against NASA to the Government Accountability Office (GAO) because of a sole-source contract awarded to Kistler Aerospace. Before the GAO could respond, NASA withdrew the contract, and formed the COTS program. In 2005, SpaceX announced plans to pursue a human-rated commercial space program through the end of the decade, a program that would later become the Dragon spacecraft. In 2006, the company was selected by NASA and awarded $396 million to provide crew and cargo resupply demonstration contracts to the International Space Station (ISS) under the COTS program.
The first two Falcon 1 launches were purchased by the United States Department of Defense under the DARPA Falcon Project which evaluated new US launch vehicles suitable for use in hypersonic missile delivery for Prompt Global Strike. The first three launches of the rocket, between 2006 and 2008, all resulted in failures, which almost ended the company. Financing for Tesla Motors had failed, as well, and consequently Tesla, SolarCity, and Musk personally were all nearly bankrupt at the same time. Musk was reportedly "waking from nightmares, screaming and in physical pain" because of the stress.
The financial situation started to turn around with the first successful launch achieved on the fourth attempt on 28 September 2008. Musk split his remaining $30 million between SpaceX and Tesla, and NASA awarded the first Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract awarding $1.6 billion to SpaceX in December, thus financially saving the company. Based on these factors and the further business operations they enabled, the Falcon 1 was soon retired following its second successful, and fifth total, launch in July 2009. This allowed SpaceX to focus company resources on the development of a larger orbital rocket, the Falcon 9. Gwynne Shotwell was also promoted to company president at the time, for her role in successfully negotiating the CRS contract with the NASA Associate Administrator Bill Gerstenmaier.
2010–2012: Falcon 9, Dragon, and NASA contracts
Video of the first launch of Falcon 9
SpaceX originally intended to follow its light Falcon 1 launch vehicle with an intermediate capacity vehicle, the Falcon 5. The company instead decided in 2005 to proceed with the development of the Falcon 9, a reusable heavier lift vehicle. Development of the Falcon 9 was accelerated by NASA, which committed to purchasing several commercial flights if specific capabilities were demonstrated. This started with seed money from the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program in 2006. The overall contract award was $278 million to provide development funding for the Dragon spacecraft, Falcon 9, and demonstration launches of Falcon 9 with Dragon. As part of this contract, the Falcon 9 launched for the first time in June 2010 with the Dragon Spacecraft Qualification Unit, using a mockup of the Dragon spacecraft.
The first operational Dragon spacecraft was launched in December 2010 aboard COTS Demo Flight 1, the Falcon 9's second flight, and safely returned to Earth after two orbits, completing all its mission objectives. By December 2010, the SpaceX production line was manufacturing one Falcon 9 and Dragon every three months.
In April 2011, as part of its second-round Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program, NASA issued a $75 million contract for SpaceX to develop an integrated launch escape system for Dragon in preparation for human-rating it as a crew transport vehicle to the ISS. NASA awarded SpaceX a fixed-price Space Act Agreement (SAA) to produce a detailed design of the crew transportation system in August 2012.
In early 2012, approximately two-thirds of SpaceX stock was owned by Musk and his seventy million shares were then estimated to be worth $875 million on private markets, valuing SpaceX at $1.3 billion. In May 2012, with the Dragon C2+ launch Dragon became the first commercial spacecraft to deliver cargo to the International Space Station. After the flight, the company private equity valuation nearly doubled to $2.4 billion or $20/share. By that time, SpaceX had operated on total funding of approximately $1 billion over its first decade of operation. Of this, private equity provided approximately $200 million, with Musk investing approximately $100 million and other investors having put in about $100 million.
SpaceX's active reusability test program began in late 2012 with testing low-altitude, low-speed aspects of the landing technology. The Falcon 9 prototypes performed vertical takeoffs and landings (VTOL). High-velocity, high-altitude tests of the booster atmospheric return technology began in late 2013.
2013–2015: Commercial launches and rapid growth
Launch of Falcon 9 carrying ORBCOMM OG2-M1, July 2014
SpaceX launched the first commercial mission for a private customer in 2013. In 2014, SpaceX won nine contracts out of the 20 that were openly competed worldwide. That year Arianespace requested that European governments provide additional subsidies to face the competition from SpaceX. Beginning in 2014, SpaceX capabilities and pricing also began to affect the market for launch of U.S. military payloads, which for nearly a decade had been dominated by the large U.S. launch provider United Launch Alliance (ULA). The monopoly had allowed launch costs by the U.S. provider to rise to over $400 million over the years. In September 2014, NASA's Director of Commercial Spaceflight, Kevin Crigler, awarded SpaceX the Commercial Crew Transportation Capability (CCtCap) contract to finalize the development of the Crew Transportation System. The contract included several technical and certification milestones, an uncrewed flight test, a crewed flight test, and six operational missions after certification.
In January 2015, SpaceX raised $1 billion in funding from Google and Fidelity Investments, in exchange for 8.33% of the company, establishing the company valuation at approximately $12 billion. The same month SpaceX announced the development of a new satellite constellation, called Starlink, to provide global broadband internet service with 4,000 satellites.
The Falcon 9 had its first major failure in late June 2015, when the seventh ISS resupply mission, CRS-7 exploded two minutes into the flight. The problem was traced to a failed 2-foot-long steel strut that held a helium pressure vessel, which broke free due to the force of acceleration. This caused a breach and allowed high-pressure helium to escape into the low-pressure propellant tank, causing the failure.
2015–2017: Reusability milestones
Falcon 9 first stage on an autonomous spaceport drone ship (ASDS) barge after the first successful landing at sea, SpaceX CRS-8 mission
SpaceX first achieved a successful landing and recovery of a first stage in December 2015 with Falcon 9 Flight 20. In April 2016, the company achieved the first successful landing on the autonomous spaceport drone ship (ASDS) Of Course I Still Love You in the Atlantic Ocean. By October 2016, following the successful landings, SpaceX indicated they were offering their customers a 10% price discount if they choose to fly their payload on a reused Falcon 9 first stage.
A second major rocket failure happened in early September 2016, when a Falcon 9 exploded during a propellant fill operation for a standard pre-launch static fire test. The payload, the AMOS-6 communications satellite valued at $200 million, was destroyed. The explosion was caused by the liquid oxygen that is used as propellant turning so cold that it solidified and ignited with carbon composite helium vessels. Though not considered an unsuccessful flight, the rocket explosion sent the company into a four-month launch hiatus while it worked out what went wrong. SpaceX returned to flight in January 2017.
In March 2017, SpaceX launched a returned Falcon 9 for the SES-10 satellite. This was the first time a re-launch of a payload-carrying orbital rocket went back to space. The first stage was recovered again, also making it the first landing of a reused orbital class rocket.
2017–2018: Leading global commercial launch provider
In July 2017, the company raised $350 million, which raised its valuation to $21 billion. In 2017, SpaceX achieved a 45% global market share for awarded commercial launch contracts. By March 2018, SpaceX had more than 100 launches on its manifest representing about $12 billion in contract revenue. The contracts included both commercial and government (NASA/DOD) customers. This made SpaceX the leading global commercial launch provider measured by manifested launches.
In 2017, SpaceX formed a subsidiary, The Boring Company, and began work to construct a short test tunnel on and adjacent to the SpaceX headquarters and manufacturing facility, using a small number of SpaceX employees, which was completed in May 2018, and opened to the public in December 2018. During 2018, The Boring Company was spun out into a separate corporate entity with 6% of the equity going to SpaceX, less than 10% to early employees, and the remainder of the equity to Elon Musk.
Since 2019: Starship, first crewed launches, Starlink and general
In 2019 Spacex raised $1.33 billion of capital across three funding rounds. By May 2019, the valuation of SpaceX had risen to $33.3 billion and reached $36 billion by March 2020.
On 19 August 2020, after a $1.9 billion funding round, one of the largest single fundraising pushes by any privately held company, SpaceX's valuation increased to $46 billion.
In February 2021, SpaceX raised an additional $1.61 billion in an equity round from 99 investors at a per share value of approximately $420, raising the company valuation to approximately $74 billion. By 2021, SpaceX had raised more than $6 billion in equity financing. Most of the capital raised since 2019 has been used to support the operational fielding of the Starlink satellite constellation and the development and manufacture of the Starship launch vehicle. By October 2021, the valuation of SpaceX had risen to $100.3 billion. On 16 April 2021, Starship HLS won a contract to play a critical role in the NASA crewed spaceflight Artemis program. By 2021, SpaceX had entered into agreements with Google Cloud Platform and Microsoft Azure to provide on-ground computer and networking services for Starlink. A new round of financing in 2022 valued SpaceX at $127 billion.
In July 2021, SpaceX unveiled another drone ship named A Shortfall of Gravitas, landing a booster from CRS-23 on it for the first time on 29 August 2021. Within the first 130 days of 2022, SpaceX had 18 rocket launches and two astronaut splashdowns. On 13 December 2021, company CEO Elon Musk announced that the company was starting a carbon dioxide removal program that would convert captured carbon into rocket fuel, after he announced a $100 million donation to the X Prize Foundation the previous February to provide the monetary rewards to winners in a contest to develop the best carbon capture technology.
In August 2022, Reuters reported that the European Space Agency (ESA) began initial discussions with SpaceX that could lead to the company's launchers being used temporarily, given that Russia blocked access to Soyuz rockets amid the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Since that invasion and in the greater war between Russia and Ukraine, Starlink was extensively used.
In 2022, SpaceX's Falcon 9 also became the world record holder for the most launches of a single vehicle type in a single year. SpaceX launched a rocket approximately every six days in 2022, with 61 launches in total. All but one (a Falcon Heavy in November) was on a Falcon 9 rocket.
In November 2023, SpaceX announced it would acquire its parachute supplier Pioneer Aerospace out of bankruptcy for $2.2 million.
Starship
Starship in launch position
In January 2019, SpaceX announced it would lay off 10% of its workforce to help finance the Starship and Starlink projects. The purpose of the Starship vehicle is to enable large-scale transit of humans and cargo to the Moon, Mars, and beyond. Spacex's Starship is the largest and most powerful rocket ever flown, with a payload capacity of 100+ tons. Construction of initial prototypes and tests for Starship started in early 2019 in Florida and Texas. All Starship construction and testing moved to the new SpaceX South Texas launch site later that year.
On 20 April 2023, Starship's first orbital flight test ended in a mid-air explosion over the Gulf of Mexico before booster separation. After launch, multiple engines in the booster progressively failed, causing the vehicle to reach max q later than planned. "Max q" is the theoretical point of maximal mechanical stress which occurs during the launch sequence of a space vehicle. In the case of a rocket that must be self-destructed during its ascent, max q occurs at the point of self-destruction. Eventually, the vehicle lost control and spun erratically until the automated flight termination system was activated, which intentionally destroyed the rocket. Elon Musk, SpaceX, and other individuals familiar with the space industry have referred to the test flight as a success.
Musk said at the time that it would take between "six to eight weeks" to get the infrastructure prepared for another launch. In October 2023, a senior SpaceX executive stated the company had been ready to launch the next test flight since September. He accused government regulators of disrupting the project's progress, adding the delay could lead to China beating US astronauts back to the Moon.
On 18 November 2023, SpaceX launched its second integrated Starship test, with both vehicles flying for a few minutes before separately exploding.
In early March 2024 SpaceX announced that it was targeting 14 March as the tentative launch date for its next uncrewed Starship launch configuration flight test, pending the issuance of a "launch license" by the FAA. This license was granted on 13 March 2024. On 14 March 2024 at 13:25 UTC Starship launched for the 3rd time and for the first time Starship reached its planned suborbital trajectory. The flight ended with the booster experiencing a malfunction shortly before landing and the ship being lost during reentry over the Indian Ocean.
On 4 June 2024, SpaceX received the launch license for Starship’s 4th test flight. The licensure itself was notable in that it was the first time that the FAA included a clause that would allow SpaceX to launch subsequent test flights without a mishap investigation, provided that they met a similar launch profile and utilized the same specification of hardware. The provision could prove to speed the development timeline.
Crewed launches
A significant milestone was achieved in May 2020, when SpaceX successfully launched two NASA astronauts (Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken) into orbit on a Crew Dragon spacecraft during Crew Dragon Demo-2, making SpaceX the first private company to send astronauts to the International Space Station and marking the first crewed orbital launch from American soil in 9 years. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A (LC-39A) of the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.
Starlink
In May 2019, SpaceX launched the first large batch of 60 Starlink satellites, beginning to deploy what would become the world's largest commercial satellite constellation the following year. In 2022 most SpaceX launches focused on Starlink, a consumer internet business that sends batches of internet-beaming satellites and now has over 6,000 satellites in orbit.
On 16 July 2021 SpaceX entered an agreement to acquire Swarm Technologies, a private company building a low Earth orbit satellite constellation for communications with Internet of things (IoT) devices, for $524 million.
In December 2022, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approved the launch up to 7,500 of SpaceX's next-generation satellites in its Starlink internet network.
Summary of achievements
List of achievements by SpaceX
Date
Achievement
Flight
28 September 2008
First privately funded fully liquid-fueled rocket to reach orbit.
Falcon 1 Flight 4
14 July 2009
First privately developed liquid-fueled rocket to put a commercial satellite in orbit.
Falcon 1 Flight 5
9 December 2010
First private company to successfully launch, orbit, and recover a spacecraft.
SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 1
25 May 2012
First private company to send a spacecraft to the International Space Station (ISS).
SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 2
22 December 2015
First landing of an orbital-class rocket's first stage on land.
Falcon 9 Flight 20
8 April 2016
First landing of an orbital-class rocket's first stage on an ocean platform.
SpaceX CRS-8
30 March 2017
First reuse, reflight and (second) landing of an orbital first stage.
SES-10
First controlled flyback and recovery of a payload fairing.
3 June 2017
First re-flight of a commercial cargo spacecraft.
SpaceX CRS-11
6 February 2018
First private spacecraft (Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster) launched into heliocentric orbit.
Falcon Heavy test flight
2 March 2019
First private company to send a human-rated spacecraft to orbit.
Crew Dragon Demo-1
3 March 2019
First private company to autonomously dock a crew-capable spacecraft to the International Space Station (ISS).
25 July 2019
First flight of a full-flow staged combustion cycle engine (Raptor).
Starhopper
11 November 2019
First reuse and re flight of payload fairing. The fairing was from the ArabSat-6A mission in April 2019.
Starlink 2 v1.0
30 May 2020
First private company to send humans into orbit.
Crew Dragon Demo-2
First private company to send humans to the International Space Station (ISS).
24 January 2021
Most spacecraft launched into space on a single mission, with 143 satellites.
Transporter-1
23 April 2021
First reuse and reflight of a crewed space capsule.
Endeavour
17 June 2021
First reused booster launch for a 'national security' mission.
GPS III-05
16 September 2021
First orbital launch of an all-private crew.
Inspiration4
24 November 2021
Longest streak of orbital launches without a mission failure or partial failure for a single rocket type (Falcon 9, 101 launches).
Double Asteroid Redirection Test
9 April 2022
First all-private crew to dock with the International Space Station.
Axiom Mission 1
20 October 2022
Highest number of launches of a single rocket type in a calendar year (Falcon 9, 48 launches).
Starlink 4-36
20 April 2023
Tallest, most powerful rocket to ever launch.
SpaceX Starship orbital test flight
14 March 2024
Starship reaches intended orbital velocity for the first time.
SpaceX Starship integrated flight test 3
12 April 2024
A single Falcon 9 booster reused for the 20th time.
Booster 1062
^ Excluding the passive objects launched as part of Project West Ford
Hardware
Launch vehicles
Main article: SpaceX launch vehicles
The landing of a Falcon 9 Block 5 first stage at Cape Canaveral in July 2019. VTVL technologies are used in many of SpaceX's launch vehicles.
SpaceX has developed three launch vehicles. The small-lift Falcon 1 was the first launch vehicle developed and was retired in 2009. The medium-lift Falcon 9 and the heavy-lift Falcon Heavy are both operational.
Falcon 1 was a small rocket capable of placing several hundred kilograms into low Earth orbit. It launched five times between 2006 and 2009, of which two were successful. The Falcon 1 was the first privately funded, liquid-fueled rocket to reach orbit.
Falcon 9 is a medium-lift launch vehicle capable of delivering up to 22,800 kilograms (50,265 lb) to orbit, competing with the Delta IV and the Atlas V rockets, as well as other launch providers around the world. It has nine Merlin engines in its first stage. The Falcon 9 v1.0 rocket successfully reached orbit on its first attempt on 4 June 2010. Its third flight, COTS Demo Flight 2, launched on 22 May 2012 and launched the first commercial spacecraft to reach and dock with the International Space Station (ISS). The vehicle was upgraded to Falcon 9 v1.1 in 2013, Falcon 9 Full Thrust in 2015, and finally to Falcon 9 Block 5 in 2018. The first stage of Falcon 9 is designed to retro propulsively land, be recovered, and flown again.
Falcon Heavy is a heavy-lift launch vehicle capable of delivering up to 63,800 kg (140,700 lb) to Low Earth orbit (LEO) or 26,700 kg (58,900 lb) to geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO). It uses three slightly modified Falcon 9 first-stage cores with a total of 27 Merlin 1D engines. The Falcon Heavy successfully flew its inaugural mission on 6 February 2018, launching Musk's personal Tesla Roadster into heliocentric orbit
Both the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy are certified to conduct launches for the National Security Space Launch (NSSL). As of 19 June 2024, the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy have been launched 355 times, resulting in 353 full mission successes, one partial success, and one in-flight failure. In addition, a Falcon 9 experienced a pre-flight failure before a static fire test in 2016.
SpaceX is developing a fully reusable super-heavy lift launch system known as Starship. It comprises a reusable first stage, called Super Heavy, and the reusable Starship second stage space vehicle. As of 2017, the system was intended to supersede the company's existing launch vehicle hardware by the early 2020s.
Rocket engines
Main article: SpaceX rocket engines
Merlin 1D engine undergoes a test at SpaceX's Rocket Development and Test Facility in McGregor, Texas
Since the founding of SpaceX in 2002, the company has developed several rocket engines – Merlin, Kestrel, and Raptor – for use in launch vehicles, Draco for the reaction control system of the Dragon series of spacecraft, and SuperDraco for abort capability in Crew Dragon.
Merlin is a family of rocket engines that uses liquid oxygen (LOX) and RP-1 propellants. Merlin was first used to power the Falcon 1's first stage and is now used on both stages of the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy vehicles. Kestrel uses the same propellants and was used as the Falcon 1 rocket's second-stage main engine.
Draco and SuperDraco are hypergolic liquid-propellant rocket engines. Draco engines are used on the reaction control system of the Dragon and Dragon 2 spacecraft. The SuperDraco engine is more powerful, and eight SuperDraco engines provide launch escape capability for crewed Dragon 2 spacecraft during an abort scenario.
Raptor is a new family of liquid oxygen and liquid methane-fueled full-flow staged combustion cycle engines to power the first and second stages of the in-development Starship launch system. Development versions were test-fired in late 2016, and the engine flew for the first time in 2019, powering the Starhopper vehicle to an altitude of 20 m (66 ft).
Dragon spacecraft
Main article: SpaceX Dragon
The SpaceX's Crew Dragon spacecraft, designed to deliver crew to and from the International Space Station as part of the Commercial Crew Development program
SpaceX has developed the Dragon spacecraft to transport cargo and crew to the International Space Station. The first version of Dragon, used only for cargo, was first launched in 2010. The currently operational second generation Dragon spacecraft, known as Dragon 2, conducted its first flight, without crew, to the ISS in early 2019, followed by a crewed flight of Dragon 2 in 2020. The cargo variant of Dragon 2 flew for the first time in December 2020, for a resupply to the Space Station as part of the CRS contract with NASA.
In March 2020 SpaceX revealed the Dragon XL, designed as a resupply spacecraft for NASA's planned Lunar Gateway space station under a Gateway Logistics Services (GLS) contract. Dragon XL is planned to launch on the Falcon Heavy, and is able to transport over 5,000 kg (11,000 lb) to the Gateway. Dragon XL will be docked at the Gateway for six to twelve months at a time.
SpaceX designed a spacesuit to be worn inside the Dragon spacecraft to protect from possible depressurization. On 4 May 2024, SpaceX unveiled a second spacesuit designed for extravehicular activity, planned to be used for a spacewalk during the Polaris Dawn mission.
Autonomous spaceport drone ships
Main articles: SpaceX reusable launch system development program, Falcon 9 first-stage landing tests, and Autonomous spaceport drone ship
Autonomous spaceport drone ship in position prior to CRS-6 mission
SpaceX routinely returns the first stage of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets after orbital launches. The rocket lands at a predetermined landing site using only its propulsion systems. When propellant margins do not permit a return to a launch site (RTLS), rockets return to a floating landing platform in the ocean, called autonomous spaceport drone ships (ASDS).
SpaceX also plans to introduce floating launch platforms. These are modified oil rigs to use in the 2020s to provide a sea launch option for their second-generation launch vehicle: the heavy-lift Starship system, consisting of the Super Heavy booster and Starship second stage.
Starlink
Main article: Starlink
Sixty Starlink satellites stacked together before deploymentStarlink is an internet satellite constellation under development by Starlink Services, LLC, a wholly-owned subsidiary of SpaceX, that consists of thousands of cross-linked communications satellites in ~550 km orbits. Its goal is to address the significant unmet demand worldwide for low-cost broadband capabilities.
Development began in 2015, and initial prototype test-flight satellites were launched on the SpaceX Paz satellite mission in 2017. In May 2019, SpaceX launched the first batch of 60 satellites aboard a Falcon 9. Initial test operation of the constellation began in late 2020 and first orders were taken in early 2021. Customers were told to expect internet service speeds of 50 Mbit/s to 150 Mbit/s and latency from 20 ms to 40 ms. In December 2022, Starlink reached over 1 million subscribers worldwide.
The planned large number of Starlink satellites has been criticized by astronomers due to concerns over light pollution, with the brightness of Starlink satellites in both optical and radio wavelengths interfering with scientific observations. In response, SpaceX has implemented several upgrades to Starlink satellites aimed at reducing their brightness. The large number of satellites employed by Starlink also creates long-term dangers of space debris collisions. However, the satellites are equipped with krypton-fueled Hall thrusters which allow them to de-orbit at the end of their life. They are also designed to autonomously avoid collisions based on uplinked tracking data.
In December 2022, SpaceX announced Starshield, a program to incorporate military or government entity payloads on board a Starlink-derived satellite bus. The Space Development Agency is a key customer procuring satellites for a space-based missile defense system.
Other projects
Main article: Hyperloop pod competition
In June 2015, SpaceX announced that they would sponsor a Hyperloop competition, and would build a 1.6 km (0.99 mi) long subscale test track near SpaceX's headquarters for the competitive events. The company has held the annual competition since 2017.
In collaboration with doctors and academic researchers, SpaceX invited all employees to participate in the creation of a COVID-19 antibody-testing program in 2020. As such, 4300 employees volunteered to provide blood samples resulting in a peer-reviewed scientific paper crediting eight SpaceX employees as coauthors and suggesting that a certain level of COVID-19 antibodies may provide lasting protection against the virus.
In July 2018, Musk arranged for his employees to build a mini-submarine to assist the rescue of children stuck in a flooded cavern in Thailand. Richard Stanton, leader of the international rescue diving team, urged Musk to facilitate the construction of the vehicle as a back-up, in case flooding worsened. Engineers at SpaceX and The Boring Company built the mini-submarine from a Falcon 9 liquid oxygen transfer tube in eight hours and personally delivered it to Thailand. By this time, however, eight of the 12 children had already been rescued using full face masks and oxygen under anesthesia; consequently Thai authorities declined to use the submarine.
Facilities
SpaceX is headquartered in Hawthorne, California, which also serves as its primary manufacturing plant. The company operates a research and major operation in Redmond, Washington, owns a test site in Texas and operates three launch sites, with another under development. SpaceX also operates regional offices in Texas, Virginia, and Washington, D.C. SpaceX was incorporated in the state of Delaware.
Headquarters, mission control, manufacturing, and refurbishment facilities
SpaceX Headquarters in Hawthorne, California at night during a Falcon 9 launch from Vandenberg Space Force Base
SpaceX Headquarters is located in the Los Angeles suburb of Hawthorne, California. The large three-story facility, originally built by Northrop Corporation to build Boeing 747 fuselages, houses SpaceX's office space, mission control, and Falcon 9 manufacturing facilities.
The area has one of the largest concentrations of space sector headquarters, facilities, and/or subsidiaries in the U.S., including Boeing/McDonnell Douglas main satellite building campuses, The Aerospace Corporation, Raytheon, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, United States Space Force's Space Systems Command at Los Angeles Air Force Base, Lockheed Martin, BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman, and AECOM, etc., with a large pool of aerospace engineers and recent college engineering graduates.
SpaceX uses a high degree of vertical integration in the production of its rockets and rocket engines. SpaceX builds its rocket engines, rocket stages, spacecraft, principal avionics and all software in-house in their Hawthorne facility, which is unusual for the space industry.
In January 2015, SpaceX announced it would be entering the satellite production business and global satellite internet business. The first satellite facility is a 30,000 sq ft (2,800 m2) office building located in Redmond, Washington. As of January 2017, a second facility in Redmond was acquired with 40,625 sq ft (3,774.2 m2) and has become a research and development laboratory for the satellites. In July 2016, SpaceX acquired an additional 8,000 sq ft (740 m2) office space in Irvine, California to focus on satellite communications.
Development and test facilities
Main article: SpaceX Rocket Development and Test Facility
Aerial view of the SpaceX McGregor engine testing facility, 2008
SpaceX operates its Rocket Development and Test Facility in McGregor, Texas. All SpaceX rocket engines are tested on rocket test stands, and low-altitude VTVL flight testing of the Falcon 9 Grasshopper in 2012–2013 were carried out at McGregor. Testing of the much larger Starship prototypes is conducted at the SpaceX Starbase near Brownsville, Texas.
The company purchased the McGregor facilities from Beal Aerospace, where it refitted the largest test stand for Falcon 9 engine testing. SpaceX has made improvements to the facility since its purchase and has also extended the acreage by purchasing adjacent farmland. As of October 2012, the McGregor facility had seven test stands that are operated "18 hours a day, six days a week" and is building more test stands due to increased production and the company having a large manifest in the next several years. In addition to routine testing, Dragon capsules (following recovery after an orbital mission), are shipped to McGregor for de-fueling, cleanup, and refurbishment for reuse in future missions.
Launch facilities
Main article: SpaceX launch facilities
Falcon Heavy Side Boosters landing on LZ1 and LZ2 at Cape Canaveral
SpaceX operates four orbital launch sites, at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station and Kennedy Space Center in Florida and Vandenberg Space Force Base in California for Falcon rockets, and Starbase near Brownsville, Texas for Starship. SpaceX has indicated that they see a niche for each of the four orbital facilities and that they have sufficient launch business to fill each pad. The Vandenberg launch site enables highly inclined orbits (66–145°), while Cape Canaveral and Kennedy enable orbits of medium inclination (28.5–55°). Larger inclinations, including SSO, are possible from Florida by overflying Cuba.
Before it was retired, all Falcon 1 launches took place at the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site on Omelek Island of the Marshall Islands.
In April 2007, the Pentagon approved the use of Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40 (SLC-40) by SpaceX. The site has been used since 2010 for Falcon 9 launches, mainly to low Earth and geostationary orbits. The former Launch Complex 13 at Cape Canaveral, now renamed Landing Zones 1 and 2, has since 2015 been used for Falcon 9 first-stage booster landings.
SpaceX west coast launch facility at Vandenberg Space Force Base, during the launch of CASSIOPE
Vandenberg Space Launch Complex 4 (SLC-4E) was leased from the military in 2011 and is used for payloads to polar orbits. The Vandenberg site can launch both Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy vehicles, but cannot launch to low inclination orbits. The neighboring SLC-4W was converted to Landing Zone 4 in 2015 for booster landings.
On 14 April 2014, SpaceX signed a 20-year lease for Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A. The pad was subsequently modified to support Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches. As of 2024 it is the only pad that supports Falcon Heavy launches. SpaceX launched its first crewed mission to the ISS from Launch Pad 39A on 30 May 2020. Pad 39A has been prepared since 2019 to eventually accommodate Starship launches. With delays in launch FAA permits for Boca Chica, Texas, the 39A Starship preparation was accelerated in 2022.
The Starship assembly building at SpaceX Starbase in Texas
SpaceX manufactures and flies Starship test vehicles from the SpaceX Starbase in Boca Chica near Brownsville, Texas, having announced first plans for the launch facility in August 2014. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued the permit in July 2014. SpaceX broke ground on the new launch facility in 2014 with construction ramping up in the latter half of 2015, with the first suborbital launches from the facility in 2019 and orbital launches starting in 2023. Some residents of Boca Chica Village, Brownsville, and environmental activists criticized the site along with Starship development program in various aspects.
Contracts
Further information on SpaceX launches: Falcon 1 § Launches, List of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches, and SpaceX Starship flight tests
SpaceX won demonstration and actual supply contracts from NASA for the International Space Station (ISS) with technology the company developed. SpaceX is also certified for U.S. military launches of Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle-class (EELV) payloads. With approximately thirty missions on the manifest for 2018 alone, SpaceX represented over $12 billion under contract.
Cargo to ISS
Main articles: Commercial Orbital Transportation Services, Commercial Resupply Services, and Gateway Logistics Services
The COTS 2 Dragon is berthed to the International Space Station (ISS) by Canadarm2
In 2006, SpaceX won a NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) Phase 1 contract to demonstrate cargo delivery to the International Space Station (ISS), with a possible contract option for crew transport. Through this contract, designed by NASA to provide "seed money" through Space Act Agreements for developing new capabilities, NASA paid SpaceX $396 million to develop the cargo configuration of the Dragon spacecraft, while SpaceX developed the Falcon 9 launch vehicle with their resources. These Space Act Agreements have been shown to have saved NASA millions of dollars in development costs, making rocket development 4–10 times less expensive than if produced by NASA alone.
In December 2010 the launch of the SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 1 mission, SpaceX became the first private company to successfully launch, orbit, and recover a spacecraft. Dragon successfully berthed with the ISS during SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 2 in May 2012, a first for a private spacecraft.
Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) is a series of contracts awarded by NASA from 2008 to 2016 for the delivery of cargo and supplies to the International Space Station on commercially operated spacecraft. The first CRS contracts were signed in 2008 and awarded $1.6 billion to SpaceX for 12 cargo transport missions, covering deliveries to 2016. SpaceX CRS-1, the first of the 12 planned resupply missions, launched in October 2012, achieved orbit, berthed, and remained on station for 20 days, before re-entering the atmosphere and splashing down in the Pacific Ocean.
CRS missions have flown approximately twice a year to the ISS since then. In 2015, NASA extended the Phase 1 contracts by ordering an additional three resupply flights from SpaceX, and then extended the contract further for a total of twenty cargo missions to the ISS. The final Dragon 1 mission, SpaceX CRS-20, departed the ISS in April 2020, and Dragon was subsequently retired from service. A second phase of contracts was awarded in January 2016 with SpaceX as one of the awardees. SpaceX will fly up to nine additional CRS flights with the upgraded Dragon 2 spacecraft. In March 2020, NASA contracted SpaceX to develop the Dragon XL spacecraft to send supplies to the Lunar Gateway space station. Dragon XL will be launched on a Falcon Heavy.
Crewed
See also: Commercial Crew Program
NASA astronauts inside the Dragon spacecraft during the Crew-1 mission rendezvous with the International Space Station
SpaceX is responsible for the transportation of NASA astronauts to and from the ISS. The NASA contracts started as part of the Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program, aimed at developing commercially operated spacecraft capable of delivering astronauts to the ISS. The first contract was awarded to SpaceX in 2011, followed by another in 2012 to continue development and testing of its Dragon 2 spacecraft.
In September 2014, NASA chose SpaceX and Boeing as the two companies that would be funded to develop systems to transport U.S. crews to and from the ISS. SpaceX won $2.6 billion to complete and certify Dragon 2 by 2017. The contracts called for at least one crewed flight test with at least one NASA astronaut aboard. Once Crew Dragon received NASA human-spaceflight certification, the contract required SpaceX to conduct at least two, and as many as six, crewed missions to the space station.
SpaceX completed the first key flight test of its Crew Dragon spacecraft, a Pad Abort Test, in May 2015, and successfully conducted a full uncrewed test flight in early 2019. The capsule docked to the ISS and then splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean. In January 2020, SpaceX conducted an in-flight abort test, the last test flight before flying crew, in which the Dragon spacecraft fired its launch escape engines in a simulated abort scenario.
On 30 May 2020, the Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission was launched to the International Space Station with NASA astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley, the first time a crewed vehicle had launched from the U.S. since 2011, and the first SpaceX commercial crewed launch to the ISS. The Crew-1 mission was successfully launched to the International Space Station on 16 November 2020, with NASA astronauts Michael Hopkins, Victor Glover and Shannon Walker along with JAXA astronaut Soichi Noguchi, all members of the Expedition 64 crew. On 23 April 2021, Crew-2 was launched to the International Space Station with NASA astronauts Shane Kimbrough and K. Megan McArthur, JAXA astronaut Akihiko Hoshide, and ESA astronaut Thomas Pesquet. The Crew-2 mission successfully docked on 24 April 2021.
Resilience after splashdown
SpaceX also offers paid crewed spaceflights for private individuals. The first of these missions, Inspiration4, launched in 2021 on behalf of Shift4 Payments CEO Jared Isaacman. The mission launched the Crew Dragon Resilience from the Florida Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39A atop a Falcon 9 launch vehicle, placed the Dragon capsule into low Earth orbit, and ended successfully about three days later when the Resilience splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean. All four crew members received commercial astronaut training from SpaceX. The training included lessons in orbital mechanics, operating in a microgravity environment, stress testing, emergency-preparedness training, and mission simulations.
National defense
Launch of the STP-2 mission on a Falcon Heavy in June 2019
In 2005, SpaceX announced that it had been awarded an Indefinite Delivery/Indefinite Quantity (IDIQ) contract, allowing the United States Air Force to purchase up to $100 million worth of launches from the company. Three years later, NASA announced that it had awarded an IDIQ Launch Services contract to SpaceX for up to $1 billion, depending on the number of missions awarded. In December 2012, SpaceX announced its first two launch contracts with the United States Department of Defense (DoD). The United States Air Force Space and Missile Systems Center awarded SpaceX two EELV-class missions: Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) and Space Test Program 2 (STP-2). DSCOVR was launched on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle in 2015, while STP-2 was launched on a Falcon Heavy on 25 June 2019.
The Falcon 9 v1.1 was certified for National Security Space Launch (NSSL) in 2015, allowing SpaceX to contract launch services to the Air Force for any payloads classified under national security. This broke the monopoly held since 2006 by United Launch Alliance (ULA) over U.S. Air Force launches of classified payloads. In April 2016, the U.S. Air Force awarded the first such national security launch to SpaceX to launch the second GPS III satellite for $82.7 million. This was approximately 40% less than the estimated cost for similar previous missions. SpaceX also launched the third GPS III launch on 20 June 2020. In March 2018, SpaceX secured an additional $290 million contract from the U.S. Air Force to launch another three GPS III satellites.
The U.S. National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) also purchased launches from SpaceX, with the first taking place on 1 May 2017. In February 2019, SpaceX secured a $297 million contract from the U.S. Air Force to launch another three national security missions, all slated to launch no earlier than FY 2021. In August 2020, the U.S. Space Force awarded its National Security Space Launch (NSSL) contracts for the following 5–7 years. SpaceX won a contract for $316 million for one launch. In addition, SpaceX will handle 40% of the U.S. military's satellite launch requirements over the period.
SpaceX also designs and launches custom military satellites for the Space Development Agency as part of a new missile defense system in low Earth orbit. The constellation would give the United States capabilities to sense, target and potentially intercept nuclear missiles and hypersonic weapons launched from anywhere on Earth. Both China and Russia brought concerns to the United Nations about the program, and various organizations warn it could be destabilizing and trigger an arms race in space.
In March 2024, Reuters reported that, as part of a $1.8 billion contract signed with the National Reconnaissance Office in 2021, SpaceX is building a network of hundreds of spy satellites. This new network, Reuters reported, would be able to operate as a swarm in low orbits.
Launch market competition and pricing pressure
Main article: Space launch market competition
SpaceX's low launch prices, especially for communications satellites flying to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), have resulted in market pressure on its competitors to lower their own prices. Prior to 2013, the openly competed comsat launch market had been dominated by Arianespace (flying the Ariane 5) and International Launch Services (flying the Proton). With a published price of $56.5 million per launch to low Earth orbit, Falcon 9 rockets were the least expensive in the industry. European satellite operators are pushing the ESA to reduce launch prices of the Ariane 5 and the future Ariane 6 rockets as a result of competition from SpaceX.
SpaceX ended the United Launch Alliance (ULA) monopoly of U.S. military payloads when it began to compete for national security launches. In 2015, anticipating a slump in domestic, military, and spy launches, ULA stated that it would go out of business unless it won commercial satellite launch orders. To that end, ULA announced a major restructuring of processes and workforce to decrease launch costs by half.
Congressional testimony by SpaceX in 2017 suggested that the NASA Space Act Agreement process of "setting only a high-level requirement for cargo transport to the space station leaving the details to industry" had allowed SpaceX to design and develop the Falcon 9 rocket on its own at a substantially lower cost. According to NASA's own independently verified numbers, SpaceX's total development cost for the Falcon 9 rocket, including the Falcon 1 rocket, was estimated at $390 million. In 2011, NASA estimated that it would have cost the agency about $4 billion to develop a rocket like the Falcon 9 booster based upon NASA's traditional contracting processes, about ten times more. In May 2020, NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine remarked that thanks to NASA's investments into SpaceX, the United States has 70% of the commercial launch market, a major improvement since 2012 when there were no commercial launches from the country.
As of 2024, SpaceX operates a Rideshare and Bandwagon (mid inclination) programs. This provides additional competition for small satellite launchers.
Corporate affairs
Finances
Year
Revenue
Employees
Valuation
2002
ca. 30
2003
2004
2005
ca. 90 (Feb.)ca. 160 (Nov.)
2006
2007
ca. 350 (Aug.)
2008
ca. 600 (Dec.)
2009
> 800 (Dec.)
2010
> 1,000 (June)
2011
ca. 1,300 (Jan.)
2012
ca. 1,800 (May)
US$ 2.4 billion (June)
2013
ca. 3,800 (Oct.)
2014
US$10 billion (Aug.)
2015
US$12 billion (Jan.)
2016
ca. 5,000 (Nov.)
US$15 billion (Nov.)
2017
ca. 7,000 (Nov.)
US$21 billion (Nov.)
2018
US$27 billion (Apr.)
2019
> 6,000 (Jule)
US$33 billion (May)
2020
US$1.8 billion
US$36 billion (May)
2021
US$2.3 billion
> 9,500 (March)
US$74 billion (Feb.)US$100 billion (Oct.)
2022
US$4.6 billion
ca. 12,000 (April)
US$127 billion (Aug.)
2023
ca. US$9 billion
> 13,000 (Sept.)
US$137 billion (Jan.)US$180 billion (Dec.)
2024
ca. US$15 billion(Forecast)
Board of directors
SpaceX board of directors as of January 2021
Joined board
Name
Titles
2002
Elon Musk
Founder, chairman, CEO and CTO of SpaceX; CEO, Product Architect, and former chairman of Tesla; former chairman of SolarCity
2002
Kimbal Musk
Board member, Tesla
2009
Gwynne Shotwell
President and COO of SpaceX
2009
Luke Nosek
Co-founder, PayPal
2009
Steve Jurvetson
Co-founder, Future Ventures fund
2010
Antonio Gracias
CEO and Chairman of the Investment Committee at Valor Equity Partners
2015
Donald Harrison
President of global partnerships and corporate development, Google
Leadership changes
In November 2022, the company announced COO Gwynne Shotwell and vice president Mark Juncosa would oversee Starbase, its Texas launch facility, along with Omead Afshar, who at the time oversaw operations for Tesla in Texas. Shyamal Patel, who was senior director of operations at the site, would shift to its Cape Canaveral site. CNBC reported that these executive moves demonstrated "the sense of urgency within the company to get Starship flying."
Workplace culture
According to former NASA deputy administrator Lori Garver, the company overall has a male-dominated employee culture, similar to that of the spaceflight industry in general. In December 2021, claims of workplace sexual harassment from five former SpaceX employees, ranging from interns to full engineers, were published. The former employees claimed to have experienced unwanted advances and uncomfortable interactions. Additionally, the accounts included claims of a culture of sexual harassment existing at the company and one where complaints made to executives, managers, and human resources officers went largely unaddressed.
In May 2022, a Business Insider article alleged that Musk engaged in sexual misconduct with a SpaceX flight attendant in a private jet in 2016 citing an anonymous friend of the flight attendant. In response, some employees collaborated on an open letter condemning "Elon's harmful Twitter behavior". It also asks the company to clearly define SpaceX's "no-asshole" and "zero tolerance" policies, which it says is unequally enforced from one employee to the next. The next day, Gwynne Shotwell announced that those employees who were involved with the letter had been terminated and claimed that unsponsored, unsolicited surveys were sent to employees during the work day and that some felt pressured to sign the letter.
The company has also been described as having a work culture that pushes employees to work excessively and is described as fostering a burnout culture. According to a memo by Blue Origin, a rival aerospace company, SpaceX expected very long work hours, work on weekends, and limited use of holidays.
In June 2024, eight ex-employees, the same who had previously been fired for penning the open letter against Elon Musk, filed a lawsuit against Musk and SpaceX alleging sexual harassment and discrimination.
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^ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: "SEC Form D: Notice of Exempt Offering of Securities". sec.gov. 4 August 2020. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
^ a b "Elon Musk". tesla.com. Archived from the original on 6 February 2021. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
^ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: "SEC Form D: Notice of sale of securities". United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). 19 August 2002. Archived from the original on 6 February 2021. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
^ "Kimbal Musk". tesla.com. Archived from the original on 25 October 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
^ a b c This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: "SEC Form D: Notice of Exempt Offering of Securities". sec.gov. 30 March 2009. Archived from the original on 22 November 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
^ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Tzinis, Irene (12 June 2020). "Ms. Gwynne Shotwell". NASA. Archived from the original on 6 February 2021. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
^ "Luke Nosek, Gigafund: Profile and Biography". bloomberg.com. Bloomberg Markets. Archived from the original on 24 December 2021. Retrieved 24 December 2021.
^ Schubarth, Cromwell (15 February 2019). "The Funded: Steve Jurvetson raises $200M for new venture fund". Silicon Valley Business Journal. Archived from the original on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
^ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: "SEC Form D: Notice of Exempt Offering of Securities". sec.gov. 9 November 2010. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
^ "Antonio Gracias | Board of Directors". tesla.com. Archived from the original on 7 January 2021. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
^ Hardy, Quentin; Dougherty, Conor (20 January 2015). "Google and Fidelity Put $1 Billion into SpaceX (Published 2015)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
^ Hagey, Keach (16 September 2020). "Google Executive Gets Grilling on Capitol Hill". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 15 November 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
^ Sheetz, Michael (11 November 2022). "SpaceX shakes up Starship leadership in Texas as push for the rocket's next milestone intensifies". CNBC. Archived from the original on 11 November 2022. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
^ "SpaceX's Gwynne Shotwell Takes Over Starbase Mars Mission". The Information. 10 November 2022. Archived from the original on 11 November 2022. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
^ "Tesla Official Afshar Turns Up at SpaceX in New Starship Role". Bloomberg.com. 10 November 2022. Archived from the original on 11 November 2022. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
^ Garver, Lori B. (2022). Escaping Gravity: My Quest to Transform NASA and Launch a New Space Age. Walter Isaacson. New York: Diversion Publishing Corporation. ISBN 978-1-63576-770-4. OCLC 1328013856. As president and COO of SpaceX, Gwynne Shotwell is an effective and revered female leader in the space community both companies have reputed "bro" cultures. Numerous charges of sexual harassment and discrimination have recently been made public by employees in both companies. Progress toward diversity, equity, and inclusion has been much too slow.
^ "Former SpaceX workers say company has a culture of sexual harassment". Engadget. 14 December 2021. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
^ Roulette, Joey (14 December 2021). "Former Interns Say SpaceX Ignored Sexual Harassment". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2021.
^ Grush, Loren (14 December 2021). "Five former SpaceX employees speak out about harassment at the company". The Verge. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
^ McHugh, Rich (19 May 2022). "A SpaceX flight attendant said Elon Musk exposed himself and propositioned her for sex, documents show. The company paid $250,000 for her silence". Insider. Archived from the original on 19 May 2022. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
^ Grush, Loren (16 June 2022). "SpaceX employees draft open letter to company executives denouncing Elon Musk's behavior". The Verge. Archived from the original on 16 June 2022. Retrieved 17 June 2022.
^ Jacob, Nutson (17 June 2022). "Reports: SpaceX fires employees who criticized Elon Musk in open letter". Axios. Archived from the original on 19 June 2022. Retrieved 17 June 2022.
^ a b Grush, Loren (4 October 2021). "Blue Origin's ideas to mimic SpaceX sound pretty brutal for employees". The Verge. Archived from the original on 4 May 2022. Retrieved 6 May 2022.
^ "Blue Origin vs. SpaceX – Which is Winning the Space Race?". Alphr. Archived from the original on 18 May 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
^ "SpaceX vs. Blue Origin vs. Virgin Galactic: What's the difference?". WhatIs.com. Archived from the original on 18 May 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
^ Shepardson, David (16 August 2021). "Blue Origin sues U.S. government over SpaceX lunar lander contract". Reuters. Archived from the original on 18 May 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
^ "Former Workers Accuse SpaceX And Elon Musk Of Sex Harassment, Retaliation In Lawsuit".
^ "Elon Musk sued by SpaceX engineers claiming they were illegally fired". The Guardian.
Further reading
Berger, Eric. Liftoff: Elon Musk and the Desperate Early Days That Launched SpaceX. William Collins (2021). ISBN 978-0008445621
Davenport, Christian. The Space Barons; Elon Musk. Jeff Bezos, and the Quest to Colonize the Cosmos. PublicAffairs (2018). ISBN 978-1610398299
Fernholz, Tim. Rocket Billionaires: Elon Musk, Jeff Bezos, and the New Space Race. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt (2018). ISBN 978-1328662231
Vance, Ashlee. Elon Musk: How the Billionaire CEO of SpaceX and Tesla is Shaping Our Future. Penguin Random House UK (2015). ISBN 978-0753555620
External links
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For the British art gallery, see Spacex (art gallery).\"Space Exploration Technologies\" redirects here. For the general topics, see Space exploration and Space technology.Space Exploration Technologies Corporation, commonly referred to as SpaceX, is an American spacecraft manufacturer, launch service provider and satellite communications company headquartered in Hawthorne, California. The company was founded in 2002 by Elon Musk with the goal of reducing space transportation costs and ultimately developing a sustainable colony on Mars. The company currently produces and operates the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets along with the Dragon and Starship spacecraft.The company offers internet service via its Starlink subsidiary, which became the largest-ever satellite constellation in January 2020 and, as of April 2024[update], comprised more than 6,000 small satellites in orbit.[8]Meanwhile, the company is developing Starship, a human-rated, fully-reusable, super heavy-lift launch system for interplanetary and orbital spaceflight. On its first flight in April 2023, it became the largest and most powerful rocket ever flown. The rocket fully completed its test flight on its fourth flight by reaching space and returning both stages for a controlled splashdown in June 2024.SpaceX is the first private company to develop a liquid-propellant rocket that has reached orbit; to launch, orbit, and recover a spacecraft; to send a spacecraft to the International Space Station; and to send astronauts to the International Space Station. It is also the first organization of any type to achieve a vertical propulsive landing of an orbital rocket booster and the first to reuse such a booster. The company's Falcon 9 rockets have landed and flown again more than 300 times.[9] As of June 2024, SpaceX has around US$200 billion valuation.[10]","title":"SpaceX"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Falcon_9_and_Falcon_Heavy_launches"}],"text":"See also: List of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Elon Musk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elon_Musk"},{"link_name":"Robert Zubrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Zubrin"},{"link_name":"Mars Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Society"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:13-11"},{"link_name":"greenhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spectrum-13"},{"link_name":"Dnepr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dnepr_(rocket)"},{"link_name":"Jim Cantrell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Cantrell"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Michael Griffin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_D._Griffin"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A&Ssmithsonian201201-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-16"},{"link_name":"vertical integration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_integration"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A&Ssmithsonian201201-15"},{"link_name":"commercial off-the-shelf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_off-the-shelf"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Jim Cantrel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Cantrell"},{"link_name":"Vector Launch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_Launch"},{"link_name":"Tom Mueller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Mueller"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"El Segundo, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Segundo,_California"},{"link_name":"Tom Mueller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Mueller"},{"link_name":"Gwynne Shotwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwynne_Shotwell"},{"link_name":"TRW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRW_Inc."},{"link_name":"Boeing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-avweek20200527-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_space"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"2001–2004: Founding","text":"In early 2001, Elon Musk met Robert Zubrin and donated US$100,000 to his Mars Society, joining its board of directors for a short time.[11]: 30–31 He gave a plenary talk at their fourth convention where he announced Mars Oasis, a project to land a greenhouse and grow plants on Mars.[12][13] Musk initially attempted to acquire a Dnepr intercontinental ballistic missile for the project through Russian contacts from Jim Cantrell.[14]Musk then returned with his team a second time to Moscow this time bringing Michael Griffin as well, but found the Russians increasingly unreceptive.[15][16] On the flight home Musk announced he could start a company to build the affordable rockets they needed instead.[16] By applying vertical integration,[15] using cheap commercial off-the-shelf components when possible,[16] and adopting the modular approach of modern software engineering, Musk believed SpaceX could significantly cut launch cost.[16]In early 2002, Elon Musk started to look for staff for his company, soon to be named SpaceX. Musk approached five people for the initial positions at the fledgling company, including Michael Griffin, who declined the position of Chief Engineer,[17] Jim Cantrel and John Garvey (Cantrel and Garvey would later found the company Vector Launch), rocket engineer Tom Mueller, and Chris Thompson.[18][19] SpaceX was first headquartered in a warehouse in El Segundo, California. Early SpaceX employees, such as Tom Mueller (CTO), Gwynne Shotwell (COO), and Chris Thompson (VP of Operations), came from neighboring TRW and Boeing corporations. By November 2005, the company had 160 employees.[20] Musk personally interviewed and approved all of SpaceX's early employees.[21]Musk has stated that one of his goals with SpaceX is to decrease the cost and improve the reliability of access to space, ultimately by a factor of ten.[22]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Falcon_1_Flight_4_liftoff.jpg"},{"link_name":"Falcon 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_1"},{"link_name":"orbital launch vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_launch_vehicle"},{"link_name":"Falcon 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_1"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usat20050617-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wired20070522-24"},{"link_name":"expendable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expendable_launch_system"},{"link_name":"two-stage-to-orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-stage-to-orbit"},{"link_name":"small-lift launch vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small-lift_launch_vehicle"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nasa20110427-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Millennium Falcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Falcon"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Government Accountability Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office"},{"link_name":"Kistler Aerospace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kistler_Aerospace"},{"link_name":"COTS program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Orbital_Transportation_Services"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Dragon spacecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"COTS program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Orbital_Transportation_Services"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"United States Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"DARPA Falcon Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA_Falcon_Project"},{"link_name":"Prompt Global Strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prompt_Global_Strike"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wired20070522-24"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Levin2022-34"},{"link_name":"Tesla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla,_Inc."},{"link_name":"SolarCity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SolarCity"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"the fourth attempt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_1#Fourth_flight"},{"link_name":"Commercial Resupply Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Resupply_Services"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"second successful, and fifth total, launch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_1#Fifth_flight"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Gwynne Shotwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwynne_Shotwell"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"sub_title":"2005–2009: Falcon 1 and first orbital launches","text":"The first successful Falcon 1 launch in September 2008SpaceX developed its first orbital launch vehicle, the Falcon 1, with internal funding.[23][24] The Falcon 1 was an expendable two-stage-to-orbit small-lift launch vehicle. The total development cost of Falcon 1 was approximately $90 million[25] to $100 million.[26] The Falcon rocket series was named after Star Wars's Millennium Falcon fictional spacecraft.[27]In 2004, SpaceX protested against NASA to the Government Accountability Office (GAO) because of a sole-source contract awarded to Kistler Aerospace. Before the GAO could respond, NASA withdrew the contract, and formed the COTS program.[28][29] In 2005, SpaceX announced plans to pursue a human-rated commercial space program through the end of the decade, a program that would later become the Dragon spacecraft.[30] In 2006, the company was selected by NASA and awarded $396 million to provide crew and cargo resupply demonstration contracts to the International Space Station (ISS) under the COTS program.[31]The first two Falcon 1 launches were purchased by the United States Department of Defense under the DARPA Falcon Project which evaluated new US launch vehicles suitable for use in hypersonic missile delivery for Prompt Global Strike.[24][32][33] The first three launches of the rocket, between 2006 and 2008, all resulted in failures, which almost ended the company. Financing for Tesla Motors had failed, as well,[34] and consequently Tesla, SolarCity, and Musk personally were all nearly bankrupt at the same time.[35] Musk was reportedly \"waking from nightmares, screaming and in physical pain\" because of the stress.[36]The financial situation started to turn around with the first successful launch achieved on the fourth attempt on 28 September 2008. Musk split his remaining $30 million between SpaceX and Tesla, and NASA awarded the first Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract awarding $1.6 billion to SpaceX in December, thus financially saving the company.[37] Based on these factors and the further business operations they enabled, the Falcon 1 was soon retired following its second successful, and fifth total, launch in July 2009. This allowed SpaceX to focus company resources on the development of a larger orbital rocket, the Falcon 9.[38] Gwynne Shotwell was also promoted to company president at the time, for her role in successfully negotiating the CRS contract with the NASA Associate Administrator Bill Gerstenmaier.[39][40]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-msnbc2005-41"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9"},{"link_name":"reusable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reusable_launch_vehicle"},{"link_name":"heavier lift vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy-lift_launch_vehicle"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"Commercial Orbital Transportation Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Orbital_Transportation_Services"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lindenmoyer_quoted-42"},{"link_name":"Dragon spacecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_spacecraft"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lindenmoyer_quoted-42"},{"link_name":"Dragon Spacecraft Qualification Unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_Spacecraft_Qualification_Unit"},{"link_name":"COTS Demo Flight 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COTS_Demo_Flight_1"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBCLaunchDec2010-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spacedotcom20101209-44"},{"link_name":"Commercial Crew Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Crew_Development"},{"link_name":"launch escape system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_escape_system"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sdc20110418-45"},{"link_name":"Space Act Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Act_Agreement"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"private markets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_equity"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IPO-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc20120427-49"},{"link_name":"Dragon C2+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_C2%2B"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbcnews-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qz_2017-54"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9 prototypes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9_prototypes"},{"link_name":"VTOL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTOL"},{"link_name":"booster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_(rocketry)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qz_2017-54"}],"sub_title":"2010–2012: Falcon 9, Dragon, and NASA contracts","text":"Video of the first launch of Falcon 9SpaceX originally intended to follow its light Falcon 1 launch vehicle with an intermediate capacity vehicle, the Falcon 5.[41] The company instead decided in 2005 to proceed with the development of the Falcon 9, a reusable heavier lift vehicle. Development of the Falcon 9 was accelerated by NASA, which committed to purchasing several commercial flights if specific capabilities were demonstrated. This started with seed money from the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program in 2006.[42] The overall contract award was $278 million to provide development funding for the Dragon spacecraft, Falcon 9, and demonstration launches of Falcon 9 with Dragon.[42] As part of this contract, the Falcon 9 launched for the first time in June 2010 with the Dragon Spacecraft Qualification Unit, using a mockup of the Dragon spacecraft.The first operational Dragon spacecraft was launched in December 2010 aboard COTS Demo Flight 1, the Falcon 9's second flight, and safely returned to Earth after two orbits, completing all its mission objectives.[43] By December 2010, the SpaceX production line was manufacturing one Falcon 9 and Dragon every three months.[44]In April 2011, as part of its second-round Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program, NASA issued a $75 million contract for SpaceX to develop an integrated launch escape system for Dragon in preparation for human-rating it as a crew transport vehicle to the ISS.[45] NASA awarded SpaceX a fixed-price Space Act Agreement (SAA) to produce a detailed design of the crew transportation system in August 2012.[46]In early 2012, approximately two-thirds of SpaceX stock was owned by Musk[47] and his seventy million shares were then estimated to be worth $875 million on private markets,[48] valuing SpaceX at $1.3 billion.[49] In May 2012, with the Dragon C2+ launch Dragon became the first commercial spacecraft to deliver cargo to the International Space Station.[50] After the flight, the company private equity valuation nearly doubled to $2.4 billion or $20/share.[51][52] By that time, SpaceX had operated on total funding of approximately $1 billion over its first decade of operation. Of this, private equity provided approximately $200 million, with Musk investing approximately $100 million and other investors having put in about $100 million.[53]SpaceX's active reusability test program began in late 2012 with testing low-altitude, low-speed aspects of the landing technology.[54] The Falcon 9 prototypes performed vertical takeoffs and landings (VTOL). High-velocity, high-altitude tests of the booster atmospheric return technology began in late 2013.[54]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Launch_of_Falcon_9_carrying_ORBCOMM_OG2-M1_(16601442698).jpg"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn20150112-55"},{"link_name":"Arianespace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arianespace"},{"link_name":"subsidies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsidy"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aw20140211-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn20140414-57"},{"link_name":"United Launch Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Launch_Alliance"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lat20141125-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-46"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"Fidelity Investments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidelity_Investments"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Starlink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starlink"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"CRS-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_CRS-7"},{"link_name":"helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium"},{"link_name":"pressure vessel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_vessel"},{"link_name":"acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleration"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"sub_title":"2013–2015: Commercial launches and rapid growth","text":"Launch of Falcon 9 carrying ORBCOMM OG2-M1, July 2014SpaceX launched the first commercial mission for a private customer in 2013. In 2014, SpaceX won nine contracts out of the 20 that were openly competed worldwide.[55] That year Arianespace requested that European governments provide additional subsidies to face the competition from SpaceX.[56][57] Beginning in 2014, SpaceX capabilities and pricing also began to affect the market for launch of U.S. military payloads, which for nearly a decade had been dominated by the large U.S. launch provider United Launch Alliance (ULA).[58] The monopoly had allowed launch costs by the U.S. provider to rise to over $400 million over the years.[59] In September 2014, NASA's Director of Commercial Spaceflight, Kevin Crigler, awarded SpaceX the Commercial Crew Transportation Capability (CCtCap) contract to finalize the development of the Crew Transportation System. The contract included several technical and certification milestones, an uncrewed flight test, a crewed flight test, and six operational missions after certification.[46]In January 2015, SpaceX raised $1 billion in funding from Google and Fidelity Investments, in exchange for 8.33% of the company, establishing the company valuation at approximately $12 billion.[60] The same month SpaceX announced the development of a new satellite constellation, called Starlink, to provide global broadband internet service with 4,000 satellites.[61]The Falcon 9 had its first major failure in late June 2015, when the seventh ISS resupply mission, CRS-7 exploded two minutes into the flight. The problem was traced to a failed 2-foot-long steel strut that held a helium pressure vessel, which broke free due to the force of acceleration. This caused a breach and allowed high-pressure helium to escape into the low-pressure propellant tank, causing the failure.[62]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CRS-8_(26239020092).jpg"},{"link_name":"autonomous spaceport drone ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_spaceport_drone_ship"},{"link_name":"SpaceX CRS-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_CRS-8"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9 Flight 20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9_Flight_20"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Of Course I Still Love You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Course_I_Still_Love_You"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn20161005-65"},{"link_name":"static fire test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_fire_test"},{"link_name":"AMOS-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMOS-6"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"liquid oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_oxygen"},{"link_name":"carbon composite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_overwrapped_pressure_vessel"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge-sept-explod-cause-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-plarson-68"},{"link_name":"SES-10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SES-10"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davenport2017-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"sub_title":"2015–2017: Reusability milestones","text":"Falcon 9 first stage on an autonomous spaceport drone ship (ASDS) barge after the first successful landing at sea, SpaceX CRS-8 missionSpaceX first achieved a successful landing and recovery of a first stage in December 2015 with Falcon 9 Flight 20.[63] In April 2016, the company achieved the first successful landing on the autonomous spaceport drone ship (ASDS) Of Course I Still Love You in the Atlantic Ocean.[64] By October 2016, following the successful landings, SpaceX indicated they were offering their customers a 10% price discount if they choose to fly their payload on a reused Falcon 9 first stage.[65]A second major rocket failure happened in early September 2016, when a Falcon 9 exploded during a propellant fill operation for a standard pre-launch static fire test. The payload, the AMOS-6 communications satellite valued at $200 million, was destroyed.[66] The explosion was caused by the liquid oxygen that is used as propellant turning so cold that it solidified and ignited with carbon composite helium vessels.[67] Though not considered an unsuccessful flight, the rocket explosion sent the company into a four-month launch hiatus while it worked out what went wrong. SpaceX returned to flight in January 2017.[68]In March 2017, SpaceX launched a returned Falcon 9 for the SES-10 satellite. This was the first time a re-launch of a payload-carrying orbital rocket went back to space.[69] The first stage was recovered again, also making it the first landing of a reused orbital class rocket.[70]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-75"},{"link_name":"The Boring Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Boring_Company"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hawthore20180911-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lat20171121-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsj20181217-79"},{"link_name":"spun out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin-out"},{"link_name":"corporate entity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_entity"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsj20181217-79"}],"sub_title":"2017–2018: Leading global commercial launch provider","text":"In July 2017, the company raised $350 million, which raised its valuation to $21 billion.[71] In 2017, SpaceX achieved a 45% global market share for awarded commercial launch contracts.[72] By March 2018, SpaceX had more than 100 launches on its manifest representing about $12 billion in contract revenue.[73] The contracts included both commercial and government (NASA/DOD) customers.[74] This made SpaceX the leading global commercial launch provider measured by manifested launches.[75]In 2017, SpaceX formed a subsidiary, The Boring Company,[76] and began work to construct a short test tunnel on and adjacent to the SpaceX headquarters and manufacturing facility, using a small number of SpaceX employees,[77] which was completed in May 2018,[78] and opened to the public in December 2018.[79] During 2018, The Boring Company was spun out into a separate corporate entity with 6% of the equity going to SpaceX, less than 10% to early employees, and the remainder of the equity to Elon Musk.[79]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc20200221-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc20210216-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn20210415-86"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc20210216-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn20210415-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Artemis program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis_program"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn20210416-88"},{"link_name":"Google Cloud Platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Cloud_Platform"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Azure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Azure"},{"link_name":"Starlink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starlink"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"A Shortfall of Gravitas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Shortfall_of_Gravitas"},{"link_name":"CRS-23","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRS-23"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"Elon Musk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elon_Musk"},{"link_name":"carbon dioxide removal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal"},{"link_name":"convert captured carbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_utilization"},{"link_name":"rocket fuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_propellant"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"X Prize Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Prize_Foundation"},{"link_name":"carbon capture technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_air_capture"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"European Space Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Space_Agency"},{"link_name":"Soyuz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"Russian invasion of Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"was extensively used","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starlink_in_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-98"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"non-primary source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-98"},{"link_name":"Pioneer Aerospace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_Aerospace"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"}],"sub_title":"Since 2019: Starship, first crewed launches, Starlink and general","text":"In 2019 Spacex raised $1.33 billion of capital across three funding rounds.[80] By May 2019, the valuation of SpaceX had risen to $33.3 billion[81] and reached $36 billion by March 2020.[82]On 19 August 2020, after a $1.9 billion funding round, one of the largest single fundraising pushes by any privately held company, SpaceX's valuation increased to $46 billion.[83][84][85]In February 2021, SpaceX raised an additional $1.61 billion in an equity round from 99 investors[86] at a per share value of approximately $420,[85] raising the company valuation to approximately $74 billion. By 2021, SpaceX had raised more than $6 billion in equity financing. Most of the capital raised since 2019 has been used to support the operational fielding of the Starlink satellite constellation and the development and manufacture of the Starship launch vehicle.[86] By October 2021, the valuation of SpaceX had risen to $100.3 billion.[87] On 16 April 2021, Starship HLS won a contract to play a critical role in the NASA crewed spaceflight Artemis program.[88] By 2021, SpaceX had entered into agreements with Google Cloud Platform and Microsoft Azure to provide on-ground computer and networking services for Starlink.[89] A new round of financing in 2022 valued SpaceX at $127 billion.[90]In July 2021, SpaceX unveiled another drone ship named A Shortfall of Gravitas, landing a booster from CRS-23 on it for the first time on 29 August 2021.[91] Within the first 130 days of 2022, SpaceX had 18 rocket launches and two astronaut splashdowns. On 13 December 2021, company CEO Elon Musk announced that the company was starting a carbon dioxide removal program that would convert captured carbon into rocket fuel,[92][93] after he announced a $100 million donation to the X Prize Foundation the previous February to provide the monetary rewards to winners in a contest to develop the best carbon capture technology.[94][95]In August 2022, Reuters reported that the European Space Agency (ESA) began initial discussions with SpaceX that could lead to the company's launchers being used temporarily, given that Russia blocked access to Soyuz rockets amid the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[96] Since that invasion and in the greater war between Russia and Ukraine, Starlink was extensively used.[97]In 2022, SpaceX's Falcon 9 also became the world record holder for the most launches of a single vehicle type in a single year.[98][99][non-primary source needed] SpaceX launched a rocket approximately every six days in 2022, with 61 launches in total. All but one (a Falcon Heavy in November) was on a Falcon 9 rocket.[98]In November 2023, SpaceX announced it would acquire its parachute supplier Pioneer Aerospace out of bankruptcy for $2.2 million.[100][101]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Starship_full_stack.jpg"},{"link_name":"Starship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Starship"},{"link_name":"Starlink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starlink"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-starship-flight-3-104"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-starship-press-kit-105"},{"link_name":"SpaceX South Texas launch site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_South_Texas_launch_site"},{"link_name":"first orbital flight test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Starship_orbital_test_flight"},{"link_name":"Gulf of Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico"},{"link_name":"max q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_q"},{"link_name":"flight termination system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_safety#Flight_termination_system"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-berger-ift1-fail-or-success-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"second integrated Starship test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Starship_Second_Integrated_Flight_Test"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"FAA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAA"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-starship-flight-3-104"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-starship-press-kit-105"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"}],"sub_title":"Since 2019: Starship, first crewed launches, Starlink and general - Starship","text":"Starship in launch positionIn January 2019, SpaceX announced it would lay off 10% of its workforce to help finance the Starship and Starlink projects.[102] The purpose of the Starship vehicle is to enable large-scale transit of humans and cargo to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.[103] Spacex's Starship is the largest and most powerful rocket ever flown, with a payload capacity of 100+ tons.[104][105] Construction of initial prototypes and tests for Starship started in early 2019 in Florida and Texas. All Starship construction and testing moved to the new SpaceX South Texas launch site later that year.On 20 April 2023, Starship's first orbital flight test ended in a mid-air explosion over the Gulf of Mexico before booster separation. After launch, multiple engines in the booster progressively failed, causing the vehicle to reach max q later than planned. \"Max q\" is the theoretical point of maximal mechanical stress which occurs during the launch sequence of a space vehicle. In the case of a rocket that must be self-destructed during its ascent, max q occurs at the point of self-destruction. Eventually, the vehicle lost control and spun erratically until the automated flight termination system was activated, which intentionally destroyed the rocket. Elon Musk, SpaceX, and other individuals familiar with the space industry have referred to the test flight as a success.[106][107]Musk said at the time that it would take between \"six to eight weeks\" to get the infrastructure prepared for another launch. In October 2023, a senior SpaceX executive stated the company had been ready to launch the next test flight since September. He accused government regulators of disrupting the project's progress, adding the delay could lead to China beating US astronauts back to the Moon.[108][109]On 18 November 2023, SpaceX launched its second integrated Starship test, with both vehicles flying for a few minutes before separately exploding.[110][111][112][113]In early March 2024 SpaceX announced that it was targeting 14 March as the tentative launch date for its next uncrewed Starship launch configuration flight test, pending the issuance of a \"launch license\" by the FAA. This license was granted on 13 March 2024.[114] On 14 March 2024 at 13:25 UTC Starship launched for the 3rd time and for the first time Starship reached its planned suborbital trajectory. The flight ended with the booster experiencing a malfunction shortly before landing and the ship being lost during reentry over the Indian Ocean. [104][105]On 4 June 2024, SpaceX received the launch license for Starship’s 4th test flight. The licensure itself was notable in that it was the first time that the FAA included a clause that would allow SpaceX to launch subsequent test flights without a mishap investigation, provided that they met a similar launch profile and utilized the same specification of hardware. The provision could prove to speed the development timeline.[115]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Doug Hurley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug_Hurley"},{"link_name":"Bob Behnken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Behnken"},{"link_name":"Crew Dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon"},{"link_name":"Crew Dragon Demo-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-2"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-20200530-116"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CNN-20200530-117"},{"link_name":"Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A"},{"link_name":"Kennedy Space Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"}],"sub_title":"Since 2019: Starship, first crewed launches, Starlink and general - Crewed launches","text":"A significant milestone was achieved in May 2020, when SpaceX successfully launched two NASA astronauts (Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken) into orbit on a Crew Dragon spacecraft during Crew Dragon Demo-2, making SpaceX the first private company to send astronauts to the International Space Station and marking the first crewed orbital launch from American soil in 9 years.[116][117] The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A (LC-39A) of the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.[118]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mittr_2020-119"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn2674441-120"},{"link_name":"Swarm Technologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_Technologies"},{"link_name":"low Earth orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit"},{"link_name":"Internet of things","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_of_things"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsj-fr-4"},{"link_name":"Federal Communications Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"}],"sub_title":"Since 2019: Starship, first crewed launches, Starlink and general - Starlink","text":"In May 2019, SpaceX launched the first large batch of 60 Starlink satellites, beginning to deploy what would become the world's largest commercial satellite constellation the following year.[119] In 2022 most SpaceX launches focused on Starlink, a consumer internet business that sends batches of internet-beaming satellites and now has over 6,000 satellites in orbit.[120]On 16 July 2021 SpaceX entered an agreement to acquire Swarm Technologies, a private company building a low Earth orbit satellite constellation for communications with Internet of things (IoT) devices, for $524 million.[121][4]In December 2022, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approved the launch up to 7,500 of SpaceX's next-generation satellites in its Starlink internet network.[122]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-131"},{"link_name":"Project West Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_West_Ford"}],"sub_title":"Summary of achievements","text":"^ Excluding the passive objects launched as part of Project West Ford","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CRS-18_Mission_(48380511427).jpg"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9 Block 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9_Block_5"},{"link_name":"VTVL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTVL"},{"link_name":"Falcon 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_1"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9"},{"link_name":"Falcon Heavy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_Heavy"},{"link_name":"Falcon 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_1"},{"link_name":"low Earth orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Falcon9_overview-144"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nasa2008-123"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9"},{"link_name":"medium-lift launch vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium-lift_launch_vehicle"},{"link_name":"Delta IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_IV"},{"link_name":"Atlas V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_V"},{"link_name":"Merlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Merlin"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9 v1.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9_v1.0"},{"link_name":"COTS Demo Flight 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_COTS_Demo_Flight_2"},{"link_name":"commercial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_spaceflight"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbcnews-50"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9 v1.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9_v1.1"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9 Full Thrust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9_Full_Thrust"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9 Block 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9_Block_5"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"Falcon Heavy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_Heavy"},{"link_name":"heavy-lift launch vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy-lift_launch_vehicle"},{"link_name":"Low Earth orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit"},{"link_name":"geosynchronous transfer orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosynchronous_transfer_orbit"},{"link_name":"Merlin 1D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Merlin"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sxfh2011-146"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nsw20130103-147"},{"link_name":"Tesla Roadster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_Roadster_(2008)"},{"link_name":"heliocentric orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentric_orbit"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"National Security Space Launch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Space_Launch"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NSSL1-149"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"one in-flight failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_CRS-7"},{"link_name":"a pre-flight failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMOS-6#Destruction"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"Starship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Starship"},{"link_name":"Super Heavy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Super_Heavy"},{"link_name":"Starship second stage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Starship_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SpaceX&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nsf20170929-153"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"}],"sub_title":"Launch vehicles","text":"The landing of a Falcon 9 Block 5 first stage at Cape Canaveral in July 2019. VTVL technologies are used in many of SpaceX's launch vehicles.SpaceX has developed three launch vehicles. The small-lift Falcon 1 was the first launch vehicle developed and was retired in 2009. The medium-lift Falcon 9 and the heavy-lift Falcon Heavy are both operational.Falcon 1 was a small rocket capable of placing several hundred kilograms into low Earth orbit. It launched five times between 2006 and 2009, of which two were successful.[143] The Falcon 1 was the first privately funded, liquid-fueled rocket to reach orbit.[123]Falcon 9 is a medium-lift launch vehicle capable of delivering up to 22,800 kilograms (50,265 lb) to orbit, competing with the Delta IV and the Atlas V rockets, as well as other launch providers around the world. It has nine Merlin engines in its first stage. The Falcon 9 v1.0 rocket successfully reached orbit on its first attempt on 4 June 2010. Its third flight, COTS Demo Flight 2, launched on 22 May 2012 and launched the first commercial spacecraft to reach and dock with the International Space Station (ISS).[50] The vehicle was upgraded to Falcon 9 v1.1 in 2013, Falcon 9 Full Thrust in 2015, and finally to Falcon 9 Block 5 in 2018. The first stage of Falcon 9 is designed to retro propulsively land, be recovered, and flown again.[144]Falcon Heavy is a heavy-lift launch vehicle capable of delivering up to 63,800 kg (140,700 lb) to Low Earth orbit (LEO) or 26,700 kg (58,900 lb) to geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO). It uses three slightly modified Falcon 9 first-stage cores with a total of 27 Merlin 1D engines.[145][146] The Falcon Heavy successfully flew its inaugural mission on 6 February 2018, launching Musk's personal Tesla Roadster into heliocentric orbit[147]Both the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy are certified to conduct launches for the National Security Space Launch (NSSL).[148][149] As of 19 June 2024, the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy have been launched 355 times, resulting in 353 full mission successes, one partial success, and one in-flight failure. In addition, a Falcon 9 experienced a pre-flight failure before a static fire test in 2016.[150][151]SpaceX is developing a fully reusable super-heavy lift launch system known as Starship. It comprises a reusable first stage, called Super Heavy, and the reusable Starship second stage space vehicle. As of 2017[update], the system was intended to supersede the company's existing launch vehicle hardware by the early 2020s.[152][153]","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SpaceX_Testing_Merlin_1D_Engine_In_Texas.jpg"},{"link_name":"Merlin 1D engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merlin_(rocket_engine_family)#Merlin_1D"},{"link_name":"McGregor, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGregor,_Texas"},{"link_name":"rocket engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_engine"},{"link_name":"Merlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Merlin"},{"link_name":"Kestrel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Kestrel"},{"link_name":"Raptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Raptor"},{"link_name":"launch vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_vehicle"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-raptor1-155"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-falcon1k-156"},{"link_name":"Draco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Draco"},{"link_name":"reaction control system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_control_system"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sxF9LVPUG2009-157"},{"link_name":"SuperDraco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SuperDraco"},{"link_name":"Crew Dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nsf20140530-158"},{"link_name":"liquid oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_oxygen"},{"link_name":"RP-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-falcon1k-156"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-good_boy_astro-160"},{"link_name":"SuperDraco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SuperDraco"},{"link_name":"hypergolic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypergolic"},{"link_name":"reaction control system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_control_system"},{"link_name":"Dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon"},{"link_name":"Dragon 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_2"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sxF9LVPUG2009-157"},{"link_name":"SuperDraco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SuperDraco"},{"link_name":"launch escape capability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_escape_system"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"methane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane"},{"link_name":"full-flow staged combustion cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full-flow_staged_combustion_cycle"},{"link_name":"Starship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Starship"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-raptor1-155"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"}],"sub_title":"Rocket engines","text":"Merlin 1D engine undergoes a test at SpaceX's Rocket Development and Test Facility in McGregor, TexasSince the founding of SpaceX in 2002, the company has developed several rocket engines – Merlin, Kestrel, and Raptor – for use in launch vehicles,[154][155] Draco for the reaction control system of the Dragon series of spacecraft,[156] and SuperDraco for abort capability in Crew Dragon.[157]Merlin is a family of rocket engines that uses liquid oxygen (LOX) and RP-1 propellants. Merlin was first used to power the Falcon 1's first stage and is now used on both stages of the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy vehicles.[158] Kestrel uses the same propellants and was used as the Falcon 1 rocket's second-stage main engine.[155][159]Draco and SuperDraco are hypergolic liquid-propellant rocket engines. Draco engines are used on the reaction control system of the Dragon and Dragon 2 spacecraft.[156] The SuperDraco engine is more powerful, and eight SuperDraco engines provide launch escape capability for crewed Dragon 2 spacecraft during an abort scenario.[160]Raptor is a new family of liquid oxygen and liquid methane-fueled full-flow staged combustion cycle engines to power the first and second stages of the in-development Starship launch system.[154] Development versions were test-fired in late 2016,[161] and the engine flew for the first time in 2019, powering the Starhopper vehicle to an altitude of 20 m (66 ft).[162]","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crew_Dragon_at_the_ISS_for_Demo_Mission_1_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Crew Dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_2"},{"link_name":"Commercial Crew Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Crew_Development"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"first version of Dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBCLaunchDec2010-43"},{"link_name":"Dragon 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_2"},{"link_name":"its first flight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-1"},{"link_name":"a crewed flight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-2"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-20200530-116"},{"link_name":"cargo variant of Dragon 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_2#Cargo_Dragon"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"},{"link_name":"Lunar Gateway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Gateway"},{"link_name":"Gateway Logistics Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_Logistics_Services"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-165"},{"link_name":"Falcon Heavy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_Heavy"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-166"},{"link_name":"SpaceX designed a spacesuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_suit#SpaceX_suit_(%22Starman_suit%22)"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"},{"link_name":"extravehicular activity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravehicular_activity"},{"link_name":"spacewalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacewalk"},{"link_name":"Polaris Dawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polaris_Dawn"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-168"}],"sub_title":"Dragon spacecraft","text":"The SpaceX's Crew Dragon spacecraft, designed to deliver crew to and from the International Space Station as part of the Commercial Crew Development programSpaceX has developed the Dragon spacecraft to transport cargo and crew to the International Space Station. The first version of Dragon, used only for cargo, was first launched in 2010.[43] The currently operational second generation Dragon spacecraft, known as Dragon 2, conducted its first flight, without crew, to the ISS in early 2019, followed by a crewed flight of Dragon 2 in 2020.[116] The cargo variant of Dragon 2 flew for the first time in December 2020, for a resupply to the Space Station as part of the CRS contract with NASA.[163]In March 2020 SpaceX revealed the Dragon XL, designed as a resupply spacecraft for NASA's planned Lunar Gateway space station under a Gateway Logistics Services (GLS) contract.[164] Dragon XL is planned to launch on the Falcon Heavy, and is able to transport over 5,000 kg (11,000 lb) to the Gateway. Dragon XL will be docked at the Gateway for six to twelve months at a time.[165]SpaceX designed a spacesuit to be worn inside the Dragon spacecraft to protect from possible depressurization.[166] On 4 May 2024, SpaceX unveiled a second spacesuit designed for extravehicular activity, planned to be used for a spacewalk during the Polaris Dawn mission.[167]","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SpaceX_ASDS_in_position_prior_to_Falcon_9_Flight_17_carrying_CRS-6_(17127808431).jpg"},{"link_name":"Autonomous spaceport drone ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_spaceport_drone_ship"},{"link_name":"CRS-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_CRS-6"},{"link_name":"first stage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_stage_(rocketry)"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pm20120207-169"},{"link_name":"autonomous spaceport drone ships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_spaceport_drone_ship"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-170"},{"link_name":"floating launch platforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_launch_platform"}],"sub_title":"Autonomous spaceport drone ships","text":"Autonomous spaceport drone ship in position prior to CRS-6 missionSpaceX routinely returns the first stage of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets after orbital launches. The rocket lands at a predetermined landing site using only its propulsion systems.[168] When propellant margins do not permit a return to a launch site (RTLS), rockets return to a floating landing platform in the ocean, called autonomous spaceport drone ships (ASDS).[169]SpaceX also plans to introduce floating launch platforms. These are modified oil rigs to use in the 2020s to provide a sea launch option for their second-generation launch vehicle: the heavy-lift Starship system, consisting of the Super Heavy booster and Starship second stage.","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Starlink_Mission_(47926144123).jpg"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StarlinkServices-7"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"},{"link_name":"communications satellites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn20150119-172"},{"link_name":"Paz satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paz_(satellite)"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-173"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-174"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-175"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-177"},{"link_name":"Starlink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starlink"},{"link_name":"light pollution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_pollution"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-178"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-179"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-180"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-181"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-182"},{"link_name":"space debris collisions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_collision"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-183"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-184"},{"link_name":"krypton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krypton"},{"link_name":"Hall thrusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall-effect_thruster"},{"link_name":"de-orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De-orbit"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-185"},{"link_name":"Starshield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starshield_(satellite_constellation)"},{"link_name":"Space Development Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Development_Agency"},{"link_name":"missile defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missile_defense"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187"}],"sub_title":"Starlink","text":"Sixty Starlink satellites stacked together before deploymentStarlink is an internet satellite constellation under development by Starlink Services, LLC, a wholly-owned subsidiary of SpaceX,[7][170] that consists of thousands of cross-linked communications satellites in ~550 km orbits. Its goal is to address the significant unmet demand worldwide for low-cost broadband capabilities.[171]Development began in 2015, and initial prototype test-flight satellites were launched on the SpaceX Paz satellite mission in 2017. In May 2019, SpaceX launched the first batch of 60 satellites aboard a Falcon 9.[172] Initial test operation of the constellation began in late 2020[173] and first orders were taken in early 2021.[174] Customers were told to expect internet service speeds of 50 Mbit/s to 150 Mbit/s and latency from 20 ms to 40 ms.[175] In December 2022, Starlink reached over 1 million subscribers worldwide.[176]The planned large number of Starlink satellites has been criticized by astronomers due to concerns over light pollution,[177][178][179] with the brightness of Starlink satellites in both optical and radio wavelengths interfering with scientific observations.[180] In response, SpaceX has implemented several upgrades to Starlink satellites aimed at reducing their brightness.[181] The large number of satellites employed by Starlink also creates long-term dangers of space debris collisions.[182][183] However, the satellites are equipped with krypton-fueled Hall thrusters which allow them to de-orbit at the end of their life. They are also designed to autonomously avoid collisions based on uplinked tracking data.[184]In December 2022, SpaceX announced Starshield, a program to incorporate military or government entity payloads on board a Starlink-derived satellite bus. The Space Development Agency is a key customer procuring satellites for a space-based missile defense system.[185][186]","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hyperloop competition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperloop_pod_competition"},{"link_name":"subscale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_model"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nbc20150615-188"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spacex-competition201506-189"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-190"},{"link_name":"COVID-19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19"},{"link_name":"peer-reviewed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-reviewed"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-191"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-192"},{"link_name":"mini-submarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midget_submarine"},{"link_name":"rescue of children stuck in a flooded cavern in Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tham_Luang_cave_rescue"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ArsTechSubmarine-193"},{"link_name":"Richard Stanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Stanton"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-194"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-195"},{"link_name":"The Boring Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Boring_Company"},{"link_name":"liquid oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_oxygen"},{"link_name":"[195]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-196"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto5-197"},{"link_name":"face masks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_mask"},{"link_name":"anesthesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anesthesia"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ArsTechSubmarine-193"}],"text":"In June 2015, SpaceX announced that they would sponsor a Hyperloop competition, and would build a 1.6 km (0.99 mi) long subscale test track near SpaceX's headquarters for the competitive events.[187][188] The company has held the annual competition since 2017.[189]In collaboration with doctors and academic researchers, SpaceX invited all employees to participate in the creation of a COVID-19 antibody-testing program in 2020. As such, 4300 employees volunteered to provide blood samples resulting in a peer-reviewed scientific paper crediting eight SpaceX employees as coauthors and suggesting that a certain level of COVID-19 antibodies may provide lasting protection against the virus.[190][191]In July 2018, Musk arranged for his employees to build a mini-submarine to assist the rescue of children stuck in a flooded cavern in Thailand.[192] Richard Stanton, leader of the international rescue diving team, urged Musk to facilitate the construction of the vehicle as a back-up, in case flooding worsened.[193][194] Engineers at SpaceX and The Boring Company built the mini-submarine from a Falcon 9 liquid oxygen transfer tube in eight hours and personally delivered it to Thailand.[195][196] By this time, however, eight of the 12 children had already been rescued using full face masks and oxygen under anesthesia; consequently Thai authorities declined to use the submarine.[192]","title":"Other projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hawthorne, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne,_California"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pm-198"},{"link_name":"Redmond, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redmond,_Washington"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bloomberg2021-199"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about-74"},{"link_name":"Delaware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaware"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-200"}],"text":"SpaceX is headquartered in Hawthorne, California, which also serves as its primary manufacturing plant.[197] The company operates a research and major operation in Redmond, Washington, owns a test site in Texas[198] and operates three launch sites, with another under development. SpaceX also operates regional offices in Texas, Virginia, and Washington, D.C.[74] SpaceX was incorporated in the state of Delaware.[199]","title":"Facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iridium-4_Mission_(25557986177).jpg"},{"link_name":"Vandenberg Space Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandenberg_Space_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Hawthorne, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne,_California"},{"link_name":"Northrop Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Boeing 747","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pm-198"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arstechnica_2019-201"},{"link_name":"Boeing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing"},{"link_name":"McDonnell Douglas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas"},{"link_name":"The Aerospace Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Aerospace_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Raytheon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raytheon_Technologies"},{"link_name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"United States Space Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Space_Force"},{"link_name":"Space Systems Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Systems_Command"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Lockheed Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Martin"},{"link_name":"BAE Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAE_Systems"},{"link_name":"Northrop Grumman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman"},{"link_name":"AECOM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AECOM"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pm-198"},{"link_name":"vertical integration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_integration"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A&Ssmithsonian201201-15"},{"link_name":"rocket engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_engine"},{"link_name":"rocket stages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_vehicle"},{"link_name":"spacecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft"},{"link_name":"avionics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avionics"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_software"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A&Ssmithsonian201201-15"},{"link_name":"Redmond, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redmond,_Washington"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-202"},{"link_name":"Irvine, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvine,_California"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-203"}],"sub_title":"Headquarters, mission control, manufacturing, and refurbishment facilities","text":"SpaceX Headquarters in Hawthorne, California at night during a Falcon 9 launch from Vandenberg Space Force BaseSpaceX Headquarters is located in the Los Angeles suburb of Hawthorne, California. The large three-story facility, originally built by Northrop Corporation to build Boeing 747 fuselages,[197] houses SpaceX's office space, mission control, and Falcon 9 manufacturing facilities.[200]The area has one of the largest concentrations of space sector headquarters, facilities, and/or subsidiaries in the U.S., including Boeing/McDonnell Douglas main satellite building campuses, The Aerospace Corporation, Raytheon, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, United States Space Force's Space Systems Command at Los Angeles Air Force Base, Lockheed Martin, BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman, and AECOM, etc., with a large pool of aerospace engineers and recent college engineering graduates.[197]SpaceX uses a high degree of vertical integration in the production of its rockets and rocket engines.[15] SpaceX builds its rocket engines, rocket stages, spacecraft, principal avionics and all software in-house in their Hawthorne facility, which is unusual for the space industry.[15]In January 2015, SpaceX announced it would be entering the satellite production business and global satellite internet business. The first satellite facility is a 30,000 sq ft (2,800 m2) office building located in Redmond, Washington. As of January 2017, a second facility in Redmond was acquired with 40,625 sq ft (3,774.2 m2) and has become a research and development laboratory for the satellites.[201] In July 2016, SpaceX acquired an additional 8,000 sq ft (740 m2) office space in Irvine, California to focus on satellite communications.[202]","title":"Facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2008_SpaceX%27s_Rocket_Development_facility,_McGregor,_TX.jpg"},{"link_name":"McGregor, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGregor,_Texas"},{"link_name":"rocket test stands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_engine_test_facility"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bloomberg2021-199"},{"link_name":"VTVL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTVL"},{"link_name":"Grasshopper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9_prototypes"},{"link_name":"[203]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-204"},{"link_name":"SpaceX Starbase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Starbase"},{"link_name":"Brownsville, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownsville,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arstechnica_2019-201"},{"link_name":"Beal Aerospace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beal_Aerospace"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SpaceX&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[204]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wired20121010-205"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-207"}],"sub_title":"Development and test facilities","text":"Aerial view of the SpaceX McGregor engine testing facility, 2008SpaceX operates its Rocket Development and Test Facility in McGregor, Texas. All SpaceX rocket engines are tested on rocket test stands,[198] and low-altitude VTVL flight testing of the Falcon 9 Grasshopper in 2012–2013 were carried out at McGregor.[203] Testing of the much larger Starship prototypes is conducted at the SpaceX Starbase near Brownsville, Texas.[200]The company purchased the McGregor facilities from Beal Aerospace, where it refitted the largest test stand for Falcon 9 engine testing. SpaceX has made improvements to the facility since its purchase and has also extended the acreage by purchasing adjacent farmland. As of October 2012[update], the McGregor facility had seven test stands that are operated \"18 hours a day, six days a week\"[204] and is building more test stands due to increased production and the company having a large manifest in the next several years.[205] In addition to routine testing, Dragon capsules (following recovery after an orbital mission), are shipped to McGregor for de-fueling, cleanup, and refurbishment for reuse in future missions.[206]","title":"Facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Falcon_Heavy_Side_Boosters_landing_on_LZ1_and_LZ2_-_2018_(25254688767).jpg"},{"link_name":"LZ1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_Zones_1_and_2"},{"link_name":"orbital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_spaceflight"},{"link_name":"Cape Canaveral Space Force Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station"},{"link_name":"Kennedy Space Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center"},{"link_name":"Vandenberg Space Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandenberg_Space_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Starbase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Starbase"},{"link_name":"Brownsville, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownsville,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn20130802-208"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-209"},{"link_name":"SSO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun-synchronous_orbit"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-210"},{"link_name":"Falcon 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_1"},{"link_name":"Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_Ballistic_Missile_Defense_Test_Site"},{"link_name":"Omelek Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omelek_Island"},{"link_name":"Marshall Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_the_Marshall_Islands"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-211"},{"link_name":"the Pentagon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pentagon"},{"link_name":"Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Launch_Complex_40"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-212"},{"link_name":"Launch Complex 13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Launch_Complex_13"},{"link_name":"Landing Zones 1 and 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_Zones_1_and_2"},{"link_name":"first-stage booster landings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9_first-stage_landing_tests"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-213"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Launch_of_Falcon_9_carrying_CASSIOPE_(130929-F-ET475-012).jpg"},{"link_name":"Vandenberg Space Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandenberg_Space_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"CASSIOPE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CASSIOPE"},{"link_name":"Vandenberg Space Launch Complex 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandenberg_Space_Launch_Complex_4"},{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nsf20110405-214"},{"link_name":"Landing Zone 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_Zone_4"},{"link_name":"[214]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-215"},{"link_name":"Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-216"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9"},{"link_name":"Falcon Heavy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_Heavy"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SpaceX&action=edit"},{"link_name":"first crewed mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-2"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-217"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-218"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Boca_Chica_Rocket_Factory.jpg"},{"link_name":"SpaceX Starbase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Starbase"},{"link_name":"SpaceX Starbase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Starbase"},{"link_name":"Boca Chica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boca_Chica,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Brownsville, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownsville,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-219"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-220"},{"link_name":"Federal Aviation Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration"},{"link_name":"[220]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-221"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn20140922-222"},{"link_name":"suborbital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suborbital_spaceflight"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arstechnica_2019-201"},{"link_name":"Boca Chica Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boca_Chica_Village,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Brownsville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownsville,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[222]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20210714cnbc-faa-223"},{"link_name":"[223]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-224"}],"sub_title":"Launch facilities","text":"Falcon Heavy Side Boosters landing on LZ1 and LZ2 at Cape CanaveralSpaceX operates four orbital launch sites, at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station and Kennedy Space Center in Florida and Vandenberg Space Force Base in California for Falcon rockets, and Starbase near Brownsville, Texas for Starship. SpaceX has indicated that they see a niche for each of the four orbital facilities and that they have sufficient launch business to fill each pad.[207] The Vandenberg launch site enables highly inclined orbits (66–145°), while Cape Canaveral and Kennedy enable orbits of medium inclination (28.5–55°).[208] Larger inclinations, including SSO, are possible from Florida by overflying Cuba.[209]Before it was retired, all Falcon 1 launches took place at the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site on Omelek Island of the Marshall Islands.[210]In April 2007, the Pentagon approved the use of Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40 (SLC-40) by SpaceX.[211] The site has been used since 2010 for Falcon 9 launches, mainly to low Earth and geostationary orbits. The former Launch Complex 13 at Cape Canaveral, now renamed Landing Zones 1 and 2, has since 2015 been used for Falcon 9 first-stage booster landings.[212]SpaceX west coast launch facility at Vandenberg Space Force Base, during the launch of CASSIOPEVandenberg Space Launch Complex 4 (SLC-4E) was leased from the military in 2011 and is used for payloads to polar orbits. The Vandenberg site can launch both Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy vehicles,[213] but cannot launch to low inclination orbits. The neighboring SLC-4W was converted to Landing Zone 4 in 2015 for booster landings.[214]On 14 April 2014, SpaceX signed a 20-year lease for Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A.[215] The pad was subsequently modified to support Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches. As of 2024[update] it is the only pad that supports Falcon Heavy launches. SpaceX launched its first crewed mission to the ISS from Launch Pad 39A on 30 May 2020.[216] Pad 39A has been prepared since 2019 to eventually accommodate Starship launches. With delays in launch FAA permits for Boca Chica, Texas, the 39A Starship preparation was accelerated in 2022.[217]The Starship assembly building at SpaceX Starbase in TexasSpaceX manufactures and flies Starship test vehicles from the SpaceX Starbase in Boca Chica near Brownsville, Texas, having announced first plans for the launch facility in August 2014.[218][219] The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued the permit in July 2014.[220] SpaceX broke ground on the new launch facility in 2014 with construction ramping up in the latter half of 2015,[221] with the first suborbital launches from the facility in 2019[200] and orbital launches starting in 2023. Some residents of Boca Chica Village, Brownsville, and environmental activists criticized the site along with Starship development program in various aspects.[222][223]","title":"Facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Falcon 1 § Launches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_1#Launches"},{"link_name":"List of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Falcon_9_and_Falcon_Heavy_launches"},{"link_name":"SpaceX Starship flight tests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Starship_flight_tests"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"U.S. military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._military"},{"link_name":"Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolved_Expendable_Launch_Vehicle"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about-74"}],"text":"Further information on SpaceX launches: Falcon 1 § Launches, List of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches, and SpaceX Starship flight testsSpaceX won demonstration and actual supply contracts from NASA for the International Space Station (ISS) with technology the company developed. SpaceX is also certified for U.S. military launches of Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle-class (EELV) payloads. With approximately thirty missions on the manifest for 2018 alone, SpaceX represented over $12 billion under contract.[74]","title":"Contracts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COTS2_Dragon_is_berthed.jpg"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"Canadarm2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_Servicing_System"},{"link_name":"Commercial Orbital Transportation Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Orbital_Transportation_Services"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-225"},{"link_name":"[225]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-226"},{"link_name":"Space Act Agreements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Act_Agreement"},{"link_name":"[226]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-227"},{"link_name":"SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_COTS_Demo_Flight_1"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nasa2010-228"},{"link_name":"SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_COTS_Demo_Flight_2"},{"link_name":"private spacecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_spacecraft"},{"link_name":"[228]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-229"},{"link_name":"Commercial Resupply Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Resupply_Services"},{"link_name":"[229]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spaceflightinsider_2014-230"},{"link_name":"SpaceX CRS-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_CRS-1"},{"link_name":"re-entering the atmosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_re-entry"},{"link_name":"[230]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nasa20121028-231"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-232"},{"link_name":"[229]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spaceflightinsider_2014-230"},{"link_name":"[232]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-233"},{"link_name":"SpaceX CRS-20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_CRS-20"},{"link_name":"Dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon"},{"link_name":"second phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Resupply_Services_2"},{"link_name":"Dragon 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_2"},{"link_name":"[233]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASA-SMSR-234"},{"link_name":"[234]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-grc-planned-235"},{"link_name":"Dragon XL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_XL"},{"link_name":"Lunar Gateway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Gateway"},{"link_name":"[235]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-236"}],"sub_title":"Cargo to ISS","text":"The COTS 2 Dragon is berthed to the International Space Station (ISS) by Canadarm2In 2006, SpaceX won a NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) Phase 1 contract to demonstrate cargo delivery to the International Space Station (ISS), with a possible contract option for crew transport.[224] Through this contract, designed by NASA to provide \"seed money\" through Space Act Agreements for developing new capabilities, NASA paid SpaceX $396 million to develop the cargo configuration of the Dragon spacecraft, while SpaceX developed the Falcon 9 launch vehicle with their resources.[225] These Space Act Agreements have been shown to have saved NASA millions of dollars in development costs, making rocket development 4–10 times less expensive than if produced by NASA alone.[226]In December 2010 the launch of the SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 1 mission, SpaceX became the first private company to successfully launch, orbit, and recover a spacecraft.[227] Dragon successfully berthed with the ISS during SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 2 in May 2012, a first for a private spacecraft.[228]Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) is a series of contracts awarded by NASA from 2008 to 2016 for the delivery of cargo and supplies to the International Space Station on commercially operated spacecraft. The first CRS contracts were signed in 2008 and awarded $1.6 billion to SpaceX for 12 cargo transport missions, covering deliveries to 2016.[229] SpaceX CRS-1, the first of the 12 planned resupply missions, launched in October 2012, achieved orbit, berthed, and remained on station for 20 days, before re-entering the atmosphere and splashing down in the Pacific Ocean.[230]CRS missions have flown approximately twice a year to the ISS since then. In 2015, NASA extended the Phase 1 contracts by ordering an additional three resupply flights from SpaceX, and then extended the contract further for a total of twenty cargo missions to the ISS.[231][229][232] The final Dragon 1 mission, SpaceX CRS-20, departed the ISS in April 2020, and Dragon was subsequently retired from service. A second phase of contracts was awarded in January 2016 with SpaceX as one of the awardees. SpaceX will fly up to nine additional CRS flights with the upgraded Dragon 2 spacecraft.[233][234] In March 2020, NASA contracted SpaceX to develop the Dragon XL spacecraft to send supplies to the Lunar Gateway space station. Dragon XL will be launched on a Falcon Heavy.[235]","title":"Contracts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Commercial Crew Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Crew_Program"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NASA_astronauts_work_aboard_the_SpaceX_Crew_Dragon_(iss064e004754).jpg"},{"link_name":"Crew-1 mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-1"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"[236]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Space_Abort_System_20111028-237"},{"link_name":"[237]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aw20110422-238"},{"link_name":"Dragon 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_2"},{"link_name":"[238]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-August_2012-239"},{"link_name":"[239]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-September_2014-240"},{"link_name":"[239]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-September_2014-240"},{"link_name":"Pad Abort Test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Pad_Abort_Test"},{"link_name":"[240]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-241"},{"link_name":"[241]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-242"},{"link_name":"in-flight abort test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_In-Flight_Abort_Test"},{"link_name":"[242]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-243"},{"link_name":"Crew Dragon Demo-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-2"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"Bob Behnken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Behnken"},{"link_name":"Doug Hurley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug_Hurley"},{"link_name":"ISS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISS"},{"link_name":"[243]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-244"},{"link_name":"Crew-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-1"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"Michael Hopkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_S._Hopkins"},{"link_name":"Victor Glover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_J._Glover"},{"link_name":"Shannon Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon_Walker"},{"link_name":"JAXA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAXA"},{"link_name":"Soichi Noguchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soichi_Noguchi"},{"link_name":"[244]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-245"},{"link_name":"Expedition 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_64"},{"link_name":"[245]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-246"},{"link_name":"Crew-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-2"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"Shane Kimbrough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shane_Kimbrough"},{"link_name":"K. Megan McArthur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._Megan_McArthur"},{"link_name":"Akihiko Hoshide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akihiko_Hoshide"},{"link_name":"ESA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Space_Agency"},{"link_name":"Thomas Pesquet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Pesquet"},{"link_name":"[246]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-247"},{"link_name":"Crew-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-2"},{"link_name":"[247]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-248"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Resilience_after_splashdown.jpg"},{"link_name":"crewed spaceflights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crewed_spaceflight"},{"link_name":"Inspiration4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspiration4"},{"link_name":"Shift4 Payments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift4_Payments"},{"link_name":"Jared Isaacman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jared_Isaacman"},{"link_name":"Crew Dragon Resilience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Resilience"},{"link_name":"Kennedy Space Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center"},{"link_name":"Launch Complex 39A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9_Block_5"},{"link_name":"capsule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_capsule"},{"link_name":"low Earth orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit"},{"link_name":"[248]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-249"}],"sub_title":"Crewed","text":"See also: Commercial Crew ProgramNASA astronauts inside the Dragon spacecraft during the Crew-1 mission rendezvous with the International Space StationSpaceX is responsible for the transportation of NASA astronauts to and from the ISS. The NASA contracts started as part of the Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program, aimed at developing commercially operated spacecraft capable of delivering astronauts to the ISS. The first contract was awarded to SpaceX in 2011,[236][237] followed by another in 2012 to continue development and testing of its Dragon 2 spacecraft.[238]In September 2014, NASA chose SpaceX and Boeing as the two companies that would be funded to develop systems to transport U.S. crews to and from the ISS.[239] SpaceX won $2.6 billion to complete and certify Dragon 2 by 2017. The contracts called for at least one crewed flight test with at least one NASA astronaut aboard. Once Crew Dragon received NASA human-spaceflight certification, the contract required SpaceX to conduct at least two, and as many as six, crewed missions to the space station.[239]SpaceX completed the first key flight test of its Crew Dragon spacecraft, a Pad Abort Test, in May 2015,[240] and successfully conducted a full uncrewed test flight in early 2019. The capsule docked to the ISS and then splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean.[241] In January 2020, SpaceX conducted an in-flight abort test, the last test flight before flying crew, in which the Dragon spacecraft fired its launch escape engines in a simulated abort scenario.[242]On 30 May 2020, the Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission was launched to the International Space Station with NASA astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley, the first time a crewed vehicle had launched from the U.S. since 2011, and the first SpaceX commercial crewed launch to the ISS.[243] The Crew-1 mission was successfully launched to the International Space Station on 16 November 2020, with NASA astronauts Michael Hopkins, Victor Glover and Shannon Walker along with JAXA astronaut Soichi Noguchi,[244] all members of the Expedition 64 crew.[245] On 23 April 2021, Crew-2 was launched to the International Space Station with NASA astronauts Shane Kimbrough and K. Megan McArthur, JAXA astronaut Akihiko Hoshide, and ESA astronaut Thomas Pesquet.[246] The Crew-2 mission successfully docked on 24 April 2021.[247]Resilience after splashdownSpaceX also offers paid crewed spaceflights for private individuals. The first of these missions, Inspiration4, launched in 2021 on behalf of Shift4 Payments CEO Jared Isaacman. The mission launched the Crew Dragon Resilience from the Florida Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39A atop a Falcon 9 launch vehicle, placed the Dragon capsule into low Earth orbit, and ended successfully about three days later when the Resilience splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean. All four crew members received commercial astronaut training from SpaceX. The training included lessons in orbital mechanics, operating in a microgravity environment, stress testing, emergency-preparedness training, and mission simulations.[248]","title":"Contracts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:STP-2_Mission_(48129211908).jpg"},{"link_name":"STP-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STP-2"},{"link_name":"Indefinite Delivery/Indefinite Quantity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDIQ"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"[249]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-250"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"[250]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASA_presser_20080422-251"},{"link_name":"United States Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"Space and Missile Systems Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center"},{"link_name":"Deep Space Climate Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Space_Climate_Observatory"},{"link_name":"Space Test Program 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Test_Program_2"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9"},{"link_name":"Falcon Heavy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_Heavy"},{"link_name":"[251]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-252"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9 v1.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9_v1.1"},{"link_name":"National Security Space Launch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Space_Launch"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NSSL1-149"},{"link_name":"United Launch Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Launch_Alliance"},{"link_name":"[252]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-253"},{"link_name":"GPS III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS_Block_III"},{"link_name":"[253]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-254"},{"link_name":"[254]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-255"},{"link_name":"[255]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-256"},{"link_name":"[256]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-257"},{"link_name":"National Reconnaissance Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office"},{"link_name":"[257]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-258"},{"link_name":"[258]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-259"},{"link_name":"U.S. Space Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Space_Force"},{"link_name":"[259]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-260"},{"link_name":"custom military satellites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starlink#Military_satellites"},{"link_name":"Space Development Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Development_Agency"},{"link_name":"[260]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-261"},{"link_name":"[261]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-262"},{"link_name":"[262]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-263"},{"link_name":"arms race","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arms_race"},{"link_name":"[263]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-264"},{"link_name":"[264]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-265"},{"link_name":"Reuters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters"},{"link_name":"National Reconnaissance Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office"},{"link_name":"spy satellites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite"},{"link_name":"[265]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-266"}],"sub_title":"National defense","text":"Launch of the STP-2 mission on a Falcon Heavy in June 2019In 2005, SpaceX announced that it had been awarded an Indefinite Delivery/Indefinite Quantity (IDIQ) contract, allowing the United States Air Force to purchase up to $100 million worth of launches from the company.[249] Three years later, NASA announced that it had awarded an IDIQ Launch Services contract to SpaceX for up to $1 billion, depending on the number of missions awarded.[250] In December 2012, SpaceX announced its first two launch contracts with the United States Department of Defense (DoD). The United States Air Force Space and Missile Systems Center awarded SpaceX two EELV-class missions: Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) and Space Test Program 2 (STP-2). DSCOVR was launched on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle in 2015, while STP-2 was launched on a Falcon Heavy on 25 June 2019.[251]The Falcon 9 v1.1 was certified for National Security Space Launch (NSSL) in 2015, allowing SpaceX to contract launch services to the Air Force for any payloads classified under national security.[148] This broke the monopoly held since 2006 by United Launch Alliance (ULA) over U.S. Air Force launches of classified payloads.[252] In April 2016, the U.S. Air Force awarded the first such national security launch to SpaceX to launch the second GPS III satellite for $82.7 million.[253] This was approximately 40% less than the estimated cost for similar previous missions.[254] SpaceX also launched the third GPS III launch on 20 June 2020.[255] In March 2018, SpaceX secured an additional $290 million contract from the U.S. Air Force to launch another three GPS III satellites.[256]The U.S. National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) also purchased launches from SpaceX, with the first taking place on 1 May 2017.[257] In February 2019, SpaceX secured a $297 million contract from the U.S. Air Force to launch another three national security missions, all slated to launch no earlier than FY 2021.[258] In August 2020, the U.S. Space Force awarded its National Security Space Launch (NSSL) contracts for the following 5–7 years. SpaceX won a contract for $316 million for one launch. In addition, SpaceX will handle 40% of the U.S. military's satellite launch requirements over the period.[259]SpaceX also designs and launches custom military satellites for the Space Development Agency as part of a new missile defense system in low Earth orbit.[260] The constellation would give the United States capabilities to sense, target and potentially intercept nuclear missiles and hypersonic weapons launched from anywhere on Earth.[261] Both China and Russia brought concerns to the United Nations about the program,[262] and various organizations warn it could be destabilizing and trigger an arms race in space.[263][264]In March 2024, Reuters reported that, as part of a $1.8 billion contract signed with the National Reconnaissance Office in 2021, SpaceX is building a network of hundreds of spy satellites. This new network, Reuters reported, would be able to operate as a swarm in low orbits.[265]","title":"Contracts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"communications satellites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite"},{"link_name":"geostationary transfer orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A&Ssmithsonian201201-15"},{"link_name":"Ariane 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariane_5"},{"link_name":"International Launch Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Launch_Services"},{"link_name":"Proton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_(rocket_family)"},{"link_name":"[266]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc20131203-267"},{"link_name":"low Earth orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit"},{"link_name":"[267]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fp20131209-268"},{"link_name":"Ariane 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariane_5"},{"link_name":"Ariane 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariane_6"},{"link_name":"[268]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smh20150519-269"},{"link_name":"United Launch Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Launch_Alliance"},{"link_name":"[269]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-270"},{"link_name":"[270]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dbj20141016-271"},{"link_name":"[271]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lat20141212-272"},{"link_name":"Space Act Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Act_Agreement"},{"link_name":"[226]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-227"},{"link_name":"Jim Bridenstine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Bridenstine"},{"link_name":"[272]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-273"},{"link_name":"[273]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-274"}],"text":"SpaceX's low launch prices, especially for communications satellites flying to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), have resulted in market pressure on its competitors to lower their own prices.[15] Prior to 2013, the openly competed comsat launch market had been dominated by Arianespace (flying the Ariane 5) and International Launch Services (flying the Proton).[266] With a published price of $56.5 million per launch to low Earth orbit, Falcon 9 rockets were the least expensive in the industry.[267] European satellite operators are pushing the ESA to reduce launch prices of the Ariane 5 and the future Ariane 6 rockets as a result of competition from SpaceX.[268]SpaceX ended the United Launch Alliance (ULA) monopoly of U.S. military payloads when it began to compete for national security launches. In 2015, anticipating a slump in domestic, military, and spy launches, ULA stated that it would go out of business unless it won commercial satellite launch orders.[269] To that end, ULA announced a major restructuring of processes and workforce to decrease launch costs by half.[270][271]Congressional testimony by SpaceX in 2017 suggested that the NASA Space Act Agreement process of \"setting only a high-level requirement for cargo transport to the space station [while] leaving the details to industry\" had allowed SpaceX to design and develop the Falcon 9 rocket on its own at a substantially lower cost. According to NASA's own independently verified numbers, SpaceX's total development cost for the Falcon 9 rocket, including the Falcon 1 rocket, was estimated at $390 million. In 2011, NASA estimated that it would have cost the agency about $4 billion to develop a rocket like the Falcon 9 booster based upon NASA's traditional contracting processes, about ten times more.[226] In May 2020, NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine remarked that thanks to NASA's investments into SpaceX, the United States has 70% of the commercial launch market, a major improvement since 2012 when there were no commercial launches from the country.[272]As of 2024, SpaceX operates a Rideshare and Bandwagon (mid inclination) programs. This provides additional competition for small satellite launchers.[273]","title":"Launch market competition and pricing pressure"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Corporate affairs"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Finances","title":"Corporate affairs"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Board of directors","title":"Corporate affairs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mark Juncosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mark_Juncosa&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"CNBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNBC"},{"link_name":"[317]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-318"},{"link_name":"[318]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-319"},{"link_name":"[319]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-320"}],"sub_title":"Leadership changes","text":"In November 2022, the company announced COO Gwynne Shotwell and vice president Mark Juncosa would oversee Starbase, its Texas launch facility, along with Omead Afshar, who at the time oversaw operations for Tesla in Texas. Shyamal Patel, who was senior director of operations at the site, would shift to its Cape Canaveral site. CNBC reported that these executive moves demonstrated \"the sense of urgency within the company to get Starship flying.\"[317][318][319]","title":"Corporate affairs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lori Garver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori_Garver"},{"link_name":"[320]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-321"},{"link_name":"[321]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-322"},{"link_name":"[322]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-323"},{"link_name":"sexual harassment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_harassment"},{"link_name":"[323]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-324"},{"link_name":"[324]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-325"},{"link_name":"[325]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge-326"},{"link_name":"zero tolerance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_tolerance"},{"link_name":"[326]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-327"},{"link_name":"burnout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_burnout"},{"link_name":"[327]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theverge2021-328"},{"link_name":"Blue Origin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Origin"},{"link_name":"[328]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-329"},{"link_name":"[329]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-330"},{"link_name":"[330]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-331"},{"link_name":"[327]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theverge2021-328"},{"link_name":"[331]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-332"},{"link_name":"[332]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-333"}],"sub_title":"Workplace culture","text":"According to former NASA deputy administrator Lori Garver, the company overall has a male-dominated employee culture, similar to that of the spaceflight industry in general.[320] In December 2021, claims of workplace sexual harassment from five former SpaceX employees, ranging from interns to full engineers, were published.[321] The former employees claimed to have experienced unwanted advances and uncomfortable interactions.[322] Additionally, the accounts included claims of a culture of sexual harassment existing at the company and one where complaints made to executives, managers, and human resources officers went largely unaddressed.[323]In May 2022, a Business Insider article alleged that Musk engaged in sexual misconduct with a SpaceX flight attendant in a private jet in 2016 citing an anonymous friend of the flight attendant.[324] In response, some employees collaborated on an open letter condemning \"Elon's harmful Twitter behavior\".[325] It also asks the company to clearly define SpaceX's \"no-asshole\" and \"zero tolerance\" policies, which it says is unequally enforced from one employee to the next. The next day, Gwynne Shotwell announced that those employees who were involved with the letter had been terminated and claimed that unsponsored, unsolicited surveys were sent to employees during the work day and that some felt pressured to sign the letter.[326]The company has also been described as having a work culture that pushes employees to work excessively and is described as fostering a burnout culture.[327] According to a memo by Blue Origin, a rival aerospace company,[328][329][330] SpaceX expected very long work hours, work on weekends, and limited use of holidays.[327]In June 2024, eight ex-employees, the same who had previously been fired for penning the open letter against Elon Musk, filed a lawsuit against Musk and SpaceX alleging sexual harassment and discrimination.[331][332]","title":"Corporate affairs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0008445621","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0008445621"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1610398299","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1610398299"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1328662231","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1328662231"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0753555620","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0753555620"}],"text":"Berger, Eric. Liftoff: Elon Musk and the Desperate Early Days That Launched SpaceX. William Collins (2021). ISBN 978-0008445621\nDavenport, Christian. The Space Barons; Elon Musk. Jeff Bezos, and the Quest to Colonize the Cosmos. PublicAffairs (2018). ISBN 978-1610398299\nFernholz, Tim. Rocket Billionaires: Elon Musk, Jeff Bezos, and the New Space Race. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt (2018). ISBN 978-1328662231\nVance, Ashlee. Elon Musk: How the Billionaire CEO of SpaceX and Tesla is Shaping Our Future. Penguin Random House UK (2015). ISBN 978-0753555620","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"The first successful Falcon 1 launch in September 2008","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Falcon_1_Flight_4_liftoff.jpg/260px-Falcon_1_Flight_4_liftoff.jpg"},{"image_text":"Video of the first launch of Falcon 9"},{"image_text":"Launch of Falcon 9 carrying ORBCOMM OG2-M1, July 2014","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Launch_of_Falcon_9_carrying_ORBCOMM_OG2-M1_%2816601442698%29.jpg/170px-Launch_of_Falcon_9_carrying_ORBCOMM_OG2-M1_%2816601442698%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Falcon 9 first stage on an autonomous spaceport drone ship (ASDS) barge after the first successful landing at sea, SpaceX CRS-8 mission","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/CRS-8_%2826239020092%29.jpg/260px-CRS-8_%2826239020092%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Starship in launch position","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Starship_full_stack.jpg/170px-Starship_full_stack.jpg"},{"image_text":"The landing of a Falcon 9 Block 5 first stage at Cape Canaveral in July 2019. VTVL technologies are used in many of SpaceX's launch vehicles.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/CRS-18_Mission_%2848380511427%29.jpg/260px-CRS-18_Mission_%2848380511427%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Merlin 1D engine undergoes a test at SpaceX's Rocket Development and Test Facility in McGregor, Texas","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/SpaceX_Testing_Merlin_1D_Engine_In_Texas.jpg/260px-SpaceX_Testing_Merlin_1D_Engine_In_Texas.jpg"},{"image_text":"The SpaceX's Crew Dragon spacecraft, designed to deliver crew to and from the International Space Station as part of the Commercial Crew Development program","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Crew_Dragon_at_the_ISS_for_Demo_Mission_1_%28cropped%29.jpg/260px-Crew_Dragon_at_the_ISS_for_Demo_Mission_1_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Autonomous spaceport drone ship in position prior to CRS-6 mission","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/SpaceX_ASDS_in_position_prior_to_Falcon_9_Flight_17_carrying_CRS-6_%2817127808431%29.jpg/260px-SpaceX_ASDS_in_position_prior_to_Falcon_9_Flight_17_carrying_CRS-6_%2817127808431%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sixty Starlink satellites stacked together before deployment","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Starlink_Mission_%2847926144123%29.jpg/260px-Starlink_Mission_%2847926144123%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"SpaceX Headquarters in Hawthorne, California at night during a Falcon 9 launch from Vandenberg Space Force Base","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Iridium-4_Mission_%2825557986177%29.jpg/260px-Iridium-4_Mission_%2825557986177%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Aerial view of the SpaceX McGregor engine testing facility, 2008","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/2008_SpaceX%27s_Rocket_Development_facility%2C_McGregor%2C_TX.jpg/260px-2008_SpaceX%27s_Rocket_Development_facility%2C_McGregor%2C_TX.jpg"},{"image_text":"Falcon Heavy Side Boosters landing on LZ1 and LZ2 at Cape Canaveral","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Falcon_Heavy_Side_Boosters_landing_on_LZ1_and_LZ2_-_2018_%2825254688767%29.jpg/220px-Falcon_Heavy_Side_Boosters_landing_on_LZ1_and_LZ2_-_2018_%2825254688767%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"SpaceX west coast launch facility at Vandenberg Space Force Base, during the launch of CASSIOPE","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Launch_of_Falcon_9_carrying_CASSIOPE_%28130929-F-ET475-012%29.jpg/220px-Launch_of_Falcon_9_carrying_CASSIOPE_%28130929-F-ET475-012%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Starship assembly building at SpaceX Starbase in Texas","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/The_Boca_Chica_Rocket_Factory.jpg/220px-The_Boca_Chica_Rocket_Factory.jpg"},{"image_text":"The COTS 2 Dragon is berthed to the International Space Station (ISS) by Canadarm2","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/COTS2_Dragon_is_berthed.jpg/220px-COTS2_Dragon_is_berthed.jpg"},{"image_text":"NASA astronauts inside the Dragon spacecraft during the Crew-1 mission rendezvous with the International Space Station","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/NASA_astronauts_work_aboard_the_SpaceX_Crew_Dragon_%28iss064e004754%29.jpg/260px-NASA_astronauts_work_aboard_the_SpaceX_Crew_Dragon_%28iss064e004754%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Resilience after splashdown","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Resilience_after_splashdown.jpg/260px-Resilience_after_splashdown.jpg"},{"image_text":"Launch of the STP-2 mission on a Falcon Heavy in June 2019","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/STP-2_Mission_%2848129211908%29.jpg/260px-STP-2_Mission_%2848129211908%29.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Delaware Business Search (File # 3500808 – Space Exploration Technologies Corp)\". Delaware Department of State: Division of Corporations. Archived from the original on 20 September 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://icis.corp.delaware.gov/eCorp/EntitySearch/NameSearch.aspx","url_text":"\"Delaware Business Search (File # 3500808 – Space Exploration Technologies Corp)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160920145319/https://icis.corp.delaware.gov/Ecorp/EntitySearch/NameSearch.aspx","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Who is Elon Musk, and what made him big? | Business| Economy and finance news from a German perspective\". Deutsche Welle. 27 May 2020. Archived from the original on 28 May 2020. Retrieved 28 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dw.com/en/who-is-elon-musk-and-what-made-him-big/a-53591199","url_text":"\"Who is Elon Musk, and what made him big? | Business| Economy and finance news from a German perspective\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Welle","url_text":"Deutsche Welle"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200528162211/https://www.dw.com/en/who-is-elon-musk-and-what-made-him-big/a-53591199","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Gwynne Shotwell: Executive Profile & Biography\". Bloomberg L.P. Archived from the original on 16 July 2019. Retrieved 1 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/person/16317111","url_text":"\"Gwynne Shotwell: Executive Profile & Biography\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190716213453/https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/person/16317111","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Maidenberg, Micah; Driebusch, Corrie; Jin, Berber (17 August 2023). \"A Rare Look Into the Finances of Elon Musk's Secretive SpaceX\". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 17 August 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/tech/behind-the-curtain-of-elon-musks-secretive-spacex-revenue-growth-and-rising-costs-2c828e2b","url_text":"\"A Rare Look Into the Finances of Elon Musk's Secretive SpaceX\""},{"url":"https://archive.today/20230817224420/https://www.wsj.com/tech/behind-the-curtain-of-elon-musks-secretive-spacex-revenue-growth-and-rising-costs-2c828e2b","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Maidenberg, Micah; Higgins, Tim (5 September 2023). \"Elon Musk Borrowed $1 Billion From SpaceX in Same Month of Twitter Acquisition\". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 6 September 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/business/deals/elon-musk-spacex-loan-269a2168","url_text":"\"Elon Musk Borrowed $1 Billion From SpaceX in Same Month of Twitter Acquisition\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal","url_text":"The Wall Street Journal"},{"url":"https://archive.today/20230906010255/https://www.wsj.com/amp/articles/elon-musk-spacex-loan-269a2168","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief\" (PDF). United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 20 September 2023 – via courtlistener.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.txsd.1934705/gov.uscourts.txsd.1934705.1.0.pdf","url_text":"\"Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230920143702/https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.txsd.1934705/gov.uscourts.txsd.1934705.1.0.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Order on Review (FCC 23-105)\" (PDF). Federal Communications Commission. 12 December 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 December 2023. Retrieved 29 March 2024. 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[...] Progress toward diversity, equity, and inclusion has been much too slow.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori_Garver","url_text":"Garver, Lori B."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-63576-770-4","url_text":"978-1-63576-770-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1328013856","url_text":"1328013856"}]},{"reference":"\"Former SpaceX workers say company has a culture of sexual harassment\". Engadget. 14 December 2021. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_bicarbonate
|
Ammonium bicarbonate
|
["1 Production","1.1 Salt of hartshorn","2 Uses","3 Reactions","4 Natural occurrence","5 Safety","6 References"]
|
Ammonium bicarbonate
Ball-and-stick model of the ammonium cation
Ball-and-stick model of the bicarbonate anion
Names
IUPAC name
Ammonium hydrogen carbonate
Other names
Bicarbonate of ammonia, ammonium bicarbonate, hartshorn, AmBic, powdered baking ammonia
Identifiers
CAS Number
1066-33-7 Y
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
ChemSpider
13395 Y
ECHA InfoCard
100.012.647
EC Number
213-911-5
E number
E503(ii) (acidity regulators, ...)
PubChem CID
14013
RTECS number
BO8600000
UNII
45JP4345C9 Y
UN number
3077
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
DTXSID5035618
InChI
InChI=1S/CH2O3.H3N/c2-1(3)4;/h(H2,2,3,4);1H3 YKey: ATRRKUHOCOJYRX-UHFFFAOYSA-N YInChI=1/CH2O3.H3N/c2-1(3)4;/h(H2,2,3,4);1H3Key: ATRRKUHOCOJYRX-UHFFFAOYAW
SMILES
C(=O)O.
Properties
Chemical formula
NH4HCO3
Molar mass
79.056 g/mol
Density
1.586 g/cm3
Melting point
41.9 °C (107.4 °F; 315.0 K) decomposes
Solubility in water
11.9 g/100 mL (0 °C) 21.6 g/100 mL (20 °C) 24.8 g/100 mL (25 °C) 36.6 g/100 mL (40 °C)
Solubility
insoluble in methanol
Hazards
Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH):
Main hazards
Decomposes to release ammonia
GHS labelling:
Pictograms
Signal word
Warning
Hazard statements
H302
Precautionary statements
P264, P270, P301+P312, P330, P501
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
2
0
0
Flash point
Non-flammable
Safety data sheet (SDS)
ICSC 1333
Related compounds
Other anions
Ammonium carbonate
Other cations
Sodium bicarbonatePotassium bicarbonate
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa).
Y verify (what is YN ?)
Infobox references
Chemical compound
Ammonium bicarbonate is an inorganic compound with formula (NH4)HCO3. The compound has many names, reflecting its long history. Chemically speaking, it is the bicarbonate salt of the ammonium ion. It is a colourless solid that degrades readily to carbon dioxide, water and ammonia.
Production
Ammonium bicarbonate is produced by combining carbon dioxide and ammonia:
CO
2
+
NH
3
+
H
2
O
⟶
(
NH
4
)
HCO
3
{\displaystyle {\ce {CO2 + NH3 + H2O -> (NH4)HCO3}}}
Since ammonium bicarbonate is thermally unstable, the reaction solution is kept cold, which allows the precipitation of the product as white solid. About 100,000 tons were produced in this way in 1997.
Ammonia gas passed into a strong aqueous solution of the sesquicarbonate (a 2:1:1 mixture of (NH4)HCO3, (NH4)2CO3, and H2O) converts it into normal ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3), which can be obtained in the crystalline condition from a solution prepared at about 30 °C. This compound on exposure to air gives off ammonia and reverts to ammonium bicarbonate.
Salt of hartshorn
Compositions containing ammonium carbonate have long been known. They were once produced commercially, formerly known as sal volatile or salt of hartshorn. It was obtained by the dry distillation of nitrogenous organic matter such as hair, horn, leather. In addition to ammonium bicarbonate, this material contains ammonium carbamate (NH4CO2NH2), and ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3). It is sometimes called ammonium sesquicarbonate. It possesses a strong ammoniacal smell, and on digestion with alcohol, the carbamate is dissolved leaving a residue of ammonium bicarbonate.
A similar decomposition takes place when the sesquicarbonate is exposed to air.
Uses
Ammonium bicarbonate is used in the food industry as a leavening agent for flat baked goods, such as cookies and crackers. It was commonly used in the home before modern-day baking powder was made available. Many baking cookbooks, especially from Scandinavian countries, may still refer to it as hartshorn or hornsalt, while it is known as "hirvensarvisuola" in Finnish, "hjortetakksalt" in Norwegian, "hjortetakssalt" in Danish, "hjorthornssalt" in Swedish, and "Hirschhornsalz" in German (lit., "salt of hart's horn"). Although there is a slight smell of ammonia during baking, this quickly dissipates, leaving no taste. It is used in, for example, Swedish "drömmar" biscuits and Danish "brunkager" Christmas biscuits, and German Lebkuchen. In many cases it may be replaced with baking soda or baking powder, or a combination of both, depending on the recipe composition and leavening requirements. Compared to baking soda or potash, hartshorn has the advantage of producing more gas for the same amount of agent, and of not leaving any salty or soapy taste in the finished product, as it completely decomposes into water and gaseous products that evaporate during baking. It cannot be used for moist, bulky baked goods however, such as normal bread or cakes, since some ammonia will be trapped inside and will cause an unpleasant taste. It has been assigned E number E503 for use as a food additive in the European Union.
It is commonly used as an inexpensive nitrogen fertilizer in China, but is now being phased out in favor of urea for quality and stability. This compound is used as a component in the production of fire-extinguishing compounds, pharmaceuticals, dyes, pigments, and it is also a basic fertilizer, being a source of ammonia. Ammonium bicarbonate is still widely used in the plastics and rubber industry, in the manufacture of ceramics, in chrome leather tanning, and for the synthesis of catalysts.
It is also used for buffering solutions to make them slightly alkaline during chemical purification, such as high-performance liquid chromatography. Because it entirely decomposes to volatile compounds, this allows rapid recovery of the compound of interest by freeze-drying. Relatedly it is also useful as an alkaline buffering agent for analytical LC–MS as its volatility allows it to be rapidly removed automatically from the sample stream in the low pressure spray chambers used by many standard mass spectrometry detectors detectors found at the end of typical LC-MS systems, such as elecrospray ionization detectors. This is critical as most mass spectrometry detectors become signal saturated or even damaged with more than a trace amount of ions entering the detector proper at any one time. This issue limits buffering agents and other additives in LC-MS buffers to either extremely trace concentrations or to fairly volatile compounds. In pH ranges from about 7 to 9, ammonium bicarbonate is one of the only options available as the primary buffering agent for most LC-MS buffers.
Ammonium bicarbonate is also a key component of the expectorant cough syrup "Senega and Ammonia".
It's also used as an attractant for catching insect such as walnut husk fly (Rhagoletis completa).
Reactions
It dissolves in water to give a mildly alkaline solution. It is insoluble in acetone and alcohols.
Ammonium bicarbonate decomposes above about 36 °C into ammonia, carbon dioxide, and water in an endothermic process and so causes a drop in the temperature of the water:
NH
4
HCO
3
⟶
NH
3
+
H
2
O
+
CO
2
{\displaystyle {\ce {NH4HCO3 -> NH3 + H2O + CO2}}}
When treated with acids, ammonium salts are also produced:
NH
4
HCO
3
+
HCl
⟶
NH
4
Cl
+
CO
2
+
H
2
O
{\displaystyle {\ce {NH4HCO3 + HCl -> NH4Cl + CO2 + H2O}}}
Reaction with base produces ammonia.
It reacts with sulfates of alkaline-earth metals precipitating their carbonates:
CaSO
4
+
2
NH
4
HCO
3
⟶
CaCO
3
+
(
NH
4
)
2
SO
4
+
CO
2
+
H
2
O
{\displaystyle {\ce {CaSO4 + 2 NH4HCO3 -> CaCO3 + (NH4)2SO4 + CO2 + H2O}}}
It also reacts with alkali metal halides, giving alkali metal bicarbonate and ammonium halide:
NH
4
HCO
3
+
NaCl
⟶
NH
4
Cl
+
NaHCO
3
{\displaystyle {\ce {NH4HCO3 + NaCl -> NH4Cl + NaHCO3}}}
NH
4
HCO
3
+
KI
⟶
NH
4
I
+
KHCO
3
{\displaystyle {\ce {NH4HCO3 + KI -> NH4I + KHCO3}}}
NH
4
HCO
3
+
NaBr
⟶
NH
4
Br
+
NaHCO
3
{\displaystyle {\ce {NH4HCO3 + NaBr -> NH4Br + NaHCO3}}}
Natural occurrence
The compound occurs in nature as an exceedingly rare mineral teschemacherite. It can also be obtained from deer antlers.
Safety
Ammonium bicarbonate is an irritant to the skin, eyes and respiratory system. Short-term health effects may occur immediately or shortly after exposure to ammonium bicarbonate. Breathing ammonium bicarbonate can irritate the nose, throat and lungs causing coughing, wheezing and/or shortness of breath. Repeated exposure may cause bronchitis to develop with cough, and/or shortness of breath. Health effects can occur some time after exposure to ammonium bicarbonate and can last for months or years.
Where possible, operations should be enclosed and the use of local exhaust ventilation at the site of chemical release is recommended. If local exhaust ventilation or enclosure is not used, respirators are necessary. Wear protective work clothing and change clothes and wash thoroughly immediately after exposure to ammonium bicarbonate.
Ammonium bicarbonate from China used to make cookies was found to be contaminated with melamine, and imports were banned in Malaysia following the 2008 Chinese milk scandal.
References
^ a b Sigma-Aldrich Co., Ammonium bicarbonate. Retrieved on 2022-02-15.
^ Pubchem
^ a b Zapp, Karl-Heinz; Wostbrock, Karl-Heinz; Schäfer, Manfred; Sato, Kimihiko; Seiter, Herbert; Zwick, Werner; Creutziger, Ruthild; Leiter, Herbert (2000). "Ammonium Compounds". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a02_243. ISBN 3527306730.
^ "Naturfag : Hornsalt øvelse" (in Norwegian). Studenttorget.no. 26 November 2003. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
^ Naturfag : Hornsalt øvelse. studenttorget.no (in Norwegian)
^ "What is hartshorn?". Archived from the original on 1 April 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
^ "Teschemacherite".
^ "List of Minerals". 21 March 2011.
^ Olver, Lynne (24 June 2012). "history notes—cookies, crackers & biscuits". The Food Timeline. Archived from the original on 17 July 2012. Retrieved 6 January 2021.
^ Bicarbonate, Ammonium. "Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet" (PDF). New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services.
^ "Melamine found in Malaysian biscuits, traced to China ingredient". Kyodo News. 16 October 2008. Retrieved 12 March 2019 – via The Free Library.
vteAmmonium saltsInorganic saltsmonatomic anions
NH4F
(NH4)2S
NH4Cl
(NH4)2Se
NH4Br
NH4I
oxyanions
NH4NO2
NH4NO3
(NH4)2CO3
(NH4)4UO2(CO3)2
(NH4)HCO3
NH4OCN
(NH4)3PO4
(NH4)2HPO4
(NH4)H2PO4
(NH4PO4)n(OH)2
NH4NaHPO4
(NH4)2SO3
(NH4)2SO4
(NH4)Al(SO4)2·12H2O
(NH4)2Fe(SO4)2·6H2O
NH4Fe(SO4)2·12H2O
NH4SO3NH2
(NH4)HSO4
(NH4)2S2O8
(NH4)2S2O3
NH4ClO3
NH4ClO4
NH4VO3
(NH4)2CrO4
(NH4)2Cr2O7
NH4MnO4
(NH4)3AsO4
(NH4)2MoO4
(NH4)6Mo7O24
(NH4)3Mo12PO40
NH4IO3
(NH4)2Ce(NO3)6
(NH4)8Ce2(SO4)8·4H2O
(NH4)10H2W12O42·4H2O
NH4ReO4
other anions
NH4BF4
NH4N3
NH4CN
(NH4)HF2
(NH4)3AlF6
(NH4)SiF6
(NH4)HS
NH4SCN
(NH4)2ZnCl4
(NH4)2MoS4
NH4I3
(NH4)2TeCl6
(NH4)2IrCl6
(NH4)2PtCl6
Organic salts
Aluminon
Ammonium acetate
Ammonium adipate
Ammonium benzoate
Ammonium bituminosulfonate
Ammonium carbamate
Ammonium citrate
Ammonium diethyl dithiophosphate
Ammonium ferric citrate
Ammonium formate
Ammonium fumarate
Ammonium glutamate
Ammonium lactate
Ammonium lauryl sulfate
Ammonium malate
Ammonium nonanoate
Ammonium oxalate
Ammonium picrate
Ammonium perfluorononanoate
Ammonium propionate
Ammonium thioglycolate
Cupferron
Ferric ammonium oxalate
Murexide
vteCompounds containing the carbonate group
H2CO3
He
Li2CO3, LiHCO3
BeCO3
+BO3
(RO)(R'O)CO+C2O4
(NH4)2CO3, NH4HCO3,+NO3
O
+F
Ne
Na2CO3, NaHCO3, Na3H(CO3)2
MgCO3, Mg(HCO3)2
Al2(CO3)3
SiCO4,+SiO4
P
+SO4
+Cl
Ar
K2CO3, KHCO3
CaCO3, Ca(HCO3)2
Sc
Ti
V
CrCO3, Cr2(CO3)3
MnCO3
FeCO3
CoCO3, Co2(CO3)3
NiCO3
Cu2CO3, CuCO3, Cu2CO3(OH)2
ZnCO3
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Rb2CO3
SrCO3
Y
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
PdCO3
Ag2CO3
CdCO3
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe
Cs2CO3, CsHCO3
BaCO3
*
Lu2(CO3)3
Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
HgCO3
Tl2CO3
PbCO3
(BiO)2CO3
Po(CO3)2
At
Rn
Fr
RaCO3
**
Lr
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og
*
La2(CO3)3
Ce2(CO3)3
Pr2(CO3)3
Nd2(CO3)3
Pm
Sm2(CO3)3
EuCO3, Eu2(CO3)3
Gd2(CO3)3
Tb2(CO3)3
Dy2(CO3)3
Ho2(CO3)3
Er2(CO3)3
Tm2(CO3)3
Yb2(CO3)3
**
Ac
Th(CO3)2
Pa
UO2CO3
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Authority control databases: National
Israel
United States
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"inorganic compound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_compound"},{"link_name":"bicarbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicarbonate"},{"link_name":"salt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"ammonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium"}],"text":"Chemical compoundAmmonium bicarbonate is an inorganic compound with formula (NH4)HCO3. The compound has many names, reflecting its long history. Chemically speaking, it is the bicarbonate salt of the ammonium ion. It is a colourless solid that degrades readily to carbon dioxide, water and ammonia.","title":"Ammonium bicarbonate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"solution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ullmann-3"},{"link_name":"aqueous solution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueous_solution"}],"text":"Ammonium bicarbonate is produced by combining carbon dioxide and ammonia:CO\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n NH\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n O\n ⟶\n \n (\n \n NH\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n HCO\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ce {CO2 + NH3 + H2O -> (NH4)HCO3}}}Since ammonium bicarbonate is thermally unstable, the reaction solution is kept cold, which allows the precipitation of the product as white solid. About 100,000 tons were produced in this way in 1997.[3]Ammonia gas passed into a strong aqueous solution of the sesquicarbonate (a 2:1:1 mixture of (NH4)HCO3, (NH4)2CO3, and H2O) converts it into normal ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3), which can be obtained in the crystalline condition from a solution prepared at about 30 °C. This compound on exposure to air gives off ammonia and reverts to ammonium bicarbonate.","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sal volatile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal_volatile"},{"link_name":"hartshorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartshorn"},{"link_name":"dry distillation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_distillation"},{"link_name":"ammonium carbamate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_carbamate"},{"link_name":"ammonium carbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_carbonate"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ullmann-3"}],"sub_title":"Salt of hartshorn","text":"Compositions containing ammonium carbonate have long been known. They were once produced commercially, formerly known as sal volatile or salt of hartshorn. It was obtained by the dry distillation of nitrogenous organic matter such as hair, horn, leather. In addition to ammonium bicarbonate, this material contains ammonium carbamate (NH4CO2NH2), and ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3). It is sometimes called ammonium sesquicarbonate. It possesses a strong ammoniacal smell, and on digestion with alcohol, the carbamate is dissolved leaving a residue of ammonium bicarbonate.[3]A similar decomposition takes place when the sesquicarbonate is exposed to air.","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"leavening agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leavening_agent"},{"link_name":"baking powder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baking_powder"},{"link_name":"hartshorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartshorn"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"baking soda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_bicarbonate"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"potash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potash"},{"link_name":"E number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"fertilizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizer"},{"link_name":"urea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urea"},{"link_name":"dyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dye"},{"link_name":"ceramics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic"},{"link_name":"tanning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanning_(leather)"},{"link_name":"catalysts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalysis"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"high-performance liquid chromatography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography"},{"link_name":"freeze-drying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeze-drying"},{"link_name":"LC–MS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LC%E2%80%93MS"},{"link_name":"elecrospray ionization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrospray_ionization"},{"link_name":"expectorant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucoactive_agent"},{"link_name":"Senega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygala_senega"},{"link_name":"Rhagoletis completa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhagoletis_completa"}],"text":"Ammonium bicarbonate is used in the food industry as a leavening agent for flat baked goods, such as cookies and crackers. It was commonly used in the home before modern-day baking powder was made available. Many baking cookbooks, especially from Scandinavian countries, may still refer to it as hartshorn or hornsalt,[4][5] while it is known as \"hirvensarvisuola\" in Finnish, \"hjortetakksalt\" in Norwegian, \"hjortetakssalt\" in Danish, \"hjorthornssalt\" in Swedish, and \"Hirschhornsalz\" in German (lit., \"salt of hart's horn\"). Although there is a slight smell of ammonia during baking, this quickly dissipates, leaving no taste. It is used in, for example, Swedish \"drömmar\" biscuits and Danish \"brunkager\" Christmas biscuits, and German Lebkuchen. In many cases it may be replaced with baking soda or baking powder, or a combination of both, depending on the recipe composition and leavening requirements.[6] Compared to baking soda or potash, hartshorn has the advantage of producing more gas for the same amount of agent, and of not leaving any salty or soapy taste in the finished product, as it completely decomposes into water and gaseous products that evaporate during baking. It cannot be used for moist, bulky baked goods however, such as normal bread or cakes, since some ammonia will be trapped inside and will cause an unpleasant taste. It has been assigned E number E503 for use as a food additive in the European Union.It is commonly used as an inexpensive nitrogen fertilizer in China, but is now being phased out in favor of urea for quality and stability. This compound is used as a component in the production of fire-extinguishing compounds, pharmaceuticals, dyes, pigments, and it is also a basic fertilizer, being a source of ammonia. Ammonium bicarbonate is still widely used in the plastics and rubber industry, in the manufacture of ceramics, in chrome leather tanning, and for the synthesis of catalysts.[citation needed]It is also used for buffering solutions to make them slightly alkaline during chemical purification, such as high-performance liquid chromatography. Because it entirely decomposes to volatile compounds, this allows rapid recovery of the compound of interest by freeze-drying. Relatedly it is also useful as an alkaline buffering agent for analytical LC–MS as its volatility allows it to be rapidly removed automatically from the sample stream in the low pressure spray chambers used by many standard mass spectrometry detectors detectors found at the end of typical LC-MS systems, such as elecrospray ionization detectors. This is critical as most mass spectrometry detectors become signal saturated or even damaged with more than a trace amount of ions entering the detector proper at any one time. This issue limits buffering agents and other additives in LC-MS buffers to either extremely trace concentrations or to fairly volatile compounds. In pH ranges from about 7 to 9, ammonium bicarbonate is one of the only options available as the primary buffering agent for most LC-MS buffers.Ammonium bicarbonate is also a key component of the expectorant cough syrup \"Senega and Ammonia\".It's also used as an attractant for catching insect such as walnut husk fly (Rhagoletis completa).","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"link_name":"alkaline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali"},{"link_name":"acetone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetone"},{"link_name":"alcohols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"ammonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia"},{"link_name":"carbon dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide"},{"link_name":"endothermic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endothermic"},{"link_name":"acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid"}],"text":"It dissolves in water to give a mildly alkaline solution. It is insoluble in acetone and alcohols.Ammonium bicarbonate decomposes above about 36 °C into ammonia, carbon dioxide, and water in an endothermic process and so causes a drop in the temperature of the water:NH\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n \n HCO\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n ⟶\n \n NH\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n O\n +\n \n CO\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ce {NH4HCO3 -> NH3 + H2O + CO2}}}When treated with acids, ammonium salts are also produced:NH\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n \n HCO\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n HCl\n ⟶\n \n NH\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n Cl\n +\n \n CO\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n O\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ce {NH4HCO3 + HCl -> NH4Cl + CO2 + H2O}}}Reaction with base produces ammonia.It reacts with sulfates of alkaline-earth metals precipitating their carbonates:CaSO\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n 2\n \n \n NH\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n \n HCO\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n ⟶\n \n CaCO\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n (\n \n NH\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n SO\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n CO\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n O\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ce {CaSO4 + 2 NH4HCO3 -> CaCO3 + (NH4)2SO4 + CO2 + H2O}}}It also reacts with alkali metal halides, giving alkali metal bicarbonate and ammonium halide:NH\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n \n HCO\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n NaCl\n ⟶\n \n NH\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n Cl\n +\n \n NaHCO\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ce {NH4HCO3 + NaCl -> NH4Cl + NaHCO3}}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n NH\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n \n HCO\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n KI\n ⟶\n \n NH\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n I\n +\n \n KHCO\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ce {NH4HCO3 + KI -> NH4I + KHCO3}}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n NH\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n \n HCO\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n NaBr\n ⟶\n \n NH\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n Br\n +\n \n NaHCO\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ce {NH4HCO3 + NaBr -> NH4Br + NaHCO3}}}","title":"Reactions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"teschemacherite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teschemacherite&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"The compound occurs in nature as an exceedingly rare mineral teschemacherite.[7][8] It can also be obtained from deer antlers.[9]","title":"Natural occurrence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"irritant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irritation"},{"link_name":"skin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skin"},{"link_name":"eyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_eye"},{"link_name":"respiratory system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_system"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"melamine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melamine"},{"link_name":"2008 Chinese milk scandal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_Chinese_milk_scandal"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Ammonium bicarbonate is an irritant to the skin, eyes and respiratory system. Short-term health effects may occur immediately or shortly after exposure to ammonium bicarbonate. Breathing ammonium bicarbonate can irritate the nose, throat and lungs causing coughing, wheezing and/or shortness of breath. Repeated exposure may cause bronchitis to develop with cough, and/or shortness of breath. Health effects can occur some time after exposure to ammonium bicarbonate and can last for months or years.Where possible, operations should be enclosed and the use of local exhaust ventilation at the site of chemical release is recommended. If local exhaust ventilation or enclosure is not used, respirators are necessary. Wear protective work clothing and change clothes and wash thoroughly immediately after exposure to ammonium bicarbonate.[10]Ammonium bicarbonate from China used to make cookies was found to be contaminated with melamine, and imports were banned in Malaysia following the 2008 Chinese milk scandal.[11]","title":"Safety"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Ball-and-stick model of the ammonium cation","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Ammonium-3D-balls.png/110px-Ammonium-3D-balls.png"},{"image_text":"Ball-and-stick model of the bicarbonate anion","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Bicarbonate-ion-3D-balls.png/110px-Bicarbonate-ion-3D-balls.png"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/80px-NFPA_704.svg.png"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Zapp, Karl-Heinz; Wostbrock, Karl-Heinz; Schäfer, Manfred; Sato, Kimihiko; Seiter, Herbert; Zwick, Werner; Creutziger, Ruthild; Leiter, Herbert (2000). \"Ammonium Compounds\". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a02_243. ISBN 3527306730.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a02_243","url_text":"10.1002/14356007.a02_243"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3527306730","url_text":"3527306730"}]},{"reference":"\"Naturfag : Hornsalt øvelse\" [Science: Hornsalt exercise] (in Norwegian). Studenttorget.no. 26 November 2003. Retrieved 3 March 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.studenttorget.no/index.php?artikkelid=849","url_text":"\"Naturfag : Hornsalt øvelse\""}]},{"reference":"\"What is hartshorn?\". Archived from the original on 1 April 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070401184630/http://www.ochef.com/539.htm","url_text":"\"What is hartshorn?\""},{"url":"http://www.ochef.com/539.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Teschemacherite\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mindat.org/min-3918.html","url_text":"\"Teschemacherite\""}]},{"reference":"\"List of Minerals\". 21 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ima-mineralogy.org/Minlist.htm","url_text":"\"List of Minerals\""}]},{"reference":"Olver, Lynne (24 June 2012). \"history notes—cookies, crackers & biscuits\". The Food Timeline. Archived from the original on 17 July 2012. Retrieved 6 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynne_Olver","url_text":"Olver, Lynne"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120717061521/http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodcookies.html/#ammonia","url_text":"\"history notes—cookies, crackers & biscuits\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Food_Timeline","url_text":"The Food Timeline"},{"url":"https://www.foodtimeline.org/foodcookies.html#ammonia","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Bicarbonate, Ammonium. \"Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet\" (PDF). New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services.","urls":[{"url":"http://nj.gov/health/eoh/rtkweb/documents/fs/0088.pdf","url_text":"\"Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet\""}]},{"reference":"\"Melamine found in Malaysian biscuits, traced to China ingredient\". Kyodo News. 16 October 2008. Retrieved 12 March 2019 – via The Free Library.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Melamine+found+in+Malaysian+biscuits%2C+traced+to+China+ingredient.-a0187691670","url_text":"\"Melamine found in Malaysian biscuits, traced to China ingredient\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyodo_News","url_text":"Kyodo News"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheFreeDictionary.com","url_text":"The Free Library"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=1066-33-7","external_links_name":"1066-33-7"},{"Link":"https://chemapps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?model=%5BO-%5DC%28%3DO%29O.%5BNH4%2B%5D","external_links_name":"Interactive image"},{"Link":"https://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.13395.html","external_links_name":"13395"},{"Link":"https://echa.europa.eu/substance-information/-/substanceinfo/100.012.647","external_links_name":"100.012.647"},{"Link":"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/14013","external_links_name":"14013"},{"Link":"https://precision.fda.gov/uniisearch/srs/unii/45JP4345C9","external_links_name":"45JP4345C9"},{"Link":"https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/chemical/details/DTXSID5035618","external_links_name":"DTXSID5035618"},{"Link":"http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1333.htm","external_links_name":"ICSC 1333"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ComparePages&rev1=449871863&page2=Ammonium+bicarbonate","external_links_name":"verify"},{"Link":"https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sial/09830","external_links_name":"Ammonium bicarbonate"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a02_243","external_links_name":"10.1002/14356007.a02_243"},{"Link":"http://www.studenttorget.no/index.php?artikkelid=849","external_links_name":"\"Naturfag : Hornsalt øvelse\""},{"Link":"http://www.studenttorget.no/index.php?artikkelid=849","external_links_name":"Naturfag : Hornsalt øvelse"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070401184630/http://www.ochef.com/539.htm","external_links_name":"\"What is hartshorn?\""},{"Link":"http://www.ochef.com/539.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.mindat.org/min-3918.html","external_links_name":"\"Teschemacherite\""},{"Link":"https://www.ima-mineralogy.org/Minlist.htm","external_links_name":"\"List of Minerals\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120717061521/http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodcookies.html/#ammonia","external_links_name":"\"history notes—cookies, crackers & biscuits\""},{"Link":"https://www.foodtimeline.org/foodcookies.html#ammonia","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://nj.gov/health/eoh/rtkweb/documents/fs/0088.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet\""},{"Link":"https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Melamine+found+in+Malaysian+biscuits%2C+traced+to+China+ingredient.-a0187691670","external_links_name":"\"Melamine found in Malaysian biscuits, traced to China ingredient\""},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007537613005171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2008000090","external_links_name":"United States"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam_Museum
|
Amsterdam Museum
|
["1 History","2 Collection","3 References","4 External links"]
|
Heritage centre, Official Museums of Amsterdam, ICOM in Amstel, AmsterdamAmsterdam MuseumEstablished1926LocationAmstelhof, Amstel, AmsterdamTypeHeritage centre, Official Museums of Amsterdam, ICOMVisitors199.322 (2010)DirectorJudikje KiersWebsitewww.amsterdammuseum.nl
The Amsterdam Museum, known until 2010 as the Amsterdam Historical Museum, is an Amsterdam-based museum dedicated to the city's past and present. Due to the renovation of its main location, the museum is temporarily located in the building the Amstelhof on the Amstel River, together with H'ART Museum and the dependence of the Museum van de Geest.
History
The museum opened in 1926 in the Waag, one of Amsterdam's 15th-century city gates. It has been located since 1975 in a former convent that was used from 1581 onwards as Amsterdam's municipal orphanage. The building was extended by Hendrick and his son Pieter de Keyser, then rebuilt by Jacob van Campen in 1634. The orphanage operated in this building until 1960.
Collection
The museum exhibits various items related to the history of Amsterdam, from the Middle Ages to the present time. Many of the original furnishings of the city orphanage are on display, as are artifacts relating to the Rasp house, the former house of correction in Amsterdam where the prisoners were forced to rasp wood to make sawdust. As of 2011, the museum manages 70,000 objects kept in various buildings and storage areas. Of those, approximately 25,000 have been photographed and are available to the public online. To celebrate the change of their name (dropping the word "Historical") and the 10th anniversary of Wikipedia on January 15, 2011, the museum "gave" Wikipedia a USB stick with the online photo collection to symbolize the public release of their high quality digital photographs made of their collection. This includes all two-dimensional objects that were already free of copyright, but new is the set photos of three-dimensional art.
The museum has on display paintings, models, archeological findings, photographs, but also less likely items such as a playable carillon, a Witkar (environment-friendly vehicle from the 1960s) and a replica of Café 't Mandje (a famous pub in the Red-light district where prostitutes, pimps, seamen and lesbian women came together).
The coat of arms of Amsterdam above the entrance to the museum.
Regents of the old city orphanage, painting by Abraham de Vries can still be seen in the wall of the regent's room where it was installed in 1633 CE.
One of the modern galleries in Amsterdam Museum.
References
^ (in Dutch) Annual Report 2010 Archived June 24, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, Amsterdam Museum, 2011. Retrieved on 6 August 2011.
^ Judikje Kiers nieuwe directeur Amsterdam Museum, Het Parool, 16 december 2015.
^ "Amsterdam Museum". traveldk.com. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amsterdam Museum.
External links
Amsterdam Museum
Authority control databases International
ISNI
2
VIAF
National
Norway
France
BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
Academics
CiNii
Artists
ULAN
Other
IdRef
|
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|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Amsterdam Museum\". traveldk.com. Retrieved 19 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.traveldk.com/destinations/europe/netherlands/amsterdam/sights/amsterdam-museum","url_text":"\"Amsterdam Museum\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"http://www.amsterdammuseum.nl/","external_links_name":"www.amsterdammuseum.nl"},{"Link":"http://www.amsterdammuseum.nl/html/ahm/document_download.cfm?doc=8394AA8B-1438-5103-71939786DC902F2F.PDF&doc_name=Jaarverslag%202010","external_links_name":"Annual Report 2010"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110624004914/http://www.amsterdammuseum.nl/html/ahm/document_download.cfm?doc=8394AA8B-1438-5103-71939786DC902F2F.PDF&doc_name=Jaarverslag%202010","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.parool.nl/parool/nl/12/CULTUUR/article/detail/4208775/2015/12/16/Judikje-Kiers-nieuwe-directeur-Amsterdam-Museum.dhtml","external_links_name":"Judikje Kiers nieuwe directeur Amsterdam Museum"},{"Link":"http://www.traveldk.com/destinations/europe/netherlands/amsterdam/sights/amsterdam-museum","external_links_name":"\"Amsterdam Museum\""},{"Link":"http://www.amsterdammuseum.nl/en","external_links_name":"Amsterdam Museum"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000106638214","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000403693850","external_links_name":"2"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/135798257","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/1560455411074","external_links_name":"Norway"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12210410d","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12210410d","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/1029701679","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007257624405171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no2013020122","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA10580053?l=en","external_links_name":"CiNii"},{"Link":"https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500249185","external_links_name":"ULAN"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/030750555","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_recursion
|
this (computer programming)
|
["1 Object-oriented programming","2 Subtleties and difficulties","2.1 Open recursion","3 Implementations","3.1 C++","3.2 C#","3.3 D","3.4 Dylan","3.5 Eiffel","3.6 Java","3.7 JavaScript","3.8 Lua","3.9 PowerShell","3.10 Python","3.11 Rust","3.12 Self","3.13 Xbase++","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading"]
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In programming languages, the object or class the currently running code belongs to
this, self, and Me are keywords used in some computer programming languages to refer to the object, class, or other entity which the currently running code is a part of. The entity referred to thus depends on the execution context (such as which object has its method called). Different programming languages use these keywords in slightly different ways. In languages where a keyword like "this" is mandatory, the keyword is the only way to access data and methods stored in the current object. Where optional, these keywords can disambiguate variables and functions with the same name.
Object-oriented programming
In many object-oriented programming languages, this (also called self or Me) is a variable that is used in instance methods to refer to the object on which they are working. The first OO language, SIMULA 67, used this to explicitly reference the local object.: 4.3.2.3 C++ and languages which derive in style from it (such as Java, C#, D, and PHP) also generally use this. Smalltalk and others, such as Object Pascal, Perl, Python, Ruby, Rust, Objective-C, DataFlex and Swift, use self. Microsoft's Visual Basic uses Me.
The concept is similar in all languages: this is usually an immutable reference or pointer which refers to the current object; the current object often being the code that acts as 'parent' or 'invocant' to the property, method, sub-routine or function that contains the this keyword. After an object is properly constructed, or instantiated, this is always a valid reference. Some languages require it explicitly; others use lexical scoping to use it implicitly to make symbols within their class visible. Or alternatively, the current object referred to by this may be an independent code object that has called the function or method containing the keyword this. Such a thing happens, for example, when a JavaScript event handler attached to an HTML tag in a web page calls a function containing the keyword this stored in the global space outside the document object; in that context, this will refer to the page element within the document object, not the enclosing window object.
In some languages, for example C++, Java, and Raku this or self is a keyword, and the variable automatically exists in instance methods. In others, for example, Python, Rust, and Perl 5, the first parameter of an instance method is such a reference. It needs to be specified explicitly. In Python and Perl, the parameter need not necessarily be named this or self; it can be named freely by the programmer like any other parameter. However, by informal convention, the first parameter of an instance method in Perl or Python is named self. Rust requires the self object to be called &self or self, depending on whether the invoked function borrows the invocant, or moves it in, respectively.
Static methods in C++ or Java are not associated with instances but classes, and so cannot use this, because there is no object. In other languages, such as Ruby, Smalltalk, Objective-C, or Swift, the method is associated with a class object that is passed as this, and they are called class methods. For class methods, Python uses cls to access to the class object.
Subtleties and difficulties
When lexical scoping is used to infer this, the use of this in code, while not illegal, may raise warning bells to a maintenance programmer, although there are still legitimate uses of this in this case, such as referring to instance variables hidden by local variables of the same name, or if the method wants to return a reference to the current object, i.e. this, itself.
In some compilers (for example GCC), pointers to C++ instance methods can be directly cast to a pointer of another type, with an explicit this pointer parameter.
Open recursion
The dispatch semantics of this, namely that method calls on this are dynamically dispatched, is known as open recursion, and means that these methods can be overridden by derived classes or objects. By contrast, direct named recursion or anonymous recursion of a function uses closed recursion, with early binding. For example, in the following Perl code for the factorial, the token __SUB__ is a reference to the current function:
use feature ":5.16";
sub {
my $x = shift;
$x == 0 ? 1 : $x * __SUB__->( $x - 1 );
}
By contrast, in C++ (using an explicit this for clarity, though not necessary) the this binds to the object itself, but if the class method was declared "virtual" i.e. polymorphic in the base, it's resolved via dynamic dispatch (late binding) so that derived classes can override it.
unsigned int factorial(unsigned int n)
{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * this->factorial(n - 1);
}
This example is artificial since this is direct recursion, so overriding the factorial method would override this function; more natural examples are when a method in a derived class calls the same method in a base class, or in cases of mutual recursion.
The fragile base class problem has been blamed on open recursion, with the suggestion that invoking methods on this default to closed recursion (static dispatch, early binding) rather than open recursion (dynamic dispatch, late binding), only using open recursion when it is specifically requested; external calls (not using this) would be dynamically dispatched as usual. The way this is solved in practice in the JDK is through a certain programmer discipline; this discipline has been formalized by C. Ruby and G. T. Leavens; it consists of the following rules:
No code invokes public methods on this.
Code that can be reused internally (by invocation from other methods of the same class) is encapsulated in a protected or private method; if it needs to be exposed directly to the users as well, then a wrapper public method calls the internal method.
The previous recommendation can be relaxed for pure methods.
Implementations
C++
Further information: C++ classes
Early versions of C++ would let the this pointer be changed; by doing so a programmer could change which object a method was working on. This feature was eventually removed, and now this in C++ is an r-value.
Early versions of C++ did not include references and it has been suggested that had they been so in C++ from the beginning, this would have been a reference, not a pointer.
C++ lets objects destroy themselves with the source code statement: delete this.
C#
Further information: C Sharp (programming language)
The keyword this in C# works the same way as in Java, for reference types. However, within C# value types, this has quite different semantics, being similar to an ordinary mutable variable reference, and can even occur on the left side of an assignment.
One use of this in C# is to allow reference to an outer field variable within a method that contains a local variable that has the same name. In such a situation, for example, the statement var n = localAndFieldname; within the method will assign the type and value of the local variable localAndFieldname to n, whereas the statement var n = this.localAndFieldname; will assign the type and value of the outer field variable to n.
D
In D this in a class, struct, or union method refers to an immutable reference of the instance of the enclosing aggregate. Classes are reference types, and structs and unions are value types. In the first version of D, the keyword this is used as a pointer to the instance of the object the method is bound to, while in D2 it has the character of an implicit ref function argument.
Dylan
In the programming language Dylan, which is an object-oriented language that supports multimethods and doesn't have a concept of this, sending a message to an object is still kept in the syntax. The two forms below work in the same way; the differences are just syntactic sugar.
object.method(param1, param2)
and
method (object, param1, param2)
Eiffel
Within a class text, the current type is the type obtained from the current class. Within features (routines, commands and queries) of a class, one may use the keyword Current to reference the current class and its features. The use of the keyword Current is optional as the keyword Current is implied by simply referring to the name of the current class feature openly. For example: One might have a feature `foo' in a class MY_CLASS and refer to it by:
class
MY_CLASS
feature -- Access
foo: INTEGER
my_function: INTEGER
do
Result := foo
end
end
Line #10 (above) has the implied reference to Current by the call to simple `foo'.
Line #10 (below) has the explicit reference to Current by the call to `Current.foo'.
class
MY_CLASS
feature -- Access
foo: INTEGER
my_function: INTEGER
do
Result := Current.foo
end
end
Either approach is acceptable to the compiler, but the implied version (e.g. x := foo) is preferred as it is less verbose.
As with other languages, there are times when the use of the keyword Current is mandated, such as:
class
MY_CLASS
feature -- Access
my_command
-- Create MY_OTHER_CLASS with `Current'
local
x: MY_OTHER_CLASS
do
create x.make_with_something (Current)
end
end
In the case of the code above, the call on line #11 to make_with_something is passing the current class by explicitly passing the keyword Current.
Java
Further information: Java (programming language)
The keyword this is a Java language keyword that represents the current instance of the class in which it appears. It is used to access class variables and methods.
Since all instance methods are virtual in Java, this can never be null.
JavaScript
Further information: JavaScript
In JavaScript, which is a programming or scripting language used extensively in web browsers, this is an important keyword, although what it evaluates to depends on where it is used.
When used outside any function, in global space, this refers to the enclosing object, which in this case is the enclosing browser window, the window object.
When used in a function defined in the global space, what the keyword this refers to depends on how the function is called. When such a function is called directly (e.g. f(x)), this will refer back to the global space in which the function is defined, and in which other global functions and variables may exist as well (or in strict mode, it is undefined). If a global function containing this is called as part of the event handler of an element in the document object, however, this will refer to the calling HTML element.
When a method is called using the new keyword (e.g. var c = new Thing()) then within Thing this refers to the Thing object itself.
When a function is attached as a property of an object and called as a method of that object (e.g. obj.f(x)), this will refer to the object that the function is contained within. It is even possible to manually specify this when calling a function, by using the .call() or .apply() methods of the function object. For example, the method call obj.f(x) could also be written as obj.f.call(obj, x).
To work around the different meaning of this in nested functions such as DOM event handlers, it is a common idiom in JavaScript to save the this reference of the calling object in a variable (commonly called that or self), and then use the variable to refer to the calling object in nested functions.
For example:
// In this example $ is a reference to the jQuery library
$(".element").hover(function() {
// Here, both this and that point to the element under the mouse cursor.
var that = this;
$(this).find('.elements').each(function() {
// Here, this points to the DOM element being iterated.
// However, that still points to the element under the mouse cursor.
$(this).addClass("highlight");
});
});
Notably, JavaScript makes use of both this and the related keyword self (in contrast to most other languages which tend to employ one or the other), with self being restricted specifically to web workers.
Finally, as a reliable way of specifically referencing the global (window or equivalent) object, JavaScript features the globalThis keyword.
Lua
Further information: Lua (programming language)
In Lua, self is created as syntactic sugar when functions are defined using the : operator. When invoking a method using :, the object being indexed will be implicitly given as the first argument to the function being invoked.
For example, the following two functions are equivalent:
local obj = {}
function obj.foo(arg1, arg2)
print(arg1, arg2) -- cannot use "self" here
end
function obj:bar(arg)
print(self, arg) -- "self" is an implicit first argument before arg
end
-- All functions can be invoked both ways, with "." or with ":"
obj:foo("Foo") -- equivalent to obj.foo(obj, "Foo")
obj.bar(obj, "Bar") -- equivalent to obj:bar("Bar")
Lua itself is not object-oriented, but when combined with another feature called metatables, the use of self lets programmers define functions in a manner resembling object-oriented programming.
PowerShell
In PowerShell, the special automatic variable $_ contains the current object in the pipeline object. You can use this variable in commands that perform an action on every object or on selected objects in a pipeline.
"one", "two", "three" | % { write $_ }
Also starting with PowerShell 5.0, which adds a formal syntax to define classes and other user-defined types, $this variable describes the current instance of the object.
Python
In Python, there is no keyword for this. When a member function is called on an object, it invokes the member function with the same name on the object's class object, with the object automatically bound to the first argument of the function. Thus, the obligatory first parameter of instance methods serves as this; this parameter is conventionally named self, but can be named anything.
In class methods (created with the classmethod decorator), the first argument refers to the class object itself, and is conventionally called cls; these are primarily used for inheritable constructors, where the use of the class as a parameter allows subclassing the constructor. In static methods (created with the staticmethod decorator), no special first argument exists.
Rust
In Rust, types are declared separately from the functions associated with them. Functions designed to be analogous to instance methods in more traditionally object-oriented languages must explicitly take self as their first parameter. These functions can then be called using instance.method() syntax sugar. For example:
struct Foo {
bar: i32,
}
impl Foo {
fn new() -> Foo {
Foo { bar: 0, }
}
fn refer(&self) {
println!("{}", self.bar);
}
fn mutate(&mut self, baz: i32) {
self.bar = baz;
}
fn consume(self) {
self.refer();
}
}
This defines a type, Foo, which has four associated functions. The first, Foo::new(), is not an instance function and must be specified with the type prefix. The remaining three all take a self parameter in a variety of ways and can be called on a Foo instance using the dot-notation syntax sugar, which is equivalent to calling the type-qualified function name with an explicit self first parameter.
let mut foo = Foo::new(); // must called as a type-specified function
foo.refer(); // prints "0". Foo::refer() has read-only access to the foo instance
foo.mutate(5); // mutates foo in place, permitted by the &mut specification, need foo to be declared mut
foo.consume(); // prints "5" and destroys foo, as Foo::consume() takes full ownership of self
// equivalent to foo.refer()
Foo::refer(foo); // compilation error: foo is out of scope
Self
The Self language is named after this use of "self".
Xbase++
Self is strictly used within methods of a class.
Another way to refer to Self is to use ::.
See also
Anonymous recursion – Recursion without calling a function by name
Inheritance (object-oriented programming) – Process of deriving classes from, and organizing them into, a hierarchy
Self-reference – Sentence, idea or formula that refers to itself
Schizophrenia (object-oriented programming) – Complication arising from delegation and related techniques in object-oriented programming
Program Segment Prefix – Data structure in DOS
References
^ Dahl, Ole-Johan; Myhrhaug, Bjørn; Nygaard, Kristen (1970). "Common Base Language, Norwegian Computing Center".
^ Powell, Thomas A, and Schneider, Fritz, 2012. JavaScript: The Complete Reference, Third Edition. McGraw-Hill. Chapter 11, Event Handling, p 428. ISBN 978-0-07-174120-0
^ Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) – Bound member functions
^ "Closed and Open Recursion", Ralf Hinze, July 2007
^ Open Recursion, Lambda the Ultimate
^ "Selective Open Recursion: A Solution to the Fragile Base Class Problem", Jonathan Aldrich
^ "Selective Open Recursion: A Solution to the Fragile Base Class Problem", Lambda the Ultimate
^ Aldrich, Jonathan, and Kevin Donnelly. "Selective open recursion: Modular reasoning about components and inheritance." SAVCBS 2004 Specification and Verification of Component-Based Systems (2004): 26. citing for the JDK-adopted solution C. Ruby and G. T. Leavens. "Safely Creating Correct Subclasses without Seeing Superclass Code". In Object-Oriented Programming Systems, Languages, and Applications, October 2000. doi:10.1145/353171.353186 also available as technical report TR #00-05d
^ ISO/IEC 14882:2003(E): Programming Languages - C++. ISO/IEC. 2003.
^ Stroustrup: C++ Style and Technique FAQ
^ De Smet, Bart, 2011. C# 4.0 Unleashed. Sams Publishing, Indianapolis, USA. Chapter 4, Language Essentials, p 210. ISBN 978-0-672-33079-7
^ NOTE: The line numbers are for reference purposes only. Eiffel does not have line numbers in the class text. However, there is a line number option in the Eiffel Studio IDE, which can be optionally turned on for reference purposes (e.g. pair programming, etc).
^ Barnes, D. and Kölling, M. Objects First with Java. "...the reason for using this construct is that we have a situation that is known as name overloading - the same name being used for two different entities... It is important to understand that the fields and the parameters are separate variables that exist independently of each other, even though they share similar names. A parameter and a field sharing a name is not a problem in Java."
^ Crockford, Douglas, 2008. JavaScript: The Good Parts. O'Reilly Media Inc. and Yahoo! Inc. Chapter 4, Functions, p 28. ISBN 978-0-596-51774-8
^ Powell, Thomas A, and Schneider, Fritz, 2012. JavaScript: The Complete Reference, Third Edition. McGraw-Hill. Chapter 5, Functions, pp 170–1. ISBN 978-0-07-174120-0
^ Goodman, Danny, with Morrison, Michael, 2004. JavaScript Bible, 5th Edition. Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, USA. Chapter 33, Functions and Custom Objects, p 987. ISBN 0-7645-5743-2
^ Mozilla Developer Network: Window.self
^ Mozilla Developer Network: Web Worker API
^ Mozilla Developer Network: globalThis
^ "Programming in Lua : 16".
^ msdn. "PowerShell: About Automatic Variables". docs.microsoft.com. Retrieved 2018-03-22.
^ msdn. "about_Classes". docs.microsoft.com. Retrieved 2018-12-17.
^ Unifying types and classes in Python 2.2, Guido van Rossum, "Overriding the __new__ method"
Further reading
Meyers, Scott, 1995. More Effective C++: 35 New Ways to Improve Your Programs and Designs. ISBN 0-201-63371-X Scott Meyers
Stroustrup, Bjarne, 1994. The Design and Evolution of C++. Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. ISBN 0-201-54330-3 Bjarne Stroustrup
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"keywords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserved_word"},{"link_name":"programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"execution context","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution_context"}],"text":"this, self, and Me are keywords used in some computer programming languages to refer to the object, class, or other entity which the currently running code is a part of. The entity referred to thus depends on the execution context (such as which object has its method called). Different programming languages use these keywords in slightly different ways. In languages where a keyword like \"this\" is mandatory, the keyword is the only way to access data and methods stored in the current object. Where optional, these keywords can disambiguate variables and functions with the same name.","title":"this (computer programming)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"object-oriented","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"},{"link_name":"programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"instance methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instance_method"},{"link_name":"SIMULA 67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simula"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C#","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"PHP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHP"},{"link_name":"Smalltalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smalltalk"},{"link_name":"Object Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_Pascal"},{"link_name":"Perl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Rust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rust_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Objective-C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective-C"},{"link_name":"DataFlex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DataFlex"},{"link_name":"Swift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swift_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Visual Basic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Basic"},{"link_name":"reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"pointer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointer_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_(programming)"},{"link_name":"method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"lexical scoping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_scoping"},{"link_name":"JavaScript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"keyword","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyword_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"parameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"Static methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_method"},{"link_name":"class methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_method"}],"text":"In many object-oriented programming languages, this (also called self or Me) is a variable that is used in instance methods to refer to the object on which they are working. The first OO language, SIMULA 67, used this to explicitly reference the local object.[1]: 4.3.2.3 C++ and languages which derive in style from it (such as Java, C#, D, and PHP) also generally use this. Smalltalk and others, such as Object Pascal, Perl, Python, Ruby, Rust, Objective-C, DataFlex and Swift, use self. Microsoft's Visual Basic uses Me.The concept is similar in all languages: this is usually an immutable reference or pointer which refers to the current object; the current object often being the code that acts as 'parent' or 'invocant' to the property, method, sub-routine or function that contains the this keyword. After an object is properly constructed, or instantiated, this is always a valid reference. Some languages require it explicitly; others use lexical scoping to use it implicitly to make symbols within their class visible. Or alternatively, the current object referred to by this may be an independent code object that has called the function or method containing the keyword this. Such a thing happens, for example, when a JavaScript event handler attached to an HTML tag in a web page calls a function containing the keyword this stored in the global space outside the document object; in that context, this will refer to the page element within the document object, not the enclosing window object.[2]In some languages, for example C++, Java, and Raku this or self is a keyword, and the variable automatically exists in instance methods. In others, for example, Python, Rust, and Perl 5, the first parameter of an instance method is such a reference. It needs to be specified explicitly. In Python and Perl, the parameter need not necessarily be named this or self; it can be named freely by the programmer like any other parameter. However, by informal convention, the first parameter of an instance method in Perl or Python is named self. Rust requires the self object to be called &self or self, depending on whether the invoked function borrows the invocant, or moves it in, respectively.Static methods in C++ or Java are not associated with instances but classes, and so cannot use this, because there is no object. In other languages, such as Ruby, Smalltalk, Objective-C, or Swift, the method is associated with a class object that is passed as this, and they are called class methods. For class methods, Python uses cls to access to the class object.","title":"Object-oriented programming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GCC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"When lexical scoping is used to infer this, the use of this in code, while not illegal, may raise warning bells to a maintenance programmer, although there are still legitimate uses of this in this case, such as referring to instance variables hidden by local variables of the same name, or if the method wants to return a reference to the current object, i.e. this, itself.In some compilers (for example GCC), pointers to C++ instance methods can be directly cast to a pointer of another type, with an explicit this pointer parameter.[3]","title":"Subtleties and difficulties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"overridden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_overriding"},{"link_name":"anonymous recursion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anonymous_recursion"},{"link_name":"Perl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl"},{"link_name":"late binding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_binding"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"fragile base class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragile_base_class"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JDK-8"},{"link_name":"pure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_function"}],"sub_title":"Open recursion","text":"The dispatch semantics of this, namely that method calls on this are dynamically dispatched, is known as open recursion, and means that these methods can be overridden by derived classes or objects. By contrast, direct named recursion or anonymous recursion of a function uses closed recursion, with early binding. For example, in the following Perl code for the factorial, the token __SUB__ is a reference to the current function:use feature \":5.16\";\nsub {\n my $x = shift;\n $x == 0 ? 1 : $x * __SUB__->( $x - 1 );\n}By contrast, in C++ (using an explicit this for clarity, though not necessary) the this binds to the object itself, but if the class method was declared \"virtual\" i.e. polymorphic in the base, it's resolved via dynamic dispatch (late binding) so that derived classes can override it.unsigned int factorial(unsigned int n)\n{\n if (n == 0)\n return 1;\n else\n return n * this->factorial(n - 1);\n}This example is artificial since this is direct recursion, so overriding the factorial method would override this function; more natural examples are when a method in a derived class calls the same method in a base class, or in cases of mutual recursion.[4][5]The fragile base class problem has been blamed on open recursion, with the suggestion that invoking methods on this default to closed recursion (static dispatch, early binding) rather than open recursion (dynamic dispatch, late binding), only using open recursion when it is specifically requested; external calls (not using this) would be dynamically dispatched as usual.[6][7] The way this is solved in practice in the JDK is through a certain programmer discipline; this discipline has been formalized by C. Ruby and G. T. Leavens; it consists of the following rules:[8]No code invokes public methods on this.\nCode that can be reused internally (by invocation from other methods of the same class) is encapsulated in a protected or private method; if it needs to be exposed directly to the users as well, then a wrapper public method calls the internal method.\nThe previous recommendation can be relaxed for pure methods.","title":"Subtleties and difficulties"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"C++ classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B_classes"},{"link_name":"r-value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_(computer_science)#Assignment:_l-values_and_r-values"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C++03-9"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"C++","text":"Further information: C++ classesEarly versions of C++ would let the this pointer be changed; by doing so a programmer could change which object a method was working on. This feature was eventually removed, and now this in C++ is an r-value.[9]Early versions of C++ did not include references and it has been suggested that had they been so in C++ from the beginning, this would have been a reference, not a pointer.[10]C++ lets objects destroy themselves with the source code statement: delete this.","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"C Sharp (programming language)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C#","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"value types","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_type"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"C#","text":"Further information: C Sharp (programming language)The keyword this in C# works the same way as in Java, for reference types. However, within C# value types, this has quite different semantics, being similar to an ordinary mutable variable reference, and can even occur on the left side of an assignment.One use of this in C# is to allow reference to an outer field variable within a method that contains a local variable that has the same name. In such a situation, for example, the statement var n = localAndFieldname; within the method will assign the type and value of the local variable localAndFieldname to n, whereas the statement var n = this.localAndFieldname; will assign the type and value of the outer field variable to n.[11]","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_type"},{"link_name":"ref","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_by_reference"}],"sub_title":"D","text":"In D this in a class, struct, or union method refers to an immutable reference of the instance of the enclosing aggregate. Classes are reference types, and structs and unions are value types. In the first version of D, the keyword this is used as a pointer to the instance of the object the method is bound to, while in D2 it has the character of an implicit ref function argument.","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dylan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dylan_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"multimethods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimethod"},{"link_name":"syntactic sugar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_sugar"}],"sub_title":"Dylan","text":"In the programming language Dylan, which is an object-oriented language that supports multimethods and doesn't have a concept of this, sending a message to an object is still kept in the syntax. The two forms below work in the same way; the differences are just syntactic sugar.object.method(param1, param2)andmethod (object, param1, param2)","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Eiffel","text":"Within a class text, the current type is the type obtained from the current class. Within features (routines, commands and queries) of a class, one may use the keyword Current to reference the current class and its features. The use of the keyword Current is optional as the keyword Current is implied by simply referring to the name of the current class feature openly. For example: One might have a feature `foo' in a class MY_CLASS and refer to it by:class\n MY_CLASS\n \n feature -- Access\n \n foo: INTEGER\n \n my_function: INTEGER\n do\n Result := foo\n end\n \n end[12]Line #10 (above) has the implied reference to Current by the call to simple `foo'.Line #10 (below) has the explicit reference to Current by the call to `Current.foo'.class\n MY_CLASS\n \n feature -- Access\n \n foo: INTEGER\n \n my_function: INTEGER\n do\n Result := Current.foo\n end\n \n endEither approach is acceptable to the compiler, but the implied version (e.g. x := foo) is preferred as it is less verbose.As with other languages, there are times when the use of the keyword Current is mandated, such as:class\n MY_CLASS\n \n feature -- Access\n \n my_command\n -- Create MY_OTHER_CLASS with `Current'\n local\n x: MY_OTHER_CLASS\n do\n create x.make_with_something (Current)\n end\n \n endIn the case of the code above, the call on line #11 to make_with_something is passing the current class by explicitly passing the keyword Current.","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Java (programming language)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Java","text":"Further information: Java (programming language)The keyword this is a Java language keyword that represents the current instance of the class in which it appears. It is used to access class variables and methods.Since all instance methods are virtual in Java, this can never be null.[13]","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"JavaScript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript"},{"link_name":"scripting language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripting_language"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"JavaScript","text":"Further information: JavaScriptIn JavaScript, which is a programming or scripting language used extensively in web browsers, this is an important keyword, although what it evaluates to depends on where it is used.When used outside any function, in global space, this refers to the enclosing object, which in this case is the enclosing browser window, the window object.\nWhen used in a function defined in the global space, what the keyword this refers to depends on how the function is called. When such a function is called directly (e.g. f(x)), this will refer back to the global space in which the function is defined, and in which other global functions and variables may exist as well (or in strict mode, it is undefined). If a global function containing this is called as part of the event handler of an element in the document object, however, this will refer to the calling HTML element.\nWhen a method is called using the new keyword (e.g. var c = new Thing()) then within Thing this refers to the Thing object itself.\nWhen a function is attached as a property of an object and called as a method of that object (e.g. obj.f(x)), this will refer to the object that the function is contained within.[14][15] It is even possible to manually specify this when calling a function, by using the .call() or .apply() methods of the function object.[16] For example, the method call obj.f(x) could also be written as obj.f.call(obj, x).To work around the different meaning of this in nested functions such as DOM event handlers, it is a common idiom in JavaScript to save the this reference of the calling object in a variable (commonly called that or self), and then use the variable to refer to the calling object in nested functions.For example:// In this example $ is a reference to the jQuery library \n$(\".element\").hover(function() {\n // Here, both this and that point to the element under the mouse cursor.\n var that = this;\n \n $(this).find('.elements').each(function() {\n // Here, this points to the DOM element being iterated.\n // However, that still points to the element under the mouse cursor.\n $(this).addClass(\"highlight\");\n });\n});Notably, JavaScript makes use of both this and the related keyword self[17] (in contrast to most other languages which tend to employ one or the other), with self being restricted specifically to web workers.[18]Finally, as a reliable way of specifically referencing the global (window or equivalent) object, JavaScript features the globalThis keyword.[19]","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lua (programming language)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lua_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"syntactic sugar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_sugar"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Lua","text":"Further information: Lua (programming language)In Lua, self is created as syntactic sugar when functions are defined using the : operator.[20] When invoking a method using :, the object being indexed will be implicitly given as the first argument to the function being invoked.For example, the following two functions are equivalent:local obj = {}\n\nfunction obj.foo(arg1, arg2)\n print(arg1, arg2) -- cannot use \"self\" here\nend\n\nfunction obj:bar(arg)\n print(self, arg) -- \"self\" is an implicit first argument before arg\nend\n\n-- All functions can be invoked both ways, with \".\" or with \":\"\n\nobj:foo(\"Foo\") -- equivalent to obj.foo(obj, \"Foo\")\nobj.bar(obj, \"Bar\") -- equivalent to obj:bar(\"Bar\")Lua itself is not object-oriented, but when combined with another feature called metatables, the use of self lets programmers define functions in a manner resembling object-oriented programming.","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"automatic variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_variable"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"PowerShell","text":"In PowerShell, the special automatic variable $_ contains the current object in the pipeline object. You can use this variable in commands that perform an action on every object or on selected objects in a pipeline.[21]\"one\", \"two\", \"three\" | % { write $_ }Also starting with PowerShell 5.0, which adds a formal syntax to define classes and other user-defined types,[22] $this variable describes the current instance of the object.","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"instance methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Python","text":"In Python, there is no keyword for this. When a member function is called on an object, it invokes the member function with the same name on the object's class object, with the object automatically bound to the first argument of the function. Thus, the obligatory first parameter of instance methods serves as this; this parameter is conventionally named self, but can be named anything.In class methods (created with the classmethod decorator), the first argument refers to the class object itself, and is conventionally called cls; these are primarily used for inheritable constructors,[23] where the use of the class as a parameter allows subclassing the constructor. In static methods (created with the staticmethod decorator), no special first argument exists.","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Rust","text":"In Rust, types are declared separately from the functions associated with them. Functions designed to be analogous to instance methods in more traditionally object-oriented languages must explicitly take self as their first parameter. These functions can then be called using instance.method() syntax sugar. For example:struct Foo {\n bar: i32,\n}\n\nimpl Foo {\n fn new() -> Foo {\n Foo { bar: 0, }\n }\n fn refer(&self) {\n println!(\"{}\", self.bar);\n }\n fn mutate(&mut self, baz: i32) {\n self.bar = baz;\n }\n fn consume(self) {\n self.refer();\n }\n}This defines a type, Foo, which has four associated functions. The first, Foo::new(), is not an instance function and must be specified with the type prefix. The remaining three all take a self parameter in a variety of ways and can be called on a Foo instance using the dot-notation syntax sugar, which is equivalent to calling the type-qualified function name with an explicit self first parameter.let mut foo = Foo::new(); // must called as a type-specified function\nfoo.refer(); // prints \"0\". Foo::refer() has read-only access to the foo instance\nfoo.mutate(5); // mutates foo in place, permitted by the &mut specification, need foo to be declared mut\nfoo.consume(); // prints \"5\" and destroys foo, as Foo::consume() takes full ownership of self\n\n// equivalent to foo.refer()\nFoo::refer(foo); // compilation error: foo is out of scope","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Self","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_(programming_language)"}],"sub_title":"Self","text":"The Self language is named after this use of \"self\".","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Xbase++","text":"Self is strictly used within methods of a class.\nAnother way to refer to Self is to use ::.","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-201-63371-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-63371-X"},{"link_name":"Scott Meyers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Meyers"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-201-54330-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-54330-3"},{"link_name":"Bjarne Stroustrup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bjarne_Stroustrup"}],"text":"Meyers, Scott, 1995. More Effective C++: 35 New Ways to Improve Your Programs and Designs. ISBN 0-201-63371-X Scott Meyers\nStroustrup, Bjarne, 1994. The Design and Evolution of C++. Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. ISBN 0-201-54330-3 Bjarne Stroustrup","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Anonymous recursion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anonymous_recursion"},{"title":"Inheritance (object-oriented programming)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)"},{"title":"Self-reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-reference"},{"title":"Schizophrenia (object-oriented programming)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia_(object-oriented_programming)"},{"title":"Program Segment Prefix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_Segment_Prefix"}]
|
[{"reference":"Dahl, Ole-Johan; Myhrhaug, Bjørn; Nygaard, Kristen (1970). \"Common Base Language, Norwegian Computing Center\".","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ole-Johan_Dahl","url_text":"Dahl, Ole-Johan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristen_Nygaard","url_text":"Nygaard, Kristen"},{"url":"http://www.edelweb.fr/Simula/#7","url_text":"\"Common Base Language, Norwegian Computing Center\""}]},{"reference":"ISO/IEC 14882:2003(E): Programming Languages - C++. ISO/IEC. 2003.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Programming in Lua : 16\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lua.org/pil/16.html","url_text":"\"Programming in Lua : 16\""}]},{"reference":"msdn. \"PowerShell: About Automatic Variables\". docs.microsoft.com. Retrieved 2018-03-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/powershell/module/microsoft.powershell.core/about/about_automatic_variables","url_text":"\"PowerShell: About Automatic Variables\""}]},{"reference":"msdn. \"about_Classes\". docs.microsoft.com. Retrieved 2018-12-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/powershell/module/microsoft.powershell.core/about/about_classes","url_text":"\"about_Classes\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"http://www.edelweb.fr/Simula/#7","external_links_name":"\"Common Base Language, Norwegian Computing Center\""},{"Link":"https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc/Bound-member-functions.html","external_links_name":"Bound member functions"},{"Link":"http://www.cs.ox.ac.uk/people/ralf.hinze/talks/Open.pdf","external_links_name":"Closed and Open Recursion"},{"Link":"http://www.informatik.uni-bonn.de/~ralf","external_links_name":"Ralf Hinze"},{"Link":"http://lambda-the-ultimate.org/node/3204","external_links_name":"Open Recursion"},{"Link":"http://lambda-the-ultimate.org/","external_links_name":"Lambda the Ultimate"},{"Link":"https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~aldrich/papers/selective-open-recursion.pdf","external_links_name":"Selective Open Recursion: A Solution to the Fragile Base Class Problem"},{"Link":"http://lambda-the-ultimate.org/classic/message12271.html","external_links_name":"Selective Open Recursion: A Solution to the Fragile Base Class Problem"},{"Link":"http://lambda-the-ultimate.org/","external_links_name":"Lambda the Ultimate"},{"Link":"https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~aldrich/papers/savcbs04.pdf","external_links_name":"Selective open recursion: Modular reasoning about components and inheritance."},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F353171.353186","external_links_name":"10.1145/353171.353186"},{"Link":"http://www.eecs.ucf.edu/~leavens/tech-reports/ISU/TR00-05/TR.pdf","external_links_name":"technical report TR #00-05d"},{"Link":"http://www.stroustrup.com/bs_faq2.html#this","external_links_name":"C++ Style and Technique FAQ"},{"Link":"https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Window/self","external_links_name":"Mozilla Developer Network: Window.self"},{"Link":"https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Web_Workers_API","external_links_name":"Mozilla Developer Network: Web Worker API"},{"Link":"https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/globalThis","external_links_name":"Mozilla Developer Network: globalThis"},{"Link":"https://www.lua.org/pil/16.html","external_links_name":"\"Programming in Lua : 16\""},{"Link":"https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/powershell/module/microsoft.powershell.core/about/about_automatic_variables","external_links_name":"\"PowerShell: About Automatic Variables\""},{"Link":"https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/powershell/module/microsoft.powershell.core/about/about_classes","external_links_name":"\"about_Classes\""},{"Link":"https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.3/descrintro/#__new__","external_links_name":"Overriding the __new__ method"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectX_10
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DirectX
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["1 Development history","2 Components","3 Versions","3.1 DirectX 9","3.2 DirectX 10","3.3 DirectX 11","3.4 DirectX 12","3.5 DirectX 12 Ultimate","3.6 Version history","4 Compatibility","4.1 .NET Framework","5 Alternatives","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 External links"]
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Collection of multimedia related APIs on Microsoft platforms
"DX9" redirects here. For the synthesizer, see Yamaha DX9.
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DirectXDeveloper(s)MicrosoftInitial releaseSeptember 30, 1995; 28 years ago (1995-09-30)Stable release12 Ultimate API
/ October 5, 2021; 2 years ago (2021-10-05)
Operating systemMicrosoft Windows, Windows Phone 8, Dreamcast, Xbox, Xbox 360, Xbox One, Xbox Series X and Series S, Linux (Gallium Nine) (DirectX 12 only, Exclusive to Windows Subsystem for Linux)TypeAPI
Microsoft DirectX is a collection of application programming interfaces (APIs) for handling tasks related to multimedia, especially game programming and video, on Microsoft platforms. Originally, the names of these APIs all began with "Direct", such as Direct3D, DirectDraw, DirectMusic, DirectPlay, DirectSound, and so forth. The name DirectX was coined as a shorthand term for all of these APIs (the X standing in for the particular API names) and soon became the name of the collection. When Microsoft later set out to develop a gaming console, the X was used as the basis of the name Xbox to indicate that the console was based on DirectX technology. The X initial has been carried forward in the naming of APIs designed for the Xbox such as XInput and the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool (XACT), while the DirectX pattern has been continued for Windows APIs such as Direct2D and DirectWrite.
Direct3D (the 3D graphics API within DirectX) is widely used in the development of video games for Microsoft Windows and the Xbox line of consoles. Direct3D is also used by other software applications for visualization and graphics tasks such as CAD/CAM engineering. As Direct3D is the most widely publicized component of DirectX, it is common to see the names "DirectX" and "Direct3D" used interchangeably.
The DirectX software development kit (SDK) consists of runtime libraries in redistributable binary form, along with accompanying documentation and headers for use in coding. Originally, the runtimes were only installed by games or explicitly by the user. Windows 95 did not launch with DirectX, but DirectX was included with Windows 95 OEM Service Release 2. Windows 98 and Windows NT 4.0 both shipped with DirectX, as has every version of Windows released since. The SDK is available as a free download. While the runtimes are proprietary, closed-source software, source code is provided for most of the SDK samples. Starting with the release of Windows 8 Developer Preview, DirectX SDK has been integrated into Windows SDK.
Development history
In late 1994, Microsoft was ready to release Windows 95, its next operating system. An important factor in its value to consumers was the programs that would be able to run on it. Microsoft employee Alex St. John had been in discussions with various game developers asking how likely they would be to bring their MS-DOS games to Windows 95, and found the responses mostly negative, since programmers had found that the Windows environment did not provide the necessary features which were available under MS-DOS using BIOS routines or direct hardware access. There were also strong fears of compatibility; a notable case of this was from Disney's Animated Storybook: The Lion King which was based on the WinG programming interface. Due to numerous incompatible graphics drivers from new Compaq computers that were not tested with the WinG interface which came bundled with the game, it crashed so frequently on many desktop systems that parents had flooded Disney's call-in help lines.
St. John recognized the resistances for game development under Windows would be a limitation, and recruited two additional engineers, Craig Eisler and Eric Engstrom, to develop a better solution to get more programmers to develop games for Windows. The project was codenamed the Manhattan Project, like the World War II project of the same name, and the idea was to displace the Japanese-developed video game consoles with personal computers running Microsoft's operating system. It had initially used the radiation symbol as its logo but Microsoft asked the team to change the logo. Management did not agree to the project as they were already writing off Windows as a gaming platform, but the three committed towards this project's development. Their rebellious nature led Brad Silverberg, the senior vice president of Microsoft's office products, to name the trio the "Beastie Boys".
Most of the work by the three was done among other assigned projects starting near the end of 1994. Within four months and with input from several hardware manufacturers, the team had developed the first set of application programming interfaces (APIs) which they presented at the 1995 Game Developers Conference. The SDK included libraries implementing DirectDraw for bit-mapped graphics, DirectSound for audio, and DirectPlay for communication between players over a network. Furthermore, an extended joystick API already present in Windows 95 was documented for the first time as DirectInput, while a description of how to implement the immediate start of the installation procedure of a software title after inserting its CD-ROM, a feature called AutoPlay, was also part of the SDK. The "Direct" part of the library was so named as these routines bypassed existing core Windows 95 routines and accessed the computer hardware only via a hardware abstraction layer (HAL). Though the team had named it the "Game SDK" (software development kit), the name "DirectX" came from one journalist that had mocked the naming scheme of the various libraries. The team opted to continue to use that naming scheme and call the project DirectX.
The first version of DirectX was released in September 1995 as the Windows Game SDK. Its DirectDraw component was the Win32 replacement for the DCI and WinG APIs for Windows 3.1. DirectX allowed all versions of Microsoft Windows, starting with Windows 95, to incorporate high-performance multimedia. Eisler wrote about the frenzy to build DirectX 1 through 5 in his blog.
To get more developers on board DirectX, Microsoft approached id Software's John Carmack and offered to port Doom and Doom 2 from MS-DOS to DirectX, free of charge, with id retaining all publishing rights to the game. Carmack agreed, and Microsoft's Gabe Newell led the porting project. The first game was released as Doom 95 in August 1996, the first published DirectX game. Microsoft promoted the game heavily with Bill Gates appearing in ads for the title.
DirectX 2.0 became a built-in component of Windows with the releases of Windows 95 OSR2 and Windows NT 4.0 in mid-1996. Since Windows 95 itself was still new and few games had been released for it, Microsoft engaged in heavy promotion of DirectX to developers who were generally distrustful of Microsoft's ability to build a gaming platform in Windows. Alex St. John, the evangelist for DirectX, staged an elaborate event at the 1996 Computer Game Developers Conference which game developer Jay Barnson described as a Roman theme, including real lions, togas, and something resembling an indoor carnival. It was at this event that Microsoft first introduced Direct3D, and demonstrated multiplayer MechWarrior 2 being played over the Internet.
The DirectX team faced the challenging task of testing each DirectX release against an array of computer hardware and software. A variety of different graphics cards, audio cards, motherboards, CPUs, input devices, games, and other multimedia applications were tested with each beta and final release. The DirectX team also built and distributed tests that allowed the hardware industry to confirm that new hardware designs and driver releases would be compatible with DirectX.
Prior to DirectX Microsoft had added OpenGL to their Windows NT platform. OpenGL had been designed as a cross-platform, window system independent software interface to graphics hardware by Silicon Graphics, Inc. to bring 3D graphics programming into the mainstream of application programming. Besides it could also be used for 2D graphics and imaging and was controlled by the Architectural Review Board (ARB) which included Microsoft. Direct3D was intended to be a Microsoft controlled alternative to OpenGL, focused initially on game use. As 3D gaming grew game developers were discovering that OpenGL could be used effectively for game development. At that point a "battle" began between supporters of the cross-platform OpenGL and the Windows-only Direct3D. Incidentally, OpenGL was supported at Microsoft by the DirectX team. If a developer chose to use the OpenGL 3D graphics API in computer games, the other APIs of DirectX besides Direct3D were often combined with OpenGL because OpenGL does not include all of DirectX's functionality (such as sound or joystick support).
In a console-specific version, DirectX was used as a basis for Microsoft's Xbox, Xbox 360 and Xbox One console API. The API was developed jointly between Microsoft and Nvidia, which developed the custom graphics hardware used by the original Xbox. The Xbox API was similar to DirectX version 8.1, but is non-updateable like other console technologies. The Xbox was code named DirectXbox, but this was shortened to Xbox for its commercial name.
In 2002, Microsoft released DirectX 9 with support for the use of much longer shader programs than before with pixel and vertex shader version 2.0. Microsoft has continued to update the DirectX suite since then, introducing Shader Model 3.0 in DirectX 9.0c, released in August 2004.
As of April 2005, DirectShow was removed from DirectX and moved to the Microsoft Platform SDK instead.
DirectX has been confirmed to be present in Microsoft's Windows Phone 8.
Real-time raytracing was announced as DXR in 2018. Support for compiling HLSL to SPIR-V was also added in the DirectX Shader Compiler the same year.
Components
DirectX is composed of multiple APIs:
Direct3D (D3D): Real-time 3D rendering API
DXGI: Enumerates adapters and monitors and manages swap chains for Direct3D 10 and later.
Direct2D: 2D graphics API
DirectWrite: Text rendering API
DirectCompute: API for general-purpose computing on graphics processing units
DirectX Diagnostics (DxDiag): A tool for diagnosing and generating reports on components related to DirectX, such as audio, video, and input drivers
XACT3: High-level audio API
XAudio2: Low-level audio API
DirectX Raytracing (DXR): Real-time raytracing API
DirectStorage: GPU-oriented file I/O API
DirectML: GPU-accelerated machine learning and artificial intelligence API
DirectSR: GPU-accelerated resolution upscaling API
Microsoft has deprecated the following components:
DirectX Media: Consists of:
DirectAnimation for 2D/3D web animation, DirectShow for multimedia playback and streaming media
DirectX Media Objects: Support for streaming objects such as encoders, decoders, and effects (Deprecated in favor of Media Foundation Transforms; MFTs)
DirectX Transform for web interactivity, and Direct3D Retained Mode for higher level 3D graphics
DirectX plugins for audio signal processing
DirectX Video Acceleration for accelerated video playback (Deprecated in favor of Media Foundation)
DirectDraw: 2D graphics API (Deprecated in favor of Direct2D)
DirectInput: Input API for interfacing with keyboards, mice, joysticks, and game controllers (Deprecated after version 8 in favor of XInput for Xbox 360 controllers or standard WM_INPUT window message processing for keyboard and mouse input)
DirectPlay: Network API for communication over a local-area or wide-area network (Deprecated after version 8 in favor of Games for Windows Live and Xbox Live)
DirectSound: Audio API (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3)
DirectSound3D (DS3D): 3D sounds API (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3)
DirectMusic: Components for playing soundtracks authored in DirectMusic Producer (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3)
DirectX functionality is provided in the form of COM-style objects and interfaces. Additionally, while not DirectX components themselves, managed objects have been built on top of some parts of DirectX, such as Managed Direct3D and the XNA graphics library on top of Direct3D 9.
Microsoft distributes debugging tool for DirectX called "PIX".
Versions
DirectX 9
See also: Direct3D § Direct3D 9This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2018)
DirectX 9 was released in 2002 for Windows 98, Me, 2000 and XP, and currently is supported by all subsequent versions. Microsoft continues to make changes in DirectX 9.0c, causing support to be dropped for some of the aforementioned operating systems. As of January 2007, Windows 2000 or XP is required. This also introduced Shader Model 2.0 containing Pixel Shader 2.0 and Vertex Shader 2.0. Windows XP SP2 and newer include DirectX 9.0c, but may require a newer DirectX runtime redistributable installation for DirectX 9.0c applications compiled with the February 2005 DirectX 9.0 SDK or newer.
DirectX 10
See also: Direct3D 10
Microsoft DirectX 10 logo wordmark
A major update to DirectX API, DirectX 10 ships with and is only available with Windows Vista (launched in late 2006) and later. Previous versions of Windows such as Windows XP are not able to run DirectX 10-exclusive applications. Rather, programs that are run on a Windows XP system with DirectX 10 hardware simply resort to the DirectX 9.0c code path, the latest available for Windows XP computers.
Changes for DirectX 10 were extensive. Many former parts of DirectX API were deprecated in the latest DirectX SDK and are preserved for compatibility only: DirectInput was deprecated in favor of XInput, DirectSound was deprecated in favor of the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool system (XACT) and additionally lost support for hardware accelerated audio, since the Vista audio stack renders sound in software on the CPU. The DirectPlay DPLAY.DLL was also removed and was replaced with dplayx.dll; games that rely on this DLL must duplicate it and rename it to dplay.dll.
In order to achieve backwards compatibility, DirectX in Windows Vista contains several versions of Direct3D:
Direct3D 9: emulates Direct3D 9 behavior as it was on Windows XP. Details and advantages of Vista's Windows Display Driver Model are hidden from the application if WDDM drivers are installed. This is the only API available if there are only XP graphic drivers (XDDM) installed, after an upgrade to Vista for example.
Direct3D 9Ex (known internally during Windows Vista development as 9.0L or 9.L): allows full access to the new capabilities of WDDM (if WDDM drivers are installed) while maintaining compatibility for existing Direct3D applications. The Windows Aero user interface relies on D3D 9Ex.
Direct3D 10: Designed around the new driver model in Windows Vista and featuring a number of improvements to rendering capabilities and flexibility, including Shader Model 4.
Direct3D 10.1 is an incremental update of Direct3D 10.0 which shipped with, and required, Windows Vista Service Pack 1, which was released in February 2008. This release mainly sets a few more image quality standards for graphics vendors, while giving developers more control over image quality. It also adds support for cube map arrays, separate blend modes per-MRT, coverage mask export from a pixel shader, ability to run pixel shader per sample, access to multi-sampled depth buffers and requires that the video card supports Shader Model 4.1 or higher and 32-bit floating-point operations. Direct3D 10.1 still fully supports Direct3D 10 hardware, but in order to utilize all of the new features, updated hardware is required.
DirectX 11
See also: Direct3D 11
Microsoft DirectX 11 logo wordmark
Microsoft unveiled DirectX 11 at the Gamefest 08 event in Seattle. The Final Platform Update launched for Windows Vista on October 27, 2009, which was a week after the initial release of Windows 7, which launched with Direct3D 11 as a base standard.
Major scheduled features including GPGPU support (DirectCompute), and Direct3D 11 with tessellation support and improved multi-threading support to assist video game developers in developing games that better utilize multi-core processors. Parts of the new API such as multi-threaded resource handling can be supported on Direct3D 9/10/10.1-class hardware. Hardware tessellation and Shader Model 5.0 require Direct3D 11 supporting hardware. Microsoft has since released the Direct3D 11 Technical Preview. Direct3D 11 is a strict superset of Direct3D 10.1 — all hardware and API features of version 10.1 are retained, and new features are added only when necessary for exposing new functionality. This helps to keep backwards compatibility with previous versions of DirectX.
Four updates for DirectX 11 were released:
DirectX 11.1 is included in Windows 8. It supports WDDM 1.2 for increased performance, features improved integration of Direct2D (now at version 1.1), Direct3D, and DirectCompute, and includes DirectXMath, XAudio2, and XInput libraries from the XNA framework. It also features stereoscopic 3D support for gaming and video. DirectX 11.1 was also partially backported to Windows 7, via the Windows 7 platform update.
DirectX 11.2 is included in Windows 8.1 (including the RT version) and Windows Server 2012 R2. It added some new features to Direct2D like geometry realizations. It also added swap chain composition, which allows some elements of the scene to be rendered at lower resolutions and then composited via hardware overlay with other parts rendered at higher resolution.
DirectX 11.X is a superset of DirectX 11.2 running on the Xbox One. It actually includes some features, such as draw bundles, that were later announced as part of DirectX 12.
DirectX 11.3 was announced along with DirectX 12 at GDC and released in 2015. It is meant to complement DirectX 12 as a higher-level alternative. It is included with Windows 10.
DirectX 12
See also: Direct3D 12
DirectX 12 was announced by Microsoft at GDC on March 20, 2014, and was officially launched alongside Windows 10 on July 29, 2015.
The primary feature highlight for the new release of DirectX was the introduction of advanced low-level programming APIs for Direct3D 12 which can reduce driver overhead. Developers are now able to implement their own command lists and buffers to the GPU, allowing for more efficient resource utilization through parallel computation. Lead developer Max McMullen stated that the main goal of Direct3D 12 is to achieve "console-level efficiency on phone, tablet and PC". The release of Direct3D 12 comes alongside other initiatives for low-overhead graphics APIs including AMD's Mantle for AMD graphics cards, Apple's Metal for iOS and macOS and Khronos Group's cross-platform Vulkan.
Multiadapter support will feature in DirectX 12 allowing developers to utilize multiple GPUs on a system simultaneously; multi-GPU support was previously dependent on vendor implementations such as AMD CrossFireX or NVIDIA SLI.
Implicit Multiadapter support will work in a similar manner to previous versions of DirectX where frames are rendered alternately across linked GPUs of similar compute-power.
Explicit Multiadapter will provide two distinct API patterns to developers. Linked GPUs will allow DirectX to view graphics cards in SLI or CrossFireX as a single GPU and use the combined resources; whereas Unlinked GPUs will allow GPUs from different vendors to be utilized by DirectX, such as supplementing the dedicated GPU with the integrated GPU on the CPU, or combining AMD and NVIDIA cards. However, elaborate mixed multi-GPU setups requires significantly more attentive developer support.
DirectX 12 is supported on all Fermi and later Nvidia GPUs, on AMD's GCN-based chips and on Intel's Haswell and later processors' graphics units.
At SIGGRAPH 2014, Intel released a demo showing a computer generated asteroid field, in which DirectX 12 was claimed to be 50–70% more efficient than DirectX 11 in rendering speed and CPU power consumption.
Ashes of the Singularity was the first publicly available game to utilize DirectX 12. Testing by Ars Technica in August 2015 revealed slight performance regressions in DirectX 12 over DirectX 11 mode for the Nvidia GeForce 980 Ti, whereas the AMD Radeon R9 290x achieved consistent performance improvements of up to 70% under DirectX 12, and in some scenarios the AMD outperformed the more powerful Nvidia under DirectX 12. The performance discrepancies may be due to poor Nvidia driver optimizations for DirectX 12, or even hardware limitations of the card which was optimized for DirectX 11 serial execution; however, the exact cause remains unclear.
The performance improvements of DirectX 12 on the Xbox are not as substantial as on the PC.
In March 2018, DirectX Raytracing (DXR) was announced, capable of real-time ray-tracing on supported hardware, and the DXR API was added in the Windows 10 October 2018 update.
In 2019 Microsoft announced the arrival of DirectX 12 to Windows 7 but only as a plug-in for certain game titles.
DirectX 12 Ultimate
Microsoft revealed DirectX 12 Ultimate in March 2020. DirectX 12 Ultimate will unify to a common library on both Windows 10 computers and the Xbox Series X and other ninth-generation Xbox consoles. Among the new features in Ultimate includes DirectX Raytracing 1.1, Variable Rate Shading, which gives programmers control over the level of detail of shading depending on design choices, Mesh Shaders, and Sampler Feedback.
Version history
Release timelineMajor releases1995DirectX 11996DirectX 2DirectX 31997DirectX 51998DirectX 61999DirectX 72000DirectX 820012002DirectX 92003200420052006DirectX 10200720082009DirectX 11201020112012201320142015DirectX 12
DirectX versions
Version
Release date
Notes
Major
Minor
Number
1
1.0
4.02.0095
September 30, 1995
Initially released as Windows Game SDK, replacing WinG for Windows 95 onward
2
2.0
1996
Was shipped only with a few 3rd party applications
2.0a
4.03.00.1096
June 5, 1996
Windows 95 OSR2 and Windows NT 4.0 exclusive
3
3.0
4.04.00.0068
September 15, 1996
4.04.00.0069
1996
Later package of DirectX 3.0 included Direct3D 4.04.00.0069
3.0a
4.04.00.0070
December 1996
Windows NT 4.0 SP3 (and above)Last version supporting Windows NT 4.0
3.0b
4.04.00.0070
December 1996
This was a very minor update to 3.0a that fixed a cosmetic problem with the Japanese version of Windows 95
4
4.0
Never released
DirectX 4 was never released. Raymond Chen of Microsoft explained in his book, The Old New Thing, that after DirectX 3 was released, Microsoft began developing versions 4 and 5 at the same time. Version 4 was to be a shorter-term release with small features, whereas version 5 would be a more substantial release. The lack of interest from game developers in the features stated for DirectX 4 resulted in it being shelved, and the large amount of documents that already distinguished the two new versions resulted in Microsoft choosing to not re-use version 4 to describe features intended for version 5.
5
5.0
4.05.00.0155 (RC55)
August 4, 1997
Available as a beta for Windows 2000 that would install on Windows NT 4.0
4.05.00.0155 (RC66)
Installer included on the Windows 95 OSR 2.5 installation media
5.2
4.05.01.1600 (RC00)
May 5, 1998
DirectX 5.2 release for Windows 95
4.05.01.1998 (RC0)
June 25, 1998
Windows 98 exclusive
6
6.0
4.06.00.0318 (RC3)
August 7, 1998
Windows CE as implemented on Dreamcast and other devices
6.1
4.06.02.0436 (RC0)
February 3, 1999
6.1a
4.06.03.0518 (RC0)
May 5, 1999
Windows 98 Second Edition exclusive. This is last version that runs on 486 or older CPU.
7
7.0
4.07.00.0700 (RC1)
September 22, 1999
4.07.00.0700
February 17, 2000
Windows 2000 exclusive
7.0a
December 17, 1999
Released only for Windows 95 to 98
4.07.00.0716 (RC0)
March 8, 2000
4.07.00.0716 (RC1)
2000
7.1
4.07.01.3000 (RC1)
September 14, 2000
Windows Me exclusive. Last version to have built-in RGB software rendering support
8
8.0
4.08.00.0400 (RC10)
November 10, 2000
8.0a
4.08.00.0400 (RC14)
January 24, 2001
Last version supporting Windows 95 and last version to have software rendering support in dxdiag.exe
8.1
4.08.01.0810
October 25, 2001
Windows XP, Windows XP SP1, Windows Server 2003
4.08.01.0881 (RC7)
November 8, 2001
This version is for the down level operating systems (Windows 98, Windows Me and Windows 2000)
8.1a
4.08.01.0901 (RC?)
2002
This release includes an update to Direct3D (D3d8.dll)
8.1b
4.08.01.0901 (RC7)
June 25, 2002
This update includes a fix to DirectShow on Windows 2000 (Quartz.dll)
8.2
4.08.02.0134 (RC0)
2002
Same as the DirectX 8.1b but includes DirectPlay 8.2
9
9.0
4.09.00.0900 (RC4)
December 19, 2002
9.0a
4.09.00.0901 (RC6)
March 26, 2003
9.0b
4.09.00.0902 (RC2)
August 13, 2003
9.0c
4.09.00.0904 (RC0)
July 22, 2004
First 9.0c version
Periodic hybrid 32-bit/64-bit updates, starting from October 2004, were released bimonthly until August 2007, and quarterly thereafter. The last update was released in June 2010
4.09.00.0904
August 6, 2004 / April 21, 2008*
Windows XP SP2 and SP3*, Windows Server 2003 SP1 and Windows Server 2003 R2
December 8, 2006
Last version supporting Windows 98, 98 SE and Me
February 5, 2010
Last version supporting Windows 2000, XP and XP SP1
June 7, 2010
Final 9.0c version and last supporting Windows XP SP2 and SP3
10
10
6.00.6000.16386
November 30, 2006
Windows Vista exclusive
10.1
6.00.6001.18000
February 4, 2008
Windows Vista SP1, Windows Server 2008Includes Direct3D 10.1
6.00.6002.18005
April 28, 2009
Windows Vista SP2, Windows Server 2008 SP2Includes Direct3D 10.1
11
11
6.01.7600.16385
October 22, 2009
Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2
6.00.6002.18107
October 27, 2009
Windows Vista SP2 and Windows Server 2008 SP2, through the Platform Update for Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008
6.01.7601.17514
February 16, 2011
Windows 7 SP1, Windows Server 2008 R2 SP1
11.1
6.02.9200.16384
August 1, 2012
Windows 8, Windows RT, Windows Server 2012
6.02.9200.16492
February 11, 2013
Windows 7 SP1 and Windows Server 2008 R2 SP1, through the Platform Update for Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2
11.2
6.03.9600.16384
October 18, 2013
Windows 8.1, Windows RT, Windows Server 2012 R2
12
12
10.00.10240.16384
July 29, 2015
Windows 10
10.00.15063.0000
March 20, 2017
Windows 10, Depth Bounds Testing and Programmable MSAA added
10.00.17763.0000
November 20, 2019
Direct3D 12 only for Windows 7 SP1, via a dedicated source code package for app developers
12.1
10.00.17763.0001
October 2, 2018
Windows 10, DirectX Raytracing support added
10.00.18362.0116
May 19, 2019
Windows 10, Variable Rate Shading (VRS) support added
12.2
10.00.19041.0928
November 10, 2020
Windows 10, Ultimate
10.00.22000.1000
October 5, 2021
Windows 11, Added native refresh rate switching and improved graphics capabilities to Windows Subsystem for Linux
The version number as reported by Microsoft's DxDiag tool (version 4.09.0000.0900 and higher) use the x.xx.xxxx.xxxx format for version numbers. However, the DirectX and Windows XP MSDN page claims that the registry always has been in the x.xx.xx.xxxx format. Therefore, when the above table lists a version as '4.09.00.0904' Microsoft's DxDiag tool may have it as '4.09.0000.0904'.
Compatibility
Various releases of Windows have included and supported various versions of DirectX, allowing newer versions of the operating system to continue running applications designed for earlier versions of DirectX until those versions can be gradually phased out in favor of newer APIs, drivers, and hardware.
APIs such as Direct3D and DirectSound need to interact with hardware, and they do this through a device driver. Hardware manufacturers have to write these drivers for a particular DirectX version's device driver interface (or DDI), and test each individual piece of hardware to make them DirectX compatible. Some hardware devices have only DirectX compatible drivers (in other words, one must install DirectX in order to use that hardware). Early versions of DirectX included an up-to-date library of all of the DirectX compatible drivers currently available. This practice was stopped however, in favor of the web-based Windows Update driver-update system, which allowed users to download only the drivers relevant to their hardware, rather than the entire library.
Prior to DirectX 10, DirectX runtime was designed to be backward compatible with older drivers, meaning that newer versions of the APIs were designed to interoperate with older drivers written against a previous version's DDI. The application programmer had to query the available hardware capabilities using a complex system of "cap bits" each tied to a particular hardware feature. Direct3D 7 and earlier would work on any version of the DDI, Direct3D 8 requires a minimum DDI level of 6 and Direct3D 9 requires a minimum DDI level of 7.
However, the Direct3D 10 runtime in Windows Vista cannot run on older hardware drivers due to the significantly updated DDI, which requires a unified feature set and abandons the use of "cap bits".
Direct3D 10.1 introduces "feature levels" 10_0 and 10_1, which allow use of only the hardware features defined in the specified version of Direct3D API. Direct3D 11 adds level 11_0 and "10 Level 9" - a subset of the Direct3D 10 API designed to run on Direct3D 9 hardware, which has three feature levels (9_1, 9_2 and 9_3) grouped by common capabilities of "low", "med" and "high-end" video cards; the runtime directly uses Direct3D 9 DDI provided in all WDDM drivers. Feature level 11_1 has been introduced with Direct3D 11.1.
.NET Framework
In 2002, Microsoft released a version of DirectX compatible with the Microsoft .NET Framework, thus allowing programmers to take advantage of DirectX functionality from within .NET applications using compatible languages such as managed C++ or the use of the C# programming language. This API was known as "Managed DirectX" (or MDX for short), and claimed to operate at 98% of performance of the underlying native DirectX APIs. In December 2005, February 2006, April 2006, and August 2006, Microsoft released successive updates to this library, culminating in a beta version called Managed DirectX 2.0. While Managed DirectX 2.0 consolidated functionality that had previously been scattered over multiple assemblies into a single assembly, thus simplifying dependencies on it for software developers, development on this version has subsequently been discontinued, and it is no longer supported. The Managed DirectX 2.0 library expired on October 5, 2006.
During the GDC 2006, Microsoft presented the XNA Framework, a new managed version of DirectX (similar but not identical to Managed DirectX) that is intended to assist development of games by making it easier to integrate DirectX, HLSL and other tools in one package. It also supports the execution of managed code on the Xbox 360. The XNA Game Studio Express RTM was made available on December 11, 2006, as a free download for Windows XP. Unlike the DirectX runtime, Managed DirectX, XNA Framework or the Xbox 360 APIs (XInput, XACT etc.) have not shipped as part of Windows. Developers are expected to redistribute the runtime components along with their games or applications.
No Microsoft product including the latest XNA releases provides DirectX 10 support for the .NET Framework.
The other approach for DirectX in managed languages is to use third-party libraries like:
SlimDX, an open source library for DirectX programming on the .NET Framework
SharpDX, which is an open source project delivering the full DirectX API for .NET on all Windows platforms, allowing the development of high performance game, 2D and 3D graphics rendering as well as real-time sound applications
DirectShow.NET for the DirectShow subset
Windows API CodePack for .NET Framework Archived February 14, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, which is an open source library from Microsoft.
Alternatives
There are alternatives to the DirectX family of APIs, with OpenGL, its successor Vulkan, Metal and Mantle having the most features comparable to Direct3D. Examples of other APIs include SDL, Allegro, OpenMAX, OpenML, OpenAL, OpenCL, FMOD, SFML etc. Many of these libraries are cross-platform or have open codebases. There are also alternative implementations that aim to provide the same API, such as the one in Wine. Furthermore, the developers of ReactOS are trying to reimplement DirectX under the name "ReactX".
See also
ActiveX
Comparison of OpenGL and Direct3D
Direct3D
DirectX plugin
DxDiag
Graphics Device Interface (GDI)
Graphics pipeline
Simple DirectMedia Layer
Timeout Detection and Recovery
Vulkan
Notes
1.^ After installing this version, it's possible to install up to version Nov 2007 on 98/98SE, and up to version Feb 2010 on Me.
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External links
Microsoft's DirectX developer site
DirectX at Curlie
The State of DirectX 10 - Image Quality & Performance
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Remoting
WCF
Accessibility
Active Accessibility
UI Automation
Text and multilingualsupport
DirectWrite
Text Services Framework
Text Object Model
Input method editor
Language Interface Pack
Multilingual User Interface
Uniscribe
vteMicrosoft GamingA division of MicrosoftXbox seriesXbox
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Applications
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Applications
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games
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yamaha DX9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_DX9"},{"link_name":"application programming interfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_programming_interface"},{"link_name":"multimedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia"},{"link_name":"game programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_programming"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Direct3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D"},{"link_name":"DirectDraw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectDraw"},{"link_name":"DirectMusic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectMusic"},{"link_name":"DirectPlay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectPlay"},{"link_name":"DirectSound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectSound"},{"link_name":"gaming console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console"},{"link_name":"Xbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_(console)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"XInput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectInput"},{"link_name":"Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-platform_Audio_Creation_Tool"},{"link_name":"Direct2D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct2D"},{"link_name":"DirectWrite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectWrite"},{"link_name":"video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"Xbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"software development kit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development_kit"},{"link_name":"runtime libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runtime_library"},{"link_name":"headers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Include_directive"},{"link_name":"Windows 95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_95"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Windows 98","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_98"},{"link_name":"Windows NT 4.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT_4.0"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wheresDX-5"}],"text":"\"DX9\" redirects here. For the synthesizer, see Yamaha DX9.Microsoft DirectX is a collection of application programming interfaces (APIs) for handling tasks related to multimedia, especially game programming and video, on Microsoft platforms. Originally, the names of these APIs all began with \"Direct\", such as Direct3D, DirectDraw, DirectMusic, DirectPlay, DirectSound, and so forth. The name DirectX was coined as a shorthand term for all of these APIs (the X standing in for the particular API names) and soon became the name of the collection. When Microsoft later set out to develop a gaming console, the X was used as the basis of the name Xbox to indicate that the console was based on DirectX technology.[3] The X initial has been carried forward in the naming of APIs designed for the Xbox such as XInput and the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool (XACT), while the DirectX pattern has been continued for Windows APIs such as Direct2D and DirectWrite.Direct3D (the 3D graphics API within DirectX) is widely used in the development of video games for Microsoft Windows and the Xbox line of consoles. Direct3D is also used by other software applications for visualization and graphics tasks such as CAD/CAM engineering. As Direct3D is the most widely publicized component of DirectX, it is common to see the names \"DirectX\" and \"Direct3D\" used interchangeably.The DirectX software development kit (SDK) consists of runtime libraries in redistributable binary form, along with accompanying documentation and headers for use in coding. Originally, the runtimes were only installed by games or explicitly by the user. Windows 95 did not launch with DirectX, but DirectX was included with Windows 95 OEM Service Release 2.[4] Windows 98 and Windows NT 4.0 both shipped with DirectX, as has every version of Windows released since. The SDK is available as a free download. While the runtimes are proprietary, closed-source software, source code is provided for most of the SDK samples. Starting with the release of Windows 8 Developer Preview, DirectX SDK has been integrated into Windows SDK.[5]","title":"DirectX"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Windows 95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_95"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Alex St. John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_St._John"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS"},{"link_name":"programmers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_programmer"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Disney's Animated Storybook: The Lion 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symbol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_symbol"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pcgamer_history-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shacknews_xbox_p1ch8-9"},{"link_name":"Brad Silverberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Silverberg"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsj_engstrom_obit-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shacknews_xbox_p1ch8-9"},{"link_name":"application programming interfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_programming_interface"},{"link_name":"Game Developers 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kit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development_kit"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pcgamer_history-8"},{"link_name":"Win32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_API"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Windows 3.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.1"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"id Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id_Software"},{"link_name":"John Carmack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Carmack"},{"link_name":"Doom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doom_(1993_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Doom 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doom_2"},{"link_name":"Gabe Newell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabe_Newell"},{"link_name":"Bill Gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gates"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pcgamer_history-8"},{"link_name":"Windows 95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_95"},{"link_name":"Windows NT 4.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT_4.0"},{"link_name":"Computer Game Developers Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Developers_Conference"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome"},{"link_name":"lions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lion"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Direct3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D"},{"link_name":"MechWarrior 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MechWarrior_2"},{"link_name":"computer hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"OpenGL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenGL"},{"link_name":"Windows NT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"window system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windowing_system"},{"link_name":"Silicon Graphics, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Graphics"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"computer games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_games"},{"link_name":"Xbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_(console)"},{"link_name":"Xbox 360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_360"},{"link_name":"Xbox One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_One"},{"link_name":"console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console"},{"link_name":"Nvidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"DirectShow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectShow"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Platform SDK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Platform_SDK"},{"link_name":"Windows Phone 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Phone_8"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"raytracing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_tracing_(graphics)"},{"link_name":"DXR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectX_Raytracing"},{"link_name":"HLSL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-Level_Shader_Language"},{"link_name":"SPIR-V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Portable_Intermediate_Representation"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"In late 1994, Microsoft was ready to release Windows 95, its next operating system. An important factor in its value to consumers was the programs that would be able to run on it. Microsoft employee Alex St. John had been in discussions with various game developers asking how likely they would be to bring their MS-DOS games to Windows 95, and found the responses mostly negative, since programmers had found that the Windows environment did not provide the necessary features which were available under MS-DOS using BIOS routines or direct hardware access.[6] There were also strong fears of compatibility; a notable case of this was from Disney's Animated Storybook: The Lion King which was based on the WinG programming interface.[7] Due to numerous incompatible graphics drivers from new Compaq computers that were not tested with the WinG interface which came bundled with the game, it crashed so frequently on many desktop systems that parents had flooded Disney's call-in help lines.[8][9]St. John recognized the resistances for game development under Windows would be a limitation, and recruited two additional engineers, Craig Eisler and Eric Engstrom, to develop a better solution to get more programmers to develop games for Windows. The project was codenamed the Manhattan Project, like the World War II project of the same name, and the idea was to displace the Japanese-developed video game consoles with personal computers running Microsoft's operating system.[8] It had initially used the radiation symbol as its logo but Microsoft asked the team to change the logo.[8] Management did not agree to the project as they were already writing off Windows as a gaming platform, but the three committed towards this project's development.[9] Their rebellious nature led Brad Silverberg, the senior vice president of Microsoft's office products, to name the trio the \"Beastie Boys\".[10]Most of the work by the three was done among other assigned projects starting near the end of 1994.[9] Within four months and with input from several hardware manufacturers, the team had developed the first set of application programming interfaces (APIs) which they presented at the 1995 Game Developers Conference.[9] The SDK included libraries implementing DirectDraw for bit-mapped graphics,[11] DirectSound for audio,[12] and DirectPlay for communication between players over a network.[13] Furthermore, an extended joystick API already present in Windows 95 was documented for the first time as DirectInput,[14] while a description of how to implement the immediate start of the installation procedure of a software title after inserting its CD-ROM, a feature called AutoPlay, was also part of the SDK.[15] The \"Direct\" part of the library was so named as these routines bypassed existing core Windows 95 routines and accessed the computer hardware only via a hardware abstraction layer (HAL).[16] Though the team had named it the \"Game SDK\" (software development kit), the name \"DirectX\" came from one journalist that had mocked the naming scheme of the various libraries. The team opted to continue to use that naming scheme and call the project DirectX.[8]The first version of DirectX was released in September 1995 as the Windows Game SDK. Its DirectDraw component was the Win32 replacement for the DCI[17] and WinG APIs for Windows 3.1.[18] DirectX allowed all versions of Microsoft Windows, starting with Windows 95, to incorporate high-performance multimedia. Eisler wrote about the frenzy to build DirectX 1 through 5 in his blog.[19]To get more developers on board DirectX, Microsoft approached id Software's John Carmack and offered to port Doom and Doom 2 from MS-DOS to DirectX, free of charge, with id retaining all publishing rights to the game. Carmack agreed, and Microsoft's Gabe Newell led the porting project. The first game was released as Doom 95 in August 1996, the first published DirectX game. Microsoft promoted the game heavily with Bill Gates appearing in ads for the title.[8]DirectX 2.0 became a built-in component of Windows with the releases of Windows 95 OSR2 and Windows NT 4.0 in mid-1996. Since Windows 95 itself was still new and few games had been released for it, Microsoft engaged in heavy promotion of DirectX to developers who were generally distrustful of Microsoft's ability to build a gaming platform in Windows. Alex St. John, the evangelist for DirectX, staged an elaborate event at the 1996 Computer Game Developers Conference which game developer Jay Barnson described as a Roman theme, including real lions, togas, and something resembling an indoor carnival.[20] It was at this event that Microsoft first introduced Direct3D, and demonstrated multiplayer MechWarrior 2 being played over the Internet.The DirectX team faced the challenging task of testing each DirectX release against an array of computer hardware and software. A variety of different graphics cards, audio cards, motherboards, CPUs, input devices, games, and other multimedia applications were tested with each beta and final release. The DirectX team also built and distributed tests that allowed the hardware industry to confirm that new hardware designs and driver releases would be compatible with DirectX.Prior to DirectX Microsoft had added OpenGL to their Windows NT platform.[21] OpenGL had been designed as a cross-platform, window system independent software interface to graphics hardware by Silicon Graphics, Inc. to bring 3D graphics programming into the mainstream of application programming. Besides it could also be used for 2D graphics and imaging and was controlled by the Architectural Review Board (ARB) which included Microsoft.[22][23] Direct3D was intended to be a Microsoft controlled alternative to OpenGL, focused initially on game use. As 3D gaming grew game developers were discovering that OpenGL could be used effectively for game development.[24] At that point a \"battle\" began between supporters of the cross-platform OpenGL and the Windows-only Direct3D.[25] Incidentally, OpenGL was supported at Microsoft by the DirectX team. If a developer chose to use the OpenGL 3D graphics API in computer games, the other APIs of DirectX besides Direct3D were often combined with OpenGL because OpenGL does not include all of DirectX's functionality (such as sound or joystick support).In a console-specific version, DirectX was used as a basis for Microsoft's Xbox, Xbox 360 and Xbox One console API. The API was developed jointly between Microsoft and Nvidia, which developed the custom graphics hardware used by the original Xbox. The Xbox API was similar to DirectX version 8.1, but is non-updateable like other console technologies. The Xbox was code named DirectXbox, but this was shortened to Xbox for its commercial name.[26]In 2002, Microsoft released DirectX 9 with support for the use of much longer shader programs than before with pixel and vertex shader version 2.0. Microsoft has continued to update the DirectX suite since then, introducing Shader Model 3.0 in DirectX 9.0c, released in August 2004.As of April 2005, DirectShow was removed from DirectX and moved to the Microsoft Platform SDK instead.DirectX has been confirmed to be present in Microsoft's Windows Phone 8.[27]Real-time raytracing was announced as DXR in 2018. Support for compiling HLSL to SPIR-V was also added in the DirectX Shader Compiler the same year.[28]","title":"Development history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Direct3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D"},{"link_name":"3D rendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_rendering"},{"link_name":"DXGI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DXGI"},{"link_name":"Direct2D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct2D"},{"link_name":"DirectWrite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectWrite"},{"link_name":"DirectCompute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectCompute"},{"link_name":"general-purpose computing on graphics processing units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General-purpose_computing_on_graphics_processing_units"},{"link_name":"XACT3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-platform_Audio_Creation_Tool"},{"link_name":"XAudio2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XAudio2"},{"link_name":"DirectX Raytracing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectX_Raytracing"},{"link_name":"raytracing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_tracing_(graphics)"},{"link_name":"DirectStorage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectStorage"},{"link_name":"DirectML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectML"},{"link_name":"DirectSR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DirectSR&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"DirectX Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectX_Media"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"DirectShow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectShow"},{"link_name":"streaming media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_media"},{"link_name":"Media Foundation Transforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Foundation_Transform"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"DirectX plugins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectX_plugin"},{"link_name":"audio signal processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_signal_processing"},{"link_name":"DirectX Video Acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DXVA"},{"link_name":"Media Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Foundation"},{"link_name":"DirectDraw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectDraw"},{"link_name":"Direct2D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct2D"},{"link_name":"DirectInput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectInput"},{"link_name":"keyboards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_keyboard"},{"link_name":"mice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_mouse"},{"link_name":"joysticks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joystick"},{"link_name":"game controllers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_controller"},{"link_name":"XInput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XInput"},{"link_name":"Xbox 360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_360"},{"link_name":"DirectPlay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectPlay"},{"link_name":"Games for Windows Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_for_Windows_Live"},{"link_name":"Xbox Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_Live"},{"link_name":"DirectSound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectSound"},{"link_name":"XAudio2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XAudio2"},{"link_name":"DirectSound3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectSound3D"},{"link_name":"3D sounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_audio_effect"},{"link_name":"DirectMusic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectMusic"},{"link_name":"COM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Component_Object_Model"},{"link_name":"managed objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_code"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"DirectX is composed of multiple APIs:Direct3D (D3D): Real-time 3D rendering API\nDXGI: Enumerates adapters and monitors and manages swap chains for Direct3D 10 and later.\nDirect2D: 2D graphics API\nDirectWrite: Text rendering API\nDirectCompute: API for general-purpose computing on graphics processing units\nDirectX Diagnostics (DxDiag): A tool for diagnosing and generating reports on components related to DirectX, such as audio, video, and input drivers\nXACT3: High-level audio API\nXAudio2: Low-level audio API\nDirectX Raytracing (DXR): Real-time raytracing API\nDirectStorage: GPU-oriented file I/O API\nDirectML: GPU-accelerated machine learning and artificial intelligence API\nDirectSR: GPU-accelerated resolution upscaling APIMicrosoft has deprecated the following components:DirectX Media: Consists of:\nDirectAnimation for 2D/3D[29] web animation, DirectShow for multimedia playback and streaming media\nDirectX Media Objects: Support for streaming objects such as encoders, decoders, and effects (Deprecated in favor of Media Foundation Transforms; MFTs)[30]\nDirectX Transform for web interactivity, and Direct3D Retained Mode for higher level 3D graphics\nDirectX plugins for audio signal processing\nDirectX Video Acceleration for accelerated video playback (Deprecated in favor of Media Foundation)\nDirectDraw: 2D graphics API (Deprecated in favor of Direct2D)\nDirectInput: Input API for interfacing with keyboards, mice, joysticks, and game controllers (Deprecated after version 8 in favor of XInput for Xbox 360 controllers or standard WM_INPUT window message processing for keyboard and mouse input)\nDirectPlay: Network API for communication over a local-area or wide-area network (Deprecated after version 8 in favor of Games for Windows Live and Xbox Live)\nDirectSound: Audio API (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3)\nDirectSound3D (DS3D): 3D sounds API (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3)\nDirectMusic: Components for playing soundtracks authored in DirectMusic Producer (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3)DirectX functionality is provided in the form of COM-style objects and interfaces. Additionally, while not DirectX components themselves, managed objects have been built on top of some parts of DirectX, such as Managed Direct3D[31] and the XNA graphics library[32] on top of Direct3D 9.Microsoft distributes debugging tool for DirectX called \"PIX\".[33]","title":"Components"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Direct3D § Direct3D 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D#Direct3D_9"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"DirectX 9","text":"See also: Direct3D § Direct3D 9DirectX 9 was released in 2002 for Windows 98, Me, 2000 and XP, and currently[when?] is supported by all subsequent versions. Microsoft continues to make changes in DirectX 9.0c, causing support to be dropped for some of the aforementioned operating systems. As of January 2007, Windows 2000 or XP is required. This also introduced Shader Model 2.0 containing Pixel Shader 2.0 and Vertex Shader 2.0. Windows XP SP2 and newer include DirectX 9.0c,[34] but may require a newer DirectX runtime redistributable installation for DirectX 9.0c applications compiled with the February 2005 DirectX 9.0 SDK or newer.","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Direct3D 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D#Direct3D_10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Microsoft-DirectX-10-Logo-wordmark.svg"},{"link_name":"Windows Vista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Vista"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Changes for DirectX 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Features_new_to_Windows_Vista#DirectX"},{"link_name":"DirectInput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectInput"},{"link_name":"XInput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XInput"},{"link_name":"DirectSound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectSound"},{"link_name":"Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-platform_Audio_Creation_Tool"},{"link_name":"Vista audio stack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Vista_audio_architecture"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Windows Display Driver Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Display_Driver_Model"},{"link_name":"Windows Aero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Aero"},{"link_name":"Shader Model 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Level_Shader_Language"},{"link_name":"Windows Vista Service Pack 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Vista_Service_Pack_1"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Albanesius-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"sub_title":"DirectX 10","text":"See also: Direct3D 10Microsoft DirectX 10 logo wordmarkA major update to DirectX API, DirectX 10 ships with and is only available with Windows Vista (launched in late 2006) and later. Previous versions of Windows such as Windows XP are not able to run DirectX 10-exclusive applications. Rather, programs that are run on a Windows XP system with DirectX 10 hardware simply resort to the DirectX 9.0c code path, the latest available for Windows XP computers.[35]Changes for DirectX 10 were extensive. Many former parts of DirectX API were deprecated in the latest DirectX SDK and are preserved for compatibility only: DirectInput was deprecated in favor of XInput, DirectSound was deprecated in favor of the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool system (XACT) and additionally lost support for hardware accelerated audio, since the Vista audio stack renders sound in software on the CPU. The DirectPlay DPLAY.DLL was also removed and was replaced with dplayx.dll; games that rely on this DLL must duplicate it and rename it to dplay.dll.In order to achieve backwards compatibility, DirectX in Windows Vista contains several versions of Direct3D:[36]Direct3D 9: emulates Direct3D 9 behavior as it was on Windows XP. Details and advantages of Vista's Windows Display Driver Model are hidden from the application if WDDM drivers are installed. This is the only API available if there are only XP graphic drivers (XDDM) installed, after an upgrade to Vista for example.\nDirect3D 9Ex (known internally during Windows Vista development as 9.0L or 9.L): allows full access to the new capabilities of WDDM (if WDDM drivers are installed) while maintaining compatibility for existing Direct3D applications. The Windows Aero user interface relies on D3D 9Ex.\nDirect3D 10: Designed around the new driver model in Windows Vista and featuring a number of improvements to rendering capabilities and flexibility, including Shader Model 4.Direct3D 10.1 is an incremental update of Direct3D 10.0 which shipped with, and required, Windows Vista Service Pack 1, which was released in February 2008.[37] This release mainly sets a few more image quality standards for graphics vendors, while giving developers more control over image quality.[38] It also adds support for cube map arrays, separate blend modes per-MRT, coverage mask export from a pixel shader, ability to run pixel shader per sample, access to multi-sampled depth buffers[39] and requires that the video card supports Shader Model 4.1 or higher and 32-bit floating-point operations. Direct3D 10.1 still fully supports Direct3D 10 hardware, but in order to utilize all of the new features, updated hardware is required.[40]","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Direct3D 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D#Direct3D_11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Microsoft-DirectX-11-Logo-wordmark.svg"},{"link_name":"Windows 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_7"},{"link_name":"GPGPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPGPU"},{"link_name":"DirectCompute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectCompute"},{"link_name":"tessellation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tessellation_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DX11Overview-EB-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DX11-bit-tech-42"},{"link_name":"multi-threading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"multi-core","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-core"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Windows_7_and_D3D_11_release_date-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Windows 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_8"},{"link_name":"WDDM 1.2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Display_Driver_Model"},{"link_name":"Direct2D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct2D"},{"link_name":"Direct3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D"},{"link_name":"DirectCompute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectCompute"},{"link_name":"XAudio2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XAudio2"},{"link_name":"XInput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XInput"},{"link_name":"stereoscopic 3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereoscopy"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-W8preview-46"},{"link_name":"backported","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backport"},{"link_name":"Windows 7 platform update","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_7_platform_update"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eimandar2013-48"},{"link_name":"Windows 8.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_8.1"},{"link_name":"Windows Server 2012 R2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Server_2012_R2#Windows_Server_2012_R2"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-how-to-install-49"},{"link_name":"Direct2D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct2D"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-D3D11.2W8.1-51"},{"link_name":"Xbox One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_One"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-how-to-install-49"}],"sub_title":"DirectX 11","text":"See also: Direct3D 11Microsoft DirectX 11 logo wordmarkMicrosoft unveiled DirectX 11 at the Gamefest 08 event in Seattle. The Final Platform Update launched for Windows Vista on October 27, 2009, which was a week after the initial release of Windows 7, which launched with Direct3D 11 as a base standard.Major scheduled features including GPGPU support (DirectCompute), and Direct3D 11 with tessellation support[41][42] and improved multi-threading support to assist video game developers in developing games that better utilize multi-core processors.[43] Parts of the new API such as multi-threaded resource handling can be supported on Direct3D 9/10/10.1-class hardware. Hardware tessellation and Shader Model 5.0 require Direct3D 11 supporting hardware.[44] Microsoft has since released the Direct3D 11 Technical Preview.[45] Direct3D 11 is a strict superset of Direct3D 10.1 — all hardware and API features of version 10.1 are retained, and new features are added only when necessary for exposing new functionality. This helps to keep backwards compatibility with previous versions of DirectX.Four updates for DirectX 11 were released:DirectX 11.1 is included in Windows 8. It supports WDDM 1.2 for increased performance, features improved integration of Direct2D (now at version 1.1), Direct3D, and DirectCompute, and includes DirectXMath, XAudio2, and XInput libraries from the XNA framework. It also features stereoscopic 3D support for gaming and video.[46] DirectX 11.1 was also partially backported to Windows 7, via the Windows 7 platform update.[47][48]\nDirectX 11.2 is included in Windows 8.1 (including the RT version) and Windows Server 2012 R2.[49] It added some new features to Direct2D like geometry realizations.[50] It also added swap chain composition, which allows some elements of the scene to be rendered at lower resolutions and then composited via hardware overlay with other parts rendered at higher resolution.[51]\nDirectX 11.X is a superset of DirectX 11.2 running on the Xbox One.[52] It actually includes some features, such as draw bundles, that were later announced as part of DirectX 12.[53]\nDirectX 11.3 was announced along with DirectX 12 at GDC and released in 2015. It is meant to complement DirectX 12 as a higher-level alternative.[54] It is included with Windows 10.[49]","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Direct3D 12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D#Direct3D_12"},{"link_name":"GDC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Developers_Conference"},{"link_name":"Windows 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_10"},{"link_name":"low-level programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-level_programming_language"},{"link_name":"Direct3D 12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D_12"},{"link_name":"parallel computation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computing"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Direct3D_12_API_Preview-55"},{"link_name":"Mantle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantle_(API)"},{"link_name":"Metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_(API)"},{"link_name":"Khronos Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khronos_Group"},{"link_name":"Vulkan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkan_(API)"},{"link_name":"AMD CrossFireX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_CrossFireX"},{"link_name":"NVIDIA SLI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalable_Link_Interface"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"dedicated GPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit#Dedicated_graphics_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"integrated GPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit#Integrated_graphics"},{"link_name":"Fermi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"GCN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_Core_Next"},{"link_name":"Haswell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haswell_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anand12-60"},{"link_name":"SIGGRAPH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIGGRAPH"},{"link_name":"asteroid field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_field"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Ashes of the Singularity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashes_of_the_Singularity"},{"link_name":"Ars Technica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Technica"},{"link_name":"Nvidia GeForce 980 Ti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeForce_900_series"},{"link_name":"AMD Radeon R9 290x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_Radeon_Rx_200_series"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arsuk-dx12bench-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-msblogdxr-65"},{"link_name":"Windows 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_7"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"}],"sub_title":"DirectX 12","text":"See also: Direct3D 12DirectX 12 was announced by Microsoft at GDC on March 20, 2014, and was officially launched alongside Windows 10 on July 29, 2015.The primary feature highlight for the new release of DirectX was the introduction of advanced low-level programming APIs for Direct3D 12 which can reduce driver overhead. Developers are now able to implement their own command lists and buffers to the GPU, allowing for more efficient resource utilization through parallel computation. Lead developer Max McMullen stated that the main goal of Direct3D 12 is to achieve \"console-level efficiency on phone, tablet and PC\".[55] The release of Direct3D 12 comes alongside other initiatives for low-overhead graphics APIs including AMD's Mantle for AMD graphics cards, Apple's Metal for iOS and macOS and Khronos Group's cross-platform Vulkan.Multiadapter support will feature in DirectX 12 allowing developers to utilize multiple GPUs on a system simultaneously; multi-GPU support was previously dependent on vendor implementations such as AMD CrossFireX or NVIDIA SLI.[56][57][58][59]Implicit Multiadapter support will work in a similar manner to previous versions of DirectX where frames are rendered alternately across linked GPUs of similar compute-power.\nExplicit Multiadapter will provide two distinct API patterns to developers. Linked GPUs will allow DirectX to view graphics cards in SLI or CrossFireX as a single GPU and use the combined resources; whereas Unlinked GPUs will allow GPUs from different vendors to be utilized by DirectX, such as supplementing the dedicated GPU with the integrated GPU on the CPU, or combining AMD and NVIDIA cards. However, elaborate mixed multi-GPU setups requires significantly more attentive developer support.DirectX 12 is supported on all Fermi and later Nvidia GPUs, on AMD's GCN-based chips and on Intel's Haswell and later processors' graphics units.[60]At SIGGRAPH 2014, Intel released a demo showing a computer generated asteroid field, in which DirectX 12 was claimed to be 50–70% more efficient than DirectX 11 in rendering speed and CPU power consumption.[61][62]Ashes of the Singularity was the first publicly available game to utilize DirectX 12. Testing by Ars Technica in August 2015 revealed slight performance regressions in DirectX 12 over DirectX 11 mode for the Nvidia GeForce 980 Ti, whereas the AMD Radeon R9 290x achieved consistent performance improvements of up to 70% under DirectX 12, and in some scenarios the AMD outperformed the more powerful Nvidia under DirectX 12. The performance discrepancies may be due to poor Nvidia driver optimizations for DirectX 12, or even hardware limitations of the card which was optimized for DirectX 11 serial execution; however, the exact cause remains unclear.[63]The performance improvements of DirectX 12 on the Xbox are not as substantial as on the PC.[64]In March 2018, DirectX Raytracing (DXR) was announced, capable of real-time ray-tracing on supported hardware,[65] and the DXR API was added in the Windows 10 October 2018 update.In 2019 Microsoft announced the arrival of DirectX 12 to Windows 7 but only as a plug-in for certain game titles.[66]","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Xbox Series X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_Series_X"},{"link_name":"DirectX Raytracing 1.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectX_Raytracing"},{"link_name":"Mesh Shaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shader#Primitive_and_Mesh_shaders"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"}],"sub_title":"DirectX 12 Ultimate","text":"Microsoft revealed DirectX 12 Ultimate in March 2020. DirectX 12 Ultimate will unify to a common library on both Windows 10 computers and the Xbox Series X and other ninth-generation Xbox consoles. Among the new features in Ultimate includes DirectX Raytracing 1.1, Variable Rate Shading, which gives programmers control over the level of detail of shading depending on design choices, Mesh Shaders, and Sampler Feedback.[67][68]","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DxDiag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DxDiag"},{"link_name":"MSDN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Developer_Network"},{"link_name":"DxDiag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DxDiag"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"}],"sub_title":"Version history","text":"The version number as reported by Microsoft's DxDiag tool (version 4.09.0000.0900 and higher) use the x.xx.xxxx.xxxx format for version numbers. However, the DirectX and Windows XP MSDN page claims that the registry always has been in the x.xx.xx.xxxx format. Therefore, when the above table lists a version as '4.09.00.0904' Microsoft's DxDiag tool may have it as '4.09.0000.0904'.[96]","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"device driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver"},{"link_name":"Windows Update","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Update"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MSDN-98"},{"link_name":"Direct3D 10.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D_10.1"},{"link_name":"feature levels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_levels_in_Direct3D"},{"link_name":"Direct3D 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D_11"},{"link_name":"Direct3D 11.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D_11.1"}],"text":"Various releases of Windows have included and supported various versions of DirectX, allowing newer versions of the operating system to continue running applications designed for earlier versions of DirectX until those versions can be gradually phased out in favor of newer APIs, drivers, and hardware.[97]APIs such as Direct3D and DirectSound need to interact with hardware, and they do this through a device driver. Hardware manufacturers have to write these drivers for a particular DirectX version's device driver interface (or DDI), and test each individual piece of hardware to make them DirectX compatible. Some hardware devices have only DirectX compatible drivers (in other words, one must install DirectX in order to use that hardware). Early versions of DirectX included an up-to-date library of all of the DirectX compatible drivers currently available. This practice was stopped however, in favor of the web-based Windows Update driver-update system, which allowed users to download only the drivers relevant to their hardware, rather than the entire library.Prior to DirectX 10, DirectX runtime was designed to be backward compatible with older drivers, meaning that newer versions of the APIs were designed to interoperate with older drivers written against a previous version's DDI. The application programmer had to query the available hardware capabilities using a complex system of \"cap bits\" each tied to a particular hardware feature. Direct3D 7 and earlier would work on any version of the DDI, Direct3D 8 requires a minimum DDI level of 6 and Direct3D 9 requires a minimum DDI level of 7.[98]\nHowever, the Direct3D 10 runtime in Windows Vista cannot run on older hardware drivers due to the significantly updated DDI, which requires a unified feature set and abandons the use of \"cap bits\".Direct3D 10.1 introduces \"feature levels\" 10_0 and 10_1, which allow use of only the hardware features defined in the specified version of Direct3D API. Direct3D 11 adds level 11_0 and \"10 Level 9\" - a subset of the Direct3D 10 API designed to run on Direct3D 9 hardware, which has three feature levels (9_1, 9_2 and 9_3) grouped by common capabilities of \"low\", \"med\" and \"high-end\" video cards; the runtime directly uses Direct3D 9 DDI provided in all WDDM drivers. Feature level 11_1 has been introduced with Direct3D 11.1.","title":"Compatibility"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":".NET Framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_Framework"},{"link_name":"C#","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Managed DirectX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_DirectX"},{"link_name":"GDC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Developers_Conference"},{"link_name":"XNA Framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_XNA"},{"link_name":"XNA Game Studio Express RTM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_XNA#XNA_Game_Studio"},{"link_name":"Managed DirectX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_DirectX"},{"link_name":"XNA Framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_XNA"},{"link_name":"Xbox 360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_360"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"DirectShow.NET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//sourceforge.net/projects/directshownet"},{"link_name":"Windows API CodePack for .NET Framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//code.msdn.microsoft.com/WindowsAPICodePack"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110214011000/http://code.msdn.microsoft.com/WindowsAPICodePack"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"}],"sub_title":".NET Framework","text":"In 2002, Microsoft released a version of DirectX compatible with the Microsoft .NET Framework, thus allowing programmers to take advantage of DirectX functionality from within .NET applications using compatible languages such as managed C++ or the use of the C# programming language. This API was known as \"Managed DirectX\" (or MDX for short), and claimed to operate at 98% of performance of the underlying native DirectX APIs. In December 2005, February 2006, April 2006, and August 2006, Microsoft released successive updates to this library, culminating in a beta version called Managed DirectX 2.0. While Managed DirectX 2.0 consolidated functionality that had previously been scattered over multiple assemblies into a single assembly, thus simplifying dependencies on it for software developers, development on this version has subsequently been discontinued, and it is no longer supported. The Managed DirectX 2.0 library expired on October 5, 2006.During the GDC 2006, Microsoft presented the XNA Framework, a new managed version of DirectX (similar but not identical to Managed DirectX) that is intended to assist development of games by making it easier to integrate DirectX, HLSL and other tools in one package. It also supports the execution of managed code on the Xbox 360. The XNA Game Studio Express RTM was made available on December 11, 2006, as a free download for Windows XP. Unlike the DirectX runtime, Managed DirectX, XNA Framework or the Xbox 360 APIs (XInput, XACT etc.) have not shipped as part of Windows. Developers are expected to redistribute the runtime components along with their games or applications.No Microsoft product including the latest XNA releases provides DirectX 10 support for the .NET Framework.The other approach for DirectX in managed languages is to use third-party libraries like:SlimDX, an open source library for DirectX programming on the .NET Framework\nSharpDX,[99][100] which is an open source project delivering the full DirectX API for .NET on all Windows platforms, allowing the development of high performance game, 2D and 3D graphics rendering as well as real-time sound applications\nDirectShow.NET for the DirectShow subset\nWindows API CodePack for .NET Framework Archived February 14, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, which is an open source library from Microsoft.","title":"Compatibility"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"APIs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/API"},{"link_name":"OpenGL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenGL"},{"link_name":"Vulkan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkan"},{"link_name":"Metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_(API)"},{"link_name":"Mantle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantle_(API)"},{"link_name":"Direct3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D"},{"link_name":"SDL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_DirectMedia_Layer"},{"link_name":"Allegro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegro_(software_library)"},{"link_name":"OpenMAX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenMAX"},{"link_name":"OpenAL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenAL"},{"link_name":"OpenCL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenCL"},{"link_name":"FMOD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FMOD"},{"link_name":"SFML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_and_Fast_Multimedia_Library"},{"link_name":"Wine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine_(software)"},{"link_name":"ReactOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReactOS"}],"text":"There are alternatives to the DirectX family of APIs, with OpenGL, its successor Vulkan, Metal and Mantle having the most features comparable to Direct3D. Examples of other APIs include SDL, Allegro, OpenMAX, OpenML, OpenAL, OpenCL, FMOD, SFML etc. Many of these libraries are cross-platform or have open codebases. There are also alternative implementations that aim to provide the same API, such as the one in Wine. Furthermore, the developers of ReactOS are trying to reimplement DirectX under the name \"ReactX\".","title":"Alternatives"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_a"}],"text":"1.^ After installing this version, it's possible to install up to version Nov 2007 on 98/98SE, and up to version Feb 2010 on Me.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Microsoft DirectX 10 logo wordmark","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Microsoft-DirectX-10-Logo-wordmark.svg/220px-Microsoft-DirectX-10-Logo-wordmark.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Microsoft DirectX 11 logo wordmark","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Microsoft-DirectX-11-Logo-wordmark.svg/220px-Microsoft-DirectX-11-Logo-wordmark.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"ActiveX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ActiveX"},{"title":"Comparison of OpenGL and Direct3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_OpenGL_and_Direct3D"},{"title":"Direct3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D"},{"title":"DirectX plugin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectX_plugin"},{"title":"DxDiag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DxDiag"},{"title":"Graphics Device Interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_Device_Interface"},{"title":"Graphics pipeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_pipeline"},{"title":"Simple DirectMedia Layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_DirectMedia_Layer"},{"title":"Timeout Detection and Recovery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeout_Detection_and_Recovery"},{"title":"Vulkan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkan"}]
|
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|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_planning_and_design
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Network planning and design
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["1 A network planning methodology","2 The role of forecasting","3 Dimensioning","4 Traffic engineering","5 Survivability","6 Data driven network design","7 See also","8 References"]
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Network planning and design is an iterative process, encompassing
topological design, network-synthesis, and network-realization, and is aimed at ensuring that a new telecommunications network or service meets the needs of the subscriber and operator.
The process can be tailored according to each new network or service.
A network planning methodology
A traditional network planning methodology in the context of business decisions involves five layers of planning, namely:
need assessment and resource assessment
short-term network planning
IT resource
long-term and medium-term network planning
operations and maintenance.
Each of these layers incorporates plans for different time horizons, i.e. the business planning layer determines the planning that the operator must perform to ensure that the network will perform as required for its intended life-span. The Operations and Maintenance layer, however, examines how the network will run on a day-to-day basis.
The network planning process begins with the acquisition of external information. This includes:
forecasts of how the new network/service will operate;
the economic information concerning costs, and
the technical details of the network’s capabilities.
Planning a new network/service involves implementing the new system across the first four layers of the OSI Reference Model. Choices must be made for the protocols and transmission technologies.
The network planning process involves three main steps:
Topological design: This stage involves determining where to place the components and how to connect them. The (topological) optimization methods that can be used in this stage come from an area of mathematics called graph theory. These methods involve determining the costs of transmission and the cost of switching, and thereby determining the optimum connection matrix and location of switches and concentrators.
Network-synthesis: This stage involves determining the size of the components used, subject to performance criteria such as the grade of service (GOS). The method used is known as "Nonlinear Optimisation", and involves determining the topology, required GoS, cost of transmission, etc., and using this information to calculate a routing plan, and the size of the components.
Network realization: This stage involves determining how to meet capacity requirements, and ensure reliability within the network. The method used is known as "Multicommodity Flow Optimisation", and involves determining all information relating to demand, costs, and reliability, and then using this information to calculate an actual physical circuit plan.
These steps are performed iteratively in parallel with one another.
The role of forecasting
During the process of Network Planning and Design, estimates are made of the expected traffic intensity and traffic load that the network must support. If a network of a similar nature already exists, traffic measurements of such a network can be used to calculate the exact traffic load. If there are no similar networks, then the network planner must use telecommunications forecasting methods to estimate the expected traffic intensity.
The forecasting process involves several steps:
Definition of a problem;
Data acquisition;
Choice of forecasting method;
Analysis/Forecasting;
Documentation and analysis of results.
Dimensioning
Dimensioning a new network determines the minimum capacity requirements that will still allow the Teletraffic Grade of Service (GoS) requirements to be met. To do this, dimensioning involves planning for peak-hour traffic, i.e. that hour during the day during which traffic intensity is at its peak.
The dimensioning process involves determining the network’s topology, routing plan, traffic matrix, and GoS requirements, and using this information to determine the maximum call handling capacity of the switches, and the maximum number of channels required between the switches. This process requires a complex model that simulates the behavior of the network equipment and routing protocols.
A dimensioning rule is that the planner must ensure that the traffic load should never approach a load of 100 percent. To calculate the correct dimensioning to comply with the above rule, the planner must take on-going measurements of the network’s traffic, and continuously maintain and upgrade resources to meet the changing requirements. Another reason for overprovisioning is to make sure that traffic can be rerouted in case a failure occurs in the network.
Because of the complexity of network dimensioning, this is typically done using specialized software tools. Whereas researchers typically develop custom software to study a particular problem, network operators typically make use of commercial network planning software.
Traffic engineering
Compared to network engineering, which adds resources such as links, routers, and switches into the network, traffic engineering targets changing traffic paths on the existing network to alleviate traffic congestion or accommodate more traffic demand.
This technology is critical when the cost of network expansion is prohibitively high and the network load is not optimally balanced. The first part provides financial motivation for traffic engineering while the second part grants the possibility of deploying this technology.
Survivability
Network survivability enables the network to maintain maximum network connectivity and quality of service under failure conditions. It has been one of the critical requirements in network planning and design. It involves design requirements on topology, protocol, bandwidth allocation, etc.. Topology requirement can be maintaining a minimum two-connected network against any failure of a single link or node. Protocol requirements include using a dynamic routing protocol to reroute traffic against network dynamics during the transition of network dimensioning or equipment failures. Bandwidth allocation requirements pro-actively allocate extra bandwidth to avoid traffic loss under failure conditions. This topic has been actively studied in conferences, such as the International Workshop on Design of Reliable Communication Networks (DRCN).
Data driven network design
More recently, with the increasing role of Artificial Intelligence technologies in engineering, the idea of using data to create data-driven models of existing networks has been proposed. By analyzing large network data, also the less desired behaviors that may occur in real-world networks can be understood, worked around, and avoided in future designs.
Both the design and management of networked systems can be improved by data-driven paradigm. Data-driven models can also be used at various phases of service and network management life cycle such as service instantiation, service provision, optimization, monitoring, and diagnostic.
See also
Core-and-pod
Network Partition for Optimization
References
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Penttinen A., Chapter 10 – Network Planning and Dimensioning, Lecture Notes: S-38.145 - Introduction to Teletraffic Theory, Helsinki University of Technology, Fall 1999.
^ a b c d e f g Farr R.E., Telecommunications Traffic, Tariffs and Costs – An Introduction For Managers, Peter Peregrinus Ltd, 1988.
^ International Workshop on Design of Reliable Communication Networks, DRCN
^ C. Fortuna, E. De Poorter, P. Škraba, I. Moerman, Data-Driven Wireless Network Design: A Multi-level Modeling Approach, Wireless Personal Communications, May 2016, Volume 88, Issue 1, pp 63–77.
^ J. Jiang, V. Sekar, I. Stoica, H. Zhang, Unleashing the Potential of Data-Driven Networking, Springer LNCS vol LNCS, volume 10340, September 2017.
^ An Architecture for Data Model-Driven Network Management: The Network Virtualization Case, IETF draft.
|
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The Operations and Maintenance layer, however, examines how the network will run on a day-to-day basis.The network planning process begins with the acquisition of external information. This includes:forecasts of how the new network/service will operate;\nthe economic information concerning costs, and\nthe technical details of the network’s capabilities.[1][2]Planning a new network/service involves implementing the new system across the first four layers of the OSI Reference Model.[1] Choices must be made for the protocols and transmission technologies.[1][2]The network planning process involves three main steps:Topological design: This stage involves determining where to place the components and how to connect them. The (topological) optimization methods that can be used in this stage come from an area of mathematics called graph theory. These methods involve determining the costs of transmission and the cost of switching, and thereby determining the optimum connection matrix and location of switches and concentrators.[1]\nNetwork-synthesis: This stage involves determining the size of the components used, subject to performance criteria such as the grade of service (GOS). The method used is known as \"Nonlinear Optimisation\", and involves determining the topology, required GoS, cost of transmission, etc., and using this information to calculate a routing plan, and the size of the components.[1]\nNetwork realization: This stage involves determining how to meet capacity requirements, and ensure reliability within the network. The method used is known as \"Multicommodity Flow Optimisation\", and involves determining all information relating to demand, costs, and reliability, and then using this information to calculate an actual physical circuit plan.[1]These steps are performed iteratively in parallel with one another.[1][2]","title":"A network planning methodology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"traffic intensity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_intensity"},{"link_name":"traffic load","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_congestion"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-[1]-1"},{"link_name":"traffic measurements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_measurement_(telecommunications)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-[*]-2"},{"link_name":"telecommunications forecasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_forecasting"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-[1]-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-[1]-1"}],"text":"During the process of Network Planning and Design, estimates are made of the expected traffic intensity and traffic load that the network must support.[1] If a network of a similar nature already exists, traffic measurements of such a network can be used to calculate the exact traffic load.[2] If there are no similar networks, then the network planner must use telecommunications forecasting methods to estimate the expected traffic intensity.[1]The forecasting process involves several steps:[1]Definition of a problem;\nData acquisition;\nChoice of forecasting method;\nAnalysis/Forecasting;\nDocumentation and analysis of results.","title":"The role of forecasting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Teletraffic Grade of Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletraffic_Grade_of_Service"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-[1]-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-[*]-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-[1]-1"},{"link_name":"matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"switches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switch"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-[1]-1"},{"link_name":"routing protocols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing_protocol"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-[1]-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-[1]-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-[*]-2"}],"text":"Dimensioning a new network determines the minimum capacity requirements that will still allow the Teletraffic Grade of Service (GoS) requirements to be met.[1][2] To do this, dimensioning involves planning for peak-hour traffic, i.e. that hour during the day during which traffic intensity is at its peak.[1]The dimensioning process involves determining the network’s topology, routing plan, traffic matrix, and GoS requirements, and using this information to determine the maximum call handling capacity of the switches, and the maximum number of channels required between the switches.[1] This process requires a complex model that simulates the behavior of the network equipment and routing protocols.A dimensioning rule is that the planner must ensure that the traffic load should never approach a load of 100 percent.[1] To calculate the correct dimensioning to comply with the above rule, the planner must take on-going measurements of the network’s traffic, and continuously maintain and upgrade resources to meet the changing requirements.[1][2] Another reason for overprovisioning is to make sure that traffic can be rerouted in case a failure occurs in the network.Because of the complexity of network dimensioning, this is typically done using specialized software tools. Whereas researchers typically develop custom software to study a particular problem, network operators typically make use of commercial network planning software.","title":"Dimensioning"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Compared to network engineering, which adds resources such as links, routers, and switches into the network, traffic engineering targets changing traffic paths on the existing network to alleviate traffic congestion or accommodate more traffic demand.This technology is critical when the cost of network expansion is prohibitively high and the network load is not optimally balanced. The first part provides financial motivation for traffic engineering while the second part grants the possibility of deploying this technology.","title":"Traffic engineering"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Network survivability enables the network to maintain maximum network connectivity and quality of service under failure conditions. It has been one of the critical requirements in network planning and design. It involves design requirements on topology, protocol, bandwidth allocation, etc.. Topology requirement can be maintaining a minimum two-connected network against any failure of a single link or node. Protocol requirements include using a dynamic routing protocol to reroute traffic against network dynamics during the transition of network dimensioning or equipment failures. Bandwidth allocation requirements pro-actively allocate extra bandwidth to avoid traffic loss under failure conditions. This topic has been actively studied in conferences, such as the International Workshop on Design of Reliable Communication Networks (DRCN).[3]","title":"Survivability"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"More recently, with the increasing role of Artificial Intelligence technologies in engineering, the idea of using data to create data-driven models of existing networks has been proposed.[4] By analyzing large network data, also the less desired behaviors that may occur in real-world networks can be understood, worked around, and avoided in future designs.Both the design and management of networked systems can be improved by data-driven paradigm.[5] Data-driven models can also be used at various phases of service and network management life cycle such as service instantiation, service provision, optimization, monitoring, and diagnostic.[6]","title":"Data driven network design"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Core-and-pod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core-and-pod"},{"title":"Network Partition for Optimization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_partition#Network_Partition_for_Optimization"}]
|
[]
|
[{"Link":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1275329","external_links_name":"International Workshop on Design of Reliable Communication Networks, DRCN"},{"Link":"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11277-016-3242-8","external_links_name":"Data-Driven Wireless Network Design: A Multi-level Modeling Approach"},{"Link":"https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-67235-9_9","external_links_name":"Unleashing the Potential of Data-Driven Networking"},{"Link":"https://tools.ietf.org/id/draft-wu-model-driven-management-virtualization-00.html","external_links_name":"An Architecture for Data Model-Driven Network Management: The Network Virtualization Case"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread-safe
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Thread safety
|
["1 Levels of thread safety","2 Implementation approaches","3 Examples","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
|
Concept in multi-threaded computer programming
In multi-threaded computer programming, a function is thread-safe when it can be invoked or accessed concurrently by multiple threads without causing unexpected behavior, race conditions, or data corruption. As in the multi-threaded context where a program executes several threads simultaneously in a shared address space and each of those threads has access to all every other thread's memory, thread-safe functions need to ensures all those threads behave properly and fulfill their design specifications without unintended interaction.
There are various strategies for making thread-safe data structures.
Levels of thread safety
Different vendors use slightly different terminology for thread-safety, but the most commonly use thread-safety terminology are:
Not thread safe: Data structures should not be accessed simultaneously by different threads.
Thread safe, serialization: Use a single mutex for all resources to guarantee the thread to be free of race conditions when those resources are accessed by multiple threads simultaneously.
Thread safe, MT-safe: Use a mutex for every single resource to guarantee the thread to be free of race conditions when those resources are accessed by multiple threads simultaneously.
Thread safety guarantees usually also include design steps to prevent or limit the risk of different forms of deadlocks, as well as optimizations to maximize concurrent performance. However, deadlock-free guarantees cannot always be given, since deadlocks can be caused by callbacks and violation of architectural layering independent of the library itself.
Software libraries can provide certain thread-safety guarantees. For example, concurrent reads might be guaranteed to be thread-safe, but concurrent writes might not be. Whether a program using such a library is thread-safe depends on whether it uses the library in a manner consistent with those guarantees.
Implementation approaches
Below we discuss two classes of approaches for avoiding race conditions to achieve thread-safety.
The first class of approaches focuses on avoiding shared state and includes:
Re-entrancy
Writing code in such a way that it can be partially executed by a thread, executed by the same thread, or simultaneously executed by another thread and still correctly complete the original execution. This requires the saving of state information in variables local to each execution, usually on a stack, instead of in static or global variables or other non-local state. All non-local states must be accessed through atomic operations and the data-structures must also be reentrant.
Thread-local storage
Variables are localized so that each thread has its own private copy. These variables retain their values across subroutine and other code boundaries and are thread-safe since they are local to each thread, even though the code which accesses them might be executed simultaneously by another thread.
Immutable objects
The state of an object cannot be changed after construction. This implies both that only read-only data is shared and that inherent thread safety is attained. Mutable (non-const) operations can then be implemented in such a way that they create new objects instead of modifying the existing ones. This approach is characteristic of functional programming and is also used by the string implementations in Java, C#, and Python. (See Immutable object.)
The second class of approaches are synchronization-related, and are used in situations where shared state cannot be avoided:
Mutual exclusion
Access to shared data is serialized using mechanisms that ensure only one thread reads or writes to the shared data at any time. Incorporation of mutual exclusion needs to be well thought out, since improper usage can lead to side-effects like deadlocks, livelocks, and resource starvation.
Atomic operations
Shared data is accessed by using atomic operations which cannot be interrupted by other threads. This usually requires using special machine language instructions, which might be available in a runtime library. Since the operations are atomic, the shared data is always kept in a valid state, no matter how other threads access it. Atomic operations form the basis of many thread locking mechanisms, and are used to implement mutual exclusion primitives.
Examples
In the following piece of Java code, the Java keyword synchronized makes the method thread-safe:
class Counter {
private int i = 0;
public synchronized void inc() {
i++;
}
}
In the C programming language, each thread has its own stack. However, a static variable is not kept on the stack; all threads share simultaneous access to it. If multiple threads overlap while running the same function, it is possible that a static variable might be changed by one thread while another is midway through checking it. This difficult-to-diagnose logic error, which may compile and run properly most of the time, is called a race condition. One common way to avoid this is to use another shared variable as a "lock" or "mutex" (from mutual exclusion).
In the following piece of C code, the function is thread-safe, but not reentrant:
# include <pthread.h>
int increment_counter ()
{
static int counter = 0;
static pthread_mutex_t mutex = PTHREAD_MUTEX_INITIALIZER;
// only allow one thread to increment at a time
pthread_mutex_lock(&mutex);
++counter;
// store value before any other threads increment it further
int result = counter;
pthread_mutex_unlock(&mutex);
return result;
}
In the above, increment_counter can be called by different threads without any problem since a mutex is used to synchronize all access to the shared counter variable. But if the function is used in a reentrant interrupt handler and a second interrupt arises while the mutex is locked, the second routine will hang forever. As interrupt servicing can disable other interrupts, the whole system could suffer.
The same function can be implemented to be both thread-safe and reentrant using the lock-free atomics in C++11:
# include <atomic>
int increment_counter ()
{
static std::atomic<int> counter(0);
// increment is guaranteed to be done atomically
int result = ++counter;
return result;
}
See also
Concurrency control
Exception safety
Priority inversion
ThreadSafe
References
^ Kerrisk, Michael (2010). The Linux Programing Interface. No Starch Press. p. 699, "Chapter 31: THREADS: THREAD SAFETY AND PER-THREAD STORAGE"{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
^ a b Oracle (2010-11-01). "Oracle: Thread safety". Docs.oracle.com. Retrieved 2013-10-16"A procedure is thread safe when the procedure is logically correct when executed simultaneously by several threads"; "3 level of thread-safe"{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
^ a b Oracle (November 2020). "Multithreaded Programming Guide: Chapter 7 Safe and Unsafe Interfaces". Docs Oracle. Retrieved 2024-04-30; "Thread Safety"{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
^ "API thread safety classifications". IBM. 2023-04-11. Retrieved 2023-10-09.
^ "MT Safety Levels for Libraries". Docs Oracle. Retrieved 2024-05-17.
^ "Reentrancy and Thread-Safety | Qt 5.6". Qt Project. Retrieved 2016-04-20.
External links
Java Q&A Experts (20 April 1999). "Thread-safe design (4/20/99)". JavaWorld.com. Retrieved 2012-01-22.
TutorialsDesk (30 Sep 2014). "Synchronization and Thread Safety Tutorial with Examples in Java". TutorialsDesk.com. Retrieved 2012-01-22.
Venners, Bill (1 August 1998). "Design for thread safety". JavaWorld.com. Retrieved 2012-01-22.
Suess, Michael (15 October 2006). "A Short Guide to Mastering Thread-Safety". Thinking Parallel. Retrieved 2012-01-22.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"multi-threaded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-threaded"},{"link_name":"computer programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming"},{"link_name":"race conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_condition"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"address space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space"},{"link_name":"memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_storage"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"}],"text":"In multi-threaded computer programming, a function is thread-safe when it can be invoked or accessed concurrently by multiple threads without causing unexpected behavior, race conditions, or data corruption.[1][2] As in the multi-threaded context where a program executes several threads simultaneously in a shared address space and each of those threads has access to all every other thread's memory, thread-safe functions need to ensures all those threads behave properly and fulfill their design specifications without unintended interaction.[3]There are various strategies for making thread-safe data structures.[3]","title":"Thread safety"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"race conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_condition#Computing"},{"link_name":"race conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_condition#Computing"},{"link_name":"deadlocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadlock"},{"link_name":"callbacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callback_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"architectural layering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_layer"},{"link_name":"Software libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Different vendors use slightly different terminology for thread-safety,[4] but the most commonly use thread-safety terminology are:[2]Not thread safe: Data structures should not be accessed simultaneously by different threads.\nThread safe, serialization: Use a single mutex for all resources to guarantee the thread to be free of race conditions when those resources are accessed by multiple threads simultaneously.\nThread safe, MT-safe: Use a mutex for every single resource to guarantee the thread to be free of race conditions when those resources are accessed by multiple threads simultaneously.Thread safety guarantees usually also include design steps to prevent or limit the risk of different forms of deadlocks, as well as optimizations to maximize concurrent performance. However, deadlock-free guarantees cannot always be given, since deadlocks can be caused by callbacks and violation of architectural layering independent of the library itself.Software libraries can provide certain thread-safety guarantees.[5] For example, concurrent reads might be guaranteed to be thread-safe, but concurrent writes might not be. Whether a program using such a library is thread-safe depends on whether it uses the library in a manner consistent with those guarantees.","title":"Levels of thread safety"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"race conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_condition#Computing"},{"link_name":"Re-entrancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reentrant_(subroutine)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"static","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_variable"},{"link_name":"global","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_variable"},{"link_name":"Thread-local storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread-local_storage"},{"link_name":"subroutine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subroutine"},{"link_name":"Immutable objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immutable_object"},{"link_name":"functional programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming"},{"link_name":"Immutable object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immutable_object"},{"link_name":"Mutual exclusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_exclusion"},{"link_name":"deadlocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadlock"},{"link_name":"livelocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livelock"},{"link_name":"resource starvation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_starvation"},{"link_name":"Atomic operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linearizability"},{"link_name":"machine language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_language"},{"link_name":"runtime library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runtime_library"}],"text":"Below we discuss two classes of approaches for avoiding race conditions to achieve thread-safety.The first class of approaches focuses on avoiding shared state and includes:Re-entrancy[6]\nWriting code in such a way that it can be partially executed by a thread, executed by the same thread, or simultaneously executed by another thread and still correctly complete the original execution. This requires the saving of state information in variables local to each execution, usually on a stack, instead of in static or global variables or other non-local state. All non-local states must be accessed through atomic operations and the data-structures must also be reentrant.\nThread-local storage\nVariables are localized so that each thread has its own private copy. These variables retain their values across subroutine and other code boundaries and are thread-safe since they are local to each thread, even though the code which accesses them might be executed simultaneously by another thread.\nImmutable objects\nThe state of an object cannot be changed after construction. This implies both that only read-only data is shared and that inherent thread safety is attained. Mutable (non-const) operations can then be implemented in such a way that they create new objects instead of modifying the existing ones. This approach is characteristic of functional programming and is also used by the string implementations in Java, C#, and Python. (See Immutable object.)The second class of approaches are synchronization-related, and are used in situations where shared state cannot be avoided:Mutual exclusion\nAccess to shared data is serialized using mechanisms that ensure only one thread reads or writes to the shared data at any time. Incorporation of mutual exclusion needs to be well thought out, since improper usage can lead to side-effects like deadlocks, livelocks, and resource starvation.\nAtomic operations\nShared data is accessed by using atomic operations which cannot be interrupted by other threads. This usually requires using special machine language instructions, which might be available in a runtime library. Since the operations are atomic, the shared data is always kept in a valid state, no matter how other threads access it. Atomic operations form the basis of many thread locking mechanisms, and are used to implement mutual exclusion primitives.","title":"Implementation approaches"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"synchronized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Java_keywords#synchronized"},{"link_name":"C programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"static variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_variable"},{"link_name":"logic error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_error"},{"link_name":"race condition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_condition#Software"},{"link_name":"\"lock\" or \"mutex\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"atomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linearizability"},{"link_name":"C++11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B11"}],"text":"In the following piece of Java code, the Java keyword synchronized makes the method thread-safe:class Counter {\n private int i = 0;\n\n public synchronized void inc() {\n i++;\n }\n}In the C programming language, each thread has its own stack. However, a static variable is not kept on the stack; all threads share simultaneous access to it. If multiple threads overlap while running the same function, it is possible that a static variable might be changed by one thread while another is midway through checking it. This difficult-to-diagnose logic error, which may compile and run properly most of the time, is called a race condition. One common way to avoid this is to use another shared variable as a \"lock\" or \"mutex\" (from mutual exclusion).In the following piece of C code, the function is thread-safe, but not reentrant:# include <pthread.h>\n\nint increment_counter ()\n{\n static int counter = 0;\n static pthread_mutex_t mutex = PTHREAD_MUTEX_INITIALIZER;\n\n // only allow one thread to increment at a time\n pthread_mutex_lock(&mutex);\n\n ++counter;\n\n // store value before any other threads increment it further\n int result = counter;\n\n pthread_mutex_unlock(&mutex);\n\n return result;\n}In the above, increment_counter can be called by different threads without any problem since a mutex is used to synchronize all access to the shared counter variable. But if the function is used in a reentrant interrupt handler and a second interrupt arises while the mutex is locked, the second routine will hang forever. As interrupt servicing can disable other interrupts, the whole system could suffer.The same function can be implemented to be both thread-safe and reentrant using the lock-free atomics in C++11:# include <atomic>\n\nint increment_counter ()\n{\n static std::atomic<int> counter(0);\n\n // increment is guaranteed to be done atomically\n int result = ++counter;\n\n return result;\n}","title":"Examples"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Concurrency control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrency_control"},{"title":"Exception safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exception_safety"},{"title":"Priority inversion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_inversion"},{"title":"ThreadSafe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThreadSafe"}]
|
[{"reference":"Kerrisk, Michael (2010). The Linux Programing Interface. No Starch Press. p. 699, \"Chapter 31: THREADS: THREAD SAFETY AND PER-THREAD STORAGE\"","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Starch_Press","url_text":"No Starch Press"}]},{"reference":"Oracle (2010-11-01). \"Oracle: Thread safety\". Docs.oracle.com. Retrieved 2013-10-16\"A procedure is thread safe when the procedure is logically correct when executed simultaneously by several threads\"; \"3 level of thread-safe\"","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E37838_01/html/E61057/compat-14994.html#scrolltoc","url_text":"\"Oracle: Thread safety\""}]},{"reference":"Oracle (November 2020). \"Multithreaded Programming Guide: Chapter 7 Safe and Unsafe Interfaces\". Docs Oracle. Retrieved 2024-04-30; \"Thread Safety\"","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle","url_text":"Oracle"},{"url":"https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E37838_01/html/E61057/compat-14994.html#scrolltoc","url_text":"\"Multithreaded Programming Guide: Chapter 7 Safe and Unsafe Interfaces\""}]},{"reference":"\"API thread safety classifications\". IBM. 2023-04-11. Retrieved 2023-10-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/i/7.5?topic=safety-api-thread-classifications","url_text":"\"API thread safety classifications\""}]},{"reference":"\"MT Safety Levels for Libraries\". Docs Oracle. Retrieved 2024-05-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E37838_01/html/E61057/compat-89113.html#scrolltoc","url_text":"\"MT Safety Levels for Libraries\""}]},{"reference":"\"Reentrancy and Thread-Safety | Qt 5.6\". Qt Project. Retrieved 2016-04-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://doc.qt.io/qt-5/threads-reentrancy.html","url_text":"\"Reentrancy and Thread-Safety | Qt 5.6\""}]},{"reference":"Java Q&A Experts (20 April 1999). \"Thread-safe design (4/20/99)\". JavaWorld.com. Retrieved 2012-01-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.javaworld.com/article/2077373/thread-safe-design-4-20-99.html","url_text":"\"Thread-safe design (4/20/99)\""}]},{"reference":"TutorialsDesk (30 Sep 2014). \"Synchronization and Thread Safety Tutorial with Examples in Java\". TutorialsDesk.com. Retrieved 2012-01-22.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tutorialsdesk.com/2014/09/synchronization-and-thread-safety.html","url_text":"\"Synchronization and Thread Safety Tutorial with Examples in Java\""}]},{"reference":"Venners, Bill (1 August 1998). \"Design for thread safety\". JavaWorld.com. Retrieved 2012-01-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.javaworld.com/article/2076747/design-for-thread-safety.html","url_text":"\"Design for thread safety\""}]},{"reference":"Suess, Michael (15 October 2006). \"A Short Guide to Mastering Thread-Safety\". Thinking Parallel. Retrieved 2012-01-22.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thinkingparallel.com/2006/10/15/a-short-guide-to-mastering-thread-safety/","url_text":"\"A Short Guide to Mastering Thread-Safety\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E37838_01/html/E61057/compat-14994.html#scrolltoc","external_links_name":"\"Oracle: Thread safety\""},{"Link":"https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E37838_01/html/E61057/compat-14994.html#scrolltoc","external_links_name":"\"Multithreaded Programming Guide: Chapter 7 Safe and Unsafe Interfaces\""},{"Link":"https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/i/7.5?topic=safety-api-thread-classifications","external_links_name":"\"API thread safety classifications\""},{"Link":"https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E37838_01/html/E61057/compat-89113.html#scrolltoc","external_links_name":"\"MT Safety Levels for Libraries\""},{"Link":"https://doc.qt.io/qt-5/threads-reentrancy.html","external_links_name":"\"Reentrancy and Thread-Safety | Qt 5.6\""},{"Link":"https://www.javaworld.com/article/2077373/thread-safe-design-4-20-99.html","external_links_name":"\"Thread-safe design (4/20/99)\""},{"Link":"http://www.tutorialsdesk.com/2014/09/synchronization-and-thread-safety.html","external_links_name":"\"Synchronization and Thread Safety Tutorial with Examples in Java\""},{"Link":"https://www.javaworld.com/article/2076747/design-for-thread-safety.html","external_links_name":"\"Design for thread safety\""},{"Link":"http://www.thinkingparallel.com/2006/10/15/a-short-guide-to-mastering-thread-safety/","external_links_name":"\"A Short Guide to Mastering Thread-Safety\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amusement_arcade
|
Amusement arcade
|
["1 History","1.1 Penny arcade","1.2 1970s and 1980s","1.3 1990s","1.4 2000s and beyond","2 Types of games","2.1 Video games","2.2 Other games","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
|
Venue where people play arcade games
GiGO, a former large 6 floor Sega game center on Chuo Dori, in front of the LAOX Aso-Bit-City in Akihabara, Tokyo, Japan
An amusement arcade, also known as a video arcade, amusements, arcade, or penny arcade (an older term), is a venue where people play arcade games, including arcade video games, pinball machines, electro-mechanical games, redemption games, merchandisers (such as claw cranes), or coin-operated billiards or air hockey tables. In some countries, some types of arcades are also legally permitted to provide gambling machines such as slot machines or pachinko machines. Games are usually housed in cabinets.
Video games were introduced in amusement arcades in the late 1970s and were most popular during the golden age of arcade video games, the early 1980s.
History
See also: Arcade game § History, History of arcade video games, and Timeline of arcade video game history
Penny arcade
For the webcomic, see Penny Arcade. For other uses, see Penny Arcade (disambiguation).
Further information: Electro-mechanical game
Early machine at Wookey Hole Caves
A penny arcade can be any type of venue for coin-operated devices, usually for entertainment. The term came into use about 1905–1910. The name derives from the penny, once a staple coin for the machines. The machines used included:
bagatelles, a game with elements of billiards and non-electrical pinball,
early forms of non-electrical pinball machines,
fortune-telling machinery,
slot machines,
coin-operated Amberolas
peep show machines (in the original, non-pornographic, usage of the term), which allowed the viewer to see various objects and pictures
Mutoscopes
love tester machines.
coin-operated shooter games and gun games
Between the 1940s and 1960s, mechanical arcade games evolved into electro-mechanical games (EM games). Popular examples of EM games in the 1960s included shooters such as Sega's Periscope (1965) and Rifleman (1967), and racing games such as Kasco's Indy 500 (1968) and Chicago Coin's Speedway (1969). Penny arcades later led to the creation of video arcades in the 1970s.
1970s and 1980s
See also: Golden age of arcade video games
Video game arcades began to gain momentum in the late 1970s with games such as Space Invaders (1978) and Galaxian (1979) and became widespread in 1980 with Pac-Man, Centipede and others. The central processing unit in these games allowed for more complexity than earlier discrete-circuitry games such as Atari's Pong (1972).
During the late 1970s video-arcade game technology had become sophisticated enough to offer good-quality graphics and sounds, but it remained fairly basic (realistic images and full motion video were not yet available, and only a few games used spoken voice) and so the success of a game had to rely on simple and fun gameplay. This emphasis on the gameplay explains why many of these games continue to be enjoyed today, despite the progress made by modern computing technology.
The golden age of arcade video games in the 1980s became a peak era of video arcade game popularity, innovation, and earnings. Color arcade games became more prevalent and video arcades themselves started appearing outside their traditional bowling-alley and bar locales. Designers experimented with a wide variety of game genres, while developers still had to work within strict limits of available processor-power and memory. The era saw the rapid spread of video arcades across North America, Western Europe and Japan. The number of video-game arcades in North America, for example, more than doubled between 1980 and 1982, reaching a peak of 13,000 video game arcades across the region (compared to 4,000 today). Beginning with Space Invaders, video arcade games also started to appear in supermarkets, restaurants, liquor stores, filling stations and many other retail establishments looking for extra income. This boom came to an end in the mid-1980s, in what has been referred to as "the great coin-op video crash of 1983".
On November 30, 1982, Jerry Parker, the Mayor of Ottumwa, Iowa, declared his city the "Video Game Capital of the World". This initiative resulted in many firsts in video game history. Playing a central role in arcade history, Ottumwa saw the birth of the Twin Galaxies Intergalactic Scoreboard and the U.S. National Video Game Team, two organizations that still exist today. Other firsts that happened in the Video Game Capital of the World included:
the first video-game-themed parade (Jan. 8, 1983)
the first video game world championship (Jan. 8–9, 1983)
the first study of the brain waves of video-game champions (July 12, 1983)
the first billion-point video-game performance (Jan. 16, 1984)
the first official day to honor a video-game player (Jan. 28, 1984)
High game-turnover in Japanese arcades required quick game-design, leading to the adoption of standardized systems like JAMMA, Neo-Geo and CPS-2. These systems essentially provided arcade-only consoles where the video game ROM could be swapped easily to replace a game. This allowed easier development and replacement of games, but it also discouraged the hardware innovation necessary to stay ahead of the technology curve.
Most US arcades didn't see the intended benefit of this practice since many games weren't exported to the US, and if they were, distributors generally refused to release them as simply a ROM, preferring to sell the entire ROM, console, and sometimes the cabinet as a package. In fact, several arcade systems such as Sega's NAOMI board are arcade versions of home systems.
Other problems were that many arcades focused on quantity more than quality, and that games showed a rising difficulty curve, making them increasingly inaccessible to casual players and more expensive for the skilled players.
1990s
The rise of the fighting game genre with games such as Street Fighter II and Mortal Kombat, combined with the release of popular sports titles such as NBA Jam and NFL Blitz, led to a brief resurgence in the popularity of video arcades, with new locations opening in shopping malls and strip malls throughout the country in the early 90s.
The arcade industry entered a major slump in mid-1994. Arcade attendance and per-visit spending, though not as poor as during the 1983 crash, declined to the point where several of the largest arcade chains either were put up for sale or declared bankruptcy, while many large arcade machine manufacturers likewise moved to get out of the business. In the second quarter of 1996, video game factories reported 90,000 arcade cabinets sold, as compared to 150,000 cabinets sold in 1990.
The main reason for the slump was increasing competition from console ports. During the 1980s it typically took several years for an arcade game to be released on a home console, and the port usually differed greatly from the arcade version; during the mid-1990s it became common for a game publisher to release a highly accurate port of an arcade game that had yet to peak in popularity, thus severely cutting into arcade owners' profits.
2000s and beyond
Two traditional amusement arcades on Great Yarmouth sea front, 2011
In the late 1990s, a bar opened in the new Crown Casino complex in Melbourne, Australia named Barcode. Barcode was a 'games bar' with the latest arcade games, the classics, pool tables, air hockey and pinball machines which players could play while consuming alcohol. The bar was very popular with other bars later opening in the early 2000s in King Street alongside the strip clubs and at the shopping centre Melbourne Central. A Barcode opened in Times Square, New York in May 2000 and was very popular, with the launch featuring on an episode of TV series Sex and the City. Barcode Times Square closed in March 2003. Barcode Crown Casino closed in 2006, followed later by King Street and Melbourne Central.
In the mid-2000s, Madrid businessman Enrique Martínez updated the video arcade for the new generation by creating a "hybrid movie theater with...fog, black light, flashing green lasers, high-definition digital projectors, vibrating seats, game pads and dozens of 17-inch screens attached to individual chairs." At the Yelmo Cineplex in Spain, $390,000 was spent refitting a theater into a "high-tech video gaming hall seating about 50 people." In Germany, the CinemaxX movie theater company was in 2007 also considering this approach. It conducted a four-month trial with video games to test the level of demand for video gaming in a theater setting.
A 2015 Wizard of Oz pusher game
Facade of VR arcade in Manhattan
Manufacturers started adding innovative features to games in the 2000s. Konami used motion and position sensing of the player in Police 911 in 2000 and Mocap Boxing in 2001. Sega started using "Tuning cards" in games such as the Initial D series of games allowing the customer to save game data on a card vended from the game; Namco copied the idea with the Maximum Tune series. Arcade games continued to use a variety of games with enhanced features to attract clients, such as motorized seating areas, interconnected games, and surround sound systems. Redemption and merchandiser games are also a staple of arcades in the 2000s. One of the most popular redemption games, Deal or No Deal by ICE, simulates the popular television game show. Merchandiser games such as Stacker by LAI Games gives the player the chance to win high end prizes like iPods and video game consoles.
At the same time as these innovations, a small resurgence in the interest of classic video games and arcades grew with the opening of Barcade in Brooklyn, New York in 2004. Barcade combined a video arcade and a full bar, with a strict focus on classic machines from the 1970s and 1980s, known as the golden age of arcade video games. The idea proved popular and Barcade received recognition as a good place to play classic video game cabinets, because it is "one of the few places where classic arcade games can still be found in public, and in good working order." Barcade's success influenced other similarly themed businesses which opened across the country. Other arcades, like Ground Kontrol in Portland, Oregon, began including full bars in their arcades. Even regular bars added classic arcade games to their venues.
As the trend grew, the industry and press looked for ways to classify these arcade bar hybrids, with the DNA Association branding them "social-tainment" and also referring to them as "game bars". Many of these newer game bars proved to be popular and expansion continued.
In the UK, classic arcades such as Casino and Trocadero, both located in London, closed, with some of the games from Trocadero finding their way to a new arcade, Heart of Gaming in North Acton. The newer Loading Soho Gaming Cafe features arcade machines manufactured by Bespoke Arcades for its customers to use. The UK is also home to the largest arcade in Europe, Arcade Club, located in Bury, Greater Manchester. Home to over 400 original arcade machines, it is recognised as the largest collection in Europe. In May 2019 Arcade Club opened a second venue in Leeds with a third announced for Blackpool opening in 2020.
Types of games
Video games
See also: Arcade game, Video game, History of video games, and Golden age of arcade video games
The video games are typically in arcade cabinets. The most common kind are uprights, tall boxes with a monitor and controls in front. Customers insert coins or tokens into the machines (or, in newer models, use credit cards or mobile devices) and stand in front of them to play the game. These traditionally were the most popular arcade format, although presently American arcades make much more money from deluxe driving games and ticket redemption games. However, Japanese arcades, while also heavily featuring deluxe games, continue to do well with traditional JAMMA arcade video games.
Some machines, such as Ms. Pac-Man and Joust, are occasionally in smaller boxes with a flat, clear glass or acrylic glass top; the player sits at the machine playing it, looking down. This style of arcade game is known as a cocktail-style arcade game table or tabletop arcade machine, since they were first popularized in bars and pubs. For two player games on this type of machine, the players sit on opposite sides with the screen flipped upside down for each player. A few cocktail-style games had players sitting next to rather than across from one another. Both Joust and Gun Fight had these type of tables.
The Donkey Kong video game was popular in video arcades during the 1980s
Some arcade games, such as racing games, are designed to be sat in or on. These types of games are sometimes referred to as sit-down games. Sega and Namco are two of the largest manufacturers of these types of arcade games.
Daytona USA, by Sega. Two player version, although up to eight could be linked for multiplayer racing
Other games
A cocktail cabinet tabletop arcade machine
Other games include pinball machines, redemption games and merchandiser games. Pinball machines have a tilted, glass-covered play area in which the player uses mechanical flippers to direct a heavy metal ball towards lighted targets. Redemption games reward winners with tickets that can be redeemed for prizes such as toys or novelty items. The prizes are usually displayed behind a counter or in a glass showcase, and an arcade employee gives the items to players after counting their tickets. Merchandiser games reward winners with prizes such as stuffed toys, CDs, DVDs, or candy which are dispensed directly from the machine.
In some countries, some types of video arcades are legally allowed to provide gambling machines such as slot machines and pachinko machines. Large arcades may also have small coin-operated ride-on toys for small children. Some businesses, such as Dave & Buster's, combine a bar and restaurant with a video arcade. The ROUND1 entertainment chain combines a large arcade with a full-service bowling alley, along with billiards and karaoke.
Arcades typically have change machines to dispense tokens or quarters when bills are inserted, although larger chain arcades, such as Dave and Busters and Chuck E. Cheese are deviating towards a refillable card system. Retro Arcades are going towards a pay by admission system with the games themselves set to free play. Arcades may also have vending machines which sell soft drinks, candy, and chips. Arcades may play recorded music or a radio station over a public address system. Video arcades typically have subdued lighting to inhibit glare on the screen and enhance the viewing of the games' video displays, as well as of any decorative lighting on the cabinets.
See also
List of arcade games
Musée Mécanique
Pinball
Sega World
Timeline of video arcade game history
Video game arcade cabinet
References
^ a b Nasaw, David (15 April 1999). Going out: the rise and fall of public amusements. Harvard University Press. p. 154. ISBN 9780674356221. Archived from the original on 2014-07-04. Retrieved 2013-05-30. First use of the term between 1905 and 1910
^ "Penny arcade definition and meaning". Collins English Dictionary. 17 February 2023. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
^ "Penny Arcade Machines". Archived from the original on 5 August 2016. Retrieved 26 June 2016.
^ Wolf, Mark (2007). The Video Game Explosion: A History from PONG to PlayStation and Beyond. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0313338687.
^ Mark J. P. Wolf (2008). The Video Game Explosion: A History from PONG to PlayStation and Beyond. ABC-CLIO. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-313-33868-7. Archived from the original on 2021-09-07. Retrieved 2011-04-19.
^ Mark Stephen Price (Atari Games Corporation) (1998). "Coin-Op: The Life (Arcade Videogames)" (PDF). Digital illusion: entertaining the future with high technology. ACM Press. p. 444. ISBN 0-201-84780-9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
^ Edge Staff (2007-08-13). "The 30 Defining Moments in Gaming". Edge. Future plc. Archived from the original on 2011-10-29. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
^ a b c Webb, Marcus (February 1996). "Arcadia". Next Generation. No. 14. Imagine Media. p. 29.
^ "Welcome to Twin Galaxies". 15 February 2009. Archived from the original on February 15, 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2016.
^ "Welcome to Twin Galaxies". 21 February 2009. Archived from the original on February 21, 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2016.
^ "Welcome to Twin Galaxies". 21 February 2009. Archived from the original on February 21, 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2016.
^ "Welcome to Twin Galaxies". 15 February 2009. Archived from the original on February 15, 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2016.
^ Tim McVey Day Poster, January 28, 1984
^ How Arcades Have Evolved To Survive - SUPERJUMP
^ a b Webb, Marcus (September 1996). "Arcade Games Down 40% in Five Years". Next Generation. No. 21. Imagine Media. p. 22.
^ "Barcode". Barcode bar. Archived from the original on 2007-11-03.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ "Remembering Barcode: NYCs Failed Arcade Club". Destructoid. Archived from the original on 16 August 2016. Retrieved 8 July 2016.
^ Porter, Ian (17 August 2006). "Barcode goes Indian as night-life dims at Crown". The Age. 17 August 2006. Archived from the original on 13 February 2016. Retrieved 8 July 2016.
^ Carvajal, Doreen (2007-02-26). "The New Video Arcade in Spain Might Be the Movie Theater". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
^ "Police 911 Videogame by Konami (2000) – The International Arcade Museum and the KLOV". Arcade-museum.com. Archived from the original on 2010-11-15. Retrieved 2011-07-21.
^ "MoCap Boxing Videogame by Konami (2001) – The International Arcade Museum and the KLOV". Arcade-museum.com. Archived from the original on 2010-02-10. Retrieved 2011-07-21.
^ Weiss, Jennifer (2011-04-22). "For Arcades, Survival now Hinges on Alcohol". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
^ June, Laura (2013-01-16). "For Amusement Only: The Life and Death of the American Arcade". theverge.com. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
^ Allen, Ted. "Best Bars: Barcade". Esquire. Archived from the original on 2014-11-13. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
^ Wenzel, John (2011-05-01). "From LoDo to the Smithsonian, Video Games Get Their Due". The Denver Post. Archived from the original on 2012-11-14. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
^ Lande, Samantha (2012-02-14). "Emporium Arcade Bar Opening in March". Chicago Eater. Archived from the original on 2013-04-10. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
^ Hottle, Molly (2011-02-15). "Ground Kontrol Arcade to Reopen Thursday with Party". oregonlive.com. Archived from the original on 2013-11-10. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
^ Petkovic, John (2013-04-25). "B Side Liquor Lounge in Cleveland Heights Adds Old-time Arcade Games". cleveland.com. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
^ K Williams (2013-05-20). "A Nascent Trend, the Rise of the Gamebar". dna-association.com. Archived from the original on 2016-03-28. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
^ Ocean, Justin (2014-07-14). "Boozy Sleepovers and Booby Bounce Houses: Kids' Activities for Grownups". Yahoo! Travel. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
^ Parkin, Simon (2014-08-17). "The Last Arcade". Eurogamer.net. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
^ Arcade Hero Staff (2013-05-03). "LOADING SOHO Gaming Cafe Added To The MADD Bar In London". Arcade Heroes. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
^ "We found the Biggest Arcade in Europe inside a Warehouse in the middle of Bury". Manchester’s Finest. 2019-05-26. Archived from the original on 2020-06-11. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
^ "Arcade Club Leeds – Everything you need to know". www.yorkshireeveningpost.co.uk. 13 July 2019. Archived from the original on 2020-06-11. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
^ "Arcade Club: Classic arcade with 250 games teased to open in Blackpool – here's everything we know so far". www.blackpoolgazette.co.uk. 4 December 2019. Archived from the original on 2020-06-11. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
^ "Mobile, credit and debit card payments for amusement and arcade machines". Archived from the original on 2020-02-26. Retrieved 2019-11-20.
^ "CEC Token Cards – Token Museum". www.showbizpizza.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-05. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
Bibliography
Namerow, Wayne. The Pennyarcade Website. Retrieved 2004-02-06.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amusement arcades.
History of video games at Curlie
Gameroom Show, Penny arcade related website
PennyMachines.co.uk, British penny slot and amusement machine website
Illustrations of various machines
ArcadeTreasures.com Archived 2011-07-07 at the Wayback Machine, Various penny arcade games with many pictures
Aurcade.com, Arcade Games by location
Classic Arcade Games Locations, Wiki list of classic arcade games by location
The International Arcade Museum, Home of the Killer List of Videogames, International Arcade Museum Library and the Videogame and Arcade Preservation Society
vteAmusement arcadesArcade gameGeneral terms
Coin-operated
Game of chance
Game of skill
Merchandiser
Redemption game
Mechanical games
Bagatelle
Fortune teller machine
Love tester machine
Mutoscope
Skee-ball
Slot machine
Electro-mechanical games
Gun game
Pinball
List of machines
List of manufacturers
Glossary of terms
Arcade video games
History of arcade video games
Golden age of arcade video games
Timeline of arcade video game history
Other
Claw crane
Medal game
Pachinko
Photo booth
Authority control databases: National
Japan
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In some countries, some types of arcades are also legally permitted to provide gambling machines such as slot machines or pachinko machines. 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For other uses, see Penny Arcade (disambiguation).Further information: Electro-mechanical gameEarly machine at Wookey Hole CavesA penny arcade can be any type of venue for coin-operated devices, usually for entertainment. The term came into use about 1905–1910.[1] The name derives from the penny, once a staple coin for the machines. The machines used included:[3]bagatelles, a game with elements of billiards and non-electrical pinball,\nearly forms of non-electrical pinball machines,\nfortune-telling machinery,\nslot machines,\ncoin-operated Amberolas\npeep show machines (in the original, non-pornographic, usage of the term), which allowed the viewer to see various objects and pictures\nMutoscopes\nlove tester machines.\ncoin-operated shooter games and gun gamesBetween the 1940s and 1960s, mechanical arcade games evolved into electro-mechanical games (EM games). Popular examples of EM games in the 1960s included shooters such as Sega's Periscope (1965) and Rifleman (1967), and racing games such as Kasco's Indy 500 (1968) and Chicago Coin's Speedway (1969). Penny arcades later led to the creation of video arcades in the 1970s.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Golden age of arcade video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_age_of_arcade_video_games"},{"link_name":"Space Invaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Invaders"},{"link_name":"1978","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1978_in_video_gaming"},{"link_name":"Galaxian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxian"},{"link_name":"1979","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979_in_video_gaming"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"1980","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_in_video_gaming"},{"link_name":"Pac-Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pac-Man"},{"link_name":"Centipede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centipede_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"central processing unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"discrete-circuitry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_data"},{"link_name":"Pong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pong"},{"link_name":"1972","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_in_video_gaming"},{"link_name":"full motion video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FMV_game"},{"link_name":"golden age of arcade video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_age_of_arcade_video_games"},{"link_name":"video arcade game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_game"},{"link_name":"game genres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_and_video_game_genres"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"Western Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europe"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wolf-105-5"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"supermarkets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermarket"},{"link_name":"restaurants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restaurants"},{"link_name":"liquor stores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquor_store"},{"link_name":"filling stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filling_station"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"the great coin-op video crash of 1983","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_crash_of_1983"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NGen14-8"},{"link_name":"Ottumwa, Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottumwa,_Iowa"},{"link_name":"Twin Galaxies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_Galaxies"},{"link_name":"U.S. National Video Game Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._National_Video_Game_Team"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"JAMMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAMMA"},{"link_name":"Neo-Geo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Geo_(console)"},{"link_name":"CPS-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP_System_II"},{"link_name":"NAOMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_NAOMI"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"1970s and 1980s","text":"See also: Golden age of arcade video gamesVideo game arcades began to gain momentum in the late 1970s with games such as Space Invaders (1978) and Galaxian (1979)[4] and became widespread in 1980 with Pac-Man, Centipede and others. The central processing unit in these games allowed for more complexity than earlier discrete-circuitry games such as Atari's Pong (1972).During the late 1970s video-arcade game technology had become sophisticated enough to offer good-quality graphics and sounds, but it remained fairly basic (realistic images and full motion video were not yet available, and only a few games used spoken voice) and so the success of a game had to rely on simple and fun gameplay. This emphasis on the gameplay explains why many of these games continue to be enjoyed today, despite the progress made by modern computing technology.The golden age of arcade video games in the 1980s became a peak era of video arcade game popularity, innovation, and earnings. Color arcade games became more prevalent and video arcades themselves started appearing outside their traditional bowling-alley and bar locales. Designers experimented with a wide variety of game genres, while developers still had to work within strict limits of available processor-power and memory. The era saw the rapid spread of video arcades across North America, Western Europe and Japan. The number of video-game arcades in North America, for example, more than doubled between 1980 and 1982,[5] reaching a peak of 13,000 video game arcades across the region (compared to 4,000 today[when?]).[6] Beginning with Space Invaders, video arcade games also started to appear in supermarkets, restaurants, liquor stores, filling stations and many other retail establishments looking for extra income.[7] This boom came to an end in the mid-1980s, in what has been referred to as \"the great coin-op video crash of 1983\".[8]On November 30, 1982, Jerry Parker, the Mayor of Ottumwa, Iowa, declared his city the \"Video Game Capital of the World\". This initiative resulted in many firsts in video game history. Playing a central role in arcade history, Ottumwa saw the birth of the Twin Galaxies Intergalactic Scoreboard and the U.S. National Video Game Team, two organizations that still exist today. Other firsts that happened in the Video Game Capital of the World included:the first video-game-themed parade (Jan. 8, 1983)[9]\nthe first video game world championship (Jan. 8–9, 1983)[10]\nthe first study of the brain waves of video-game champions (July 12, 1983)[11]\nthe first billion-point video-game performance (Jan. 16, 1984)[12]\nthe first official day to honor a video-game player (Jan. 28, 1984)[13]High game-turnover in Japanese arcades required quick game-design, leading to the adoption of standardized systems like JAMMA, Neo-Geo and CPS-2. These systems essentially provided arcade-only consoles where the video game ROM could be swapped easily to replace a game. This allowed easier development and replacement of games, but it also discouraged the hardware innovation necessary to stay ahead of the technology curve.Most US arcades didn't see the intended benefit of this practice since many games weren't exported to the US, and if they were, distributors generally refused to release them as simply a ROM, preferring to sell the entire ROM, console, and sometimes the cabinet as a package. In fact, several arcade systems such as Sega's NAOMI board are arcade versions of home systems.Other problems were that many arcades focused on quantity more than quality, and that games showed a rising difficulty curve, making them increasingly inaccessible to casual players and more expensive for the skilled players.[14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Street Fighter II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_Fighter_II"},{"link_name":"Mortal Kombat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortal_Kombat"},{"link_name":"NBA Jam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA_Jam"},{"link_name":"NFL Blitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NFL_Blitz"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NGen14-8"},{"link_name":"1983 crash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_video_game_crash_of_1983"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NGen14-8"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NGen21-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NGen21-15"}],"sub_title":"1990s","text":"The rise of the fighting game genre with games such as Street Fighter II and Mortal Kombat, combined with the release of popular sports titles such as NBA Jam and NFL Blitz, led to a brief resurgence in the popularity of video arcades, with new locations opening in shopping malls and strip malls throughout the country in the early 90s.The arcade industry entered a major slump in mid-1994.[8] Arcade attendance and per-visit spending, though not as poor as during the 1983 crash, declined to the point where several of the largest arcade chains either were put up for sale or declared bankruptcy, while many large arcade machine manufacturers likewise moved to get out of the business.[8] In the second quarter of 1996, video game factories reported 90,000 arcade cabinets sold, as compared to 150,000 cabinets sold in 1990.[15]The main reason for the slump was increasing competition from console ports. During the 1980s it typically took several years for an arcade game to be released on a home console, and the port usually differed greatly from the arcade version; during the mid-1990s it became common for a game publisher to release a highly accurate port of an arcade game that had yet to peak in popularity, thus severely cutting into arcade owners' profits.[15]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Yarmouth_-_panoramio_(27).jpg"},{"link_name":"Great Yarmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Yarmouth"},{"link_name":"Crown Casino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Casino_and_Entertainment_Complex"},{"link_name":"Melbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"King Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Street,_Melbourne"},{"link_name":"strip clubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strip_club"},{"link_name":"Melbourne Central","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne_Central_Shopping_Centre"},{"link_name":"Times Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_Square"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Sex and the City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_and_the_City"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NY-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Madrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrid"},{"link_name":"CinemaxX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CinemaxX"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wizard_of_Oz_game.JPG"},{"link_name":"pusher game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pusher_game"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VR_World_4_E34_St_jeh.jpg"},{"link_name":"Konami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konami"},{"link_name":"Police 911","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_911"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"Initial D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_D_Arcade_Stage"},{"link_name":"Namco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco"},{"link_name":"Maximum Tune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_Tune"},{"link_name":"television game show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deal_or_No_Deal"},{"link_name":"Stacker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stacker_(game)"},{"link_name":"Barcade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcade"},{"link_name":"golden age of arcade video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_age_of_arcade_video_games"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blogs.wsj.com-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Ground Kontrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_Kontrol"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Bespoke Arcades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bespoke_Arcades"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"sub_title":"2000s and beyond","text":"Two traditional amusement arcades on Great Yarmouth sea front, 2011In the late 1990s, a bar opened in the new Crown Casino complex in Melbourne, Australia named Barcode. Barcode was a 'games bar' with the latest arcade games, the classics, pool tables, air hockey and pinball machines which players could play while consuming alcohol.[16] The bar was very popular with other bars later opening in the early 2000s in King Street alongside the strip clubs and at the shopping centre Melbourne Central. A Barcode opened in Times Square, New York in May 2000 and was very popular, with the launch featuring on an episode of TV series Sex and the City. Barcode Times Square closed in March 2003. Barcode Crown Casino closed in 2006, followed later by King Street and Melbourne Central.[17][18]In the mid-2000s, Madrid businessman Enrique Martínez updated the video arcade for the new generation by creating a \"hybrid movie theater with...fog, black light, flashing green lasers, high-definition digital projectors, vibrating seats, game pads and dozens of 17-inch screens attached to individual chairs.\" At the Yelmo Cineplex in Spain, $390,000 was spent refitting a theater into a \"high-tech video gaming hall seating about 50 people.\" In Germany, the CinemaxX movie theater company was in 2007 also considering this approach. It conducted a four-month trial with video games to test the level of demand for video gaming in a theater setting.[19]A 2015 Wizard of Oz pusher gameFacade of VR arcade in ManhattanManufacturers started adding innovative features to games in the 2000s. Konami used motion and position sensing of the player in Police 911 in 2000 and Mocap Boxing in 2001.[20][21] Sega started using \"Tuning cards\" in games such as the Initial D series of games allowing the customer to save game data on a card vended from the game; Namco copied the idea with the Maximum Tune series. Arcade games continued to use a variety of games with enhanced features to attract clients, such as motorized seating areas, interconnected games, and surround sound systems. Redemption and merchandiser games are also a staple of arcades in the 2000s. One of the most popular redemption games, Deal or No Deal by ICE, simulates the popular television game show. Merchandiser games such as Stacker by LAI Games gives the player the chance to win high end prizes like iPods and video game consoles.At the same time as these innovations, a small resurgence in the interest of classic video games and arcades grew with the opening of Barcade in Brooklyn, New York in 2004. Barcade combined a video arcade and a full bar, with a strict focus on classic machines from the 1970s and 1980s, known as the golden age of arcade video games.[22] The idea proved popular and Barcade received recognition as a good place to play classic video game cabinets, because it is \"one of the few places where classic arcade games can still be found in public, and in good working order.\"[23][24] Barcade's success influenced other similarly themed businesses which opened across the country.[25][26] Other arcades, like Ground Kontrol in Portland, Oregon, began including full bars in their arcades.[27] Even regular bars added classic arcade games to their venues.[28]As the trend grew, the industry and press looked for ways to classify these arcade bar hybrids, with the DNA Association branding them \"social-tainment\" and also referring to them as \"game bars\".[29] Many of these newer game bars proved to be popular and expansion continued.[30]In the UK, classic arcades such as Casino and Trocadero, both located in London, closed, with some of the games from Trocadero finding their way to a new arcade, Heart of Gaming in North Acton.[31] The newer Loading Soho Gaming Cafe features arcade machines manufactured by Bespoke Arcades for its customers to use.[32] The UK is also home to the largest arcade in Europe, Arcade Club, located in Bury, Greater Manchester. Home to over 400 original arcade machines, it is recognised as the largest collection in Europe.[33] In May 2019 Arcade Club opened a second venue in Leeds [34] with a third announced for Blackpool opening in 2020.[35]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Types of games"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arcade game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_game"},{"link_name":"Video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"History of video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_video_games"},{"link_name":"Golden age of arcade video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_age_of_arcade_video_games"},{"link_name":"video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"arcade cabinets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_cabinet"},{"link_name":"coins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coin"},{"link_name":"tokens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Token_coin"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game"},{"link_name":"JAMMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Amusement_Machine_Manufacturers%27_Association"},{"link_name":"Ms. Pac-Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ms._Pac-Man"},{"link_name":"Joust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joust_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass"},{"link_name":"acrylic glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylic_glass"},{"link_name":"arcade game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_game"},{"link_name":"tabletop arcade machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabletop_arcade_machine"},{"link_name":"bars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_house"},{"link_name":"Gun Fight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_Fight"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Donkey_Kong_arcade_at_the_QuakeCon_2005.png"},{"link_name":"Donkey Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donkey_Kong_(arcade_game)"},{"link_name":"racing games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racing_game"},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"Namco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Daytona_Twin.jpg"},{"link_name":"Daytona USA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daytona_USA_(video_game)"}],"sub_title":"Video games","text":"See also: Arcade game, Video game, History of video games, and Golden age of arcade video gamesThe video games are typically in arcade cabinets. The most common kind are uprights, tall boxes with a monitor and controls in front. Customers insert coins or tokens into the machines (or, in newer models, use credit cards or mobile devices[36]) and stand in front of them to play the game. These traditionally were the most popular arcade format, although presently American arcades make much more money from deluxe driving games and ticket redemption games. However, Japanese arcades, while also heavily featuring deluxe games, continue to do well with traditional JAMMA arcade video games.Some machines, such as Ms. Pac-Man and Joust, are occasionally in smaller boxes with a flat, clear glass or acrylic glass top; the player sits at the machine playing it, looking down. This style of arcade game is known as a cocktail-style arcade game table or tabletop arcade machine, since they were first popularized in bars and pubs. For two player games on this type of machine, the players sit on opposite sides with the screen flipped upside down for each player. A few cocktail-style games had players sitting next to rather than across from one another. Both Joust and Gun Fight had these type of tables.The Donkey Kong video game was popular in video arcades during the 1980sSome arcade games, such as racing games, are designed to be sat in or on. These types of games are sometimes referred to as sit-down games. Sega and Namco are two of the largest manufacturers of these types of arcade games.Daytona USA, by Sega. Two player version, although up to eight could be linked for multiplayer racing","title":"Types of games"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Japanese_style_cocktail_cab.jpg"},{"link_name":"cocktail cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocktail_cabinet"},{"link_name":"pinball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinball"},{"link_name":"redemption games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redemption_game"},{"link_name":"merchandiser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merchandiser"},{"link_name":"gambling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambling"},{"link_name":"slot machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slot_machine"},{"link_name":"pachinko machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachinko"},{"link_name":"Dave & Buster's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_%26_Buster%27s"},{"link_name":"ROUND1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_One_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"karaoke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karaoke"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"vending machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vending_machine"},{"link_name":"public address system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_address_system"},{"link_name":"video displays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube"}],"sub_title":"Other games","text":"A cocktail cabinet tabletop arcade machineOther games include pinball machines, redemption games and merchandiser games. Pinball machines have a tilted, glass-covered play area in which the player uses mechanical flippers to direct a heavy metal ball towards lighted targets. Redemption games reward winners with tickets that can be redeemed for prizes such as toys or novelty items. The prizes are usually displayed behind a counter or in a glass showcase, and an arcade employee gives the items to players after counting their tickets. Merchandiser games reward winners with prizes such as stuffed toys, CDs, DVDs, or candy which are dispensed directly from the machine.In some countries, some types of video arcades are legally allowed to provide gambling machines such as slot machines and pachinko machines. Large arcades may also have small coin-operated ride-on toys for small children. Some businesses, such as Dave & Buster's, combine a bar and restaurant with a video arcade. The ROUND1 entertainment chain combines a large arcade with a full-service bowling alley, along with billiards and karaoke.Arcades typically have change machines to dispense tokens or quarters when bills are inserted, although larger chain arcades, such as Dave and Busters and Chuck E. Cheese are deviating towards a refillable card system.[37] Retro Arcades are going towards a pay by admission system with the games themselves set to free play. Arcades may also have vending machines which sell soft drinks, candy, and chips. Arcades may play recorded music or a radio station over a public address system. Video arcades typically have subdued lighting to inhibit glare on the screen and enhance the viewing of the games' video displays, as well as of any decorative lighting on the cabinets.","title":"Types of games"}]
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[{"image_text":"GiGO, a former large 6 floor Sega game center on Chuo Dori, in front of the LAOX Aso-Bit-City in Akihabara, Tokyo, Japan","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Daiichhisega.jpg/220px-Daiichhisega.jpg"},{"image_text":"Early machine at Wookey Hole Caves","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Penny_arcade1.JPG/220px-Penny_arcade1.JPG"},{"image_text":"Two traditional amusement arcades on Great Yarmouth sea front, 2011","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Great_Yarmouth_-_panoramio_%2827%29.jpg/220px-Great_Yarmouth_-_panoramio_%2827%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"A 2015 Wizard of Oz pusher game","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wizard_of_Oz_game.JPG/200px-Wizard_of_Oz_game.JPG"},{"image_text":"Facade of VR arcade in Manhattan","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/VR_World_4_E34_St_jeh.jpg/220px-VR_World_4_E34_St_jeh.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Donkey Kong video game was popular in video arcades during the 1980s","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Donkey_Kong_arcade_at_the_QuakeCon_2005.png/170px-Donkey_Kong_arcade_at_the_QuakeCon_2005.png"},{"image_text":"Daytona USA, by Sega. Two player version, although up to eight could be linked for multiplayer racing","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Daytona_Twin.jpg/261px-Daytona_Twin.jpg"},{"image_text":"A cocktail cabinet tabletop arcade machine","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Japanese_style_cocktail_cab.jpg/220px-Japanese_style_cocktail_cab.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"List of arcade games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_arcade_games"},{"title":"Musée Mécanique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_M%C3%A9canique"},{"title":"Pinball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinball"},{"title":"Sega World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_World"},{"title":"Timeline of video arcade game history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_video_arcade_game_history"},{"title":"Video game arcade cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_arcade_cabinet"}]
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[{"reference":"Nasaw, David (15 April 1999). Going out: the rise and fall of public amusements. Harvard University Press. p. 154. ISBN 9780674356221. Archived from the original on 2014-07-04. Retrieved 2013-05-30. First use of the term [...] between 1905 and 1910","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=P0eySLn7b6EC&pg=PA154","url_text":"Going out: the rise and fall of public amusements"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674356221","url_text":"9780674356221"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140704115912/http://books.google.com/books?id=P0eySLn7b6EC&pg=PA154","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Penny arcade definition and meaning\". Collins English Dictionary. 17 February 2023. 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Due\""},{"Link":"http://www.denverpost.com/popular/ci_17952476","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://chicago.eater.com/archives/2012/02/14/emporium-arcade-bar-to-open-in-wicker-park-in-march.php","external_links_name":"\"Emporium Arcade Bar Opening in March\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20130410181800/http://chicago.eater.com/archives/2012/02/14/emporium-arcade-bar-to-open-in-wicker-park-in-march.php","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20131110034350/http://www.oregonlive.com/portland/index.ssf/2011/02/northwest_portland_ground_kont.html","external_links_name":"\"Ground Kontrol Arcade to Reopen Thursday with Party\""},{"Link":"http://www.oregonlive.com/portland/index.ssf/2011/02/northwest_portland_ground_kont.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.cleveland.com/dining/index.ssf/2013/04/b_side_liquor_lounge_in_clevel.html","external_links_name":"\"B Side Liquor Lounge in Cleveland Heights Adds Old-time Arcade Games\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141006134505/http://www.cleveland.com/dining/index.ssf/2013/04/b_side_liquor_lounge_in_clevel.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160328153537/http://www.dna-association.com/a-nascent-trend-the-rise-of-the-barcade/","external_links_name":"\"A Nascent Trend, the Rise of the Gamebar\""},{"Link":"http://www.dna-association.com/a-nascent-trend-the-rise-of-the-barcade/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.yahoo.com/travel/kids-activities-for-grownups-trend-91356523157.html","external_links_name":"\"Boozy Sleepovers and Booby Bounce Houses: Kids' Activities for Grownups\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141006114735/https://www.yahoo.com/travel/kids-activities-for-grownups-trend-91356523157.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2013-07-16-the-last-arcade","external_links_name":"\"The Last Arcade\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131335/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2013-07-16-the-last-arcade","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://arcadeheroes.com/2013/05/02/loading-soho-gaming-cafe-added-to-the-madd-bar-in-london/","external_links_name":"\"LOADING SOHO Gaming Cafe Added To The MADD Bar In London\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141006102753/http://arcadeheroes.com/2013/05/02/loading-soho-gaming-cafe-added-to-the-madd-bar-in-london/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.manchestersfinest.com/articles/best-burbs-arcade-club-bury/","external_links_name":"\"We found the Biggest Arcade in Europe inside a Warehouse in the middle of Bury\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200611124129/https://www.manchestersfinest.com/articles/best-burbs-arcade-club-bury/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.yorkshireeveningpost.co.uk/news/people/arcade-club-leeds-everything-you-need-know-478632","external_links_name":"\"Arcade Club Leeds – Everything you need to know\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200611124129/https://www.yorkshireeveningpost.co.uk/news/people/arcade-club-leeds-everything-you-need-know-478632","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.blackpoolgazette.co.uk/whats-on/things-to-do/arcade-club-classic-arcade-250-games-teased-open-blackpool-heres-everything-we-know-so-far-1332287","external_links_name":"\"Arcade Club: Classic arcade with 250 games teased to open in Blackpool – here's everything we know so far\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200611124129/https://www.blackpoolgazette.co.uk/whats-on/things-to-do/arcade-club-classic-arcade-250-games-teased-open-blackpool-heres-everything-we-know-so-far-1332287","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.otiglobal.com/arcade_machines/","external_links_name":"\"Mobile, credit and debit card payments for amusement and arcade machines\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200226062028/https://www.otiglobal.com/arcade_machines/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.showbizpizza.com/tokens/cards/index.html","external_links_name":"\"CEC Token Cards – Token Museum\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110705221222/http://showbizpizza.com/tokens/cards/index.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.pinballhistory.com/","external_links_name":"The Pennyarcade Website"},{"Link":"https://curlie.org/Games/Video_Games/History","external_links_name":"History of video games"},{"Link":"https://www.gameroomshow.com/shop/penny-arcade-machines/","external_links_name":"Gameroom Show"},{"Link":"http://www.pennymachines.co.uk/","external_links_name":"PennyMachines.co.uk"},{"Link":"http://www.underthepier.com/15_history_intro.htm","external_links_name":"Illustrations of various machines"},{"Link":"http://www.arcadetreasures.com/","external_links_name":"ArcadeTreasures.com"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110707155107/http://www.arcadetreasures.com/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://aurcade.com/","external_links_name":"Aurcade.com"},{"Link":"http://www.arcadelocations.net/","external_links_name":"Classic Arcade Games Locations"},{"Link":"https://www.arcade-museum.com/","external_links_name":"The International Arcade Museum"},{"Link":"https://library.arcade-museum.com/","external_links_name":"International Arcade Museum Library"},{"Link":"https://www.arcade-museum.com/vaps/","external_links_name":"Videogame and Arcade Preservation Society"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00577465","external_links_name":"Japan"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_Media_Interface
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Direct Media Interface
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["1 Versions","2 Implementations","3 See also","4 References"]
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Intel bus for connecting CPU and I/O chipset
Not to be confused with Desktop Management Interface.
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DMIDirect Media InterfaceCreated byIntelSupersedesIntel Hub ArchitectureSpeedv1.0 at 2 Gbit/s 2.5 GT/s (×4 1 GB/s)v2.0 at 4 Gbit/s 5 GT/s (×4 2 GB/s)v3.0 at 8 GT/s (×4 4 GB/s)v4.0 at 16 GT/s (×8 16 GB/s)StyleSerial
In computing, Direct Media Interface (DMI) is Intel's proprietary link between the northbridge (or CPU) and southbridge (e.g. Platform Controller Hub family) chipset on a computer motherboard. It was first used between the 9xx chipsets and the ICH6, released in 2004.: 1 Previous Intel chipsets had used the Intel Hub Architecture to perform the same function, and server chipsets use a similar interface called Enterprise Southbridge Interface (ESI). While the "DMI" name dates back to ICH6, Intel mandates specific combinations of compatible devices, so the presence of a DMI does not guarantee by itself that a particular northbridge–southbridge combination is allowed.
Intel X99 motherboard diagram. The DMI bus is visible between CPU and PCH.
DMI is essentially PCI Express, using multiple lanes and differential signaling to form a point-to-point link. Most implementations use a ×8 or ×4 link, while some mobile systems (e.g. 915GMS, 945GMS/GSE/GU and the Atom N450) use a ×2 link, halving the bandwidth. The original implementation provides 10 Gbit/s (1 GB/s) in each direction using a ×4 link. The DMI provides support for concurrent traffic and isochronous data transfer capabilities.: 3
Versions
DMI 1.0, introduced in 2004 with a data transfer rate of 1 GB/s with a ×4 link.
DMI 2.0, introduced in 2011, doubles the data transfer rate to 2 GB/s with a ×4 link. It is used to link an Intel CPU with the Intel Platform Controller Hub (PCH), which supersedes the historic implementation of a separate northbridge and southbridge.: 14
DMI 3.0, released in August 2015, allows the 8 GT/s transfer rate per lane, for a total of four lanes and 3.93 GB/s for the CPU–PCH link. It is used by two-chip variants of the Intel Skylake microprocessors, which are used in conjunction with Intel 100 Series chipsets; some low power (Skylake-U onwards) and ultra low power (Skylake-Y onwards) mobile Intel processors have the PCH integrated into the physical package as a separate die, referred to as OPI (On Package DMI interconnect Interface) and effectively following the system on a chip (SoC) design layout.
On 9 March 2015, Intel announced the Broadwell-based Xeon D as its first enterprise platform to fully incorporate the PCH in an SoC configuration.
In 2021, with the release of 500 series chipsets, Intel increased the amount of DMI 3.0 lanes from four to eight, doubling the bandwidth.
DMI 4.0, released on November 4, 2021 with 600 series chipsets, doubles the bandwidth each lane provides and is two times faster when compared to DMI 3.0. The number of DMI 4.0 lanes depends on chipset model used.
Implementations
2005 Centrino mobile platform.: 3 At the time DMI linked the GMCH and I/O Controller Hub.: 3
Northbridge devices supporting a northbridge DMI are the Intel 915-series, 925-series, 945-series, 955-series, 965-series, 975-series, G31/33, P35, X38, X48, P45 and X58.
Processors supporting a northbridge DMI and, therefore, not using a separate northbridge, are the Intel Atom, Intel Core i3, Intel Core i5, and Intel Core i7 (8xx, 7xx and 6xx, but not 9xx). Processors supporting a northbridge DMI 2.0 and, therefore not using a separate northbridge, are the 2000, 3000, 4000, and 5000 series of the Intel Core i3, Core i5 and Core i7.
Southbridge devices supporting a southbridge DMI are the ICH6, ICH7, ICH8, ICH9, ICH10, NM10, P55, H55, H57, Q57, PM55, HM55, HM57, QM57 and QS57.
PCH devices supporting DMI 2.0 are the Intel B65, H61, H67, P67, Q65, Q67, Z68, HM65, HM67, QM67, QS67, B75, H77, Q75, Q77, Z75, Z77, X79, HM75, HM76, HM77, QM77, QS77, UM77, H81, B85, Q85, Q87, H87, Z87, H97, Z97, C222, C224, C226, X99, H110, and H310.
PCH devices supporting DMI 3.0 are the Intel Z170, H170, HM170, Q170, QM170, Q150, B150, C236, CM236, C232, and C620. The Intel 200 series, B360, H370, Q370, Z370, Z390, C246, and Intel 400 series chipsets also support DMI 3.0.
PCH devices supporting DMI 4.0 are the Intel 600 and 700 Series chipsets.
See also
Front-side bus – Type of computer communication interface
List of interface bit rates
References
^ "What Is the Direct Media Interface (DMI) of Intel Processors?". Intel. Retrieved 2023-06-05.
^ a b c d "Second-Generation Intel Centrino TM Mobile Technology" (PDF). Intel Technology Journal. 9 (1). February 17, 2005. doi:10.1535/itj.0901. ISSN 1535-864X.
^ "Intel 5520 Chipset and Intel 5500 Chipset Datasheet" (PDF). Intel. March 2009. Retrieved 2014-11-06.
^ "Direct Media Interface (DMI) - 1.0 - ID:721073 | Intel NUC 12 Extreme / Pro X". edc.intel.com. Retrieved 2023-06-05.
^ "Desktop 3rd Generation Intel Core Processor Family, Desktop Intel Pentium Processor Family, and Desktop Intel Celeron Processor Family: Datasheet - Volume 1 of 2" (PDF). External Design Specification (EDS). Intel. November 2013. Retrieved 2014-01-28.
^ Ian Cutress (2015-08-05). "The Skylake CPU Architecture – The Intel 6th Gen Skylake Review: Core i7-6700K and i5-6600K Tested". AnandTech. Retrieved 2015-08-06.
^ Ian Cutress (2015-08-05). "Intel Skylake Z170 Motherboards: A Quick Look at 55+ New Products". AnandTech. Retrieved 2015-08-06.
^ Ganesh T S (2016-05-09). "Choosing the Right SSD for a Skylake-U System". AnandTech. Retrieved 2016-11-16.
^ Gennadiy Shvets (2014-06-26). "More details on Skylake processors". cpu-world.com. Retrieved 2014-07-01.
^ Cutress, Ian (9 March 2015). "Intel Xeon D Launched: 14nm Broadwell SoC for Enterprise". AnandTech. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
^ "Intel Rocket Lake (14nm) Review: Core i9-11900K, Core i7-11700K, and Core i5-11600K".
^ "Intel 600 Series chipsets". Intel Ark. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
^ "Intel H110 Chipset (Intel GL82H110 PCH)". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.
^ "Intel H310 Chipset Product Specifications". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 2018-07-22.
^ "Intel Z170 Chipset (Intel GL82Z170 PCH)". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.
^ "Intel H170 Chipset (Intel GL82H170 PCH)". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.
^ "Mobile Intel HM170 Chipset (Intel GL82HM170 PCH)". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.
^ "Intel Q170 Chipset (Intel GL82Q170 PCH)". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.
^ "Mobile Intel QM170 Chipset (Intel GL82QM170 PCH)". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.
^ "Intel Q150 Chipset (Intel GL82Q150 PCH)". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.
^ "Intel B150 Chipset (Intel GL82B150 PCH)". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.
^ "Intel C236 Chipset (Intel GL82C236 PCH)". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.
^ "Mobile Intel CM236 Chipset (Intel GL82CM236 PCH)". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.
^ "Intel C232 Chipset (Intel GL82C232 PCH)". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.
^ "Intel B360 Chipset Product Specifications". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 2018-07-22.
^ "Intel H370 Chipset Product Specifications". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 2018-07-22.
^ "Intel Q370 Chipset Product Specifications". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 2018-07-22.
^ "Intel Z370 Chipset Product Specifications". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 2018-07-22.
^ "Intel Z390 Chipset Product Specifications". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 2018-07-22.
^ "Intel C246 Chipset Product Specifications". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 2018-07-22.
^ "Intel 600 Series chipsets". Intel Ark. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
^ "Intel 700 Series Chipsets". Intel Ark. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
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Interfaces are listed by their speed in the (roughly) ascending order, so the interface at the end of each section should be the fastest. Category
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Desktop Management Interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_Management_Interface"},{"link_name":"computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"northbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northbridge_(computing)"},{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU"},{"link_name":"southbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southbridge_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Platform Controller Hub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_Controller_Hub"},{"link_name":"motherboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"ICH6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I/O_Controller_Hub"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Intel Hub Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Hub_Architecture"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intel_X99_chipset_(vectorized).svg"},{"link_name":"Intel X99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_X99"},{"link_name":"PCI Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCI_Express"},{"link_name":"differential signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_signaling"},{"link_name":"Atom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Atom"},{"link_name":"isochronous data transfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochronous_timing"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Desktop Management Interface.In computing, Direct Media Interface (DMI) is Intel's proprietary link between the northbridge (or CPU) and southbridge (e.g. Platform Controller Hub family) chipset on a computer motherboard.[1] It was first used between the 9xx chipsets and the ICH6, released in 2004.[2]: 1 Previous Intel chipsets had used the Intel Hub Architecture to perform the same function, and server chipsets use a similar interface called Enterprise Southbridge Interface (ESI).[3] While the \"DMI\" name dates back to ICH6, Intel mandates specific combinations of compatible devices, so the presence of a DMI does not guarantee by itself that a particular northbridge–southbridge combination is allowed.Intel X99 motherboard diagram. The DMI bus is visible between CPU and PCH.DMI is essentially PCI Express, using multiple lanes and differential signaling to form a point-to-point link. Most implementations use a ×8 or ×4 link, while some mobile systems (e.g. 915GMS, 945GMS/GSE/GU and the Atom N450) use a ×2 link, halving the bandwidth. The original implementation provides 10 Gbit/s (1 GB/s) in each direction using a ×4 link. The DMI provides support for concurrent traffic and isochronous data transfer capabilities.[2]: 3 [4]","title":"Direct Media Interface"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU"},{"link_name":"Platform Controller Hub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_Controller_Hub"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"GT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigatransfer"},{"link_name":"Skylake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylake_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"Intel 100 Series chipsets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_100_Series_chipsets"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"system on a chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_on_a_chip"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"DMI 1.0, introduced in 2004 with a data transfer rate of 1 GB/s with a ×4 link.DMI 2.0, introduced in 2011, doubles the data transfer rate to 2 GB/s with a ×4 link. It is used to link an Intel CPU with the Intel Platform Controller Hub (PCH), which supersedes the historic implementation of a separate northbridge and southbridge.[5]: 14DMI 3.0, released in August 2015, allows the 8 GT/s transfer rate per lane, for a total of four lanes and 3.93 GB/s for the CPU–PCH link. It is used by two-chip variants of the Intel Skylake microprocessors, which are used in conjunction with Intel 100 Series chipsets;[6][7] some low power (Skylake-U onwards) and ultra low power (Skylake-Y onwards) mobile Intel processors have the PCH integrated into the physical package as a separate die, referred to as OPI (On Package DMI interconnect Interface)[8] and effectively following the system on a chip (SoC) design layout.[9]\nOn 9 March 2015, Intel announced the Broadwell-based Xeon D as its first enterprise platform to fully incorporate the PCH in an SoC configuration.[10]In 2021, with the release of 500 series chipsets, Intel increased the amount of DMI 3.0 lanes from four to eight, doubling the bandwidth.[11]DMI 4.0, released on November 4, 2021 with 600 series chipsets, doubles the bandwidth each lane provides and is two times faster when compared to DMI 3.0. The number of DMI 4.0 lanes depends on chipset model used.[12]","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Centrino mobile platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrino"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"GMCH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northbridge_(computing)"},{"link_name":"I/O Controller Hub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I/O_Controller_Hub"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"P35","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_P35"},{"link_name":"X38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intel_X38&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"X48","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_X48"},{"link_name":"P45","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_P45"},{"link_name":"X58","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_X58"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Intel Atom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Atom"},{"link_name":"Intel Core i3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Core_i3"},{"link_name":"Intel Core i5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Core_i5"},{"link_name":"Intel Core i7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Core_i7"},{"link_name":"Intel Core i3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Core_i3"},{"link_name":"Core i5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Core_i5"},{"link_name":"Core i7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Core_i7"},{"link_name":"ICH10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICH10"},{"link_name":"P55","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_P55"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"X79","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_X79"},{"link_name":"H81, B85, Q85, Q87, H87, Z87, H97, Z97, C222, C224, C226","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGA_1150"},{"link_name":"X99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_X99"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Intel 200 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaby_Lake"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Intel 400 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Lake"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"text":"2005 Centrino mobile platform.[2]: 3 At the time DMI linked the GMCH and I/O Controller Hub.[2]: 3Northbridge devices supporting a northbridge DMI are the Intel 915-series, 925-series, 945-series, 955-series, 965-series, 975-series, G31/33, P35, X38, X48, P45 and X58.[citation needed]Processors supporting a northbridge DMI and, therefore, not using a separate northbridge, are the Intel Atom, Intel Core i3, Intel Core i5, and Intel Core i7 (8xx, 7xx and 6xx, but not 9xx). Processors supporting a northbridge DMI 2.0 and, therefore not using a separate northbridge, are the 2000, 3000, 4000, and 5000 series of the Intel Core i3, Core i5 and Core i7.Southbridge devices supporting a southbridge DMI are the ICH6, ICH7, ICH8, ICH9, ICH10, NM10, P55, H55, H57, Q57, PM55, HM55, HM57, QM57 and QS57.[citation needed]PCH devices supporting DMI 2.0 are the Intel B65, H61, H67, P67, Q65, Q67, Z68, HM65, HM67, QM67, QS67, B75, H77, Q75, Q77, Z75, Z77, X79, HM75, HM76, HM77, QM77, QS77, UM77, H81, B85, Q85, Q87, H87, Z87, H97, Z97, C222, C224, C226, X99, H110,[13] and H310.[14]PCH devices supporting DMI 3.0 are the Intel Z170, H170, HM170, Q170, QM170, Q150, B150, C236, CM236, C232, and C620.[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] The Intel 200 series, B360,[25] H370,[26] Q370,[27] Z370,[28] Z390,[29] C246,[30] and Intel 400 series chipsets also support DMI 3.0.PCH devices supporting DMI 4.0 are the Intel 600 and 700 Series chipsets.[31][32]","title":"Implementations"}]
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[{"image_text":"Intel X99 motherboard diagram. The DMI bus is visible between CPU and PCH.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Intel_X99_chipset_%28vectorized%29.svg/220px-Intel_X99_chipset_%28vectorized%29.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Front-side bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front-side_bus"},{"title":"List of interface bit rates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interface_bit_rates"}]
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[{"reference":"\"What Is the Direct Media Interface (DMI) of Intel Processors?\". Intel. Retrieved 2023-06-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.intel.com/content/www/in/en/support/articles/000094185/processors.html","url_text":"\"What Is the Direct Media Interface (DMI) of Intel Processors?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Second-Generation Intel Centrino TM Mobile Technology\" (PDF). Intel Technology Journal. 9 (1). February 17, 2005. doi:10.1535/itj.0901. 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AnandTech. Retrieved 2015-08-06.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.anandtech.com/show/9485/intel-skylake-z170-motherboards-asrock-asus-gigabyte-msi-ecs-evga-supermicro","url_text":"\"Intel Skylake Z170 Motherboards: A Quick Look at 55+ New Products\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AnandTech","url_text":"AnandTech"}]},{"reference":"Ganesh T S (2016-05-09). \"Choosing the Right SSD for a Skylake-U System\". AnandTech. Retrieved 2016-11-16.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.anandtech.com/show/10303/choosing-the-right-ssd-for-a-skylakeu-system","url_text":"\"Choosing the Right SSD for a Skylake-U System\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AnandTech","url_text":"AnandTech"}]},{"reference":"Gennadiy Shvets (2014-06-26). \"More details on Skylake processors\". cpu-world.com. 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Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://ark.intel.com/products/90595/Intel-GL82H170-PCH","url_text":"\"Intel H170 Chipset (Intel GL82H170 PCH)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mobile Intel HM170 Chipset (Intel GL82HM170 PCH)\". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://ark.intel.com/products/90584/Intel-GL82HM170-PCH","url_text":"\"Mobile Intel HM170 Chipset (Intel GL82HM170 PCH)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel Q170 Chipset (Intel GL82Q170 PCH)\". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://ark.intel.com/products/90587/Intel-GL82Q170-PCH","url_text":"\"Intel Q170 Chipset (Intel GL82Q170 PCH)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mobile Intel QM170 Chipset (Intel GL82QM170 PCH)\". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://ark.intel.com/products/90583/Intel-GL82QM170-PCH","url_text":"\"Mobile Intel QM170 Chipset (Intel GL82QM170 PCH)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel Q150 Chipset (Intel GL82Q150 PCH)\". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://ark.intel.com/products/90588/Intel-GL82Q150-PCH","url_text":"\"Intel Q150 Chipset (Intel GL82Q150 PCH)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel B150 Chipset (Intel GL82B150 PCH)\". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://ark.intel.com/products/90592/Intel-GL82B150-PCH","url_text":"\"Intel B150 Chipset (Intel GL82B150 PCH)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel C236 Chipset (Intel GL82C236 PCH)\". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://ark.intel.com/products/90594/Intel-GL82C236-PCH","url_text":"\"Intel C236 Chipset (Intel GL82C236 PCH)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mobile Intel CM236 Chipset (Intel GL82CM236 PCH)\". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://ark.intel.com/products/90593/Intel-GL82CM236-PCH","url_text":"\"Mobile Intel CM236 Chipset (Intel GL82CM236 PCH)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel C232 Chipset (Intel GL82C232 PCH)\". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 28 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://ark.intel.com/products/90578/Intel-GL82C232-PCH","url_text":"\"Intel C232 Chipset (Intel GL82C232 PCH)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel B360 Chipset Product Specifications\". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 2018-07-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://ark.intel.com/products/133332/Intel-B360-Chipset","url_text":"\"Intel B360 Chipset Product Specifications\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel H370 Chipset Product Specifications\". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 2018-07-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://ark.intel.com/products/133284/Intel-H370-Chipset","url_text":"\"Intel H370 Chipset Product Specifications\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel Q370 Chipset Product Specifications\". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 2018-07-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://ark.intel.com/products/133282/Intel-Q370-Chipset","url_text":"\"Intel Q370 Chipset Product Specifications\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel Z370 Chipset Product Specifications\". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 2018-07-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://ark.intel.com/products/125903/Intel-Z370-Chipset","url_text":"\"Intel Z370 Chipset Product Specifications\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel Z390 Chipset Product Specifications\". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 2018-07-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://ark.intel.com/products/133293/Intel-Z390-Chipset","url_text":"\"Intel Z390 Chipset Product Specifications\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel C246 Chipset Product Specifications\". Intel ARK (Product Specs). Retrieved 2018-07-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://ark.intel.com/products/147326/Intel-C246-chipset","url_text":"\"Intel C246 Chipset Product Specifications\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel 600 Series chipsets\". Intel Ark. Retrieved 3 April 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/series/218828/intel-600-series-desktop-chipsets.html","url_text":"\"Intel 600 Series chipsets\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel 700 Series Chipsets\". Intel Ark. Retrieved 11 October 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/series/229717/intel-700-series-desktop-chipsets.html","url_text":"\"Intel 700 Series Chipsets\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throttle
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Throttle
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["1 Internal combustion engines","2 Throttle body","2.1 Multiple throttle bodies","3 Other engines","4 Lifespan of the throttle in cars","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
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Control of engine power
This article is about the control of engine power. For other uses, see Throttle (disambiguation).This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: "Throttle" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2019)
A throttle is a mechanism by which fluid flow is managed by constriction or obstruction.
An engine's power can be increased or decreased by the restriction of inlet gases (by the use of a throttle), but usually decreased. The term throttle has come to refer, informally, to any mechanism by which the power or speed of an engine is regulated, such as a car's accelerator pedal. What is often termed a throttle (in an aviation context) is also called a thrust lever, particularly for jet engine powered aircraft. For a steam locomotive, the valve which controls the steam is known as the regulator.
Internal combustion engines
A cross-section view of a butterfly valve
In an internal combustion engine, the throttle is a means of controlling an engine's power by regulating the amount of fuel or air entering the engine. In a motor vehicle the control used by the driver to regulate power is sometimes called the throttle, accelerator, or gas pedal. For a gasoline engine, the throttle most commonly regulates the amount of air and fuel allowed to enter the engine. However, in a gasoline direct injection engine, the throttle regulates only the amount of air allowed to enter the engine. The throttle of a diesel, when present, regulates the air flow into the engine.
Historically, the throttle pedal or lever acts via a direct mechanical linkage. The butterfly valve of the throttle is operated by means of an arm piece, loaded by a spring. This arm is usually directly linked to the accelerator cable, and operates in accordance with the driver, who hits it. The further the pedal is pushed, the wider the throttle valve opens.
Modern engines of both types (gas and diesel) are commonly drive-by-wire systems where sensors monitor the driver controls and in response a computerized system controls the flow of fuel and air. This means that the operator does not have direct control over the flow of fuel and air; the Engine Control Unit (ECU) can achieve better control in order to reduce emissions, maximize performance and adjust the engine idle to make a cold engine warm up faster or to account for eventual additional engine loads such as running air conditioning compressors in order to avoid engine stalls.
The throttle on a gasoline engine is typically a butterfly valve. In a fuel-injected engine, the throttle valve is placed on the entrance of the intake manifold, or housed in the throttle body. In a carbureted engine, it is found in the carburetor. When a throttle is wide open, the intake manifold is usually at ambient atmospheric pressure. When the throttle is partially closed, a manifold vacuum develops as the intake drops below ambient pressure.
The power output of a diesel engine is controlled by regulating the quantity of fuel that is injected into the cylinder. Because diesel engines do not need to control air volumes, they usually lack a butterfly valve in the intake tract. An exception to this generalization is newer diesel engines meeting stricter emissions standards, where such a valve is used to generate intake manifold vacuum, thereby allowing the introduction of exhaust gas (see EGR) to lower combustion temperatures and thereby minimize NOx production.
In a reciprocating engine aircraft, the throttle control is usually a hand-operated lever or knob. It controls the engine power output, which may or may not reflect in a change of RPM, depending on the propeller installation (fixed-pitch or constant speed).
Some modern internal combustion engines do not use a traditional throttle, instead relying on their variable intake valve timing system to regulate the airflow into the cylinders, although the result is the same, albeit with less pumping losses.
Throttle body
The components of a typical throttle body
In fuel injected engines, the throttle body is the part of the air intake system that controls the amount of air flowing into the engine, in response to driver accelerator pedal input in the main.
The throttle body is usually located between the air filter box and the intake manifold, and it is usually attached to, or near, the mass airflow sensor. Often, an engine coolant line also runs through it in order for the engine to draw intake air at a certain temperature (the engine's current coolant temperature, which the ECU senses through the relevant sensor) and therefore with a known density.
The largest piece inside the throttle body is the throttle plate, which is a butterfly valve that regulates the airflow.
On many cars, the accelerator pedal motion is communicated via the throttle cable, which is mechanically connected to the throttle linkages, which, in turn, rotate the throttle plate. In cars with electronic throttle control (also known as "drive-by-wire"), an electric actuator controls the throttle linkages and the accelerator pedal connects not to the throttle body, but to a sensor, which outputs a signal proportional to the current pedal position and sends it to the ECU. The ECU then determines the throttle opening based on the accelerator pedal's position and inputs from other engine sensors such as the engine coolant temperature sensor.
Throttle body showing throttle position sensor. The throttle cable attaches to the curved, black portion on the left. The copper-coloured coil visible next to this returns the throttle to its idle (closed) position when the pedal is released.
When the driver presses on the accelerator pedal, the throttle plate rotates within the throttle body, opening the throttle passage to allow more air into the intake manifold, immediately drawn inside by its vacuum. Usually a mass airflow sensor measures this change and communicates it to the ECU. The ECU then increases the amount of fuel injected by the injectors in order to obtain the required air-fuel ratio. Often a throttle position sensor (TPS) is connected to the shaft of the throttle plate to provide the ECU with information on whether the throttle is in the idle position, wide-open throttle (WOT) position, or somewhere in between these extremes.
Throttle bodies may also contain valves and adjustments to control the minimum airflow during idle. Even in those units that are not "drive-by-wire", there will often be a small solenoid driven valve, the Idle Air Control Valve (IACV), that the ECU uses to control the amount of air that can bypass the main throttle opening to allow the engine to idle when the throttle is closed.
The most basic carbureted engines, such as single cylinder Briggs & Stratton lawn-mower engines, feature a single small throttle plate over a basic carburetor with a single venturi. The throttle is either open or closed (although there is always a small hole or other bypass to allow a small amount of air to flow through so the engine can idle when the throttle is closed), or some intermediate position. Since air velocity is crucial to the functioning of a carburetor, to keep average air velocity up, larger engines require more complex carburetors with multiple small venturis, typically two or four (these venturis are commonly called "barrels"). A typical "2-barrel" carburetor uses a single oval or rectangular throttle plate, and works similarly to a single venturi carburetor, but with two small openings instead of one. A 4-venturi carburetor has two pairs of venturis, each pair regulated by a single oval or rectangular throttle plate. Under normal operation, only one throttle plate (the "primary") opens when the accelerator pedal is pressed, allowing more air into the engine, but keeping overall airflow velocity through the carburetor high (thus improving efficiency). The "secondary" throttle is operated either mechanically when the primary plate is opened past a certain amount, or via engine vacuum, influenced by the position of the accelerator pedal and engine load, allowing for greater air flow into the engine at high RPM and load and better efficiency at low RPM. Multiple 2-venturi or 4-venturi carburetors can be used simultaneously in situations where maximum engine power is of priority.
Image of BMW S65 from the E92 BMW M3 showing eight individual throttle bodies
Triple butterfly throttle body atop a fuel injection plenum, on a supercharged drag racing car
A throttle body is somewhat analogous to the carburetor in a non-injected engine, although it is important to remember that a throttle body is not the same thing as a throttle, and that carbureted engines have throttles as well. A throttle body simply supplies a convenient place to mount a throttle in the absence of a carburetor venturi. Carburetors are an older technology, which mechanically modulate the amount of air flow (with an internal throttle plate) and combine air and fuel together (venturi). Cars with fuel injection don't need a mechanical device to meter the fuel flow, since that duty is taken over by injectors in the intake pathways (for multipoint fuel injection systems) or cylinders (for direct injection systems) coupled with electronic sensors and computers which precisely calculate how long should a certain injector stay open and therefore how much fuel should be injected by each injection pulse. However, they do still need a throttle to control the airflow into the engine, together with a sensor that detects its current opening angle, so that the correct air/fuel ratio can be met at any RPM and engine load combination. The simplest way to do this is to simply remove the carburetor unit, and bolt a simple unit containing a throttle body and fuel injectors on instead. This is known as single-port injection, also known by different marketing names (such as "throttle-body injection" by General Motors and "central fuel injection" by Ford, among others), and it allows an older engine design to be converted from carburetor to fuel injection without significantly altering the intake manifold design. More complex later designs use intake manifolds, and even cylinder heads, specially designed for the inclusion of injectors.
Multiple throttle bodies
Most fuel injected cars have a single throttle, contained in a throttle body. Vehicles can sometimes employ more than one throttle body, connected by linkages to operate simultaneously, which improves throttle response and allows a straighter path for the airflow to the cylinder head, as well as for equal-distance intake runners of short length, difficult to achieve when all the runners have to travel to certain location to connect to a single throttle body, at the cost of greater complexity and packaging issues. At the extreme, higher-performance cars like the E92 BMW M3 and Ferraris, and high-performance motorcycles like the Yamaha R6, can use a separate throttle body for each cylinder, often called "individual throttle bodies" or ITBs. Although rare in production vehicles, these are common equipment on many racing cars and modified street vehicles. This practice harks back to the days when many high performance cars were given one, small, single-venturi carburettor for each cylinder or pair of cylinders (i.e. Weber, SU carburettors), each one with their own small throttle plate inside. In a carburettor, the smaller throttle opening also allowed for more precise and fast carburettor response, as well as better atomization of the fuel when running at low engine speeds.
Other engines
Steam locomotives normally have the throttle (North American English) or regulator (British English) in a characteristic steam dome at the top of the boiler (although not all boilers feature these). The additional height afforded by the dome helps to avoid any liquid (e.g. from bubbles on the surface of the boiler water) being drawn into the throttle valve, which could damage it, or lead to priming. The throttle is basically a poppet valve, or series of poppet valves which open in sequence to regulate the amount of steam admitted to the steam chests over the pistons. It is used in conjunction with the reversing lever to start, stop and to control the locomotive's power although, during steady-state running of most locomotives, it is preferable to leave the throttle wide open and to control the power by varying the steam cut-off point (which is done with the reversing lever), as this is more efficient. A steam locomotive throttle valve poses a difficult design challenge as it must be opened and closed using hand effort against the considerable pressure (typically 250 psi or 1,700 kPa) of boiler steam. One of the primary reasons for later multiple-sequential valves: it is far easier to open a small poppet valve against the pressure differential, and open the others once pressure begins to equalize than to open a single large valve, especially as steam pressures eventually exceeded 200 psi (1,400 kPa) or even 300 psi (2,100 kPa). Examples include the balanced "double beat" type used on Gresley A3 Pacifics.
Throttling of a rocket engine means varying the thrust level in-flight. This is not always a requirement; in fact, the thrust of a solid-fuel rocket is not controllable after ignition. However, liquid-propellant rockets can be throttled by means of valves which regulate the flow of fuel and oxidizer to the combustion chamber. Hybrid rocket engines, such as the one used in Space Ship One, use solid fuel with a liquid oxidizer, and therefore can be throttled. Throttling tends to be required more for powered landings, and launch into space using a single main stage (such as the Space Shuttle), than for launch with multistage rockets. They are also useful in situations where the airspeed of the vehicle must be limited due to aerodynamic stress in the denser atmosphere at lower levels (e.g. the Space Shuttle). Rockets characteristically become lighter the longer they burn, with the changing ratio of thrust:weight resulting in increasing acceleration, so engines are often throttled (or switched off) to limit acceleration forces towards the end of a stage's burn time if it is carrying sensitive cargo (e.g. humans).
In a jet engine, thrust is controlled by changing the amount of fuel flowing into the combustion chamber, similar to a diesel engine.
Lifespan of the throttle in cars
The lifespan of the throttle is not set since it highly depends on the driving style and specific vehicle. The throttle tends to be quite dirty after 100-150 thousand kilometers, and it is necessary to clean it up. The malfunction of the throttle could be indicated by illuminated EPC warning light. This is usually the case with modern Volkswagen Group vehicles. Vehicles not equipped with the EPC warning light indicate issues with the throttle by illuminated check engine symbol.
Symptoms of the throttle malfunction could vary from poor idle, decreased engine power, poor mileage, bad acceleration, and so on. The effective way to increase the throttle's lifespan is through regular maintenance and cleaning.
See also
Adapted automobile
References
^ "Chapter 6: Aircraft Systems" (PDF). Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. Federal Aviation Administration. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-27. Retrieved 2009-02-09.
^ Milo, Martin (2023-02-16). "EPC Warning Light: What does it mean and how to fix it?". AUTORIDE | All about cars. MILOMEDIA OÜ. Retrieved 2023-02-19.
^ Milo, Martin (2023-02-14). "Throttle valve: How it works and its possible malfunctions". AUTORIDE | All about cars. MILOMEDIA OÜ. Retrieved 2023-02-19.
External links
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Throttle (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throttle_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"fluid flow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_flow"},{"link_name":"engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine"},{"link_name":"thrust lever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_lever"},{"link_name":"jet engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_engine"},{"link_name":"steam locomotive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_locomotive"}],"text":"This article is about the control of engine power. For other uses, see Throttle (disambiguation).A throttle is a mechanism by which fluid flow is managed by constriction or obstruction.An engine's power can be increased or decreased by the restriction of inlet gases (by the use of a throttle), but usually decreased. The term throttle has come to refer, informally, to any mechanism by which the power or speed of an engine is regulated, such as a car's accelerator pedal. What is often termed a throttle (in an aviation context) is also called a thrust lever, particularly for jet engine powered aircraft. For a steam locomotive, the valve which controls the steam is known as the regulator.","title":"Throttle"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USPatent6518683.png"},{"link_name":"internal combustion engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine"},{"link_name":"pedal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile_pedal"},{"link_name":"gasoline direct injection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline_direct_injection"},{"link_name":"mechanical linkage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_linkage"},{"link_name":"drive-by-wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive_by_wire"},{"link_name":"Engine Control Unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_control_unit"},{"link_name":"emissions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gas"},{"link_name":"engine idle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_idle"},{"link_name":"butterfly valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly_valve"},{"link_name":"fuel-injected","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injection"},{"link_name":"intake manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intake_manifold"},{"link_name":"throttle body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throttle_body"},{"link_name":"wide open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_open_throttle"},{"link_name":"manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inlet_manifold"},{"link_name":"manifold vacuum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifold_vacuum"},{"link_name":"diesel engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_engine"},{"link_name":"EGR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gas_recirculation"},{"link_name":"NOx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOx"},{"link_name":"reciprocating engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocating_engine"},{"link_name":"propeller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)"},{"link_name":"constant speed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_speed_propeller"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"variable intake valve timing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_valve_timing"}],"text":"A cross-section view of a butterfly valveIn an internal combustion engine, the throttle is a means of controlling an engine's power by regulating the amount of fuel or air entering the engine. In a motor vehicle the control used by the driver to regulate power is sometimes called the throttle, accelerator, or gas pedal. For a gasoline engine, the throttle most commonly regulates the amount of air and fuel allowed to enter the engine. However, in a gasoline direct injection engine, the throttle regulates only the amount of air allowed to enter the engine. The throttle of a diesel, when present, regulates the air flow into the engine.Historically, the throttle pedal or lever acts via a direct mechanical linkage. The butterfly valve of the throttle is operated by means of an arm piece, loaded by a spring. This arm is usually directly linked to the accelerator cable, and operates in accordance with the driver, who hits it. The further the pedal is pushed, the wider the throttle valve opens.Modern engines of both types (gas and diesel) are commonly drive-by-wire systems where sensors monitor the driver controls and in response a computerized system controls the flow of fuel and air. This means that the operator does not have direct control over the flow of fuel and air; the Engine Control Unit (ECU) can achieve better control in order to reduce emissions, maximize performance and adjust the engine idle to make a cold engine warm up faster or to account for eventual additional engine loads such as running air conditioning compressors in order to avoid engine stalls.The throttle on a gasoline engine is typically a butterfly valve. In a fuel-injected engine, the throttle valve is placed on the entrance of the intake manifold, or housed in the throttle body. In a carbureted engine, it is found in the carburetor. When a throttle is wide open, the intake manifold is usually at ambient atmospheric pressure. When the throttle is partially closed, a manifold vacuum develops as the intake drops below ambient pressure.The power output of a diesel engine is controlled by regulating the quantity of fuel that is injected into the cylinder. Because diesel engines do not need to control air volumes, they usually lack a butterfly valve in the intake tract. An exception to this generalization is newer diesel engines meeting stricter emissions standards, where such a valve is used to generate intake manifold vacuum, thereby allowing the introduction of exhaust gas (see EGR) to lower combustion temperatures and thereby minimize NOx production.In a reciprocating engine aircraft, the throttle control is usually a hand-operated lever or knob. It controls the engine power output, which may or may not reflect in a change of RPM, depending on the propeller installation (fixed-pitch or constant speed).[1]Some modern internal combustion engines do not use a traditional throttle, instead relying on their variable intake valve timing system to regulate the airflow into the cylinders, although the result is the same, albeit with less pumping losses.","title":"Internal combustion engines"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Throttlebody.png"},{"link_name":"fuel injected","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injection"},{"link_name":"engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine"},{"link_name":"air intake system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intake"},{"link_name":"air filter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_filter"},{"link_name":"intake manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intake_manifold"},{"link_name":"mass airflow sensor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_airflow_sensor"},{"link_name":"relevant sensor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_coolant_temperature_sensor"},{"link_name":"butterfly valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly_valve"},{"link_name":"electronic throttle control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_throttle_control"},{"link_name":"electric actuator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motor"},{"link_name":"ECU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_control_unit"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Throttle_body.jpg"},{"link_name":"throttle position sensor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throttle_position_sensor"},{"link_name":"air-fuel ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-fuel_ratio"},{"link_name":"throttle position sensor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throttle_position_sensor"},{"link_name":"idle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idle_speed"},{"link_name":"drive-by-wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive-by-wire"},{"link_name":"solenoid driven valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solenoid_valve"},{"link_name":"single cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-cylinder_engine"},{"link_name":"Briggs & Stratton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briggs_%26_Stratton"},{"link_name":"lawn-mower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawn_mower"},{"link_name":"venturi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venturi_effect"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bmw_e92_m3_engine3.jpg"},{"link_name":"BMW S65","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW_S65"},{"link_name":"BMW M3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW_M3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Throttle_Body_JM.jpg"},{"link_name":"drag racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_racing"},{"link_name":"carburetor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carburetor"},{"link_name":"venturi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venturi_effect"},{"link_name":"multipoint fuel injection systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injection#Multi-point_injection"},{"link_name":"direct injection systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline_direct_injection"},{"link_name":"General Motors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors"},{"link_name":"Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company"},{"link_name":"intake manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inlet_manifold"},{"link_name":"cylinder heads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_head"}],"text":"The components of a typical throttle bodyIn fuel injected engines, the throttle body is the part of the air intake system that controls the amount of air flowing into the engine, in response to driver accelerator pedal input in the main.\nThe throttle body is usually located between the air filter box and the intake manifold, and it is usually attached to, or near, the mass airflow sensor. Often, an engine coolant line also runs through it in order for the engine to draw intake air at a certain temperature (the engine's current coolant temperature, which the ECU senses through the relevant sensor) and therefore with a known density.The largest piece inside the throttle body is the throttle plate, which is a butterfly valve that regulates the airflow.On many cars, the accelerator pedal motion is communicated via the throttle cable, which is mechanically connected to the throttle linkages, which, in turn, rotate the throttle plate. In cars with electronic throttle control (also known as \"drive-by-wire\"), an electric actuator controls the throttle linkages and the accelerator pedal connects not to the throttle body, but to a sensor, which outputs a signal proportional to the current pedal position and sends it to the ECU. The ECU then determines the throttle opening based on the accelerator pedal's position and inputs from other engine sensors such as the engine coolant temperature sensor.Throttle body showing throttle position sensor. The throttle cable attaches to the curved, black portion on the left. The copper-coloured coil visible next to this returns the throttle to its idle (closed) position when the pedal is released.When the driver presses on the accelerator pedal, the throttle plate rotates within the throttle body, opening the throttle passage to allow more air into the intake manifold, immediately drawn inside by its vacuum. Usually a mass airflow sensor measures this change and communicates it to the ECU. The ECU then increases the amount of fuel injected by the injectors in order to obtain the required air-fuel ratio. Often a throttle position sensor (TPS) is connected to the shaft of the throttle plate to provide the ECU with information on whether the throttle is in the idle position, wide-open throttle (WOT) position, or somewhere in between these extremes.Throttle bodies may also contain valves and adjustments to control the minimum airflow during idle. Even in those units that are not \"drive-by-wire\", there will often be a small solenoid driven valve, the Idle Air Control Valve (IACV), that the ECU uses to control the amount of air that can bypass the main throttle opening to allow the engine to idle when the throttle is closed.The most basic carbureted engines, such as single cylinder Briggs & Stratton lawn-mower engines, feature a single small throttle plate over a basic carburetor with a single venturi. The throttle is either open or closed (although there is always a small hole or other bypass to allow a small amount of air to flow through so the engine can idle when the throttle is closed), or some intermediate position. Since air velocity is crucial to the functioning of a carburetor, to keep average air velocity up, larger engines require more complex carburetors with multiple small venturis, typically two or four (these venturis are commonly called \"barrels\"). A typical \"2-barrel\" carburetor uses a single oval or rectangular throttle plate, and works similarly to a single venturi carburetor, but with two small openings instead of one. A 4-venturi carburetor has two pairs of venturis, each pair regulated by a single oval or rectangular throttle plate. Under normal operation, only one throttle plate (the \"primary\") opens when the accelerator pedal is pressed, allowing more air into the engine, but keeping overall airflow velocity through the carburetor high (thus improving efficiency). The \"secondary\" throttle is operated either mechanically when the primary plate is opened past a certain amount, or via engine vacuum, influenced by the position of the accelerator pedal and engine load, allowing for greater air flow into the engine at high RPM and load and better efficiency at low RPM. Multiple 2-venturi or 4-venturi carburetors can be used simultaneously in situations where maximum engine power is of priority.Image of BMW S65 from the E92 BMW M3 showing eight individual throttle bodiesTriple butterfly throttle body atop a fuel injection plenum, on a supercharged drag racing carA throttle body is somewhat analogous to the carburetor in a non-injected engine, although it is important to remember that a throttle body is not the same thing as a throttle, and that carbureted engines have throttles as well. A throttle body simply supplies a convenient place to mount a throttle in the absence of a carburetor venturi. Carburetors are an older technology, which mechanically modulate the amount of air flow (with an internal throttle plate) and combine air and fuel together (venturi). Cars with fuel injection don't need a mechanical device to meter the fuel flow, since that duty is taken over by injectors in the intake pathways (for multipoint fuel injection systems) or cylinders (for direct injection systems) coupled with electronic sensors and computers which precisely calculate how long should a certain injector stay open and therefore how much fuel should be injected by each injection pulse. However, they do still need a throttle to control the airflow into the engine, together with a sensor that detects its current opening angle, so that the correct air/fuel ratio can be met at any RPM and engine load combination. The simplest way to do this is to simply remove the carburetor unit, and bolt a simple unit containing a throttle body and fuel injectors on instead. This is known as single-port injection, also known by different marketing names (such as \"throttle-body injection\" by General Motors and \"central fuel injection\" by Ford, among others), and it allows an older engine design to be converted from carburetor to fuel injection without significantly altering the intake manifold design. More complex later designs use intake manifolds, and even cylinder heads, specially designed for the inclusion of injectors.","title":"Throttle body"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"throttle response","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throttle_response"},{"link_name":"BMW M3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW_M3"},{"link_name":"Ferraris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrari"},{"link_name":"Yamaha R6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_R6"}],"sub_title":"Multiple throttle bodies","text":"Most fuel injected cars have a single throttle, contained in a throttle body. Vehicles can sometimes employ more than one throttle body, connected by linkages to operate simultaneously, which improves throttle response and allows a straighter path for the airflow to the cylinder head, as well as for equal-distance intake runners of short length, difficult to achieve when all the runners have to travel to certain location to connect to a single throttle body, at the cost of greater complexity and packaging issues. At the extreme, higher-performance cars like the E92 BMW M3 and Ferraris, and high-performance motorcycles like the Yamaha R6, can use a separate throttle body for each cylinder, often called \"individual throttle bodies\" or ITBs. Although rare in production vehicles, these are common equipment on many racing cars and modified street vehicles. This practice harks back to the days when many high performance cars were given one, small, single-venturi carburettor for each cylinder or pair of cylinders (i.e. Weber, SU carburettors), each one with their own small throttle plate inside. In a carburettor, the smaller throttle opening also allowed for more precise and fast carburettor response, as well as better atomization of the fuel when running at low engine speeds.","title":"Throttle body"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Steam locomotives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_locomotives"},{"link_name":"steam dome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_dome"},{"link_name":"priming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_(steam_locomotive)"},{"link_name":"poppet valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poppet_valve"},{"link_name":"reversing lever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversing_lever"},{"link_name":"steam cut-off point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutoff_(steam_engine)"},{"link_name":"poppet valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poppet_valve"},{"link_name":"double beat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_beat_valve"},{"link_name":"A3 Pacifics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A3_Pacific"},{"link_name":"rocket engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_engine"},{"link_name":"thrust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust"},{"link_name":"solid-fuel rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-fuel_rocket"},{"link_name":"liquid-propellant rockets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid-propellant_rocket"},{"link_name":"Hybrid rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_rocket"},{"link_name":"Space Ship One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaled_Composites_SpaceShipOne"},{"link_name":"Space Shuttle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle"},{"link_name":"multistage rockets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multistage_rocket"},{"link_name":"jet engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_engine"}],"text":"Steam locomotives normally have the throttle (North American English) or regulator (British English) in a characteristic steam dome at the top of the boiler (although not all boilers feature these). The additional height afforded by the dome helps to avoid any liquid (e.g. from bubbles on the surface of the boiler water) being drawn into the throttle valve, which could damage it, or lead to priming. The throttle is basically a poppet valve, or series of poppet valves which open in sequence to regulate the amount of steam admitted to the steam chests over the pistons. It is used in conjunction with the reversing lever to start, stop and to control the locomotive's power although, during steady-state running of most locomotives, it is preferable to leave the throttle wide open and to control the power by varying the steam cut-off point (which is done with the reversing lever), as this is more efficient. A steam locomotive throttle valve poses a difficult design challenge as it must be opened and closed using hand effort against the considerable pressure (typically 250 psi or 1,700 kPa) of boiler steam. One of the primary reasons for later multiple-sequential valves: it is far easier to open a small poppet valve against the pressure differential, and open the others once pressure begins to equalize than to open a single large valve, especially as steam pressures eventually exceeded 200 psi (1,400 kPa) or even 300 psi (2,100 kPa). Examples include the balanced \"double beat\" type used on Gresley A3 Pacifics.Throttling of a rocket engine means varying the thrust level in-flight. This is not always a requirement; in fact, the thrust of a solid-fuel rocket is not controllable after ignition. However, liquid-propellant rockets can be throttled by means of valves which regulate the flow of fuel and oxidizer to the combustion chamber. Hybrid rocket engines, such as the one used in Space Ship One, use solid fuel with a liquid oxidizer, and therefore can be throttled. Throttling tends to be required more for powered landings, and launch into space using a single main stage (such as the Space Shuttle), than for launch with multistage rockets. They are also useful in situations where the airspeed of the vehicle must be limited due to aerodynamic stress in the denser atmosphere at lower levels (e.g. the Space Shuttle). Rockets characteristically become lighter the longer they burn, with the changing ratio of thrust:weight resulting in increasing acceleration, so engines are often throttled (or switched off) to limit acceleration forces towards the end of a stage's burn time if it is carrying sensitive cargo (e.g. humans).In a jet engine, thrust is controlled by changing the amount of fuel flowing into the combustion chamber, similar to a diesel engine.","title":"Other engines"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Volkswagen Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen_Group"},{"link_name":"check engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Check_engine_light"},{"link_name":"acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleration"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The lifespan of the throttle is not set since it highly depends on the driving style and specific vehicle. The throttle tends to be quite dirty after 100-150 thousand kilometers, and it is necessary to clean it up. The malfunction of the throttle could be indicated by illuminated EPC warning light.[2] This is usually the case with modern Volkswagen Group vehicles. Vehicles not equipped with the EPC warning light indicate issues with the throttle by illuminated check engine symbol.Symptoms of the throttle malfunction could vary from poor idle, decreased engine power, poor mileage, bad acceleration, and so on. The effective way to increase the throttle's lifespan is through regular maintenance and cleaning.[3]","title":"Lifespan of the throttle in cars"}]
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[{"image_text":"A cross-section view of a butterfly valve","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/USPatent6518683.png/170px-USPatent6518683.png"},{"image_text":"The components of a typical throttle body","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Throttlebody.png/220px-Throttlebody.png"},{"image_text":"Throttle body showing throttle position sensor. The throttle cable attaches to the curved, black portion on the left. The copper-coloured coil visible next to this returns the throttle to its idle (closed) position when the pedal is released.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Throttle_body.jpg/220px-Throttle_body.jpg"},{"image_text":"Image of BMW S65 from the E92 BMW M3 showing eight individual throttle bodies","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/59/Bmw_e92_m3_engine3.jpg/220px-Bmw_e92_m3_engine3.jpg"},{"image_text":"Triple butterfly throttle body atop a fuel injection plenum, on a supercharged drag racing car","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Throttle_Body_JM.jpg/220px-Throttle_Body_JM.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Adapted automobile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adapted_automobile"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Chapter 6: Aircraft Systems\" (PDF). Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. Federal Aviation Administration. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-27. Retrieved 2009-02-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090227160410/http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/aviation/pilot_handbook/media/PHAK%20-%20Chapter%2006.pdf","url_text":"\"Chapter 6: Aircraft Systems\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration","url_text":"Federal Aviation Administration"},{"url":"http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/aviation/pilot_handbook/media/PHAK%20-%20Chapter%2006.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Milo, Martin (2023-02-16). \"EPC Warning Light: What does it mean and how to fix it?\". AUTORIDE | All about cars. MILOMEDIA OÜ. Retrieved 2023-02-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://autoride.io/en/epc-warning-light-what-does-it-mean-and-how-to-fix-it","url_text":"\"EPC Warning Light: What does it mean and how to fix it?\""}]},{"reference":"Milo, Martin (2023-02-14). \"Throttle valve: How it works and its possible malfunctions\". AUTORIDE | All about cars. MILOMEDIA OÜ. Retrieved 2023-02-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://autoride.io/en/throttle-valve","url_text":"\"Throttle valve: How it works and its possible malfunctions\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding
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An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
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["1 Content","1.1 Book I","1.2 Book II","1.3 Book III","1.4 Book IV","2 Reaction, response, and influence","3 Editions","4 See also","5 References","6 Bibliography","7 External links"]
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Philosophical work by John Locke
Not to be confused with An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Title page of the first editionAuthorJohn LockeLanguageEnglishSubjectEpistemologyPublication date1689(dated 1690)Publication placeEngland
Part of a series onJohn Locke
Social contract
Limited government
Tabula rasa
State of nature
Right to property
Labor theory of property
Lockean proviso
Argument from consciousness
Works(listed chronologically)
Fundamental Constitutionsof Carolina
A Letter Concerning Toleration
Two Treatises of Government
An Essay ConcerningHuman Understanding
Some ThoughtsConcerning Education
Of the Conduct ofthe Understanding
People
Robert Filmer
Thomas Hobbes
1st Earl of Shaftesbury
David Hume
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Adam Smith
Immanuel Kant
Thomas Jefferson
Related topics
Empiricism
Classical liberalism
Polish Brethren
vte
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding is a work by John Locke concerning the foundation of human knowledge and understanding. It first appeared in 1689 (although dated 1690) with the printed title An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding. He describes the mind at birth as a blank slate (tabula rasa, although he did not use those actual words) filled later through experience. Locke was inspired by the ideas of the Muslim philosopher Ibn Tufayl in his book Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, translated by Edward Pococke. The essay was one of the principal sources of empiricism in modern philosophy, and influenced many enlightenment philosophers, such as David Hume and George Berkeley.
Book I of the Essay is Locke's attempt to refute the rationalist notion of innate ideas. Book II sets out Locke's theory of ideas, including his distinction between passively acquired simple ideas—such as "red", "sweet", "round"—and actively built complex ideas, such as numbers, causes and effects, abstract ideas, ideas of substances, identity, and diversity. Locke also distinguishes between the truly existing primary qualities of bodies, like shape, motion and the arrangement of minute particles, and the secondary qualities that are "powers to produce various sensations in us" such as "red" and "sweet." These secondary qualities, Locke claims, are dependent on the primary qualities. He also offers a theory of personal identity, offering a largely psychological criterion. Book III is concerned with language, and Book IV with knowledge, including intuition, mathematics, moral philosophy, natural philosophy ("science"), faith, and opinion.
Content
Book I
The main thesis is that there are "No Innate Principles." Locke wrote, "If we will attentively consider new-born children, we shall have little reason to think, that they bring many ideas into the world with them." Rather, "by degrees, afterwards, ideas come into their minds; and...they get no more, nor no other, than what experience, and the observation of things, that come in their way, furnish them with." Book I of the Essay is an attack on nativism or the doctrine of innate ideas; Locke indeed sought to rebut a prevalent view of innate ideas that was, in his words, an "established opinion" firmly held by philosophers of his time. While he allowed that some ideas are in the mind from an early age, he argued that those ideas are furnished by the senses starting in the womb—for instance, differences between colours or tastes. If we have a universal understanding of a concept like sweetness, it is not because this is an innate idea, but because we are all exposed to sweet tastes at an early age.
One of Locke's fundamental arguments against innate ideas is the very fact that there is no truth to which all people attest. He took the time to argue against a number of propositions that rationalists offer as universally accepted truth, for instance the principle of identity, pointing out that at the very least children and idiots are often unaware of these propositions. In anticipating a counterargument, namely the use of reason to comprehend already existent innate ideas, Locke states that "by this means, there will be no difference between the maxims of the mathematicians, and theorems they deduce from them; all must be equally allowed innate; they being all discoveries made by the use of reason."
Book II
Whereas Book I is intended to reject the doctrine of innate ideas proposed by Descartes and the rationalists, Book II explains that every idea is derived from experience either by sensation—i.e. direct sensory information—or reflection—i.e. "the perception of the operations of our own mind within us, as it is employed about the ideas it has got."
In Book II, Locke focuses on the ideas of substances and qualities, in which the former are "an unknown support of qualities" and latter have the "power to produce ideas in our mind." Substance is what holds qualities together, while qualities themselves allow us to perceive and identify objects. A substance consists of bare particulars and does not have properties in themselves except the ability to support qualities. Substances are "nothing but the assumption of an unknown support for a group of qualities that produce simple ideas in us." Despite his explanation, the existence of substances is still questionable as they cannot necessarily be "perceived" by themselves and can only be sensed through the qualities.
In terms of qualities, Locke divides such into primary and secondary, whereby the former give our minds ideas based on sensation and actual experience. In contrast, secondary qualities allow our minds to understand something based on reflection, in which we associate what we perceive with other ideas of our own.
Furthermore, Book II is also a systematic argument for the existence of an intelligent being:Thus, from the consideration of ourselves, and what we infallibly find in our own constitutions, our reason leads us to the knowledge of this certain and evident truth, that there is an eternal, most powerful, and most knowing being; which whether any one will please to call God, it matters not!
Locke contends that consciousness is what distinguishes selves, and thus,
…in this alone consists personal Identity, i.e. the sameness of rational Being: And as far as this consciousness can be extended backwards to any past Action or Thought, so far reaches the Identity of that Person; it is the same self now it was then; and 'tis by the same self with this present one that now reflects on it, that that Action was done.
Book III
Book III focuses on words. Locke connects words to the ideas they signify, claiming that man is unique in being able to frame sounds into distinct words and to signify ideas by those words, and then that these words are built into language.
Chapter ten in this book focuses on "Abuse of Words." Here, Locke criticizes metaphysicians for making up new words that have no clear meaning. He also criticizes the use of words which are not linked to clear ideas, and to those who change the criteria or meaning underlying a term.
Thus, Locke uses a discussion of language to demonstrate sloppy thinking, following the Port-Royal Logique (1662) in numbering among the abuses of language those that he calls "affected obscurity" in chapter 10. Locke complains that such obscurity is caused by, for example, philosophers who, to confuse their readers, invoke old terms and give them unexpected meanings or who construct new terms without clearly defining their intent. Writers may also invent such obfuscation to make themselves appear more educated or their ideas more complicated and nuanced or erudite than they actually are.
Book IV
This book focuses on knowledge in general—that it can be thought of as the sum of ideas and perceptions. Locke discusses the limit of human knowledge, and whether such can be said to be accurate or truthful.
Thus, there is a distinction between what an individual might claim to know, as part of a system of knowledge, and whether or not that claimed knowledge is actual. Locke writes at the beginning of the fourth chapter ("Of the Reality of Knowledge"):I doubt not but my Reader by this Time may be apt to think that I have been all this while only building a Castle in the Air; and be ready to say to me, To what purpose all this stir? Knowledge, say you, is only the Perception of the Agreement or Disagreement of our own Ideas: but who knows what those Ideas may be?… But of what use is all this fine Knowledge of Men's own Imaginations, to a Man that enquires after the reality of things? It matters not what Men's Fancies are, 'tis the Knowledge of Things that is only to be priz'd; 'tis this alone gives a Value to our Reasonings, and Preference to one Man's Knowledge over another's, that it is of Things as they really are, and not of Dreams and Fancies.In the last chapter of the book, Locke introduces the major classification of sciences into natural philosophy, semiotics, and ethics.
Reaction, response, and influence
Many of Locke's views were sharply criticized by rationalists and empiricists alike. In 1704, rationalist Gottfried Leibniz wrote a response to Locke's work in the form of a chapter-by-chapter rebuttal, titled the Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain (New Essays on Human Understanding). Leibniz was critical of a number of Locke's views in the Essay, including his rejection of innate ideas; his skepticism about species classification; and the possibility that matter might think, among other things. Leibniz thought that Locke's commitment to ideas of reflection in the Essay ultimately made him incapable of escaping the nativist position or being consistent in his empiricist doctrines of the mind's passivity.
Empiricist George Berkeley was equally critical of Locke's views in the Essay. Berkeley's most notable criticisms of Locke were first published in A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, in which Berkeley holds that Locke's conception of abstract ideas are incoherent and lead to severe contradictions. He also argues that Locke's conception of material substance was unintelligible, a view which he also later advanced in the Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous.
At the same time, Locke's work provided crucial groundwork for future empiricists such as David Hume. John Wynne published An Abridgment of Mr. Locke's Essay concerning the Human Understanding, with Locke's approval, in 1696. Likewise, Louisa Capper wrote An Abridgment of Locke's Essay concerning the Human Understanding, published in 1811.
Some European philosophers saw the book's impact on psychology as comparable to Isaac Newton's impact upon science. Voltaire wrote:
Just as a skilled anatomist explains the workings of the human body, so does Locke's Essay on the Human Understanding give the natural history of consciousness.… So many philosophers having written the romance of the soul, a sage has arrived who has modestly written its history.
Editions
Locke, John. 1690. An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding (1st ed.). 1 vols. London: Thomas Basset.
— 1894. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, edited by Alexander Campbell Fraser. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
— 1722. Works, Vol 1. London: Taylor.
See also
Second Treatise on Civil Government
Turtles all the way down
References
^ "How Muslims indirectly helped in the American Revolution". EgyptToday. 14 June 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2024.
^ Kalın, İbrahim (10 March 2018). "'Hayy ibn Yaqdhan' and the European Enlightenment". Daily Sabah.
^ Essay, II, viii, 10
^ Essay, I, iv, 2.
^ "The Project Gutenberg eBook of An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding, Volume I., by John Locke". www.gutenberg.org. Retrieved 5 June 2024.
^ Essay, I, ii, 15.
^ Essay, I, iv, 3.
^ Essay, I, ii, 8.
^ Locke, John. "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Book II: Ideas" (PDF). Early Modern Texts. Jonathan Bennett. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
^ Kemerling, Garth. "Complex Ideas". A guide to Locke's Essays. Creative Commons. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
^ Kemerling, Garth. "Locke: The Origin of Ideas". A guide to Locke's Essays. Creative Commons. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
^ Gordon-Roth, 2019
^ Arnauld, Antoine, and Pierre Nicole. 1662. "Observations importantes touchant la définition des noms." Ch. 13 in La logique ou l'Art de penser, part 1. Paris: Jean Guignart, Charles Savreux, & Jean de Lavnay.
^ Gillispie, Charles Coulston (1960). The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas. Princeton University Press. p. 159. ISBN 0-691-02350-6.
Bibliography
Clapp, James Gordon. 1967. "John Locke." Encyclopedia of Philosophy. New York: Macmillan.
Uzgalis, William. 2018. "John Locke" (revised ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved on 16 June 2020.
Ayers, Michael. 1991. Locke: Epistemology and Ontology. 2 vols. London: Routledge.
Bennett, Jonathan. 1971. Locke, Berkeley, Hume: Central Themes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bizzell, Patricia, and Bruce Herzberg, eds. 2001. The Rhetorical Tradition (2nd ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's.
Chappell, Vere, ed. 1994. The Cambridge Companion to Locke. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fox, Christopher. 1988. Locke and the Scriblerians. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Gordon-Roth, Jessica (2019). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Locke on Personal Identity". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Jolley, Nicholas. 1999. Locke: His Philosophical Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lowe, E. J. 1995. Locke on Human Understanding. London: Routledge.
Yolton, John. John Locke and the Way of Ideas. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956.
— 1970. John Locke and the Compass of Human Understanding. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
External links
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
Wikiquote has quotations related to An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.
John Locke at Project Gutenberg, including the Essay.
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on John Locke
Site containing a version of this work, slightly modified for easier reading
EpistemeLinks
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding public domain audiobook at LibriVox
'Hayy ibn Yaqdhan' and the European Enlightenment
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Enquiry_Concerning_Human_Understanding"},{"link_name":"John Locke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke"},{"link_name":"tabula rasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_rasa"},{"link_name":"experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience"},{"link_name":"Ibn Tufayl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl"},{"link_name":"Hayy ibn Yaqdhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayy_ibn_Yaqdhan"},{"link_name":"Edward Pococke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Pococke"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-et1-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ds1-2"},{"link_name":"empiricism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism"},{"link_name":"David Hume","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume"},{"link_name":"George Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"rationalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalist"},{"link_name":"innate ideas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innate_ideas"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"personal identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_identity"},{"link_name":"intuition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuition_(knowledge)"},{"link_name":"moral philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_philosophy"},{"link_name":"natural philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy"},{"link_name":"faith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith"},{"link_name":"opinion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinion"}],"text":"Not to be confused with An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.An Essay Concerning Human Understanding is a work by John Locke concerning the foundation of human knowledge and understanding. It first appeared in 1689 (although dated 1690) with the printed title An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding. He describes the mind at birth as a blank slate (tabula rasa, although he did not use those actual words) filled later through experience. Locke was inspired by the ideas of the Muslim philosopher Ibn Tufayl in his book Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, translated by Edward Pococke.[1][2] The essay was one of the principal sources of empiricism in modern philosophy, and influenced many enlightenment philosophers, such as David Hume and George Berkeley.Book I of the Essay is Locke's attempt to refute the rationalist notion of innate ideas. Book II sets out Locke's theory of ideas, including his distinction between passively acquired simple ideas—such as \"red\", \"sweet\", \"round\"—and actively built complex ideas, such as numbers, causes and effects, abstract ideas, ideas of substances, identity, and diversity. Locke also distinguishes between the truly existing primary qualities of bodies, like shape, motion and the arrangement of minute particles, and the secondary qualities that are \"powers to produce various sensations in us\"[3] such as \"red\" and \"sweet.\" These secondary qualities, Locke claims, are dependent on the primary qualities. He also offers a theory of personal identity, offering a largely psychological criterion. Book III is concerned with language, and Book IV with knowledge, including intuition, mathematics, moral philosophy, natural philosophy (\"science\"), faith, and opinion.","title":"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Content"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"nativism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_nativism"},{"link_name":"innate ideas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innatism"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"sweetness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweetness"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"rationalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism"},{"link_name":"identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"counterargument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterargument"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Book I","text":"The main thesis is that there are \"No Innate Principles.\" Locke wrote, \"If we will attentively consider new-born children, we shall have little reason to think, that they bring many ideas into the world with them.\" Rather, \"by degrees, afterwards, ideas come into their minds; and...they get no more, nor no other, than what experience, and the observation of things, that come in their way, furnish them with.\"[4] Book I of the Essay is an attack on nativism or the doctrine of innate ideas; Locke indeed sought to rebut a prevalent view of innate ideas that was, in his words, an \"established opinion\" firmly held by philosophers of his time.[5] While he allowed that some ideas are in the mind from an early age, he argued that those ideas are furnished by the senses starting in the womb—for instance, differences between colours or tastes. If we have a universal understanding of a concept like sweetness, it is not because this is an innate idea, but because we are all exposed to sweet tastes at an early age.[6]One of Locke's fundamental arguments against innate ideas is the very fact that there is no truth to which all people attest. He took the time to argue against a number of propositions that rationalists offer as universally accepted truth, for instance the principle of identity, pointing out that at the very least children and idiots are often unaware of these propositions.[7] In anticipating a counterargument, namely the use of reason to comprehend already existent innate ideas, Locke states that \"by this means, there will be no difference between the maxims of the mathematicians, and theorems they deduce from them; all must be equally allowed innate; they being all discoveries made by the use of reason.\"[8]","title":"Content"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Descartes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes"},{"link_name":"rationalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism"},{"link_name":"sensation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense"},{"link_name":"reflection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-reflection"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"bare particulars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bare_particular"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"primary and secondary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary/secondary_quality_distinction"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jgrjl-12"}],"sub_title":"Book II","text":"Whereas Book I is intended to reject the doctrine of innate ideas proposed by Descartes and the rationalists, Book II explains that every idea is derived from experience either by sensation—i.e. direct sensory information—or reflection—i.e. \"the perception of the operations of our own mind within us, as it is employed about the ideas it has got.\"In Book II, Locke focuses on the ideas of substances and qualities, in which the former are \"an unknown support of qualities\" and latter have the \"power to produce ideas in our mind.\"[9] Substance is what holds qualities together, while qualities themselves allow us to perceive and identify objects. A substance consists of bare particulars and does not have properties in themselves except the ability to support qualities. Substances are \"nothing but the assumption of an unknown support for a group of qualities that produce simple ideas in us.\"[10] Despite his explanation, the existence of substances is still questionable as they cannot necessarily be \"perceived\" by themselves and can only be sensed through the qualities.In terms of qualities, Locke divides such into primary and secondary, whereby the former give our minds ideas based on sensation and actual experience. In contrast, secondary qualities allow our minds to understand something based on reflection, in which we associate what we perceive with other ideas of our own.[11]Furthermore, Book II is also a systematic argument for the existence of an intelligent being:Thus, from the consideration of ourselves, and what we infallibly find in our own constitutions, our reason leads us to the knowledge of this certain and evident truth, that there is an eternal, most powerful, and most knowing being; which whether any one will please to call God, it matters not!Locke contends that consciousness is what distinguishes selves, and thus,[12]…in this alone consists personal Identity, i.e. the sameness of rational Being: And as far as this consciousness can be extended backwards to any past Action or Thought, so far reaches the Identity of that Person; it is the same self now it was then; and 'tis by the same self with this present one that now reflects on it, that that Action was done.","title":"Content"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"words","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word"},{"link_name":"metaphysicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics"},{"link_name":"Port-Royal Logique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port-Royal_Logic"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"obfuscation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obfuscation"}],"sub_title":"Book III","text":"Book III focuses on words. Locke connects words to the ideas they signify, claiming that man is unique in being able to frame sounds into distinct words and to signify ideas by those words, and then that these words are built into language.Chapter ten in this book focuses on \"Abuse of Words.\" Here, Locke criticizes metaphysicians for making up new words that have no clear meaning. He also criticizes the use of words which are not linked to clear ideas, and to those who change the criteria or meaning underlying a term.Thus, Locke uses a discussion of language to demonstrate sloppy thinking, following the Port-Royal Logique (1662)[13] in numbering among the abuses of language those that he calls \"affected obscurity\" in chapter 10. Locke complains that such obscurity is caused by, for example, philosophers who, to confuse their readers, invoke old terms and give them unexpected meanings or who construct new terms without clearly defining their intent. Writers may also invent such obfuscation to make themselves appear more educated or their ideas more complicated and nuanced or erudite than they actually are.","title":"Content"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"perceptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception"},{"link_name":"knowledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge"},{"link_name":"natural philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy"},{"link_name":"semiotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotics"},{"link_name":"ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics"}],"sub_title":"Book IV","text":"This book focuses on knowledge in general—that it can be thought of as the sum of ideas and perceptions. Locke discusses the limit of human knowledge, and whether such can be said to be accurate or truthful.Thus, there is a distinction between what an individual might claim to know, as part of a system of knowledge, and whether or not that claimed knowledge is actual. Locke writes at the beginning of the fourth chapter (\"Of the Reality of Knowledge\"):I doubt not but my Reader by this Time may be apt to think that I have been all this while only building a Castle in the Air; and be ready to say to me, To what purpose all this stir? Knowledge, say you, is only the Perception of the Agreement or Disagreement of our own Ideas: but who knows what those Ideas may be?… But of what use is all this fine Knowledge of Men's own Imaginations, to a Man that enquires after the reality of things? It matters not what Men's Fancies are, 'tis the Knowledge of Things that is only to be priz'd; 'tis this alone gives a Value to our Reasonings, and Preference to one Man's Knowledge over another's, that it is of Things as they really are, and not of Dreams and Fancies.In the last chapter of the book, Locke introduces the major classification of sciences into natural philosophy, semiotics, and ethics.","title":"Content"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rationalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism"},{"link_name":"Gottfried Leibniz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz"},{"link_name":"rebuttal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebuttal"},{"link_name":"Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nouveaux_essais_sur_l%27entendement_humain"},{"link_name":"innate ideas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innate_Ideas"},{"link_name":"skepticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism"},{"link_name":"nativist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_nativism"},{"link_name":"empiricist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism"},{"link_name":"George Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge"},{"link_name":"contradictions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contradiction"},{"link_name":"Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Dialogues_Between_Hylas_and_Philonous"},{"link_name":"David Hume","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume"},{"link_name":"John Wynne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wynne_(bishop)"},{"link_name":"Louisa Capper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisa_Capper"},{"link_name":"psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"},{"link_name":"Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"Voltaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Many of Locke's views were sharply criticized by rationalists and empiricists alike. In 1704, rationalist Gottfried Leibniz wrote a response to Locke's work in the form of a chapter-by-chapter rebuttal, titled the Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain (New Essays on Human Understanding). Leibniz was critical of a number of Locke's views in the Essay, including his rejection of innate ideas; his skepticism about species classification; and the possibility that matter might think, among other things. Leibniz thought that Locke's commitment to ideas of reflection in the Essay ultimately made him incapable of escaping the nativist position or being consistent in his empiricist doctrines of the mind's passivity.Empiricist George Berkeley was equally critical of Locke's views in the Essay. Berkeley's most notable criticisms of Locke were first published in A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, in which Berkeley holds that Locke's conception of abstract ideas are incoherent and lead to severe contradictions. He also argues that Locke's conception of material substance was unintelligible, a view which he also later advanced in the Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous.At the same time, Locke's work provided crucial groundwork for future empiricists such as David Hume. John Wynne published An Abridgment of Mr. Locke's Essay concerning the Human Understanding, with Locke's approval, in 1696. Likewise, Louisa Capper wrote An Abridgment of Locke's Essay concerning the Human Understanding, published in 1811.Some European philosophers saw the book's impact on psychology as comparable to Isaac Newton's impact upon science. Voltaire wrote:[14]Just as a skilled anatomist explains the workings of the human body, so does Locke's Essay on the Human Understanding give the natural history of consciousness.… So many philosophers having written the romance of the soul, a sage has arrived who has modestly written its history.","title":"Reaction, response, and influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alexander Campbell Fraser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Campbell_Fraser"},{"link_name":"Clarendon Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarendon_Press"}],"text":"Locke, John. 1690. An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding (1st ed.). 1 vols. London: Thomas Basset.\n— 1894. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, edited by Alexander Campbell Fraser. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press.\n— 1722. Works, Vol 1. London: Taylor.","title":"Editions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Locke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20100630032001/http://mind.ucsd.edu/syllabi/99_00/Empiricism/Readings/Encyc_Phil/Locke.html"},{"link_name":"Encyclopedia of Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"Macmillan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers"},{"link_name":"John Locke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke/"},{"link_name":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"Routledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge"},{"link_name":"Bennett, Jonathan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Bennett_(philosopher)"},{"link_name":"Oxford University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press"},{"link_name":"Bizzell, Patricia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_Bizzell"},{"link_name":"Bedford/St. Martin's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedford/St._Martin%27s"},{"link_name":"Chappell, Vere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vere_Claiborne_Chappell"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press"},{"link_name":"University of California Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_Press"},{"link_name":"\"Locke on Personal Identity\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/locke-personal-identity/"},{"link_name":"Lowe, E. J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._J._Lowe_(philosopher)"},{"link_name":"Yolton, John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_W._Yolton"}],"text":"Clapp, James Gordon. 1967. \"John Locke.\" Encyclopedia of Philosophy. New York: Macmillan.\nUzgalis, William. [2001] 2018. \"John Locke\" (revised ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved on 16 June 2020.\nAyers, Michael. 1991. Locke: Epistemology and Ontology. 2 vols. London: Routledge.\nBennett, Jonathan. 1971. Locke, Berkeley, Hume: Central Themes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.\nBizzell, Patricia, and Bruce Herzberg, eds. 2001. The Rhetorical Tradition (2nd ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's.\nChappell, Vere, ed. 1994. The Cambridge Companion to Locke. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\nFox, Christopher. 1988. Locke and the Scriblerians. Berkeley: University of California Press.\nGordon-Roth, Jessica (2019). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). \"Locke on Personal Identity\". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.\nJolley, Nicholas. 1999. Locke: His Philosophical Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press.\nLowe, E. J. 1995. Locke on Human Understanding. London: Routledge.\nYolton, John. John Locke and the Way of Ideas. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956.\n— 1970. John Locke and the Compass of Human Understanding. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.","title":"Bibliography"}]
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[{"title":"Second Treatise on Civil Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Treatise_on_Civil_Government"},{"title":"Turtles all the way down","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtles_all_the_way_down"}]
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[{"reference":"\"How Muslims indirectly helped in the American Revolution\". EgyptToday. 14 June 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/7692/How-Muslims-indirectly-helped-in-the-American-Revolution","url_text":"\"How Muslims indirectly helped in the American Revolution\""}]},{"reference":"Kalın, İbrahim (10 March 2018). \"'Hayy ibn Yaqdhan' and the European Enlightenment\". Daily Sabah.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dailysabah.com/columns/ibrahim-kalin/2018/03/10/hayy-ibn-yaqdhan-and-the-european-enlightenment","url_text":"\"'Hayy ibn Yaqdhan' and the European Enlightenment\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Project Gutenberg eBook of An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding, Volume I., by John Locke\". www.gutenberg.org. Retrieved 5 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/files/10615/10615-h/10615-h.htm#chap1.02","url_text":"\"The Project Gutenberg eBook of An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding, Volume I., by John Locke\""}]},{"reference":"Locke, John. \"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Book II: Ideas\" (PDF). Early Modern Texts. Jonathan Bennett. Retrieved 22 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/locke1690book2.pdf","url_text":"\"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Book II: Ideas\""}]},{"reference":"Kemerling, Garth. \"Complex Ideas\". A guide to Locke's Essays. Creative Commons. Retrieved 22 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.philosophypages.com/locke/g02.htm","url_text":"\"Complex Ideas\""}]},{"reference":"Kemerling, Garth. \"Locke: The Origin of Ideas\". A guide to Locke's Essays. Creative Commons. Retrieved 22 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/4l.htm","url_text":"\"Locke: The Origin of Ideas\""}]},{"reference":"Gillispie, Charles Coulston (1960). The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas. Princeton University Press. p. 159. ISBN 0-691-02350-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Coulston_Gillispie","url_text":"Gillispie, Charles Coulston"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/edgeofobjectivit00char/page/159","url_text":"The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/edgeofobjectivit00char/page/159","url_text":"159"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-02350-6","url_text":"0-691-02350-6"}]},{"reference":"Gordon-Roth, Jessica (2019). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). \"Locke on Personal Identity\". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.","urls":[{"url":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/locke-personal-identity/","url_text":"\"Locke on Personal Identity\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/7692/How-Muslims-indirectly-helped-in-the-American-Revolution","external_links_name":"\"How Muslims indirectly helped in the American Revolution\""},{"Link":"https://www.dailysabah.com/columns/ibrahim-kalin/2018/03/10/hayy-ibn-yaqdhan-and-the-european-enlightenment","external_links_name":"\"'Hayy ibn Yaqdhan' and the European Enlightenment\""},{"Link":"https://www.gutenberg.org/files/10615/10615-h/10615-h.htm#chap1.02","external_links_name":"\"The Project Gutenberg eBook of An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding, Volume I., by John Locke\""},{"Link":"http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/locke1690book2.pdf","external_links_name":"\"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Book II: Ideas\""},{"Link":"http://www.philosophypages.com/locke/g02.htm","external_links_name":"\"Complex Ideas\""},{"Link":"http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/4l.htm","external_links_name":"\"Locke: The Origin of Ideas\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/edgeofobjectivit00char/page/159","external_links_name":"The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/edgeofobjectivit00char/page/159","external_links_name":"159"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100630032001/http://mind.ucsd.edu/syllabi/99_00/Empiricism/Readings/Encyc_Phil/Locke.html","external_links_name":"John Locke"},{"Link":"http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke/","external_links_name":"John Locke"},{"Link":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/locke-personal-identity/","external_links_name":"\"Locke on Personal Identity\""},{"Link":"http://www.gutenberg.org/browse/authors/l#a2447","external_links_name":"John Locke at Project Gutenberg"},{"Link":"http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/locke.htm","external_links_name":"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on John Locke"},{"Link":"http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/authors/locke","external_links_name":"Site containing a version of this work, slightly modified for easier reading"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070407170028/http://www.epistemelinks.com/Main/Philosophers.aspx?PhilCode=Lock","external_links_name":"EpistemeLinks"},{"Link":"https://librivox.org/search?title=An+Essay+Concerning+Human+Understanding&author=LOCKE&reader=&keywords=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=catalog_date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced","external_links_name":"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding"},{"Link":"https://www.dailysabah.com/columns/ibrahim-kalin/2018/03/10/hayy-ibn-yaqdhan-and-the-european-enlightenment","external_links_name":"'Hayy ibn Yaqdhan' and the European Enlightenment"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12025859x","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12025859x","external_links_name":"BnF data"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Through-hole_technology
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Through-hole technology
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["1 History","2 Leads","2.1 Axial and radial leads","2.2 Multiple lead devices","3 Characteristics","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]
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Circuit board manufacturing technique
Through-hole (leaded) resistors
In electronics, through-hole technology (also spelled "thru-hole") is a manufacturing scheme in which leads on the components are inserted through holes drilled in printed circuit boards (PCB) and soldered to pads on the opposite side, either by manual assembly (hand placement) or by the use of automated insertion mount machines.
History
Through-hole devices mounted on the circuit board of a mid-1980s home computer. Axial-lead devices are at upper left, while blue radial-lead capacitors are at upper right
Close-up view of an electronic circuit board showing component lead holes (gold-plated) with through-hole plating up the sides of the hole to connect tracks on both sides of the board. The holes are circa 1 mm diameter.
Through-hole technology almost completely replaced earlier electronics assembly techniques such as point-to-point construction. From the second generation of computers in the 1950s until surface-mount technology (SMT) became popular in the mid 1980s, every component on a typical PCB was a through-hole component. PCBs initially had tracks printed on one side only, later both sides, then multi-layer boards were in use. Through holes became plated-through holes (PTH) in order for the components to make contact with the required conductive layers. Plated-through holes are no longer required with SMT boards for making the component connections, but are still used for making interconnections between the layers and in this role are more usually called vias.
Leads
Axial and radial leads
Axial- (top) and radial- (bottom) leaded electrolytic capacitors
Components with wire leads are generally used on through-hole boards. Axial leads protrude from each end of a typically cylindrical or elongated box-shaped component, on the geometrical axis of symmetry. Axial-leaded components resemble wire jumpers in shape, and can be used to span short distances on a board, or even otherwise unsupported through an open space in point-to-point wiring. Axial components do not protrude much above the surface of a board, producing a low-profile or flat configuration when placed "lying down" or parallel to the board.
Radial leads project more or less in parallel from the same surface or aspect of a component package, rather than from opposite ends of the package. Originally, radial leads were defined as more-or-less following a radius of a cylindrical component (such as a ceramic disk capacitor). Over time, this definition was generalized in contrast to axial leads, and took on its current form. When placed on a board, radial components "stand up" perpendicular, occupying a smaller footprint on sometimes-scarce "board real estate", making them useful in many high-density designs. The parallel leads projecting from a single mounting surface gives radial components an overall "plugin nature", facilitating their use in high-speed automated component insertion ("board-stuffing") machines.
When needed, an axial component can be effectively converted into a radial component, by bending one of its leads into a "U" shape so that it ends up close to and parallel with the other lead. Extra insulation with heat-shrink tubing may be used to prevent shorting out on nearby components. Conversely, a radial component can be pressed into service as an axial component by separating its leads as far as possible, and extending them into an overall length-spanning shape. These improvisations are often seen in breadboard or prototype construction, but are deprecated for mass production designs. This is because of difficulties in use with automated component placement machinery, and poorer reliability because of reduced vibration and mechanical shock resistance in the completed assembly.
Multiple lead devices
Components like integrated circuits can have upwards of dozens of leads, or pins
For electronic components with two or more leads, for example, diodes, transistors, ICs, or resistor packs, a range of standard-sized semiconductor packages are used, either directly onto the PCB or via a socket.
Characteristics
A box of drill bits used for making holes in printed circuit boards. While tungsten-carbide bits are very hard, they eventually wear out or break. Making holes is a considerable part of the cost of a through-hole printed circuit board.
While through-hole mounting provides strong mechanical bonds when compared to SMT techniques, the additional drilling required makes the boards more expensive to produce. They also limit the available routing area for signal traces on layers immediately below the top layer on multilayer boards since the holes must pass through all layers to the opposite side. To that end, through-hole mounting techniques are now usually reserved for bulkier or heavier components such as electrolytic capacitors or semiconductors in larger packages such as the TO-220 that require the additional mounting strength, or for components such as plug connectors or electromechanical relays that require great strength in support.
Design engineers often prefer the larger through-hole rather than surface mount parts when prototyping, because they can be easily used with breadboard sockets. However, high-speed or high-frequency designs may require SMT technology to minimize stray inductance and capacitance in wire leads, which would impair circuit function. Ultra-compact designs may also dictate SMT construction, even in the prototype phase of design.
Through-hole components are ideal for prototyping circuits with breadboards using microprocessors such as Arduino or PICAXE. These components are large enough to be easy to use and solder by hand.
See also
Point-to-point construction
Board-to-board connector
Surface-mount technology
Via (electronics)
References
^ Electronic Packaging: Solder Mounting Technologies in K. H. Buschow et al (eds.), Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology, Elsevier, 2001 ISBN 0-08-043152-6, pp. 2708–2709
^ a b Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1989). The art of electronics (PDF) (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52137095-0.
^ a b "All About Capacitors". Beavis Audio Research. Retrieved 2013-05-16.
^ a b c d "What Is an Axial Lead?". wiseGEEK: clear answers for common. Conjecture Corporation. Retrieved 2013-05-16.
^ a b Bilotta, Anthony J. (1985). Connections in electronic assemblies. New York: M. Dekker. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-82477319-9.
Further reading
Lesser, Roger; Alderton, Megan (2002-01-01). "The Future of Commercial Aviation". Mobile Development and Design Magazine. Retrieved 2011-12-30.
"Flexible production cell for led arrays. (Spotlight: electronic displays)". Canadian Electronics. 2003-03-01. Retrieved 2011-12-30.
Khan, Zulki (2010-02-01). "Component Layout in Placement Processes". Printed Circuit Design & Fab. Retrieved 2011-12-30.
Charpentier, Stephane (2010-03-10). "Fabrication: Visiting a production line of Kingston memory modules". PC World (France) (in French). Archived from the original on 2012-04-26. Retrieved 2011-12-30.
External links
Hole sizes for through-hole parts at Wikibooks
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Axial-lead devices are at upper left, while blue radial-lead capacitors are at upper rightClose-up view of an electronic circuit board showing component lead holes (gold-plated) with through-hole plating up the sides of the hole to connect tracks on both sides of the board. The holes are circa 1 mm diameter.Through-hole technology almost completely replaced earlier electronics assembly techniques such as point-to-point construction. From the second generation of computers in the 1950s until surface-mount technology (SMT) became popular in the mid 1980s, every component on a typical PCB was a through-hole component. PCBs initially had tracks printed on one side only, later both sides, then multi-layer boards were in use. Through holes became plated-through holes (PTH) in order for the components to make contact with the required conductive layers. Plated-through holes are no longer required with SMT boards for making the component connections, but are still used for making interconnections between the layers and in this role are more usually called vias.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Leads"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Capacitors_electrolytic.jpg"},{"link_name":"electrolytic capacitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor"},{"link_name":"cylindrical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylindrical"},{"link_name":"axis of symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_of_symmetry"},{"link_name":"point-to-point wiring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point_wiring"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BAR-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WG-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bilotta_1985-5"},{"link_name":"radius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radius"},{"link_name":"ceramic disk capacitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_capacitor"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bilotta_1985-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BAR-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WG-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WG-4"},{"link_name":"heat-shrink tubing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat-shrink_tubing"},{"link_name":"shorting out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_circuit"},{"link_name":"breadboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadboard"},{"link_name":"prototype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype"},{"link_name":"deprecated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deprecated"},{"link_name":"mass production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_production"},{"link_name":"automated component placement machinery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMT_placement_equipment"},{"link_name":"reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_engineering"},{"link_name":"vibration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibration"},{"link_name":"mechanical shock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_shock"}],"sub_title":"Axial and radial leads","text":"Axial- (top) and radial- (bottom) leaded electrolytic capacitorsComponents with wire leads are generally used on through-hole boards. Axial leads protrude from each end of a typically cylindrical or elongated box-shaped component, on the geometrical axis of symmetry. Axial-leaded components resemble wire jumpers in shape, and can be used to span short distances on a board, or even otherwise unsupported through an open space in point-to-point wiring. Axial components do not protrude much above the surface of a board, producing a low-profile or flat configuration when placed \"lying down\" or parallel to the board.[3][4][5]Radial leads project more or less in parallel from the same surface or aspect of a component package, rather than from opposite ends of the package. Originally, radial leads were defined as more-or-less following a radius of a cylindrical component (such as a ceramic disk capacitor).[5] Over time, this definition was generalized in contrast to axial leads, and took on its current form. When placed on a board, radial components \"stand up\" perpendicular,[3][4] occupying a smaller footprint on sometimes-scarce \"board real estate\", making them useful in many high-density designs. The parallel leads projecting from a single mounting surface gives radial components an overall \"plugin nature\", facilitating their use in high-speed automated component insertion (\"board-stuffing\") machines.When needed, an axial component can be effectively converted into a radial component, by bending one of its leads into a \"U\" shape so that it ends up close to and parallel with the other lead.[4] Extra insulation with heat-shrink tubing may be used to prevent shorting out on nearby components. Conversely, a radial component can be pressed into service as an axial component by separating its leads as far as possible, and extending them into an overall length-spanning shape. These improvisations are often seen in breadboard or prototype construction, but are deprecated for mass production designs. This is because of difficulties in use with automated component placement machinery, and poorer reliability because of reduced vibration and mechanical shock resistance in the completed assembly.","title":"Leads"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Integrated_Circuit.jpg"},{"link_name":"integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"semiconductor packages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_package"}],"sub_title":"Multiple lead devices","text":"Components like integrated circuits can have upwards of dozens of leads, or pinsFor electronic components with two or more leads, for example, diodes, transistors, ICs, or resistor packs, a range of standard-sized semiconductor packages are used, either directly onto the PCB or via a socket.","title":"Leads"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Box_of_02in_pcb_bits.jpg"},{"link_name":"drill bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drill_bit"},{"link_name":"signal traces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_trace"},{"link_name":"electrolytic capacitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor"},{"link_name":"semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"TO-220","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TO-220"},{"link_name":"plug connectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_connector"},{"link_name":"electromechanical relays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromechanical_relay"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WG-4"},{"link_name":"breadboard sockets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadboard"},{"link_name":"inductance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductance"},{"link_name":"capacitance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitance"},{"link_name":"prototyping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype"},{"link_name":"breadboards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadboard"},{"link_name":"Arduino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino"},{"link_name":"PICAXE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PICAXE"}],"text":"A box of drill bits used for making holes in printed circuit boards. While tungsten-carbide bits are very hard, they eventually wear out or break. Making holes is a considerable part of the cost of a through-hole printed circuit board.While through-hole mounting provides strong mechanical bonds when compared to SMT techniques, the additional drilling required makes the boards more expensive to produce. They also limit the available routing area for signal traces on layers immediately below the top layer on multilayer boards since the holes must pass through all layers to the opposite side. To that end, through-hole mounting techniques are now usually reserved for bulkier or heavier components such as electrolytic capacitors or semiconductors in larger packages such as the TO-220 that require the additional mounting strength, or for components such as plug connectors or electromechanical relays that require great strength in support.[4]Design engineers often prefer the larger through-hole rather than surface mount parts when prototyping, because they can be easily used with breadboard sockets. However, high-speed or high-frequency designs may require SMT technology to minimize stray inductance and capacitance in wire leads, which would impair circuit function. Ultra-compact designs may also dictate SMT construction, even in the prototype phase of design.Through-hole components are ideal for prototyping circuits with breadboards using microprocessors such as Arduino or PICAXE. These components are large enough to be easy to use and solder by hand.","title":"Characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Future of Commercial Aviation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//mobiledevdesign.com/hardware_news/radio_new_face_aviation_2/"},{"link_name":"\"Flexible production cell for led arrays. (Spotlight: electronic displays)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-2680304/Flexible-production-cell-for-led.html"},{"link_name":"\"Component Layout in Placement Processes\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//pcdandf.com/cms/magazine/171-current-issue/6990-component-layout-in-placement-processes"},{"link_name":"\"Fabrication: Visiting a production line of Kingston memory modules\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120426082300/http://www.pcworld.fr/article/kingston-memoire-vive-dram-hyper-x-datatraveler/la-fabrication/478881/"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.pcworld.fr/article/kingston-memoire-vive-dram-hyper-x-datatraveler/la-fabrication/478881/"}],"text":"Lesser, Roger; Alderton, Megan (2002-01-01). \"The Future of Commercial Aviation\". Mobile Development and Design Magazine. Retrieved 2011-12-30.\n\"Flexible production cell for led arrays. (Spotlight: electronic displays)\". Canadian Electronics. 2003-03-01. Retrieved 2011-12-30.\nKhan, Zulki (2010-02-01). \"Component Layout in Placement Processes\". Printed Circuit Design & Fab. Retrieved 2011-12-30.\nCharpentier, Stephane (2010-03-10). \"Fabrication: Visiting a production line of Kingston memory modules\". PC World (France) (in French). Archived from the original on 2012-04-26. Retrieved 2011-12-30.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"title":"Point-to-point construction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point_construction"},{"title":"Board-to-board connector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board-to-board_connector"},{"title":"Surface-mount technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-mount_technology"},{"title":"Via (electronics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_(electronics)"}]
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[{"reference":"Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1989). The art of electronics (PDF) (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52137095-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://artofelectronics.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/AoE3_chapter9.pdf","url_text":"The art of electronics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-52137095-0","url_text":"978-0-52137095-0"}]},{"reference":"\"All About Capacitors\". Beavis Audio Research. Retrieved 2013-05-16.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.beavisaudio.com/techpages/Caps/","url_text":"\"All About Capacitors\""}]},{"reference":"\"What Is an Axial Lead?\". wiseGEEK: clear answers for common. Conjecture Corporation. Retrieved 2013-05-16.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-an-axial-lead.htm","url_text":"\"What Is an Axial Lead?\""}]},{"reference":"Bilotta, Anthony J. (1985). Connections in electronic assemblies. New York: M. Dekker. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-82477319-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-82477319-9","url_text":"978-0-82477319-9"}]},{"reference":"Lesser, Roger; Alderton, Megan (2002-01-01). \"The Future of Commercial Aviation\". Mobile Development and Design Magazine. Retrieved 2011-12-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://mobiledevdesign.com/hardware_news/radio_new_face_aviation_2/","url_text":"\"The Future of Commercial Aviation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Flexible production cell for led arrays. (Spotlight: electronic displays)\". Canadian Electronics. 2003-03-01. Retrieved 2011-12-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-2680304/Flexible-production-cell-for-led.html","url_text":"\"Flexible production cell for led arrays. (Spotlight: electronic displays)\""}]},{"reference":"Khan, Zulki (2010-02-01). \"Component Layout in Placement Processes\". Printed Circuit Design & Fab. Retrieved 2011-12-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://pcdandf.com/cms/magazine/171-current-issue/6990-component-layout-in-placement-processes","url_text":"\"Component Layout in Placement Processes\""}]},{"reference":"Charpentier, Stephane (2010-03-10). \"Fabrication: Visiting a production line of Kingston memory modules\". PC World (France) (in French). Archived from the original on 2012-04-26. Retrieved 2011-12-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120426082300/http://www.pcworld.fr/article/kingston-memoire-vive-dram-hyper-x-datatraveler/la-fabrication/478881/","url_text":"\"Fabrication: Visiting a production line of Kingston memory modules\""},{"url":"http://www.pcworld.fr/article/kingston-memoire-vive-dram-hyper-x-datatraveler/la-fabrication/478881/","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thync
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Thync
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["1 References","2 External links"]
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Thync is a venture-backed startup that developed a non-invasive, neurostimulation technology that targets the autonomic nervous system. The company launched the first electronic wearable device to increase energy and lower stress in 2015. Its makers claim the device works by neurostimulation techniques such as TENS. In 2017, Thync exited the consumer health market and focused all efforts on the development of a bioelectronic therapy to treat moderate psoriasis.
References
B2 US US9014811 B2, PAL, Sumon K.; CHARLESWORTH, Jonathan & Demers, Remi et al., "Transdermal electrical stimulation methods for modifying or inducing cognitive state", issued 2013
External links
Company website
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[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Thync"}]
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[]
| null |
[]
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[{"Link":"https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=USUS9014811","external_links_name":"B2 US US9014811 B2"},{"Link":"http://www.thync.com/","external_links_name":"Company website"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti-sapphire_laser
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Titanium-sapphire laser
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["1 Types","1.1 Mode-locked oscillators","1.2 Chirped-pulse amplifiers","1.3 Tunable continuous wave lasers","2 History and applications","3 References","4 External links"]
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Type of laser
Part of a Ti:sapphire oscillator. The Ti:sapphire crystal is the bright red light source on the left. The green light is from the pump diode
Titanium-sapphire lasers (also known as Ti:sapphire lasers, Ti:Al2O3 lasers or Ti:sapphs) are tunable lasers which emit red and near-infrared light in the range from 650 to 1100 nanometers. These lasers are mainly used in scientific research because of their tunability and their ability to generate ultrashort pulses thanks to its broad light emission spectrum. Lasers based on Ti:sapphire were first constructed and invented in June 1982 by Peter Moulton at the MIT Lincoln Laboratory.
Titanium-sapphire refers to the lasing medium, a crystal of sapphire (Al2O3) that is doped with Ti3+ ions. A Ti:sapphire laser is usually pumped with another laser with a wavelength of 514 to 532 nm, for which argon-ion lasers (514.5 nm) and frequency-doubled Nd:YAG, Nd:YLF, and Nd:YVO lasers (527–532 nm) are used. They are capable of laser operation from 670 nm to 1,100 nm wavelength. Ti:sapphire lasers operate most efficiently at wavelengths near 800 nm.
Types
The inner optical setup of a femtosecond Ti-sapphire pulsed laser
Mode-locked oscillators
Mode-locked oscillators generate ultrashort pulses with a typical duration between a few picoseconds and 10 femtoseconds, in special cases even around 5 femtoseconds (few carrier wave cycles in each laser pulses). The pulse repetition frequency is in most cases around 70 to 90 MHz, as given by the oscillator's round-trip optical path, typically a few meters. Ti:sapphire oscillators are normally pumped with a continuous-wave laser beam from an argon or frequency-doubled Nd:YVO4 laser. Typically, such an oscillator has an average output power of 0.4 to 2.5 watts (5.7 to 35 nJ in each laser pulse for the 70 MHz repetition rate).
Chirped-pulse amplifiers
Main article: Chirped pulse amplification
These devices generate ultrashort, ultra-high-intensity pulses with a duration of 20 to 100 femtoseconds. A typical one stage amplifier can produce pulses of up to 5 millijoules in energy at a repetition frequency of 1000 hertz, while a larger, multistage facility can produce pulses up to several joules, with a repetition rate of up to 10 Hz. Usually, amplifier crystals are pumped with a pulsed frequency-doubled Nd:YLF laser at 527 nm and operate at 800 nm. Two different designs exist for the amplifier: regenerative amplifier and multi-pass amplifier.
Regenerative amplifiers operate by amplifying single pulses from an oscillator (see above). Instead of a normal cavity with a partially reflective mirror, they contain high-speed optical switches that insert a pulse into a cavity and take the pulse out of the cavity exactly at the right moment when it has been amplified to a high intensity.
The term 'chirped-pulse' refers to a special construction that is necessary to prevent the pulse from damaging the components in the laser. The pulse is stretched in time so that the energy is not all located at the same point in time and space. This prevents damage to the optics in the amplifier. Then the pulse is optically amplified and recompressed in time to form a short, localized pulse. All optics after this point should be chosen to take the high energy density into consideration.
In a multi-pass amplifier, there are no optical switches. Instead, mirrors guide the beam a fixed number of times (two or more) through the Ti:sapphire crystal with slightly different directions. A pulsed pump beam can also be multi-passed through the crystal, so that more and more passes pump the crystal. First the pump beam pumps a spot in the gain medium. Then the signal beam first passes through the center for maximal amplification, but in later passes the diameter is increased to stay below the damage-threshold, to avoid amplification the outer parts of the beam, thus increasing beam quality and cutting off some amplified spontaneous emission and to completely deplete the inversion in the gain medium.
A Ti:Sapphire crystal in the centre of a multipass amplifier Quantronix Odin is pumped by 5W green beam (faintly visible coming from right), amplifies femtosecond pulses that pass it several times under different angles (invisible on the photo) and loses part of energy as red fluorescence light
The pulses from chirped-pulse amplifiers are often converted to other wavelengths by means of various nonlinear optical processes.
At 5 mJ in 100 femtoseconds, the peak power of such a laser is 50 gigawatts. When focused by a lens, these laser pulses will ionise any material placed in the focus, including air molecules, and lead to short filament propagation and strong nonlinear optics effects that generate a wide spectrum of wavelengths.
Femtosecond pulses generate multiple angle-resolved colour patterns when focused; note their fan-out angle is even higher than that of the focused laser beam
Tunable continuous wave lasers
Titanium-sapphire is especially suitable for pulsed lasers since an ultrashort pulse inherently contains a wide spectrum of frequency components. This is due to the inverse relationship between the frequency bandwidth of a pulse and its time duration, due to their being conjugate variables. However, with an appropriate design, titanium-sapphire can also be used in continuous wave lasers with extremely narrow linewidths tunable over a wide range.
History and applications
CW single-frequency ring Ti:Sapphire laser in operation at Novosibirsk State University
The Ti:sapphire laser was invented by Peter Moulton in June 1982 at MIT Lincoln Laboratory in its continuous wave version. Subsequently, these lasers were shown to generate ultrashort pulses through Kerr-lens modelocking. Strickland and Mourou, in addition to others, working at the University of Rochester, showed chirped pulse amplification of this laser within a few years, for which these two shared in the 2018 Nobel Prize in physics (along with Arthur Ashkin for optical tweezers). The cumulative product sales of the Ti:sapphire laser has amounted to more than $600 million, making it a big commercial success that has sustained the solid state laser industry for more than three decades.
The ultrashort pulses generated by Ti:sapphire lasers in the time domain corresponds to mode-locked optical frequency combs in the spectral domain. Both the temporal and spectral properties of these lasers make them highly desirable for frequency metrology, spectroscopy, or for pumping nonlinear optical processes. One half of the Nobel prize for physics in 2005 was awarded to the development of the optical frequency comb technique, which heavily relied on the Ti:sapphire laser and its self-modelocking properties. The continuous wave versions of these lasers can be designed to have nearly quantum limited performance, resulting in a low noise and a narrow linewidth, making them attractive for quantum optics experiments. The reduced amplified spontaneous emission noise in the radiation of Ti:sapphire lasers lends great strength in their application as optical lattices for the operation of state-of-the-art atomic clocks. Apart from fundamental science applications in the laboratory, this laser has found biological applications such as deep-tissue multiphoton imaging and industrial applications cold micromachining. When operated in the chirped pulse amplification mode, they can be used to generate extremely high peak powers in the terawatt range, which finds use in nuclear fusion research.
References
^ Moulton, P. F. (1986). "Spectroscopic and laser characteristics of Ti:Al2O3". Journal of the Optical Society of America B. 3 (1): 125–133. Bibcode:1986JOSAB...3..125M. doi:10.1364/JOSAB.3.000125.
^ Steele, T.R.; Gerstenberger, D. C.; Drobshoff, A.; Wallace, R. W. (15 March 1991). "Broadly tunable high-power operation of an all-solid-state titanium-doped sapphire laser system". Optics Letters. 16 (6): 399–401. Bibcode:1991OptL...16..399S. doi:10.1364/OL.16.000399. PMID 19773946.
^ Withnall, R. (2005-01-01). "SPECTROSCOPY | Raman Spectroscopy". In Guenther, Robert D. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Modern Optics. Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 119–134. doi:10.1016/b0-12-369395-0/00960-x. ISBN 978-0-12-369395-2. Retrieved 2021-10-02.
^ Erny, Christian; Hauri, Christoph P. (2013). "Design of efficient single stage chirped pulse difference frequency generation at 7 μm driven by a dual wavelength Ti:sapphire laser". Applied Physics B. 117 (1): 379–387. arXiv:1311.0610. Bibcode:2014ApPhB.117..379E. doi:10.1007/s00340-014-5846-6. S2CID 119237744.
^ Spence, D. E.; Kean, P. N.; Sibbett, W. (1991-01-01). "60-fsec pulse generation from a self-mode-locked Ti:sapphire laser". Optics Letters. 16 (1): 42–44. Bibcode:1991OptL...16...42S. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.463.8656. doi:10.1364/OL.16.000042. ISSN 1539-4794. PMID 19773831.
^ Strickland, Donna; Mourou, Gerard (1985-10-15). "Compression of amplified chirped optical pulses". Optics Communications. 55 (6): 447–449. Bibcode:1985OptCo..55..447S. doi:10.1016/0030-4018(85)90151-8.
^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018". www.nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2018-10-02.
^ "Peter Moulton on the Ti:Sapphire laser. The Ti:sapphire laser has gained broad usage and new applications in biological research and other areas since its inception in 1982". spie.org. Retrieved 2017-11-02.
^ "Titanium–sapphire Lasers".
^ Hänsch, Theodor W. (2006). "Nobel Lecture: Passion for precision". Reviews of Modern Physics. 78 (4): 1297–1309. Bibcode:2006RvMP...78.1297H. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.78.1297.
^ Hall, John L. (2006). "Nobel Lecture: Defining and measuring optical frequencies". Reviews of Modern Physics. 78 (4): 1279–1295. Bibcode:2006RvMP...78.1279H. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.78.1279.
^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2005". www.nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2017-11-02.
^ Medeiros de Araújo, R. (2014). "Full characterization of a highly multimode entangled state embedded in an optical frequency comb using pulse shaping". Physical Review A. 89 (5): 053828. arXiv:1401.4867. Bibcode:2014PhRvA..89e3828M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.89.053828. S2CID 32829164.
vte Solid-state lasersDistinct subtypesSemiconductor laserYttrium aluminium garnet
Nd:YAG laser
Er:YAG laser
Nd:Cr:YAG
Yb:YAG
Nd:Ce:YAG
Ho:YAG
Dy:YAG
Sm:YAG
Tb:YAG
Ce:YAG
Ce:Gd:YAG
Gd:YAG
Glass
Nd:glass
Er:glass
Er:Yb:glass
Yb:glass
Other gain media
Ruby laser
Yttrium iron garnet (YIG)
Terbium gallium garnet (TGG)
Ti:sapphire laser
Solid-state dye laser (SSDL/SSOL/SSDPL)
Yttrium lithium fluoride (YLF)
Neodymium-doped yttrium lithium fluoride (Nd:YLF)
Yttrium orthovanadate (YVO4)
Neodymium-doped yttrium orthovanadate (Nd:YVO4)
Yttrium calcium oxoborate (YCOB)
Nd:YCOB laser
Ce:LiSAF
Ce:LiCAF
Cr:ZnSe
U:CaF2
Sm:CaF2
Yb:SFAP
Structures
Diode-pumped solid-state laser (DPSSL)
Fiber laser
Figure-8 laser
Disk laser
F-center laser
Specific lasers
Trident laser
ZEUS-HLONS (HMMWV Laser Ordnance Neutralization System)
Nova (laser)
Cyclops laser
Janus laser
Argus laser
Shiva laser
HiPER
Laboratory for Laser Energetics
Laser Mégajoule
LULI2000
Mercury laser
ISKRA-6
Vulcan laser
External links
Encyclopedia of laser physics and technology on Ti:sapphire lasers
|
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The Ti:sapphire crystal is the bright red light source on the left. The green light is from the pump diodeTitanium-sapphire lasers (also known as Ti:sapphire lasers, Ti:Al2O3 lasers or Ti:sapphs) are tunable lasers which emit red and near-infrared light in the range from 650 to 1100 nanometers. These lasers are mainly used in scientific research because of their tunability and their ability to generate ultrashort pulses thanks to its broad light emission spectrum. Lasers based on Ti:sapphire were first constructed and invented in June 1982 by Peter Moulton at the MIT Lincoln Laboratory.[1]Titanium-sapphire refers to the lasing medium, a crystal of sapphire (Al2O3) that is doped with Ti3+ ions. A Ti:sapphire laser is usually pumped with another laser with a wavelength of 514 to 532 nm, for which argon-ion lasers (514.5 nm) and frequency-doubled Nd:YAG, Nd:YLF, and Nd:YVO lasers (527–532 nm) are used. They are capable of laser operation from 670 nm to 1,100 nm wavelength.[2] Ti:sapphire lasers operate most efficiently at wavelengths near 800 nm.[3]","title":"Titanium-sapphire laser"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_inner_optical_setup_of_a_femtosecond_Titanium-Sapphire_Pulsed_laser.jpg"},{"link_name":"femtosecond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femtosecond"}],"text":"The inner optical setup of a femtosecond Ti-sapphire pulsed laser","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mode-locked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelocking"},{"link_name":"ultrashort pulses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrashort_pulse"},{"link_name":"picoseconds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picosecond"},{"link_name":"femtoseconds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femtosecond"},{"link_name":"frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"Nd:YVO4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nd:YVO4"},{"link_name":"watts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt"}],"sub_title":"Mode-locked oscillators","text":"Mode-locked oscillators generate ultrashort pulses with a typical duration between a few picoseconds and 10 femtoseconds, in special cases even around 5 femtoseconds (few carrier wave cycles in each laser pulses). The pulse repetition frequency is in most cases around 70 to 90 MHz, as given by the oscillator's round-trip optical path, typically a few meters. Ti:sapphire oscillators are normally pumped with a continuous-wave laser beam from an argon or frequency-doubled Nd:YVO4 laser. Typically, such an oscillator has an average output power of 0.4 to 2.5 watts (5.7 to 35 nJ in each laser pulse for the 70 MHz repetition rate).","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ultrashort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrashort_pulse"},{"link_name":"millijoules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule"},{"link_name":"hertz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertz"},{"link_name":"joules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule"},{"link_name":"Nd:YLF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodymium_doped_yttrium_lithium_fluoride"},{"link_name":"cavity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_construction"},{"link_name":"chirped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirp"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ODIN_Ti-Sapphire_laser_in_operation.jpg"},{"link_name":"nonlinear optical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_optics"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"filament propagation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filament_propagation"},{"link_name":"nonlinear optics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_optics"},{"link_name":"wide spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinuum"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Femtosecond_laser_spark.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Chirped-pulse amplifiers","text":"These devices generate ultrashort, ultra-high-intensity pulses with a duration of 20 to 100 femtoseconds. A typical one stage amplifier can produce pulses of up to 5 millijoules in energy at a repetition frequency of 1000 hertz, while a larger, multistage facility can produce pulses up to several joules, with a repetition rate of up to 10 Hz. Usually, amplifier crystals are pumped with a pulsed frequency-doubled Nd:YLF laser at 527 nm and operate at 800 nm. Two different designs exist for the amplifier: regenerative amplifier and multi-pass amplifier.Regenerative amplifiers operate by amplifying single pulses from an oscillator (see above). Instead of a normal cavity with a partially reflective mirror, they contain high-speed optical switches that insert a pulse into a cavity and take the pulse out of the cavity exactly at the right moment when it has been amplified to a high intensity.The term 'chirped-pulse' refers to a special construction that is necessary to prevent the pulse from damaging the components in the laser. The pulse is stretched in time so that the energy is not all located at the same point in time and space. This prevents damage to the optics in the amplifier. Then the pulse is optically amplified and recompressed in time to form a short, localized pulse. All optics after this point should be chosen to take the high energy density into consideration.In a multi-pass amplifier, there are no optical switches. Instead, mirrors guide the beam a fixed number of times (two or more) through the Ti:sapphire crystal with slightly different directions. A pulsed pump beam can also be multi-passed through the crystal, so that more and more passes pump the crystal. First the pump beam pumps a spot in the gain medium. Then the signal beam first passes through the center for maximal amplification, but in later passes the diameter is increased to stay below the damage-threshold, to avoid amplification the outer parts of the beam, thus increasing beam quality and cutting off some amplified spontaneous emission and to completely deplete the inversion in the gain medium.A Ti:Sapphire crystal in the centre of a multipass amplifier Quantronix Odin is pumped by 5W green beam (faintly visible coming from right), amplifies femtosecond pulses that pass it several times under different angles (invisible on the photo) and loses part of energy as red fluorescence lightThe pulses from chirped-pulse amplifiers are often converted to other wavelengths by means of various nonlinear optical processes.At 5 mJ in 100 femtoseconds, the peak power of such a laser is 50 gigawatts.[4] When focused by a lens, these laser pulses will ionise any material placed in the focus, including air molecules, and lead to short filament propagation and strong nonlinear optics effects that generate a wide spectrum of wavelengths.Femtosecond pulses generate multiple angle-resolved colour patterns when focused; note their fan-out angle is even higher than that of the focused laser beam","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ultrashort pulse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrashort_pulse"},{"link_name":"conjugate variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_variables"},{"link_name":"continuous wave lasers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_wave_laser"},{"link_name":"linewidths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linewidth"}],"sub_title":"Tunable continuous wave lasers","text":"Titanium-sapphire is especially suitable for pulsed lasers since an ultrashort pulse inherently contains a wide spectrum of frequency components. This is due to the inverse relationship between the frequency bandwidth of a pulse and its time duration, due to their being conjugate variables. However, with an appropriate design, titanium-sapphire can also be used in continuous wave lasers with extremely narrow linewidths tunable over a wide range.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ti_Sapphire_laser_TIS-SF-07.jpg"},{"link_name":"Novosibirsk State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novosibirsk_State_University"},{"link_name":"MIT Lincoln Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Lincoln_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Kerr-lens modelocking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerr-lens_modelocking"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Strickland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donna_Strickland"},{"link_name":"Mourou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Mourou"},{"link_name":"University of Rochester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Rochester"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Arthur Ashkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Ashkin"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"optical frequency combs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_frequency_comb"},{"link_name":"nonlinear optical processes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_optics"},{"link_name":"Nobel prize for physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"quantum optics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_optics"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"micromachining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machining"},{"link_name":"nuclear fusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion"}],"text":"CW single-frequency ring Ti:Sapphire laser in operation at Novosibirsk State UniversityThe Ti:sapphire laser was invented by Peter Moulton in June 1982 at MIT Lincoln Laboratory in its continuous wave version. Subsequently, these lasers were shown to generate ultrashort pulses through Kerr-lens modelocking.[5] Strickland and Mourou, in addition to others, working at the University of Rochester, showed chirped pulse amplification of this laser within a few years,[6] for which these two shared in the 2018 Nobel Prize in physics[7] (along with Arthur Ashkin for optical tweezers). The cumulative product sales of the Ti:sapphire laser has amounted to more than $600 million, making it a big commercial success that has sustained the solid state laser industry for more than three decades.[8][9]The ultrashort pulses generated by Ti:sapphire lasers in the time domain corresponds to mode-locked optical frequency combs in the spectral domain. Both the temporal and spectral properties of these lasers make them highly desirable for frequency metrology, spectroscopy, or for pumping nonlinear optical processes. One half of the Nobel prize for physics in 2005 was awarded to the development of the optical frequency comb technique, which heavily relied on the Ti:sapphire laser and its self-modelocking properties.[10][11][12] The continuous wave versions of these lasers can be designed to have nearly quantum limited performance, resulting in a low noise and a narrow linewidth, making them attractive for quantum optics experiments.[13] The reduced amplified spontaneous emission noise in the radiation of Ti:sapphire lasers lends great strength in their application as optical lattices for the operation of state-of-the-art atomic clocks. Apart from fundamental science applications in the laboratory, this laser has found biological applications such as deep-tissue multiphoton imaging and industrial applications cold micromachining. When operated in the chirped pulse amplification mode, they can be used to generate extremely high peak powers in the terawatt range, which finds use in nuclear fusion research.","title":"History and applications"}]
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[{"image_text":"Part of a Ti:sapphire oscillator. The Ti:sapphire crystal is the bright red light source on the left. The green light is from the pump diode","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Titanium_sapphire_oscillator.jpg/400px-Titanium_sapphire_oscillator.jpg"},{"image_text":"The inner optical setup of a femtosecond Ti-sapphire pulsed laser","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/The_inner_optical_setup_of_a_femtosecond_Titanium-Sapphire_Pulsed_laser.jpg/250px-The_inner_optical_setup_of_a_femtosecond_Titanium-Sapphire_Pulsed_laser.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Ti:Sapphire crystal in the centre of a multipass amplifier Quantronix Odin is pumped by 5W green beam (faintly visible coming from right), amplifies femtosecond pulses that pass it several times under different angles (invisible on the photo) and loses part of energy as red fluorescence light","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/ODIN_Ti-Sapphire_laser_in_operation.jpg/700px-ODIN_Ti-Sapphire_laser_in_operation.jpg"},{"image_text":"Femtosecond pulses generate multiple angle-resolved colour patterns when focused; note their fan-out angle is even higher than that of the focused laser beam","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Femtosecond_laser_spark.jpg/350px-Femtosecond_laser_spark.jpg"},{"image_text":"CW single-frequency ring Ti:Sapphire laser in operation at Novosibirsk State University","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Ti_Sapphire_laser_TIS-SF-07.jpg/250px-Ti_Sapphire_laser_TIS-SF-07.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Moulton, P. F. (1986). \"Spectroscopic and laser characteristics of Ti:Al2O3\". Journal of the Optical Society of America B. 3 (1): 125–133. Bibcode:1986JOSAB...3..125M. doi:10.1364/JOSAB.3.000125.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986JOSAB...3..125M","url_text":"1986JOSAB...3..125M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1364%2FJOSAB.3.000125","url_text":"10.1364/JOSAB.3.000125"}]},{"reference":"Steele, T.R.; Gerstenberger, D. C.; Drobshoff, A.; Wallace, R. W. (15 March 1991). \"Broadly tunable high-power operation of an all-solid-state titanium-doped sapphire laser system\". Optics Letters. 16 (6): 399–401. Bibcode:1991OptL...16..399S. doi:10.1364/OL.16.000399. PMID 19773946.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.osapublishing.org/ol/abstract.cfm?uri=ol-16-6-399","url_text":"\"Broadly tunable high-power operation of an all-solid-state titanium-doped sapphire laser system\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991OptL...16..399S","url_text":"1991OptL...16..399S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1364%2FOL.16.000399","url_text":"10.1364/OL.16.000399"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19773946","url_text":"19773946"}]},{"reference":"Withnall, R. (2005-01-01). \"SPECTROSCOPY | Raman Spectroscopy\". In Guenther, Robert D. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Modern Optics. Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 119–134. doi:10.1016/b0-12-369395-0/00960-x. ISBN 978-0-12-369395-2. Retrieved 2021-10-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B012369395000960X","url_text":"\"SPECTROSCOPY | Raman Spectroscopy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb0-12-369395-0%2F00960-x","url_text":"10.1016/b0-12-369395-0/00960-x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-369395-2","url_text":"978-0-12-369395-2"}]},{"reference":"Erny, Christian; Hauri, Christoph P. (2013). \"Design of efficient single stage chirped pulse difference frequency generation at 7 μm driven by a dual wavelength Ti:sapphire laser\". Applied Physics B. 117 (1): 379–387. arXiv:1311.0610. Bibcode:2014ApPhB.117..379E. doi:10.1007/s00340-014-5846-6. S2CID 119237744.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1311.0610","url_text":"1311.0610"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ApPhB.117..379E","url_text":"2014ApPhB.117..379E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00340-014-5846-6","url_text":"10.1007/s00340-014-5846-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119237744","url_text":"119237744"}]},{"reference":"Spence, D. E.; Kean, P. N.; Sibbett, W. (1991-01-01). \"60-fsec pulse generation from a self-mode-locked Ti:sapphire laser\". Optics Letters. 16 (1): 42–44. Bibcode:1991OptL...16...42S. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.463.8656. doi:10.1364/OL.16.000042. ISSN 1539-4794. PMID 19773831.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.osapublishing.org/abstract.cfm?uri=ol-16-1-42","url_text":"\"60-fsec pulse generation from a self-mode-locked Ti:sapphire laser\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991OptL...16...42S","url_text":"1991OptL...16...42S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.463.8656","url_text":"10.1.1.463.8656"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1364%2FOL.16.000042","url_text":"10.1364/OL.16.000042"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1539-4794","url_text":"1539-4794"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19773831","url_text":"19773831"}]},{"reference":"Strickland, Donna; Mourou, Gerard (1985-10-15). \"Compression of amplified chirped optical pulses\". Optics Communications. 55 (6): 447–449. Bibcode:1985OptCo..55..447S. doi:10.1016/0030-4018(85)90151-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985OptCo..55..447S","url_text":"1985OptCo..55..447S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0030-4018%2885%2990151-8","url_text":"10.1016/0030-4018(85)90151-8"}]},{"reference":"\"The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018\". www.nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2018-10-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2018/summary/","url_text":"\"The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018\""}]},{"reference":"\"Peter Moulton on the Ti:Sapphire laser. The Ti:sapphire laser has gained broad usage and new applications in biological research and other areas since its inception in 1982\". spie.org. Retrieved 2017-11-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://spie.org/newsroom/las22-moulton?highlight=x2404&SSO=1","url_text":"\"Peter Moulton on the Ti:Sapphire laser. The Ti:sapphire laser has gained broad usage and new applications in biological research and other areas since its inception in 1982\""}]},{"reference":"\"Titanium–sapphire Lasers\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rp-photonics.com/titanium_sapphire_lasers.html","url_text":"\"Titanium–sapphire Lasers\""}]},{"reference":"Hänsch, Theodor W. (2006). \"Nobel Lecture: Passion for precision\". Reviews of Modern Physics. 78 (4): 1297–1309. Bibcode:2006RvMP...78.1297H. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.78.1297.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.78.1297","url_text":"\"Nobel Lecture: Passion for precision\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006RvMP...78.1297H","url_text":"2006RvMP...78.1297H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.78.1297","url_text":"10.1103/RevModPhys.78.1297"}]},{"reference":"Hall, John L. (2006). \"Nobel Lecture: Defining and measuring optical frequencies\". Reviews of Modern Physics. 78 (4): 1279–1295. Bibcode:2006RvMP...78.1279H. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.78.1279.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.78.1279","url_text":"\"Nobel Lecture: Defining and measuring optical frequencies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006RvMP...78.1279H","url_text":"2006RvMP...78.1279H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.78.1279","url_text":"10.1103/RevModPhys.78.1279"}]},{"reference":"\"The Nobel Prize in Physics 2005\". www.nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2017-11-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2005/","url_text":"\"The Nobel Prize in Physics 2005\""}]},{"reference":"Medeiros de Araújo, R. (2014). \"Full characterization of a highly multimode entangled state embedded in an optical frequency comb using pulse shaping\". Physical Review A. 89 (5): 053828. arXiv:1401.4867. Bibcode:2014PhRvA..89e3828M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.89.053828. S2CID 32829164.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1401.4867","url_text":"1401.4867"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PhRvA..89e3828M","url_text":"2014PhRvA..89e3828M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevA.89.053828","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevA.89.053828"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32829164","url_text":"32829164"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Systems_Center
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Electronic Systems Center
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["1 History","1.1 Fort Franklin","2 Lineage","2.1 Assignments","2.2 Components","2.3 Stations","2.4 Commanders","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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Coordinates: 42°27′45.30″N 71°16′31.10″W / 42.4625833°N 71.2753056°W / 42.4625833; -71.2753056This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (August 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Electronic Systems CenterElectronic Systems Center emblemActive1961-16 July 2012CountryUnited StatesBranchUnited States Air ForcePart ofAir Force Materiel CommandGarrison/HQHanscom Air Force BaseMilitary unit
The Electronic Systems Center was a product center of Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC) headquartered at Hanscom Air Force Base, Massachusetts. Its mission was to develop and acquire command and control, communications, computer, and intelligence systems. ESC consisted of professional teams specializing in engineering, computer science, and business management. The teams supervised the design, development, testing, production, and deployment of command and control systems. Two of ESC's most well-known developments were the Boeing E-3 Sentry Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS), developed in the 1970s, and the Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS), developed in the 1980s.
The Electronic Systems Center served into five decades as the Air Force's organization for developing and acquiring Command and Control (C2) systems. As of December 2004, ESC managed approximately two hundred programs ranging from secure communications systems to mission planning systems. ESC had an annual budget of over $3 billion and more than eighty-seven hundred personnel. In addition to the Air Force, ESC works with other branches of the United States Department of Defense, the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and foreign governments.
Due to AFMC restructuring ESC was inactivated on 1 October 2012.
History
ESC was originally activated as the Electronic Systems Division (ESD) on 1 April 1961 at Laurence G. Hanscom Field in Bedford, MA. ESD was placed under the newly established Air Force Systems Command.
The Electronic Systems Division had emerged after a decade of efforts to meet a major post-war threat to the North American continent—attack by long-range, nuclear-armed bombers. At Hanscom Field, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s new Lincoln Laboratory (1951) and later the MITRE Corporation (1958) had worked to bring the Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) air defense system to completion. The pioneering integrated radar and computer technology that was developed for SAGE also contributed significantly to the development of air traffic control systems.
ESD had an original portfolio of thirteen Command, Control and Communications (C3) systems. The appearance of ballistic missiles to carry nuclear warheads spurred a second wave of defense efforts—the construction of the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) and a survivable new command center for the North American Air Defense Command in the underground Cheyenne Mountain Complex in Colorado. New weapons systems and space platforms led to enlarged ESD C3 programs.
ESD’s first radar systems were ground-based, but in the 1960s, the organization expanded into airborne radar systems. In overcoming the “ground clutter” problem, the 1970s Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) represented a technological achievement for airspace surveillance. It was joined in the later 1980s by the Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS). While still under development, Joint STARS was pressed into service for the Gulf War to monitor movement on the battlefield. Other ESD programs focused on creating secure communications systems, air defense systems for allied nations, command centers, intelligence data transmission, air traffic control systems, and computer-based training systems.
In 1992, the Air Force Systems Command and the Air Force Logistics Command were merged to form the Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC). ESD was re-designated the Electronic Systems Center (ESC), and the organization was placed under the new AFMC. Two years later, ESC was enlarged to become the AFMC Center of Excellence for Command and Control, with headquarters at Hanscom. Several geographically separated units were added to the center. At one time, the 66th Air Base Wing, 350th Electronic Systems Wing, 551st Electronic Systems Wing, 554th Electronic Systems Wing, and 653d Electronic Systems Wing all reported to the ESC Commander.
Since the later years of the Cold War, ESC worked to upgrade its key radar, command center, and communications systems. The decade of the 1990s presented new challenges for the expanded Center in the form of regional conflicts, joint and coalition engagements, terrorism, and asymmetric warfare. In response, ESC developed programs to work towards integration and interoperability in C2 systems. By presenting systems in action via several interactive C2 demonstrations, ESC engaged in ongoing dialogue with its customers. The Center then undertook a major restructure of its acquisition processes starting in 1996. “Spiral development” was introduced to achieve state-of-the-art systems in a timely, flexible, and cost-effective approach.
The pace of these initiatives had gained momentum by the start of the 21st century. The ESC developed automated systems for Air Tasking Orders, weather, mission planning, and management information, together with enhanced force protection for Air Force personnel on the ground. For the series of Joint Expeditionary Force Experiments (JEFX) starting in 1998, ESC managed the insertion of new C2 and information technology. At the same time, its work on standardizing C2 infrastructure and creating architectures laid the groundwork for further system integration.
In 2001, the Air Force gave ESC the lead responsibility to integrate its command and control, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance systems—the C2 Enterprise Integration. Integrated C2ISR capabilities will enable the development of network-centric warfare and provide an asymmetric force advantage. The ESC pursued a major initiative to standardize and upgrade C2ISR capabilities at Air Operations Centers, with the goal of realizing the Aerospace Operations Center of the future.
Due to a major AFMC restructuring announced on 2 November 2011, ESC was to be inactivated no later than 1 October 2012. The role of ESC, along with the Aeronautical Systems Center (ASC) and the Air Armament Center (AAC), will be consolidated into the new Air Force Life Cycle Management Center (LCMC). This, along with other measures, will save up to $109 million for the Air Force annually. The new LCMC will be headquartered at Wright-Patterson AFB. The highest-ranking officer at Hanscom AFB after the reorganization will be a major general, who will be the Program Executive Officer for the C3I and Networks AFPEO. The main purpose of the reorganization is to eliminate excess headquarter and staff type positions throughout AFMC.
The ESC deactivation ceremony took place on 16 July 2012 and from that point forward Hanscom AFB was part of the AFLCMC.
Fort Franklin
Fort Franklin (42°28′22″N 71°18′12″W / 42.4729°N 71.3033°W / 42.4729; -71.3033) was an on-base encampment in the 1990s used for the purpose of testing new technology. The ESC had developed many of the radars and sensors used by military aircraft, and had created many of the command and control systems. However, when these systems were deployed for Operation Desert Storm, many did not work as advertised or communicate information to one another.
In October 1993, Lieutenant General Charles E. Franklin took over as Commander of the ESC. ESC was the home of most of the new command and control technologies being sent to the war, but was getting a bad reputation for the lack of quality in the systems sent to the war. He decided to hold a technical exercise to emulate a deployed headquarters using the equipment ESC was producing, and test the reports.
The technical exercise went live in July 1994. The encampment used a patch of grass near the end of the runway. Using tents, trailers, and communication vans inside a guarded perimeter, the area was quickly dubbed “Fort Franklin.” It was staffed by engineers from every program office and a few junior military. Major Steve Zenishek, with recent Gulf War experience, became the installation “commander” and was able to show off that the great capability indeed worked fine alone, but unfortunately didn't work well with others.
Rather than take the failure as a defeat, General Franklin used it to encourage the staff to rebuild the systems under development to interoperate. Subsequently, by the time the second Fort Franklin occurred on 1–16 May 1995, the systems were beginning to communicate. For the first time, the results of calculations performed by one system were transferred automatically to another system for further interpretation or processing.
Not wanting to lose the expertise that had created this success, LtGen Franklin established an ongoing experimentation facility at Hanscom known as the Command & Control (C2) Unified Development Environment (CUBE). CUBE was later renamed the C2 Engineering and Integration Facility (CEIF).
The experience of Fort Franklin was instrumental in development in 1997 of the Air Force's major experiment, the Expeditionary Force Experiment (EFX 98), which became a Joint EFX (JEFX) in 1999.
Lineage
Constituted as the Electronic Systems Division on 20 March 1961
Activated on 1 Apr 61
Redesignated Electronic Systems Center on 1 July 92
Inactivated on 1 October 2012
Assignments
Air Force Systems Command, 1 April 1961
Air Force Materiel Command, 1 July 1992 – 1 October 2012 (attached to Air Force Life Cycle Management Center after 16 July 2012)
Components
38th Engineering Installation Wing, c1994
66th Air Base Wing
350th Electronic Systems Wing, 17 December 2004 – 30 June 2010
551st Electronic Systems Wing
554th Electronic Systems Wing
653d Electronic Systems Wing
other wings, groups, squadrons, and directorates
Stations
Hanscom Air Force Base, 1 April 1961 - 1 October 2012
Commanders
Officer
Tenure
Maj Gen Kenneth P. Bergquist
1 April 1961 - 16 February 1962
Brig/Major General|Maj Gen Charles H. Terhune, Jr
16 February 1962 - 15 July 1964
Maj Gen John W. O'Neill
15 July 1964 - 1 July 1967
Maj Gen John B. Bestic
1 July 1967 - 31 July 1968
Maj Gen Joseph J. Cody, Jr
1 August 1968 - 29 October 1971
Maj Gen Albert R. Sheily, Jr
29 October 1971 - 29 March 1974
Maj Gen Benjamin N. Bellis
29 March 1974 - 11 October 1974
Maj Gen/Lt Gen Wilbur L. Creech
11 October 1974 - 2 May 1977
Lt Gen Robert T. Marsh
2 May 1977 - 28 January 1981
Maj/Lt Gen James W. Stansberry
28 January 1981 - 25 July 1984
Lt Gen Melvin F. Chubb, Jr
25 July 1984 - 30 September 1988
Lt Gen Gordon E. Fornell
30 September 1988 - 29 October 1993
Lt Gen Charles E. Franklin
29 October 1993 - 16 August 1996
Lt Gen Ronald T. Kadish
16 August 1996 – 10 June 1999
Lt Gen Leslie F. Kenne
10 June 1999 – 17 April 2002
Brig Gen Robert H. Latiff (Interim Commander)
17 April 2002 - 28 May 2002
Lt Gen William R. Looney III
28 May 2002 - 8 December 2003
Lt Gen Charles L. Johnson II
8 December 2003 – November 2007
Lt Gen Ted F. Bowlds
November 2007 - 1 September 2011
Lt Gen Charles R. Davis
1 September 2011 – May 2012
Col Mark S. Spillman
1 May 2012 – 16 July 2012
See also
List of military installations in Massachusetts
References
^ "Biographies : Lieutenant General Charles E. Franklin". Af.mil. Retrieved 23 July 2014.
^ "Chennault St - Google Maps". Google Maps. 1 January 1970. Retrieved 29 July 2010.
^ "OSJTF - Library/Index - Standards and Architecture". Acq.osd.mil. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 23 July 2014.
^ "The MITRE Digest | Experimentation: Fielding New Technologies Fast". MITRE. December 2000. Archived from the original on 5 September 2013. Retrieved 23 July 2014.
^ Software Defined Radio: Origins, Drivers and International Perspectives. Wiley. March 2002. ISBN 9780470844649. Retrieved 23 July 2014.
^ Lineage information through April 2006 in Robertson, Fact Sheet.
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency
External links
Official Hanscom Air Force Base website
"ESC becomes part of AFLCMC; Mission work remains at Hanscom". 17 July 2012. Archived from the original on 23 February 2013.
Electronic Systems Center
Official factsheet
554 ELSW official factsheet
vte Air Force Materiel CommandAir bases
Arnold
Edwards
Eglin
Hanscom
Hill
Robins
Tinker
Wright-Patterson (Headquarters)
CentersAir Force Installation and Mission Support Center
Air Force Civil Engineer Center
Air Force Security Forces Center
Air Force Life Cycle Management Center
66th Air Base Group
88th Air Base Wing
Air Force Nuclear Weapons Center
Air Force Research Laboratory
711th Human Performance Wing
Air Force Sustainment Center
72nd Air Base Wing
75th Air Base Wing
78th Air Base Wing
448th Supply Chain Management Wing
635th Supply Chain Operations Wing
Ogden Air Logistics Complex
Oklahoma City Air Logistics Complex
Warner Robins Air Logistics Complex
Air Force Test Center
96th Test Wing
412th Test Wing
Arnold Engineering Development Complex
Other
National Museum of the United States Air Force
42°27′45.30″N 71°16′31.10″W / 42.4625833°N 71.2753056°W / 42.4625833; -71.2753056
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Air Force Materiel Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Materiel_Command"},{"link_name":"Hanscom Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanscom_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"command and control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_and_Control_(Military)"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"business management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_management"},{"link_name":"Boeing E-3 Sentry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_E-3_Sentry"},{"link_name":"Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-8_Joint_STARS"},{"link_name":"Command and Control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_and_control_(military)"},{"link_name":"United States Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"North American Aerospace Defense Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command"},{"link_name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration"},{"link_name":"Federal Aviation Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration"},{"link_name":"North Atlantic Treaty Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization"}],"text":"Military unitThe Electronic Systems Center was a product center of Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC) headquartered at Hanscom Air Force Base, Massachusetts. Its mission was to develop and acquire command and control, communications, computer, and intelligence systems. ESC consisted of professional teams specializing in engineering, computer science, and business management. The teams supervised the design, development, testing, production, and deployment of command and control systems. Two of ESC's most well-known developments were the Boeing E-3 Sentry Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS), developed in the 1970s, and the Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS), developed in the 1980s.The Electronic Systems Center served into five decades as the Air Force's organization for developing and acquiring Command and Control (C2) systems. As of December 2004, ESC managed approximately two hundred programs ranging from secure communications systems to mission planning systems. ESC had an annual budget of over $3 billion and more than eighty-seven hundred personnel. In addition to the Air Force, ESC works with other branches of the United States Department of Defense, the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and foreign governments.Due to AFMC restructuring ESC was inactivated on 1 October 2012.","title":"Electronic Systems Center"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Laurence G. Hanscom Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanscom_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Bedford, MA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedford,_MA"},{"link_name":"Air Force Systems Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Systems_Command"},{"link_name":"North American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Lincoln Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"MITRE Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MITRE"},{"link_name":"Semi Automatic Ground Environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi_Automatic_Ground_Environment"},{"link_name":"air defense system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_defense_system"},{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"air traffic control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_control"},{"link_name":"Command, Control and Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command,_control,_and_communications"},{"link_name":"ballistic missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_missile"},{"link_name":"nuclear warheads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_warhead"},{"link_name":"Ballistic Missile Early Warning System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_Missile_Early_Warning_System"},{"link_name":"Cheyenne Mountain Complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheyenne_Mountain_Complex"},{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"Airborne Warning and Control System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-3_Sentry"},{"link_name":"Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-8_Joint_STARS"},{"link_name":"Joint STARS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-8_Joint_STARS"},{"link_name":"Gulf War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War"},{"link_name":"Air Force Systems Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Systems_Command"},{"link_name":"Air Force Logistics Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Logistics_Command"},{"link_name":"Air Force Materiel Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Materiel_Command"},{"link_name":"66th Air Base Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/66th_Air_Base_Wing"},{"link_name":"350th Electronic Systems Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/350th_Electronic_Systems_Wing"},{"link_name":"551st Electronic Systems Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/551st_Electronic_Systems_Wing"},{"link_name":"554th Electronic Systems Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/554th_Electronic_Systems_Wing"},{"link_name":"653d Electronic Systems Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/653d_Electronic_Systems_Wing"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"asymmetric warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_warfare"},{"link_name":"Spiral development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_model"},{"link_name":"Air Tasking Orders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Tasking_Order"},{"link_name":"force protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force_protection"},{"link_name":"Joint Expeditionary Force Experiments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joint_Expeditionary_Force_Experiment&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"C2ISR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C4ISTAR"},{"link_name":"network-centric warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network-centric_warfare"},{"link_name":"Air Operations Centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Operations_Center"},{"link_name":"Aerospace Operations Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_Operations_Center"},{"link_name":"Aeronautical Systems Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeronautical_Systems_Center"},{"link_name":"Air Armament Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Armament_Center"},{"link_name":"Air Force Life Cycle Management Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Life_Cycle_Management_Center"},{"link_name":"Wright-Patterson AFB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright-Patterson_AFB"},{"link_name":"Hanscom AFB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanscom_AFB"},{"link_name":"Program Executive Officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_Executive_Officer"}],"text":"ESC was originally activated as the Electronic Systems Division (ESD) on 1 April 1961 at Laurence G. Hanscom Field in Bedford, MA. ESD was placed under the newly established Air Force Systems Command.The Electronic Systems Division had emerged after a decade of efforts to meet a major post-war threat to the North American continent—attack by long-range, nuclear-armed bombers. At Hanscom Field, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s new Lincoln Laboratory (1951) and later the MITRE Corporation (1958) had worked to bring the Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) air defense system to completion. The pioneering integrated radar and computer technology that was developed for SAGE also contributed significantly to the development of air traffic control systems.ESD had an original portfolio of thirteen Command, Control and Communications (C3) systems. The appearance of ballistic missiles to carry nuclear warheads spurred a second wave of defense efforts—the construction of the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) and a survivable new command center for the North American Air Defense Command in the underground Cheyenne Mountain Complex in Colorado. New weapons systems and space platforms led to enlarged ESD C3 programs.ESD’s first radar systems were ground-based, but in the 1960s, the organization expanded into airborne radar systems. In overcoming the “ground clutter” problem, the 1970s Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) represented a technological achievement for airspace surveillance. It was joined in the later 1980s by the Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS). While still under development, Joint STARS was pressed into service for the Gulf War to monitor movement on the battlefield. Other ESD programs focused on creating secure communications systems, air defense systems for allied nations, command centers, intelligence data transmission, air traffic control systems, and computer-based training systems.In 1992, the Air Force Systems Command and the Air Force Logistics Command were merged to form the Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC). ESD was re-designated the Electronic Systems Center (ESC), and the organization was placed under the new AFMC. Two years later, ESC was enlarged to become the AFMC Center of Excellence for Command and Control, with headquarters at Hanscom. Several geographically separated units were added to the center. At one time, the 66th Air Base Wing, 350th Electronic Systems Wing, 551st Electronic Systems Wing, 554th Electronic Systems Wing, and 653d Electronic Systems Wing all reported to the ESC Commander.Since the later years of the Cold War, ESC worked to upgrade its key radar, command center, and communications systems. The decade of the 1990s presented new challenges for the expanded Center in the form of regional conflicts, joint and coalition engagements, terrorism, and asymmetric warfare. In response, ESC developed programs to work towards integration and interoperability in C2 systems. By presenting systems in action via several interactive C2 demonstrations, ESC engaged in ongoing dialogue with its customers. The Center then undertook a major restructure of its acquisition processes starting in 1996. “Spiral development” was introduced to achieve state-of-the-art systems in a timely, flexible, and cost-effective approach.The pace of these initiatives had gained momentum by the start of the 21st century. The ESC developed automated systems for Air Tasking Orders, weather, mission planning, and management information, together with enhanced force protection for Air Force personnel on the ground. For the series of Joint Expeditionary Force Experiments (JEFX) starting in 1998, ESC managed the insertion of new C2 and information technology. At the same time, its work on standardizing C2 infrastructure and creating architectures laid the groundwork for further system integration.In 2001, the Air Force gave ESC the lead responsibility to integrate its command and control, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance systems—the C2 Enterprise Integration. Integrated C2ISR capabilities will enable the development of network-centric warfare and provide an asymmetric force advantage. The ESC pursued a major initiative to standardize and upgrade C2ISR capabilities at Air Operations Centers, with the goal of realizing the Aerospace Operations Center of the future.Due to a major AFMC restructuring announced on 2 November 2011, ESC was to be inactivated no later than 1 October 2012. The role of ESC, along with the Aeronautical Systems Center (ASC) and the Air Armament Center (AAC), will be consolidated into the new Air Force Life Cycle Management Center (LCMC). This, along with other measures, will save up to $109 million for the Air Force annually. The new LCMC will be headquartered at Wright-Patterson AFB. The highest-ranking officer at Hanscom AFB after the reorganization will be a major general, who will be the Program Executive Officer for the C3I and Networks AFPEO. The main purpose of the reorganization is to eliminate excess headquarter and staff type positions throughout AFMC.The ESC deactivation ceremony took place on 16 July 2012 and from that point forward Hanscom AFB was part of the AFLCMC.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"42°28′22″N 71°18′12″W / 42.4729°N 71.3033°W / 42.4729; -71.3033","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Electronic_Systems_Center¶ms=42.4729_N_71.3033_W_type:landmark_globe:earth_region:US-MA"},{"link_name":"radars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"military aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_aircraft"},{"link_name":"Operation Desert Storm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Desert_Storm"},{"link_name":"Lieutenant General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_general"},{"link_name":"Charles E. Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_E._Franklin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"command and control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_and_control"},{"link_name":"technical exercise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_exercise"},{"link_name":"runway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runway"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Gulf War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"interoperate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoperability"},{"link_name":"transferred automatically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"JEFX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JEFX"}],"sub_title":"Fort Franklin","text":"Fort Franklin (42°28′22″N 71°18′12″W / 42.4729°N 71.3033°W / 42.4729; -71.3033) was an on-base encampment in the 1990s used for the purpose of testing new technology. The ESC had developed many of the radars and sensors used by military aircraft, and had created many of the command and control systems. However, when these systems were deployed for Operation Desert Storm, many did not work as advertised or communicate information to one another.\nIn October 1993, Lieutenant General Charles E. Franklin[1] took over as Commander of the ESC. ESC was the home of most of the new command and control technologies being sent to the war, but was getting a bad reputation for the lack of quality in the systems sent to the war. He decided to hold a technical exercise to emulate a deployed headquarters using the equipment ESC was producing, and test the reports.The technical exercise went live in July 1994. The encampment used a patch of grass near the end of the runway.[2] Using tents, trailers, and communication vans inside a guarded perimeter, the area was quickly dubbed “Fort Franklin.” It was staffed by engineers from every program office and a few junior military. Major Steve Zenishek, with recent Gulf War experience, became the installation “commander” and was able to show off that the great capability indeed worked fine alone, but unfortunately didn't work well with others.[clarification needed][3]Rather than take the failure as a defeat, General Franklin used it to encourage the staff to rebuild the systems under development to interoperate. Subsequently, by the time the second Fort Franklin occurred on 1–16 May 1995, the systems were beginning to communicate. For the first time, the results of calculations performed by one system were transferred automatically to another system for further interpretation or processing.[4][5]Not wanting to lose the expertise that had created this success, LtGen Franklin established an ongoing experimentation facility at Hanscom known as the Command & Control (C2) Unified Development Environment (CUBE). CUBE was later renamed the C2 Engineering and Integration Facility (CEIF).The experience of Fort Franklin was instrumental in development in 1997 of the Air Force's major experiment, the Expeditionary Force Experiment (EFX 98), which became a Joint EFX (JEFX) in 1999.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Constituted as the Electronic Systems Division on 20 March 1961Activated on 1 Apr 61\nRedesignated Electronic Systems Center on 1 July 92\nInactivated on 1 October 2012","title":"Lineage"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Assignments","text":"Air Force Systems Command, 1 April 1961\nAir Force Materiel Command, 1 July 1992 – 1 October 2012 (attached to Air Force Life Cycle Management Center after 16 July 2012)","title":"Lineage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"38th Engineering Installation Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/38th_Engineering_Installation_Wing"},{"link_name":"66th Air Base Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/66th_Air_Base_Wing"},{"link_name":"350th Electronic Systems Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/350th_Electronic_Systems_Wing"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-350ESWfacts2-6"},{"link_name":"551st Electronic Systems Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/551st_Electronic_Systems_Wing"},{"link_name":"554th Electronic Systems Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/554th_Electronic_Systems_Wing"},{"link_name":"653d Electronic Systems Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/653d_Electronic_Systems_Wing"}],"sub_title":"Components","text":"38th Engineering Installation Wing, c1994\n66th Air Base Wing\n350th Electronic Systems Wing, 17 December 2004[6] – 30 June 2010\n551st Electronic Systems Wing\n554th Electronic Systems Wing\n653d Electronic Systems Wing\nother wings, groups, squadrons, and directorates","title":"Lineage"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Stations","text":"Hanscom Air Force Base, 1 April 1961 - 1 October 2012","title":"Lineage"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Commanders","title":"Lineage"}]
|
[]
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[{"title":"List of military installations in Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_installations_in_Massachusetts"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Biographies : Lieutenant General Charles E. Franklin\". Af.mil. Retrieved 23 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.af.mil/AboutUs/Biographies/Display/tabid/225/Article/107029/lieutenant-general-charles-e-franklin.aspx","url_text":"\"Biographies : Lieutenant General Charles E. Franklin\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chennault St - Google Maps\". Google Maps. 1 January 1970. Retrieved 29 July 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://maps.google.com/maps?f=d&source=s_d&saddr=&daddr=42.463486,-71.277065&hl=en&geocode=&mra=mi&mrsp=0&sz=16&sll=42.464436,-71.276636&sspn=0.00592,0.017059&ie=UTF8&ll=42.464222,-71.276003&spn=0.00296,0.008529&t=h&z=17","url_text":"\"Chennault St - Google Maps\""}]},{"reference":"\"OSJTF - Library/Index - Standards and Architecture\". Acq.osd.mil. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 23 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120319183226/http://www.acq.osd.mil/osjtf/library/library_standards_osarch.html","url_text":"\"OSJTF - Library/Index - Standards and Architecture\""},{"url":"http://www.acq.osd.mil/osjtf/library/library_standards_osarch.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The MITRE Digest | Experimentation: Fielding New Technologies Fast\". MITRE. December 2000. Archived from the original on 5 September 2013. Retrieved 23 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130905014630/http://www.mitre.org/news/digest/archives/2000/fielding_new_tech.html","url_text":"\"The MITRE Digest | Experimentation: Fielding New Technologies Fast\""},{"url":"http://www.mitre.org/news/digest/archives/2000/fielding_new_tech.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Software Defined Radio: Origins, Drivers and International Perspectives. Wiley. March 2002. ISBN 9780470844649. Retrieved 23 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=R_JSAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Software Defined Radio: Origins, Drivers and International Perspectives"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470844649","url_text":"9780470844649"}]},{"reference":"\"ESC becomes part of AFLCMC; Mission work remains at Hanscom\". 17 July 2012. Archived from the original on 23 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130223182125/http://www.hanscom.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123310227","url_text":"\"ESC becomes part of AFLCMC; Mission work remains at Hanscom\""},{"url":"http://www.hanscom.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123310227","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_device
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Electronics
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["1 History and development","2 Subfields","3 Devices and components","4 Types of circuits","4.1 Analog circuits","4.2 Digital circuits","5 Design","5.1 Computer-aided design","6 Negative qualities","6.1 Thermal management","6.2 Noise","7 Packaging methods","8 Industry","9 See also","10 References","11 Further reading","12 External links"]
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Branch of physics and electrical engineering
This article is about the technical field. For personal/home-use electronic devices, see consumer electronics. For the journal, see Electronics (magazine).
Modern surface-mount electronic components on a printed circuit board, with a large integrated circuit at the top
Electronics is a scientific and engineering discipline that studies and applies the principles of physics to design, create, and operate devices that manipulate electrons and other electrically charged particles. Electronics is a subfield of physics and electrical engineering which uses active devices such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits to control and amplify the flow of electric current and to convert it from one form to another, such as from alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) or from analog signals to digital signals.
Electronic devices have hugely influenced the development of many aspects of modern society, such as telecommunications, entertainment, education, health care, industry, and security. The main driving force behind the advancement of electronics is the semiconductor industry, which in response to global demand continually produces ever-more sophisticated electronic devices and circuits. The semiconductor industry is one of the largest and most profitable sectors in the global economy, with annual revenues exceeding $481 billion in 2018. The electronics industry also encompasses other sectors that rely on electronic devices and systems, such as e-commerce, which generated over $29 trillion in online sales in 2017.
History and development
See also: History of electronic engineering and Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering
One of the earliest Audion radio receivers, constructed by De Forest in 1914
The identification of the electron in 1897 by Sir Joseph John Thomson, along with the subsequent invention of the vacuum tube which could amplify and rectify small electrical signals, inaugurated the field of electronics and the electron age. Practical applications started with the invention of the diode by Ambrose Fleming and the triode by Lee De Forest in the early 1900s, which made the detection of small electrical voltages, such as radio signals from a radio antenna, practicable.
Vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) were the first active electronic components which controlled current flow by influencing the flow of individual electrons, and enabled the construction of equipment that used current amplification and rectification to give us radio, television, radar, long-distance telephony and much more. The early growth of electronics was rapid, and by the 1920s, commercial radio broadcasting and telecommunications were becoming widespread and electronic amplifiers were being used in such diverse applications as long-distance telephony and the music recording industry.
The next big technological step took several decades to appear, when the first working point-contact transistor was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947.
However, vacuum tubes played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s.
Since then, solid-state devices have all but completely taken over. Vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode-ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices.
In April 1955, the IBM 608 was the first IBM product to use transistor circuits without any vacuum tubes and is believed to be the first all-transistorized calculator to be manufactured for the commercial market. The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors. Thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic circuits and peripheral devices. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.
The MOSFET (MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses. Its advantages include high scalability, affordability, low power consumption, and high density. It revolutionized the electronics industry, becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world. The MOSFET is the basic element in most modern electronic equipment.
As the complexity of circuits grew, problems arose. One problem was the size of the circuit. A complex circuit like a computer was dependent on speed. If the components were large, the wires interconnecting them must be long. The electric signals took time to go through the circuit, thus slowing the computer. The invention of the integrated circuit by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce solved this problem by making all the components and the chip out of the same block (monolith) of semiconductor material. The circuits could be made smaller, and the manufacturing process could be automated. This led to the idea of integrating all components on a single-crystal silicon wafer, which led to small-scale integration (SSI) in the early 1960s, and then medium-scale integration (MSI) in the late 1960s, followed by VLSI. In 2008, billion-transistor processors became commercially available.
Subfields
Analog electronics
Audio electronics
Bioelectronics
Circuit design
Digital electronics
Electronic components
Embedded systems
Integrated circuits
Microelectronics
Nanoelectronics
Power electronics
Printed circuit boards
Semiconductor devices
Sensors
Telecommunications
Devices and components
Main article: Electronic component
Various electronic components
An electronic component is any component in an electronic system either active or passive. Components are connected together, usually by being soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a particular function. Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits. Passive electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, whilst active components are such as semiconductor devices; transistors and thyristors, which control current flow at electron level.
Types of circuits
Electronic circuit functions can be divided into two function groups: analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has either or a mix of the two types. Analog circuits are becoming less common, as many of their functions are being digitized.
Analog circuits
Main article: Analog electronics
Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits.
The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a 'circuit' can be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of components.
Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators.
One rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog – these days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance. This type of circuit is usually called "mixed signal" rather than analog or digital.
Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled switch having essentially two levels of output. In fact, many digital circuits are actually implemented as variations of analog circuits similar to this example – after all, all aspects of the real physical world are essentially analog, so digital effects are only realized by constraining analog behaviour.
Digital circuits
Main article: Digital electronics
Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits.
Most digital circuits use a binary system with two voltage levels labelled "0" and "1". Often logic "0" will be a lower voltage and referred to as "Low" while logic "1" is referred to as "High". However, some systems use the reverse definition ("0" is "High") or are current based. Quite often the logic designer may reverse these definitions from one circuit to the next as they see fit to facilitate their design. The definition of the levels as "0" or "1" is arbitrary.
Ternary (with three states) logic has been studied, and some prototype computers made. Mass-produced binary systems have caused lower significance for using ternary logic. Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control industrial processes) are constructed of digital circuits. Digital signal processors, which measure, filter or compress continuous real-world analog signals, are another example. Transistors such as MOSFET are used to control binary states.
Logic gates
Adders
Flip-flops
Counters
Registers
Multiplexers
Schmitt triggers
Highly integrated devices:
Memory chip
Microprocessors
Microcontrollers
Application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)
Digital signal processor (DSP)
Field-programmable gate array (FPGA)
Field-programmable analog array (FPAA)
System on chip (SOC)
Design
Electronic systems design deals with the multi-disciplinary design issues of complex electronic devices and systems, such as mobile phones and computers. The subject covers a broad spectrum, from the design and development of an electronic system (new product development) to assuring its proper function, service life and disposal. Electronic systems design is therefore the process of defining and developing complex electronic devices to satisfy specified requirements of the user.
Due to the complex nature of electronics theory, laboratory experimentation is an important part of the development of electronic devices. These experiments are used to test or verify the engineer's design and detect errors. Historically, electronics labs have consisted of electronics devices and equipment located in a physical space, although in more recent years the trend has been towards electronics lab simulation software, such as CircuitLogix, Multisim, and PSpice.
Computer-aided design
Main article: Electronic design automation
Today's electronics engineers have the ability to design circuits using premanufactured building blocks such as power supplies, semiconductors (i.e. semiconductor devices, such as transistors), and integrated circuits. Electronic design automation software programs include schematic capture programs and printed circuit board design programs. Popular names in the EDA software world are NI Multisim, Cadence (ORCAD), EAGLE PCB and Schematic, Mentor (PADS PCB and LOGIC Schematic), Altium (Protel), LabCentre Electronics (Proteus), gEDA, KiCad and many others.
Negative qualities
Thermal management
Main article: Thermal management of electronic devices and systems
Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure and improve long term reliability. Heat dissipation is mostly achieved by passive conduction/convection. Means to achieve greater dissipation include heat sinks and fans for air cooling, and other forms of computer cooling such as water cooling. These techniques use convection, conduction, and radiation of heat energy.
Noise
Main article: Electronic noise
Electronic noise is defined as unwanted disturbances superposed on a useful signal that tend to obscure its information content. Noise is not the same as signal distortion caused by a circuit. Noise is associated with all electronic circuits. Noise may be electromagnetically or thermally generated, which can be decreased by lowering the operating temperature of the circuit. Other types of noise, such as shot noise cannot be removed as they are due to limitations in physical properties.
Packaging methods
Main article: Electronic packaging
Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years. For instance, early electronics often used point to point wiring with components attached to wooden breadboards to construct circuits. Cordwood construction and wire wrap were other methods used. Most modern day electronics now use printed circuit boards made of materials such as FR4, or the cheaper (and less hard-wearing) Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper (SRBP, also known as Paxoline/Paxolin (trade marks) and FR2) – characterised by its brown colour. Health and environmental concerns associated with electronics assembly have gained increased attention in recent years, especially for products destined to go to European markets.
Through-hole devices mounted on the circuit board of a mid-1980s home computer. Axial-lead devices are at upper left, while blue radial-lead capacitors are at upper right.
Electrical components are generally mounted in the following ways:
Through-hole (sometimes referred to as 'Pin-Through-Hole')
Surface mount
Chassis mount
Rack mount
LGA/BGA/PGA socket
Industry
Main article: Electronics industry
Further information: Consumer electronics, List of best-selling electronic devices, and Semiconductor industry
The electronics industry consists of various sectors. The central driving force behind the entire electronics industry is the semiconductor industry sector, which has annual sales of over $481 billion as of 2018. The largest industry sector is e-commerce, which generated over $29 trillion in 2017. The most widely manufactured electronic device is the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), with an estimated 13 sextillion MOSFETs having been manufactured between 1960 and 2018. In the 1960s, U.S. manufacturers were unable to compete with Japanese companies such as Sony and Hitachi who could produce high-quality goods at lower prices. By the 1980s, however, U.S. manufacturers became the world leaders in semiconductor development and assembly.
However, during the 1990s and subsequently, the industry shifted overwhelmingly to East Asia (a process begun with the initial movement of microchip mass-production there in the 1970s), as plentiful, cheap labor, and increasing technological sophistication, became widely available there.
Over three decades, the United States' global share of semiconductor manufacturing capacity fell, from 37% in 1990, to 12% in 2022. America's pre-eminent semiconductor manufacturer, Intel Corporation, fell far behind its subcontractor Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC) in manufacturing technology.
By that time, Taiwan had become the world's leading source of advanced semiconductors—followed by South Korea, the United States, Japan, Singapore, and China.
Important semiconductor industry facilities (which often are subsidiaries of a leading producer based elsewhere) also exist in Europe (notably the Netherlands), Southeast Asia, South America, and Israel.
See also
Electronics portal
Index of electronics articles
Outline of electronics
Atomtronics
Audio engineering
Avionics
Biodegradable electronics
Broadcast engineering
Computer engineering
Electronics engineering
Electronics engineering technology
Fuzzy electronics
Marine electronics
Photonics
Robotics
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Further reading
Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1980). The Art of Electronics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521370950.
External links
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Category:Electronics
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Navy 1998 Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series (NEETS) Archived 2 November 2004 at the Wayback Machine
DOE 1998 Electrical Science, Fundamentals Handbook, 4 vols.
Vol. 1, Basic Electrical Theory, Basic DC Theory
Vol. 2, DC Circuits, Batteries, Generators, Motors
Vol. 3, Basic AC Theory, Basic AC Reactive Components, Basic AC Power, Basic AC Generators
Vol. 4, AC Motors, Transformers, Test Instruments & Measuring Devices, Electrical Distribution Systems
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"consumer electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_electronics"},{"link_name":"Electronics (magazine)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics_(magazine)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg"},{"link_name":"surface-mount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-mount_technology"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"electrically charged particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"electrical engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"active devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivity_(engineering)"},{"link_name":"transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"diodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode"},{"link_name":"integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"electric current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current"},{"link_name":"alternating current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current"},{"link_name":"direct current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_current"},{"link_name":"analog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_signal"},{"link_name":"digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal"},{"link_name":"telecommunications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications"},{"link_name":"semiconductor industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_industry"},{"link_name":"semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"e-commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-commerce"}],"text":"This article is about the technical field. For personal/home-use electronic devices, see consumer electronics. For the journal, see Electronics (magazine).Modern surface-mount electronic components on a printed circuit board, with a large integrated circuit at the topElectronics is a scientific and engineering discipline that studies and applies the principles of physics to design, create, and operate devices that manipulate electrons and other electrically charged particles. Electronics is a subfield of physics[1][2] and electrical engineering[3] which uses active devices such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits to control and amplify the flow of electric current and to convert it from one form to another, such as from alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) or from analog signals to digital signals.Electronic devices have hugely influenced the development of many aspects of modern society, such as telecommunications, entertainment, education, health care, industry, and security. The main driving force behind the advancement of electronics is the semiconductor industry, which in response to global demand continually produces ever-more sophisticated electronic devices and circuits. The semiconductor industry is one of the largest and most profitable sectors in the global economy, with annual revenues exceeding $481 billion in 2018. The electronics industry also encompasses other sectors that rely on electronic devices and systems, such as e-commerce, which generated over $29 trillion in online sales in 2017.","title":"Electronics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of electronic engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_electronic_engineering"},{"link_name":"Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronic_engineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Audion_receiver.jpg"},{"link_name":"Audion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audion"},{"link_name":"electron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"Sir Joseph John Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_John_Thomson"},{"link_name":"vacuum tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"amplify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier"},{"link_name":"rectify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier"},{"link_name":"electrical signals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode"},{"link_name":"Ambrose Fleming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrose_Fleming"},{"link_name":"triode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triode"},{"link_name":"Lee De Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Forest"},{"link_name":"radio signals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_signal"},{"link_name":"radio antenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(radio)"},{"link_name":"Vacuum tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"electronic components","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_component"},{"link_name":"current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio"},{"link_name":"television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television"},{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio"},{"link_name":"telecommunications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications"},{"link_name":"telephony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephony"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"point-contact transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-contact_transistor"},{"link_name":"John Bardeen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bardeen"},{"link_name":"Walter Houser Brattain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"microwave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave"},{"link_name":"television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Okamura1994-7"},{"link_name":"solid-state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_electronics"},{"link_name":"high power RF amplifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valve_RF_amplifier"},{"link_name":"cathode-ray tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube"},{"link_name":"guitar amplifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar_amplifiers"},{"link_name":"microwave devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavity_magnetron"},{"link_name":"IBM 608","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_608"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"calculator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"germanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium"},{"link_name":"Thomas J. Watson Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson_Jr."},{"link_name":"computer logic circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gate"},{"link_name":"junction transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junction_transistor"},{"link_name":"mass-production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass-production"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moskowitz-10"},{"link_name":"MOSFET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET"},{"link_name":"Mohamed Atalla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed_Atalla"},{"link_name":"Dawon Kahng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawon_Kahng"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-computerhistory-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lojek-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-computerhistory-transistor-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-triumph-14"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moskowitz-10"},{"link_name":"high scalability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET_scaling"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-computerhistory-digital-16"},{"link_name":"high density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large-scale_integration"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"electronics industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics_industry"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chan-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grant-19"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-computerhistory-transistor-13"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Golio-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Colinge2016-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_History_of_the_Integrated_Circuit-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_History_of_the_Integrated_Circuit-23"},{"link_name":"invention of the integrated circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention_of_the_integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"Jack Kilby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Kilby"},{"link_name":"Robert Noyce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Noyce"},{"link_name":"silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon"},{"link_name":"VLSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLSI"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"See also: History of electronic engineering and Timeline of electrical and electronic engineeringOne of the earliest Audion radio receivers, constructed by De Forest in 1914The identification of the electron in 1897 by Sir Joseph John Thomson, along with the subsequent invention of the vacuum tube which could amplify and rectify small electrical signals, inaugurated the field of electronics and the electron age.[4] Practical applications started with the invention of the diode by Ambrose Fleming and the triode by Lee De Forest in the early 1900s, which made the detection of small electrical voltages, such as radio signals from a radio antenna, practicable.Vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) were the first active electronic components which controlled current flow by influencing the flow of individual electrons, and enabled the construction of equipment that used current amplification and rectification to give us radio, television, radar, long-distance telephony and much more. The early growth of electronics was rapid, and by the 1920s, commercial radio broadcasting and telecommunications were becoming widespread and electronic amplifiers were being used in such diverse applications as long-distance telephony and the music recording industry.[5]The next big technological step took several decades to appear, when the first working point-contact transistor was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947.[6]\nHowever, vacuum tubes played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s.[7]\nSince then, solid-state devices have all but completely taken over. Vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode-ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices.In April 1955, the IBM 608 was the first IBM product to use transistor circuits without any vacuum tubes and is believed to be the first all-transistorized calculator to be manufactured for the commercial market.[8][9] The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors. Thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic circuits and peripheral devices. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.[10]The MOSFET (MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.[11][12][13][14] The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.[10] Its advantages include high scalability,[15] affordability,[16] low power consumption, and high density.[17] It revolutionized the electronics industry,[18][19] becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world.[13][20] The MOSFET is the basic element in most modern electronic equipment.[21][22]As the complexity of circuits grew, problems arose.[23] One problem was the size of the circuit. A complex circuit like a computer was dependent on speed. If the components were large, the wires interconnecting them must be long. The electric signals took time to go through the circuit, thus slowing the computer.[23] The invention of the integrated circuit by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce solved this problem by making all the components and the chip out of the same block (monolith) of semiconductor material. The circuits could be made smaller, and the manufacturing process could be automated. This led to the idea of integrating all components on a single-crystal silicon wafer, which led to small-scale integration (SSI) in the early 1960s, and then medium-scale integration (MSI) in the late 1960s, followed by VLSI. In 2008, billion-transistor processors became commercially available.[24]","title":"History and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Analog electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_electronics"},{"link_name":"Audio electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_electronics"},{"link_name":"Bioelectronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioelectronics"},{"link_name":"Circuit design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_design"},{"link_name":"Digital electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_electronics"},{"link_name":"Electronic components","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_component"},{"link_name":"Embedded systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system"},{"link_name":"Integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"Microelectronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microelectronics"},{"link_name":"Nanoelectronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoelectronics"},{"link_name":"Power electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_electronics"},{"link_name":"Printed circuit boards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"},{"link_name":"Semiconductor devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_device"},{"link_name":"Sensors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor"},{"link_name":"Telecommunications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication"}],"text":"Analog electronics\nAudio electronics\nBioelectronics\nCircuit design\nDigital electronics\nElectronic components\nEmbedded systems\nIntegrated circuits\nMicroelectronics\nNanoelectronics\nPower electronics\nPrinted circuit boards\nSemiconductor devices\nSensors\nTelecommunications","title":"Subfields"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Componentes.JPG"},{"link_name":"electronic system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_system"},{"link_name":"printed circuit board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"},{"link_name":"integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"capacitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor"},{"link_name":"inductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor"},{"link_name":"resistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor"},{"link_name":"transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"thyristors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristor"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"Various electronic componentsAn electronic component is any component in an electronic system either active or passive. Components are connected together, usually by being soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a particular function. Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits. Passive electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, whilst active components are such as semiconductor devices; transistors and thyristors, which control current flow at electron level.[25]","title":"Devices and components"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Electronic circuit functions can be divided into two function groups: analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has either or a mix of the two types. Analog circuits are becoming less common, as many of their functions are being digitized.","title":"Types of circuits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"analog electronic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_electronics"},{"link_name":"radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio"},{"link_name":"Analog circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_circuits"},{"link_name":"linear circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_circuit"},{"link_name":"microprocessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"},{"link_name":"switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch"}],"sub_title":"Analog circuits","text":"Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits.The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a 'circuit' can be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of components.Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators.One rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog – these days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance. This type of circuit is usually called \"mixed signal\" rather than analog or digital.Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled switch having essentially two levels of output. In fact, many digital circuits are actually implemented as variations of analog circuits similar to this example – after all, all aspects of the real physical world are essentially analog, so digital effects are only realized by constraining analog behaviour.","title":"Types of circuits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boolean algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_logic"},{"link_name":"binary system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_system"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Ternary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_computer"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AoCP2-27"},{"link_name":"Computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer"},{"link_name":"clocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz_clock"},{"link_name":"programmable logic controllers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller"},{"link_name":"digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_data"},{"link_name":"Digital signal processors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processor"},{"link_name":"Transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"MOSFET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET"},{"link_name":"Logic gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gate"},{"link_name":"Adders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adder_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"Flip-flops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip-flop_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"Counters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter_(digital)"},{"link_name":"Registers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor_register"},{"link_name":"Multiplexers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexer"},{"link_name":"Schmitt triggers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmitt_trigger"},{"link_name":"Memory chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_chip"},{"link_name":"Microprocessors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"},{"link_name":"Microcontrollers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontroller"},{"link_name":"Application-specific integrated circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"Digital signal processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processor"},{"link_name":"Field-programmable gate array","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-programmable_gate_array"},{"link_name":"Field-programmable analog array","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-programmable_analog_array"},{"link_name":"System on chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_on_a_chip"}],"sub_title":"Digital circuits","text":"Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms \"digital circuit\", \"digital system\" and \"logic\" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits.\nMost digital circuits use a binary system with two voltage levels labelled \"0\" and \"1\". Often logic \"0\" will be a lower voltage and referred to as \"Low\" while logic \"1\" is referred to as \"High\". However, some systems use the reverse definition (\"0\" is \"High\") or are current based. Quite often the logic designer may reverse these definitions from one circuit to the next as they see fit to facilitate their design. The definition of the levels as \"0\" or \"1\" is arbitrary.[26]Ternary (with three states) logic has been studied, and some prototype computers made. Mass-produced binary systems have caused lower significance for using ternary logic.[27] Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control industrial processes) are constructed of digital circuits. Digital signal processors, which measure, filter or compress continuous real-world analog signals, are another example. Transistors such as MOSFET are used to control binary states.Logic gates\nAdders\nFlip-flops\nCounters\nRegisters\nMultiplexers\nSchmitt triggersHighly integrated devices:Memory chip\nMicroprocessors\nMicrocontrollers\nApplication-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)\nDigital signal processor (DSP)\nField-programmable gate array (FPGA)\nField-programmable analog array (FPAA)\nSystem on chip (SOC)","title":"Types of circuits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mobile phones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone"},{"link_name":"computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer"},{"link_name":"new product development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_product_development"},{"link_name":"disposal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recycling"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lienig-28"},{"link_name":"requirements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requirement_analysis"},{"link_name":"electronics lab simulation software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_circuit_simulation"},{"link_name":"CircuitLogix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CircuitLogix"},{"link_name":"Multisim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multisim"},{"link_name":"PSpice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSpice"}],"text":"Electronic systems design deals with the multi-disciplinary design issues of complex electronic devices and systems, such as mobile phones and computers. The subject covers a broad spectrum, from the design and development of an electronic system (new product development) to assuring its proper function, service life and disposal.[28] Electronic systems design is therefore the process of defining and developing complex electronic devices to satisfy specified requirements of the user.Due to the complex nature of electronics theory, laboratory experimentation is an important part of the development of electronic devices. These experiments are used to test or verify the engineer's design and detect errors. Historically, electronics labs have consisted of electronics devices and equipment located in a physical space, although in more recent years the trend has been towards electronics lab simulation software, such as CircuitLogix, Multisim, and PSpice.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_design"},{"link_name":"circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_circuit"},{"link_name":"power supplies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supply"},{"link_name":"semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"Electronic design automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_design_automation"},{"link_name":"schematic capture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schematic_capture"},{"link_name":"printed circuit board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"},{"link_name":"Cadence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadence_Design_Systems"},{"link_name":"ORCAD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ORCAD"},{"link_name":"EAGLE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EAGLE_(program)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Mentor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentor_Graphics"},{"link_name":"Altium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altium"},{"link_name":"gEDA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEDA"},{"link_name":"KiCad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KiCad"}],"sub_title":"Computer-aided design","text":"Today's electronics engineers have the ability to design circuits using premanufactured building blocks such as power supplies, semiconductors (i.e. semiconductor devices, such as transistors), and integrated circuits. Electronic design automation software programs include schematic capture programs and printed circuit board design programs. Popular names in the EDA software world are NI Multisim, Cadence (ORCAD), EAGLE PCB[29] and Schematic, Mentor (PADS PCB and LOGIC Schematic), Altium (Protel), LabCentre Electronics (Proteus), gEDA, KiCad and many others.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Negative qualities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Heat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat"},{"link_name":"Heat dissipation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_dissipation"},{"link_name":"heat sinks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_sink"},{"link_name":"fans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_fan"},{"link_name":"computer cooling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_cooling"},{"link_name":"water cooling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_cooling"},{"link_name":"convection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convection"},{"link_name":"conduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_conduction"},{"link_name":"radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation"},{"link_name":"heat energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat"}],"sub_title":"Thermal management","text":"Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure and improve long term reliability. Heat dissipation is mostly achieved by passive conduction/convection. Means to achieve greater dissipation include heat sinks and fans for air cooling, and other forms of computer cooling such as water cooling. These techniques use convection, conduction, and radiation of heat energy.","title":"Negative qualities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"operating temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_temperature"},{"link_name":"shot noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shot_noise"}],"sub_title":"Noise","text":"Electronic noise is defined[30] as unwanted disturbances superposed on a useful signal that tend to obscure its information content. Noise is not the same as signal distortion caused by a circuit. Noise is associated with all electronic circuits. Noise may be electromagnetically or thermally generated, which can be decreased by lowering the operating temperature of the circuit. Other types of noise, such as shot noise cannot be removed as they are due to limitations in physical properties.","title":"Negative qualities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"point to point wiring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point_construction"},{"link_name":"Cordwood construction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board#%22Cordwood%22_construction"},{"link_name":"wire wrap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire_wrap"},{"link_name":"FR4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FR-4"},{"link_name":"SRBP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRBP"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MOS6581_chtaube061229.jpg"},{"link_name":"home computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computer"},{"link_name":"Through-hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Through-hole_technology"},{"link_name":"Surface mount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-mount_technology"},{"link_name":"Chassis mount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chassis_mount&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Rack mount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rack-mounted"},{"link_name":"LGA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_grid_array"},{"link_name":"BGA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_grid_array"},{"link_name":"PGA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_grid_array"}],"text":"Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years. For instance, early electronics often used point to point wiring with components attached to wooden breadboards to construct circuits. Cordwood construction and wire wrap were other methods used. Most modern day electronics now use printed circuit boards made of materials such as FR4, or the cheaper (and less hard-wearing) Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper (SRBP, also known as Paxoline/Paxolin (trade marks) and FR2) – characterised by its brown colour. Health and environmental concerns associated with electronics assembly have gained increased attention in recent years, especially for products destined to go to European markets.Through-hole devices mounted on the circuit board of a mid-1980s home computer. Axial-lead devices are at upper left, while blue radial-lead capacitors are at upper right.Electrical components are generally mounted in the following ways:Through-hole (sometimes referred to as 'Pin-Through-Hole')\nSurface mount\nChassis mount[clarification needed]\nRack mount\nLGA/BGA/PGA socket","title":"Packaging methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Consumer electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_electronics"},{"link_name":"List of best-selling electronic devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_best-selling_electronic_devices"},{"link_name":"Semiconductor industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_industry"},{"link_name":"electronics industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics_industry"},{"link_name":"semiconductor industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_industry"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-deloitte-32"},{"link_name":"e-commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-commerce"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-unctad-33"},{"link_name":"most widely manufactured electronic device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_best-selling_electronic_devices"},{"link_name":"metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET"},{"link_name":"sextillion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextillion"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-computerhistory2018-34"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Hitachi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitachi"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"microchip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microchip"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org-37"},{"link_name":"Intel Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_Semiconductor_Manufacturing_Company"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com-36"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org-37"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com-36"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org-37"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com-36"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com-36"}],"text":"Further information: Consumer electronics, List of best-selling electronic devices, and Semiconductor industryThe electronics industry consists of various sectors. The central driving force behind the entire electronics industry is the semiconductor industry sector,[31] which has annual sales of over $481 billion as of 2018.[32] The largest industry sector is e-commerce, which generated over $29 trillion in 2017.[33] The most widely manufactured electronic device is the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), with an estimated 13 sextillion MOSFETs having been manufactured between 1960 and 2018.[34] In the 1960s, U.S. manufacturers were unable to compete with Japanese companies such as Sony and Hitachi who could produce high-quality goods at lower prices. By the 1980s, however, U.S. manufacturers became the world leaders in semiconductor development and assembly.[35]However, during the 1990s and subsequently, the industry shifted overwhelmingly to East Asia (a process begun with the initial movement of microchip mass-production there in the 1970s), as plentiful, cheap labor, and increasing technological sophistication, became widely available there.[36][37]Over three decades, the United States' global share of semiconductor manufacturing capacity fell, from 37% in 1990, to 12% in 2022.[37] America's pre-eminent semiconductor manufacturer, Intel Corporation, fell far behind its subcontractor Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC) in manufacturing technology.[36]By that time, Taiwan had become the world's leading source of advanced semiconductors[37][36]—followed by South Korea, the United States, Japan, Singapore, and China.[37][36]Important semiconductor industry facilities (which often are subsidiaries of a leading producer based elsewhere) also exist in Europe (notably the Netherlands), Southeast Asia, South America, and Israel.[36]","title":"Industry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Horowitz, Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Horowitz"},{"link_name":"Hill, Winfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winfield_Hill"},{"link_name":"The Art of Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Electronics"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0521370950","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521370950"}],"text":"Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1980). The Art of Electronics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521370950.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Modern surface-mount electronic components on a printed circuit board, with a large integrated circuit at the top","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg/260px-Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg"},{"image_text":"One of the earliest Audion radio receivers, constructed by De Forest in 1914","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Audion_receiver.jpg/220px-Audion_receiver.jpg"},{"image_text":"Various electronic components","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Componentes.JPG/220px-Componentes.JPG"},{"image_text":"Through-hole devices mounted on the circuit board of a mid-1980s home computer. Axial-lead devices are at upper left, while blue radial-lead capacitors are at upper right.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/MOS6581_chtaube061229.jpg/220px-MOS6581_chtaube061229.jpg"}]
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[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png"},{"title":"Electronics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Electronics"},{"title":"Index of electronics articles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_electronics_articles"},{"title":"Outline of electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_electronics"},{"title":"Atomtronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomtronics"},{"title":"Audio engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_engineering"},{"title":"Avionics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avionics"},{"title":"Biodegradable electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradable_electronics"},{"title":"Broadcast engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_engineering"},{"title":"Computer engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering"},{"title":"Electronics engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics_engineering"},{"title":"Electronics engineering technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics_engineering_technology"},{"title":"Fuzzy electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzzy_electronics"},{"title":"Marine electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_electronics"},{"title":"Photonics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonics"},{"title":"Robotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics"}]
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[{"reference":"française, Académie. \"électronique | Dictionnaire de l'Académie française | 9e édition\". www.dictionnaire-academie.fr (in French). Retrieved 26 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dictionnaire-academie.fr/article/A9E0727","url_text":"\"électronique | Dictionnaire de l'Académie française | 9e édition\""}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of ELECTRONICS\". www.merriam-webster.com. 21 May 2024. Retrieved 26 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/electronics","url_text":"\"Definition of ELECTRONICS\""}]},{"reference":"\"Electronic | British musical group | Britannica\". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 26 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Electronic","url_text":"\"Electronic | British musical group | Britannica\""}]},{"reference":"\"October 1897: The Discovery of the Electron\". Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 19 September 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200010/history.cfm","url_text":"\"October 1897: The Discovery of the Electron\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180919171705/https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200010/history.cfm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Guarnieri, M. (2012). \"The age of vacuum tubes: Early devices and the rise of radio communications\". IEEE Ind. Electron. M. 6 (1): 41–43. doi:10.1109/MIE.2012.2182822. S2CID 23351454.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMIE.2012.2182822","url_text":"10.1109/MIE.2012.2182822"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23351454","url_text":"23351454"}]},{"reference":"\"1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor\". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on 30 September 2021. Retrieved 10 August 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/invention-of-the-point-contact-transistor/","url_text":"\"1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_History_Museum","url_text":"Computer History Museum"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210930151529/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/invention-of-the-point-contact-transistor/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sōgo Okamura (1994). History of Electron Tubes. IOS Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-9051991451. Archived from the original on 31 December 2013. Retrieved 5 December 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VHFyngmO95YC&pg=PR4","url_text":"History of Electron Tubes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9051991451","url_text":"978-9051991451"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131231220508/http://books.google.com/books?id=VHFyngmO95YC&pg=PR4","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bashe, Charles J.; et al. (1986). IBM's Early Computers. MIT. p. 386. ISBN 978-0262022255.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ibmsearlycompute00bash","url_text":"IBM's Early Computers"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ibmsearlycompute00bash/page/386","url_text":"386"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262022255","url_text":"978-0262022255"}]},{"reference":"Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R.; Palmer, John H. (1991). IBM's 360 and early 370 systems. MIT Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0262161237.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ibms360early370s0000pugh","url_text":"IBM's 360 and early 370 systems"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ibms360early370s0000pugh/page/34","url_text":"34"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262161237","url_text":"978-0262161237"}]},{"reference":"Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons. p. 168. ISBN 978-0470508923. Archived from the original on 5 November 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2STRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168","url_text":"Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470508923","url_text":"978-0470508923"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201105001645/https://books.google.com/books?id=2STRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1960 – Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated\". The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on 27 October 2019. Retrieved 23 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/","url_text":"\"1960 – Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_History_Museum","url_text":"Computer History Museum"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191027045554/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 321–323. ISBN 978-3540342588.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media","url_text":"Springer Science & Business Media"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3540342588","url_text":"978-3540342588"}]},{"reference":"\"Who Invented the Transistor?\". Computer History Museum. 4 December 2013. Archived from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-transistor/","url_text":"\"Who Invented the Transistor?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_History_Museum","url_text":"Computer History Museum"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131213221601/https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-transistor/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Triumph of the MOS Transistor\". YouTube. Computer History Museum. 6 August 2010. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 21 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6fBEjf9WPw","url_text":"\"Triumph of the MOS Transistor\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube","url_text":"YouTube"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_History_Museum","url_text":"Computer History Museum"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/q6fBEjf9WPw","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Motoyoshi, M. (2009). \"Through-Silicon Via (TSV)\". Proceedings of the IEEE. 97 (1): 43–48. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2008.2007462. ISSN 0018-9219. S2CID 29105721.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJPROC.2008.2007462","url_text":"10.1109/JPROC.2008.2007462"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9219","url_text":"0018-9219"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29105721","url_text":"29105721"}]},{"reference":"\"Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race – CHM Revolution\". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on 10 March 2020. 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Studies of InAIAs/InGaAs and GaInP/GaAs heterostructure FET's for high speed applications. University of Michigan. p. 1. Archived from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 10 August 2019. The Si MOSFET has revolutionized the electronics industry and as a result impacts our daily lives in almost every conceivable way.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=sV4eAQAAMAAJ","url_text":"Studies of InAIAs/InGaAs and GaInP/GaAs heterostructure FET's for high speed applications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Michigan","url_text":"University of Michigan"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191220105009/https://books.google.com/books?id=sV4eAQAAMAAJ","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Grant, Duncan Andrew; Gowar, John (1989). Power MOSFETS: theory and applications. Wiley. p. 1. ISBN 978-0471828679. Archived from the original on 30 July 2020. Retrieved 10 August 2019. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_organ
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Electric organ
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["1 History","1.1 Predecessors","1.2 Early electric organs (1897–1930s)","1.3 Tonewheel organs (1930s–1975)","1.4 Electrostatic reed organs (1934–1964)","1.5 Electronic organs (1930s–)","1.6 Frequency divider organs (1930s–)","1.7 Console organs (1930s–)","1.8 Home organs (1940s–)","1.9 Spinet organs (1949–)","1.10 Chord organs (1950–)","1.11 Transistor organs (1957–)","1.12 Combo organs (1950s–)","1.13 Synthesizer organs (1970s–)","1.14 Digital organs (1971–)","1.15 Modern digital organs (1980s–)","1.16 Software organs (1990s–)","2 In churches","2.1 Pipe-electronic hybrid organs (1930s–)","2.2 Electronic church organs (1939–)","2.3 Digital church organs (1971–)","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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Electronic keyboard instrument
For the organ found in electric fish, see Electric organ (biology). For pipe organs activated by electricity, see Pipe organ § Action.
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Yamaha GX-1, an early polyphonic synthesizer organ in the 1970sWERSI Scala, an open architecture software organ platform in 2002Rodgers Trillium organ custom three-manual console on a church.right top: a sound module for extra pipe and orchestral sounds.left top: a laptop PC for sequencing the organ.
An electric organ, also known as electronic organ, is an electronic keyboard instrument which was derived from the harmonium, pipe organ and theatre organ. Originally designed to imitate their sound, or orchestral sounds, it has since developed into several types of instruments:
Hammond-style organs used in pop, rock and jazz;
digital church organs, which imitate pipe organs and are used primarily in churches;
other types including combo organs, home organs, and software organs.
History
Predecessors
Harmonium
The immediate predecessor of the electronic organ was the harmonium, or reed organ, an instrument that was common in homes and small churches in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In a fashion not totally unlike that of pipe organs, reed organs generate sound by forcing air over a set of reeds by means of a bellows, usually operated by constantly pumping a set of pedals. The Harmonium used pressure, and the American reed organ or pump organ used suction. While reed organs have limited tonal quality, they are small, inexpensive, self-powered, transportable and self-contained. (Large models were made with multiple manuals, or even pedal boards; in the latter case, the bellows were operated by a leaver or crank on the side by an assistant, or in some late models an electric pump.) The reed organ is thus able to bring an organ sound to venues that are incapable of housing or affording pipe organs. This concept played an important role in the development of the electric organ.
Pipe organ
In the 1930s, several manufacturers developed electronic organs designed to imitate the function and sound of pipe organs. At the time, some manufacturers thought that emulation of the pipe organ was the most promising route to take in the development of an electronic organ. Not all agreed, however. Various types of electronic organs have been brought to market over the years, with some establishing solid reputations in their own niche markets.
Early electric organs (1897–1930s)
TelharmoniumTelharmonium console by Thaddeus Cahill, 1897.Tonewheels
The use of electricity in organs emerged in the first decades of the 20th century, but it was slow to have a major impact. Electrically powered reed organs appeared during the first decades of electricity, but their tonal qualities remained much the same as the older, foot-pumped models.
Thaddeus Cahill's gargantuan and controversial instrument, the Telharmonium, which began piping music to New York City establishments over the telephone system in 1897, predated the advent of electronics, yet was the first instrument to demonstrate the use of the combination of many different pure electrical waveforms to synthesize real-world instrument sounds. Cahill's techniques were later used by Laurens Hammond in his organ design, and the 200-ton Telharmonium served as the world's first demonstration of electrically produced music on a grand scale.
Meanwhile, some further experimentation with producing sound by electric impulses was taking place, especially in France.
Tonewheel organs (1930s–1975)
Robb Wave OrganConsoleTonewheels
Welte Lichtton OrgelConsoleOptical-tonewheels
See also: Tonewheel and Hammond organ
After the failure of the Telharmonium business, similar designs called tonewheel organs were continuously developed; For example:
Robb Wave Organ by Morse Robb (Canada) — developed since c.1923, marketed 1936–1941
Rangertone by Richard Ranger (United States) — marketed c.1932
Hammond organ by Laurens Hammond and John M. Hanert (United States) — invented in 1934, marketed 1935–1975 (as the tonewheel organs)
Lichtton Orgel by Edwin Welte, et al. (Germany) — optical-tonewheel sampling organ, marketed 1935–1940s
One of the earlier electric tonewheel organs was conceived and manufactured by Morse Robb, of the Robb Wave Organ Company. Built in Belleville, Ontario, the Robb Wave Organ predates its much more successful competitor Hammond by patent and manufacture, but shut down its operations in 1938 due to lack of funding.
A typical tonewheel organ, Hammond B3.
Hammond organTonewheel (right) rotates beneath electro-magnetic pickup (left)Hammond drawbars
The first widespread success in this field was a product of the Hammond Clock Company in 1934. The Hammond organ quickly became the successor of the reed organ, displacing it almost completely.
From the start, tonewheel organs operated on a radically different principle from all previous organs. In place of reeds and pipes, Robb and Hammond introduced a set of rapidly spinning magnetic wheels, called tonewheels, which excite transducers that generate electrical signals of various frequencies that are mixed and fed through an amplifier to a loudspeaker. The organ is electrically powered, replacing the reed organ's twin bellows pedals with a single swell (or "expression") pedal more like that of a pipe organ. Instead of having to pump at a constant rate, as had been the case with the reed organ, the organist simply varies the position of this pedal to change the volume as desired. Unlike reed organs, this gives great control over the music's dynamic range, while at the same time freeing one or both of the player's feet to play on a pedalboard, which, unlike most reed organs, electronic organs incorporate. From the beginning, the electronic organ has had a second manual, also rare among reed organs. While these features mean that the electric organ requires greater musical skills of the organist than the reed organ has, the second manual and the pedalboard along with the expression pedal greatly enhanced playing, far-surpassing the capabilities of the typical reed organ.
The most revolutionary difference in the Hammond, however, is its huge number of tonewheel settings, achieved by manipulating a system of drawbars located near the manuals. By using the drawbars, the organist can combine a variety of electrical tones and harmonics in varying proportions, thus giving the Hammond vast registration. In all, the Hammond is capable of producing more than 250 million tones. This feature, combined with the three-keyboard layout (i.e., manuals and pedalboard), the freedom of electrical power, and a wide, easily controllable range of volume, made the first electronic organs more flexible than any reed organ, or indeed any previous musical instrument except, perhaps, the pipe organ itself.
The classic Hammond sound benefits from the use of free-standing loudspeakers called tone cabinets. The sound is often further enhanced by rotating speaker units, usually manufactured by Leslie.
The Hammond Organ was widely adopted in popular genres such as jazz, gospel, pop music, and rock music. It was utilized by bands such as Emerson, Lake, and Palmer, Booker T. & the M.G.'s, and Deep Purple, among others. Occasionally the legs would be cut off these instruments to make them easier to transport from show to show. The most popular and emulated organ in the Hammond line is the B3. Although portable "clonewheel organs" started to synthesize and displace the original Hammond tonewheel design in the 1970s, it is still very much in demand by professional organists. The industry continues to see a lively trade in refurbished Hammond instruments, even as technological advances allow new organs to perform at levels unimaginable only two or three decades ago.
Electrostatic reed organs (1934–1964)
In the wake of Hammond's 1934 invention of the tonewheel organ, competitors explored other possibilities of electric/electronic organ design. Other than the variations of tonewheel organ design, for example, a purely electronic interpretation of the pipe organ (based on "additive synthesis" design) seemed a promising approach. However, it requires a huge number of oscillators, and these circuit scales and complexities were considered a technical bottleneck, as vacuum tube circuits of those days are bulky and unstable. Benjamin Miessner realized that a hybrid approach, using acoustic tone generators along with electronic circuits, could be a reasonable design for commercial products.
left: Wurlitzer Model 44 Electrostatic Organ (1953–1964)right: Hohner Hohnerola (1955), highly expanded by Siemens Studio for Electronic Music.
The Orgatron was developed in 1934 by Frederick Albert Hoschke, after a Miessner patent. A fan blows air over a set of free reeds, causing them to vibrate. These vibrations are detected by a number of capacitive pickups, then the resulting electric signals are processed and amplified to create musical tones. Orgatron was manufactured by Everett Piano Company from 1935 to 1941. Following World War II and a business transfer, production resumed in 1945 by the Rudolph Wurlitzer Company and continued into the early 1960s, including some models retaining the Everett name from 1945 to 1947.
In 1955, the German company Hohner also released two electrostatic reed organs: the Hohnerola and the Minetta, invented by Ernst Zacharias.
Yamaha Magna Organ & Tone Cabinet (1935)
In the same decades, similar electro-acoustic instruments — i.e. electric-fan driven free reed organs with additional electronic circuits — were developed also in Japan. Magna Organ invented in 1934 by a Yamaha engineer, Sei-ichi Yamashita, was a multi-timbral keyboard instrument similar to the Hoschke's instrument developed in the same year, although it utilized the microphones in the soundproof box instead of the electrostatic pickups. Initially the Magna Organ was designed as a kind of the additive-synthesizer that summing-up the partials generated by the frequency-multipliers. However, it seems difficult to achieve polyphony without intermodulation distortions with the technology of the 1930s. According to the additional patents and the reviews at that time, its later implemented design, seems to had shifted to a sound-colorization system using the (various) combinations of reed sets, microphones and loudspeakers.
This type of instrument was later re-commercialized: In 1959, Japanese organ builder, Ichirō Kuroda, built his first Croda Organ with each pair of constantly oscillating free reed and a microphone in the soundproof box, and installed at Nishi-Chiba Church in Chiba Prefecture.
Electronic organs (1930s–)
Hammond Novachord (1939)
On the other hand, the Hammond Novachord (1939) and other competitors selected the subtractive synthesis design using various combinations of oscillators, filters, and possibly frequency dividers, to reduce the huge number of oscillators, which was the bottleneck of the additive synthesis design. The heat generated by early models with vacuum tube tone generators and amplifiers led to the somewhat derogatory nickname "toaster". Today's solid-state instruments do not suffer from the problem, nor do they require the several minutes that vacuum tube organs need to bring the filament heaters up to temperature.
Baldwin Electronic Organ, designed by Winston E. Kock.
Electronic organs were once popular home instruments, comparable in price to pianos and frequently sold in department stores. After their début in the 1930s, they captured the public imagination through the recordings of musicians such as Milt Herth (the first performer to record the Hammond Electric Organ) as well as recordings and film performances of Ethel Smith. Nevertheless, they were promoted primarily as church / institutional instruments during the Great Depression and through World War II. After the war, they became more widespread; for example, the Baldwin Piano Company introduced its first in 1946 (with 37 vacuum tubes). Following the adaptation of solid-state electronics to organs in the late 1950s, the market for electronic organs began a fundamental change. Portable electronic keyboards became a regular feature of rock-and-roll music during the 1960s. They are also more convenient to move and store than are the large one-piece organs that had previously defined the market. By the late 1960s, the home organ market was dying while the portable keyboard market was thriving.
Frequency divider organs (1930s–)
Generalized schematic of frequency divider organs with transformer-dividers (in French)
Early electronic organ products released in the 1930s and 1940s were already implemented on frequency divider technology using vacuum tubes or transformer-dividers.
With the development of the transistor, electronic organs that use no mechanical parts to generate the waveforms became practical. The first of these was the frequency divider organ, the first of which uses twelve oscillators to produce one octave of chromatic scale, and frequency dividers to produce other notes. These were even cheaper and more portable than the Hammond. Later developments made it possible to run an organ from a single radio frequency oscillator. Frequency divider organs were built by many companies, and were offered in kit form to be built by hobbyists. A few of these have seen notable use, such as the Lowrey played by Garth Hudson. The design of the Lowrey's electronics made it easy to include a pitch-bend feature that is unavailable for the Hammond, and Hudson built a musical style around its use.
Console organs (1930s–)
A typical modern console organ (Johannus Sweelinck 35)
Console organs, large and expensive electronic organ models, resemble pipe organ consoles. These instruments have a more traditional configuration, including full-range manuals, a wider variety of stops, and a two-octave (or occasionally even a full 32-note) pedalboard easily playable by both feet in standard toe-and-heel fashion. (Console organs having 32-note pedalboards are sometimes known as "concert organs".) Console models, like spinet and chord organs, have internal speakers mounted above the pedals. With their more traditional configuration, greater capabilities, and better performance compared to spinets, console organs are especially suitable for use in small churches, public performance, and even organ instruction. The home musician or student who first learned to play on a console model often found that he or she could later make the transition to a pipe organ in a church setting with relative ease. College music departments made console organs available as practice instruments for students, and church musicians would not uncommonly have them at home.
Home organs (1940s–)
See also: Electronic keyboard, Chord organ, and Drum machine
A full-featured home organ in 1981 (Farfisa Pergamon)A Lowrey organ (high-end model)
During the period from the 1940s through approximately the 1970s, a variety of more modest self-contained electronic home organs from a variety of manufacturers were popular forms of home entertainment. These instruments were much influenced by theatre organs' sounds and playing style, and often the stops contained imitative voicings such as "trumpet" and "marimba". In the 1950s–1970s, as technology progressed, they increasingly included automated features such as:
Repeat percussion (Thomas Organ)
Sustain (Gulbransen)
Glide (Lowrey organ in 1956) — a foot-operated switch temporarily lowers the pitch by about a semitone, to simulate a slide on Hawaiian guitar or trombone.
Chimes stop / Piano stop (Gulbransen)
Vocal chorus (Farfisa Pergamon in 1981)
Electronic rhythm (Wurlitzer Sideman in 1959, Seeburg & Gulbransen in 1964)
One-touch chords (Hammond S-6 Chord Organ in 1950)
Automatic Orchestra Control (Lowrey organ in 1963) — turns a single note (on upper manual) into a full chord (designated on lower manual).
Autochord (Hammond Piper in 1970, Lowrey Magic Genie in c.1975)
Automatic walking bass (Gulbransen)
Arpeggiator (Hammond organ, etc.)
Built-in Leslie speaker / Rotary speaker (Gulbransen, Lowrey Holiday Deluxe LSL in 1961, etc.)
and even built-in tape recorders. These features made it easier to play complete, layered "one-man band" arrangements, especially for people who had not trained as organists. The Lowrey line of home organs is the epitome of this type of instrument.
While a few such instruments are still sold today, their popularity has waned greatly, and many of their functions have been incorporated into more modern and inexpensive portable keyboards.
Typical features on Home organs
an earliest external Rhythm machine, Wurlitzer Sideman (1957, inside)
built-in Rhythm selector
Automatic accompani-ment (bass & chord) on Lowrey Magic Genie
Arpeggiator buttons (in red, bottom-right) on Hammond Colonnade
built-in Leslie & Chorus controller
built-in Rotary speaker on Wurlitzer 4100BW
built-in Tape recorders on Wurlitzer 4022D
Spinet organs (1949–)
A Typical Spinet organ (Hammond TR-200) has two short manuals arranged with offset. Spinet organ's pedalboard spanned only a single octave.Yamaha's first Electone organ, D-1 (1959), were based on a spinet model.
Following World War II, most electronic home organs were built in a configuration usually called a spinet organ, which first appeared in 1949. These compact and relatively inexpensive instruments became the natural successors to reed organs. They were marketed as competitors of home pianos and often aimed at would-be home organists who were already pianists (hence the name "spinet", in the sense of a small upright piano). The instrument's design reflected this concept: the spinet organ physically resembled a piano, and it presented simplified controls and functions that were both less expensive to produce and less intimidating to learn. One feature of the spinet is automatic chord generation; with many models, the organist can produce an entire chord to accompany the melody merely by playing the tonic note, i.e., a single key, on a special section of the manual.
On spinet organs, the keyboards are typically at least an octave shorter than is normal for organs, with the upper manual (typically 44 notes, F3–C7 in scientific pitch notation) omitting the bass, and the lower manual (typically F2–C6) omitting the treble. The manuals are usually offset, inviting but not requiring the new organist to dedicate the right hand to the upper manual and the left to the lower, rather than using both hands on a single manual. The stops on the upper manual were often 'voiced' somewhat louder or brighter, and user guides encouraged playing the melody on the upper manual and the harmony on the lower. This seemed designed in part to encourage the pianist, who was accustomed to a single keyboard, to make use of both manuals. Stops on such instruments, relatively limited in number, are frequently named after orchestral instruments that they can, at best, only roughly approximate, and are often brightly colored (even more so than those of theatre organs). The spinet organ's loudspeakers, unlike the original Hammond models of the 1930s and 1940s, are housed within the main instrument (behind the kickboard), which saved even more space, although they produce a sound inferior to that of free-standing speakers; some models had jacks for installing external speakers, if desired.
The spinet organ's pedalboard normally spans only a single octave, is often incapable of playing more than one note at a time, and is effectively playable only with the left foot (and on some models only with the left toes). These limitations, combined with the shortened manuals, make the spinet organ all but useless for performing or practicing classical organ music; but at the same time, it allows the novice home organist to explore the challenge and flexibility of simultaneously playing three keyboards (two hands and one foot). User guides suggest playing the root note of the chord on the pedal. The expression pedal is located to the right and either partly or fully recessed within the kickboard, thus conveniently reachable only with the right foot. This arrangement spawned a style of casual organist who would naturally rest the right foot on the expression pedal the entire time, unlike classically trained organists or performers on the earlier Hammonds. This position, in turn, instinctively encouraged pumping of the expression pedal while playing, especially if already accustomed to using a piano's sustain pedal to shape the music. Expressive pumping added a strong dynamic element to home organ music that much classical literature and hymnody lacked, and would help influence a new generation of popular keyboard artists.
Chord organs (1950–)
The first chord organ (1950 Hammond S-6). Array of buttons on left side are used to play chords.
Main article: Chord organ
Shortly after the debut of the spinet, the chord organ appeared. This is an even simpler instrument designed for those who wanted to produce an organ sound in the home without having to learn much organ (or even piano) playing technique. The typical chord organ has only a single manual that is usually an octave shorter than its already-abbreviated spinet counterpart. It also possesses scaled-down registration and no pedalboard. The left hand operates not a keyboard but an array of chord buttons adapted from those of an accordion.
The original Hammond Chord Organs in 1950 are electronic instruments using vacuum-tube technology. In 1958 Magnus Organ Corporation introduced chord organs similar to an electrically blown reed organ or harmonium.
Transistor organs (1957–)
See also: Transistor, Gulbransen, and Rodgers Instruments
Early transistor organ (Gulbransen)
Electronic organs before the mid-1950s had used vacuum tubes which tended to be bulky and unstable. This restricted attempts to extend features and spread their use into homes. Transistors, invented at Bell Labs in 1947, went into practical production in the 1950s, and their small size and stability led to major changes in the production of electronics equipment, in what has been termed the "transistor revolution".
In 1957, a home organ manufacturer, Gulbransen, introduced the world's first transistor organ, Model B (Model 1100). Although it uses transistors for tone generation, vacuum tubes are still used for amplification.
And in 1958, Rodgers built the first fully solid-state transistorized organ for church, called Opus 1 (Model 38). Other manufacturers followed.
Combo organs (1950s–)
A combo organ (Vox Continental) using transistors. It's light, compact and portable.
Main article: Combo organ
See also: Harald Bode § Tuttivox, and Clonewheel organ
By the 1960s, electronic organs were ubiquitous in all genres of popular music, from Lawrence Welk to acid rock (e.g. the Doors, Iron Butterfly) to the Bob Dylan album Blonde on Blonde. In some cases, Hammonds were used, while others featured very small all-electronic instruments, only slightly larger than a modern digital keyboard, called combo organs. (Various portable organs made by Farfisa and Vox were especially popular, and remain so among retro-minded rock combos.) The 1970s, 1980s and 1990s saw increasing specialization: both the gospel and jazz scenes continued to make heavy use of Hammonds, while various styles of rock began to take advantage of increasingly complex electronic keyboard instruments, as large-scale integration and then digital technology began to enter the mainstream.
Synthesizer organs (1970s–)
See also: Synthesizer
An Eminent 310 organ was prominently featured on Jean Michel Jarre's albums Oxygène (1977) and Équinoxe (1978). The Solina String Ensemble was used extensively by pop, rock, jazz, and disco artists, including Herbie Hancock, Elton John, Pink Floyd, Stevie Wonder, The Carpenters, George Clinton, Eumir Deodato, The Rolling Stones, The Buggles, Rick James, George Harrison, and The Bee Gees.
Various synthesizer organs
Eminent 310U (1972) with String Ensemble section
Eminent Solina C112s (c. 1974) with built-in ARP Explorer I synthesizer
CMI Cordovox CDX-0652 (c.1974) with built-in Moog Satellite synthesizer
Yamaha GX-1 (c.1975), an earliest polyphonic synthesizer.
Don Lewis' LEO: (Live Electronic Orchestra) (1977) using an earliest polyphonic keyboard by Armand Pascetta.
Typical features on Synthesizer organs
built-in String Ensemble section on Eminent 310U
built-in Monophonic Synthesizer Orbit III (entire second row with mini-keys) on Wurlitzer 805 (1974)
Thomas 2001 (1976)
optional Polyphonic Synthesizer Band Master on Thomas 2001
built-in Vocal Chorus Synthesizer on Farfisa Pergamon (1981)
Digital organs (1971–)
See also: Digital synthesizer
Allen Digital Computer Organ
Allen introduced the world's first digital organ (and first digital musical instrument commercial product) in 1971: the Allen Digital Computer Organ. This new technology was developed for use in home organs by North American Rockwell (project leader Ralph Deutsch) and licensed to Allen, which began using it for church organs. Allen later sued Rockwell and Deutsch, and gained sole rights to the digital computer organ technology.
In 1980, Rodgers introduced the first church organs controlled by microprocessors, partially based on research at the University of Bradford. The university's "Bradford Computing Organ" has technological descendants in some European digital organs using synthesis technology today.
This style of instrument has also been popular with some classically trained concert organists preferring to avoid learning an unfamiliar pipe organ for every concert location, and wishing to perform in venues without pipe organs. Virgil Fox utilized a large Rodgers organ dubbed "Black Beauty" during his Heavy Organ tour during the early 1970s. From 1977 until his death in 1980, he used a custom Allen electronic organ. Carlo Curley toured with a substantial Allen Organ in the US and with an Allen in the UK. Organist Hector Olivera has toured with a custom Rodgers instrument named "The King," and Cameron Carpenter has recently begun touring with a custom 5-manual digital organ by Marshall & Ogletree.
Modern digital organs (1980s–)
A modern electronic organ (Yamaha Electone STAGEA ELS-01). Though it resembles a 1950s spinet organ in appearance, its digital tone generators and synthesis modules can imitate hundreds of instruments.
A modern digital combo organ using DSP technology (Nord Electro 2).
Electronic organs are still made for the home market, but they have been largely replaced by the digital keyboard or synthesizer which is smaller and cheaper than typical electronic organs or traditional pianos. Modern digital organs offer features not found in traditional pipe organs, such as orchestral and percussion sounds, a choice of historical pitch standards and temperaments, and advanced console aids.
Digital organs incorporate real-time tone generation based on sampling or synthesis technologies, and may include MIDI, and Internet connectivity for downloading music data and instructional materials to USB flash drive or media card storage. While much more complex than their predecessors, their basic appearance makes them instantly recognizable.
The best digital organs of the 2000s incorporate these technical features:
DSP technology
See also: Digital signal processing and Physical modelling synthesis
In 1990, Rodgers introduced software-based digital church organs with technology which connected multiple Digital Signal Processors (DSP) in parallel to generate pipe organ sound with stereo imaging. Sounds in other digital organs are derived from DSPs in either a sampled or synthesis type generation system. Sampled technologies use sounds recorded from various ranks of pipe organs. In synthesis systems, the wave shape is created by tone generators instead of using a sound sample. Both systems generate organ tones, sometimes in stereo in better systems, rather than simply playing recorded tones as a simple digital keyboard sampler might do. Marketed by Eminent, Wyvern, Copeman Hart, Cantor, and Van der Pole in Europe, synthesis organs may use circuitry purchased from Musicom, an English supply company. In the digital organ category, synthesis-based systems are rarely seen outside of Europe.
Sampling
Digital sampling circuitry of the Johannus model 370 organ (built in 2015), producing the equivalent of 73 ranks with 4 temperaments.Typical speaker array in a modern digital organ with high-power subwoofers.
See also: Sampler (musical instrument)
Many digital organs use high-quality samples to produce an accurate sound. Sampled systems may have samples of organ pipe sound for each individual note, or may use only one or a few samples which are then frequency-shifted to generate the equivalent of a 61-note pipe rank. Some digital organs like Walker Technical and the very costly Marshall & Ogletree organs use longer samples for additional realism, rather than having to repeat shorter samples in their generation of sound. Sampling in 2000s-era organs is typically done with 24-bit or 32-bit resolution, at a higher rate than the 44.1 kHz of CD-quality audio having 16-bit resolution.
Surround sound
On most digital organs, several audio channels are used to create a more spacious sound. Higher-quality digital organ builders use custom audio and speaker systems and may provide from 8 to 32 or more independent channels of audio, depending on the size of the organ and the budget for the instrument. With dedicated high-power subwoofers for the lowest frequencies, digital organs can approach the physical sensation of a pipe organ.
Pipe organ simulations
To better simulate pipe organs, some digital organs emulate changes of windchest pressure caused by the air pressure dropping slightly when many notes are sounding simultaneously, which changes the sound of all the pipes.
Digital organs may also incorporate simulated models of swell boxes which mimic the environmental effects on pipes, pipe chest valve release, and other pipe organ characteristics. These effects can be included in the sound of modern digital organs to create more realistic pipe organ tone.
Digital pipe sound can include sampled or modeled room acoustics. Rodgers uses binaural and crosstalk cancellation processing to create real-time acoustic models, and Allen also uses room acoustics as part of the sound generation.
Software organs (1990s–)
A software organ system (Hauptwerk virtual organ)
See also: Hauptwerk and Software synthesizer
The data processing power of PCs has made personal organs more affordable. Software applications can store digital pipe sound samples and combine them in real time in response to input from one or more MIDI controllers. These tools can be used to assemble home-built organs that can rival the sound quality of commercially built digital organs at a relatively low cost.
In churches
Pipe-electronic hybrid organs (1930s–)
Early combinations of pipe organs and electronic technology (including the electronic tone generators, at later) were developed in the 1930s. Custom electronic organ consoles occasionally replace aging pipe consoles, updating the electrical control system for the pipes as well as adding electronic voices to the organ. Even large pipe organs are often supplemented with electronic voices for the deepest bass tones that would otherwise require 16- to 32-foot pipes.
For hybrid organs that combine pipes and electronic sounds, pipes change their pitch with environmental changes, but electronic voices do not follow by default. The frequency of sound produced by an organ pipe depends on its geometry and the speed of sound in the air within it. These change slightly with temperature and humidity, so the pitch of an organ pipe will change slightly as the environment changes. The pitch of the electronic portion of a hybrid instrument must be re-tuned as needed. The simplest method is a manual control that the organist can adjust, but some recent digital models can make such adjustments automatically.
Electronic church organs (1939–)
The first full electronic church organ was built in 1939 by Jerome Markowitz, founder of the Allen Organ Company, who had worked for years to perfect the replication of pipe organ sound through the use of oscillator circuitry based on radio tubes. In 1958, Rodgers Organ Company built the first solid-state, transistorized church organ, its three-manual Opus 1.
In contrast to frequency divider circuitry with only a few independent pitch sources, quality electronic church organs have at least one oscillator per note and often additional sets to create a superior ensemble effect. For instance, Rodgers Opus 1 featured eight sets of transistorized pitch generators. Even today, digital organs use software-based digital oscillators to create large numbers of independent pitch and tone sources to better simulate the effect of a large pipe organ.
Digital church organs (1971–)
2006 Johannus 'Rembrandt,' an example of a large digital organ
Digital church organs are designed as pipe organ replacements or as digital consoles to play existing pipes. The differences in sound timbre between piped and digital instruments are debated, but modern digital organs are less expensive and more space efficient.
Digital organs are a viable alternative for churches that may have a pipe organ and can no longer afford to maintain it. Some pipe organs, on the other hand, might be playable without major rebuilding for many decades. However the high initial cost, and longer lead time to design, build, and "voice" pipe organs has limited their production.
Most new digital church organs synthesize sounds from recorded pipe samples, although some model the pipe sound by additive synthesis. Modelling the sound is done by a professional organ "voicer", who finishes the organ in its location, much like the process of regulating and voicing a pipe organ. These organs also use high-quality custom-designed audio systems. The builders of both custom and factory digital church organs include the firms of Ahlborn-Galanti, Allen, Eminent, Johannus, Makin, Rodgers, Viscount, and Wyvern.
See also
Digital piano
List of electronic organ makers
MIDI
Organ (music)
References
^ "The Robb Wave Organ". Canada Science and Technology Museum. Archived from the original on 2012-10-03. Retrieved 2012-11-14.
^
Murphy, Michael; Cotter, Max (September 2015). "Frank Morse Robb's Wave Organ - The world's first electronic organ". EContact!. 17 (3). Montréal: Canadian Electroacoustic Community (CEC).
^
"Pipeless Organ Turns Electricity Into Music". Popular Mechanics (September 1931): 374. September 1931. — article on Rangertone, an early all-electric tonewheel organ between Telharmonium and Hammond organ
^
Bush, Douglas Earl; Kassel, Richard (2006). The Organ: An Encyclopedia. Routledge Chapman & Hall. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-415-94174-7.
^
US patent 1956350, Laurens Hammond, "Electrical Musical Instrument", issued 1934-04-24
^
Corbin, Alfred (2006). The Third Element: A Brief History of Electronics. AuthorHouse. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-4678-1338-9.
^ name=BushKassel2004>
Bush, Douglas; Kassel, Richard, eds. (2004). "Electronic Organ". The Organ: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. p. 164. ISBN 978-1-135-94796-5. In most recent instruments the itmbres have been "samples" (digitally recorded) from existing pipe organs, or resynthesized from samples. (This technology was anticipated by electromechanical oscillators during the 1930s, in what can retrospectively be described as "analog sampling"; examples included the photoelectric LichttonOrgel and the electrostatic Compton Electrone, both of which featured waveforms derived from well-known pipe organs.)
^
Brown, J. J. (1967). The Inventors. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Limited. pp. 121–123.
^
"Electric Pipeless Organ Has Millions of Tones". Popular Mechanics (April 1936): 569. April 1936. — article on Hammond organ
^
Frank Pugno. "Wurlitzer Organs". VintageHammond.com.
^
Manfred Miersch. "Die "Mel"-Filterbänke des Subharchords und der Hohnerola im Vergleich" (in German). (subharchord.de). Die Hohnerola des Siemens Studios für Elektronische Musik, München (auf dem Instrument oben: ein externer Sägezahngenerator)
^ "The Everett Orgatron". The American Organist (July 2009). American Guild of Organists. Archived from the original on 2014-03-22. Retrieved 2017-08-26.
^
Richard Kassel (2006). Douglas Earl Bush; Richard Kassel (eds.). The organ: an encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-415-94174-7.
^
Miessner, Benjamin F. (1936). "Electronic Music and Instruments". Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers. 24 (11): 1427–1463. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1936.228019. S2CID 51648013.
^
Eric Larson. "Wurlitzer Electrostatic Organs".
^ Swoboda, Andreas (September 2015). "Die ersten Blassynthesizer und ihre Vorgänger". Retrieved 30 May 2017.
^ "一時代を畫する新樂器完成 濱松の靑年技師山下氏" . Hochi Shimbun (in Japanese). 1935-06-08. Archived from the original on 2012-03-12. Retrieved 2017-04-27.
^
新電氣樂器 マグナオルガンの御紹介 (in Japanese). Hamamatsu: 日本樂器製造株式會社 (Yamaha). October 1935. 特許第一〇八六六四号, 同 第一一〇〇六八号, 同 第一一一二一六号
^
Junya, FUJINO (2020-02-12). "日本楽器製造の電気楽器「マグナオルガン」の理想と現実 ─楽音合成のメカニズム─]" (PDF). Geijutsu Bunka Kenkyū (in Japanese). 24. Osaka University of Arts Graduate School: 69–89. ISSN 1342-9086. 4.1 特許第 108664 号（1934 年 3 月 15 日出願 ... 当該明細書には「特許請求の範囲」として次の三点が列記されている。/ 1. 「適当なる機械的振動体例えば発音「リード」と「マイクロフォン」とを原音の演奏室への漏洩を阻止すべく構成せる音響的絶縁密閉室内に配置」 / 2. 「『ペダル』又は鍵盤に加うる圧力に依る音量制御及び前期『リード』群の制御を全て演奏室に設置せる『コンソール』により行う」 / 3. 「『マイクロフォン』電流の増幅回路の一部に適当の周波数変換機を接続して原動電流及之と適当倍率関係に変換せる振動電流に依る楽音を前記密閉室外に於て同時に発音」See also bellow patents: JP108664C, JP110068C, and JP111216C.
^
"JP patent 108664C". (granted 1934-11-28).
^ a b
Junya, FUJINO. "マグナオルガン(1934)" . telmusica.com (in Japanese). 機構1 特許第 108664 号(1934 年 3 月 15 日出願): リードの振動をマイクロフォンにより集音し、その信号を周波数逓倍器に入力することで、5倍音と7倍音を除く、9倍音までの部分音（倍音）を生成する。 / 機構2 特許第 110068 号(1934 年 5 月 9 日出願): 逓倍回路は用いず、1. 音色が異なる複数の発音体 2. 特性が異なる複数のマイクロフォン、 3. 特性が異なる複数 のスピーカ を「所定の楽器の音響的特性に近似なる如く」(特許第 110068 号明細書) 組み合わせることで種々の音色を 生成する。
^
"JP patent 110068C". (granted 1935-03-26).
^
"JP patent 111216C". (granted 1935-06-19).
^
"クロダトーン アーカイブス" . CrodaOrgan.net (in Japanese). クロダトーンの第一号は昭和34年3月（1959年）、日本基督教団 西千葉教会に納品されました。/ 当時の写真と録音が残っています。 / 初期のクロダトーンは音源がハーモニカ、アコーディオン、リードオルガン等に使われているものと同じ原理のフリーリードで、本体内に送風機とリードが組み込まれていて常時全てのリードを振動させてその振動から電気信号を取り出していました。そして鍵盤のスイッチで必要な音をon,offする仕組みでした。/ 常に全てのリードが鳴っていますからしっかりと防音しなければならず二重の箱で覆われています。
See also: 1st CRODATONE (1959) photo, sound 1, sound 2
^ a b Home electronic organ models usually attempted to imitate the sounds of theatre organs and/or Hammonds, rather than classical organs.
Hans-Joachim Braun (6 December 2022). "Music Engineers. The Remarkable Career of Winston E. Knock, Electronic Organ Designer and NASA Chief of Electronics" (PDF). 2004 IEEE Conference on the History of Electronics. IEEE.
^
All About Electronic & Electric Musical Instruments (in Japanese). Seibundō ShinkōSha. 1966. ASIN B000JAAXH6, 電子楽器と電気楽器のすべて. — guidebook for various electronic organs manufactured or imported in 1960s Japan
^ a b c d e f
"The Gulbransen Organ". TheatreOrgans.com. VintageHammond.Com. May 2006. In July 1957, Gulbransen introduced its first electronic organ. This was the Model B (Model 1100), a spinet that was the first transistor organ in the industry. It must be clarified that in these early transistor instruments, only the tone generators were transistorized. The amplifiers still operated with vacuum tubes (Rodgers produced the first all-transistor, or solid-state organ in 1958). / Gulbransen pioneered several innovations that became standard in the industry and are listed here: · First transistor organ · First self-contained Leslie speaker system · First Chimes stop · First Piano stop · First automatic rhythm (actually Seeburg, with whom Gulbransen eventually merged) · First automatic walking bass
See also: 1957 brochures of "Gulbransen Model B organ" on the page.
^ a b c d e
Frank Pugno; Bil Curry (2005-11-03). "Lowrey Organs". Electronic Organs (theatreorgans.com/hammond/keng/kenhtml/electronicorgans.htm). VintageHammond.Com. In 1956, the Glide, a foot switch located on the left side of the expression pedal, was introduced, permitting the effects of a Hawaiian guitar "glide", the smear of a trombone, the glissando of singing strings, and the effect of a calliope. The Glide dropped the pitch of the organ about a semi-tone and cancelled the vibrato. / In 1961, Lowrey's first home organ with a built-in Leslie speaker appeared as the Holiday Deluxe Model LSL. Automatic Orchestra Control, later renamed Automatic Organ Computer, came on the scene in 1963. / In 1969, Lowrey introduced the first built-in cassette player, a feature later abandoned by all manufacturers. / – Holiday Deluxe Model LSLSee also: "Fig. 2".
^
Rickytic3 (2011-01-19). Your cheatin heart with the glide pedal.wmv (video). YouTube. — an example of play with glide pedal on Lowrey Regency Organ.
^
Organaut (2011-03-04). ORLA Grande Theatre European (Klaus Wunderlich / German Sounds) registrations Set 1 (video). YouTube. Event occurs at 3"–34". Retrieved 2018-05-25. — an example of play with ORLA Magic Chord (OMC) originated from Lowrey's Automatic Orchestral Control (AOC).
^
US patent 3,358,070, Young, Alan C., "Electronic Organ Arpeggio Effect", issued 1967-12-12, assigned to Hammond Corporation
^ "Laurens Hammond". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2014. His later inventions included ... the chord organ (1950), on which chords are produced simply by touching a panel button.
^ "'Play by Numbers' Organ Hottest Musical Merchandise". Billboard. May 11, 1959. p. 1.
^
"Highlights of Rodgers Instruments History". Rodgers Instruments Corporation. Archived from the original on 2011-12-03.
^ "Three Solina Explorer I front panels with rare ARP boards". MatrixSynth.com. 2013-12-15."Up for sale are 3 Solina (ARP) Explorer I front panels. They are part of the very rare Solina C112S organ. ...".See also images: Image 1 shows front panel with three logos: "Solina", "ARP", and "EXPLORER I ". Image 6 shows a circuit board with printed pattern logo "ARP" and texts "MADE IN U.S.A", "(c) 1975 ARP INST".
^ Vail, Mark. "LEO, the Live Electronic Orchestra-Pre-MIDI Multitimbral Synth System". VintageGear. Keyboard.
^ "The Armand Pascetta Keyboard". Keyboard. Vol. 32, no. 5. May 2006. p. 68.
^ a b
"Allen Organ Company", fundinguniverse.com
^
Peter Manning (1993). Computer and Electronic Music. Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0-19-311918-8. The first software digital instrument, MUSIC was developed by Max Mathews in 1957 at Bell Labs, although it was not a real-time system.
^ Graham Hinton (2002). "EMS: The Inside Story - The Non-Products". Archived from the original on 2013-05-21. Retrieved 2009-08-24. The first digital sampler instrument may be implemented on EMS Musys (programming language) c. 1969, or EMS DOB (Digital Oscillator Bank) c. 1972.
^ "Cameron Carpenter Performs on His Touring Instrument". The New York Times. March 10, 2014.
^ Images of Hauptwerk consoles, PCorgan.com; Hauptwerk's customer set-ups. For example, Canadian organ builder Artisan Classic Organ has a division called Classic Organ Works Archived 2010-02-10 at the Wayback Machine for supplying their parts to other builders and hobbyists. Many hobbyists build their own organs using PC software and additional hardware parts (e.g. manuals, pedalboard, touchscreen for stop control, studio quality monitors and subwoofer).
^
Hugh Davies (2006). "Electronic Organ". In Douglas Earl Bush; Richard Kassel (eds.). The Organ: An Encyclopedia. Psychology Press. p. 167. ISBN 9780415941747. Other inventions included Abbé Pujet's electroacoustic Orgue Radiosynthétique (1934, with thepipes enclosed in three chambers, each amplified by a microphone and loudspeaker);
^
"Un Orgue Radio-Synthétique". L'Illustration (in French). Paris. 1934-05-05.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Electric organs.
TheaterOrgans.com FAQ
Hammond Organ Company Heritage Archived 2021-08-16 at Wikiwix
Schober Archived 2019-09-17 at the Wayback Machine From the 1950s to the 1970s, Schober produced a popular line of build-your-own organ kits. Models ranged from spinets up through AGO consoles.
Download MP3 files of a Makin digital organ, currently at Hammerwood Park in Sussex after serving a dozen years at Londonderry Cathedral, where visitors had said it was "remarkably effective". This has now been enlarged to 5 manuals using further electronic organ units known as expanders, often used to enhance pipe organs, made by Content in the Netherlands and Ahlborn in Italy.
Electronic organ manufacturers at Curlie
vteElectronic organs
Chord organ
Clonewheel organ
Korg CX-3
Nord C Series
Roland VK-7
Roland VK-8
Combo organ
Doric Organ
Farfisa
Fender Contempo Organ
Gibson G-101
Vox Continental
Electone
Eminent 310 Unique
Guitorgan
Hammond organ
List
Organ trio
Kienle Resonator System
Lowrey organ
Organ makers
Philicorda
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Telharmonium
Tonewheel
Keyboard amplifier
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For pipe organs activated by electricity, see Pipe organ § Action.Yamaha GX-1, an early polyphonic synthesizer organ in the 1970sWERSI Scala, an open architecture software organ platform in 2002Rodgers Trillium organ custom three-manual console on a church.right top: a sound module for extra pipe and orchestral sounds.left top: a laptop PC for sequencing the organ.An electric organ, also known as electronic organ, is an electronic keyboard instrument which was derived from the harmonium, pipe organ and theatre organ. Originally designed to imitate their sound, or orchestral sounds, it has since developed into several types of instruments:Hammond-style organs used in pop, rock and jazz;\ndigital church organs, which imitate pipe organs and are used primarily in churches;\nother types including combo organs, home organs, and software organs.","title":"Electric organ"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"harmonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pump_organ"},{"link_name":"reed organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_organ"}],"sub_title":"Predecessors","text":"HarmoniumThe immediate predecessor of the electronic organ was the harmonium, or reed organ, an instrument that was common in homes and small churches in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In a fashion not totally unlike that of pipe organs, reed organs generate sound by forcing air over a set of reeds by means of a bellows, usually operated by constantly pumping a set of pedals. The Harmonium used pressure, and the American reed organ or pump organ used suction. While reed organs have limited tonal quality, they are small, inexpensive, self-powered, transportable and self-contained. (Large models were made with multiple manuals, or even pedal boards; in the latter case, the bellows were operated by a leaver or crank on the side by an assistant, or in some late models an electric pump.) The reed organ is thus able to bring an organ sound to venues that are incapable of housing or affording pipe organs. This concept played an important role in the development of the electric organ.Pipe organIn the 1930s, several manufacturers developed electronic organs designed to imitate the function and sound of pipe organs. At the time, some manufacturers thought that emulation of the pipe organ was the most promising route to take in the development of an electronic organ. Not all agreed, however. Various types of electronic organs have been brought to market over the years, with some establishing solid reputations in their own niche markets.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teleharmonium1897.jpg"},{"link_name":"Telharmonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telharmonium"},{"link_name":"Thaddeus Cahill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Cahill"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US580035A_Thaddeus_Cahill,_Telharmonium_patent_p.04.jpg"},{"link_name":"Thaddeus Cahill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Cahill"},{"link_name":"Telharmonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telharmonium"},{"link_name":"electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics"},{"link_name":"waveforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveforms"},{"link_name":"Laurens Hammond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurens_Hammond"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Early electric organs (1897–1930s)","text":"TelharmoniumTelharmonium console by Thaddeus Cahill, 1897.TonewheelsThe use of electricity in organs emerged in the first decades of the 20th century, but it was slow to have a major impact. Electrically powered reed organs appeared during the first decades of electricity, but their tonal qualities remained much the same as the older, foot-pumped models.Thaddeus Cahill's gargantuan and controversial instrument, the Telharmonium, which began piping music to New York City establishments over the telephone system in 1897, predated the advent of electronics, yet was the first instrument to demonstrate the use of the combination of many different pure electrical waveforms to synthesize real-world instrument sounds. Cahill's techniques were later used by Laurens Hammond in his organ design, and the 200-ton Telharmonium served as the world's first demonstration of electrically produced music on a grand scale.Meanwhile, some further experimentation with producing sound by electric impulses was taking place, especially in France. [citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Robb_Wave_Organ_console_(1937),_National_Music_Centre.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Robb_Wave_Organ_Tone_Wheel_Closeup,_Canada_Science_and_Technology_Museum.jpg"},{"link_name":"Welte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welte-Mignon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Welte-Lichtton-Orgel.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DisquesOptiques.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tonewheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonewheel"},{"link_name":"Hammond organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammond_organ"},{"link_name":"tonewheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonewheel"},{"link_name":"Robb Wave Organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robb_Wave_Organ"},{"link_name":"Morse Robb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_Robb"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MurphyCotter2015-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PopularMechanics1931-3"},{"link_name":"Hammond organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammond_organ"},{"link_name":"Laurens Hammond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurens_Hammond"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BushKassel2006-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USpatent1956350-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Corbin2006p151-6"},{"link_name":"Lichtton Orgel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lichtton_Orgel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichttonorgel"},{"link_name":"Welte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welte-Mignon"},{"link_name":"optical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc"},{"link_name":"sampling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(music)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Hammond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammond_organ"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brown1967-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hammond_b3_con_leslie_122.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hammond B3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammond_organ"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tonewheel-p.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hammond-drawbars-plain.svg"},{"link_name":"drawbars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drawbars"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Hammond organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammond_organ"},{"link_name":"tonewheels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonewheel"},{"link_name":"transducers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transducer"},{"link_name":"amplifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier"},{"link_name":"loudspeaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudspeaker"},{"link_name":"swell (or \"expression\") pedal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_pedal"},{"link_name":"pedalboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedal_clavier"},{"link_name":"manual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manual_(music)"},{"link_name":"drawbars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drawbar_organ"},{"link_name":"harmonics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonics"},{"link_name":"Leslie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_speaker"},{"link_name":"jazz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz"},{"link_name":"gospel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_music"},{"link_name":"pop music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_music"},{"link_name":"rock music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music"},{"link_name":"Emerson, Lake, and Palmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerson,_Lake,_and_Palmer"},{"link_name":"Booker T. & the M.G.'s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._%26_the_M.G.%27s"},{"link_name":"Deep Purple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Purple"},{"link_name":"clonewheel organs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clonewheel_organ"}],"sub_title":"Tonewheel organs (1930s–1975)","text":"Robb Wave OrganConsoleTonewheelsWelte Lichtton OrgelConsoleOptical-tonewheelsSee also: Tonewheel and Hammond organAfter the failure of the Telharmonium business, similar designs called tonewheel organs were continuously developed; For example:Robb Wave Organ by Morse Robb (Canada) — developed since c.1923, marketed 1936–1941[1][2]\nRangertone by Richard Ranger (United States) — marketed c.1932[3]\nHammond organ by Laurens Hammond and John M. Hanert[4] (United States) — invented in 1934,[5] marketed 1935[6]–1975 (as the tonewheel organs)\nLichtton Orgel [de] by Edwin Welte, et al. (Germany) — optical-tonewheel sampling organ, marketed 1935–1940s[7]One of the earlier electric tonewheel organs was conceived and manufactured by Morse Robb, of the Robb Wave Organ Company. Built in Belleville, Ontario, the Robb Wave Organ predates its much more successful competitor Hammond by patent and manufacture, but shut down its operations in 1938 due to lack of funding.[8]A typical tonewheel organ, Hammond B3.Hammond organTonewheel (right) rotates beneath electro-magnetic pickup (left)Hammond drawbarsThe first widespread success in this field was a product of the Hammond Clock Company in 1934.[9] The Hammond organ quickly became the successor of the reed organ, displacing it almost completely.From the start, tonewheel organs operated on a radically different principle from all previous organs. In place of reeds and pipes, Robb and Hammond introduced a set of rapidly spinning magnetic wheels, called tonewheels, which excite transducers that generate electrical signals of various frequencies that are mixed and fed through an amplifier to a loudspeaker. The organ is electrically powered, replacing the reed organ's twin bellows pedals with a single swell (or \"expression\") pedal more like that of a pipe organ. Instead of having to pump at a constant rate, as had been the case with the reed organ, the organist simply varies the position of this pedal to change the volume as desired. Unlike reed organs, this gives great control over the music's dynamic range, while at the same time freeing one or both of the player's feet to play on a pedalboard, which, unlike most reed organs, electronic organs incorporate. From the beginning, the electronic organ has had a second manual, also rare among reed organs. While these features mean that the electric organ requires greater musical skills of the organist than the reed organ has, the second manual and the pedalboard along with the expression pedal greatly enhanced playing, far-surpassing the capabilities of the typical reed organ.The most revolutionary difference in the Hammond, however, is its huge number of tonewheel settings, achieved by manipulating a system of drawbars located near the manuals. By using the drawbars, the organist can combine a variety of electrical tones and harmonics in varying proportions, thus giving the Hammond vast registration. In all, the Hammond is capable of producing more than 250 million tones. This feature, combined with the three-keyboard layout (i.e., manuals and pedalboard), the freedom of electrical power, and a wide, easily controllable range of volume, made the first electronic organs more flexible than any reed organ, or indeed any previous musical instrument except, perhaps, the pipe organ itself.The classic Hammond sound benefits from the use of free-standing loudspeakers called tone cabinets. The sound is often further enhanced by rotating speaker units, usually manufactured by Leslie.The Hammond Organ was widely adopted in popular genres such as jazz, gospel, pop music, and rock music. It was utilized by bands such as Emerson, Lake, and Palmer, Booker T. & the M.G.'s, and Deep Purple, among others. Occasionally the legs would be cut off these instruments to make them easier to transport from show to show. The most popular and emulated organ in the Hammond line is the B3. Although portable \"clonewheel organs\" started to synthesize and displace the original Hammond tonewheel design in the 1970s, it is still very much in demand by professional organists. The industry continues to see a lively trade in refurbished Hammond instruments, even as technological advances allow new organs to perform at levels unimaginable only two or three decades ago.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"additive synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_synthesis"},{"link_name":"vacuum tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Miessner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Miessner"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wurlitzer_Model_44_Electrostatic_Reed_Organ.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Munich_-_Deutsches_Museum_-_07-9584.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wurlitzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wurlitzer"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pugno-10"},{"link_name":"Hohner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hohner"},{"link_name":"Hohnerola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hohnerola&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Siemens Studio for Electronic Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens_Synthesizer"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-subharchord-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AmericanOrganist2009-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RichardKassel-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miessner1936-14"},{"link_name":"free reeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_reed"},{"link_name":"capacitive pickups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_pickup"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Everett Piano Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everett_Piano_Company"},{"link_name":"Rudolph Wurlitzer Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph_Wurlitzer_Company"},{"link_name":"Hohner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hohner"},{"link_name":"Hohnerola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hohnerola&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Minetta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minetta&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ernst Zacharias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Zacharias"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yamaha_Magna_Organ_(1935)_Console.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yamaha_Magna_Organ_(1935)_Tone_Cabinet.jpg"},{"link_name":"Yamaha Magna Organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_Magna_Organ"},{"link_name":"Magna Organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Organ"},{"link_name":"Yamaha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yomiuri1935-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-magnaorgan1935-18"},{"link_name":"microphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphone"},{"link_name":"soundproof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundproofing"},{"link_name":"additive-synthesizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_synthesis"},{"link_name":"partials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_(music)"},{"link_name":"frequency-multipliers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_multiplier"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fujino2020a-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JP108664C-20"},{"link_name":"polyphony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphony"},{"link_name":"intermodulation distortions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodulation_distortion"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fujino2020b-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JP110068C-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JP111216C-23"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fujino2020b-21"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crodaorgan-24"}],"sub_title":"Electrostatic reed organs (1934–1964)","text":"In the wake of Hammond's 1934 invention of the tonewheel organ, competitors explored other possibilities of electric/electronic organ design. Other than the variations of tonewheel organ design, for example, a purely electronic interpretation of the pipe organ (based on \"additive synthesis\" design) seemed a promising approach. However, it requires a huge number of oscillators, and these circuit scales and complexities were considered a technical bottleneck, as vacuum tube circuits of those days are bulky and unstable. Benjamin Miessner realized that a hybrid approach, using acoustic tone generators along with electronic circuits, could be a reasonable design for commercial products.left: Wurlitzer Model 44 Electrostatic Organ (1953–1964)[10]right: Hohner Hohnerola (1955), highly expanded by Siemens Studio for Electronic Music.[11]The Orgatron was developed in 1934 by Frederick Albert Hoschke, after a Miessner patent.[12][13][14] A fan blows air over a set of free reeds, causing them to vibrate. These vibrations are detected by a number of capacitive pickups, then the resulting electric signals are processed and amplified to create musical tones.[15] Orgatron was manufactured by Everett Piano Company from 1935 to 1941. Following World War II and a business transfer, production resumed in 1945 by the Rudolph Wurlitzer Company and continued into the early 1960s, including some models retaining the Everett name from 1945 to 1947.In 1955, the German company Hohner also released two electrostatic reed organs: the Hohnerola and the Minetta, invented by Ernst Zacharias.[16]Yamaha Magna Organ & Tone Cabinet (1935)In the same decades, similar electro-acoustic instruments — i.e. electric-fan driven free reed organs with additional electronic circuits — were developed also in Japan. Magna Organ invented in 1934 by a Yamaha engineer, Sei-ichi Yamashita, was a multi-timbral keyboard instrument[17][18] similar to the Hoschke's instrument developed in the same year, although it utilized the microphones in the soundproof box instead of the electrostatic pickups. Initially the Magna Organ was designed as a kind of the additive-synthesizer that summing-up the partials generated by the frequency-multipliers.[19][20] However, it seems difficult to achieve polyphony without intermodulation distortions with the technology of the 1930s.[21] According to the additional patents[22][23] and the reviews at that time, its later implemented design, seems to had shifted to a sound-colorization system using the (various) combinations of reed sets, microphones and loudspeakers.[21]This type of instrument was later re-commercialized: In 1959, Japanese organ builder, Ichirō Kuroda, built his first Croda Organ with each pair of constantly oscillating free reed and a microphone in the soundproof box, and installed at Nishi-Chiba Church in Chiba Prefecture.[24]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Novachord_frontS.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hammond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammond_organ"},{"link_name":"Novachord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novachord"},{"link_name":"Novachord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novachord"},{"link_name":"subtractive synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtractive_synthesis"},{"link_name":"oscillators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscillator"},{"link_name":"filters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_filter"},{"link_name":"frequency dividers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_divider_organ"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baldwin_Electronic_Organ_-_model_unknown_(clipped).png"},{"link_name":"Baldwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldwin_Piano_Company"},{"link_name":"Winston E. Kock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_E._Kock"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Braun1982-25"},{"link_name":"Ethel Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethel_Smith_(organist)"},{"link_name":"Great Depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Baldwin Piano Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldwin_Piano_Company"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Braun1982-25"}],"sub_title":"Electronic organs (1930s–)","text":"Hammond Novachord (1939)On the other hand, the Hammond Novachord (1939) and other competitors selected the subtractive synthesis design using various combinations of oscillators, filters, and possibly frequency dividers, to reduce the huge number of oscillators, which was the bottleneck of the additive synthesis design. The heat generated by early models with vacuum tube tone generators and amplifiers led to the somewhat derogatory nickname \"toaster\". Today's solid-state instruments do not suffer from the problem, nor do they require the several minutes that vacuum tube organs need to bring the filament heaters up to temperature.Baldwin Electronic Organ, designed by Winston E. Kock.[25]Electronic organs were once popular home instruments, comparable in price to pianos and frequently sold in department stores. After their début in the 1930s, they captured the public imagination through the recordings of musicians such as Milt Herth (the first performer to record the Hammond Electric Organ) as well as recordings and film performances of Ethel Smith. Nevertheless, they were promoted primarily as church / institutional instruments during the Great Depression and through World War II. After the war, they became more widespread; for example, the Baldwin Piano Company introduced its first in 1946 (with 37 vacuum tubes).[25] Following the adaptation of solid-state electronics to organs in the late 1950s, the market for electronic organs began a fundamental change. Portable electronic keyboards became a regular feature of rock-and-roll music during the 1960s. They are also more convenient to move and store than are the large one-piece organs that had previously defined the market. By the late 1960s, the home organ market was dying while the portable keyboard market was thriving.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SchemaOrgueElectronique.png"},{"link_name":"transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"oscillators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscillators"},{"link_name":"frequency dividers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_divider"},{"link_name":"radio frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_frequency"},{"link_name":"Lowrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowrey_organ"},{"link_name":"Garth Hudson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garth_Hudson"}],"sub_title":"Frequency divider organs (1930s–)","text":"Generalized schematic of frequency divider organs with transformer-dividers (in French)Early electronic organ products released in the 1930s and 1940s were already implemented on frequency divider technology using vacuum tubes or transformer-dividers.With the development of the transistor, electronic organs that use no mechanical parts to generate the waveforms became practical. The first of these was the frequency divider organ, the first of which uses twelve oscillators to produce one octave of chromatic scale, and frequency dividers to produce other notes. These were even cheaper and more portable than the Hammond. Later developments made it possible to run an organ from a single radio frequency oscillator. Frequency divider organs were built by many companies, and were offered in kit form to be built by hobbyists. A few of these have seen notable use, such as the Lowrey played by Garth Hudson. The design of the Lowrey's electronics made it easy to include a pitch-bend feature that is unavailable for the Hammond, and Hudson built a musical style around its use.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SWEELINCK_35.jpg"},{"link_name":"Johannus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannus_Orgelbouw"}],"sub_title":"Console organs (1930s–)","text":"A typical modern console organ (Johannus Sweelinck 35)Console organs, large and expensive electronic organ models, resemble pipe organ consoles. These instruments have a more traditional configuration, including full-range manuals, a wider variety of stops, and a two-octave (or occasionally even a full 32-note) pedalboard easily playable by both feet in standard toe-and-heel fashion. (Console organs having 32-note pedalboards are sometimes known as \"concert organs\".) Console models, like spinet and chord organs, have internal speakers mounted above the pedals. With their more traditional configuration, greater capabilities, and better performance compared to spinets, console organs are especially suitable for use in small churches, public performance, and even organ instruction. The home musician or student who first learned to play on a console model often found that he or she could later make the transition to a pipe organ in a church setting with relative ease. College music departments made console organs available as practice instruments for students, and church musicians would not uncommonly have them at home.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Electronic keyboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_keyboard"},{"link_name":"Chord organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_organ"},{"link_name":"Drum machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_machine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pergamon1984.jpg"},{"link_name":"Farfisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farfisa"},{"link_name":"Pergamon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farfisa_Pergamon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lowrey_organ.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lowrey organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowrey_organ"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1966book-26"},{"link_name":"theatre organs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_organ"},{"link_name":"Thomas Organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Organ_Company#Features"},{"link_name":"Gulbransen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulbransen"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gulbransen-27"},{"link_name":"Lowrey organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowrey_organ"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PugnoCurry2005-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PugnoCurry2005-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-video_Glide-29"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gulbransen-27"},{"link_name":"Farfisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farfisa"},{"link_name":"Pergamon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farfisa_Pergamon"},{"link_name":"Electronic rhythm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_machine"},{"link_name":"Wurlitzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wurlitzer"},{"link_name":"Sideman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_machine#History"},{"link_name":"Seeburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seeburg_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Gulbransen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulbransen"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gulbransen-27"},{"link_name":"One-touch chords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_organ"},{"link_name":"Hammond S-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hammond_organs#Vacuum_tube_musical_instruments"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PugnoCurry2005-28"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-video_AOC-30"},{"link_name":"walking bass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walking_bass"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gulbransen-27"},{"link_name":"Arpeggiator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arpeggiator"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USPAT3358070-31"},{"link_name":"Leslie speaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_speaker"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gulbransen-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PugnoCurry2005-28"},{"link_name":"tape recorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassette_deck"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PugnoCurry2005-28"},{"link_name":"one-man band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_man_band"},{"link_name":"Lowrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowrey_organ"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"portable keyboards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_keyboard"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wurlitzer_Sideman_drum_machine_(inside)_front_view.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rhythm machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_machine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rhythm_selector_on_an_electronic_organ_-_DISCO_ROCK_(2010-01-16_13.57.24_by_Kevin_Simpson).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lowrey_Magic_Genie_Organ_-_Bass,_Lower,_Magic_Genie_tongues.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hammond_Colonnade_-_manual_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hammond Colonnade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hammond_organs#Transistor_organs"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Go_Ahead_Girl,_Putcha_Diapason.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wurlitzer_Model_4100_BW_Rotating_spectra_tone_speaker.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rotary speaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_speaker"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wurlitzer_4022D_Electronic_Chord_Organ_-_cassette_recorder.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tape recorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassette_deck"}],"sub_title":"Home organs (1940s–)","text":"See also: Electronic keyboard, Chord organ, and Drum machineA full-featured home organ in 1981 (Farfisa Pergamon)A Lowrey organ (high-end model)During the period from the 1940s through approximately the 1970s, a variety of more modest self-contained electronic home organs from a variety of manufacturers were popular forms of home entertainment.[26] These instruments were much influenced by theatre organs' sounds and playing style, and often the stops contained imitative voicings such as \"trumpet\" and \"marimba\". In the 1950s–1970s, as technology progressed, they increasingly included automated features such as:Repeat percussion (Thomas Organ)\nSustain (Gulbransen[27])\nGlide (Lowrey organ in 1956)[28] — a foot-operated switch temporarily lowers the pitch by about a semitone, to simulate a slide on Hawaiian guitar or trombone.[28][29]\nChimes stop / Piano stop (Gulbransen[27])\nVocal chorus (Farfisa Pergamon in 1981)\nElectronic rhythm (Wurlitzer Sideman in 1959, Seeburg & Gulbransen in 1964[27])\nOne-touch chords (Hammond S-6 Chord Organ in 1950)\nAutomatic Orchestra Control (Lowrey organ in 1963)[28] — turns a single note (on upper manual) into a full chord (designated on lower manual).[30]\nAutochord (Hammond Piper in 1970, Lowrey Magic Genie in c.1975)\nAutomatic walking bass (Gulbransen[27])\nArpeggiator (Hammond organ,[31] etc.)\nBuilt-in Leslie speaker / Rotary speaker (Gulbransen,[27] Lowrey Holiday Deluxe LSL in 1961,[28] etc.)and even built-in tape recorders.[28] These features made it easier to play complete, layered \"one-man band\" arrangements, especially for people who had not trained as organists. The Lowrey line of home organs is the epitome of this type of instrument.While a few such instruments[citation needed] are still sold today, their popularity has waned greatly[citation needed], and many of their functions have been incorporated into more modern and inexpensive portable keyboards.Typical features on Home organs\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tan earliest external Rhythm machine, Wurlitzer Sideman (1957, inside)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tbuilt-in Rhythm selector\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAutomatic accompani-ment (bass & chord) on Lowrey Magic Genie\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tArpeggiator buttons (in red, bottom-right) on Hammond Colonnade\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tbuilt-in Leslie & Chorus controller\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tbuilt-in Rotary speaker on Wurlitzer 4100BW\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tbuilt-in Tape recorders on Wurlitzer 4022D","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hammond_TR200.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hammond TR-200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammond_organ#T_series"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:YAMAHA_Electone_D-1.jpg"},{"link_name":"reed organs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_organ"},{"link_name":"pianos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano"},{"link_name":"spinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinet"},{"link_name":"scientific pitch notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_pitch_notation"},{"link_name":"theatre organs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_organ"},{"link_name":"pedalboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedal_clavier"},{"link_name":"sustain pedal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustain_pedal"}],"sub_title":"Spinet organs (1949–)","text":"A Typical Spinet organ (Hammond TR-200) has two short manuals arranged with offset. Spinet organ's pedalboard spanned only a single octave.Yamaha's first Electone organ, D-1 (1959), were based on a spinet model.Following World War II, most electronic home organs were built in a configuration usually called a spinet organ, which first appeared in 1949. These compact and relatively inexpensive instruments became the natural successors to reed organs. They were marketed as competitors of home pianos and often aimed at would-be home organists who were already pianists (hence the name \"spinet\", in the sense of a small upright piano). The instrument's design reflected this concept: the spinet organ physically resembled a piano, and it presented simplified controls and functions that were both less expensive to produce and less intimidating to learn. One feature of the spinet is automatic chord generation; with many models, the organist can produce an entire chord to accompany the melody merely by playing the tonic note, i.e., a single key, on a special section of the manual.On spinet organs, the keyboards are typically at least an octave shorter than is normal for organs, with the upper manual (typically 44 notes, F3–C7 in scientific pitch notation) omitting the bass, and the lower manual (typically F2–C6) omitting the treble. The manuals are usually offset, inviting but not requiring the new organist to dedicate the right hand to the upper manual and the left to the lower, rather than using both hands on a single manual. The stops on the upper manual were often 'voiced' somewhat louder or brighter, and user guides encouraged playing the melody on the upper manual and the harmony on the lower. This seemed designed in part to encourage the pianist, who was accustomed to a single keyboard, to make use of both manuals. Stops on such instruments, relatively limited in number, are frequently named after orchestral instruments that they can, at best, only roughly approximate, and are often brightly colored (even more so than those of theatre organs). The spinet organ's loudspeakers, unlike the original Hammond models of the 1930s and 1940s, are housed within the main instrument (behind the kickboard), which saved even more space, although they produce a sound inferior to that of free-standing speakers; some models had jacks for installing external speakers, if desired.The spinet organ's pedalboard normally spans only a single octave, is often incapable of playing more than one note at a time, and is effectively playable only with the left foot (and on some models only with the left toes). These limitations, combined with the shortened manuals, make the spinet organ all but useless for performing or practicing classical organ music; but at the same time, it allows the novice home organist to explore the challenge and flexibility of simultaneously playing three keyboards (two hands and one foot). User guides suggest playing the root note of the chord on the pedal. The expression pedal is located to the right and either partly or fully recessed within the kickboard, thus conveniently reachable only with the right foot. This arrangement spawned a style of casual organist who would naturally rest the right foot on the expression pedal the entire time, unlike classically trained organists or performers on the earlier Hammonds. This position, in turn, instinctively encouraged pumping of the expression pedal while playing, especially if already accustomed to using a piano's sustain pedal to shape the music. Expressive pumping added a strong dynamic element to home organ music that much classical literature and hymnody lacked, and would help influence a new generation of popular keyboard artists.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hammond_S-6_Chord_Organ,_Museum_of_Making_Music.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hammond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammond_organ"},{"link_name":"chord organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_organ"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"accordion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accordion"},{"link_name":"Magnus Organ Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_Organ_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"Chord organs (1950–)","text":"The first chord organ (1950 Hammond S-6). Array of buttons on left side are used to play chords.Shortly after the debut of the spinet, the chord organ appeared.[32] This is an even simpler instrument designed for those who wanted to produce an organ sound in the home without having to learn much organ (or even piano) playing technique. The typical chord organ has only a single manual that is usually an octave shorter than its already-abbreviated spinet counterpart. It also possesses scaled-down registration and no pedalboard. The left hand operates not a keyboard but an array of chord buttons adapted from those of an accordion.The original Hammond Chord Organs in 1950 are electronic instruments using vacuum-tube technology. In 1958 Magnus Organ Corporation introduced chord organs similar to an electrically blown reed organ or harmonium.[33]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"Gulbransen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulbransen"},{"link_name":"Rodgers Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodgers_Instruments"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gulbransen_Organ,_Museum_of_Making_Music.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gulbransen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulbransen"},{"link_name":"vacuum tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"Transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"Bell Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs"},{"link_name":"Gulbransen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulbransen"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gulbransen-27"},{"link_name":"Rodgers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodgers_Instruments"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Transistor organs (1957–)","text":"See also: Transistor, Gulbransen, and Rodgers InstrumentsEarly transistor organ (Gulbransen)Electronic organs before the mid-1950s had used vacuum tubes which tended to be bulky and unstable. This restricted attempts to extend features and spread their use into homes. Transistors, invented at Bell Labs in 1947, went into practical production in the 1950s, and their small size and stability led to major changes in the production of electronics equipment, in what has been termed the \"transistor revolution\".In 1957, a home organ manufacturer, Gulbransen, introduced the world's first transistor organ, Model B (Model 1100). Although it uses transistors for tone generation, vacuum tubes are still used for amplification.[27]\nAnd in 1958, Rodgers built the first fully solid-state transistorized organ for church, called Opus 1 (Model 38).[34] Other manufacturers followed.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voxcontinental.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vox Continental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_Continental"},{"link_name":"transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"Harald Bode § Tuttivox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald_Bode#Tuttivox"},{"link_name":"Clonewheel organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clonewheel_organ"},{"link_name":"Lawrence Welk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Welk"},{"link_name":"acid rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rock"},{"link_name":"the Doors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Doors"},{"link_name":"Iron Butterfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Butterfly"},{"link_name":"Bob Dylan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Dylan"},{"link_name":"Blonde on Blonde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blonde_on_Blonde"},{"link_name":"Hammonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammond_organ"},{"link_name":"digital keyboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_keyboard"},{"link_name":"combo organs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combo_organ"},{"link_name":"Farfisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farfisa"},{"link_name":"Vox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(musical_equipment)"},{"link_name":"gospel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_music"},{"link_name":"jazz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz"},{"link_name":"rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music"},{"link_name":"large-scale integration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit#LSI"},{"link_name":"digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_data"}],"sub_title":"Combo organs (1950s–)","text":"A combo organ (Vox Continental) using transistors. It's light, compact and portable.See also: Harald Bode § Tuttivox, and Clonewheel organBy the 1960s, electronic organs were ubiquitous in all genres of popular music, from Lawrence Welk to acid rock (e.g. the Doors, Iron Butterfly) to the Bob Dylan album Blonde on Blonde. In some cases, Hammonds were used, while others featured very small all-electronic instruments, only slightly larger than a modern digital keyboard, called combo organs. (Various portable organs made by Farfisa and Vox were especially popular, and remain so among retro-minded rock combos.) The 1970s, 1980s and 1990s saw increasing specialization: both the gospel and jazz scenes continued to make heavy use of Hammonds, while various styles of rock began to take advantage of increasingly complex electronic keyboard instruments, as large-scale integration and then digital technology began to enter the mainstream.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Synthesizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthesizer"},{"link_name":"Eminent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eminent_BV"},{"link_name":"Jean Michel Jarre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Michel_Jarre"},{"link_name":"Oxygène","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxyg%C3%A8ne"},{"link_name":"Équinoxe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89quinoxe"},{"link_name":"Solina String Ensemble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARP_String_Ensemble"},{"link_name":"Herbie Hancock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbie_Hancock"},{"link_name":"Elton John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton_John"},{"link_name":"Pink Floyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_Floyd"},{"link_name":"Stevie Wonder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevie_Wonder"},{"link_name":"The Carpenters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Carpenters"},{"link_name":"George Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Clinton_(funk_musician)"},{"link_name":"Eumir Deodato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eumir_Deodato"},{"link_name":"The Rolling Stones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones"},{"link_name":"The Buggles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Buggles"},{"link_name":"Rick James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_James"},{"link_name":"George Harrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Harrison"},{"link_name":"The Bee Gees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bee_Gees"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eminent_310U_Overview_Upper.JPG"},{"link_name":"Eminent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eminent_BV"},{"link_name":"String Ensemble section","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARP_String_Ensemble"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eminent_Solina_C112s_home_organ.jpg"},{"link_name":"ARP Explorer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARP_Explorer"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SolinaExplorerIparts-35"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moog_Cordovox_CDX-0652_in_Utrecht.jpg"},{"link_name":"Moog Satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moog_synthesizer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yamaha_GX-1_(clip)_@_Yamaha_Design_Masterworks.png"},{"link_name":"Yamaha GX-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_GX-1"},{"link_name":"polyphonic synthesizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphonic_synthesizer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Don_Lewis%27_LEO_(Live_Electronic_Orchestra)_synthesizer_organ,_Museum_of_Making_Music.jpg"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Keyboard_LEO-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KeyboardMay2006-37"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eminent_310U_Right_Panels_and_Manuals_-_Strings_Ensemble.jpg"},{"link_name":"String Ensemble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARP_String_Ensemble"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wurlitzer_Model_805_Centura_Professional_(1974)_with_Orbit_III_Monophonic_Synthesizer.jpg"},{"link_name":"Monophonic Synthesizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophonic_synthesizer"},{"link_name":"Wurlitzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wurlitzer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thomas_2001_organ_-_angled_view.jpg"},{"link_name":"Thomas 2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Organ_Company"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thomas_2001_organ_-_Band_Master_Polyphonic_Synthesizer_(1976).jpg"},{"link_name":"Polyphonic Synthesizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphonic_synthesizer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Farfisa_pergamon_chor.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vocal Chorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_Humana"},{"link_name":"Farfisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farfisa"},{"link_name":"Pergamon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farfisa_Pergamon"}],"sub_title":"Synthesizer organs (1970s–)","text":"See also: SynthesizerAn Eminent 310 organ was prominently featured on Jean Michel Jarre's albums Oxygène (1977) and Équinoxe (1978). The Solina String Ensemble was used extensively by pop, rock, jazz, and disco artists, including Herbie Hancock, Elton John, Pink Floyd, Stevie Wonder, The Carpenters, George Clinton, Eumir Deodato, The Rolling Stones, The Buggles, Rick James, George Harrison, and The Bee Gees.Various synthesizer organsEminent 310U (1972) with String Ensemble section\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tEminent Solina C112s (c. 1974) with built-in ARP Explorer I synthesizer[35]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCMI Cordovox CDX-0652 (c.1974) with built-in Moog Satellite synthesizer\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tYamaha GX-1 (c.1975), an earliest polyphonic synthesizer.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDon Lewis' LEO: (Live Electronic Orchestra)[36] (1977) using an earliest polyphonic keyboard by Armand Pascetta.[37]Typical features on Synthesizer organsbuilt-in String Ensemble section on Eminent 310U\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tbuilt-in Monophonic Synthesizer Orbit III (entire second row with mini-keys) on Wurlitzer 805 (1974)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThomas 2001 (1976)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\toptional Polyphonic Synthesizer Band Master on Thomas 2001\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tbuilt-in Vocal Chorus Synthesizer on Farfisa Pergamon (1981)","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Digital synthesizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_synthesizer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Allen_DCO_Markenschild.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Allen_Organ_Company_Instrument.jpg"},{"link_name":"Allen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Organ_Company"},{"link_name":"musical instrument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_instrument"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fundinguniverse-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1stDigital-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1stSampler-40"},{"link_name":"North American Rockwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Rockwell"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fundinguniverse-38"},{"link_name":"microprocessors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"},{"link_name":"University of Bradford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Bradford"},{"link_name":"Virgil Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil_Fox"},{"link_name":"Carlo Curley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Curley"},{"link_name":"Hector Olivera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodgers_Instruments#Touring_organs"},{"link_name":"Cameron Carpenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron_Carpenter"},{"link_name":"Marshall & Ogletree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marshall_%26_Ogletree&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"Digital organs (1971–)","text":"See also: Digital synthesizerAllen Digital Computer OrganAllen introduced the world's first digital organ (and first digital musical instrument commercial product) in 1971: the Allen Digital Computer Organ.[38][39][40] This new technology was developed for use in home organs by North American Rockwell (project leader Ralph Deutsch) and licensed to Allen, which began using it for church organs. Allen later sued Rockwell and Deutsch, and gained sole rights to the digital computer organ technology.[38]In 1980, Rodgers introduced the first church organs controlled by microprocessors, partially based on research at the University of Bradford. The university's \"Bradford Computing Organ\" has technological descendants in some European digital organs using synthesis technology today.This style of instrument has also been popular with some classically trained concert organists preferring to avoid learning an unfamiliar pipe organ for every concert location, and wishing to perform in venues without pipe organs. Virgil Fox utilized a large Rodgers organ dubbed \"Black Beauty\" during his Heavy Organ tour during the early 1970s. From 1977 until his death in 1980, he used a custom Allen electronic organ. Carlo Curley toured with a substantial Allen Organ in the US and with an Allen in the UK. Organist Hector Olivera has toured with a custom Rodgers instrument named \"The King,\" and Cameron Carpenter has recently begun touring with a custom 5-manual digital organ by Marshall & Ogletree.[41]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ELS-01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Yamaha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Electone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electone"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nord_Electro2_61keys.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nord Electro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nord_Electro"},{"link_name":"synthesizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthesizer"},{"link_name":"pitch standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_(music)#History_of_pitch_standards_in_Western_music"},{"link_name":"temperaments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_temperament"},{"link_name":"MIDI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIDI"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"USB flash drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_flash_drive"},{"link_name":"media card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_card"},{"link_name":"Digital signal processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processing"},{"link_name":"Physical modelling synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_modelling_synthesis"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"Digital Signal Processors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processor"},{"link_name":"stereo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereo"},{"link_name":"Sampled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampler_(musical_instrument)"},{"link_name":"synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthesizer#Sound_synthesis"},{"link_name":"tone generators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_generator"},{"link_name":"Eminent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eminent_BV"},{"link_name":"Musicom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Musicom_Ltd&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johannus_Vivaldi_370_circuitry.jpg"},{"link_name":"Johannus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johannus_Vivaldi_370_speakers.jpg"},{"link_name":"subwoofers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subwoofer"},{"link_name":"Sampler (musical instrument)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampler_(musical_instrument)"},{"link_name":"kHz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KHz"},{"link_name":"CD-quality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-quality"},{"link_name":"subwoofers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subwoofer"},{"link_name":"windchest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windchest"}],"sub_title":"Modern digital organs (1980s–)","text":"A modern electronic organ (Yamaha Electone STAGEA ELS-01). Though it resembles a 1950s spinet organ in appearance, its digital tone generators and synthesis modules can imitate hundreds of instruments.A modern digital combo organ using DSP technology (Nord Electro 2).Electronic organs are still made for the home market, but they have been largely replaced by the digital keyboard or synthesizer which is smaller and cheaper than typical electronic organs or traditional pianos. Modern digital organs offer features not found in traditional pipe organs, such as orchestral and percussion sounds, a choice of historical pitch standards and temperaments, and advanced console aids.Digital organs incorporate real-time tone generation based on sampling or synthesis technologies, and may include MIDI, and Internet connectivity for downloading music data and instructional materials to USB flash drive or media card storage. While much more complex than their predecessors, their basic appearance makes them instantly recognizable.The best digital organs of the 2000s incorporate these technical features:DSP technologySee also: Digital signal processing and Physical modelling synthesisIn 1990, Rodgers introduced software-based digital church organs with technology which connected multiple Digital Signal Processors (DSP) in parallel to generate pipe organ sound with stereo imaging. Sounds in other digital organs are derived from DSPs in either a sampled or synthesis type generation system. Sampled technologies use sounds recorded from various ranks of pipe organs. In synthesis systems, the wave shape is created by tone generators instead of using a sound sample. Both systems generate organ tones, sometimes in stereo in better systems, rather than simply playing recorded tones as a simple digital keyboard sampler might do. Marketed by Eminent, Wyvern, Copeman Hart, Cantor, and Van der Pole in Europe, synthesis organs may use circuitry purchased from Musicom, an English supply company. In the digital organ category, synthesis-based systems are rarely seen outside of Europe.SamplingDigital sampling circuitry of the Johannus model 370 organ (built in 2015), producing the equivalent of 73 ranks with 4 temperaments.Typical speaker array in a modern digital organ with high-power subwoofers.See also: Sampler (musical instrument)Many digital organs use high-quality samples to produce an accurate sound. Sampled systems may have samples of organ pipe sound for each individual note, or may use only one or a few samples which are then frequency-shifted to generate the equivalent of a 61-note pipe rank. Some digital organs like Walker Technical and the very costly Marshall & Ogletree organs use longer samples for additional realism, rather than having to repeat shorter samples in their generation of sound. Sampling in 2000s-era organs is typically done with 24-bit or 32-bit resolution, at a higher rate than the 44.1 kHz of CD-quality audio having 16-bit resolution.Surround soundOn most digital organs, several audio channels are used to create a more spacious sound. Higher-quality digital organ builders use custom audio and speaker systems and may provide from 8 to 32 or more independent channels of audio, depending on the size of the organ and the budget for the instrument. With dedicated high-power subwoofers for the lowest frequencies, digital organs can approach the physical sensation of a pipe organ.Pipe organ simulationsTo better simulate pipe organs, some digital organs emulate changes of windchest pressure caused by the air pressure dropping slightly when many notes are sounding simultaneously, which changes the sound of all the pipes.Digital organs may also incorporate simulated models of swell boxes which mimic the environmental effects on pipes, pipe chest valve release, and other pipe organ characteristics. These effects can be included in the sound of modern digital organs to create more realistic pipe organ tone.Digital pipe sound can include sampled or modeled room acoustics. Rodgers uses binaural and crosstalk cancellation processing to create real-time acoustic models, and Allen also uses room acoustics as part of the sound generation.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hauptwerk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauptwerk"},{"link_name":"Software synthesizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_synthesizer"},{"link_name":"PCs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"sound samples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_sample"},{"link_name":"MIDI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIDI"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"sub_title":"Software organs (1990s–)","text":"See also: Hauptwerk and Software synthesizerThe data processing power of PCs has made personal organs more affordable. Software applications can store digital pipe sound samples and combine them in real time in response to input from one or more MIDI controllers. These tools can be used to assemble home-built organs that can rival the sound quality of commercially built digital organs at a relatively low cost.[42]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"In churches"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davis2006-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Synthetic_Radio_Organ-44"},{"link_name":"speed of sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_sound"}],"sub_title":"Pipe-electronic hybrid organs (1930s–)","text":"Early combinations of pipe organs and electronic technology (including the electronic tone generators, at later) were developed in the 1930s.[43][44] Custom electronic organ consoles occasionally replace aging pipe consoles, updating the electrical control system for the pipes as well as adding electronic voices to the organ. Even large pipe organs are often supplemented with electronic voices for the deepest bass tones that would otherwise require 16- to 32-foot pipes.For hybrid organs that combine pipes and electronic sounds, pipes change their pitch with environmental changes, but electronic voices do not follow by default. The frequency of sound produced by an organ pipe depends on its geometry and the speed of sound in the air within it. These change slightly with temperature and humidity, so the pitch of an organ pipe will change slightly as the environment changes. The pitch of the electronic portion of a hybrid instrument must be re-tuned as needed. The simplest method is a manual control that the organist can adjust, but some recent digital models can make such adjustments automatically.","title":"In churches"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Allen Organ Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Organ_Company"},{"link_name":"Rodgers Organ Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodgers_Instruments"},{"link_name":"frequency divider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Frequency_divider_organs"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"}],"sub_title":"Electronic church organs (1939–)","text":"The first full electronic church organ was built in 1939 by Jerome Markowitz, founder of the Allen Organ Company, who had worked for years to perfect the replication of pipe organ sound through the use of oscillator circuitry based on radio tubes. In 1958, Rodgers Organ Company built the first solid-state, transistorized church organ, its three-manual Opus 1.In contrast to frequency divider circuitry with only a few independent pitch sources, quality electronic church organs have at least one oscillator per note and often additional sets to create a superior ensemble effect. For instance, Rodgers Opus 1 featured eight sets of transistorized pitch generators. Even today, digital organs use software-based digital oscillators to create large numbers of independent pitch and tone sources to better simulate the effect of a large pipe organ.","title":"In churches"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OrgueRembrandt4090.jpg"},{"link_name":"Johannus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannus_Orgelbouw"},{"link_name":"consoles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_console"},{"link_name":"samples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(signal_processing)"},{"link_name":"additive synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_synthesis"},{"link_name":"Ahlborn-Galanti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ahlborn-Galanti&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Allen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Organ_Company"},{"link_name":"Eminent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eminent_BV"},{"link_name":"Johannus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannus_Orgelbouw"},{"link_name":"Makin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Makin_Organs&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Rodgers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodgers_Instruments"},{"link_name":"Viscount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscount_(musical_instrument_manufacturer)"},{"link_name":"Wyvern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wyvern_Organs&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Digital church organs (1971–)","text":"2006 Johannus 'Rembrandt,' an example of a large digital organDigital church organs are designed as pipe organ replacements or as digital consoles to play existing pipes. The differences in sound timbre between piped and digital instruments are debated, but modern digital organs are less expensive and more space efficient.Digital organs are a viable alternative for churches that may have a pipe organ and can no longer afford to maintain it. Some pipe organs, on the other hand, might be playable without major rebuilding for many decades. However the high initial cost, and longer lead time to design, build, and \"voice\" pipe organs has limited their production.Most new digital church organs synthesize sounds from recorded pipe samples, although some model the pipe sound by additive synthesis. Modelling the sound is done by a professional organ \"voicer\", who finishes the organ in its location, much like the process of regulating and voicing a pipe organ. These organs also use high-quality custom-designed audio systems. The builders of both custom and factory digital church organs include the firms of Ahlborn-Galanti, Allen, Eminent, Johannus, Makin, Rodgers, Viscount, and Wyvern.","title":"In churches"}]
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[{"image_text":"Hammond Novachord (1939)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Novachord_frontS.jpg/220px-Novachord_frontS.jpg"},{"image_text":"Generalized schematic of frequency divider organs with transformer-dividers (in French)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/SchemaOrgueElectronique.png/220px-SchemaOrgueElectronique.png"},{"image_text":"The first chord organ (1950 Hammond S-6). Array of buttons on left side are used to play chords.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Hammond_S-6_Chord_Organ%2C_Museum_of_Making_Music.jpg/220px-Hammond_S-6_Chord_Organ%2C_Museum_of_Making_Music.jpg"},{"image_text":"A combo organ (Vox Continental) using transistors. It's light, compact and portable.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Voxcontinental.jpg/220px-Voxcontinental.jpg"},{"image_text":"A modern electronic organ (Yamaha Electone STAGEA ELS-01). Though it resembles a 1950s spinet organ in appearance, its digital tone generators and synthesis modules can imitate hundreds of instruments.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/ELS-01.jpg/220px-ELS-01.jpg"},{"image_text":"A modern digital combo organ using DSP technology (Nord Electro 2).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Nord_Electro2_61keys.jpg/220px-Nord_Electro2_61keys.jpg"},{"image_text":"2006 Johannus 'Rembrandt,' an example of a large digital organ","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/OrgueRembrandt4090.jpg/220px-OrgueRembrandt4090.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Digital piano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_piano"},{"title":"List of electronic organ makers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_electronic_organ_makers"},{"title":"MIDI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIDI"},{"title":"Organ (music)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_(music)"}]
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[{"reference":"\"The Robb Wave Organ\". Canada Science and Technology Museum. Archived from the original on 2012-10-03. Retrieved 2012-11-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121003153639/http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/music5.cfm","url_text":"\"The Robb Wave Organ\""},{"url":"http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/music5.cfm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Murphy, Michael; Cotter, Max (September 2015). \"Frank Morse Robb's Wave Organ - The world's first electronic organ\". EContact!. 17 (3). Montréal: Canadian Electroacoustic Community (CEC).","urls":[{"url":"http://econtact.ca/17_3/murphy-cotter_robborgan.html","url_text":"\"Frank Morse Robb's Wave Organ - The world's first electronic organ\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montr%C3%A9al","url_text":"Montréal"}]},{"reference":"\"Pipeless Organ Turns Electricity Into Music\". Popular Mechanics (September 1931): 374. September 1931.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=veQDAAAAMBAJ&q=Popular+Mechanics+1931+curtiss&pg=PA374","url_text":"\"Pipeless Organ Turns Electricity Into Music\""}]},{"reference":"Bush, Douglas Earl; Kassel, Richard (2006). The Organ: An Encyclopedia. Routledge Chapman & Hall. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-415-94174-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=cgDJaeFFUPoC","url_text":"The Organ: An Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-94174-7","url_text":"978-0-415-94174-7"}]},{"reference":"Corbin, Alfred (2006). The Third Element: A Brief History of Electronics. AuthorHouse. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-4678-1338-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-9lt4HL-AlwC&q=hammond+organ&pg=PA153","url_text":"The Third Element: A Brief History of Electronics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4678-1338-9","url_text":"978-1-4678-1338-9"}]},{"reference":"Bush, Douglas; Kassel, Richard, eds. (2004). \"Electronic Organ\". The Organ: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. p. 164. ISBN 978-1-135-94796-5. In most recent instruments the itmbres have been \"samples\" (digitally recorded) from existing pipe organs, or resynthesized from samples. (This technology was anticipated by electromechanical oscillators during the 1930s, in what can retrospectively be described as \"analog sampling\"; examples included the photoelectric LichttonOrgel and the electrostatic Compton Electrone, both of which featured waveforms derived from well-known pipe organs.)","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=pmRuBwAAQBAJ&dq=Lichttonorgel%20sample&pg=PA164","url_text":"\"Electronic Organ\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-94796-5","url_text":"978-1-135-94796-5"}]},{"reference":"Brown, J. J. (1967). The Inventors. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Limited. pp. 121–123.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Electric Pipeless Organ Has Millions of Tones\". Popular Mechanics (April 1936): 569. April 1936.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lNsDAAAAMBAJ&q=Popular+Science+1936+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22&pg=PA569","url_text":"\"Electric Pipeless Organ Has Millions of Tones\""}]},{"reference":"Frank Pugno. \"Wurlitzer Organs\". VintageHammond.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.theatreorgans.com/hammond/keng/kenhtml/wurlitzer%20organs%20by%20frank%20pugno.htm","url_text":"\"Wurlitzer Organs\""}]},{"reference":"Manfred Miersch. \"Die \"Mel\"-Filterbänke des Subharchords und der Hohnerola im Vergleich\" (in German). (subharchord.de). Die Hohnerola des Siemens Studios für Elektronische Musik, München (auf dem Instrument oben: ein externer Sägezahngenerator)","urls":[{"url":"http://www.subharchord.de/sub_frameset/gebrauchsanweisung/Melfilter_hoh.html","url_text":"\"Die \"Mel\"-Filterbänke des Subharchords und der Hohnerola im Vergleich\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Everett Orgatron\". The American Organist (July 2009). American Guild of Organists. Archived from the original on 2014-03-22. Retrieved 2017-08-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140322133955/http://www.questia.com/library/1P3-1764693481/the-everett-orgatron","url_text":"\"The Everett Orgatron\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Guild_of_Organists","url_text":"American Guild of Organists"},{"url":"https://www.questia.com/library/1P3-1764693481/the-everett-orgatron","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Richard Kassel (2006). Douglas Earl Bush; Richard Kassel (eds.). The organ: an encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-415-94174-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=cgDJaeFFUPoC&q=%22Frederick%20Albert%20Hoschke%22%201934&pg=PA168","url_text":"The organ: an encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-94174-7","url_text":"978-0-415-94174-7"}]},{"reference":"Miessner, Benjamin F. (1936). \"Electronic Music and Instruments\". Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers. 24 (11): 1427–1463. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1936.228019. S2CID 51648013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.discretesynthesizers.com/archives/miessner/em1936.htm","url_text":"\"Electronic Music and Instruments\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJRPROC.1936.228019","url_text":"10.1109/JRPROC.1936.228019"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51648013","url_text":"51648013"}]},{"reference":"Eric Larson. \"Wurlitzer Electrostatic Organs\".","urls":[{"url":"http://theatreorgans.com/hammond/keng/kenhtml/WurlizerESEricb.htm","url_text":"\"Wurlitzer Electrostatic Organs\""}]},{"reference":"Swoboda, Andreas (September 2015). \"Die ersten Blassynthesizer und ihre Vorgänger\". Retrieved 30 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281820726","url_text":"\"Die ersten Blassynthesizer und ihre Vorgänger\""}]},{"reference":"\"一時代を畫する新樂器完成 濱松の靑年技師山下氏\" [An epoch new musical instrument was developed by a young engineer, Mr.Yamashita, in Hamamatsu]. Hochi Shimbun (in Japanese). 1935-06-08. Archived from the original on 2012-03-12. Retrieved 2017-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120312131652/http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/das/jsp/ja/ContentViewM.jsp?METAID=00078861&TYPE=PRINT_FILE&POS=1","url_text":"\"一時代を畫する新樂器完成 濱松の靑年技師山下氏\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hochi_Shimbun","url_text":"Hochi Shimbun"},{"url":"http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/das/jsp/ja/ContentViewM.jsp?METAID=00078861&TYPE=PRINT_FILE&POS=1","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"新電氣樂器 マグナオルガンの御紹介 [New Electric Musical Instrument – Introduction of Magna Organ] (in Japanese). Hamamatsu: 日本樂器製造株式會社 (Yamaha). October 1935. 特許第一〇八六六四号, 同 第一一〇〇六八号, 同 第一一一二一六号","urls":[{"url":"http://blog.goo.ne.jp/1971913/e/42d486d769c1ce9c2c5a426e00f18b68","url_text":"新電氣樂器 マグナオルガンの御紹介"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_Corporation","url_text":"Yamaha"}]},{"reference":"Junya, FUJINO (2020-02-12). \"日本楽器製造の電気楽器「マグナオルガン」の理想と現実 ─楽音合成のメカニズム─]\" [The Development of \"Magna Organ\" and Its Mechanism for Sound Synthesis: The Earliest Electric Musical Instrument of YAMAHA] (PDF). Geijutsu Bunka Kenkyū (in Japanese). 24. Osaka University of Arts Graduate School: 69–89. ISSN 1342-9086. 4.1 特許第 108664 号（1934 年 3 月 15 日出願 ... 当該明細書には「特許請求の範囲」として次の三点が列記されている。/ 1. 「適当なる機械的振動体例えば発音「リード」と「マイクロフォン」とを原音の演奏室への漏洩を阻止すべく構成せる音響的絶縁密閉室内に配置」 / 2. 「『ペダル』又は鍵盤に加うる圧力に依る音量制御及び前期『リード』群の制御を全て演奏室に設置せる『コンソール』により行う」 / 3. 「『マイクロフォン』電流の増幅回路の一部に適当の周波数変換機を接続して原動電流及之と適当倍率関係に変換せる振動電流に依る楽音を前記密閉室外に於て同時に発音」","urls":[{"url":"https://www.grad.osaka-geidai.ac.jp/app/graduation-work/bulletin-paper/7a50efbc8418a768d0334aca783cd36b.pdf","url_text":"\"日本楽器製造の電気楽器「マグナオルガン」の理想と現実 ─楽音合成のメカニズム─]\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osaka_University_of_Arts","url_text":"Osaka University of Arts"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1342-9086","url_text":"1342-9086"}]},{"reference":"\"JP patent 108664C\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.j-platpat.inpit.go.jp/c1800/PU/JP-108664/4EB0D0E43F84E96693F1F8514E7461C872D30C45DEA627612DF281697252FC0D/15/en","url_text":"\"JP patent 108664C\""}]},{"reference":"Junya, FUJINO. \"マグナオルガン(1934)\" [Magna Organ (1934)]. telmusica.com (in Japanese). 機構1 特許第 108664 号(1934 年 3 月 15 日出願): リードの振動をマイクロフォンにより集音し、その信号を周波数逓倍器に入力することで、5倍音と7倍音を除く、9倍音までの部分音（倍音）を生成する。 / 機構2 特許第 110068 号(1934 年 5 月 9 日出願): 逓倍回路は用いず、1. 音色が異なる複数の発音体 2. 特性が異なる複数のマイクロフォン、 3. 特性が異なる複数 のスピーカ を「所定の楽器の音響的特性に近似なる如く」(特許第 110068 号明細書) 組み合わせることで種々の音色を 生成する。","urls":[{"url":"https://telmusica.com/early_electric_musical_instruments/magna_organ/","url_text":"\"マグナオルガン(1934)\""}]},{"reference":"\"JP patent 110068C\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.j-platpat.inpit.go.jp/c1800/PU/JP-110068/E29BF4625B95E04DA690F343580D192D7D822CBC865EAD6833942C024013ACD5/15/en","url_text":"\"JP patent 110068C\""}]},{"reference":"\"JP patent 111216C\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.j-platpat.inpit.go.jp/c1800/PU/JP-111216/3107E125638722F463E7BD8C4F5D3BF81F1181D8DC4590A40E993DA9618A5AA9/15/en","url_text":"\"JP patent 111216C\""}]},{"reference":"\"クロダトーン アーカイブス\" [CRODATONE archives]. CrodaOrgan.net (in Japanese). クロダトーンの第一号は昭和34年3月（1959年）、日本基督教団 西千葉教会に納品されました。/ 当時の写真と録音が残っています。[1st CRODATONE (1959)] / 初期のクロダトーンは音源がハーモニカ、アコーディオン、リードオルガン等に使われているものと同じ原理のフリーリードで、本体内に送風機とリードが組み込まれていて常時全てのリードを振動させてその振動から電気信号を取り出していました。そして鍵盤のスイッチで必要な音をon,offする仕組みでした。/ 常に全てのリードが鳴っていますからしっかりと防音しなければならず二重の箱で覆われています。","urls":[{"url":"http://crodaorgan.net/","url_text":"\"クロダトーン アーカイブス\""}]},{"reference":"Hans-Joachim Braun (6 December 2022). \"Music Engineers. The Remarkable Career of Winston E. Knock, Electronic Organ Designer and NASA Chief of Electronics\" (PDF). 2004 IEEE Conference on the History of Electronics. IEEE.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/images/8/8e/Braun.pdf","url_text":"\"Music Engineers. The Remarkable Career of Winston E. Knock, Electronic Organ Designer and NASA Chief of Electronics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE","url_text":"IEEE"}]},{"reference":"All About Electronic & Electric Musical Instruments (in Japanese). Seibundō ShinkōSha. 1966. ASIN B000JAAXH6, 電子楽器と電気楽器のすべて.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.denhaku.com/mukasi/chomks/allthe.htm","url_text":"All About Electronic & Electric Musical Instruments"},{"url":"https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%A0%E6%96%87%E5%A0%82%E6%96%B0%E5%85%89%E7%A4%BE","url_text":"Seibundō ShinkōSha"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number","url_text":"ASIN"},{"url":"https://www.amazon.co.jp/dp/B000JAAXH6","url_text":"B000JAAXH6"}]},{"reference":"\"The Gulbransen Organ\". TheatreOrgans.com. VintageHammond.Com. May 2006. In July 1957, Gulbransen introduced its first electronic organ. This was the Model B (Model 1100), a spinet that was the first transistor organ in the industry. It must be clarified that in these early transistor instruments, only the tone generators were transistorized. The amplifiers still operated with vacuum tubes (Rodgers produced the first all-transistor, or solid-state organ in 1958). / Gulbransen pioneered several innovations that became standard in the industry and are listed here: · First transistor organ · First self-contained Leslie speaker system · First Chimes stop · First Piano stop · First automatic rhythm (actually Seeburg, with whom Gulbransen eventually merged) · First automatic walking bass","urls":[{"url":"http://theatreorgans.com/hammond/keng/kenhtml/the%20gulbransen%20organ.htm","url_text":"\"The Gulbransen Organ\""}]},{"reference":"Frank Pugno; Bil Curry (2005-11-03). \"Lowrey Organs\". Electronic Organs (theatreorgans.com/hammond/keng/kenhtml/electronicorgans.htm). VintageHammond.Com. In 1956, the Glide, a foot switch located on the left side of the expression pedal, was introduced, permitting the effects of a Hawaiian guitar \"glide\", the smear of a trombone, the glissando of singing strings, and the effect of a calliope. The Glide dropped the pitch of the organ about a semi-tone and cancelled the vibrato. / In 1961, Lowrey's first home organ with a built-in Leslie speaker appeared as the Holiday Deluxe Model LSL. Automatic Orchestra Control, later renamed Automatic Organ Computer, came on the scene in 1963. / In 1969, Lowrey introduced the first built-in cassette player, a feature later abandoned by all manufacturers. / [Fig. 2] – Holiday Deluxe Model LSL","urls":[{"url":"http://theatreorgans.com/hammond/keng/kenhtml/Lowrey%20Organs%20Page.htm","url_text":"\"Lowrey Organs\""}]},{"reference":"\"Fig. 2\".","urls":[{"url":"http://theatreorgans.com/hammond/keng/kenhtml/Lowrey2.jpg","url_text":"\"Fig. 2\""}]},{"reference":"Rickytic3 (2011-01-19). Your cheatin heart with the glide pedal.wmv (video). YouTube.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WBzB3SeHlWU","url_text":"Your cheatin heart with the glide pedal.wmv"}]},{"reference":"Organaut (2011-03-04). ORLA Grande Theatre European (Klaus Wunderlich / German Sounds) registrations Set 1 (video). YouTube. Event occurs at 3\"–34\". Retrieved 2018-05-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cwpLmEIQLtQ","url_text":"ORLA Grande Theatre European (Klaus Wunderlich / German Sounds) registrations Set 1"}]},{"reference":"\"Laurens Hammond\". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2014. His later inventions included ... the chord organ (1950), on which chords are produced simply by touching a panel button.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/biography/Laurens-Hammond","url_text":"\"Laurens Hammond\""}]},{"reference":"\"'Play by Numbers' Organ Hottest Musical Merchandise\". Billboard. May 11, 1959. p. 1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nh4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1","url_text":"\"'Play by Numbers' Organ Hottest Musical Merchandise\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)","url_text":"Billboard"}]},{"reference":"\"Highlights of Rodgers Instruments History\". Rodgers Instruments Corporation. Archived from the original on 2011-12-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111203005708/http://www.rodgersinstruments.com/RodgersHistory","url_text":"\"Highlights of Rodgers Instruments History\""},{"url":"http://www.rodgersinstruments.com/RodgersHistory","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Three Solina Explorer I front panels with rare ARP boards\". MatrixSynth.com. 2013-12-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.matrixsynth.com/2013/12/three-solina-explorer-i-front-panels.html","url_text":"\"Three Solina Explorer I front panels with rare ARP boards\""}]},{"reference":"Vail, Mark. \"LEO, the Live Electronic Orchestra-Pre-MIDI Multitimbral Synth System\". VintageGear. Keyboard.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.donlewismusic.com/keyboard_magazine1/","url_text":"\"LEO, the Live Electronic Orchestra-Pre-MIDI Multitimbral Synth System\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard_(magazine)","url_text":"Keyboard"}]},{"reference":"\"The Armand Pascetta Keyboard\". Keyboard. Vol. 32, no. 5. May 2006. p. 68.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard_(magazine)","url_text":"Keyboard"}]},{"reference":"\"Allen Organ Company\", fundinguniverse.com","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/Allen-Organ-company-company-History.html","url_text":"\"Allen Organ Company\""}]},{"reference":"Peter Manning (1993). Computer and Electronic Music. Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0-19-311918-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/electroniccomput0000mann","url_text":"Computer and Electronic Music"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-311918-8","url_text":"0-19-311918-8"}]},{"reference":"Graham Hinton (2002). \"EMS: The Inside Story - The Non-Products\". Archived from the original on 2013-05-21. Retrieved 2009-08-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130521015858/http://www.ems-synthi.demon.co.uk/emsstory.html#nonproducts","url_text":"\"EMS: The Inside Story - The Non-Products\""},{"url":"http://www.ems-synthi.demon.co.uk/emsstory.html#nonproducts","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Cameron Carpenter Performs on His Touring Instrument\". The New York Times. March 10, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/11/arts/music/cameron-carpenter-performs-on-his-touring-instrument.html","url_text":"\"Cameron Carpenter Performs on His Touring Instrument\""}]},{"reference":"Hugh Davies (2006). \"Electronic Organ\". In Douglas Earl Bush; Richard Kassel (eds.). The Organ: An Encyclopedia. Psychology Press. p. 167. ISBN 9780415941747. Other inventions included Abbé Pujet's electroacoustic Orgue Radiosynthétique (1934, with thepipes enclosed in three chambers, each amplified by a microphone and loudspeaker);","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=cgDJaeFFUPoC&pg=PA164","url_text":"\"Electronic Organ\""},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=cgDJaeFFUPoC&dq=Abb%C3%A9%20Pujet%201934&pg=PA167","url_text":"167"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415941747","url_text":"9780415941747"}]},{"reference":"\"Un Orgue Radio-Synthétique\". L'Illustration (in French). Paris. 1934-05-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8_tZAAAAYAAJ&q=Orgue+Radio+synth%C3%A9tique","url_text":"\"Un Orgue Radio-Synthétique\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_schematic
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Circuit diagram
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["1 Symbols","2 Organization","3 Artwork","4 Education","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
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Graphical representation of an electrical circuit
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Comparison of pictorial and schematic styles of circuit diagrams
Common schematic diagram symbols (US symbols)
The circuit diagram for a four-bit TTL counter, a type of state machine
A circuit diagram (or: wiring diagram, electrical diagram, elementary diagram, electronic schematic) is a graphical representation of an electrical circuit. A pictorial circuit diagram uses simple images of components, while a schematic diagram shows the components and interconnections of the circuit using standardized symbolic representations. The presentation of the interconnections between circuit components in the schematic diagram does not necessarily correspond to the physical arrangements in the finished device.
Unlike a block diagram or layout diagram, a circuit diagram shows the actual electrical connections. A drawing meant to depict the physical arrangement of the wires and the components they connect is called artwork or layout, physical design, or wiring diagram.
Circuit diagrams are used for the design (circuit design), construction (such as PCB layout), and maintenance of electrical and electronic equipment.
In computer science, circuit diagrams are useful when visualizing expressions using Boolean algebra.
Symbols
Main article: Electronic symbol
Circuit diagrams are pictures with symbols that have differed from country to country and have changed over time, but are now to a large extent internationally standardized. Simple components often had symbols intended to represent some feature of the physical construction of the device. For example, the symbol for a resistor dates back to the time when that component was made from a long piece of wire wrapped in such a manner as to not produce inductance, which would have made it a coil. These wirewound resistors are now used only in high-power applications, smaller resistors being cast from carbon composition (a mixture of carbon and filler) or fabricated as an insulating tube or chip coated with a metal film. The internationally standardized symbol for a resistor is therefore now simplified to an oblong, sometimes with the value in ohms written inside, instead of the zig-zag symbol. A less common symbol is simply a series of peaks on one side of the line representing the conductor, rather than back-and-forth.
Wire crossover symbols for circuit diagrams. The CAD symbol for insulated crossing wires is the same as the older, non-CAD symbol for non-insulated crossing wires. To avoid confusion, the wire "jump" (semi-circle) symbol for insulated wires in non-CAD schematics is recommended (as opposed to using the CAD-style symbol for no connection), so as to avoid confusion with the original, older style symbol, which means the exact opposite. The newer, recommended style for 4-way wire connections in both CAD and non-CAD schematics is to stagger the joining wires into T-junctions.
The linkages between leads were once simple crossings of lines. With the arrival of computerized drafting, the connection of two intersecting wires was shown by a crossing of wires with a "dot" or "blob" to indicate a connection. At the same time, the crossover was simplified to be the same crossing, but without a "dot". However, there was a danger of confusing the wires that were connected and not connected in this manner, if the dot was drawn too small or accidentally omitted (e.g. the "dot" could disappear after several passes through a copy machine). As such, the modern practice for representing a 4-way wire connection is to draw a straight wire and then to draw the other wires staggered along it with "dots" as connections (see diagram), so as to form two separate T-junctions that brook no confusion and are clearly not a crossover.
For crossing wires that are insulated from one another, a small semi-circle symbol is commonly used to show one wire "jumping over" the other wire (similar to how jumper wires are used).
A common, hybrid style of drawing combines the T-junction crossovers with "dot" connections and the wire "jump" semi-circle symbols for insulated crossings. In this manner, a "dot" that is too small to see or that has accidentally disappeared can still be clearly differentiated from a "jump".
On a circuit diagram, the symbols for components are labelled with a descriptor or reference designator matching that on the list of parts. For example, C1 is the first capacitor, L1 is the first inductor, Q1 is the first transistor, and R1 is the first resistor. Often the value or type designation of the component is given on the diagram beside the part, but detailed specifications would go on the parts list.
Detailed rules for reference designations are provided in the International standard IEC 61346.
Organization
It is a usual (although not universal) convention that schematic drawings are organized on the page from left to right and top to bottom in the same sequence as the flow of the main signal or power path. For example, a schematic for a radio receiver might start with the antenna input at the left of the page and end with the loudspeaker at the right. Positive power supply connections for each stage would be shown towards the top of the page, with grounds, negative supplies, or other return paths towards the bottom. Schematic drawings intended for maintenance may have the principal signal paths highlighted to assist in understanding the signal flow through the circuit. More complex devices have multi-page schematics and must rely on cross-reference symbols to show the flow of signals between the different sheets of the drawing.
Detailed rules for the preparation of circuit diagrams, and other document types used in electrotechnology, are provided in the international standard IEC 61082-1.
Circuit diagrams are often drawn with the same standardized title block and frame as other engineering drawings.
Relay logic line diagrams, also called ladder logic diagrams, use another common standardized convention for organizing schematic drawings, with a vertical power supply rail on the left and another on the right, and components strung between them like the rungs of a ladder.
Artwork
A rat's nest
Once the schematic has been made, it is converted into a layout that can be fabricated onto a printed circuit board (PCB). Schematic-driven layout starts with the process of schematic capture. The result is what is known as a rat's nest. The rat's nest is a jumble of wires (lines) criss-crossing each other to their destination nodes. These wires are routed either manually or automatically by the use of electronics design automation (EDA) tools. The EDA tools arrange and rearrange the placement of components and find paths for tracks to connect various nodes. This results in the final layout artwork for the integrated circuit or printed circuit board.
A generalized design flow may be as follows:
Schematic → schematic capture → netlist → rat's nest → routing → artwork → PCB development and etching → component mounting → testing
Education
Teaching about the functioning of electrical circuits is often on primary and secondary school curricula. Students are expected to understand the rudiments of circuit diagrams and their functioning. Use of diagrammatic representations of circuit diagrams can aid understanding of principles of electricity.
Principles of the physics of circuit diagrams are often taught with the use of analogies, such as comparing functioning of circuits to other closed systems such as water heating systems with pumps being the equivalent to batteries.
See also
Boxology
Circuit design language
Electronic symbol
Logic gate
One-line diagram
Pinout
Schematic capture
Schematic editor
References
^ Circuit diagrams and component layouts
^ Herzfeld, Noreen (2012). Computer Concepts and Applications. Minnesota: College of Saint Benedict/St. John's University. pp. 9–9.
^ a b c "Circuit Symbols". electronicsclub.info. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
^
"It is good practice to never use a + connection with a dot. Why? The dot can disappear when the schematic is copied for the 12th time." –
"Notes on Reading Schematics" Archived 2011-10-08 at the Wayback Machine
^
"We recommend against using a 4-way connection point ... To avoid confusion, use only three-way connections." –
"Design News Gadget Freak Submission Guidelines" Archived 2011-09-29 at the Wayback Machine
^
"Wires connected at 'crossroads' should be staggered slightly to form two T-junctions" –
"The Electronics Club: Circuit Symbols"
^ a b "Electronic Circuit Symbols". www.circuitstoday.com. Archived from the original on 13 October 2014. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
^ Electronics Circuit Symbols
^
R. S. Khandpur (2005). Printed circuit boards: design, fabrication, assembly and testing. Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-07-058814-1.
^ BBC Bitesize. Circuits. https://www.bbc.com/education/topics/zq99q6f
^ Walker, M. D., & Garlovsky, D. (2016). Going with the flow: Using analogies to explain electric circuits Archived 2022-04-01 at the Wayback Machine. School science review, 97(361), 51–58.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Circuit diagrams.
Look up circuit diagram in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Circuit_diagram_%E2%80%93_pictorial_and_schematic.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Circuit_elements.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:4_bit_counter.svg"},{"link_name":"TTL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor-transistor_logic"},{"link_name":"state machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_machine"},{"link_name":"electrical circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_network"},{"link_name":"pictorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictorial"},{"link_name":"schematic diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schematic_diagram"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"block diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_diagram"},{"link_name":"layout diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit_layout"},{"link_name":"electrical connections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_connection"},{"link_name":"layout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit_layout"},{"link_name":"wiring diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiring_diagram"},{"link_name":"circuit design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_design"},{"link_name":"PCB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"Boolean algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebra"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Comparison of pictorial and schematic styles of circuit diagramsCommon schematic diagram symbols (US symbols)The circuit diagram for a four-bit TTL counter, a type of state machineA circuit diagram (or: wiring diagram, electrical diagram, elementary diagram, electronic schematic) is a graphical representation of an electrical circuit. A pictorial circuit diagram uses simple images of components, while a schematic diagram shows the components and interconnections of the circuit using standardized symbolic representations. The presentation of the interconnections between circuit components in the schematic diagram does not necessarily correspond to the physical arrangements in the finished device.[1]Unlike a block diagram or layout diagram, a circuit diagram shows the actual electrical connections. A drawing meant to depict the physical arrangement of the wires and the components they connect is called artwork or layout, physical design, or wiring diagram.Circuit diagrams are used for the design (circuit design), construction (such as PCB layout), and maintenance of electrical and electronic equipment.In computer science, circuit diagrams are useful when visualizing expressions using Boolean algebra.[2]","title":"Circuit diagram"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"coil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor"},{"link_name":"carbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon"},{"link_name":"filler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filler_(materials)"},{"link_name":"ohms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wire_Crossover_Symbols_for_Circuit_Diagrams.png"},{"link_name":"CAD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_design"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-electronicsclub.info-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-electronicsclub.info-3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-circuitstoday-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-electronicsclub.info-3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-circuitstoday-7"},{"link_name":"symbols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_symbol"},{"link_name":"reference designator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_designator"},{"link_name":"capacitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor"},{"link_name":"inductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor"},{"link_name":"transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"resistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor"},{"link_name":"IEC 61346","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEC_61346"}],"text":"Circuit diagrams are pictures with symbols that have differed from country to country and have changed over time, but are now to a large extent internationally standardized. Simple components often had symbols intended to represent some feature of the physical construction of the device. For example, the symbol for a resistor dates back to the time when that component was made from a long piece of wire wrapped in such a manner as to not produce inductance, which would have made it a coil. These wirewound resistors are now used only in high-power applications, smaller resistors being cast from carbon composition (a mixture of carbon and filler) or fabricated as an insulating tube or chip coated with a metal film. The internationally standardized symbol for a resistor is therefore now simplified to an oblong, sometimes with the value in ohms written inside, instead of the zig-zag symbol. A less common symbol is simply a series of peaks on one side of the line representing the conductor, rather than back-and-forth.Wire crossover symbols for circuit diagrams. The CAD symbol for insulated crossing wires is the same as the older, non-CAD symbol for non-insulated crossing wires. To avoid confusion, the wire \"jump\" (semi-circle) symbol for insulated wires in non-CAD schematics is recommended (as opposed to using the CAD-style symbol for no connection), so as to avoid confusion with the original, older style symbol, which means the exact opposite. The newer, recommended style for 4-way wire connections in both CAD and non-CAD schematics is to stagger the joining wires into T-junctions.[3]The linkages between leads were once simple crossings of lines. With the arrival of computerized drafting, the connection of two intersecting wires was shown by a crossing of wires with a \"dot\" or \"blob\" to indicate a connection. At the same time, the crossover was simplified to be the same crossing, but without a \"dot\". However, there was a danger of confusing the wires that were connected and not connected in this manner, if the dot was drawn too small or accidentally omitted (e.g. the \"dot\" could disappear after several passes through a copy machine).[4] As such, the modern practice for representing a 4-way wire connection is to draw a straight wire and then to draw the other wires staggered along it with \"dots\" as connections (see diagram), so as to form two separate T-junctions that brook no confusion and are clearly not a crossover.[5][6]For crossing wires that are insulated from one another, a small semi-circle symbol is commonly used to show one wire \"jumping over\" the other wire[3][7][8] (similar to how jumper wires are used).A common, hybrid style of drawing combines the T-junction crossovers with \"dot\" connections and the wire \"jump\" semi-circle symbols for insulated crossings. In this manner, a \"dot\" that is too small to see or that has accidentally disappeared can still be clearly differentiated from a \"jump\".[3][7]On a circuit diagram, the symbols for components are labelled with a descriptor or reference designator matching that on the list of parts. For example, C1 is the first capacitor, L1 is the first inductor, Q1 is the first transistor, and R1 is the first resistor. Often the value or type designation of the component is given on the diagram beside the part, but detailed specifications would go on the parts list.Detailed rules for reference designations are provided in the International standard IEC 61346.","title":"Symbols"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal"},{"link_name":"IEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission"},{"link_name":"61082-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IEC_61082&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"engineering drawings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_drawing"},{"link_name":"Relay logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay_logic"},{"link_name":"ladder logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladder_logic"}],"text":"It is a usual (although not universal) convention that schematic drawings are organized on the page from left to right and top to bottom in the same sequence as the flow of the main signal or power path. For example, a schematic for a radio receiver might start with the antenna input at the left of the page and end with the loudspeaker at the right. Positive power supply connections for each stage would be shown towards the top of the page, with grounds, negative supplies, or other return paths towards the bottom. Schematic drawings intended for maintenance may have the principal signal paths highlighted to assist in understanding the signal flow through the circuit. More complex devices have multi-page schematics and must rely on cross-reference symbols to show the flow of signals between the different sheets of the drawing.Detailed rules for the preparation of circuit diagrams, and other document types used in electrotechnology, are provided in the international standard IEC 61082-1.Circuit diagrams are often drawn with the same standardized title block and frame as other engineering drawings.Relay logic line diagrams, also called ladder logic diagrams, use another common standardized convention for organizing schematic drawings, with a vertical power supply rail on the left and another on the right, and components strung between them like the rungs of a ladder.","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rats_nest_diagram.JPG"},{"link_name":"Schematic-driven layout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schematic-driven_layout"},{"link_name":"schematic capture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schematic_capture"},{"link_name":"layout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit_layout"},{"link_name":"integrated circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"printed circuit board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"netlist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netlist"},{"link_name":"routing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing_(electronic_design_automation)"}],"text":"A rat's nestOnce the schematic has been made, it is converted into a layout that can be fabricated onto a printed circuit board (PCB). Schematic-driven layout starts with the process of schematic capture. The result is what is known as a rat's nest. The rat's nest is a jumble of wires (lines) criss-crossing each other to their destination nodes. These wires are routed either manually or automatically by the use of electronics design automation (EDA) tools. The EDA tools arrange and rearrange the placement of components and find paths for tracks to connect various nodes. This results in the final layout artwork for the integrated circuit or printed circuit board.[9]A generalized design flow may be as follows:Schematic → schematic capture → netlist → rat's nest → routing → artwork → PCB development and etching → component mounting → testing","title":"Artwork"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"water heating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_heating"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Teaching about the functioning of electrical circuits is often on primary and secondary school curricula.[10] Students are expected to understand the rudiments of circuit diagrams and their functioning. Use of diagrammatic representations of circuit diagrams can aid understanding of principles of electricity.Principles of the physics of circuit diagrams are often taught with the use of analogies, such as comparing functioning of circuits to other closed systems such as water heating systems with pumps being the equivalent to batteries.[11]","title":"Education"}]
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[{"image_text":"Comparison of pictorial and schematic styles of circuit diagrams","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Circuit_diagram_%E2%80%93_pictorial_and_schematic.png/250px-Circuit_diagram_%E2%80%93_pictorial_and_schematic.png"},{"image_text":"Common schematic diagram symbols (US symbols)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Circuit_elements.svg/250px-Circuit_elements.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The circuit diagram for a four-bit TTL counter, a type of state machine","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/4_bit_counter.svg/250px-4_bit_counter.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Wire crossover symbols for circuit diagrams. The CAD symbol for insulated crossing wires is the same as the older, non-CAD symbol for non-insulated crossing wires. To avoid confusion, the wire \"jump\" (semi-circle) symbol for insulated wires in non-CAD schematics is recommended (as opposed to using the CAD-style symbol for no connection), so as to avoid confusion with the original, older style symbol, which means the exact opposite. The newer, recommended style for 4-way wire connections in both CAD and non-CAD schematics is to stagger the joining wires into T-junctions.[3]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Wire_Crossover_Symbols_for_Circuit_Diagrams.png/500px-Wire_Crossover_Symbols_for_Circuit_Diagrams.png"},{"image_text":"A rat's nest","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Rats_nest_diagram.JPG/220px-Rats_nest_diagram.JPG"}]
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[{"title":"Boxology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxology"},{"title":"Circuit design language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_design_language"},{"title":"Electronic symbol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_symbol"},{"title":"Logic gate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gate"},{"title":"One-line diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-line_diagram"},{"title":"Pinout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinout"},{"title":"Schematic capture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schematic_capture"},{"title":"Schematic editor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schematic_editor"}]
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[{"reference":"Herzfeld, Noreen (2012). Computer Concepts and Applications. Minnesota: College of Saint Benedict/St. John's University. pp. 9[6]–9[12].","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Circuit Symbols\". electronicsclub.info. Retrieved 2 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://electronicsclub.info/circuitsymbols.htm","url_text":"\"Circuit Symbols\""}]},{"reference":"\"Electronic Circuit Symbols\". www.circuitstoday.com. Archived from the original on 13 October 2014. Retrieved 2 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141013185140/http://www.circuitstoday.com/electronic-circuit-symbols","url_text":"\"Electronic Circuit Symbols\""},{"url":"http://www.circuitstoday.com/electronic-circuit-symbols","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"R. S. Khandpur (2005). Printed circuit boards: design, fabrication, assembly and testing. Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-07-058814-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=m8sJBIMtETgC&q=circuit-diagram+artwork&pg=PA10","url_text":"Printed circuit boards: design, fabrication, assembly and testing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-058814-1","url_text":"978-0-07-058814-1"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_browser
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Opera (web browser)
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["1 History","2 Features","2.1 Built-in messengers","2.2 Usability and accessibility","2.3 Privacy and security","2.4 Crypto-wallet-support","2.5 AI chatbot","3 Other versions","3.1 Opera GX","4 Development-stages","5 Market-adoption","5.1 Integrations","6 Reception","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
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Free web browser
OperaOpera 102 displaying the Wikipedia main page on Windows 11Developer(s)Opera SoftwareInitial release10 April 1995; 29 years ago (1995-04-10)Stable release111.0.5168.25
/ 12 June 2024; 5 days ago (12 June 2024)Preview release
Opera beta
107.0.5045.11 (February 1, 2024; 4 months ago (2024-02-01))
Opera developer
108.0.5063.0 (January 31, 2024; 4 months ago (2024-01-31))
Written inC++EnginesBlink (formerly Presto), V8Operating systemWindows 10 or later, macOS, Linux,
(Formerly FreeBSD, Nintendo Wii, Nintendo DS, and Nintendo DS Lite)Available in42 languagesTypeWeb browserLicenseFreewareWebsiteOpera.com
Opera is a multi-platform web browser developed by its namesake company Opera. The current edition of the browser is based on Chromium. Opera is available on Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, and iOS (Safari WebKit engine). Two mobile versions are still active, called Opera Mobile and Opera Mini. Opera also has a news aggregator app called Opera News with an AI search-engine.
Opera was initially released on 10 April 1995, making it one of the oldest desktop web browsers to ever exist. It was commercial software for its first ten years and had its own proprietary layout engine, Presto. In 2013, it switched from the Presto engine to Chromium. In 2016, Opera, developed in Norway, became a subsidiary of an investment group led by a Chinese consortium. In 2018, Opera Software went public on the NASDAQ stock exchange. By the end of 2022, the consortium sold all of its shares, and Opera in turn committed to repurchase all of its American Depository Shares to reestablish its corporate autonomy.
In 2019, Opera Software introduced Opera GX, a browser for gamers with the ultimate performance numbers, and ad-free experience.
History
Main article: History of the Opera web browser
In 1994, Jon Stephenson von Tetzchner and Geir Ivarsøy started developing the Opera web browser while working at Telenor, a Norwegian telecommunications company.
In 1995, they founded Opera Software AS. Opera was initially released on 10 April 1995, and then it was released publicly in 1996 with version 2.10, which ran on Microsoft Windows 95. Development for mobile device platforms started in 1998.
Opera 4.0, released in 2000, included a new cross-platform core that facilitated the creation of editions of Opera for multiple operating systems and platforms.
To this point, Opera was trialware and had to be purchased after the trial period. With version 5.0, released in 2000, Opera became ad-sponsored, displaying ads to users who had not paid for it. Subsequent versions have given users the choice of seeing banner ads or targeted text ads from Google.
With version 8.5, released in 2005, the ads were completely removed, and the browser's primary financial support came through revenue from Google (by contract, Opera's default search engine).
Among new features introduced in version 9.1, released in 2006, was fraud protection using technology from GeoTrust, a digital certificate provider, and PhishTank, an organization that tracks known phishing web sites. This feature was further expanded in version 9.5, when GeoTrust was replaced with Netcraft, and malware protection from Haute Secure was added.
In 2006, Opera Software ASA was released as well as Nintendo DS Browser and Internet Channel for Nintendo's DS and Wii gaming systems, respectively, which were Opera-based browsers.
A new JavaScript engine, called Carakan (after the Javanese alphabet), was introduced with version 10.50. According to Opera Software, it made Opera 10.50 more than seven times faster in SunSpider than Opera 10.10.
On 16 December 2010, Opera 11 was released, featuring extensions, tab stacking (where dragging one tab over another allowed creating a group of tabs), visual mouse gestures and changes to the address bar. Opera 12 was released on 14 June 2012.
On 12 February 2013, Opera Software announced that it would drop its own Presto layout engine in favor of WebKit as implemented by Google's Chrome browser, using code from the Chromium project. Opera Software planned as well to contribute code to WebKit. On 3 April 2013, Google announced it would fork components from WebKit to form a new layout engine, Blink. That day, Opera Software confirmed it would follow Google in implementing Blink.
On 28 May 2013, a beta release of Opera 15 was made available, the first version based on the Chromium project. Many distinctive Opera features of the previous versions were dropped, and Opera Mail was separated into a standalone application derived from Opera 12.
In 2016, Opera was acquired by an investment group led by a Chinese consortium, the consortium included several Chinese companies such as Kunlun Tech and Qihoo 360. On July 27, 2018, Opera Software went public on the NASDAQ stock exchange, raising $115 million in its initial public offering. Opera began repurchasing its shares in 2022 following the closure of 360 Security Technology Inc. that year.
In January 2017, the source code of Opera 12.15, one of the last few versions still based on the Presto layout engine, was leaked.
To demonstrate how radically different a browser could look, Opera Neon, dubbed a "concept browser", was released in January 2017. PC World compared it to demo models that automakers and hardware vendors release to show their visions of the future. Instead of a Speed Dial Browsing feature it displays the frequently accessed websites in resemblance to a desktop with computer icons scattered over it in an artistic formation.
On 10 May 2017, Opera 45 was released. Notably this was the last version of the browser compatible with 32-bit Linux distributions, with later versions requiring a 64-bit Linux distribution. This version, inspired by the previous Opera Neon design, was called “Opera Reborn” and which redoes parts of the user interface, such as adding light and dark modes, and integrates the messenger applications Facebook Messenger, WhatsApp, and Telegram. Additionally, new ad-blocking settings were added along with security changes.
On 4 January, 2018, Opera 50 was released. This version updated the browser to utilize the built-in ad blocker to provide cryptocurrency mining protection that stops sites from running scripts that attempt to use the CPU to mine cryptocurrency. Additionally the browser added Chromecast support, VR support enhancements, saving pages as PDFs, and improved VPN performance with region-based locations rather than country-based.
On 9 April 2019, Opera 60 was released. This version, codenamed Reborn 3, focused on moving the browser towards a more minimal design, further improving the free VPN service, and updating from Web 2.0 to Web 3.0 which allows for integration of blockchain and distributed systems, a more decentralized web that lets users communicate peer-to-peer much more securely than before.
On 21 May 2019, Opera GX is announced and opened for early-access. The only information available in this announcement is that the browser would be a special version of the browser aimed at those who play games. The early-access program was opened on 11 June 2019.
On 24 June 2021, Opera 77, codenamed Opera R5 was released. As one of the larger updates to the browser, it added more music streaming services in the sidebar, integrating native support for Apple Music, Spotify, Youtube Music, Tidal, Soundcloud, and Gaana. The “Pinboards” feature was also added, letting users create a shareable collection of websites, images, links, and notes in a visual form. A video popout feature was also added for video conferencing, which happens automatically when switching tabs, popping out of the window when navigating away and popping back in when navigating back. Later, in Opera 83 released on 19 January 2022, this feature would be implemented for all video players, not just video conferencing platforms.
On 31 Jan 2023, Opera announced that given the discontinuation of support for Windows 7 and 8.1 by Microsoft, Chromium based browsers are also ending support, so Opera will no longer get updates on those versions, but older versions will continue to function on those versions of Windows.
On 22 March 2023, Opera and Opera GX incorporated features with AI-powered tools. These features include AI Prompts that are suggested to the user, and sidebar access to ChatGPT and ChatSonic. The prompts show up on sites that contain content like articles, offering to shorten the text or summarize them.
On 20 June 2023, Opera launched Opera 100, codenamed Opera One, a version of the browser built from the ground up around AI which was unveiled on 25 April 2023. This browser includes a native AI called Aria, a GPT-based AI engine that was developed collaboratively with OpenAI that sifts through web information, generates text and code, and much more in the browser. Tab islands were also introduced, allowing browser tabs to be grouped together, bookmarked, collapsed, and more. Major UI changes were made, and a Multithreaded Compositor was introduced, allowing the browser to function and render in animations much smoother than it was previously capable.
Features
Main article: Features of the Opera web browser
Opera has originated features later adopted by other web browsers, including: Speed Dial, pop-up blocking, reopening recently closed pages, private browsing, and tabbed browsing. Additional features include a built-in screenshot tool, Snapshot, which also includes an image-markup tool; built-in ad blockers, and tracking blockers.
Built-in messengers
Opera's desktop browser includes access to social media messaging apps WhatsApp, Telegram, Facebook Messenger, Twitter, Instagram, TikTok, and VK.
Usability and accessibility
Opera includes a bookmarks bar and a download manager. It also has "Speed Dial" which allows the user to add an unlimited number of pages shown in thumbnail form in a page displayed when a new tab is opened.
Opera was one of the first browsers to support Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) in 1998.
Opera Turbo, a feature that compresses requested web pages (except HTTPS pages) before sending them to the users, is no longer available on the desktop browser. Opera Turbo is available in Opera Mini, the mobile browser.
Privacy and security
See also: Browser security
One security feature is the option to delete private data, such as HTTP cookies, browsing history, items in cache and passwords with the click of a button.
When visiting a site, Opera displays a security badge in the address bar which shows details about the website, including security certificates. Opera's fraud and malware protection warns the user about suspicious web pages and is enabled by default. It checks the requested page against several databases of known phishing and malware websites, called blacklists.
In 2016, a free virtual private network (VPN) service was implemented in the browser. Opera said that this would allow encrypted access to websites otherwise blocked, and provide security on public WiFi networks. It was later determined that the browser VPN operated as a web proxy rather than a VPN, meaning that it only secured connections made by the browser and not by any other apps on the computer.
Crypto-wallet-support
In 2018, a built-in cryptocurrency wallet to the Opera Web Browser was released, announcing that they would be the first browser with a built-in Crypto Wallet. On 13 December 2018, Opera released a video showing many decentralized applications like Cryptokitties running on the Android version of the Opera Web Browser.
In March 2020, Opera updated its Android browser to access crypto domains, making it the first browser to be able to support a domain name system (DNS) which is not part of the traditional DNS directly without the need of a plugin or add-on. This was through a collaboration with a San Francisco based startup, Unstoppable Domains.
In January 2022, Opera introduced Opera Crypto Browser into public beta, combining a non-custodial wallet with a dedicated browser for blockchain-enabled services and Web3 technologies. On 14 April 2022, Opera launched its Crypto Browser available on iOS devices. As of 2023, Opera Crypto Browser has been discontinued, with the browser's features being integrated into Opera and Opera GX.
AI chatbot
In 2023, Opera added an AI chatbot which it calls Aria, into the browser. This is powered by Opera's Composer AI engine and connects to OpenAI's GPT model.
Other versions
Opera GX
Opera GXA screenshot of Opera GX on Windows 11Developer(s)Opera Software PolandInitial release11 June 2019; 5 years ago (2019-06-11)Stable release(s)Windows107.0.5045.60 / 6 March 2024; 3 months ago (6 March 2024)Mac107.0.5045.60 / 6 March 2024; 3 months ago (6 March 2024)Android2.3.9 / 7 March 2024; 3 months ago (7 March 2024)iOS2.3.3 / 27 February 2024; 3 months ago (27 February 2024)
EnginesBlink, V8Operating systemWindows 10 or later macOS 10.13 or later Android 9.0 or later iOS 15.5 or laterTypeWeb browserLicenseFreewareWebsitewww.opera.com/gx
Opera GX is a gaming-oriented alternative of Opera. The browser was announced on 21 May 2019 and released in early access for Windows on 11 June 2019, during E3 2019. The macOS version was released in December of the same year.
Opera GX adds features geared toward gamers and other audiences, with the regular Opera browser features included. The limiter allows users to limit network, CPU, and memory usage to preserve system resources. Using GX Cleaner, a tool that is said to allow users to clear cache, cookies, and other unwanted files etc. The browser also adds integrations with other apps such as Twitch, Discord, Twitter, and Instagram. The browser also has a built-in page called the GX Corner, which collates gaming-related releases, deals, and news articles.
On 5 September 2019, Opera won a Red Dot award in the Interface and User Experience Design category for Opera GX. Around the same time, Opera GX also marks its first one million downloads.
On 20 May 2021, a mobile version of Opera GX on iOS and Android.
On 12 November of the same year, Opera GX Mobile was awarded a Red Dot award in both the Apps category and the Interface and User Experience Design: Mobile UIs category.
On August 19, 2023, Opera GX introduced a VTuber named GX Aura for their social media accounts, she later became the mascot for the browser.
On November 28 of the same year, Opera GX launched a new advertising campaign titled "Bury Boring", featuring actor and comedian Eric André smashing and burying computers not using Opera GX. The advertising campaign also included a splash screen whenever the browser is launched during the campaign with slashing sounds and André yelling out the browser's name.
While well received by many of its user base, many criticized Opera GX's actions. In the browser's subreddit, many users complained about the loud volume of the splash screen and that the splash screen could not be bypassed unless the execution file was deleted.
Development-stages
Opera Software uses a release cycle consisting of three "streams", corresponding to phases of development, that can be downloaded and installed independently of each other: "developer", "beta", and "stable". New features are first introduced in the developer build, then, depending on user feedback, may progress to the beta version and eventually be released.
The developer stream allows early testing of new features, mainly targeting developers, extension creators, and early adopters. Opera developer is not intended for everyday browsing as it is unstable and is prone to failure or crashing, but it enables advanced users to try out new features that are still under development, without affecting their normal installation of the browser. New versions of the browser are released frequently, generally a few times a week.
The beta stream, formerly known as "Opera Next", is a feature complete package, allowing stability and quality to mature before the final release. A new version is released every couple of weeks. Both streams can be installed alongside the official release without interference. Each has a different icon to help the user distinguish between the variants.
Market-adoption
Further information: Usage share of web browsers
Desktop/laptop/tablet browser statistics
Google Chrome
64.62%
Edge
12.03%
Safari
10.04%
Firefox
6.25%
Opera
3.03%
Android
1.02%
Desktop and tablet web browser market share according to Statcounter for March 2024
Integrations
In 2005, Adobe Systems integrated Opera's rendering engine, Presto, into its Adobe Creative Suite applications. Opera technology was employed in Adobe GoLive, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Dreamweaver, and other components of the Adobe Creative Suite. Opera's layout engine is also found in Virtual Mechanics SiteSpinner Pro. The Internet Channel is a version of the Opera 9 web browser for use on the Nintendo Wii created by Opera Software and Nintendo. Opera Software is also implemented in the Nintendo DS Browser and Nintendo DSi Browser for Nintendo's handheld systems.
Opera is the fifth most popular web-browser. As of April 2021, Opera's offerings had over 320 million active users.
Reception
The Opera browser has been listed as a "tried and tested direct alternative to Chrome". It scores close to Chrome on the HTML5test, which scores browsers' compatibility with different web standards.
Versions with the Presto layout engine have been positively reviewed, although they have been criticized for website compatibility issues. Because of this issue, Opera 8.01 and higher had included workarounds to help certain popular but problematic web sites display properly.
Versions with the Blink layout engine have been criticized by some users for missing features such as UI customization, and for abandoning Opera Software's own Presto layout engine. Despite that, versions with the Blink layout engine have been noted for being fast and stable, for handling the latest web standards and for having a better website compatibility and a modern-style user interface.
See also
Opera browser platform variants:
Opera Mini: a browser for tablets and telephones
Opera Mobile: a browser for tablets and telephones
Related other browsers:
Otter Browser: an open-source browser that recreates some aspects of the classic Opera
Vivaldi: a freeware browser created by the former CEO of Opera Software and former Opera Software employees
Related topics:
History of the web browser
List of pop-up blocking software
List of web browsers
Timeline of web browsers
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Netscape Navigator 2
NetShark
OmniWeb
HotJava
UdiWWW
WebShark
w3m
1996
Cyberdog
Arachne
AWeb
IBrowse
Amaya
Internet Explorer 3
Netscape Navigator 3
Opera 2
Oracle PowerBrowser
tcpCONNECT4
Voyager
1997
Netscape Communicator
Internet Explorer 4
Opera 2.1
1998
NeoPlanet
Mozilla Application Suite
Opera 3–3.21
1999
iCab
Internet Explorer 5
OmniWeb 3
Opera 3.5–3.62
2000s2000
Beonex Communicator
Galeon
K-Meleon
MediaBrowser
Netscape 6
Opera 4–4.02
2001
iCab 2.5
Internet Explorer 6
OmniWeb 4
Opera 5–5.12
2002
Camino
Epiphany
Netscape 7
Opera 6–6.1
2003
GreenBrowser
Maxthon
Opera 7–7.3
Safari
SlimBrowser
2004
Phoenix/Firebird/Firefox
Opera 7.5–7.55
2005
AOL Explorer
Deepnet Explorer
Firefox 1.5
Netscape Browser
Opera 8–8.54
Safari 2
2006
Firefox 2
Internet Explorer 7
Opera 9–9.27
2007
Maxthon 2
Opera 9.5–9.64
Safari 3
SeaMonkey 1.1
2008
Chrome
Firefox 3
Netscape Navigator 9
NetSurf 1.2
2009
Chrome 2–3
Firefox 3.5
Internet Explorer 8
Opera 10–10.63
Pale Moon
Safari 4
SeaMonkey 2.0
2010s2010
Chrome 4–8
Firefox 3.6
Lunascape 6.0.1
Maxthon 3
NetSurf 2.5
Opera 11–11.64
Safari 5
2011
Chrome 9–16
Firefox 4–9
Internet Explorer 9
Lunascape 6.5
Opera 12–12.17
SeaMonkey 2.1–2.4
Waterfox
2012
Chrome 17–23
Firefox 10–17
Internet Explorer 10
Lunascape 6.7
Maxthon 3.4
NetSurf 2.9
Safari 6
Yandex Browser
2013
Chrome 24–31
Firefox 18–26
Internet Explorer 11
Opera 15–18
Safari 7
SeaMonkey 2.15–2.22
2014
Chrome 32–39
Firefox 27–34
Lunascape 6.9
NetSurf 3.1
Opera 19–26
Safari 8
SeaMonkey 2.23–2.31
2015
Chrome 40–47
Firefox 35–43
Lunascape 6.10–6.12
Microsoft Edge 20, 25
Opera 27–34
Safari 9
SeaMonkey 2.32–2.39
Vivaldi Technical Preview 1–Beta 2
2016
Brave 0.7–0.12
Chrome 48–55
Firefox 44–50
Lunascape 6.13–6.15
Microsoft Edge 38
Opera 35–42
Safari 10
Vivaldi Beta 3–1.6
Yandex 15.12–16.9
2017
Brave 0.13–0.19
Chrome 56–63
Firefox 51–57
Microsoft Edge 40, 41
Opera 43–49
Safari 11
SeaMonkey 2.46–2.49
Vivaldi 1.7–1.13
2018
Basilisk
Brave 0.20–0.60
Chrome 64–71
Firefox 58–64
Microsoft Edge 42–44
Opera 50–57
Safari 12
Vivaldi 1.14–2.2
Waterfox 56.0–56.2
Yandex 17.9–18.10
2019
Brave 0.61–1.1
Chrome 72–79
Firefox 65–71
Microsoft Edge 44
Opera 58–65
Safari 13
Vivaldi 2.3–2.10
Waterfox 60.1–68.0a2
Whale 1.4–1.5
Yandex 18.11–19.12
2020s2020
Brave 1.2–1.18
Chrome 80–87
Firefox 72–84
Microsoft Edge 79–87
Opera 66–73
SeaMonkey 2.53
Vivaldi 2.11–3.5
Safari 14
2021
Brave 1.19–1.33
Chrome 88–96
Firefox 85–95
Microsoft Edge 88–96
Opera 74–82
SeaMonkey 2.53.10.2
Vivaldi 3.6–5.0
Yandex 20.11.5–21.3
Safari 15
2022
Arc 0.46–0.81
Brave 1.34–1.46
Chrome 97–108
Firefox 96–108
Microsoft Edge 97–108
Opera 83–94
Vivaldi 5.1–5.6
Yandex 22.1–22.11
Safari 16
2023
Arc 0.85–1.21
Brave 1.47–1.61
Chrome 109–120
Firefox 109–121
Microsoft Edge 109–120
Opera 95–106
Vivaldi 5.7–6.5
Yandex 23.1–23.11
Safari 17
2024
Arc 1.25–
Brave 1.62–
Chrome 121–
Firefox 122–
Microsoft Edge 121–
Opera 107–
Vivaldi 6.6–
Yandex 24.1–
Related topics
3D Markup Language for Web
ALIWEB
ARPANET
ASCII
BITNET
Browser wars
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Gopher
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vteTelenorMobile
CelcomDigi (Malaysia) (33.1%)
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Grameenphone (Bangladesh) (55%)
Telenor Denmark
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Telenor Pakistan
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"web browser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser"},{"link_name":"Opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_(company)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nasdaq_company_data_-_Opera-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chinese_Consortium_buys_Opera_for_600m-13"},{"link_name":"Chromium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium_(web_browser)"},{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"},{"link_name":"WebKit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebKit"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Opera Mobile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_Mobile"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Opera Mini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_Mini"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Opera News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_News_(app)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"commercial software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_software"},{"link_name":"Presto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presto_(browser_engine)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Opera GX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Opera_GX"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"Opera is a multi-platform web browser developed by its namesake company Opera.[11][12][13] The current edition of the browser is based on Chromium. Opera is available on Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, and iOS (Safari WebKit engine).[14][15] Two mobile versions are still active, called Opera Mobile[16] and Opera Mini.[17][18] Opera also has a news aggregator app called Opera News with an AI search-engine.[19]Opera was initially released on 10 April 1995, making it one of the oldest desktop web browsers to ever exist. It was commercial software for its first ten years and had its own proprietary layout engine, Presto. In 2013, it switched from the Presto engine to Chromium. In 2016, Opera, developed in Norway, became a subsidiary of an investment group led by a Chinese consortium.[20] In 2018, Opera Software went public on the NASDAQ stock exchange. By the end of 2022, the consortium sold all of its shares, and Opera in turn committed to repurchase all of its American Depository Shares to reestablish its corporate autonomy.[21][22]In 2019, Opera Software introduced Opera GX, a browser for gamers with the ultimate performance numbers, and ad-free experience. [23]","title":"Opera (web browser)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jon Stephenson von Tetzchner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Stephenson_von_Tetzchner"},{"link_name":"Geir Ivarsøy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geir_Ivars%C3%B8y"},{"link_name":"Telenor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telenor"},{"link_name":"Norwegian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Opera Software AS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_Software"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Affiliated-27"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows 95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows_95"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Milestones-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Affiliated-27"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"trialware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trialware"},{"link_name":"ad-sponsored","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adware"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"banner ads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banner_ad"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"search engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_engine"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"GeoTrust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeoTrust"},{"link_name":"digital certificate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_certificate"},{"link_name":"PhishTank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhishTank"},{"link_name":"phishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishing"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Netcraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netcraft"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Nintendo DS Browser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DS_%26_DSi_Browser"},{"link_name":"Internet Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Channel"},{"link_name":"DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DS"},{"link_name":"Wii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"JavaScript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript"},{"link_name":"Carakan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javanese_script"},{"link_name":"Javanese alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javanese_alphabet"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"SunSpider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SunSpider"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"extensions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Browser_extension"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Presto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presto_(layout_engine)"},{"link_name":"WebKit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebKit"},{"link_name":"Chrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Chrome"},{"link_name":"Chromium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium_(web_browser)"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ars-prestowebkit-46"},{"link_name":"Blink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blink_(layout_engine)"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ars-blink-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Opera Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_Mail"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"public","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_company"},{"link_name":"NASDAQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASDAQ"},{"link_name":"initial public offering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_public_offering"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IPO-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"PC World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_World"},{"link_name":"Speed Dial Browsing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Features_of_the_Opera_web_browser#Speed_Dial_Browsing"},{"link_name":"desktop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_metaphor"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"32-bit Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"64-bit Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Facebook Messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_(software)"},{"link_name":"WhatsApp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WhatsApp"},{"link_name":"Telegram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegram_(software)"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"cryptocurrency mining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptocurrency_mining"},{"link_name":"Chromecast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Cast"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Web 2.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0"},{"link_name":"Web 3.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web3"},{"link_name":"blockchain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockchain"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Apple Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Music"},{"link_name":"Spotify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotify"},{"link_name":"Youtube Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube_Music"},{"link_name":"Tidal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_(service)"},{"link_name":"Soundcloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SoundCloud"},{"link_name":"Gaana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaana_(music_streaming_service)"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"Windows 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_7"},{"link_name":"8.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_8.1"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Chromium based browsers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium_based_browsers"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"ChatGPT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChatGPT"},{"link_name":"ChatSonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//writesonic.com/chat"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"GPT-based","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_pre-trained_transformer"},{"link_name":"OpenAI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenAI"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"}],"text":"In 1994, Jon Stephenson von Tetzchner and Geir Ivarsøy started developing the Opera web browser while working at Telenor, a Norwegian telecommunications company.[24][25]In 1995, they founded Opera Software AS.[26] Opera was initially released on 10 April 1995, and then it was released publicly in 1996 with version 2.10,[27] which ran on Microsoft Windows 95.[28] Development for mobile device platforms started in 1998.[29]Opera 4.0, released in 2000,[27] included a new cross-platform core that facilitated the creation of editions of Opera for multiple operating systems and platforms.[30]To this point, Opera was trialware and had to be purchased after the trial period. With version 5.0, released in 2000, Opera became ad-sponsored, displaying ads to users who had not paid for it.[31] Subsequent versions have given users the choice of seeing banner ads or targeted text ads from Google.With version 8.5, released in 2005, the ads were completely removed, and the browser's primary financial support came through revenue from Google (by contract, Opera's default search engine).[32]Among new features introduced in version 9.1, released in 2006, was fraud protection using technology from GeoTrust, a digital certificate provider, and PhishTank, an organization that tracks known phishing web sites.[33] This feature was further expanded in version 9.5, when GeoTrust was replaced with Netcraft, and malware protection from Haute Secure was added.[34]In 2006, Opera Software ASA was released as well as Nintendo DS Browser and Internet Channel for Nintendo's DS and Wii gaming systems, respectively, which were Opera-based browsers.[35][36][37][38]A new JavaScript engine, called Carakan (after the Javanese alphabet), was introduced with version 10.50.[39] According to Opera Software, it made Opera 10.50 more than seven times faster in SunSpider than Opera 10.10.[40][41][42]On 16 December 2010, Opera 11 was released, featuring extensions,[43] tab stacking (where dragging one tab over another allowed creating a group of tabs), visual mouse gestures and changes to the address bar.[44] Opera 12 was released on 14 June 2012.[45]On 12 February 2013, Opera Software announced that it would drop its own Presto layout engine in favor of WebKit as implemented by Google's Chrome browser, using code from the Chromium project. Opera Software planned as well to contribute code to WebKit.[46] On 3 April 2013, Google announced it would fork components from WebKit to form a new layout engine, Blink. That day, Opera Software confirmed it would follow Google in implementing Blink.[47]On 28 May 2013, a beta release of Opera 15 was made available,[48] the first version based on the Chromium project.[49][50] Many distinctive Opera features of the previous versions were dropped, and Opera Mail was separated into a standalone application derived from Opera 12.[51]In 2016, Opera was acquired by an investment group led by a Chinese consortium, the consortium included several Chinese companies such as Kunlun Tech and Qihoo 360. On July 27, 2018, Opera Software went public on the NASDAQ stock exchange, raising $115 million in its initial public offering.[52] Opera began repurchasing its shares in 2022 following the closure of 360 Security Technology Inc. that year.[53][54]In January 2017, the source code of Opera 12.15, one of the last few versions still based on the Presto layout engine, was leaked.[55]To demonstrate how radically different a browser could look, Opera Neon, dubbed a \"concept browser\", was released in January 2017. PC World compared it to demo models that automakers and hardware vendors release to show their visions of the future. Instead of a Speed Dial Browsing feature it displays the frequently accessed websites in resemblance to a desktop with computer icons scattered over it in an artistic formation.[56][57]On 10 May 2017, Opera 45 was released. Notably this was the last version of the browser compatible with 32-bit Linux distributions, with later versions requiring a 64-bit Linux distribution. This version, inspired by the previous Opera Neon design, was called “Opera Reborn” and which redoes parts of the user interface, such as adding light and dark modes, and integrates the messenger applications Facebook Messenger, WhatsApp, and Telegram. Additionally, new ad-blocking settings were added along with security changes.[58]On 4 January, 2018, Opera 50 was released. This version updated the browser to utilize the built-in ad blocker to provide cryptocurrency mining protection that stops sites from running scripts that attempt to use the CPU to mine cryptocurrency. Additionally the browser added Chromecast support, VR support enhancements, saving pages as PDFs, and improved VPN performance with region-based locations rather than country-based.[59]On 9 April 2019, Opera 60 was released. This version, codenamed Reborn 3, focused on moving the browser towards a more minimal design, further improving the free VPN service, and updating from Web 2.0 to Web 3.0 which allows for integration of blockchain and distributed systems, a more decentralized web that lets users communicate peer-to-peer much more securely than before.[60]On 21 May 2019, Opera GX is announced and opened for early-access. The only information available in this announcement is that the browser would be a special version of the browser aimed at those who play games. The early-access program was opened on 11 June 2019.[61][62]On 24 June 2021, Opera 77, codenamed Opera R5 was released. As one of the larger updates to the browser, it added more music streaming services in the sidebar, integrating native support for Apple Music, Spotify, Youtube Music, Tidal, Soundcloud, and Gaana. The “Pinboards” feature was also added, letting users create a shareable collection of websites, images, links, and notes in a visual form. A video popout feature was also added for video conferencing, which happens automatically when switching tabs, popping out of the window when navigating away and popping back in when navigating back.[63] Later, in Opera 83 released on 19 January 2022, this feature would be implemented for all video players, not just video conferencing platforms.[64]On 31 Jan 2023, Opera announced that given the discontinuation of support for Windows 7 and 8.1 by Microsoft, Chromium based browsers are also ending support, so Opera will no longer get updates on those versions, but older versions will continue to function on those versions of Windows.[65]On 22 March 2023, Opera and Opera GX incorporated features with AI-powered tools. These features include AI Prompts that are suggested to the user, and sidebar access to ChatGPT and ChatSonic. The prompts show up on sites that contain content like articles, offering to shorten the text or summarize them.[66]On 20 June 2023, Opera launched Opera 100, codenamed Opera One, a version of the browser built from the ground up around AI which was unveiled on 25 April 2023. This browser includes a native AI called Aria, a GPT-based AI engine that was developed collaboratively with OpenAI that sifts through web information, generates text and code, and much more in the browser. Tab islands were also introduced, allowing browser tabs to be grouped together, bookmarked, collapsed, and more. Major UI changes were made, and a Multithreaded Compositor was introduced, allowing the browser to function and render in animations much smoother than it was previously capable.[67][68][69]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"private browsing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_browsing"},{"link_name":"tabbed browsing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabbed_browsing"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"}],"text":"Opera has originated features later adopted by other web browsers, including: Speed Dial, pop-up blocking, reopening recently closed pages, private browsing, and tabbed browsing.[70][71] Additional features include a built-in screenshot tool, Snapshot, which also includes an image-markup tool;[72] built-in ad blockers, and tracking blockers.[73]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"WhatsApp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WhatsApp"},{"link_name":"Telegram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegram_(software)"},{"link_name":"Facebook Messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_(software)"},{"link_name":"Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter"},{"link_name":"Instagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instagram"},{"link_name":"TikTok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TikTok"},{"link_name":"VK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VK_(service)"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"}],"sub_title":"Built-in messengers","text":"Opera's desktop browser includes access to social media messaging apps WhatsApp, Telegram, Facebook Messenger, Twitter, Instagram, TikTok, and VK.[74][75]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bookmarks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookmark"},{"link_name":"download manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Download_manager"},{"link_name":"thumbnail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thumbnail"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-71"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-76"},{"link_name":"Cascading Style Sheets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascading_Style_Sheets"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"HTTPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-turbo-78"},{"link_name":"Opera Mini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_Mini"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"}],"sub_title":"Usability and accessibility","text":"Opera includes a bookmarks bar and a download manager. It also has \"Speed Dial\" which allows the user to add an unlimited number of pages shown in thumbnail form in a page displayed when a new tab is opened.[70][71][76]Opera was one of the first browsers to support Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) in 1998.[77]Opera Turbo, a feature that compresses requested web pages (except HTTPS pages) before sending them to the users,[78] is no longer available on the desktop browser. Opera Turbo is available in Opera Mini, the mobile browser.[79]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Browser security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Browser_security"},{"link_name":"HTTP cookies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTP_cookie"},{"link_name":"cache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_cache"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-private-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Security_and_privacy-81"},{"link_name":"fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraud"},{"link_name":"malware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware"},{"link_name":"phishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishing"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Security_and_privacy-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"web proxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_server#Web_proxy_servers"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"}],"sub_title":"Privacy and security","text":"See also: Browser securityOne security feature is the option to delete private data, such as HTTP cookies, browsing history, items in cache and passwords with the click of a button.[80]When visiting a site, Opera displays a security badge in the address bar which shows details about the website, including security certificates.[81] Opera's fraud and malware protection warns the user about suspicious web pages and is enabled by default. It checks the requested page against several databases of known phishing and malware websites, called blacklists.[81]In 2016, a free virtual private network (VPN) service was implemented in the browser.[82] Opera said that this would allow encrypted access to websites otherwise blocked, and provide security on public WiFi networks.[83][84] It was later determined that the browser VPN operated as a web proxy rather than a VPN, meaning that it only secured connections made by the browser and not by any other apps on the computer.[85]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cryptocurrency wallet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptocurrency_wallet"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Cryptokitties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptokitties"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"domain name system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"}],"sub_title":"Crypto-wallet-support","text":"In 2018, a built-in cryptocurrency wallet to the Opera Web Browser was released,[86] announcing that they would be the first browser with a built-in Crypto Wallet.[87] On 13 December 2018, Opera released a video showing many decentralized applications like Cryptokitties running on the Android version of the Opera Web Browser.[88]In March 2020, Opera updated its Android browser to access crypto domains, making it the first browser to be able to support a domain name system (DNS) which is not part of the traditional DNS directly without the need of a plugin or add-on.[89] This was through a collaboration with a San Francisco based startup, Unstoppable Domains.[90][91]In January 2022, Opera introduced Opera Crypto Browser into public beta, combining a non-custodial wallet with a dedicated browser for blockchain-enabled services and Web3 technologies.[92] On 14 April 2022, Opera launched its Crypto Browser available on iOS devices.[93] As of 2023, Opera Crypto Browser has been discontinued, with the browser's features being integrated into Opera and Opera GX.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"AI chatbot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_chatbot"},{"link_name":"OpenAI's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenAI"},{"link_name":"GPT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_pre-trained_transformer"}],"sub_title":"AI chatbot","text":"In 2023, Opera added an AI chatbot which it calls Aria, into the browser. This is powered by Opera's Composer AI engine and connects to OpenAI's GPT model.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"early access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_access"},{"link_name":"E3 2019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E3_2019"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"Twitch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitch_(service)"},{"link_name":"Discord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discord_(software)"},{"link_name":"Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter"},{"link_name":"Instagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instagram"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Red Dot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Dot"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"Red Dot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Dot"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"VTuber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTuber"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"Eric André","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Andr%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"subreddit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"}],"sub_title":"Opera GX","text":"Opera GX is a gaming-oriented alternative of Opera. The browser was announced on 21 May 2019 and released in early access for Windows on 11 June 2019, during E3 2019. The macOS version was released in December of the same year.[97][98][99]Opera GX adds features geared toward gamers and other audiences, with the regular Opera browser features included. The limiter allows users to limit network, CPU, and memory usage to preserve system resources. Using GX Cleaner, a tool that is said to allow users to clear cache, cookies, and other unwanted files etc. The browser also adds integrations with other apps such as Twitch, Discord, Twitter, and Instagram. The browser also has a built-in page called the GX Corner, which collates gaming-related releases, deals, and news articles.[100][101][102]On 5 September 2019, Opera won a Red Dot award in the Interface and User Experience Design category for Opera GX. Around the same time, Opera GX also marks its first one million downloads.[103]On 20 May 2021, a mobile version of Opera GX on iOS and Android.[104]On 12 November of the same year, Opera GX Mobile was awarded a Red Dot award in both the Apps category and the Interface and User Experience Design: Mobile UIs category.[105]On August 19, 2023, Opera GX introduced a VTuber named GX Aura for their social media accounts, she later became the mascot for the browser.[106][107]On November 28 of the same year, Opera GX launched a new advertising campaign titled \"Bury Boring\", featuring actor and comedian Eric André smashing and burying computers not using Opera GX.[108][109] The advertising campaign also included a splash screen whenever the browser is launched during the campaign with slashing sounds and André yelling out the browser's name.While well received by many of its user base, many criticized Opera GX's actions. In the browser's subreddit, many users complained about the loud volume of the splash screen and that the splash screen could not be bypassed unless the execution file was deleted.[110][111][112][113]","title":"Other versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"developer build","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_test"},{"link_name":"beta version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_version"},{"link_name":"released","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_release_cycle#Release"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"feature complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_complete"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-opera_beta-116"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Opera_stream_icons-117"}],"text":"Opera Software uses a release cycle consisting of three \"streams\", corresponding to phases of development, that can be downloaded and installed independently of each other: \"developer\", \"beta\", and \"stable\". New features are first introduced in the developer build, then, depending on user feedback, may progress to the beta version and eventually be released.[114]The developer stream allows early testing of new features, mainly targeting developers, extension creators, and early adopters. Opera developer is not intended for everyday browsing as it is unstable and is prone to failure or crashing, but it enables advanced users to try out new features that are still under development, without affecting their normal installation of the browser. New versions of the browser are released frequently, generally a few times a week.[115]The beta stream, formerly known as \"Opera Next\", is a feature complete package, allowing stability and quality to mature before the final release. A new version is released every couple of weeks.[116] Both streams can be installed alongside the official release without interference. Each has a different icon to help the user distinguish between the variants.\n[117]","title":"Development-stages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Usage share of web browsers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usage_share_of_web_browsers"}],"text":"Further information: Usage share of web browsers","title":"Market-adoption"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Adobe Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Inc."},{"link_name":"Adobe Creative Suite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Creative_Suite"},{"link_name":"Adobe GoLive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_GoLive"},{"link_name":"Adobe Photoshop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Photoshop"},{"link_name":"Adobe Dreamweaver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Dreamweaver"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Wii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"Nintendo DS Browser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DS_Browser"},{"link_name":"Nintendo DSi Browser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DSi_Browser"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-124"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"}],"sub_title":"Integrations","text":"In 2005, Adobe Systems integrated Opera's rendering engine, Presto, into its Adobe Creative Suite applications. Opera technology was employed in Adobe GoLive, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Dreamweaver, and other components of the Adobe Creative Suite.[119][120] Opera's layout engine is also found in Virtual Mechanics SiteSpinner Pro.[121] The Internet Channel is a version of the Opera 9 web browser for use on the Nintendo Wii created by Opera Software and Nintendo.[122] Opera Software is also implemented in the Nintendo DS Browser and Nintendo DSi Browser for Nintendo's handheld systems.Opera is the fifth most popular web-browser.[123][124] As of April 2021, Opera's offerings had over 320 million active users.[125]","title":"Market-adoption"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-126"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-124"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"UI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_Interface"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"}],"text":"The Opera browser has been listed as a \"tried and tested direct alternative to Chrome\".[126] It scores close to Chrome on the HTML5test, which scores browsers' compatibility with different web standards.[124]Versions with the Presto layout engine have been positively reviewed,[127][128][129] although they have been criticized for website compatibility issues.[130][131] Because of this issue, Opera 8.01 and higher had included workarounds to help certain popular but problematic web sites display properly.[132][133]Versions with the Blink layout engine have been criticized by some users for missing features such as UI customization, and for abandoning Opera Software's own Presto layout engine.[134][135][136][137] Despite that, versions with the Blink layout engine have been noted for being fast and stable, for handling the latest web standards and for having a better website compatibility and a modern-style user interface.[138][139][140]","title":"Reception"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Opera Mini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_Mini"},{"title":"Opera Mobile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_Mobile"},{"title":"Otter Browser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otter_Browser"},{"title":"Vivaldi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivaldi_(web_browser)"},{"title":"former CEO of Opera Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Stephenson_von_Tetzchner"},{"title":"History of the web browser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_web_browser"},{"title":"List of pop-up blocking software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pop-up_blocking_software"},{"title":"List of web browsers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_web_browsers"},{"title":"Timeline of web browsers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_web_browsers"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Opera version history — Opera 1 series\". Opera Software. 21 February 2012. Archived from the original on 23 October 2014. Retrieved 21 February 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141023082855/http://www.opera.com/docs/history/presto/#o1","url_text":"\"Opera version history — Opera 1 series\""},{"url":"http://www.opera.com/docs/history/presto/#o1","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Opera Team (12 June 2024). \"Opera 111\". Retrieved 12 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.opera.com/desktop/2024/06/opera-111/","url_text":"\"Opera 111\""}]},{"reference":"\"Thanks for downloading Opera\". Opera Norway. Retrieved 5 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://download.opera.com/download/get/?partner=www&opsys=Windows&product=Opera+beta","url_text":"\"Thanks for downloading Opera\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_(company)","url_text":"Opera Norway"}]},{"reference":"\"beta Archives - Opera Desktop\". Opera Norway. Retrieved 5 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.opera.com/desktop/category/beta/","url_text":"\"beta Archives - Opera Desktop\""}]},{"reference":"\"Index of /ftp/pub/opera-beta/\". Retrieved 5 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://get.opera.com/ftp/pub/opera-beta/","url_text":"\"Index of /ftp/pub/opera-beta/\""}]},{"reference":"\"Thanks for downloading Opera\". Opera Norway. Retrieved 5 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://download.opera.com/download/get/?partner=www&opsys=Windows&product=Opera+developer","url_text":"\"Thanks for downloading Opera\""}]},{"reference":"\"Developer Archives - Opera Desktop\". Opera Norway. Retrieved 5 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.opera.com/desktop/category/developer-2/","url_text":"\"Developer Archives - Opera Desktop\""}]},{"reference":"\"Index of /ftp/pub/opera-developer/\". Retrieved 5 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://get.opera.com/ftp/pub/opera-developer/","url_text":"\"Index of /ftp/pub/opera-developer/\""}]},{"reference":"Lextrait, Vincent (July 2010). \"The Programming Languages Beacon, v10.3\". Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120530/http://www.lextrait.com/Vincent/implementations.html","url_text":"\"The Programming Languages Beacon, v10.3\""},{"url":"http://www.lextrait.com/Vincent/implementations.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Opera system requirements\". Opera Software. Retrieved 22 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.opera.com/download/requirements","url_text":"\"Opera system requirements\""}]},{"reference":"\"About Opera – Innovation is our game – Opera\". www.opera.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.opera.com/about","url_text":"\"About Opera – Innovation is our game – Opera\""}]},{"reference":"\"Opera Limited American Depositary Shares (OPRA)\". NASDAQ.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nasdaq.com/symbol/opra","url_text":"\"Opera Limited American Depositary Shares (OPRA)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chinese consortium buys Opera browser for $600 mn\". phys.org. Retrieved 23 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://phys.org/news/2016-07-chinese-consortium-opera-browser-mn.html","url_text":"\"Chinese consortium buys Opera browser for $600 mn\""}]},{"reference":"\"Opera Touch is a solid alternative to Safari on the iPhone\". TechCrunch. 2 October 2018. Retrieved 12 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2018/10/02/opera-touch-ios/","url_text":"\"Opera Touch is a solid alternative to Safari on the iPhone\""}]},{"reference":"\"Best web browser 2020: Chrome, Edge, Firefox, and Opera go head-to-head\". PCWorld. 17 April 2020. Retrieved 12 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcworld.com/article/3213031/best-web-browsers.html","url_text":"\"Best web browser 2020: Chrome, Edge, Firefox, and Opera go head-to-head\""}]},{"reference":"\"Opera update uses QR codes to sync data between PC and Android browsers\". Engadget. 23 September 2020. Retrieved 20 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.engadget.com/opera-makes-it-easier-to-sync-between-pc-and-android-versions-074206375.html","url_text":"\"Opera update uses QR codes to sync data between PC and Android browsers\""}]},{"reference":"Brügger, Niels; Milligan, Ian (10 December 2018). The SAGE Handbook of Web History. SAGE. ISBN 978-1-5264-5546-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PENeDwAAQBAJ&q=opera+mini+2005&pg=PT520","url_text":"The SAGE Handbook of Web History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5264-5546-8","url_text":"978-1-5264-5546-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Opera launches a new mobile browser\". TechCrunch. 25 April 2018. Retrieved 20 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://social.techcrunch.com/2018/04/25/opera-launches-a-new-mobile-browser/","url_text":"\"Opera launches a new mobile browser\""}]},{"reference":"\"Opera News Sets a New Record With 200 Million Users\". MarTech Series. 9 June 2020. Retrieved 14 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://martechseries.com/technology/opera-news-sets-new-record-200-million-users/","url_text":"\"Opera News Sets a New Record With 200 Million Users\""}]},{"reference":"\"Opera Golden Brick\". 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|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianhe-1
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Tianhe-1
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["1 Background","1.1 Tianhe-1","1.2 Tianhe-1A","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
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Supercomputer
Not to be confused with Tianhe (space station module), the first core module of the Chinese Space Station.
Tianhe-1 and Tianhe-1AActiveTianhe-1 Operational 29 October 2009, Tianhe-1A Operational 28 October 2010SponsorsNational University of Defense TechnologyOperatorsNational Supercomputing CenterLocationNational Supercomputing Center, Tianjin, People's Republic of ChinaOperating systemLinuxMemory96 TB (98304 GB) for Tianhe-1, 262 TB for Tianhe-1ASpeedTianhe-1: 563 teraFLOPS (Rmax) 1,206.2 teraFLOPS (Rpeak),Tianhe-1A: 2,566.0 teraFLOPS (Rmax) 4,701.0 teraFLOPS (Rpeak)RankingTOP500: 1st, November 2010 (Tianhe-1A)PurposePetroleum exploration, aircraft simulationSourcestop500.org
Tianhe-1Simplified Chinese天河一号Traditional Chinese天河一號Literal meaning"Milky Way No.1"TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinTiānhé yīhào
Tianhe-I, Tianhe-1, or TH-1 (Chinese: 天河一号, ; Sky River Number One) is a supercomputer capable of an Rmax (maximum range) of 2.5 peta FLOPS. Located at the National Supercomputing Center of Tianjin, China, it was the fastest computer in the world from October 2010 to June 2011 and was one of the few petascale supercomputers in the world.
In October 2010, an upgraded version of the machine (Tianhe-1A) overtook ORNL's Jaguar to become the world's fastest supercomputer, with a peak computing rate of 2.57 petaFLOPS. In June 2011 the Tianhe-1A was overtaken by the K computer as the world's fastest supercomputer, which was also subsequently superseded.
Both the original Tianhe-1 and Tianhe-1A use a Linux-based operating system.
On 12 August 2015, Tianhe-1 felt the impact of the powerful Tianjin explosions and went offline for some time. Xinhua reports that "the office building of Chinese supercomputer Tianhe-1, one of the world's fastest supercomputers, suffered damage". Sources at Tianhe-1 told Xinhua that the computer was not damaged, but that they had shut down some of its operations as a precaution. Operation resumed on 17 August 2015.
Background
Tianhe-1
Tianhe-1 was developed by the Chinese National University of Defense Technology (NUDT) in Changsha, Hunan. It was first revealed to the public on 29 October 2009, and was immediately ranked as the world's fifth fastest supercomputer in the TOP500 list released at the 2009 Supercomputing Conference (SC09) held in Portland, Oregon, on 16 November 2009. Tianhe achieved a speed of 563 teraflops in its first Top 500 test and had a peak performance of 1.2 petaflops. Thus at startup, the system had an efficiency of 46%. Originally, Tianhe-1 was powered by 4,096 Intel Xeon E5540 processors and 1,024 Intel Xeon E5450 processors, with 5,120 AMD graphics processing units (GPUs), which were made up of 2,560 dual-GPU ATI Radeon HD 4870 X2 graphics cards.
Tianhe-1A
In October 2010, Tianhe-1A, an upgraded supercomputer, was unveiled at HPC 2010 China. It is now equipped with 14,336 Xeon X5670 processors and 7,168 Nvidia Tesla M2050 general purpose GPUs. 2,048 FeiTeng 1000 SPARC-based processors are also installed in the system, but their computing power was not counted into the machine's official LINPACK statistics as of October 2010. Tianhe-1A has a theoretical peak performance of 4.701 petaflops. NVIDIA suggests that it would have taken "50,000 CPUs and twice as much floor space to deliver the same performance using CPUs alone." The current heterogeneous system consumes 4.04 megawatts compared to over 12 megawatts had it been built only with CPUs.
The Tianhe-1A system is composed of 112 computer cabinets, 12 storage cabinets, 6 communications cabinets, and 8 I/O cabinets. Each computer cabinet is composed of four frames, with each frame containing eight blades, plus a 16-port switching board. Each blade is composed of two computer nodes, with each computer node containing two Xeon X5670 6-core processors and one Nvidia M2050 GPU processor. The system has 3584 total blades containing 7168 GPUs, and 14,336 CPUs, managed by the SLURM job scheduler. The total disk storage of the systems is 2 Petabytes implemented as a Lustre clustered file system, and the total memory size of the system is 262 terabytes.
Another significant reason for the increased performance of the upgraded Tianhe-1A system is the Chinese-designed NUDT custom designed proprietary high-speed interconnect called Arch that runs at 160 Gbit/s, twice the bandwidth of InfiniBand.
The system also used the Chinese-made FeiTeng-1000 central processing unit. The FeiTeng-1000 processor is used both on service nodes and to enhance the system interconnect.
The supercomputer is installed at the National Supercomputing Center, Tianjin, and is used to carry out computations for petroleum exploration and aircraft design. It is an "open access" computer, meaning it provides services for other countries. The supercomputer will be available to international clients.
The computer cost $88 million to build. Approximately $20 million is spent annually for electricity and operating expenses. Approximately 200 workers are employed in its operation.
Tianhe-IA was ranked as the world's fastest supercomputer in the TOP500 list until July 2011 when the K computer overtook it.
In June 2011, scientists at the Institute of Process Engineering (IPE) at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) announced a record-breaking scientific simulation on the Tianhe-1A supercomputer that furthers their research in solar energy. CAS-IPE scientists ran a complex molecular dynamics simulation on all 7,168 NVIDIA Tesla GPUs to achieve a performance of 1.87 petaflops (about the same performance as 130,000 laptops).
The Tianhe-1A supercomputer was shut down after the National Supercomputing Center of Tianjin was damaged by an explosion nearby. The computer was not damaged and still remains operational.
See also
China portal
HPC Challenge Benchmark
Supercomputing in China
Tianhe-2
References
^ "Tianhe-1 - NUDT TH-1 Cluster, Xeon E5540/E5450, ATI Radeon HD 4870 2, Infiniband | TOP500".
^ https://top500.org/lists/top500/2010/11/
^ a b "China takes HPC heavyweight title". 28 October 2010.
^ China's Defense University builds World Third fastest supercomputer, china-defense-mashup.com, 29 October 2009, retrieved 29 October 2009
^ "我国首台千万亿次超级计算机研制成功 (China builds its first petaFLOP level supercomputer)" (in Chinese). SINA.com News and XinhuaNet.com News. 29 October 2009. Retrieved 29 October 2009.
^ "China claims supercomputer crown". BBC. 29 October 2010. Retrieved 29 October 2010.
^ Richard Stone and Hao Xin (5 November 2010). "Supercomputer Leaves Competition - And Users - in the Dust". Science. 330 (6005): 746–747. Bibcode:2010Sci...330..746S. doi:10.1126/science.330.6005.746-a. PMID 21051607.
^ Chivers, Tom (20 June 2011). "Japanese supercomputer 'K' is world's fastest". The Telegraph. London. Retrieved 20 June 2011.
^ CBC News (October 2010). "China's supercomputer called world's fastest - Tianhe-1 can make 2,57 trillion calculations per second". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
^ srlinuxx (May 2010). "Nearly every supercomputer runs Linux". Tux Machines. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
^ Xinhua News (August 2015). "At least 17 killed, 400 injured in massive Tianjin blasts". Archived from the original on 14 August 2015. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
^ "China's super computer Tianhe-1 re-started after Tianjin blasts". Economic Times World News. 17 August 2015. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
^ "China joins supercomputer elite". BBC. 16 November 2009. Retrieved 16 November 2009.
^ a b "Two Rival Supercomputers Duke It out for Top Spot". PC World. 15 November 2009. Retrieved 16 November 2009.
^ "Most Powerful Supercomputer in the World Powered by the Six-Core AMD Opteron Processor". 16 November 2009.
^ "Tianhe-1, China's first Petaflop/s scale supercomputer". Top 500 blog. 13 November 2009.
^ NBC News
^ a b c "Top100爆冷门 天河一号力压星云再夺魁". 28 October 2010.
^ "China builds world's fastest supercomputer". ZDNet UK. 29 October 2010.
^ "NVIDIA Tesla GPUs Power World's Fastest Supercomputer" (Press release). Nvidia. 29 October 2010.
^ Tianhe-1A
^ SLURM Version 2.2: Features and Release Plans
^ a b U.S. says China building 'entirely indigenous' supercomputer, by Patrick Thibodeau Computerworld, 4 November 2010
^ Yang Xue-Jun; Liao Xiang-Ke; et al. (2011). "The TianHe-1A Supercomputer: Its Hardware and Software". Journal of Computer Science and Technology. 26 (3): 344–351. doi:10.1007/s02011-011-1137-8. S2CID 1389468.
^ "World's fastest supercomputer belongs to China". CNN.com. 28 October 2010.
^ "Supercomputer to be open to foreign clients". China Daily. 18 November 2010.
^ "China Grabs Supercomputing Leadership Spot in Latest Ranking of World's Top 500 Supercomputers" (Press release). TOP500. 11 November 2010.
^ "Chinese supercomputer ranked world's fastest by TOP500" (Press release). Peopledaily.com.cn. 17 November 2010.
^ "China's Investment in GPU Supercomputing Begins to Pay Off Big Time! « NVIDIA". blogs.nvidia.com. Archived from the original on 12 June 2011.
^ "Supercomputer Tianhe-1A shut down due to Tianjin blast". 12 August 2015. Archived from the original on 14 August 2015. Retrieved 12 August 2015.
External links
National University of Defense Technology Official website (in English)
"Defense university builds China's fastest supercomputer". Sina English News. 29 October 2009.
"Defense university builds China's fastest supercomputer". Xinhua News Agency. 29 October 2009. Archived from the original on 31 October 2009.
"China's Defense University builds World Third fastest supercomputer". china-defense-mashup.com. 29 October 2009.
Vance, Ashlee (28 October 2010). "China Wrests Supercomputer Title From U.S." The New York Times.
Xinhua News (August 2015). "At least 17 killed, 400 injured in massive Tianjin blasts". Archived from the original on 14 August 2015. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
"China's super computer Tianhe-1 re-started after Tianjin blasts". The Economic Times. 17 August 2015.
Records
Preceded byJaguar1.75 petaflops
World's most powerful supercomputer October 2010 – June 2011
Succeeded byK computer8.2 petaflops
|
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Thus at startup, the system had an efficiency of 46%.[13][14] Originally, Tianhe-1 was powered by 4,096 Intel Xeon E5540 processors and 1,024 Intel Xeon E5450 processors, with 5,120 AMD graphics processing units (GPUs), which were made up of 2,560 dual-GPU ATI Radeon HD 4870 X2 graphics cards.[15][better source needed][16]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Xeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeon"},{"link_name":"X5670","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeon#3600/5600-series_%22Gulftown%22_&_%22Westmere-EP%22"},{"link_name":"Nvidia Tesla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia_Tesla"},{"link_name":"general purpose GPUs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPGPU"},{"link_name":"FeiTeng 1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FeiTeng#FeiTeng-1000"},{"link_name":"LINPACK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LINPACK"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tianhe-1A-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"megawatts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megawatt"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"link_name":"blades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blade_server"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"SLURM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurm_Workload_Manager"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Petabytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petabytes"},{"link_name":"Lustre clustered file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lustre_(file_system)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheRegister-3"},{"link_name":"terabytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terabytes"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tianhe-1A-18"},{"link_name":"Arch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arch_(interconnect)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"InfiniBand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfiniBand"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tianhe-1A-18"},{"link_name":"FeiTeng-1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FeiTeng#FeiTeng-1000"},{"link_name":"central processing unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HT1-24"},{"link_name":"petroleum exploration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbon_exploration"},{"link_name":"aircraft design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_design_process"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PC_World-14"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"TOP500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"K computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K_computer"},{"link_name":"Chinese Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Tianhe-1A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianhe-1A"},{"link_name":"National Supercomputing Center of Tianjin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Supercomputing_Center_of_Tianjin"},{"link_name":"an explosion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Tianjin_explosions"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Tianhe-1A","text":"In October 2010, Tianhe-1A, an upgraded supercomputer, was unveiled at HPC 2010 China.[17] It is now equipped with 14,336 Xeon X5670 processors and 7,168 Nvidia Tesla M2050 general purpose GPUs. 2,048 FeiTeng 1000 SPARC-based processors are also installed in the system, but their computing power was not counted into the machine's official LINPACK statistics as of October 2010.[18] Tianhe-1A has a theoretical peak performance of 4.701 petaflops.[19] NVIDIA suggests that it would have taken \"50,000 CPUs and twice as much floor space to deliver the same performance using CPUs alone.\" The current heterogeneous system consumes 4.04 megawatts compared to over 12 megawatts had it been built only with CPUs.[20][better source needed]The Tianhe-1A system is composed of 112 computer cabinets, 12 storage cabinets, 6 communications cabinets, and 8 I/O cabinets. Each computer cabinet is composed of four frames, with each frame containing eight blades, plus a 16-port switching board. Each blade is composed of two computer nodes, with each computer node containing two Xeon X5670 6-core processors and one Nvidia M2050 GPU processor.[21] The system has 3584 total blades containing 7168 GPUs, and 14,336 CPUs, managed by the SLURM job scheduler.[22] The total disk storage of the systems is 2 Petabytes implemented as a Lustre clustered file system,[3] and the total memory size of the system is 262 terabytes.[18]Another significant reason for the increased performance of the upgraded Tianhe-1A system is the Chinese-designed NUDT custom designed proprietary high-speed interconnect called Arch that runs at 160 Gbit/s, twice the bandwidth of InfiniBand.[18]The system also used the Chinese-made FeiTeng-1000 central processing unit.[23] The FeiTeng-1000 processor is used both on service nodes and to enhance the system interconnect.[23][24]The supercomputer is installed at the National Supercomputing Center, Tianjin, and is used to carry out computations for petroleum exploration and aircraft design.[14] It is an \"open access\" computer, meaning it provides services for other countries.[25] The supercomputer will be available to international clients.[26]The computer cost $88 million to build. Approximately $20 million is spent annually for electricity and operating expenses. Approximately 200 workers are employed in its operation.Tianhe-IA was ranked as the world's fastest supercomputer in the TOP500 list[27][28] until July 2011 when the K computer overtook it.In June 2011, scientists at the Institute of Process Engineering (IPE) at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) announced a record-breaking scientific simulation on the Tianhe-1A supercomputer that furthers their research in solar energy. CAS-IPE scientists ran a complex molecular dynamics simulation on all 7,168 NVIDIA Tesla GPUs to achieve a performance of 1.87 petaflops (about the same performance as 130,000 laptops).[29]The Tianhe-1A supercomputer was shut down after the National Supercomputing Center of Tianjin was damaged by an explosion nearby. The computer was not damaged and still remains operational.[30]","title":"Background"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"China portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:China"},{"title":"HPC Challenge Benchmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPC_Challenge_Benchmark"},{"title":"Supercomputing in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputing_in_China"},{"title":"Tianhe-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianhe-2"}]
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original"},{"Link":"http://english.nudt.edu.cn/","external_links_name":"National University of Defense Technology Official website"},{"Link":"http://english.sina.com/technology/2009/1029/281348.html","external_links_name":"\"Defense university builds China's fastest supercomputer\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091031232743/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-10/29/content_12356478.htm","external_links_name":"\"Defense university builds China's fastest supercomputer\""},{"Link":"http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-10/29/content_12356478.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.china-defense-mashup.com/?p=5180","external_links_name":"\"China's Defense University builds World Third fastest supercomputer\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/28/technology/28compute.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=tianhe-i&st=cse","external_links_name":"\"China Wrests Supercomputer Title From U.S.\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150814210448/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2015-08/13/c_134511459.htm","external_links_name":"\"At least 17 killed, 400 injured in massive Tianjin blasts\""},{"Link":"http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2015-08/13/c_134511459.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/chinas-super-computer-tianhe-1-re-started-after-tianjin-blasts/articleshow/48513173.cms","external_links_name":"\"China's super computer Tianhe-1 re-started after Tianjin blasts\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LLNL_HRS_process
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LLNL HRS process
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["1 History","2 Process","3 See also","4 References"]
|
Shale oil extraction process
LLNL HRSProcess typechemicalIndustrial sector(s)Chemical industry, oil industryFeedstockoil shaleProduct(s)shale oilDeveloper(s)Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
LLNL HRS (hot recycled solid) process is an above-ground shale oil extraction technology. It is classified as a hot recycled solids technology.
History
The process was developed by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. In 1984–1987, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory operated a LLNL HRS process-based pilot pant at Parachute, Colorado, with capacity of one tonne of oil shale per day. In 1989, the pilot plant was upgraded to process four tonne of oil shale per day. The pilot plant was operated till 1993. Later the process was modified and tested in the field of waste treatment and environmental cleanup for removing organic compounds and for decomposing sodium nitrate in contaminated soils.
Process
As a heat carrier, LLNL HRS process uses spent oil shale. Raw oil shale and spent oil shale are mixed in the fluidized bed mixer. The use of fluidized bed mixer results in better mixture, which in turn increases the mean quantity of oil yield and oil shale throughput. From the fluidized bed mixer oil shale moves downward to the packed-bed pyrolyzer. The heat is transferred from the heated spent oil shale to the raw oil shale causing pyrolysis. As a result, oil shale decomposes to shale oil vapors, oil shale gas and spent oil shale. Oil vapors are collected from the pyrolyzer. The spent oil shale, still including residual carbon (char), by the air pneumatic lift pipe to the delayed-fall combustor where it is combusted to heat the process. The delayed-fall combustor used in this process gives greater control over the combustion process as compared to a lift pipe combustor. From the delayed-fall combustor the oil shale ash and spent shale falls into a fluidized bed classifier where the finest parts of solids are removed and hot spent shale is forwarded to the fluidized bed mixer.
See also
Galoter process
Alberta Taciuk Process
Petrosix process
Kiviter process
TOSCO II process
Fushun process
Paraho process
Lurgi-Ruhrgas process
Chevron STB process
KENTORT II
References
^ Burnham, Alan K.; McConaghy, James R. (2006-10-16). "Comparison of the acceptability of various oil shale processes" (PDF). Golden: 26th Oil shale symposium. UCRL-CONF-226717. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-02-13. Retrieved 2007-05-29.
^
Johnson, Harry R.; Crawford, Peter M.; Bunger, James W. (2004). "Strategic significance of America's oil shale resource. Volume II: Oil shale resources, technology and economics" (PDF). Office of Deputy Assistant Secretary for Petroleum Reserves; Office of Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves; United States Department of Energy. p. A3. Retrieved 2007-06-23.
^ a b
Cena, Robert J. (May 1994). "Modified Retorting for Waste" (PDF). Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Retrieved 2010-01-30.
^
Cena, R.J.; Thorsness, C.B. (1990-10-16). LLNL (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory) Oil Shale Pilot Plant status report. Eastern oil shale symposium. Lexington, Kentucky: United States Department of Energy. UCRL-JC-105170; CONF-901181--1. Retrieved 2010-01-30.
|
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|
[]
|
[{"title":"Galoter process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galoter_process"},{"title":"Alberta Taciuk Process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta_Taciuk_Process"},{"title":"Petrosix process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrosix"},{"title":"Kiviter process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiviter_process"},{"title":"TOSCO II process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOSCO_II_process"},{"title":"Fushun process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fushun_process"},{"title":"Paraho process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraho_process"},{"title":"Lurgi-Ruhrgas process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurgi-Ruhrgas_process"},{"title":"Chevron STB process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevron_STB_process"},{"title":"KENTORT II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KENTORT_II"}]
|
[{"reference":"Burnham, Alan K.; McConaghy, James R. (2006-10-16). \"Comparison of the acceptability of various oil shale processes\" (PDF). Golden: 26th Oil shale symposium. UCRL-CONF-226717. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-02-13. Retrieved 2007-05-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160213164539/https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/341283.pdf","url_text":"\"Comparison of the acceptability of various oil shale processes\""},{"url":"https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/341283.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Johnson, Harry R.; Crawford, Peter M.; Bunger, James W. (2004). \"Strategic significance of America's oil shale resource. Volume II: Oil shale resources, technology and economics\" (PDF). Office of Deputy Assistant Secretary for Petroleum Reserves; Office of Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves; United States Department of Energy. p. A3. Retrieved 2007-06-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/npr/publications/npr_strategic_significancev2.pdf","url_text":"\"Strategic significance of America's oil shale resource. Volume II: Oil shale resources, technology and economics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Naval_Petroleum_and_Oil_Shale_Reserves","url_text":"Office of Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy","url_text":"United States Department of Energy"}]},{"reference":"Cena, Robert J. (May 1994). \"Modified Retorting for Waste\" (PDF). Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Retrieved 2010-01-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.llnl.gov/etr/pdfs/05_94._1.pdf","url_text":"\"Modified Retorting for Waste\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory","url_text":"Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory"}]},{"reference":"Cena, R.J.; Thorsness, C.B. (1990-10-16). LLNL (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory) Oil Shale Pilot Plant status report. Eastern oil shale symposium. Lexington, Kentucky: United States Department of Energy. UCRL-JC-105170; CONF-901181--1. Retrieved 2010-01-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/6198526-otgRxS/","url_text":"LLNL (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory) Oil Shale Pilot Plant status report"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexington,_Kentucky","url_text":"Lexington, Kentucky"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy","url_text":"United States Department of Energy"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160213164539/https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/341283.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Comparison of the acceptability of various oil shale processes\""},{"Link":"https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/341283.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/npr/publications/npr_strategic_significancev2.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Strategic significance of America's oil shale resource. Volume II: Oil shale resources, technology and economics\""},{"Link":"https://www.llnl.gov/etr/pdfs/05_94._1.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Modified Retorting for Waste\""},{"Link":"https://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/6198526-otgRxS/","external_links_name":"LLNL (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory) Oil Shale Pilot Plant status report"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Costa_Resort_and_Spa
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Omni La Costa Resort and Spa
|
["1 History","2 Professional golf","3 Penthouse article lawsuit","4 Connection to other controversies","5 Ownership timeline","6 References","7 External links"]
|
Coordinates: 33°05′32.16″N 117°16′01.33″W / 33.0922667°N 117.2670361°W / 33.0922667; -117.2670361Omni La Costa Resort & SpaLocationCarlsbad, California, USAOwnerOmni Hotels & ResortsCapacity2,100 (tennis)OpenedJuly 10, 1965TenantsSan Diego Aviators (WTT)(2015–2019)World TeamTennis Finals(2017)
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The Omni La Costa Resort & Spa is a luxury destination resort hotel opened in 1965, located in Carlsbad, California and is owned by Omni Hotels & Resorts, based out of Dallas, Texas. The resort is located in the San Diego area hills and is known for its golf courses and hosts professional golf and tennis tournaments. Tournaments at La Costa were hosted starting in the late 1960s, including many PGA Tour events and tennis events such as the Southern California Open. Currently the resort is home to events such as World Team Tennis and the California State Amateur Championship. Omni La Costa Resort & Spa is a member of Historic Hotels of America, the official program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation and has hosted the La Costa Film Festival.
History
The resort was founded in the early 1960s when a real estate developer, Irwin Molasky, from Las Vegas discovered an equestrian ranch in the coastal foothills of Southern California. Originally conceived as a residential resort offering activities and instruction for all ages, the resort opened on July 10, 1965 with 40 units available to guests for $22 per night which included green fees, as well as access to tennis, horse stables and the pool.
Professional golf
La Costa served as a home to two notable PGA Tour events. For thirty years, the resort hosted the Mercedes Championships (originally called the Tournament of Champions), from 1969 to 1998. That event left for Maui, Hawaii, when La Costa was selected to host the inaugural WGC-Accenture Match Play Championship in 1999. It hosted that event for seven of eight years (the 2001 event was played in Australia), until it moved to Arizona in 2007. In 2010 and 2012, the resort hosted the Kia Classic, an LPGA tour event with an estimated attendance of 43,000 in 2010.
Penthouse article lawsuit
In March 1975, Penthouse published an article headlined "La Costa: The Hundred Million-Dollar Resort with Criminal Clientele," written by Jeff Gerth and Lowell Bergman. The article indicated that the La Costa Resort and Spa in Carlsbad was developed by Mervyn Adelson and Irwin Molasky using loans from the Teamsters Pension Fund and that the resort was a playground for organized crime figures. The owners, along with two officials of the resort, Morris B. "Moe" Dalitz and Allard Roen, filed a libel lawsuit for $522 million against the magazine and the writers. In 1982, a jury absolved the magazine of any liability against the lawsuit from the owners. The plaintiffs appealed but in December 1985 before a new trial could begin, the two sides settled. Penthouse issued a statement that they did not mean to imply that Adelson and Molaskey are or were members of organized crime. In turn the plaintiffs issued a statement lauding Penthouse publisher Bob Guccione and his magazine for their "personal and professional awards." Total litigation costs were estimated to exceed $20 million. According to the San Diego Reader, Merv Adelson finally admitted to mob ties in an interview published in the March 2013 issue of Vanity Fair magazine.
Connection to other controversies
On May 8, 2007, WXYZ-TV in Detroit, Michigan, reported that now convicted and deposed mayor of Detroit, Kwame Kilpatrick used $8,600 from a fund created for voter education, economic empowerment and crime prevention to take his family and a babysitter on a week-long vacation to the La Costa Resort and Spa.
Tax and accounting experts found Kilpatrick's use of the fund also violated IRS regulations.
Ownership timeline
1965-1987: Mervyn Adelson and Irwin Molasky
1987-2001: Sports Shinko
2001-2007: KSL Resorts
2007-2010: Whitehall Street Real Estate Funds
2010-2013: KSL Capital Partners
2013–Present: Omni Hotels & Resorts
References
^ "History by the Decades at Omni la Costa Resort & Spa".
^ Court Revives La Costa Spa's Penthouse Suit http://articles.latimes.com/1985-05-23/local/me-8091_1_la-costa
^ Penthouse, Resort End Legal Battle in a Draw http://articles.latimes.com/1985-12-21/local/me-3043_1_la-costa-resort-owners
^ "La Costa's Merv Adelson admits mob ties." The San Diego Reader, January 31, 2013
^ "The Beautiful and the Damned" Vanity Fair magazine, March 2013
^ "Wilson Investigates Mayor's Expenses." WXYZ.com. 2007-05-10
^ KSL Buys La Costa Resort & Spa
^ Private equity firm buys La Costa
^ "La Costa Resort Purchased by Omni".
External links
La Costa Resort and Spa Wikimapia
vteWorld TeamTennis (WTT)
Current champions (2021): Orange County Breakers
Seasons
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
Current teams
Chicago Smash
New York Empire
Orange County Breakers
Orlando Storm
Philadelphia Freedoms
San Diego Aviators
Springfield Lasers
Vegas Rollers
Washington Kastles
Former teams
Austin Aces (2014–2015)
Baltimore Banners (1974)
Boston Lobsters (1974)
Boston Lobsters (1974–1978)
Boston Lobsters (2005–2015)
California Dream (1993–2015)
Chicago Aces (1974)
Cleveland Nets (1974–1976)
Cleveland-Pittsburgh Nets (1977)
Delaware Smash (1987–2008)
Denver Racquets (1974)
Detroit Loves (1974)
Florida Flamingos (1974)
Hartford FoxForce (2000-2006)
Hawaii Leis (1974–1976)
Houston E-Z Riders (1974)
Houston Wranglers (2005–2007)
Idaho Sneakers (1994–1997)
Indiana Loves (1974–1978)
Indiana Loves (1983)
Kansas City Explorers (1993–2012)
Las Vegas Neon (2014)
Los Angeles Strings (1974–1978)
Los Angeles Strings (1981–1993)
Minnesota Buckskins (1974)
New Jersey Stars (1987–1995)
New Orleans Sun Belt Nets (1974–1978)
New York Apples (1974–1978)
New York Buzz (1995–2010)
New York Hamptons (2000–2002)
New York OTBzz (1995–1998)
New York Sets (1974–1976)
New York Sportimes (2000–2013)
Newport Beach Breakers (2003–2011)
Philadelphia Freedoms (1974)
Phoenix Racquets (1974–1978)
Pittsburgh Triangles (1974–1976)
Sacramento Capitals (1988–2013)
San Diego Buds (1981–1985)
San Diego Friars (1975–1978)
San Diego Friars (1981–1983)
San Francisco Golden Gaters (1974–1978)
Schenectady County Electrics (1999–2000)
Sea-Port Cascades (1977)
Seattle Cascades (1974–1978)
St. Louis Aces (1994–2011)
Texas Wild (2013–2014)
Toronto-Buffalo Royals (1974)
Wichita Advantage (1990-1995)
Current stadiums
Credit Union 1 Arena (Chicago)
Cary Leeds Center for Tennis & Learning (New York)
Breakers Stadium at the Palisades Tennis Club (Orange County)
USTA National Campus (Orlando)
Michael J. Hagan Arena (Philadelphia)
Omni La Costa Resort and Spa (San Diego)
Mediacom Stadium at Cooper Tennis Complex (Springfield)
Orleans Arena (Vegas)
Kastles Stadium at Union Market (Washington)
Other related articles
Team tennis
No-line court
33°05′32.16″N 117°16′01.33″W / 33.0922667°N 117.2670361°W / 33.0922667; -117.2670361
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Carlsbad, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlsbad,_California"},{"link_name":"PGA Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGA_Tour"},{"link_name":"Southern California Open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_California_Open"}],"text":"The Omni La Costa Resort & Spa is a luxury destination resort hotel opened in 1965, located in Carlsbad, California and is owned by Omni Hotels & Resorts, based out of Dallas, Texas. The resort is located in the San Diego area hills and is known for its golf courses and hosts professional golf and tennis tournaments. Tournaments at La Costa were hosted starting in the late 1960s, including many PGA Tour events and tennis events such as the Southern California Open. Currently the resort is home to events such as World Team Tennis and the California State Amateur Championship. Omni La Costa Resort & Spa is a member of Historic Hotels of America, the official program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation and has hosted the La Costa Film Festival.","title":"Omni La Costa Resort and Spa"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Irwin Molasky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irwin_Molasky"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"The resort was founded in the early 1960s when a real estate developer, Irwin Molasky, from Las Vegas discovered an equestrian ranch in the coastal foothills of Southern California. Originally conceived as a residential resort offering activities and instruction for all ages, the resort opened on July 10, 1965[1] with 40 units available to guests for $22 per night which included green fees, as well as access to tennis, horse stables and the pool.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PGA Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGA_Tour"},{"link_name":"Mercedes Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SBS_Championship"},{"link_name":"1998","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_PGA_Tour"},{"link_name":"Maui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maui"},{"link_name":"Hawaii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii"},{"link_name":"WGC-Accenture Match Play Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WGC-Accenture_Match_Play_Championship"},{"link_name":"1999","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999_PGA_Tour"},{"link_name":"2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_PGA_Tour"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Arizona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona"},{"link_name":"2007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_PGA_Tour"},{"link_name":"2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_LPGA_Tour"},{"link_name":"2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_LPGA_Tour"},{"link_name":"Kia Classic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kia_Classic"},{"link_name":"LPGA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LPGA"}],"text":"La Costa served as a home to two notable PGA Tour events. For thirty years, the resort hosted the Mercedes Championships (originally called the Tournament of Champions), from 1969 to 1998. That event left for Maui, Hawaii, when La Costa was selected to host the inaugural WGC-Accenture Match Play Championship in 1999. It hosted that event for seven of eight years (the 2001 event was played in Australia), until it moved to Arizona in 2007. In 2010 and 2012, the resort hosted the Kia Classic, an LPGA tour event with an estimated attendance of 43,000 in 2010.","title":"Professional golf"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Penthouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penthouse_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Jeff Gerth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Gerth"},{"link_name":"Lowell Bergman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowell_Bergman"},{"link_name":"Mervyn Adelson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mervyn_Adelson"},{"link_name":"Irwin Molasky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irwin_Molasky"},{"link_name":"Teamsters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamsters"},{"link_name":"Morris B. \"Moe\" Dalitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moe_Dalitz"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Bob Guccione","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Guccione"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"San Diego Reader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_Reader"},{"link_name":"Vanity Fair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"In March 1975, Penthouse published an article headlined \"La Costa: The Hundred Million-Dollar Resort with Criminal Clientele,\" written by Jeff Gerth and Lowell Bergman. The article indicated that the La Costa Resort and Spa in Carlsbad was developed by Mervyn Adelson and Irwin Molasky using loans from the Teamsters Pension Fund and that the resort was a playground for organized crime figures. The owners, along with two officials of the resort, Morris B. \"Moe\" Dalitz and Allard Roen, filed a libel lawsuit for $522 million against the magazine and the writers. In 1982, a jury absolved the magazine of any liability against the lawsuit from the owners. The plaintiffs appealed but in December 1985 before a new trial could begin, the two sides settled.[citation needed] Penthouse issued a statement that they did not mean to imply that Adelson and Molaskey are or were members of organized crime. In turn the plaintiffs issued a statement lauding Penthouse publisher Bob Guccione and his magazine for their \"personal and professional awards.\" Total litigation costs were estimated to exceed $20 million.[2][3] According to the San Diego Reader, Merv Adelson finally admitted to mob ties in an interview published in the March 2013 issue of Vanity Fair magazine.[4][5]","title":"Penthouse article lawsuit"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"WXYZ-TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WXYZ-TV"},{"link_name":"Kwame Kilpatrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwame_Kilpatrick"},{"link_name":"babysitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babysitter"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"IRS regulations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_regulations"}],"text":"On May 8, 2007, WXYZ-TV in Detroit, Michigan, reported that now convicted and deposed mayor of Detroit, Kwame Kilpatrick used $8,600 from a fund created for voter education, economic empowerment and crime prevention to take his family and a babysitter on a week-long vacation to the La Costa Resort and Spa.[6]\nTax and accounting experts found Kilpatrick's use of the fund also violated IRS regulations.","title":"Connection to other controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Irwin Molasky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irwin_Molasky"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Whitehall Street Real Estate Funds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldman_Sachs"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Omni Hotels & Resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omni_Hotels_%26_Resorts"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"1965-1987: Mervyn Adelson and Irwin Molasky\n1987-2001: Sports Shinko\n2001-2007: KSL Resorts[7]\n2007-2010: Whitehall Street Real Estate Funds\n2010-2013: KSL Capital Partners[8]\n2013–Present: Omni Hotels & Resorts[9]","title":"Ownership timeline"}]
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[]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tichitt
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Tichit
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["1 Archaeological significance","2 Climate","3 References","4 Bibliography","5 Further reading","6 External links"]
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Coordinates: 18°26′30″N 9°29′30″W / 18.44167°N 9.49167°W / 18.44167; -9.49167Commune and village in Tagant, MauritaniaTichitCommune and villageTichitLocation in MauritaniaCoordinates: 18°26′30″N 9°29′30″W / 18.44167°N 9.49167°W / 18.44167; -9.49167Country MauritaniaRegionTagant
UNESCO World Heritage SiteOfficial nameAncient Ksour of Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt and OualataTypeCulturalCriteriaiii, iv, vDesignated1996 (20th session)Reference no.750RegionArab States
Tichit, or Tichitt (Berber languages: Ticit, Arabic: تيشيت), is a partly abandoned village at the foot of the Tagant Plateau in central southern Mauritania that is known for its vernacular architecture. The main agriculture in Tichit is date farming, and the village is also home to a small museum.
Tichitt Airport has two unpaved runways designated in a barren area 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) southeast of the village.
Archaeological significance
This region includes a long sandstone cliff formation that defines the northern limit of the Hodh depression, near the former lake of Aoukar.
The medieval trading settlement at Tichit is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Neolithic site of Dhar Tichitt in this area was settled by agropastoral communities around 2000 BC. Their settlements were generally situated on the cliffs and included stone building. These are the oldest surviving archaeological settlements in West Africa and the oldest of all stone base settlements south of the Sahara. They are thought to have been built by the Soninke people and were possibly the precursor of the Ghana empire. The area was abandoned around 500 BC probably because of the onset of more arid conditions. Hundreds of rock art images have been discovered, depicting various animals and hunting scenes. Archaeologists including P.J. Munson, Augustin F.C. Holl, and S. Amblard have found some evidence that millet was farmed seasonally as early as 2000 BC.
A view of the ancient town of Tichit in Tagant region of Mauritania.
Some modern housing visible in the foreground with many other abandoned buildings of historical importance at the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Tichit in Tagant region of Mauritania.
Climate
Climate data for Tichit
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)
29.8(85.6)
32.9(91.2)
37.5(99.5)
40.4(104.7)
42.5(108.5)
42.0(107.6)
38.6(101.5)
35.8(96.4)
37.5(99.5)
38.7(101.7)
35.3(95.5)
31.6(88.9)
36.9(98.4)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)
16.2(61.2)
19.2(66.6)
23.8(74.8)
26.9(80.4)
29.9(85.8)
30.5(86.9)
28.2(82.8)
26.6(79.9)
27.0(80.6)
27.0(80.6)
22.2(72.0)
18.1(64.6)
24.6(76.4)
Average precipitation mm (inches)
0(0)
1(0.0)
0(0)
1(0.0)
1(0.0)
6(0.2)
15(0.6)
32(1.3)
19(0.7)
3(0.1)
1(0.0)
0(0)
79(2.9)
Source 1: http://www.storm247.com/weather/110676228/climate (temperature)
Source 2: http://www.levoyageur.net/weather-city-TICHITT.html (precipitation)
References
^ Kjeilen, Tore. "TICHIT The living ghost of yesterday's glory". LookLex. Archived from the original on 2020-05-22.
^ Holl 2009.
^ Munson 1980.
^ Fage, J.D (1976), The Cambridge history of Africa, Volume 5, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 338, 339, ISBN 978-0-521-21592-3.
^ Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine (2005), The History of African Cities South of the Sahara, Princeton: Markus Wiener, pp. 42, 43, ISBN 978-1-55876-303-6.
^ Holl 2002.
Bibliography
Holl, Augustin F.C. (2002), "Time, space, and image making: rock art from the Dhar Tichitt (Mauritania)" (PDF), African Archaeological Review, 19 (2): 75–118, doi:10.1023/A:1015479826570, hdl:2027.42/43991, JSTOR 25130740, S2CID 54741966.
Holl, Augustin F.C. (2009), "Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP)", Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 341 (8–9): 703–712, doi:10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005.
Munson, Patrick J. (1980), "Archaeology and the prehistoric origins of the Ghana Empire", Journal of African History, 21 (4): 457–466, doi:10.1017/s0021853700018685, JSTOR 182004, S2CID 161981607.
Further reading
Holl, Augustin (1985). "Subsistence patterns of the Neolithic, Mauritania". African Archaeological Review. 3: 151–162. doi:10.1007/bf01117458. JSTOR 25130453.
Holl, Augustin F.C. (1998). "Livestock husbandry, pastoralisms, and territoriality: the West African record". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 17 (2): 143–165. doi:10.1006/jaar.1998.0321.
MacDonald, Kevin; Vernet, Robert; Fuller, Dorian; Woodhouse, James (2003). "New light on the Tichitt tradition: A preliminary report on survey and excavation at Dhar Nema" (PDF). Oxford University School of Archaeology Monograph. 57: 73–80.
External links
Map showing Tichit: Fond Typographique 1:200,000, République Islamique de Mauritanie Sheet NE-29-XV
vteWorld Heritage Sites in MauritaniaCultural
Ancient Ksour of Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt and Oualata
Mauritania portalNatural
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List of World Heritage Sites in Mauritania
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|
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The main agriculture in Tichit is date farming, and the village is also home to a small museum.Tichitt Airport has two unpaved runways designated in a barren area 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) southeast of the village.","title":"Tichit"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aoukar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aoukar"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"World Heritage Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site"},{"link_name":"Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic"},{"link_name":"Dhar Tichitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhar_Tichitt"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoll2009-2"},{"link_name":"West Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa"},{"link_name":"Soninke people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soninke_people"},{"link_name":"Ghana empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_empire"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMunson1980-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoll2002-6"},{"link_name":"millet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B4%D8%AA_(%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A_1).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B4%D8%AA_(%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A_2).jpg"}],"text":"This region includes a long sandstone cliff formation that defines the northern limit of the Hodh depression, near the former lake of Aoukar.[1]The medieval trading settlement at Tichit is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.The Neolithic site of Dhar Tichitt in this area was settled by agropastoral communities around 2000 BC.[2] Their settlements were generally situated on the cliffs and included stone building. These are the oldest surviving archaeological settlements in West Africa and the oldest of all stone base settlements south of the Sahara. They are thought to have been built by the Soninke people and were possibly the precursor of the Ghana empire.[3][4][5] The area was abandoned around 500 BC probably because of the onset of more arid conditions. Hundreds of rock art images have been discovered, depicting various animals and hunting scenes.[6] Archaeologists including P.J. Munson, Augustin F.C. Holl, and S. Amblard have found some evidence that millet was farmed seasonally as early as 2000 BC.A view of the ancient town of Tichit in Tagant region of Mauritania.Some modern housing visible in the foreground with many other abandoned buildings of historical importance at the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Tichit in Tagant region of Mauritania.","title":"Archaeological significance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"precipitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation"},{"link_name":"http://www.storm247.com/weather/110676228/climate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.storm247.com/weather/110676228/climate"},{"link_name":"http://www.levoyageur.net/weather-city-TICHITT.html","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.levoyageur.net/weather-city-TICHITT.html"}],"text":"Climate data for Tichit\n\n\nMonth\n\nJan\n\nFeb\n\nMar\n\nApr\n\nMay\n\nJun\n\nJul\n\nAug\n\nSep\n\nOct\n\nNov\n\nDec\n\nYear\n\n\nMean daily maximum °C (°F)\n\n29.8(85.6)\n\n32.9(91.2)\n\n37.5(99.5)\n\n40.4(104.7)\n\n42.5(108.5)\n\n42.0(107.6)\n\n38.6(101.5)\n\n35.8(96.4)\n\n37.5(99.5)\n\n38.7(101.7)\n\n35.3(95.5)\n\n31.6(88.9)\n\n36.9(98.4)\n\n\nMean daily minimum °C (°F)\n\n16.2(61.2)\n\n19.2(66.6)\n\n23.8(74.8)\n\n26.9(80.4)\n\n29.9(85.8)\n\n30.5(86.9)\n\n28.2(82.8)\n\n26.6(79.9)\n\n27.0(80.6)\n\n27.0(80.6)\n\n22.2(72.0)\n\n18.1(64.6)\n\n24.6(76.4)\n\n\nAverage precipitation mm (inches)\n\n0(0)\n\n1(0.0)\n\n0(0)\n\n1(0.0)\n\n1(0.0)\n\n6(0.2)\n\n15(0.6)\n\n32(1.3)\n\n19(0.7)\n\n3(0.1)\n\n1(0.0)\n\n0(0)\n\n79(2.9)\n\n\nSource 1: http://www.storm247.com/weather/110676228/climate (temperature)\n\n\nSource 2: http://www.levoyageur.net/weather-city-TICHITT.html (precipitation)","title":"Climate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Time, space, and image making: rock art from the Dhar Tichitt (Mauritania)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/43991/1/10437_2004_Article_373030.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1023/A:1015479826570","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1015479826570"},{"link_name":"hdl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2027.42/43991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F43991"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"25130740","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/25130740"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"54741966","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54741966"},{"link_name":"\"Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.researchgate.net/publication/248548075"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.crte.2009.04.005"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1017/s0021853700018685","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0021853700018685"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"182004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/182004"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"161981607","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161981607"}],"text":"Holl, Augustin F.C. (2002), \"Time, space, and image making: rock art from the Dhar Tichitt (Mauritania)\" (PDF), African Archaeological Review, 19 (2): 75–118, doi:10.1023/A:1015479826570, hdl:2027.42/43991, JSTOR 25130740, S2CID 54741966.\nHoll, Augustin F.C. (2009), \"Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP)\", Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 341 (8–9): 703–712, doi:10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005.\nMunson, Patrick J. (1980), \"Archaeology and the prehistoric origins of the Ghana Empire\", Journal of African History, 21 (4): 457–466, doi:10.1017/s0021853700018685, JSTOR 182004, S2CID 161981607.","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/bf01117458","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01117458"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"25130453","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/25130453"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1006/jaar.1998.0321","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1006%2Fjaar.1998.0321"},{"link_name":"\"New light on the Tichitt tradition: A preliminary report on survey and excavation at Dhar Nema\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/articles/McDonaldVernetFullerWoodhouse.pdf"}],"text":"Holl, Augustin (1985). \"Subsistence patterns of the Neolithic, Mauritania\". African Archaeological Review. 3: 151–162. doi:10.1007/bf01117458. JSTOR 25130453.\nHoll, Augustin F.C. (1998). \"Livestock husbandry, pastoralisms, and territoriality: the West African record\". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 17 (2): 143–165. doi:10.1006/jaar.1998.0321.\nMacDonald, Kevin; Vernet, Robert; Fuller, Dorian; Woodhouse, James (2003). \"New light on the Tichitt tradition: A preliminary report on survey and excavation at Dhar Nema\" (PDF). Oxford University School of Archaeology Monograph. 57: 73–80.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"A view of the ancient town of Tichit in Tagant region of Mauritania.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B4%D8%AA_%28%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A_1%29.jpg/220px-%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B4%D8%AA_%28%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A_1%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Some modern housing visible in the foreground with many other abandoned buildings of historical importance at the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Tichit in Tagant region of Mauritania.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B4%D8%AA_%28%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A_2%29.jpg/220px-%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B4%D8%AA_%28%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A_2%29.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Kjeilen, Tore. \"TICHIT The living ghost of yesterday's glory\". LookLex. Archived from the original on 2020-05-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200522204054/http://looklex.com/mauritania/tichit.htm","url_text":"\"TICHIT The living ghost of yesterday's glory\""},{"url":"http://looklex.com/mauritania/tichit.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Fage, J.D (1976), The Cambridge history of Africa, Volume 5, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 338, 339, ISBN 978-0-521-21592-3","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21592-3","url_text":"978-0-521-21592-3"}]},{"reference":"Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine (2005), The History of African Cities South of the Sahara, Princeton: Markus Wiener, pp. 42, 43, ISBN 978-1-55876-303-6","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6","url_text":"978-1-55876-303-6"}]},{"reference":"Holl, Augustin F.C. (2002), \"Time, space, and image making: rock art from the Dhar Tichitt (Mauritania)\" (PDF), African Archaeological Review, 19 (2): 75–118, doi:10.1023/A:1015479826570, hdl:2027.42/43991, JSTOR 25130740, S2CID 54741966","urls":[{"url":"https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/43991/1/10437_2004_Article_373030.pdf","url_text":"\"Time, space, and image making: rock art from the Dhar Tichitt (Mauritania)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1015479826570","url_text":"10.1023/A:1015479826570"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F43991","url_text":"2027.42/43991"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/25130740","url_text":"25130740"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54741966","url_text":"54741966"}]},{"reference":"Holl, Augustin F.C. (2009), \"Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP)\", Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 341 (8–9): 703–712, doi:10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248548075","url_text":"\"Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.crte.2009.04.005","url_text":"10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005"}]},{"reference":"Munson, Patrick J. (1980), \"Archaeology and the prehistoric origins of the Ghana Empire\", Journal of African History, 21 (4): 457–466, doi:10.1017/s0021853700018685, JSTOR 182004, S2CID 161981607","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0021853700018685","url_text":"10.1017/s0021853700018685"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/182004","url_text":"182004"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161981607","url_text":"161981607"}]},{"reference":"Holl, Augustin (1985). \"Subsistence patterns of the Neolithic, Mauritania\". African Archaeological Review. 3: 151–162. doi:10.1007/bf01117458. JSTOR 25130453.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01117458","url_text":"10.1007/bf01117458"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/25130453","url_text":"25130453"}]},{"reference":"Holl, Augustin F.C. (1998). \"Livestock husbandry, pastoralisms, and territoriality: the West African record\". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 17 (2): 143–165. doi:10.1006/jaar.1998.0321.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjaar.1998.0321","url_text":"10.1006/jaar.1998.0321"}]},{"reference":"MacDonald, Kevin; Vernet, Robert; Fuller, Dorian; Woodhouse, James (2003). \"New light on the Tichitt tradition: A preliminary report on survey and excavation at Dhar Nema\" (PDF). Oxford University School of Archaeology Monograph. 57: 73–80.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/articles/McDonaldVernetFullerWoodhouse.pdf","url_text":"\"New light on the Tichitt tradition: A preliminary report on survey and excavation at Dhar Nema\""}]},{"reference":"Map showing Tichit: Fond Typographique 1:200,000, République Islamique de Mauritanie Sheet NE-29-XV","urls":[{"url":"https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B_qVkuJA2pRAQzZRMFd3Y210SkE/view","url_text":"Map showing Tichit: Fond Typographique 1:200,000"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Tichit¶ms=18_26_30_N_9_29_30_W_region:MR_type:city","external_links_name":"18°26′30″N 9°29′30″W / 18.44167°N 9.49167°W / 18.44167; -9.49167"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Tichit¶ms=18_26_30_N_9_29_30_W_region:MR_type:city","external_links_name":"18°26′30″N 9°29′30″W / 18.44167°N 9.49167°W / 18.44167; -9.49167"},{"Link":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/750","external_links_name":"750"},{"Link":"http://www.storm247.com/weather/110676228/climate","external_links_name":"http://www.storm247.com/weather/110676228/climate"},{"Link":"http://www.levoyageur.net/weather-city-TICHITT.html","external_links_name":"http://www.levoyageur.net/weather-city-TICHITT.html"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200522204054/http://looklex.com/mauritania/tichit.htm","external_links_name":"\"TICHIT The living ghost of yesterday's glory\""},{"Link":"http://looklex.com/mauritania/tichit.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/43991/1/10437_2004_Article_373030.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Time, space, and image making: rock art from the Dhar Tichitt (Mauritania)\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1015479826570","external_links_name":"10.1023/A:1015479826570"},{"Link":"https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F43991","external_links_name":"2027.42/43991"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/25130740","external_links_name":"25130740"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54741966","external_links_name":"54741966"},{"Link":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248548075","external_links_name":"\"Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP)\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.crte.2009.04.005","external_links_name":"10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0021853700018685","external_links_name":"10.1017/s0021853700018685"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/182004","external_links_name":"182004"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161981607","external_links_name":"161981607"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01117458","external_links_name":"10.1007/bf01117458"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/25130453","external_links_name":"25130453"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjaar.1998.0321","external_links_name":"10.1006/jaar.1998.0321"},{"Link":"http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/articles/McDonaldVernetFullerWoodhouse.pdf","external_links_name":"\"New light on the Tichitt tradition: A preliminary report on survey and excavation at Dhar Nema\""},{"Link":"https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B_qVkuJA2pRAQzZRMFd3Y210SkE/view","external_links_name":"Map showing Tichit: Fond Typographique 1:200,000"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/146585370","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJrKRRFRt3hfwC9JjkJCcP","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12036231b","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12036231b","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4450027-0","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007566732205171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n81002960","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/028172418","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_processing_unit
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AI accelerator
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["1 History","1.1 Early attempts","1.2 Heterogeneous computing","1.3 Use of GPU","1.4 Use of FPGAs","1.5 Emergence of dedicated AI accelerator ASICs","2 Ongoing research","2.1 In-memory computing architectures","2.2 In-memory computing with analog resistive memories","2.3 Atomically thin semiconductors","2.4 Integrated photonic tensor core","3 Nomenclature","4 Deep Learning Processors (DLP)","4.1 Digital DLPs","4.2 Hybrid DLPs","5 Benchmarks","6 Potential applications","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
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Hardware acceleration unit for artificial intelligence tasks
An AI accelerator, deep learning processor, or neural processing unit (NPU) is a class of specialized hardware accelerator or computer system designed to accelerate artificial intelligence and machine learning applications, including artificial neural networks and machine vision. Typical applications include algorithms for robotics, Internet of Things, and other data-intensive or sensor-driven tasks. They are often manycore designs and generally focus on low-precision arithmetic, novel dataflow architectures or in-memory computing capability. As of 2024, a typical AI integrated circuit chip contains tens of billions of MOSFETs.
AI accelerators are used in mobile devices, such as neural processing units (NPUs) in Apple iPhones, AMD Laptops or Huawei cellphones, and personal computers such as Apple silicon Macs, to cloud computing servers such as tensor processing units (TPU) in the Google Cloud Platform. A number of vendor-specific terms exist for devices in this category, and it is an emerging technology without a dominant design.
Graphics processing units designed by companies such as Nvidia and AMD often include AI-specific hardware, and are commonly used as AI accelerators, both for training and inference.
History
Computer systems have frequently complemented the CPU with special-purpose accelerators for specialized tasks, known as coprocessors. Notable application-specific hardware units include video cards for graphics, sound cards, graphics processing units and digital signal processors. As deep learning and artificial intelligence workloads rose in prominence in the 2010s, specialized hardware units were developed or adapted from existing products to accelerate these tasks.
Early attempts
First attempts like Intel's ETANN 80170NX incorporated analog circuits to compute neural functions.
Later all-digital chips like the Nestor/Intel Ni1000 followed. As early as 1993, digital signal processors were used as neural network accelerators to accelerate optical character recognition software.
By 1988, Wei Zhang et al. had discussed fast optical implementations of convolutional neural networks for alphabet recognition.
In the 1990s, there were also attempts to create parallel high-throughput systems for workstations aimed at various applications, including neural network simulations.
This presentation covers a past attempt at neural net accelerators, notes the similarity to the modern SLI GPGPU processor setup, and argues that general purpose vector accelerators are the way forward (in relation to RISC-V hwacha project. Argues that NN's are just dense and sparse matrices, one of several recurring algorithms)
FPGA-based accelerators were also first explored in the 1990s for both inference and training.
In 2014, Chen et al. proposed DianNao (Chinese for "electric brain"), to accelerate deep neural networks especially. DianNao provides the 452 Gop/s peak performance (of key operations in deep neural networks) only in a small footprint of 3.02 mm2 and 485 mW. Later, the successors (DaDianNao, ShiDianNao, PuDianNao) are proposed by the same group, forming the DianNao Family
Smartphones began incorporating AI accelerators starting with the Qualcomm Snapdragon 820 in 2015.
Heterogeneous computing
Main article: Heterogeneous computing
Heterogeneous computing incorporates many specialized processors in a single system, or a single chip, each optimized for a specific type of task. Architectures such as the Cell microprocessor have features significantly overlapping with AI accelerators including: support for packed low precision arithmetic, dataflow architecture, and prioritizing throughput over latency. The Cell microprocessor has been applied to a number of tasks including AI.
In the 2000s, CPUs also gained increasingly wide SIMD units, driven by video and gaming workloads; as well as support for packed low-precision data types. Due to the increasing performance of CPUs, they are also used for running AI workloads. CPUs are superior for DNNs with small or medium-scale parallelism, for sparse DNNs and in low-batch-size scenarios.
Use of GPU
Graphics processing units or GPUs are specialized hardware for the manipulation of images and calculation of local image properties. The mathematical basis of neural networks and image manipulation are similar, embarrassingly parallel tasks involving matrices, leading GPUs to become increasingly used for machine learning tasks.
In 2012, Alex Krizhevsky adopted two GPUs to train a deep learning network, i.e., AlexNet, which won the champion of the ISLVRC-2012 competition. During the 2010s, GPU manufacturers such as Nvidia added deep learning related features in both hardware (e.g., INT8 operators) and software (e.g., cuDNN Library).
Over the 2010s GPUs continued to evolve in a direction to facilitate deep learning, both for training and inference in devices such as self-driving cars. GPU developers such as Nvidia NVLink are developing additional connective capability for the kind of dataflow workloads AI benefits from. As GPUs have been increasingly applied to AI acceleration, GPU manufacturers have incorporated neural network-specific hardware to further accelerate these tasks. Tensor cores are intended to speed up the training of neural networks.
GPUs continue to be used in large-scale AI applications. For example, Summit, a supercomputer from IBM for Oak Ridge National Laboratory, contains 27,648 Nvidia Tesla V100 cards, which can be used to accelerate deep learning algorithms.
Use of FPGAs
Deep learning frameworks are still evolving, making it hard to design custom hardware. Reconfigurable devices such as field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA) make it easier to evolve hardware, frameworks, and software alongside each other.
Microsoft has used FPGA chips to accelerate inference for real-time deep learning services.
Emergence of dedicated AI accelerator ASICs
While GPUs and FPGAs perform far better than CPUs for AI-related tasks, a factor of up to 10 in efficiency may be gained with a more specific design, via an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC). These accelerators employ strategies such as optimized memory use and the use of lower precision arithmetic to accelerate calculation and increase throughput of computation. Some low-precision floating-point formats used for AI acceleration are half-precision and the bfloat16 floating-point format. Companies such as Google, Qualcomm, Amazon, Apple, Facebook, AMD and Samsung are all designing their own AI ASICs. Cerebras Systems has built a dedicated AI accelerator based on the largest processor in the industry, the second-generation Wafer Scale Engine (WSE-2), to support deep learning workloads.
Ongoing research
In-memory computing architectures
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2018)
In June 2017, IBM researchers announced an architecture in contrast to the Von Neumann architecture based on in-memory computing and phase-change memory arrays applied to temporal correlation detection, intending to generalize the approach to heterogeneous computing and massively parallel systems. In October 2018, IBM researchers announced an architecture based on in-memory processing and modeled on the human brain's synaptic network to accelerate deep neural networks. The system is based on phase-change memory arrays.
In-memory computing with analog resistive memories
In 2019, researchers from Politecnico di Milano found a way to solve systems of linear equations in a few tens of nanoseconds via a single operation. Their algorithm is based on in-memory computing with analog resistive memories which performs with high efficiencies of time and energy, via conducting matrix–vector multiplication in one step using Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's law. The researchers showed that a feedback circuit with cross-point resistive memories can solve algebraic problems such as systems of linear equations, matrix eigenvectors, and differential equations in just one step. Such an approach improves computational times drastically in comparison with digital algorithms.
Atomically thin semiconductors
In 2020, Marega et al. published experiments with a large-area active channel material for developing logic-in-memory devices and circuits based on floating-gate field-effect transistors (FGFETs). Such atomically thin semiconductors are considered promising for energy-efficient machine learning applications, where the same basic device structure is used for both logic operations and data storage. The authors used two-dimensional materials such as semiconducting molybdenum disulphide to precisely tune FGFETs as building blocks in which logic operations can be performed with the memory elements.
Integrated photonic tensor core
In 1988, Wei Zhang et al. discussed fast optical implementations of convolutional neural networks for alphabet recognition.
In 2021, J. Feldmann et al. proposed an integrated photonic hardware accelerator for parallel convolutional processing. The authors identify two key advantages of integrated photonics over its electronic counterparts: (1) massively parallel data transfer through wavelength division multiplexing in conjunction with frequency combs, and (2) extremely high data modulation speeds. Their system can execute trillions of multiply-accumulate operations per second, indicating the potential of integrated photonics in data-heavy AI applications. Optical processors that can also perform backpropagation for artificial neural networks have been experimentally developed.
Nomenclature
As of 2016, the field is still in flux and vendors are pushing their own marketing term for what amounts to an "AI accelerator", in the hope that their designs and APIs will become the dominant design. There is no consensus on the boundary between these devices, nor the exact form they will take; however several examples clearly aim to fill this new space, with a fair amount of overlap in capabilities.
In the past when consumer graphics accelerators emerged, the industry eventually adopted Nvidia's self-assigned term, "the GPU",
as the collective noun for "graphics accelerators", which had taken many forms before settling on an overall pipeline implementing a model presented by Direct3D.
All models of Intel Meteor Lake processors have a Versatile Processor Unit (VPU) built-in for accelerating inference for computer vision and deep learning.
Deep Learning Processors (DLP)
Inspired from the pioneer work of DianNao Family, many DLPs are proposed in both academia and industry with design optimized to leverage the features of deep neural networks for high efficiency. At ISCA 2016, three sessions (15%) of the accepted papers, focused on architecture designs about deep learning. Such efforts include Eyeriss (MIT), EIE (Stanford), Minerva (Harvard), Stripes (University of Toronto) in academia, TPU (Google), and MLU (Cambricon) in industry. We listed several representative works in Table 1.
Table 1. Typical DLPs
Year
DLPs
Institution
Type
Computation
Memory Hierarchy
Control
Peak Performance
2014
DianNao
ICT, CAS
digital
vector MACs
scratchpad
VLIW
452 Gops (16-bit)
DaDianNao
ICT, CAS
digital
vector MACs
scratchpad
VLIW
5.58 Tops (16-bit)
2015
ShiDianNao
ICT, CAS
digital
scalar MACs
scratchpad
VLIW
194 Gops (16-bit)
PuDianNao
ICT, CAS
digital
vector MACs
scratchpad
VLIW
1,056 Gops (16-bit)
2016
DnnWeaver
Georgia Tech
digital
Vector MACs
scratchpad
-
-
EIE
Stanford
digital
scalar MACs
scratchpad
-
102 Gops (16-bit)
Eyeriss
MIT
digital
scalar MACs
scratchpad
-
67.2 Gops (16-bit)
Prime
UCSB
hybrid
Process-in-Memory
ReRAM
-
-
2017
TPU
Google
digital
scalar MACs
scratchpad
CISC
92 Tops (8-bit)
PipeLayer
U of Pittsburgh
hybrid
Process-in-Memory
ReRAM
-
FlexFlow
ICT, CAS
digital
scalar MACs
scratchpad
-
420 Gops ()
DNPU
KAIST
digital
scalar MACS
scratchpad
-
300 Gops(16bit)
1200 Gops(4bit)
2018
MAERI
Georgia Tech
digital
scalar MACs
scratchpad
-
PermDNN
City University of New York
digital
vector MACs
scratchpad
-
614.4 Gops (16-bit)
UNPU
KAIST
digital
scalar MACs
scratchpad
-
345.6 Gops(16bit)
691.2 Gops(8b)
1382 Gops(4bit)
7372 Gops(1bit)
2019
FPSA
Tsinghua
hybrid
Process-in-Memory
ReRAM
-
Cambricon-F
ICT, CAS
digital
vector MACs
scratchpad
FISA
14.9 Tops (F1, 16-bit)
956 Tops (F100, 16-bit)
Digital DLPs
The major components of DLPs architecture usually include a computation component, the on-chip memory hierarchy, and the control logic that manages the data communication and computing flows.
Regarding the computation component, as most operations in deep learning can be aggregated into vector operations, the most common ways for building computation components in digital DLPs are the MAC-based (multiplier-accumulation) organization, either with vector MACs or scalar MACs. Rather than SIMD or SIMT in general processing devices, deep learning domain-specific parallelism is better explored on these MAC-based organizations. Regarding the memory hierarchy, as deep learning algorithms require high bandwidth to provide the computation component with sufficient data, DLPs usually employ a relatively larger size (tens of kilobytes or several megabytes) on-chip buffer but with dedicated on-chip data reuse strategy and data exchange strategy to alleviate the burden for memory bandwidth. For example, DianNao, 16 16-in vector MAC, requires 16 × 16 × 2 = 512 16-bit data, i.e., almost 1024 GB/s bandwidth requirements between computation components and buffers. With on-chip reuse, such bandwidth requirements are reduced drastically. Instead of the widely used cache in general processing devices, DLPs always use scratchpad memory as it could provide higher data reuse opportunities by leveraging the relatively regular data access pattern in deep learning algorithms. Regarding the control logic, as the deep learning algorithms keep evolving at a dramatic speed, DLPs start to leverage dedicated ISA (instruction set architecture) to support the deep learning domain flexibly. At first, DianNao used a VLIW-style instruction set where each instruction could finish a layer in a DNN. Cambricon introduces the first deep learning domain-specific ISA, which could support more than ten different deep learning algorithms. TPU also reveals five key instructions from the CISC-style ISA.
Hybrid DLPs
Hybrid DLPs emerge for DNN inference and training acceleration because of their high efficiency. Processing-in-memory (PIM) architectures are one most important type of hybrid DLP. The key design concept of PIM is to bridge the gap between computing and memory, with the following manners: 1) Moving computation components into memory cells, controllers, or memory chips to alleviate the memory wall issue. Such architectures significantly shorten data paths and leverage much higher internal bandwidth, hence resulting in attractive performance improvement. 2) Build high efficient DNN engines by adopting computational devices. In 2013, HP Lab demonstrated the astonishing capability of adopting ReRAM crossbar structure for computing. Inspiring by this work, tremendous work are proposed to explore the new architecture and system design based on ReRAM, phase change memory, etc.
Benchmarks
Benchmarks such as MLPerf and others may be used to evaluate the performance of AI accelerators. Table 2 lists several typical benchmarks for AI accelerators.
Table 2. Benchmarks.
Year
NN Benchmark
Affiliations
# of microbenchmarks
# of component benchmarks
# of application benchmarks
2012
BenchNN
ICT, CAS
N/A
12
N/A
2016
Fathom
Harvard
N/A
8
N/A
2017
BenchIP
ICT, CAS
12
11
N/A
2017
DAWNBench
Stanford
8
N/A
N/A
2017
DeepBench
Baidu
4
N/A
N/A
2018
AI Benchmark
ETH Zurich
N/A
26
N/A
2018
MLPerf
Harvard, Intel, and Google, etc.
N/A
7
N/A
2019
AIBench
ICT, CAS and Alibaba, etc.
12
16
2
2019
NNBench-X
UCSB
N/A
10
N/A
Potential applications
Agricultural robots, for example, herbicide-free weed control.
Autonomous vehicles: Nvidia has targeted their Drive PX-series boards at this application.
Computer-aided diagnosis
Industrial robots, increasing the range of tasks that can be automated, by adding adaptability to variable situations.
Machine translation
Military robots
Natural language processing
Search engines, increasing the energy efficiency of data centers and the ability to use increasingly advanced queries.
Unmanned aerial vehicles, e.g. navigation systems, e.g. the Movidius Myriad 2 has been demonstrated successfully guiding autonomous drones.
Voice user interface, e.g. in mobile phones, a target for Qualcomm Zeroth.
See also
Cognitive computer
Neuromorphic engineering
Optical neural network
Physical neural network
Cerebras Systems
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^ Lee, Jinmook; Kim, Changhyeon; Kang, Sanghoon; Shin, Dongjoo; Kim, Sangyeob; Yoo, Hoi-Jun (2018). "UNPU: A 50.6TOPS/W unified deep neural network accelerator with 1b-to-16b fully-variable weight bit-precision". 2018 IEEE International Solid - State Circuits Conference - (ISSCC). pp. 218–220. doi:10.1109/ISSCC.2018.8310262. ISBN 978-1-5090-4940-0. S2CID 3861747. Retrieved November 30, 2023.
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^ a b Ambrogio, Stefano; Narayanan, Pritish; Tsai, Hsinyu; Shelby, Robert M.; Boybat, Irem; di Nolfo, Carmelo; Sidler, Severin; Giordano, Massimo; Bodini, Martina; Farinha, Nathan C. P.; Killeen, Benjamin (June 2018). "Equivalent-accuracy accelerated neural-network training using analogue memory". Nature. 558 (7708): 60–67. Bibcode:2018Natur.558...60A. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0180-5. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 29875487. S2CID 46956938.
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External links
Nvidia Puts The Accelerator To The Metal With Pascal.htm, The Next Platform
Eyeriss Project, MIT
https://alphaics.ai/
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hardware accelerator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_acceleration"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"machine learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning"},{"link_name":"artificial neural networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network"},{"link_name":"machine vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_vision"},{"link_name":"robotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics"},{"link_name":"Internet of Things","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_of_Things"},{"link_name":"data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"manycore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manycore"},{"link_name":"low-precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"dataflow architectures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dataflow_architecture"},{"link_name":"in-memory computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-memory_computing"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AI_accelerator&action=edit"},{"link_name":"integrated circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"contains tens of billions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_count"},{"link_name":"MOSFETs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"iPhones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"AMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Huawei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huawei"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Apple silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_silicon"},{"link_name":"cloud computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"tensor processing units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"Google Cloud Platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Cloud_Platform"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"emerging technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerging_technologies"},{"link_name":"dominant design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant_design"},{"link_name":"Graphics processing units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_units"},{"link_name":"Nvidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia"},{"link_name":"AMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD"},{"link_name":"training","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning"},{"link_name":"inference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inference_engine"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"An AI accelerator, deep learning processor, or neural processing unit (NPU) is a class of specialized hardware accelerator[1] or computer system[2][3] designed to accelerate artificial intelligence and machine learning applications, including artificial neural networks and machine vision. Typical applications include algorithms for robotics, Internet of Things, and other data-intensive or sensor-driven tasks.[4] They are often manycore designs and generally focus on low-precision arithmetic, novel dataflow architectures or in-memory computing capability. As of 2024[update], a typical AI integrated circuit chip contains tens of billions of MOSFETs.[5]AI accelerators are used in mobile devices, such as neural processing units (NPUs) in Apple iPhones[6], AMD Laptops[7] or Huawei cellphones,[8] and personal computers such as Apple silicon Macs, to cloud computing servers such as tensor processing units (TPU) in the Google Cloud Platform.[9] A number of vendor-specific terms exist for devices in this category, and it is an emerging technology without a dominant design.Graphics processing units designed by companies such as Nvidia and AMD often include AI-specific hardware, and are commonly used as AI accelerators, both for training and inference.[10]","title":"AI accelerator"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"coprocessors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprocessor"},{"link_name":"application-specific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"hardware units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_card"},{"link_name":"video cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_card"},{"link_name":"graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"sound cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_card"},{"link_name":"graphics processing units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"digital signal processors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processor"},{"link_name":"deep learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_learning"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"accelerate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_acceleration"}],"text":"Computer systems have frequently complemented the CPU with special-purpose accelerators for specialized tasks, known as coprocessors. Notable application-specific hardware units include video cards for graphics, sound cards, graphics processing units and digital signal processors. As deep learning and artificial intelligence workloads rose in prominence in the 2010s, specialized hardware units were developed or adapted from existing products to accelerate these tasks.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ICH_1-11"},{"link_name":"Ni1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni1000"},{"link_name":"digital signal processors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processor"},{"link_name":"optical character recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_character_recognition"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wz1988-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wz1990-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DCS_1-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krste_general_purpose-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"FPGA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-programmable_gate_array"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fpga-inference-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fpga-training-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Smartphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"Qualcomm Snapdragon 820","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualcomm_Snapdragon_820"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Early attempts","text":"First attempts like Intel's ETANN 80170NX incorporated analog circuits to compute neural functions.[11]Later all-digital chips like the Nestor/Intel Ni1000 followed. As early as 1993, digital signal processors were used as neural network accelerators to accelerate optical character recognition software.[12]By 1988, Wei Zhang et al. had discussed fast optical implementations of convolutional neural networks for alphabet recognition.[13][14]In the 1990s, there were also attempts to create parallel high-throughput systems for workstations aimed at various applications, including neural network simulations.[15][16]This presentation covers a past attempt at neural net accelerators, notes the similarity to the modern SLI GPGPU processor setup, and argues that general purpose vector accelerators are the way forward (in relation to RISC-V hwacha project. Argues that NN's are just dense and sparse matrices, one of several recurring algorithms)[17]FPGA-based accelerators were also first explored in the 1990s for both inference and training.[18][19]In 2014, Chen et al. proposed DianNao (Chinese for \"electric brain\"),[20] to accelerate deep neural networks especially. DianNao provides the 452 Gop/s peak performance (of key operations in deep neural networks) only in a small footprint of 3.02 mm2 and 485 mW. Later, the successors (DaDianNao,[21] ShiDianNao,[22] PuDianNao[23]) are proposed by the same group, forming the DianNao Family[24]Smartphones began incorporating AI accelerators starting with the Qualcomm Snapdragon 820 in 2015.[25][26]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cell microprocessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(microprocessor)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cell-27"},{"link_name":"dataflow architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dataflow_architecture"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"CPUs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"SIMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIMD"},{"link_name":"data types","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_type"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"DNNs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_neural_network"}],"sub_title":"Heterogeneous computing","text":"Heterogeneous computing incorporates many specialized processors in a single system, or a single chip, each optimized for a specific type of task. Architectures such as the Cell microprocessor[27] have features significantly overlapping with AI accelerators including: support for packed low precision arithmetic, dataflow architecture, and prioritizing throughput over latency. The Cell microprocessor has been applied to a number of tasks[28][29][30] including AI.[31][32][33]In the 2000s, CPUs also gained increasingly wide SIMD units, driven by video and gaming workloads; as well as support for packed low-precision data types.[34] Due to the increasing performance of CPUs, they are also used for running AI workloads. CPUs are superior for DNNs with small or medium-scale parallelism, for sparse DNNs and in low-batch-size scenarios.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Graphics processing units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"image manipulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_pipeline"},{"link_name":"embarrassingly parallel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embarrassingly_parallel"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HPC-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-INC_1-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Nvidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia"},{"link_name":"self-driving cars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-driving_car"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ND_1-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NIS_1-39"},{"link_name":"NVLink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NVLink"},{"link_name":"neural network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_network"},{"link_name":"specific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CUDA9-41"},{"link_name":"cores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor_core"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CUDA9-41"},{"link_name":"Summit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summit"},{"link_name":"Oak Ridge National Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SOR_1-42"},{"link_name":"Nvidia Tesla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia_Tesla"}],"sub_title":"Use of GPU","text":"Graphics processing units or GPUs are specialized hardware for the manipulation of images and calculation of local image properties. The mathematical basis of neural networks and image manipulation are similar, embarrassingly parallel tasks involving matrices, leading GPUs to become increasingly used for machine learning tasks.[35][36]In 2012, Alex Krizhevsky adopted two GPUs to train a deep learning network, i.e., AlexNet,[37] which won the champion of the ISLVRC-2012 competition. During the 2010s, GPU manufacturers such as Nvidia added deep learning related features in both hardware (e.g., INT8 operators) and software (e.g., cuDNN Library).Over the 2010s GPUs continued to evolve in a direction to facilitate deep learning, both for training and inference in devices such as self-driving cars.[38][39] GPU developers such as Nvidia NVLink are developing additional connective capability for the kind of dataflow workloads AI benefits from. As GPUs have been increasingly applied to AI acceleration, GPU manufacturers have incorporated neural network-specific hardware to further accelerate these tasks.[40][41] Tensor cores are intended to speed up the training of neural networks.[41]GPUs continue to be used in large-scale AI applications. For example, Summit, a supercomputer from IBM for Oak Ridge National Laboratory,[42] contains 27,648 Nvidia Tesla V100 cards, which can be used to accelerate deep learning algorithms.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Reconfigurable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconfigurable_computing"},{"link_name":"field-programmable gate arrays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-programmable_gate_array"},{"link_name":"alongside each other","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_design"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fpga-inference-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fpga-training-19"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"Use of FPGAs","text":"Deep learning frameworks are still evolving, making it hard to design custom hardware. Reconfigurable devices such as field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA) make it easier to evolve hardware, frameworks, and software alongside each other.[43][18][19][44]Microsoft has used FPGA chips to accelerate inference for real-time deep learning services.[45]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"application-specific integrated circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"memory use","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache-aware_model"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"lower precision arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minifloat"},{"link_name":"throughput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throughput"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lowprecision-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"floating-point formats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"half-precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-precision_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"bfloat16 floating-point format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bfloat16_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-top5_Inte-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-toms_Inte-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clou_Avai-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blog_Comp-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gith_tens-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arxiv_1711.10604-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Cerebras Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebras"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"}],"sub_title":"Emergence of dedicated AI accelerator ASICs","text":"While GPUs and FPGAs perform far better than CPUs for AI-related tasks, a factor of up to 10 in efficiency[46][47] may be gained with a more specific design, via an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC).[48] These accelerators employ strategies such as optimized memory use[citation needed] and the use of lower precision arithmetic to accelerate calculation and increase throughput of computation.[49][50] Some low-precision floating-point formats used for AI acceleration are half-precision and the bfloat16 floating-point format.[51][52][53][54][55][56][57] Companies such as Google, Qualcomm, Amazon, Apple, Facebook, AMD and Samsung are all designing their own AI ASICs.[58][59][60][61][62][63] Cerebras Systems has built a dedicated AI accelerator based on the largest processor in the industry, the second-generation Wafer Scale Engine (WSE-2), to support deep learning workloads.[64][65]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Ongoing research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Von Neumann architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture"},{"link_name":"in-memory computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-memory_processing"},{"link_name":"phase-change memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-change_memory"},{"link_name":"correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"heterogeneous computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogeneous_computing"},{"link_name":"massively parallel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massively_parallel"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"modeled on the human brain's synaptic network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromorphic_engineering"},{"link_name":"deep neural networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_neural_network"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"}],"sub_title":"In-memory computing architectures","text":"In June 2017, IBM researchers announced an architecture in contrast to the Von Neumann architecture based on in-memory computing and phase-change memory arrays applied to temporal correlation detection, intending to generalize the approach to heterogeneous computing and massively parallel systems.[66] In October 2018, IBM researchers announced an architecture based on in-memory processing and modeled on the human brain's synaptic network to accelerate deep neural networks.[67] The system is based on phase-change memory arrays.[68]","title":"Ongoing research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"in-memory computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-memory_computing"},{"link_name":"matrix–vector multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix%E2%80%93vector_multiplication"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"}],"sub_title":"In-memory computing with analog resistive memories","text":"In 2019, researchers from Politecnico di Milano found a way to solve systems of linear equations in a few tens of nanoseconds via a single operation. Their algorithm is based on in-memory computing with analog resistive memories which performs with high efficiencies of time and energy, via conducting matrix–vector multiplication in one step using Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's law. The researchers showed that a feedback circuit with cross-point resistive memories can solve algebraic problems such as systems of linear equations, matrix eigenvectors, and differential equations in just one step. Such an approach improves computational times drastically in comparison with digital algorithms.[69]","title":"Ongoing research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"floating-gate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-gate"},{"link_name":"field-effect transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-effect_transistor"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atomthin-70"},{"link_name":"semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"machine learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning"},{"link_name":"molybdenum disulphide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenum_disulphide"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atomthin-70"}],"sub_title":"Atomically thin semiconductors","text":"In 2020, Marega et al. published experiments with a large-area active channel material for developing logic-in-memory devices and circuits based on floating-gate field-effect transistors (FGFETs).[70] Such atomically thin semiconductors are considered promising for energy-efficient machine learning applications, where the same basic device structure is used for both logic operations and data storage. The authors used two-dimensional materials such as semiconducting molybdenum disulphide to precisely tune FGFETs as building blocks in which logic operations can be performed with the memory elements. [70]","title":"Ongoing research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"convolutional neural networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convolutional_neural_networks"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wz1988-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wz1990-14"},{"link_name":"photonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonic"},{"link_name":"hardware accelerator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_accelerator"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-photonic-71"},{"link_name":"wavelength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength"},{"link_name":"multiplexing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexing"},{"link_name":"frequency combs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_comb"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-photonic-71"},{"link_name":"integrated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonic_integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"photonics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonics"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-photonic-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"}],"sub_title":"Integrated photonic tensor core","text":"In 1988, Wei Zhang et al. discussed fast optical implementations of convolutional neural networks for alphabet recognition.[13][14]\nIn 2021, J. Feldmann et al. proposed an integrated photonic hardware accelerator for parallel convolutional processing.[71] The authors identify two key advantages of integrated photonics over its electronic counterparts: (1) massively parallel data transfer through wavelength division multiplexing in conjunction with frequency combs, and (2) extremely high data modulation speeds.[71] Their system can execute trillions of multiply-accumulate operations per second, indicating the potential of integrated photonics in data-heavy AI applications.[71] Optical processors that can also perform backpropagation for artificial neural networks have been experimentally developed.[72]","title":"Ongoing research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"APIs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_programming_interface"},{"link_name":"dominant design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant_design"},{"link_name":"graphics accelerators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_accelerator"},{"link_name":"Nvidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"pipeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_pipeline"},{"link_name":"Direct3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct3D"},{"link_name":"Meteor Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteor_Lake"},{"link_name":"inference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_inference"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"}],"text":"As of 2016, the field is still in flux and vendors are pushing their own marketing term for what amounts to an \"AI accelerator\", in the hope that their designs and APIs will become the dominant design. There is no consensus on the boundary between these devices, nor the exact form they will take; however several examples clearly aim to fill this new space, with a fair amount of overlap in capabilities.In the past when consumer graphics accelerators emerged, the industry eventually adopted Nvidia's self-assigned term, \"the GPU\",[73]\nas the collective noun for \"graphics accelerators\", which had taken many forms before settling on an overall pipeline implementing a model presented by Direct3D.All models of Intel Meteor Lake processors have a Versatile Processor Unit (VPU) built-in for accelerating inference for computer vision and deep learning.[74]","title":"Nomenclature"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-79"},{"link_name":"Cambricon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambricon"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"}],"text":"Inspired from the pioneer work of DianNao Family, many DLPs are proposed in both academia and industry with design optimized to leverage the features of deep neural networks for high efficiency. At ISCA 2016, three sessions (15%) of the accepted papers, focused on architecture designs about deep learning. Such efforts include Eyeriss (MIT),[75] EIE (Stanford),[76] Minerva (Harvard),[77] Stripes (University of Toronto) in academia,[78] TPU (Google),[79] and MLU (Cambricon) in industry.[80] We listed several representative works in Table 1.","title":"Deep Learning Processors (DLP)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiply%E2%80%93accumulate_operation"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-21"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-23"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-79"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-22"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-75"},{"link_name":"SIMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_instruction,_multiple_data"},{"link_name":"SIMT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_instruction,_multiple_threads"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-20"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"}],"sub_title":"Digital DLPs","text":"The major components of DLPs architecture usually include a computation component, the on-chip memory hierarchy, and the control logic that manages the data communication and computing flows.Regarding the computation component, as most operations in deep learning can be aggregated into vector operations, the most common ways for building computation components in digital DLPs are the MAC-based (multiplier-accumulation) organization, either with vector MACs[20][21][23] or scalar MACs.[79][22][75] Rather than SIMD or SIMT in general processing devices, deep learning domain-specific parallelism is better explored on these MAC-based organizations. Regarding the memory hierarchy, as deep learning algorithms require high bandwidth to provide the computation component with sufficient data, DLPs usually employ a relatively larger size (tens of kilobytes or several megabytes) on-chip buffer but with dedicated on-chip data reuse strategy and data exchange strategy to alleviate the burden for memory bandwidth. For example, DianNao, 16 16-in vector MAC, requires 16 × 16 × 2 = 512 16-bit data, i.e., almost 1024 GB/s bandwidth requirements between computation components and buffers. With on-chip reuse, such bandwidth requirements are reduced drastically.[20] Instead of the widely used cache in general processing devices, DLPs always use scratchpad memory as it could provide higher data reuse opportunities by leveraging the relatively regular data access pattern in deep learning algorithms. Regarding the control logic, as the deep learning algorithms keep evolving at a dramatic speed, DLPs start to leverage dedicated ISA (instruction set architecture) to support the deep learning domain flexibly. At first, DianNao used a VLIW-style instruction set where each instruction could finish a layer in a DNN. Cambricon[85] introduces the first deep learning domain-specific ISA, which could support more than ten different deep learning algorithms. TPU also reveals five key instructions from the CISC-style ISA.","title":"Deep Learning Processors (DLP)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:8-82"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-81"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:8-82"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-86"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"}],"sub_title":"Hybrid DLPs","text":"Hybrid DLPs emerge for DNN inference and training acceleration because of their high efficiency. Processing-in-memory (PIM) architectures are one most important type of hybrid DLP. The key design concept of PIM is to bridge the gap between computing and memory, with the following manners: 1) Moving computation components into memory cells, controllers, or memory chips to alleviate the memory wall issue.[82][86][87] Such architectures significantly shorten data paths and leverage much higher internal bandwidth, hence resulting in attractive performance improvement. 2) Build high efficient DNN engines by adopting computational devices. In 2013, HP Lab demonstrated the astonishing capability of adopting ReRAM crossbar structure for computing.[88] Inspiring by this work, tremendous work are proposed to explore the new architecture and system design based on ReRAM,[81][89][90][82] phase change memory,[86][91][92] etc.","title":"Deep Learning Processors (DLP)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"}],"text":"Benchmarks such as MLPerf and others may be used to evaluate the performance of AI accelerators.[93] Table 2 lists several typical benchmarks for AI accelerators.","title":"Benchmarks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Agricultural robots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_robot"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"Autonomous vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation"},{"link_name":"Drive PX-series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive_PX-series"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"Computer-aided diagnosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_diagnosis"},{"link_name":"Industrial robots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robot"},{"link_name":"Machine translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translation"},{"link_name":"Military robots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_robot"},{"link_name":"Natural language processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_processing"},{"link_name":"Search engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_engine"},{"link_name":"energy efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_efficiency_in_computing"},{"link_name":"data centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_center"},{"link_name":"queries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_retrieval"},{"link_name":"Unmanned aerial vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle"},{"link_name":"Movidius Myriad 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movidius_Myriad_2"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"Voice user interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_user_interface"},{"link_name":"Zeroth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeroth_(software)"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"}],"text":"Agricultural robots, for example, herbicide-free weed control.[94]\nAutonomous vehicles: Nvidia has targeted their Drive PX-series boards at this application.[95]\nComputer-aided diagnosis\nIndustrial robots, increasing the range of tasks that can be automated, by adding adaptability to variable situations.\nMachine translation\nMilitary robots\nNatural language processing\nSearch engines, increasing the energy efficiency of data centers and the ability to use increasingly advanced queries.\nUnmanned aerial vehicles, e.g. navigation systems, e.g. the Movidius Myriad 2 has been demonstrated successfully guiding autonomous drones.[96]\nVoice user interface, e.g. in mobile phones, a target for Qualcomm Zeroth.[97]","title":"Potential applications"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Cognitive computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_computer"},{"title":"Neuromorphic engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromorphic_engineering"},{"title":"Optical neural network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_neural_network"},{"title":"Physical neural network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_neural_network"},{"title":"Cerebras Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebras"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Harrier
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Space Harrier
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["1 Gameplay","2 Development","2.1 Hardware","3 Ports","4 Reception","4.1 Arcade","4.2 Ports","4.3 Retrospective","5 Legacy","5.1 Other appearances","5.2 Influenced games","6 Series","7 See also","8 Notes","9 References","10 External links"]
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1985 video game
1985 video gameSpace HarrierEuropean arcade flyerDeveloper(s)SegaPublisher(s)SegaDesigner(s)Yu SuzukiComposer(s)Hiroshi KawaguchiYu SuzukiYuzo Koshiro (X68000)Mark Cooksey (C64)Platform(s)
Arcade
Arcade, Sega Mark III, Master System, Amiga, Amstrad CPC, Atari ST, Commodore 64, Game Boy Advance, Game Gear, Family Computer, PC-6001, PC-6601, PC-8801, PlayStation 2, Sega 32X, Sega Saturn, PC Engine/TurboGrafx-16, Virtual Console, X68000, ZX Spectrum
Release
October 2, 1985
Arcade JP: October 2, 1985WW: December 1985 Sega Mark III/Master SystemJP: December 21, 1986NA: March 1987EU: August 1987Amstrad CPCEU: 1986Commodore 16EU: 1986ZX SpectrumEU: 1986
PC-6001JP: March 1987PC-6601JP: March 1987X68000JP: September 1987FM77AVJP: December 1987Commodore 64NA: 1987EU: 1987PC-8801JP: July 25, 1988PC Engine/Turbografx-16JP: October 14, 1988NA: 1990Atari STNA: 1988EU: 1988Family ComputerJP: January 6, 1989AmigaNA: 1989EU: 1989Game GearJP: December 28, 1991NA: 1991EU: 1991Super/Sega 32XJP: December 3, 1994NA: 1994EU: 1994AU: 1994Sega SaturnJP: July 19, 1996 ArcadeJP: March 26, 2009PAL: May 29, 2009NA: June 15, 2009Nintendo eShopJP: December 26, 2012WW: November 28, 2013
Genre(s)Rail shooterMode(s)Single-playerArcade systemSpace Harrier hardware
Space Harrier is a third-person arcade rail shooter game developed by Sega and released in 1985. It was originally conceived as a realistic military-themed game played in the third-person perspective and featuring a player-controlled fighter jet, but technical and memory restrictions resulted in Sega developer Yu Suzuki redesigning it around a jet-propelled human character in a fantasy setting. The arcade game is controlled by an analog flight stick while the deluxe arcade cabinet is a cockpit-style linear actuator motion simulator cabinet that pitches and rolls during play, for which it is referred as a taikan (体感) or "body sensation" arcade game in Japan.
It was a commercial success in arcades, becoming one of Japan's top two highest-grossing upright/cockpit arcade games of 1986 (along with Sega's Hang-On). Critically praised for its innovative graphics, gameplay and motion cabinet, Space Harrier is often ranked among Suzuki's best works. It has made several crossover appearances in other Sega titles, and inspired a number of clones and imitators, while Capcom and PlatinumGames director Hideki Kamiya cited it as an inspiration for his entering the video game industry.
Space Harrier has been ported to over twenty different home computer and gaming platforms, either by Sega or outside developers such as Dempa in Japan and Elite Systems in North America and Europe. Two home-system sequels followed in Space Harrier 3-D and Space Harrier II (both released in 1988), and the arcade spin-off Planet Harriers (2000). A polygon-based remake of the original game was released by Sega for the PlayStation 2 as part of their Sega Ages series in 2003.
Gameplay
Arcade gameplay
Space Harrier is a fast-paced rail shooter game played in a third-person perspective behind the protagonist, set in a surreal world composed of brightly colored landscapes adorned with checkerboard-style grounds and stationary objects such as trees or stone pillars. At the start of gameplay, players are greeted with a voice sample speaking "Welcome to the Fantasy Zone. Get ready!", in addition to "You're doing great!" with the successful completion of a stage. The title player character, simply named Harrier, navigates a continuous series of eighteen distinct stages while utilizing an underarm jet-propelled laser cannon that enables Harrier to simultaneously fly and shoot. The objective is simply to destroy all enemies—who range from prehistoric animals and Chinese dragons to flying robots, airborne geometric objects and alien pods—all while remaining in constant motion in order to dodge projectiles and immovable ground obstacles.
Fifteen of the game's eighteen stages contain a boss at the end that must be killed in order to progress to the next level; the final stage is a rush of seven past bosses encountered up to that point that appear individually and are identified by name at the bottom of the screen. The two other levels are bonus stages that contain no enemies and where Harrier mounts an invincible catlike dragon named Uriah, whom the player maneuvers to smash through landscape obstacles and collect bonus points. After all lives are lost, players have the option of continuing gameplay with the insertion of an extra coin. As Space Harrier has no storyline, after the completion of all stages, only "The End" is displayed before the game returns to the title screen and attract mode, regardless of how many of the player's extra lives remain.
Development
The market research department told me not to make the game. I asked them why didn't succeed and they told me it was because the target is too small. Based on that, my conclusion was that I basically had to make sure the player could hit the target. So, I made a homing system that guaranteed that the target could be hit. When the target was close, it would always hit, but when the target was in the distance, the player would miss. So the result of whether the player would hit the target or not was determined the second the player took the shot.
—Yu Suzuki, 2010
The game was first conceived by a Sega designer named Ida, who wrote a 100-page document proposing the idea of a three-dimensional shooter that contained the word "Harrier" in the title. The game would feature a player-controlled fighter jet that shot missiles into realistic foregrounds, a concept that was soon rejected due to the extensive work required to project the aircraft realistically from varying angles as it moved around the screen, coupled with arcade machines' memory limitations. Sega developer Yu Suzuki therefore simplified the title character to a human, which required less memory and realism to depict onscreen. He then rewrote the entire original proposal, changing the style of the game to a science-fiction setting while keeping only the "Harrier" name. His inspirations for the game's new design were the 1984 film The Neverending Story, the 1982 anime series Space Cobra, and the work of artist Roger Dean. Certain enemies were modelled on characters from the anime series Gundam. Suzuki included a nod to the original designer in the finished product with an enemy character called Ida, a large moai-like floating stone head, because the designer "had a really big head". Three different arcade cabinets were produced: an upright cabinet, a sit-down version with a fixed seat, and its best known incarnation: a deluxe cockpit-style rolling cabinet that was mounted on a motorised base and moved depending on the direction in which players pushed the joystick. Sega was hesitant to have the cabinets built due to high construction costs; Suzuki, who had proposed the cabinet designs, offered his salary as compensation if the game failed, but it would instead become a major hit in arcades.
Suzuki had little involvement with the game after its initial release: the Master System port was developed by Mutsuhiro Fujii and Yuji Naka, and they added a final boss and an ending sequence which were included in subsequent ports. The game was too successful for Sega to abandon the series, and other Sega staff, such as Naoto Ohshima (character designer for Sonic the Hedgehog), Kotaro Hayashida (planner of Alex Kidd in Miracle World), and Toshihiro Nagoshi (director of Super Monkey Ball) have had involvement in various sequels. In a 2015 interview, Suzuki said that he would have liked to create a new Space Harrier by himself, and was pleased to see it ported to the Nintendo 3DS.
Hardware
Space Harrier arcade machine
Space Harrier was one of the first arcade releases to use 16-bit graphics and scaled sprite ("Super Scaler") technology that allowed pseudo-3D sprite scaling at high frame rates, with the ability to display 32,000 colors on screen. Running on the Sega Space Harrier arcade system board previously used in Suzuki's 1985 arcade debut Hang-On, pseudo-3D sprite/tile scaling is used for the stage backgrounds while the character graphics are sprite-based. Suzuki explained in 2010 that his designs "were always 3D from the beginning. All the calculations in the system were 3D, even from Hang-On. I calculated the position, scale, and zoom rate in 3D and converted it backwards to 2D. So I was always thinking in 3D".
The game's soundtrack is by Hiroshi Kawaguchi, who composed drafts on a Yamaha DX7 synthesizer and wrote out the final versions as sheet music, as he had no access to a "real" music sequencer at the time. A Zilog Z80 CPU powering both a Yamaha YM2203 synthesis chip and Sega's PCM unit that was used for audio and digitized voice samples. Space Harrier utilized an analog flight stick as its controller that allowed onscreen movement in all directions, while the velocity of the character's flight is unchangeable. The degree of push and acceleration varies depending on how far the stick is moved in a certain direction. Two separate "fire" buttons are mounted on the joystick (a trigger) and on the control panel; either one can be pressed repeatedly in order to shoot at enemies.
The deluxe arcade cabinet is a cockpit-style motion simulator cabinet that pitches and rolls during play, for which it is referred to as a taikan ("body sensation") arcade game in Japan. It is often mistakenly referred to as a hydraulic cabinet, as a pair of motorized linear actuators in the base tilted the cabinet in two axes.
Ports
Space Harrier has been ported to numerous home computer systems and gaming consoles, with most early translations unable to reproduce the original's advanced visual or audio capabilities while the controls were switched from analog to digital. The first port was released in 1986 for the Master System (Mark III in Japan), developed by Sega AM R&D 4. The first two-megabit cartridge produced for the console, the game was given a plot in which Harrier saves the "Land of the Dragons" (rather than the "Fantasy Zone") from destruction, with a new ending sequence in contrast to the arcade version's simple "The End" message. All eighteen stages were present but the backdrops therein were omitted, leaving just a monochromatic horizon and the checkerboard floors. An exclusive final boss was included in a powerful twin-bodied fire dragon named Haya Oh, who was named after then-Sega president Hayao Nakayama. The 1991 Game Gear port is based on its Master System counterpart, but with redesigned enemies and only twelve stages, while Rutubo Games produced a near-duplicate of the arcade version in 1994 for the 32X add-on for the Sega Genesis. Both games featured box art by Marc Ericksen.
Other releases were developed for non-Sega gaming systems such as the TurboGrafx-16 and the Famicom, while Europe and North America saw 8-bit home computer ports by Elite Systems for the ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC and Commodore 64 in 1986, and later in 1989 for the 16-bit Amiga and Atari ST. The Commodore 64 received two conversions, one originating in the UK and the other from the USA.
M2, in collaboration with Sega CS3, ported Space Harrier to the handheld Nintendo 3DS console in 2013, complete with stereoscopic 3D and widescreen graphics—a process that took eighteen months. Sega CS3 producer Yosuke Okunari described the game's 3D-conversion process as "almost impossible. When you take a character sprite that was originally in 2D and bring it into a 3D viewpoint, you have to build the graphic from scratch". During development, M2 president Naoki Horii sought opinions from staff members regarding the gameplay of the arcade original: "They'd say it was hard to tell whether objects were right in front of their character or not. Once we had the game in 3D, the same people came back and said, 'OK, now I get it! I can play it now!'" The port included a feature that allowed players to use the 3DS's gyroscope to simulate the experience of the original motorised cabinet by way of a tilting screen, compounded by the optional activation of the sounds of button clicks and the cabinet's movement. Horii recalled in a 2015 interview that he was intrigued by the possibility of crafting Space Harrier and past Sega arcade games for the 3DS using stereoscopic technology: "Both SEGA and M2 wanted to see what would happen if we added a little bit of spice to these titles, in the form of modern gaming technology. Would it enhance the entertainment factor? I think the reception that the releases have had from critics highlights that these games are as relevant today as ever, and that means we've succeeded".
Reception
ReceptionAggregate scoreAggregatorScoreMetacritic70/100 (3DS)74/100 (Switch)Review scoresPublicationScoreAllGame4.5/5 (32X)2.5/5 (PC)4.5/5 (SMS)3/5 (T16)3/5 (Wii)Crash77% (ZX)Computer and Video GamesPositive (arcade)82% (Amiga)35/40 (CPC)78% (SMS)89% (T16)34/40 (ZX)GamePro4/5 (32X)GameSpy9/10 (SMS)IGN4.5/10 (Wii)Micromanía8/10 (SMS)Next Generation3/5 (32X)Sinclair UserPositive (arcade)5/5 (ZX)Tilt16/20 (SMS)Your Sinclair9/10 (ZX)Zzap!6485% (Amiga)Computer GamerPositive (arcade)Gamest19/24 (arcade)
Arcade
The game was commercially successful upon its initial arcade release. Sega unveiled Space Harrier at the 1985 Amusement Machine Show in Japan, where it was the most popular game. In January 1986, Game Machine listed Space Harrier as being the top-grossing title on the monthly upright/cockpit arcade cabinet charts in Japan. It remained at the top of the upright/cockpit arcade charts for much of 1986, through February, March and early April, then returning to the top in May, remaining at the top through June, July and August, and then topping the charts again in October. Overall, the Space Harrier rolling type cabinet was Japan's second highest-grossing upright/cockpit arcade cabinet during the first half of 1986 (below only Hang-On), and the overall highest-grossing upright/cockpit arcade game during the latter half of 1986. It was later Japan's seventh highest upright/cockpit arcade game of 1987.
The arcade game was positively received by critics upon release. Reviewing the game at the 1986 Amusement Trades Exhibition International in London, Clare Edgeley of Computer and Video Games hailed it as a "crowd stopper" due to its "realistic" moving cockpit, graphical capabilities and "amazing technicolour landscapes" but cautioned: "Unless you are an expert, you will find it very difficult". Mike Roberts of Computer Gamer magazine praised the "extremely good" graphics, the "quite good" 3D effects, and the cockpit simulator cabinet. The July 1986 issue of Japanese magazine Gamest ranked Space Harrier at number one on its list of best Sega arcade games.
Ports
The game was also positively received upon its home releases. The home computer conversion of Space Harrier was in the top five of the UK sales chart in December 1986, and was tied as runner-up with the Commodore 64 title Uridium for Game of the Year honors at the 1986 Golden Joystick Awards.
Ed Semrad of The Milwaukee Journal gave the Master System port a 9/10 rating, and Computer Gaming World deemed it "the best arcade shoot-'em-up of the year ... as exciting a game as this reviewer has ever played". Phil Campbell of The Sydney Morning Herald praised the 1989 Amiga conversion as "absorbing" and "a faithful copy of the original". Computer and Video Games called the port "an entirely unpretentious computer game full of weird and wacky nasties". Paul Mellerick of Sega Force wrote that the Game Gear version was "amazingly close to the original ... the scrolling's the speediest and smoothest ever seen". GamePro commented that the 32X version had "straightforward controls", graphics relatively close to the arcade version, and was "a nice trip down memory lane", while Next Generation dubbed it as decent, solid game. AllGame called the game "a must-have" title for 32X system.
Lucas Thomas of IGN rated the 2008 Wii port a 4.5 score out of 10, citing its "poor visuals and poor control" and "dulled" color palette. Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb, in his review of Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection, criticized the Space Harrier emulation's "numerous audio issues that make it sound completely different from the way the original game sounds". Bob Mackey of USGamer was critical to Nintendo 3DS port.
Retrospective
The game continues to garner praise for its audio, visual, and gameplay features. GameSetWatch's Trevor Wilson remarked in 2006: "It's easy to see why the game is so well-loved to this day, with its blinding speed and classic tunes". In 2008, Retro Gamer editor Darran Jones described the game as "difficult", but "a thing of beauty even today ... possesses a striking elegance that urges you to return to it for just one more go". That same year, IGN's Levi Buchanan opined: "Even today, Space Harrier is a sight to behold, a hellzapoppin' explosion of light, color, and imagination". Eric Twice of Snackbar Games noted in 2013: "It's easy to just see it as just a game in which you press the button and things die, but Suzuki is a very conscious designer. He has a very specific vision behind each of his games, and nothing in them is ever left to chance". In a 2013 Eurogamer retrospective on the series, Rich Stanton observed: "The speed at which Space Harrier moves has rarely been matched. It's not an easy thing to design a game around. Many other games have fast parts, or certain mechanics tied to speed—and it's interesting to note how many take control away at this point. Every time I play Space Harrier ... the speed blows me away one more time. It is a monster".
Eric Francisco of Inverse described the game's visuals in 2015: "Imagine an acid trip through an '80s anime, a Robert Jordan novel, and early Silicon Valley binge coding sessions". GamesRadar ranked the arcade original's bonus stage among the "25 best bonus levels of all time" in 2014, likening it to players piloting The Neverending Story's dragon character Falkor. Kotaku named the Space Harrier tribute stage from Bayonetta in their 2013 selection of "the trippiest video game levels". Also in 2013, Hanuman Welch of Complex included Space Harrier among the ten Sega games he felt warranted a "modern reboot", citing its "kinetic pace that would be welcome on today's systems".
Legacy
Space Harrier spawned two home-system sequels in 1988. The Master System exclusive Space Harrier 3-D utilized Sega's SegaScope 3-D glasses, and featured the same gameplay and visuals as the port of the original game while containing new stage, enemy, and boss designs. Space Harrier II was one of six launch titles for the Japanese debut of the Mega Drive (Sega Genesis), and released as such in the United States in August 1989. In December 2000, fifteen years after the original game's debut, Sega released the loose arcade sequel Planet Harriers, which again continued the gameplay style of the franchise but featured four new selectable characters each possessing distinct weapons, in addition to five fully realized stages and a new option of purchasing weapon power-ups. However, Planet Harriers had only a minimal presence in the United States due to its faltering arcade scene, and it was never given a home release. In 2003, a remake of the original Space Harrier was developed by Tamsoft as part of the Japanese Sega Ages classic-game series (Sega Classics Collection in North America and Europe) for the PlayStation 2. The graphics are composed of polygons instead of sprites while several characters are redesigned, and a selectable option allows players to switch to a "fractal mode" that replaces the traditional checkerboard floors with texture-mapped playfields and includes two new underground stages. Power-ups such as bombs and lock-on targeting fly toward and are caught by the player during gameplay.
The original Space Harrier was packaged with three of Yu Suzuki's other works—After Burner, Out Run, and Super Hang-On—for the 2003 Game Boy Advance release Sega Arcade Gallery. The Space Harrier Complete Collection (Sega Ages 2500 Series Vol. 20: Space Harrier II in Japan), developed by M2 for the PlayStation 2, followed on October 27, 2005 to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the franchise, and was composed of all the official series releases "to go with the various generations of our customers", according to Yosuke Okunari. Bonus content included a record-and-replay feature and an arcade promotional-material gallery, in addition to images of Hiroshi Kawaguchi's sheet music and notes for the original game's soundtrack. The 1991 Game Gear port is hidden therein as an Easter egg.
Space Harrier was re-released for Nintendo Switch, as part of the Sega Ages lineup.
Other appearances
Space Harrier has shared an unofficial connection with another Sega shooter franchise, Fantasy Zone, which debuted in Japanese arcades in March 1986. Both series are believed to be set in the same universe; Space Harrier's opening line of dialogue at the start of gameplay ("Welcome to the Fantasy Zone") has been cited as a reason, but this was dispelled by Fantasy Zone director Yoji Ishii in a 2014 interview. A 1989 port of Fantasy Zone for the Japan-exclusive Sharp X68000 contains a hidden stage called "Dragon Land" that features Space Harrier enemy characters and is accessible only by following a specific set of instructions. In 1991, NEC Avenue developed Space Fantasy Zone for the CD-ROM, featuring Fantasy Zone's main character Opa-Opa navigating nine levels of combined gameplay elements and enemies from both franchises. Despite a December 1991 preview in Electronic Gaming Monthly and advertising designed by artist Satoshi Urushihara, Space Fantasy Zone was never released due to a legal dispute with Sega over NEC's unauthorized use of the Fantasy Zone property. However, bootleg copies were produced after a playable beta version of the game was released on the Internet. Opa-Opa is included in Planet Harriers as a hidden character, while one of three available endings in the 2007 PlayStation 2 release Fantasy Zone II DX has Harrier and Uriah attempting to eliminate a turned-evil Opa-Opa bent on destroying the game's eponymous Fantasy Zone.
The arcade version of Space Harrier is included in the 1999 Dreamcast action-adventure title Shenmue as a minigame, and as a full port in the 2001 sequel Shenmue II. Sega Superstars Tennis and the 2010 action-adventure game Bayonetta feature Space Harrier-inspired minigames. The title is available as an unlockable game in Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection (2009), for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, though with sound emulation differences. In the 2012 title Sonic & All-Stars Racing Transformed, a remixed version of the Space Harrier main theme plays during the "Race of Ages" stage, in which a holographic statue of Harrier and a flying dragon appear in the background. In addition, Shenmue character Ryo Hazuki pilots a flying Space Harrier sit-down arcade cabinet during airborne levels. Sega included an emulation of the original title as a minigame in several titles of their Yakuza series, such as the 2015 release Yakuza 0, and the 2018 releases Yakuza 6: The Song of Life, Fist of the North Star: Lost Paradise and Judgment.
Influenced games
The success of Space Harrier resulted in the development of other first/third-person rail shooters that attempted to emulate its three-dimensional scaling, visuals, and gameplay capabilities, causing them to be labeled "Space Harrier clones". One of the most notable examples was the 1987 Square title The 3-D Battles of WorldRunner for the Famicom and Nintendo Entertainment System, which was followed by Pony Canyon's 1987 Famicom release Attack Animal Gakuen and other Japan-exclusive games such as Namco's Burning Force, Asmik's Cosmic Epsilon, and Wolf Team's Jimmu Denshō, all released in 1989. According to AllGame, Nintendo's Star Fox (1993) "was influenced by early first-person 3D shooters such as" Space Harrier.
According to The One magazine in 1991, Sega "arguably pioneered the deluxe ground-ride cabinet cum video game with classics such as" Space Harrier. Sega went on to produce "bigger" and "better" motion simulator cabinets for arcade flight games such as After Burner (1987) and the R360 cabinet for G-LOC: Air Battle (1990).
Hideki Kamiya, the director of PlatinumGames and creator of the Devil May Cry series, cited Space Harrier as an inspiration for his entering the video game industry in a 2014 interview: "There were so many trend-setting definitive games that came out , like Gradius and Space Harrier. All these game creators were trying to make original, really creative games that had never existed before".
Game composer Yuzo Koshiro was a fan of the game's music. He said Space Harrier was the first time he had heard FM synthesis music, and the game inspired him to become a video game music composer. He considers Space Harrier composer Hiroshi Kawaguchi to be one of Sega's best ever composers.
Series
Space Harrier (1985) — Arcade, Master System, Game Gear, 32X, Sega Saturn, Dreamcast, various other non-Sega home systems
Space Harrier 3-D (1988) — Master System
Space Harrier II (1988) — Mega Drive/Genesis, Virtual Console, iOS, various other non-Sega systems
Planet Harriers (2000) — Arcade only
Space Harrier Sega Ages Edition (2003) — PlayStation 2
Sega Ages 2500 Vol. 20: Space Harrier Complete Collection (2005) — PlayStation 2
3D Space Harrier (2013) — 3DS
See also
Blaster, 1983 arcade game with similar gameplay
Notes
^ Japanese: スペースハリアー, Hepburn: Supēsu Hariā
^ Often called "the Harrier" as a title instead of a proper name, he is named "Harri" in several United Kingdom home releases of the game.
^ This proper spelling appears in gameplay of the arcade and Master System versions and Space Harrier 3-D, but is written as "Euria" in the Master System instruction manual and on both the packaging and manual for Space Harrier 3-D. Both spellings appear in the latter game: "Dark Uriah" serves as the final boss, but "Euria" is seen in the game's ending text.
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External links
Space Harrier at Coinop.org
Space Harrier at MobyGames
Space Harrier at SpectrumComputing.co.uk
Space Harrier at arcade-history
Space Harrier for Virtual Console (in Japanese)
vteSpace Harrier seriesMain series
Space Harrier (1985)
Space Harrier 3-D (1988)
Space Harrier II (1988)
Spin-offs
Planet Harriers (2000)
Related
Sega AM2
Yu Suzuki
Fantasy Zone
vteYu SuzukiDirector
Champion Boxing (1984)
Hang-On (1985)
Space Harrier (1985)
Out Run (1986)
After Burner (1987)
Power Drift (1988)
G-LOC: Air Battle (1990)
Virtua Racing (1992)
Virtua Fighter (1993)
Virtua Fighter 2 (1994)
Virtua Fighter 3 (1996)
F355 Challenge (1999)
Shenmue (1999)
Shenmue II (2001)
Virtua Fighter 4 (2001)
Shenmue City (2010)
Virtua Fighter: Cool Champ (2011)
Virtua Fighter: Fever Combo (2014)
Shenmue III (2019)
Designer
Champion Boxing (1984)
Hang-On (1985)
Space Harrier (1985)
Out Run (1986)
After Burner (1987)
After Burner II (1987)
Power Drift (1988)
G-LOC: Air Battle (1990)
Strike Fighter (1991)
Producer
Dynamite Düx (1988)
Sword of Vermilion (1989)
GP Rider (1990)
Strike Fighter (1991)
Rent-A-Hero (1991)
F1 Exhaust Note (1991)
Soreike Kokology (1992)
Burning Rival (1993)
Virtua Fighter (1993)
Daytona USA (1993)
Virtua Cop (1994)
Virtua Fighter 2 (1994)
Virtua Striker (1995)
Virtua Cop 2 (1995)
Fighting Vipers (1995)
Virtua Fighter Kids (1996)
Fighters Megamix (1996)
Sonic the Fighters (1996)
Scud Race (1996)
Virtua Striker 2 (1997)
Fighting Vipers 2 (1998)
Daytona USA 2 (1998)
Shenmue (1999)
Outtrigger (1999)
18 Wheeler: American Pro Trucker (1999)
Shenmue II (2001)
Virtua Fighter 4 (2001)
Virtua Cop 3 (2003)
OutRun 2 (2003)
Sega Race TV (2008)
Shenmue III (2019)
Engineer
Sega Super Scaler (1985)
Sega Model 1 (1992)
Sega Model 2 (1993)
Sega Model 3 (1996)
Dreamcast (1998)
Sega NAOMI (1998)
vteVideo game franchises owned by SegaSega
Alex Kidd
Angry Birds
Bayonetta
Company of Heroes
Crazy Taxi
Eastside Hockey Manager
Ecco the Dolphin
Football Manager
Golden Axe
Hatsune Miku: Project DIVA
The House of the Dead
Initial D
Like a Dragon
Panzer Dragoon
Phantasy Star
Puyo Puyo
Sakura Wars
Sega Ages
Sega Rally
Sega Worldwide Soccer
Shenmue
Shining
Shinobi
Sonic the Hedgehog
Streets of Rage
Super Monkey Ball
Thunder Force
Total War
Valkyria Chronicles
Virtua Fighter
Virtua Striker
Virtua Tennis
Virtual On
Wonder Boy
World Series Baseball
Atlus
Dept. Heaven
Etrian Odyssey
Growlanser
Megami Tensei
Devil Children
Devil Summoner
Last Bible
Majin Tensei
Persona
Power Instinct
Trauma Center
vteSegaA subsidiary of Sega Sammy HoldingsProducts
Software
Video game franchises
List of games
Hardware
Consoles
Development studiosJapan
Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio
Sega AM2
Sonic Team
Sega Saporro Studio
Sega AM1
Atlus
Europe
Amplitude Studios
Creative Assembly
Sofia
Hardlight
Rovio Entertainment
Ruby Games
Sports Interactive
Two Point Studios
Sega FaveProducts
Arcade systems
Arcade games
Sega Logistics Services
DartsliveTMS Entertainment
Telecom Animation Film
TMS JINNI'S
TMS Music
Toms Photo
Other assets
Play Heart
Sega XD
Marza Animation Planet
Online gaming services
Sega Meganet
Sega Channel
Sega Net Link
Dreamcast services
ALL.Net
Sega Forever
Former assets
Career Soft
GameWorks
Demiurge Studios
Index Corporation
Relic Entertainment
Sega Studios San Francisco
Sega Studios Australia
Sega Sports R&D
Sega Ozisoft
Sega Entertainment
Sega World
Sega World Sydney
SegaWorld London
SIMS Co., Ltd.
Sonic! Software Planning
Visual Concepts
Technosoft
Three Rings Design
Defunct
Amusement Vision
Hitmaker
Sega Rosso
Sega WOW
WOW Entertainment
Overworks
Smilebit
Orbi
Related
Gremlin Industries
Gulf and Western Industries
Sega Technical Institute
SCSK Corporation
Sega v. Accolade
Category
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"third-person","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third-person_shooter"},{"link_name":"rail shooter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_shooter"},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"in 1985","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985_in_video_gaming"},{"link_name":"fighter jet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircraft"},{"link_name":"Yu Suzuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu_Suzuki"},{"link_name":"flight stick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_stick"},{"link_name":"arcade cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_cabinet"},{"link_name":"linear actuator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_actuator"},{"link_name":"motion simulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_simulator"},{"link_name":"arcade games of 1986","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986_in_video_games"},{"link_name":"Hang-On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hang-On"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-8"},{"link_name":"crossover appearances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crossovers_in_video_games"},{"link_name":"Capcom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capcom"},{"link_name":"PlatinumGames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlatinumGames"},{"link_name":"Hideki Kamiya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hideki_Kamiya"},{"link_name":"video game industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_industry"},{"link_name":"ported","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porting"},{"link_name":"home computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computer"},{"link_name":"gaming platforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_video_game_console"},{"link_name":"Elite Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elite_Systems"},{"link_name":"Space Harrier 3-D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Harrier_3-D"},{"link_name":"Space Harrier II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Harrier_II"},{"link_name":"Planet Harriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet_Harriers"},{"link_name":"polygon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygon_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_2"},{"link_name":"Sega Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Ages"}],"text":"1985 video gameSpace Harrier[a] is a third-person arcade rail shooter game developed by Sega and released in 1985. It was originally conceived as a realistic military-themed game played in the third-person perspective and featuring a player-controlled fighter jet, but technical and memory restrictions resulted in Sega developer Yu Suzuki redesigning it around a jet-propelled human character in a fantasy setting. The arcade game is controlled by an analog flight stick while the deluxe arcade cabinet is a cockpit-style linear actuator motion simulator cabinet that pitches and rolls during play, for which it is referred as a taikan (体感) or \"body sensation\" arcade game in Japan.It was a commercial success in arcades, becoming one of Japan's top two highest-grossing upright/cockpit arcade games of 1986 (along with Sega's Hang-On).[7] Critically praised for its innovative graphics, gameplay and motion cabinet, Space Harrier is often ranked among Suzuki's best works. It has made several crossover appearances in other Sega titles, and inspired a number of clones and imitators, while Capcom and PlatinumGames director Hideki Kamiya cited it as an inspiration for his entering the video game industry.Space Harrier has been ported to over twenty different home computer and gaming platforms, either by Sega or outside developers such as Dempa in Japan and Elite Systems in North America and Europe. Two home-system sequels followed in Space Harrier 3-D and Space Harrier II (both released in 1988), and the arcade spin-off Planet Harriers (2000). A polygon-based remake of the original game was released by Sega for the PlayStation 2 as part of their Sega Ages series in 2003.","title":"Space Harrier"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Space_Harrier_Gameplay.png"},{"link_name":"rail shooter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoot_%27em_up#Rail_shooters"},{"link_name":"third-person","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third-person_shooter"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SHoverview-9"},{"link_name":"surreal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrealism"},{"link_name":"checkerboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checkerboard"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming-10"},{"link_name":"player character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Player_character"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"stages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_(video_gaming)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stages-15"},{"link_name":"laser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser"},{"link_name":"Chinese dragons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_dragon"},{"link_name":"geometric objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming-10"},{"link_name":"boss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boss_(video_gaming)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SMSmanual-16"},{"link_name":"rush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boss_(video_gaming)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stages-15"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming-10"},{"link_name":"[note 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KLOV-20"},{"link_name":"attract mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attract_mode"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KLOV-20"}],"text":"Arcade gameplaySpace Harrier is a fast-paced rail shooter game played in a third-person perspective behind the protagonist,[8] set in a surreal world composed of brightly colored landscapes adorned with checkerboard-style grounds and stationary objects such as trees or stone pillars. At the start of gameplay, players are greeted with a voice sample speaking \"Welcome to the Fantasy Zone. Get ready!\", in addition to \"You're doing great!\" with the successful completion of a stage.[9] The title player character, simply named Harrier,[note 1] navigates a continuous series of eighteen distinct stages[13] while utilizing an underarm jet-propelled laser cannon that enables Harrier to simultaneously fly and shoot. The objective is simply to destroy all enemies—who range from prehistoric animals and Chinese dragons to flying robots, airborne geometric objects and alien pods—all while remaining in constant motion in order to dodge projectiles and immovable ground obstacles.[9]Fifteen of the game's eighteen stages contain a boss at the end that must be killed in order to progress to the next level;[14] the final stage is a rush of seven past bosses encountered up to that point that appear individually and are identified by name at the bottom of the screen.[13] The two other levels are bonus stages that contain no enemies and where Harrier mounts an invincible catlike dragon named Uriah,[9][note 2] whom the player maneuvers to smash through landscape obstacles and collect bonus points. After all lives are lost, players have the option of continuing gameplay with the insertion of an extra coin.[17] As Space Harrier has no storyline, after the completion of all stages, only \"The End\" is displayed before the game returns to the title screen and attract mode, regardless of how many of the player's extra lives remain.[17]","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"3D shooters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooter_game"},{"link_name":"homing system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missile_guidance"},{"link_name":"Yu Suzuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu_Suzuki"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suzuki2-21"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suzuki2-21"},{"link_name":"Harrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrier_jump_jet"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suzuki2-21"},{"link_name":"fighter jet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircraft"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suzuki2-21"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stranaigr-22"},{"link_name":"Yu Suzuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu_Suzuki"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stranaigr-22"},{"link_name":"science-fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suzuki2-21"},{"link_name":"The Neverending Story","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_NeverEnding_Story_(film)"},{"link_name":"anime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime"},{"link_name":"Space Cobra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobra_(manga)"},{"link_name":"Roger Dean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Dean_(artist)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stranaigr-22"},{"link_name":"Gundam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gundam"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Making-23"},{"link_name":"moai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moai"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suzuki2-21"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-register-13"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stanton-24"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-denofgeek-25"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ultimatehistory-26"},{"link_name":"Master System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_System"},{"link_name":"Yuji Naka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuji_Naka"},{"link_name":"Naoto Ohshima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naoto_Ohshima"},{"link_name":"Sonic the Hedgehog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_(1991_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Kotaro Hayashida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotaro_Hayashida"},{"link_name":"Alex Kidd in Miracle World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Kidd_in_Miracle_World"},{"link_name":"Toshihiro Nagoshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshihiro_Nagoshi"},{"link_name":"Super Monkey Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Monkey_Ball_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Nintendo 3DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_3DS"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Making-23"}],"text":"The market research department told me not to make the game. I asked them why [3D shooters] didn't succeed and they told me it was because the target is too small. Based on that, my conclusion was that I basically had to make sure the player could hit the target. So, I made a homing system that guaranteed that the target could be hit. When the target was close, it would always hit, but when the target was in the distance, the player would miss. So the result of whether the player would hit the target or not was determined the second the player took the shot.\n\n\n—Yu Suzuki, 2010[18]The game was first conceived by a Sega designer named Ida,[18] who wrote a 100-page document proposing the idea of a three-dimensional shooter that contained the word \"Harrier\" in the title.[18] The game would feature a player-controlled fighter jet that shot missiles into realistic foregrounds, a concept that was soon rejected due to the extensive work required to project the aircraft realistically from varying angles as it moved around the screen,[18] coupled with arcade machines' memory limitations.[19] Sega developer Yu Suzuki therefore simplified the title character to a human, which required less memory and realism to depict onscreen.[19] He then rewrote the entire original proposal, changing the style of the game to a science-fiction setting while keeping only the \"Harrier\" name.[18] His inspirations for the game's new design were the 1984 film The Neverending Story, the 1982 anime series Space Cobra, and the work of artist Roger Dean.[19] Certain enemies were modelled on characters from the anime series Gundam.[20] Suzuki included a nod to the original designer in the finished product with an enemy character called Ida, a large moai-like floating stone head, because the designer \"had a really big head\".[18] Three different arcade cabinets were produced: an upright cabinet, a sit-down version with a fixed seat, and its best known[12][21][22] incarnation: a deluxe cockpit-style rolling cabinet that was mounted on a motorised base and moved depending on the direction in which players pushed the joystick. Sega was hesitant to have the cabinets built due to high construction costs; Suzuki, who had proposed the cabinet designs, offered his salary as compensation if the game failed, but it would instead become a major hit in arcades.[23]Suzuki had little involvement with the game after its initial release: the Master System port was developed by Mutsuhiro Fujii and Yuji Naka, and they added a final boss and an ending sequence which were included in subsequent ports. The game was too successful for Sega to abandon the series, and other Sega staff, such as Naoto Ohshima (character designer for Sonic the Hedgehog), Kotaro Hayashida (planner of Alex Kidd in Miracle World), and Toshihiro Nagoshi (director of Super Monkey Ball) have had involvement in various sequels. In a 2015 interview, Suzuki said that he would have liked to create a new Space Harrier by himself, and was pleased to see it ported to the Nintendo 3DS.[20]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spaceharrier.jpg"},{"link_name":"arcade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amusement_arcade"},{"link_name":"16-bit graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_generation_of_video_game_consoles"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"pseudo-3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2.5D"},{"link_name":"sprite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)#Move_to_3D"},{"link_name":"scaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_scaling"},{"link_name":"frame rates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_rate"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ignhistory-28"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-retrospective-29"},{"link_name":"Sega Space Harrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sega_arcade_system_boards#Sega_Space_Harrier"},{"link_name":"arcade system board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_system_board"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Hang-On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hang-On"},{"link_name":"pseudo-3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2.5D"},{"link_name":"sprite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"tile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tile_engine"},{"link_name":"graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ignhistory-28"},{"link_name":"2D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1UPsuzuki-31"},{"link_name":"Hiroshi Kawaguchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshi_Kawaguchi_(composer)"},{"link_name":"Yamaha DX7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_DX7"},{"link_name":"sheet music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_music"},{"link_name":"music sequencer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_sequencer"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shmupSST-32"},{"link_name":"Zilog Z80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilog_Z80"},{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"Yamaha YM2203","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YM2203"},{"link_name":"synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation_synthesis"},{"link_name":"PCM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-code_modulation"},{"link_name":"digitized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitizing"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-register-13"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shmupSST-32"},{"link_name":"analog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_stick"},{"link_name":"flight stick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joystick"},{"link_name":"velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-retrospective-29"},{"link_name":"arcade cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_cabinet"},{"link_name":"motion simulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_simulator"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ishii-33"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CVG-Arcade-34"},{"link_name":"hydraulic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulics"},{"link_name":"linear actuators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_actuator"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Hardware","text":"Space Harrier arcade machineSpace Harrier was one of the first arcade releases to use 16-bit graphics and scaled sprite (\"Super Scaler\") technology[24] that allowed pseudo-3D sprite scaling at high frame rates,[25] with the ability to display 32,000 colors on screen.[26] Running on the Sega Space Harrier arcade system board[27] previously used in Suzuki's 1985 arcade debut Hang-On, pseudo-3D sprite/tile scaling is used for the stage backgrounds while the character graphics are sprite-based.[25] Suzuki explained in 2010 that his designs \"were always 3D from the beginning. All the calculations in the system were 3D, even from Hang-On. I calculated the position, scale, and zoom rate in 3D and converted it backwards to 2D. So I was always thinking in 3D\".[28]The game's soundtrack is by Hiroshi Kawaguchi, who composed drafts on a Yamaha DX7 synthesizer and wrote out the final versions as sheet music, as he had no access to a \"real\" music sequencer at the time.[29] A Zilog Z80 CPU powering both a Yamaha YM2203 synthesis chip and Sega's PCM unit that was used for audio and digitized voice samples.[12][29] Space Harrier utilized an analog flight stick as its controller that allowed onscreen movement in all directions, while the velocity of the character's flight is unchangeable. The degree of push and acceleration varies depending on how far the stick is moved in a certain direction.[26] Two separate \"fire\" buttons are mounted on the joystick (a trigger) and on the control panel; either one can be pressed repeatedly in order to shoot at enemies.The deluxe arcade cabinet is a cockpit-style motion simulator cabinet that pitches and rolls during play, for which it is referred to as a taikan (\"body sensation\") arcade game in Japan.[30][31] It is often mistakenly referred to as a hydraulic cabinet, as a pair of motorized linear actuators in the base tilted the cabinet in two axes.[citation needed]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ported","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porting"},{"link_name":"home computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computer"},{"link_name":"gaming consoles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_video_game_console"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming-10"},{"link_name":"Sega AM R&D 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amusement_Vision"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-horowitz-35"},{"link_name":"megabit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabit"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SegaHard-5"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming-10"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SMSmanual-16"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Buchanan-36"},{"link_name":"Hayao Nakayama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayao_Nakayama"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming-10"},{"link_name":"Game Gear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Gear"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming-10"},{"link_name":"32X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32X"},{"link_name":"add-on","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_accessory"},{"link_name":"Sega Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Genesis"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Buchanan-36"},{"link_name":"box art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_packaging#Box_art"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"TurboGrafx-16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TurboGrafx-16"},{"link_name":"Famicom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"Elite Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elite_Systems"},{"link_name":"ZX Spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SUser-38"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-YSinclair-39"},{"link_name":"Amstrad CPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amstrad_CPC"},{"link_name":"Commodore 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64"},{"link_name":"Amiga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga"},{"link_name":"Atari ST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_ST"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming-10"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-register-13"},{"link_name":"Sega CS3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_Team"},{"link_name":"Nintendo 3DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_3DS"},{"link_name":"stereoscopic 3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereoscopy"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nintendolife-43"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nintendolife-43"},{"link_name":"gyroscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscope"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mackey-45"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vice-46"}],"text":"Space Harrier has been ported to numerous home computer systems and gaming consoles, with most early translations unable to reproduce the original's advanced visual or audio capabilities while the controls were switched from analog to digital.[9] The first port was released in 1986 for the Master System (Mark III in Japan), developed by Sega AM R&D 4.[32] The first two-megabit cartridge produced for the console,[5] the game was given a plot in which Harrier saves the \"Land of the Dragons\" (rather than the \"Fantasy Zone\") from destruction, with a new ending sequence in contrast to the arcade version's simple \"The End\" message.[9][14][33] All eighteen stages were present but the backdrops therein were omitted, leaving just a monochromatic horizon and the checkerboard floors. An exclusive final boss was included in a powerful twin-bodied fire dragon named Haya Oh, who was named after then-Sega president Hayao Nakayama.[9] The 1991 Game Gear port is based on its Master System counterpart, but with redesigned enemies and only twelve stages,[9] while Rutubo Games produced a near-duplicate of the arcade version in 1994 for the 32X add-on for the Sega Genesis.[33] Both games featured box art by Marc Ericksen.[34]Other releases were developed for non-Sega gaming systems such as the TurboGrafx-16 and the Famicom, while Europe and North America saw 8-bit home computer ports by Elite Systems for the ZX Spectrum,[35][36] Amstrad CPC and Commodore 64 in 1986, and later in 1989 for the 16-bit Amiga and Atari ST. The Commodore 64 received two conversions, one originating in the UK and the other from the USA.[9][12]M2, in collaboration with Sega CS3, ported Space Harrier to the handheld Nintendo 3DS console in 2013, complete with stereoscopic 3D and widescreen graphics—a process that took eighteen months.[37][38][39] Sega CS3 producer Yosuke Okunari described the game's 3D-conversion process as \"almost impossible. When you take a character sprite that was originally in 2D and bring it into a 3D viewpoint, you have to build the graphic from scratch\".[40] During development, M2 president Naoki Horii sought opinions from staff members regarding the gameplay of the arcade original: \"They'd say it was hard to tell whether objects were right in front of their character or not. Once we had the game in 3D, the same people came back and said, 'OK, now I get it! I can play it now!'\"[40] The port included a feature that allowed players to use the 3DS's gyroscope to simulate the experience of the original motorised cabinet by way of a tilting screen,[41] compounded by the optional activation of the sounds of button clicks and the cabinet's movement.[42] Horii recalled in a 2015 interview that he was intrigued by the possibility of crafting Space Harrier and past Sega arcade games for the 3DS using stereoscopic technology: \"Both SEGA and M2 wanted to see what would happen if we added a little bit of spice to these titles, in the form of modern gaming technology. Would it enhance the entertainment factor? I think the reception that the releases have had from critics highlights that these games are as relevant today as ever, and that means we've succeeded\".[43]","title":"Ports"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"AllGame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllGame"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AG32X-49"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SHoverview-9"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Crash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crash_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Computer and Video Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_and_Video_Games"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CVG-Arcade-34"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cvgamiga-55"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CVG_8-bit-56"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CVG_8-bit-56"},{"link_name":"GamePro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GamePro-59"},{"link_name":"GameSpy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpy"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"IGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ignthomas-61"},{"link_name":"Micromanía","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microman%C3%ADa"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Next Generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_Generation_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG-53"},{"link_name":"Sinclair User","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_User"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SUser-38"},{"link_name":"Tilt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilt_(French_magazine)"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"Your Sinclair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Your_Sinclair"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-YSinclair-39"},{"link_name":"Zzap!64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zzap!64"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Computer Gamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Gamer"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CG12-66"},{"link_name":"Gamest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamest"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gamest-67"}],"text":"ReceptionAggregate scoreAggregatorScoreMetacritic70/100 (3DS)[44]74/100 (Switch)[45]Review scoresPublicationScoreAllGame4.5/5 (32X)[46]2.5/5 (PC)[8]4.5/5 (SMS)[47]3/5 (T16)[48]3/5 (Wii)[49]Crash77% (ZX)[51]Computer and Video GamesPositive (arcade)[31]82% (Amiga)[52]35/40 (CPC)[53]78% (SMS)[54]89% (T16)[55]34/40 (ZX)[53]GamePro4/5 (32X)[56]GameSpy9/10 (SMS)[57]IGN4.5/10 (Wii)[58]Micromanía8/10 (SMS)[59]Next Generation3/5 (32X)[50]Sinclair UserPositive (arcade)[60]5/5 (ZX)[35]Tilt16/20 (SMS)[61]Your Sinclair9/10 (ZX)[36]Zzap!6485% (Amiga)[62]Computer GamerPositive (arcade)[63]Gamest19/24 (arcade)[64]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Amusement Machine Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amusement_Machine_Show"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"arcade cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_cabinet"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"latter half of 1986","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986_in_video_games"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"arcade game of 1987","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987_in_video_games"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-8"},{"link_name":"Amusement Trades Exhibition International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amusement_Trades_Exhibition_International"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"Computer and Video Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_and_Video_Games"},{"link_name":"technicolour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technicolor"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CVG-Arcade-34"},{"link_name":"Computer Gamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Gamer"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CG12-66"},{"link_name":"Gamest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamest"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gamest-67"}],"sub_title":"Arcade","text":"The game was commercially successful upon its initial arcade release. Sega unveiled Space Harrier at the 1985 Amusement Machine Show in Japan, where it was the most popular game.[65] In January 1986, Game Machine listed Space Harrier as being the top-grossing title on the monthly upright/cockpit arcade cabinet charts in Japan.[66] It remained at the top of the upright/cockpit arcade charts for much of 1986, through February,[67][68] March[69][70] and early April,[71] then returning to the top in May,[72][73] remaining at the top through June,[74][75] July[76][77] and August,[78] and then topping the charts again in October.[79] Overall, the Space Harrier rolling type cabinet was Japan's second highest-grossing upright/cockpit arcade cabinet during the first half of 1986 (below only Hang-On),[80] and the overall highest-grossing upright/cockpit arcade game during the latter half of 1986.[81] It was later Japan's seventh highest upright/cockpit arcade game of 1987.[7]The arcade game was positively received by critics upon release. Reviewing the game at the 1986 Amusement Trades Exhibition International in London, Clare Edgeley of Computer and Video Games hailed it as a \"crowd stopper\" due to its \"realistic\" moving cockpit, graphical capabilities and \"amazing technicolour landscapes\" but cautioned: \"Unless you are an expert, you will find it very difficult\".[31] Mike Roberts of Computer Gamer magazine praised the \"extremely good\" graphics, the \"quite good\" 3D effects, and the cockpit simulator cabinet.[63] The July 1986 issue of Japanese magazine Gamest ranked Space Harrier at number one on its list of best Sega arcade games.[64]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"home computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computer"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Commodore 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64"},{"link_name":"Uridium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uridium"},{"link_name":"Game of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Game_of_the_Year_awards"},{"link_name":"1986 Golden Joystick Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Joystick_Award#1986"},{"link_name":"The Milwaukee Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Milwaukee_Journal"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-semrad-86"},{"link_name":"Computer Gaming World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Gaming_World"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cgw198809-87"},{"link_name":"The Sydney Morning Herald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald"},{"link_name":"Amiga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cvgamiga-55"},{"link_name":"Sega Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Force"},{"link_name":"scrolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrolling"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"GamePro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GamePro-59"},{"link_name":"Next Generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_Generation_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG-53"},{"link_name":"AllGame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllGame"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AG32X-49"},{"link_name":"Wii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ignthomas-61"},{"link_name":"Jeff Gerstmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Gerstmann"},{"link_name":"Giant Bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_Bomb"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gerstmann-90"},{"link_name":"USGamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USGamer"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mackey-45"}],"sub_title":"Ports","text":"The game was also positively received upon its home releases. The home computer conversion of Space Harrier was in the top five of the UK sales chart in December 1986,[82] and was tied as runner-up with the Commodore 64 title Uridium for Game of the Year honors at the 1986 Golden Joystick Awards.Ed Semrad of The Milwaukee Journal gave the Master System port a 9/10 rating,[83] and Computer Gaming World deemed it \"the best arcade shoot-'em-up of the year ... as exciting a game as this reviewer has ever played\".[84] Phil Campbell of The Sydney Morning Herald praised the 1989 Amiga conversion as \"absorbing\" and \"a faithful copy of the original\".[85] Computer and Video Games called the port \"an entirely unpretentious computer game full of weird and wacky nasties\".[52] Paul Mellerick of Sega Force wrote that the Game Gear version was \"amazingly close to the original ... the scrolling's the speediest and smoothest ever seen\".[86] GamePro commented that the 32X version had \"straightforward controls\", graphics relatively close to the arcade version, and was \"a nice trip down memory lane\",[56] while Next Generation dubbed it as decent, solid game.[50] AllGame called the game \"a must-have\" title for 32X system.[46]Lucas Thomas of IGN rated the 2008 Wii port a 4.5 score out of 10, citing its \"poor visuals and poor control\" and \"dulled\" color palette.[58] Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb, in his review of Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection, criticized the Space Harrier emulation's \"numerous audio issues that make it sound completely different from the way the original game sounds\".[87] Bob Mackey of USGamer was critical to Nintendo 3DS port.[42]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-racketboy-11"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"GameSetWatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamasutra#GameSetWatch"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Retro Gamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retro_Gamer"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"IGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-retrospective-29"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"Eurogamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurogamer"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stanton-24"},{"link_name":"Inverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_(website)"},{"link_name":"acid trip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_experience"},{"link_name":"Robert Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Jordan"},{"link_name":"Silicon Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Valley"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inverse-96"},{"link_name":"GamesRadar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamesRadar"},{"link_name":"Falkor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falkor"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"Kotaku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotaku"},{"link_name":"Bayonetta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayonetta_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"}],"sub_title":"Retrospective","text":"The game continues to garner praise for its audio, visual, and gameplay features.[10][88][89] GameSetWatch's Trevor Wilson remarked in 2006: \"It's easy to see why the game is so well-loved to this day, with its blinding speed and classic tunes\".[90] In 2008, Retro Gamer editor Darran Jones described the game as \"difficult\", but \"a thing of beauty [that] even today ... possesses a striking elegance that urges you to return to it for just one more go\".[91] That same year, IGN's Levi Buchanan opined: \"Even today, Space Harrier is a sight to behold, a hellzapoppin' explosion of light, color, and imagination\".[26] Eric Twice of Snackbar Games noted in 2013: \"It's easy to just see it as just a game in which you press the button and things die, but Suzuki is a very conscious designer. He has a very specific vision behind each of his games, and nothing in them is ever left to chance\".[92] In a 2013 Eurogamer retrospective on the series, Rich Stanton observed: \"The speed at which Space Harrier moves has rarely been matched. It's not an easy thing to design a game around. Many other games have fast parts, or certain mechanics tied to speed—and it's interesting to note how many take control away at this point. Every time I play Space Harrier ... the speed blows me away one more time. It is a monster\".[21]Eric Francisco of Inverse described the game's visuals in 2015: \"Imagine an acid trip through an '80s anime, a Robert Jordan novel, and early Silicon Valley binge coding sessions\".[93] GamesRadar ranked the arcade original's bonus stage among the \"25 best bonus levels of all time\" in 2014, likening it to players piloting The Neverending Story's dragon character Falkor.[94] Kotaku named the Space Harrier tribute stage from Bayonetta in their 2013 selection of \"the trippiest video game levels\".[95] Also in 2013, Hanuman Welch of Complex included Space Harrier among the ten Sega games he felt warranted a \"modern reboot\", citing its \"kinetic pace that would be welcome on today's systems\".[96]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Master System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_System"},{"link_name":"Space Harrier 3-D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Harrier_3-D"},{"link_name":"SegaScope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_System#Technical_specifications"},{"link_name":"3-D glasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereoscopy#3D_viewers"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SH3D-17"},{"link_name":"Space Harrier II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Harrier_II"},{"link_name":"launch titles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_game"},{"link_name":"Mega Drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Genesis"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming_p2-100"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"Planet Harriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet_Harriers"},{"link_name":"power-ups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power-up"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming_p2-100"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-retrospective2-102"},{"link_name":"remake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_remake"},{"link_name":"Tamsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamsoft"},{"link_name":"Sega Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Ages"},{"link_name":"Sega Classics Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Classics_Collection"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_2"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M2interview-103"},{"link_name":"polygons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygon_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"texture-mapped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_mapping"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming-10"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"After Burner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/After_Burner"},{"link_name":"Out Run","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_Run"},{"link_name":"Super Hang-On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Hang-On"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Advance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance"},{"link_name":"Sega Arcade Gallery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Arcade_Gallery"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"Easter egg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_egg_(media)"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M2interview-103"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Switch"}],"text":"Space Harrier spawned two home-system sequels in 1988. The Master System exclusive Space Harrier 3-D utilized Sega's SegaScope 3-D glasses, and featured the same gameplay and visuals as the port of the original game while containing new stage, enemy, and boss designs.[15] Space Harrier II was one of six launch titles for the Japanese debut of the Mega Drive (Sega Genesis),[97] and released as such in the United States in August 1989.[98] In December 2000, fifteen years after the original game's debut, Sega released the loose arcade sequel Planet Harriers, which again continued the gameplay style of the franchise but featured four new selectable characters each possessing distinct weapons, in addition to five fully realized stages and a new option of purchasing weapon power-ups.[97] However, Planet Harriers had only a minimal presence in the United States due to its faltering arcade scene, and it was never given a home release.[99] In 2003, a remake of the original Space Harrier was developed by Tamsoft as part of the Japanese Sega Ages classic-game series (Sega Classics Collection in North America and Europe) for the PlayStation 2.[100] The graphics are composed of polygons instead of sprites while several characters are redesigned, and a selectable option allows players to switch to a \"fractal mode\" that replaces the traditional checkerboard floors with texture-mapped playfields and includes two new underground stages.[9] Power-ups such as bombs and lock-on targeting fly toward and are caught by the player during gameplay.[101]The original Space Harrier was packaged with three of Yu Suzuki's other works—After Burner, Out Run, and Super Hang-On—for the 2003 Game Boy Advance release Sega Arcade Gallery. The Space Harrier Complete Collection (Sega Ages 2500 Series Vol. 20: Space Harrier II in Japan),[102] developed by M2 for the PlayStation 2, followed on October 27, 2005 to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the franchise,[103] and was composed of all the official series releases \"to go with the various generations of our customers\", according to Yosuke Okunari.[104] Bonus content included a record-and-replay feature and an arcade promotional-material gallery,[105] in addition to images of Hiroshi Kawaguchi's sheet music and notes for the original game's soundtrack.[106] The 1991 Game Gear port is hidden therein as an Easter egg.[100]Space Harrier was re-released for Nintendo Switch, as part of the Sega Ages lineup.","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fantasy Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_Zone"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-retrospective-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ishii-33"},{"link_name":"Sharp X68000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X68000"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming_p2-100"},{"link_name":"NEC Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_Avenue"},{"link_name":"CD-ROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-ROM"},{"link_name":"Electronic Gaming Monthly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Gaming_Monthly"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"Satoshi Urushihara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satoshi_Urushihara"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming_p2-100"},{"link_name":"property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"bootleg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootleg_recording"},{"link_name":"beta version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_release_life_cycle#Beta"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming_p2-100"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming_p2-100"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"Dreamcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast"},{"link_name":"action-adventure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action-adventure_game"},{"link_name":"Shenmue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenmue_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Shenmue II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenmue_II"},{"link_name":"Sega Superstars Tennis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Superstars_Tennis"},{"link_name":"Bayonetta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayonetta_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"unlockable game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unlockable_game"},{"link_name":"Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic%27s_Ultimate_Genesis_Collection"},{"link_name":"Xbox 360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_360"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_3"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gerstmann-90"},{"link_name":"Sonic & All-Stars Racing Transformed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_%26_All-Stars_Racing_Transformed"},{"link_name":"remixed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remix"},{"link_name":"holographic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hologram"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming_p2-100"},{"link_name":"Shenmue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenmue"},{"link_name":"Ryo Hazuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryo_Hazuki"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"Yakuza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakuza_(series)"},{"link_name":"Yakuza 0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakuza_0"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paste-117"},{"link_name":"Yakuza 6: The Song of Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakuza_6:_The_Song_of_Life"},{"link_name":"Fist of the North Star: Lost Paradise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fist_of_the_North_Star:_Lost_Paradise"},{"link_name":"Judgment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judgment_(video_game)"}],"sub_title":"Other appearances","text":"Space Harrier has shared an unofficial connection with another Sega shooter franchise, Fantasy Zone, which debuted in Japanese arcades in March 1986.[107] Both series are believed to be set in the same universe;[26] Space Harrier's opening line of dialogue at the start of gameplay (\"Welcome to the Fantasy Zone\") has been cited as a reason, but this was dispelled by Fantasy Zone director Yoji Ishii in a 2014 interview.[30] A 1989 port of Fantasy Zone for the Japan-exclusive Sharp X68000 contains a hidden stage called \"Dragon Land\" that features Space Harrier enemy characters and is accessible only by following a specific set of instructions.[97] In 1991, NEC Avenue developed Space Fantasy Zone for the CD-ROM, featuring Fantasy Zone's main character Opa-Opa navigating nine levels of combined gameplay elements and enemies from both franchises. Despite a December 1991 preview in Electronic Gaming Monthly[108] and advertising designed by artist Satoshi Urushihara,[97] Space Fantasy Zone was never released due to a legal dispute with Sega over NEC's unauthorized use of the Fantasy Zone property.[109] However, bootleg copies were produced after a playable beta version of the game was released on the Internet.[97] Opa-Opa is included in Planet Harriers as a hidden character,[97] while one of three available endings in the 2007 PlayStation 2 release Fantasy Zone II DX has Harrier and Uriah attempting to eliminate a turned-evil Opa-Opa bent on destroying the game's eponymous Fantasy Zone.[110]The arcade version of Space Harrier is included in the 1999 Dreamcast action-adventure title Shenmue as a minigame, and as a full port in the 2001 sequel Shenmue II. Sega Superstars Tennis and the 2010 action-adventure game Bayonetta feature Space Harrier-inspired minigames.[111][112] The title is available as an unlockable game in Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection (2009), for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, though with sound emulation differences.[87] In the 2012 title Sonic & All-Stars Racing Transformed, a remixed version of the Space Harrier main theme plays during the \"Race of Ages\" stage, in which a holographic statue of Harrier and a flying dragon appear in the background.[97] In addition, Shenmue character Ryo Hazuki pilots a flying Space Harrier sit-down arcade cabinet during airborne levels.[113] Sega included an emulation of the original title as a minigame in several titles of their Yakuza series, such as the 2015 release Yakuza 0,[114] and the 2018 releases Yakuza 6: The Song of Life, Fist of the North Star: Lost Paradise and Judgment.","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"clones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_clone"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_(video_game_company)"},{"link_name":"The 3-D Battles of WorldRunner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_3-D_Battles_of_WorldRunner"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"Pony Canyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pony_Canyon"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"Namco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco"},{"link_name":"Burning Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning_Force"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"Asmik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asmik_Ace_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"Wolf Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco_Tales_Studio"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"AllGame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllGame"},{"link_name":"Nintendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo"},{"link_name":"Star Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Fox_(1993_video_game)"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"The One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_One_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"After Burner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/After_Burner"},{"link_name":"R360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R360"},{"link_name":"G-LOC: Air Battle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-LOC:_Air_Battle"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theone-127"},{"link_name":"Hideki Kamiya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hideki_Kamiya"},{"link_name":"PlatinumGames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlatinumGames"},{"link_name":"Devil May Cry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devil_May_Cry"},{"link_name":"Gradius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradius_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"Yuzo Koshiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuzo_Koshiro"},{"link_name":"FM synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_synthesis"},{"link_name":"video game music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_music"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"}],"sub_title":"Influenced games","text":"The success of Space Harrier resulted in the development of other first/third-person rail shooters that attempted to emulate its three-dimensional scaling, visuals, and gameplay capabilities, causing them to be labeled \"Space Harrier clones\".[115] One of the most notable examples was the 1987 Square title The 3-D Battles of WorldRunner for the Famicom and Nintendo Entertainment System,[116][117][118] which was followed by Pony Canyon's 1987 Famicom release Attack Animal Gakuen[119] and other Japan-exclusive games such as Namco's Burning Force,[120] Asmik's Cosmic Epsilon,[121] and Wolf Team's Jimmu Denshō,[122] all released in 1989. According to AllGame, Nintendo's Star Fox (1993) \"was influenced by early first-person 3D shooters such as\" Space Harrier.[123]According to The One magazine in 1991, Sega \"arguably pioneered the deluxe ground-ride cabinet cum video game with classics such as\" Space Harrier. Sega went on to produce \"bigger\" and \"better\" motion simulator cabinets for arcade flight games such as After Burner (1987) and the R360 cabinet for G-LOC: Air Battle (1990).[124]Hideki Kamiya, the director of PlatinumGames and creator of the Devil May Cry series, cited Space Harrier as an inspiration for his entering the video game industry in a 2014 interview: \"There were so many trend-setting definitive games that came out [in the 1980s], like Gradius and Space Harrier. All these game creators were trying to make original, really creative games that had never existed before\".[125][126]Game composer Yuzo Koshiro was a fan of the game's music. He said Space Harrier was the first time he had heard FM synthesis music, and the game inspired him to become a video game music composer. He considers Space Harrier composer Hiroshi Kawaguchi to be one of Sega's best ever composers.[127]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arcade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_game"},{"link_name":"Master System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_System"},{"link_name":"Game Gear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Gear"},{"link_name":"32X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32X"},{"link_name":"Sega Saturn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Saturn"},{"link_name":"Dreamcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast"},{"link_name":"Space Harrier 3-D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Harrier_3-D"},{"link_name":"Space Harrier II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Harrier_II"},{"link_name":"Mega Drive/Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Genesis"},{"link_name":"Virtual Console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Console"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"},{"link_name":"Planet Harriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet_Harriers"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_2"},{"link_name":"3DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_3DS"}],"text":"Space Harrier (1985) — Arcade, Master System, Game Gear, 32X, Sega Saturn, Dreamcast, various other non-Sega home systems\nSpace Harrier 3-D (1988) — Master System\nSpace Harrier II (1988) — Mega Drive/Genesis, Virtual Console, iOS, various other non-Sega systems\nPlanet Harriers (2000) — Arcade only\nSpace Harrier Sega Ages Edition (2003) — PlayStation 2\nSega Ages 2500 Vol. 20: Space Harrier Complete Collection (2005) — PlayStation 2\n3D Space Harrier (2013) — 3DS","title":"Series"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Hepburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanization"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hardcore_gaming-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-racketboy-11"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-register-13"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"Space Harrier 3-D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Harrier_3-D"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SMSmanual-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SH3D-17"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"^ Japanese: スペースハリアー, Hepburn: Supēsu Hariā^ Often called \"the Harrier\" as a title instead of a proper name,[9][10] he is named \"Harri\" in several United Kingdom home releases of the game.[11][12]\n\n^ This proper spelling appears in gameplay of the arcade and Master System versions and Space Harrier 3-D, but is written as \"Euria\" in the Master System instruction manual[14] and on both the packaging and manual for Space Harrier 3-D.[15][16] Both spellings appear in the latter game: \"Dark Uriah\" serves as the final boss, but \"Euria\" is seen in the game's ending text.","title":"Notes"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Arcade gameplay","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/40/Space_Harrier_Gameplay.png/220px-Space_Harrier_Gameplay.png"},{"image_text":"Space Harrier arcade machine","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Spaceharrier.jpg/220px-Spaceharrier.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"Blaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaster_(video_game)"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Video Game Flyers: Space Harrier, Sega (EU)\". The Arcade Flyer Archive. Retrieved 11 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://flyers.arcade-museum.com/?page=thumbs&db=videodb&id=1027","url_text":"\"Video Game Flyers: Space Harrier, Sega (EU)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Virtual Console: Space Harrier (Arcade version)\". Sega. Archived from the original on March 20, 2015. Retrieved January 6, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://vc.sega.jp/vca_harrier/","url_text":"\"Virtual Console: Space Harrier (Arcade version)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega","url_text":"Sega"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150320154343/http://vc.sega.jp/vca_harrier/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Space Harrier (Registration Number PA0000282162)\". United States Copyright Office. 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequent_calculus
|
Sequent calculus
|
["1 Overview","1.1 Hilbert-style deduction systems","1.2 Natural deduction systems","1.3 Sequent calculus systems","1.4 Distinction between natural deduction and sequent calculus","1.5 Origin of word \"sequent\"","2 Proving logical formulas","2.1 Reduction trees","2.2 Relation to standard axiomatizations","3 The system LK","3.1 Inference rules","3.2 An intuitive explanation","3.3 Example derivations","3.4 Relation to analytic tableaux","3.5 Structural rules","3.6 Properties of the system LK","4 Variants","4.1 Minor structural alternatives","4.2 Absurdity","4.3 Substructural logics","4.4 Intuitionistic sequent calculus: System LJ","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References","8 External links"]
|
Style of formal logical argumentation
In mathematical logic, sequent calculus is a style of formal logical argumentation in which every line of a proof is a conditional tautology (called a sequent by Gerhard Gentzen) instead of an unconditional tautology. Each conditional tautology is inferred from other conditional tautologies on earlier lines in a formal argument according to rules and procedures of inference, giving a better approximation to the natural style of deduction used by mathematicians than to David Hilbert's earlier style of formal logic, in which every line was an unconditional tautology. More subtle distinctions may exist; for example, propositions may implicitly depend upon non-logical axioms. In that case, sequents signify conditional theorems in a first-order language rather than conditional tautologies.
Sequent calculus is one of several extant styles of proof calculus for expressing line-by-line logical arguments.
Hilbert style. Every line is an unconditional tautology (or theorem).
Gentzen style. Every line is a conditional tautology (or theorem) with zero or more conditions on the left.
Natural deduction. Every (conditional) line has exactly one asserted proposition on the right.
Sequent calculus. Every (conditional) line has zero or more asserted propositions on the right.
In other words, natural deduction and sequent calculus systems are particular distinct kinds of Gentzen-style systems. Hilbert-style systems typically have a very small number of inference rules, relying more on sets of axioms. Gentzen-style systems typically have very few axioms, if any, relying more on sets of rules.
Gentzen-style systems have significant practical and theoretical advantages compared to Hilbert-style systems. For example, both natural deduction and sequent calculus systems facilitate the elimination and introduction of universal and existential quantifiers so that unquantified logical expressions can be manipulated according to the much simpler rules of propositional calculus. In a typical argument, quantifiers are eliminated, then propositional calculus is applied to unquantified expressions (which typically contain free variables), and then the quantifiers are reintroduced. This very much parallels the way in which mathematical proofs are carried out in practice by mathematicians. Predicate calculus proofs are generally much easier to discover with this approach, and are often shorter. Natural deduction systems are more suited to practical theorem-proving. Sequent calculus systems are more suited to theoretical analysis.
Overview
In proof theory and mathematical logic, sequent calculus is a family of formal systems sharing a certain style of inference and certain formal properties. The first sequent calculi systems, LK and LJ, were introduced in 1934/1935 by Gerhard Gentzen as a tool for studying natural deduction in first-order logic (in classical and intuitionistic versions, respectively). Gentzen's so-called "Main Theorem" (Hauptsatz) about LK and LJ was the cut-elimination theorem, a result with far-reaching meta-theoretic consequences, including consistency. Gentzen further demonstrated the power and flexibility of this technique a few years later, applying a cut-elimination argument to give a (transfinite) proof of the consistency of Peano arithmetic, in surprising response to Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Since this early work, sequent calculi, also called Gentzen systems, and the general concepts relating to them, have been widely applied in the fields of proof theory, mathematical logic, and automated deduction.
Hilbert-style deduction systems
Main article: Hilbert system
One way to classify different styles of deduction systems is to look at the form of judgments in the system, i.e., which things may appear as the conclusion of a (sub)proof. The simplest judgment form is used in Hilbert-style deduction systems, where a judgment has the form
B
{\displaystyle B}
where
B
{\displaystyle B}
is any formula of first-order logic (or whatever logic the deduction system applies to, e.g., propositional calculus or a higher-order logic or a modal logic). The theorems are those formulae that appear as the concluding judgment in a valid proof. A Hilbert-style system needs no distinction between formulae and judgments; we make one here solely for comparison with the cases that follow.
The price paid for the simple syntax of a Hilbert-style system is that complete formal proofs tend to get extremely long. Concrete arguments about proofs in such a system almost always appeal to the deduction theorem. This leads to the idea of including the deduction theorem as a formal rule in the system, which happens in natural deduction.
Natural deduction systems
Main article: Natural deduction
In natural deduction, judgments have the shape
A
1
,
A
2
,
…
,
A
n
⊢
B
{\displaystyle A_{1},A_{2},\ldots ,A_{n}\vdash B}
where the
A
i
{\displaystyle A_{i}}
's and
B
{\displaystyle B}
are again formulae and
n
≥
0
{\displaystyle n\geq 0}
. Permutations of the
A
i
{\displaystyle A_{i}}
's are immaterial. In other words, a judgment consists of a list (possibly empty) of formulae on the left-hand side of a turnstile symbol "
⊢
{\displaystyle \vdash }
", with a single formula on the right-hand side. The theorems are those formulae
B
{\displaystyle B}
such that
⊢
B
{\displaystyle \vdash B}
(with an empty left-hand side) is the conclusion of a valid proof.
(In some presentations of natural deduction, the
A
i
{\displaystyle A_{i}}
s and the turnstile are not written down explicitly; instead a two-dimensional notation from which they can be inferred is used.)
The standard semantics of a judgment in natural deduction is that it asserts that whenever
A
1
{\displaystyle A_{1}}
,
A
2
{\displaystyle A_{2}}
, etc., are all true,
B
{\displaystyle B}
will also be true. The judgments
A
1
,
…
,
A
n
⊢
B
{\displaystyle A_{1},\ldots ,A_{n}\vdash B}
and
⊢
(
A
1
∧
⋯
∧
A
n
)
→
B
{\displaystyle \vdash (A_{1}\land \cdots \land A_{n})\rightarrow B}
are equivalent in the strong sense that a proof of either one may be extended to a proof of the other.
Sequent calculus systems
Finally, sequent calculus generalizes the form of a natural deduction judgment to
A
1
,
…
,
A
n
⊢
B
1
,
…
,
B
k
,
{\displaystyle A_{1},\ldots ,A_{n}\vdash B_{1},\ldots ,B_{k},}
a syntactic object called a sequent. The formulas on left-hand side of the turnstile are called the antecedent, and the formulas on right-hand side are called the succedent or consequent; together they are called cedents or sequents. Again,
A
i
{\displaystyle A_{i}}
and
B
i
{\displaystyle B_{i}}
are formulae, and
n
{\displaystyle n}
and
k
{\displaystyle k}
are nonnegative integers, that is, the left-hand-side or the right-hand-side (or neither or both) may be empty. As in natural deduction, theorems are those
B
{\displaystyle B}
where
⊢
B
{\displaystyle \vdash B}
is the conclusion of a valid proof.
The standard semantics of a sequent is an assertion that whenever every
A
i
{\displaystyle A_{i}}
is true, at least one
B
i
{\displaystyle B_{i}}
will also be true. Thus the empty sequent, having both cedents empty, is false. One way to express this is that a comma to the left of the turnstile should be thought of as an "and", and a comma to the right of the turnstile should be thought of as an (inclusive) "or". The sequents
A
1
,
…
,
A
n
⊢
B
1
,
…
,
B
k
{\displaystyle A_{1},\ldots ,A_{n}\vdash B_{1},\ldots ,B_{k}}
and
⊢
(
A
1
∧
⋯
∧
A
n
)
→
(
B
1
∨
⋯
∨
B
k
)
{\displaystyle \vdash (A_{1}\land \cdots \land A_{n})\rightarrow (B_{1}\lor \cdots \lor B_{k})}
are equivalent in the strong sense that a proof of either sequent may be extended to a proof of the other sequent.
At first sight, this extension of the judgment form may appear to be a strange complication—it is not motivated by an obvious shortcoming of natural deduction, and it is initially confusing that the comma seems to mean entirely different things on the two sides of the turnstile. However, in a classical context the semantics of the sequent can also (by propositional tautology) be expressed either as
⊢
¬
A
1
∨
¬
A
2
∨
⋯
∨
¬
A
n
∨
B
1
∨
B
2
∨
⋯
∨
B
k
{\displaystyle \vdash \neg A_{1}\lor \neg A_{2}\lor \cdots \lor \neg A_{n}\lor B_{1}\lor B_{2}\lor \cdots \lor B_{k}}
(at least one of the As is false, or one of the Bs is true)
or as
⊢
¬
(
A
1
∧
A
2
∧
⋯
∧
A
n
∧
¬
B
1
∧
¬
B
2
∧
⋯
∧
¬
B
k
)
{\displaystyle \vdash \neg (A_{1}\land A_{2}\land \cdots \land A_{n}\land \neg B_{1}\land \neg B_{2}\land \cdots \land \neg B_{k})}
(it cannot be the case that all of the As are true and all of the Bs are false).
In these formulations, the only difference between formulae on either side of the turnstile is that one side is negated. Thus, swapping left for right in a sequent corresponds to negating all of the constituent formulae. This means that a symmetry such as De Morgan's laws, which manifests itself as logical negation on the semantic level, translates directly into a left-right symmetry of sequents—and indeed, the inference rules in sequent calculus for dealing with conjunction (∧) are mirror images of those dealing with disjunction (∨).
Many logicians feel that this symmetric presentation offers a deeper insight in the structure of the logic than other styles of proof system, where the classical duality of negation is not as apparent in the rules.
Distinction between natural deduction and sequent calculus
Gentzen asserted a sharp distinction between his single-output natural deduction systems (NK and NJ) and his multiple-output sequent calculus systems (LK and LJ). He wrote that the intuitionistic natural deduction system NJ was somewhat ugly. He said that the special role of the excluded middle in the classical natural deduction system NK is removed in the classical sequent calculus system LK. He said that the sequent calculus LJ gave more symmetry than natural deduction NJ in the case of intuitionistic logic, as also in the case of classical logic (LK versus NK). Then he said that in addition to these reasons, the sequent calculus with multiple succedent formulas is intended particularly for his principal theorem ("Hauptsatz").
Origin of word "sequent"
The word "sequent" is taken from the word "Sequenz" in Gentzen's 1934 paper. Kleene makes the following comment on the translation into English: "Gentzen says 'Sequenz', which we translate as 'sequent', because we have already used 'sequence' for any succession of objects, where the German is 'Folge'."
Proving logical formulas
A rooted tree describing a proof finding procedure by sequent calculus
Reduction trees
Sequent calculus can be seen as a tool for proving formulas in propositional logic, similar to the method of analytic tableaux. It gives a series of steps that allows one to reduce the problem of proving a logical formula to simpler and simpler formulas until one arrives at trivial ones.
Consider the following formula:
(
(
p
→
r
)
∨
(
q
→
r
)
)
→
(
(
p
∧
q
)
→
r
)
{\displaystyle ((p\rightarrow r)\lor (q\rightarrow r))\rightarrow ((p\land q)\rightarrow r)}
This is written in the following form, where the proposition that needs to be proven is to the right of the turnstile symbol
⊢
{\displaystyle \vdash }
:
⊢
(
(
p
→
r
)
∨
(
q
→
r
)
)
→
(
(
p
∧
q
)
→
r
)
{\displaystyle \vdash ((p\rightarrow r)\lor (q\rightarrow r))\rightarrow ((p\land q)\rightarrow r)}
Now, instead of proving this from the axioms, it is enough to assume the premise of the implication and then try to prove its conclusion. Hence one moves to the following sequent:
(
p
→
r
)
∨
(
q
→
r
)
⊢
(
p
∧
q
)
→
r
{\displaystyle (p\rightarrow r)\lor (q\rightarrow r)\vdash (p\land q)\rightarrow r}
Again the right hand side includes an implication, whose premise can further be assumed so that only its conclusion needs to be proven:
(
p
→
r
)
∨
(
q
→
r
)
,
(
p
∧
q
)
⊢
r
{\displaystyle (p\rightarrow r)\lor (q\rightarrow r),(p\land q)\vdash r}
Since the arguments in the left-hand side are assumed to be related by conjunction, this can be replaced by the following:
(
p
→
r
)
∨
(
q
→
r
)
,
p
,
q
⊢
r
{\displaystyle (p\rightarrow r)\lor (q\rightarrow r),p,q\vdash r}
This is equivalent to proving the conclusion in both cases of the disjunction on the first argument on the left. Thus we may split the sequent to two, where we now have to prove each separately:
p
→
r
,
p
,
q
⊢
r
{\displaystyle p\rightarrow r,p,q\vdash r}
q
→
r
,
p
,
q
⊢
r
{\displaystyle q\rightarrow r,p,q\vdash r}
In the case of the first judgment, we rewrite
p
→
r
{\displaystyle p\rightarrow r}
as
¬
p
∨
r
{\displaystyle \lnot p\lor r}
and split the sequent again to get:
¬
p
,
p
,
q
⊢
r
{\displaystyle \lnot p,p,q\vdash r}
r
,
p
,
q
⊢
r
{\displaystyle r,p,q\vdash r}
The second sequent is done; the first sequent can be further simplified into:
p
,
q
⊢
p
,
r
{\displaystyle p,q\vdash p,r}
This process can always be continued until there are only atomic formulas in each side.
The process can be graphically described by a rooted tree graph, as depicted on the right. The root of the tree is the formula we wish to prove; the leaves consist of atomic formulas only. The tree is known as a reduction tree.
The items to the left of the turnstile are understood to be connected by conjunction, and those to the right by disjunction. Therefore, when both consist only of atomic symbols, the sequent is accepted axiomatically (and always true) if and only if at least one of the symbols on the right also appears on the left.
Following are the rules by which one proceeds along the tree. Whenever one sequent is split into two, the tree vertex has two child vertices, and the tree is branched. Additionally, one may freely change the order of the arguments in each side; Γ and Δ stand for possible additional arguments.
The usual term for the horizontal line used in Gentzen-style layouts for natural deduction is inference line.
Left:
Right:
L
∧
rule:
Γ
,
A
∧
B
⊢
Δ
Γ
,
A
,
B
⊢
Δ
{\displaystyle L\land {\text{rule: }}\quad {\cfrac {\Gamma ,A\land B\vdash \Delta }{\Gamma ,A,B\vdash \Delta }}}
R
∧
rule:
Γ
⊢
Δ
,
A
∧
B
Γ
⊢
Δ
,
A
Γ
⊢
Δ
,
B
{\displaystyle R\land {\text{rule: }}{\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash \Delta ,A\land B}{\Gamma \vdash \Delta ,A\qquad \Gamma \vdash \Delta ,B}}}
L
∨
rule:
Γ
,
A
∨
B
⊢
Δ
Γ
,
A
⊢
Δ
Γ
,
B
⊢
Δ
{\displaystyle L\lor {\text{rule: }}{\cfrac {\Gamma ,A\lor B\vdash \Delta }{\Gamma ,A\vdash \Delta \qquad \Gamma ,B\vdash \Delta }}}
R
∨
rule:
Γ
⊢
Δ
,
A
∨
B
Γ
⊢
Δ
,
A
,
B
{\displaystyle R\lor {\text{rule: }}\quad {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash \Delta ,A\lor B}{\Gamma \vdash \Delta ,A,B}}}
L
→
rule:
Γ
,
A
→
B
⊢
Δ
Γ
⊢
Δ
,
A
Γ
,
B
⊢
Δ
{\displaystyle L\rightarrow {\text{rule: }}{\cfrac {\Gamma ,A\rightarrow B\vdash \Delta }{\Gamma \vdash \Delta ,A\qquad \Gamma ,B\vdash \Delta }}}
R
→
rule:
Γ
⊢
Δ
,
A
→
B
Γ
,
A
⊢
Δ
,
B
{\displaystyle R\rightarrow {\text{rule: }}\quad {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash \Delta ,A\rightarrow B}{\Gamma ,A\vdash \Delta ,B}}}
L
¬
rule:
Γ
,
¬
A
⊢
Δ
Γ
⊢
Δ
,
A
{\displaystyle L\lnot {\text{rule: }}\quad {\cfrac {\Gamma ,\lnot A\vdash \Delta }{\Gamma \vdash \Delta ,A}}}
R
¬
rule:
Γ
⊢
Δ
,
¬
A
Γ
,
A
⊢
Δ
{\displaystyle R\lnot {\text{rule: }}\quad {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash \Delta ,\lnot A}{\Gamma ,A\vdash \Delta }}}
Axiom:
Γ
,
A
⊢
Δ
,
A
{\displaystyle \Gamma ,A\vdash \Delta ,A}
Starting with any formula in propositional logic, by a series of steps, the right side of the turnstile can be processed until it includes only atomic symbols. Then, the same is done for the left side. Since every logical operator appears in one of the rules above, and is removed by the rule, the process terminates when no logical operators remain: The formula has been decomposed.
Thus, the sequents in the leaves of the trees include only atomic symbols, which are either provable by the axiom or not, according to whether one of the symbols on the right also appears on the left.
It is easy to see that the steps in the tree preserve the semantic truth value of the formulas implied by them, with conjunction understood between the tree's different branches whenever there is a split. It is also obvious that an axiom is provable if and only if it is true for every assignment of truth values to the atomic symbols. Thus this system is sound and complete for classical propositional logic.
Relation to standard axiomatizations
Sequent calculus is related to other axiomatizations of propositional calculus, such as Frege's propositional calculus or Jan Łukasiewicz's axiomatization (itself a part of the standard Hilbert system): Every formula that can be proven in these has a reduction tree.
This can be shown as follows: Every proof in propositional calculus uses only axioms and the inference rules. Each use of an axiom scheme yields a true logical formula, and can thus be proven in sequent calculus; examples for these are shown below. The only inference rule in the systems mentioned above is modus ponens, which is implemented by the cut rule.
The system LK
This section introduces the rules of the sequent calculus LK (standing for Logistische Kalkül) as introduced by Gentzen in 1934.
A (formal) proof in this calculus is a sequence of sequents, where each of the sequents is derivable from sequents appearing earlier in the sequence by using one of the rules below.
Inference rules
The following notation will be used:
⊢
{\displaystyle \vdash }
known as the turnstile, separates the assumptions on the left from the propositions on the right
A
{\displaystyle A}
and
B
{\displaystyle B}
denote formulae of first-order predicate logic (one may also restrict this to propositional logic),
Γ
,
Δ
,
Σ
{\displaystyle \Gamma ,\Delta ,\Sigma }
, and
Π
{\displaystyle \Pi }
are finite (possibly empty) sequences of formulae (in fact, the order of formulae does not matter; see § Structural rules), called contexts,
when on the left of the
⊢
{\displaystyle \vdash }
, the sequence of formulas is considered conjunctively (all assumed to hold at the same time),
while on the right of the
⊢
{\displaystyle \vdash }
, the sequence of formulas is considered disjunctively (at least one of the formulas must hold for any assignment of variables),
t
{\displaystyle t}
denotes an arbitrary term,
x
{\displaystyle x}
and
y
{\displaystyle y}
denote variables.
a variable is said to occur free within a formula if it is not bound by quantifiers
∀
{\displaystyle \forall }
or
∃
{\displaystyle \exists }
.
A
[
t
/
x
]
{\displaystyle A}
denotes the formula that is obtained by substituting the term
t
{\displaystyle t}
for every free occurrence of the variable
x
{\displaystyle x}
in formula
A
{\displaystyle A}
with the restriction that the term
t
{\displaystyle t}
must be free for the variable
x
{\displaystyle x}
in
A
{\displaystyle A}
(i.e., no occurrence of any variable in
t
{\displaystyle t}
becomes bound in
A
[
t
/
x
]
{\displaystyle A}
).
W
L
{\displaystyle WL}
,
W
R
{\displaystyle WR}
,
C
L
{\displaystyle CL}
,
C
R
{\displaystyle CR}
,
P
L
{\displaystyle PL}
,
P
R
{\displaystyle PR}
: These six stand for the two versions of each of three structural rules; one for use on the left ('L') of a
⊢
{\displaystyle \vdash }
, and the other on its right ('R'). The rules are abbreviated 'W' for Weakening (Left/Right), 'C' for Contraction, and 'P' for Permutation.
Note that, contrary to the rules for proceeding along the reduction tree presented above, the following rules are for moving in the opposite directions, from axioms to theorems. Thus they are exact mirror-images of the rules above, except that here symmetry is not implicitly assumed, and rules regarding quantification are added.
Axiom:
Cut:
A
⊢
A
(
I
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\qquad }{A\vdash A}}\quad (I)}
Γ
⊢
Δ
,
A
A
,
Σ
⊢
Π
Γ
,
Σ
⊢
Δ
,
Π
(
C
u
t
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash \Delta ,A\qquad A,\Sigma \vdash \Pi }{\Gamma ,\Sigma \vdash \Delta ,\Pi }}\quad ({\mathit {Cut}})}
Left logical rules:
Right logical rules:
Γ
,
A
⊢
Δ
Γ
,
A
∧
B
⊢
Δ
(
∧
L
1
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma ,A\vdash \Delta }{\Gamma ,A\land B\vdash \Delta }}\quad ({\land }L_{1})}
Γ
⊢
A
,
Δ
Γ
⊢
A
∨
B
,
Δ
(
∨
R
1
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash A,\Delta }{\Gamma \vdash A\lor B,\Delta }}\quad ({\lor }R_{1})}
Γ
,
B
⊢
Δ
Γ
,
A
∧
B
⊢
Δ
(
∧
L
2
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma ,B\vdash \Delta }{\Gamma ,A\land B\vdash \Delta }}\quad ({\land }L_{2})}
Γ
⊢
B
,
Δ
Γ
⊢
A
∨
B
,
Δ
(
∨
R
2
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash B,\Delta }{\Gamma \vdash A\lor B,\Delta }}\quad ({\lor }R_{2})}
Γ
,
A
⊢
Δ
Γ
,
B
⊢
Δ
Γ
,
A
∨
B
⊢
Δ
(
∨
L
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma ,A\vdash \Delta \qquad \Gamma ,B\vdash \Delta }{\Gamma ,A\lor B\vdash \Delta }}\quad ({\lor }L)}
Γ
⊢
A
,
Δ
Γ
⊢
B
,
Δ
Γ
⊢
A
∧
B
,
Δ
(
∧
R
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash A,\Delta \qquad \Gamma \vdash B,\Delta }{\Gamma \vdash A\land B,\Delta }}\quad ({\land }R)}
Γ
⊢
A
,
Δ
Σ
,
B
⊢
Π
Γ
,
Σ
,
A
→
B
⊢
Δ
,
Π
(
→
L
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash A,\Delta \qquad \Sigma ,B\vdash \Pi }{\Gamma ,\Sigma ,A\rightarrow B\vdash \Delta ,\Pi }}\quad ({\rightarrow }L)}
Γ
,
A
⊢
B
,
Δ
Γ
⊢
A
→
B
,
Δ
(
→
R
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma ,A\vdash B,\Delta }{\Gamma \vdash A\rightarrow B,\Delta }}\quad ({\rightarrow }R)}
Γ
⊢
A
,
Δ
Γ
,
¬
A
⊢
Δ
(
¬
L
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash A,\Delta }{\Gamma ,\lnot A\vdash \Delta }}\quad ({\lnot }L)}
Γ
,
A
⊢
Δ
Γ
⊢
¬
A
,
Δ
(
¬
R
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma ,A\vdash \Delta }{\Gamma \vdash \lnot A,\Delta }}\quad ({\lnot }R)}
Γ
,
A
[
t
/
x
]
⊢
Δ
Γ
,
∀
x
A
⊢
Δ
(
∀
L
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma ,A\vdash \Delta }{\Gamma ,\forall xA\vdash \Delta }}\quad ({\forall }L)}
Γ
⊢
A
[
y
/
x
]
,
Δ
Γ
⊢
∀
x
A
,
Δ
(
∀
R
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash A,\Delta }{\Gamma \vdash \forall xA,\Delta }}\quad ({\forall }R)}
Γ
,
A
[
y
/
x
]
⊢
Δ
Γ
,
∃
x
A
⊢
Δ
(
∃
L
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma ,A\vdash \Delta }{\Gamma ,\exists xA\vdash \Delta }}\quad ({\exists }L)}
Γ
⊢
A
[
t
/
x
]
,
Δ
Γ
⊢
∃
x
A
,
Δ
(
∃
R
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash A,\Delta }{\Gamma \vdash \exists xA,\Delta }}\quad ({\exists }R)}
Left structural rules:
Right structural rules:
Γ
⊢
Δ
Γ
,
A
⊢
Δ
(
W
L
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash \Delta }{\Gamma ,A\vdash \Delta }}\quad ({\mathit {WL}})}
Γ
⊢
Δ
Γ
⊢
A
,
Δ
(
W
R
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash \Delta }{\Gamma \vdash A,\Delta }}\quad ({\mathit {WR}})}
Γ
,
A
,
A
⊢
Δ
Γ
,
A
⊢
Δ
(
C
L
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma ,A,A\vdash \Delta }{\Gamma ,A\vdash \Delta }}\quad ({\mathit {CL}})}
Γ
⊢
A
,
A
,
Δ
Γ
⊢
A
,
Δ
(
C
R
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash A,A,\Delta }{\Gamma \vdash A,\Delta }}\quad ({\mathit {CR}})}
Γ
1
,
A
,
B
,
Γ
2
⊢
Δ
Γ
1
,
B
,
A
,
Γ
2
⊢
Δ
(
P
L
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma _{1},A,B,\Gamma _{2}\vdash \Delta }{\Gamma _{1},B,A,\Gamma _{2}\vdash \Delta }}\quad ({\mathit {PL}})}
Γ
⊢
Δ
1
,
A
,
B
,
Δ
2
Γ
⊢
Δ
1
,
B
,
A
,
Δ
2
(
P
R
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash \Delta _{1},A,B,\Delta _{2}}{\Gamma \vdash \Delta _{1},B,A,\Delta _{2}}}\quad ({\mathit {PR}})}
Restrictions: In the rules
(
∀
R
)
{\displaystyle ({\forall }R)}
and
(
∃
L
)
{\displaystyle ({\exists }L)}
, the variable
y
{\displaystyle y}
must not occur free anywhere in the respective lower sequents.
An intuitive explanation
The above rules can be divided into two major groups: logical and structural ones. Each of the logical rules introduces a new logical formula either on the left or on the right of the turnstile
⊢
{\displaystyle \vdash }
. In contrast, the structural rules operate on the structure of the sequents, ignoring the exact shape of the formulae. The two exceptions to this general scheme are the axiom of identity (I) and the rule of (Cut).
Although stated in a formal way, the above rules allow for a very intuitive reading in terms of classical logic. Consider, for example, the rule
(
∧
L
1
)
{\displaystyle ({\land }L_{1})}
. It says that, whenever one can prove that
Δ
{\displaystyle \Delta }
can be concluded from some sequence of formulae that contain
A
{\displaystyle A}
, then one can also conclude
Δ
{\displaystyle \Delta }
from the (stronger) assumption that
A
∧
B
{\displaystyle A\land B}
holds. Likewise, the rule
(
¬
R
)
{\displaystyle ({\neg }R)}
states that, if
Γ
{\displaystyle \Gamma }
and
A
{\displaystyle A}
suffice to conclude
Δ
{\displaystyle \Delta }
, then from
Γ
{\displaystyle \Gamma }
alone one can either still conclude
Δ
{\displaystyle \Delta }
or
A
{\displaystyle A}
must be false, i.e.
¬
A
{\displaystyle {\neg }A}
holds. All the rules can be interpreted in this way.
For an intuition about the quantifier rules, consider the rule
(
∀
R
)
{\displaystyle ({\forall }R)}
. Of course concluding that
∀
x
A
{\displaystyle \forall {x}A}
holds just from the fact that
A
[
y
/
x
]
{\displaystyle A}
is true is not in general possible. If, however, the variable y is not mentioned elsewhere (i.e. it can still be chosen freely, without influencing the other formulae), then one may assume, that
A
[
y
/
x
]
{\displaystyle A}
holds for any value of y. The other rules should then be pretty straightforward.
Instead of viewing the rules as descriptions for legal derivations in predicate logic, one may also consider them as instructions for the construction of a proof for a given statement. In this case the rules can be read bottom-up; for example,
(
∧
R
)
{\displaystyle ({\land }R)}
says that, to prove that
A
∧
B
{\displaystyle A\land B}
follows from the assumptions
Γ
{\displaystyle \Gamma }
and
Σ
{\displaystyle \Sigma }
, it suffices to prove that
A
{\displaystyle A}
can be concluded from
Γ
{\displaystyle \Gamma }
and
B
{\displaystyle B}
can be concluded from
Σ
{\displaystyle \Sigma }
, respectively. Note that, given some antecedent, it is not clear how this is to be split into
Γ
{\displaystyle \Gamma }
and
Σ
{\displaystyle \Sigma }
. However, there are only finitely many possibilities to be checked since the antecedent by assumption is finite. This also illustrates how proof theory can be viewed as operating on proofs in a combinatorial fashion: given proofs for both
A
{\displaystyle A}
and
B
{\displaystyle B}
, one can construct a proof for
A
∧
B
{\displaystyle A\land B}
.
When looking for some proof, most of the rules offer more or less direct recipes of how to do this. The rule of cut is different: it states that, when a formula
A
{\displaystyle A}
can be concluded and this formula may also serve as a premise for concluding other statements, then the formula
A
{\displaystyle A}
can be "cut out" and the respective derivations are joined. When constructing a proof bottom-up, this creates the problem of guessing
A
{\displaystyle A}
(since it does not appear at all below). The cut-elimination theorem is thus crucial to the applications of sequent calculus in automated deduction: it states that all uses of the cut rule can be eliminated from a proof, implying that any provable sequent can be given a cut-free proof.
The second rule that is somewhat special is the axiom of identity (I). The intuitive reading of this is obvious: every formula proves itself. Like the cut rule, the axiom of identity is somewhat redundant: the completeness of atomic initial sequents states that the rule can be restricted to atomic formulas without any loss of provability.
Observe that all rules have mirror companions, except the ones for implication. This reflects the fact that the usual language of first-order logic does not include the "is not implied by" connective
↚
{\displaystyle \not \leftarrow }
that would be the De Morgan dual of implication. Adding such a connective with its natural rules would make the calculus completely left-right symmetric.
Example derivations
Here is the derivation of "
⊢
A
∨
¬
A
{\displaystyle \vdash A\lor \lnot A}
", known as
the Law of excluded middle (tertium non datur in Latin).
(
I
)
{\displaystyle (I)}
A
⊢
A
{\displaystyle A\vdash A}
(
¬
R
)
{\displaystyle (\lnot R)}
⊢
¬
A
,
A
{\displaystyle \vdash \lnot A,A}
(
∨
R
2
)
{\displaystyle (\lor R_{2})}
⊢
A
∨
¬
A
,
A
{\displaystyle \vdash A\lor \lnot A,A}
(
P
R
)
{\displaystyle (PR)}
⊢
A
,
A
∨
¬
A
{\displaystyle \vdash A,A\lor \lnot A}
(
∨
R
1
)
{\displaystyle (\lor R_{1})}
⊢
A
∨
¬
A
,
A
∨
¬
A
{\displaystyle \vdash A\lor \lnot A,A\lor \lnot A}
(
C
R
)
{\displaystyle (CR)}
⊢
A
∨
¬
A
{\displaystyle \vdash A\lor \lnot A}
Next is the proof of a simple fact involving quantifiers. Note that the converse is not true, and its falsity can be seen when attempting to derive it bottom-up, because an existing free variable cannot be used in substitution in the rules
(
∀
R
)
{\displaystyle (\forall R)}
and
(
∃
L
)
{\displaystyle (\exists L)}
.
(
I
)
{\displaystyle (I)}
p
(
x
,
y
)
⊢
p
(
x
,
y
)
{\displaystyle p(x,y)\vdash p(x,y)}
(
∀
L
)
{\displaystyle (\forall L)}
∀
x
(
p
(
x
,
y
)
)
⊢
p
(
x
,
y
)
{\displaystyle \forall x\left(p(x,y)\right)\vdash p(x,y)}
(
∃
R
)
{\displaystyle (\exists R)}
∀
x
(
p
(
x
,
y
)
)
⊢
∃
y
(
p
(
x
,
y
)
)
{\displaystyle \forall x\left(p(x,y)\right)\vdash \exists y\left(p(x,y)\right)}
(
∃
L
)
{\displaystyle (\exists L)}
∃
y
(
∀
x
(
p
(
x
,
y
)
)
)
⊢
∃
y
(
p
(
x
,
y
)
)
{\displaystyle \exists y\left(\forall x\left(p(x,y)\right)\right)\vdash \exists y\left(p(x,y)\right)}
(
∀
R
)
{\displaystyle (\forall R)}
∃
y
(
∀
x
(
p
(
x
,
y
)
)
)
⊢
∀
x
(
∃
y
(
p
(
x
,
y
)
)
)
{\displaystyle \exists y\left(\forall x\left(p(x,y)\right)\right)\vdash \forall x\left(\exists y\left(p(x,y)\right)\right)}
For something more interesting we shall prove
(
(
A
→
(
B
∨
C
)
)
→
(
(
(
B
→
¬
A
)
∧
¬
C
)
→
¬
A
)
)
{\displaystyle {\left(\left(A\rightarrow \left(B\lor C\right)\right)\rightarrow \left(\left(\left(B\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\land \lnot C\right)\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\right)}}
. It is straightforward to find the derivation, which exemplifies the usefulness of LK in automated proving.
(
I
)
{\displaystyle (I)}
A
⊢
A
{\displaystyle A\vdash A}
(
¬
R
)
{\displaystyle (\lnot R)}
⊢
¬
A
,
A
{\displaystyle \vdash \lnot A,A}
(
P
R
)
{\displaystyle (PR)}
⊢
A
,
¬
A
{\displaystyle \vdash A,\lnot A}
(
I
)
{\displaystyle (I)}
B
⊢
B
{\displaystyle B\vdash B}
(
W
R
)
{\displaystyle (WR)}
B
⊢
B
,
C
{\displaystyle B\vdash B,C}
(
I
)
{\displaystyle (I)}
C
⊢
C
{\displaystyle C\vdash C}
(
W
R
)
{\displaystyle (WR)}
C
⊢
B
,
C
{\displaystyle C\vdash B,C}
(
∨
L
)
{\displaystyle (\lor L)}
B
∨
C
⊢
B
,
C
{\displaystyle B\lor C\vdash B,C}
(
P
R
)
{\displaystyle (PR)}
B
∨
C
⊢
C
,
B
{\displaystyle B\lor C\vdash C,B}
(
¬
L
)
{\displaystyle (\lnot L)}
B
∨
C
,
¬
C
⊢
B
{\displaystyle B\lor C,\lnot C\vdash B}
(
I
)
{\displaystyle (I)}
¬
A
⊢
¬
A
{\displaystyle \lnot A\vdash \lnot A}
(
→
L
)
{\displaystyle (\rightarrow L)}
(
B
∨
C
)
,
¬
C
,
(
B
→
¬
A
)
⊢
¬
A
{\displaystyle \left(B\lor C\right),\lnot C,\left(B\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\vdash \lnot A}
(
∧
L
1
)
{\displaystyle (\land L_{1})}
(
B
∨
C
)
,
¬
C
,
(
(
B
→
¬
A
)
∧
¬
C
)
⊢
¬
A
{\displaystyle \left(B\lor C\right),\lnot C,\left(\left(B\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\land \lnot C\right)\vdash \lnot A}
(
P
L
)
{\displaystyle (PL)}
(
B
∨
C
)
,
(
(
B
→
¬
A
)
∧
¬
C
)
,
¬
C
⊢
¬
A
{\displaystyle \left(B\lor C\right),\left(\left(B\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\land \lnot C\right),\lnot C\vdash \lnot A}
(
∧
L
2
)
{\displaystyle (\land L_{2})}
(
B
∨
C
)
,
(
(
B
→
¬
A
)
∧
¬
C
)
,
(
(
B
→
¬
A
)
∧
¬
C
)
⊢
¬
A
{\displaystyle \left(B\lor C\right),\left(\left(B\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\land \lnot C\right),\left(\left(B\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\land \lnot C\right)\vdash \lnot A}
(
C
L
)
{\displaystyle (CL)}
(
B
∨
C
)
,
(
(
B
→
¬
A
)
∧
¬
C
)
⊢
¬
A
{\displaystyle \left(B\lor C\right),\left(\left(B\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\land \lnot C\right)\vdash \lnot A}
(
P
L
)
{\displaystyle (PL)}
(
(
B
→
¬
A
)
∧
¬
C
)
,
(
B
∨
C
)
⊢
¬
A
{\displaystyle \left(\left(B\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\land \lnot C\right),\left(B\lor C\right)\vdash \lnot A}
(
→
L
)
{\displaystyle (\rightarrow L)}
(
(
B
→
¬
A
)
∧
¬
C
)
,
(
A
→
(
B
∨
C
)
)
⊢
¬
A
,
¬
A
{\displaystyle \left(\left(B\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\land \lnot C\right),\left(A\rightarrow \left(B\lor C\right)\right)\vdash \lnot A,\lnot A}
(
C
R
)
{\displaystyle (CR)}
(
(
B
→
¬
A
)
∧
¬
C
)
,
(
A
→
(
B
∨
C
)
)
⊢
¬
A
{\displaystyle \left(\left(B\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\land \lnot C\right),\left(A\rightarrow \left(B\lor C\right)\right)\vdash \lnot A}
(
P
L
)
{\displaystyle (PL)}
(
A
→
(
B
∨
C
)
)
,
(
(
B
→
¬
A
)
∧
¬
C
)
⊢
¬
A
{\displaystyle \left(A\rightarrow \left(B\lor C\right)\right),\left(\left(B\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\land \lnot C\right)\vdash \lnot A}
(
→
R
)
{\displaystyle (\rightarrow R)}
(
A
→
(
B
∨
C
)
)
⊢
(
(
(
B
→
¬
A
)
∧
¬
C
)
→
¬
A
)
{\displaystyle \left(A\rightarrow \left(B\lor C\right)\right)\vdash \left(\left(\left(B\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\land \lnot C\right)\rightarrow \lnot A\right)}
(
→
R
)
{\displaystyle (\rightarrow R)}
⊢
(
(
A
→
(
B
∨
C
)
)
→
(
(
(
B
→
¬
A
)
∧
¬
C
)
→
¬
A
)
)
{\displaystyle \vdash \left(\left(A\rightarrow \left(B\lor C\right)\right)\rightarrow \left(\left(\left(B\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\land \lnot C\right)\rightarrow \lnot A\right)\right)}
These derivations also emphasize the strictly formal structure of the sequent calculus. For example, the logical rules as defined above always act on a formula immediately adjacent to the turnstile, such that the permutation rules are necessary. Note, however, that this is in part an artifact of the presentation, in the original style of Gentzen. A common simplification involves the use of multisets of formulas in the interpretation of the sequent, rather than sequences, eliminating the need for an explicit permutation rule. This corresponds to shifting commutativity of assumptions and derivations outside the sequent calculus, whereas LK embeds it within the system itself.
Relation to analytic tableaux
For certain formulations (i.e. variants) of the sequent calculus, a proof in such a calculus is isomorphic to an upside-down, closed analytic tableau.
Structural rules
The structural rules deserve some additional discussion.
Weakening (W) allows the addition of arbitrary elements to a sequence. Intuitively, this is allowed in the antecedent because we can always restrict the scope of our proof (if all cars have wheels, then it's safe to say that all black cars have wheels); and in the succedent because we can always allow for alternative conclusions (if all cars have wheels, then it's safe to say that all cars have either wheels or wings).
Contraction (C) and Permutation (P) assure that neither the order (P) nor the multiplicity of occurrences (C) of elements of the sequences matters. Thus, one could instead of sequences also consider sets.
The extra effort of using sequences, however, is justified since part or all of the structural rules may be omitted. Doing so, one obtains the so-called substructural logics.
Properties of the system LK
This system of rules can be shown to be both sound and complete with respect to first-order logic, i.e. a statement
A
{\displaystyle A}
follows semantically from a set of premises
Γ
{\displaystyle \Gamma }
(
Γ
⊨
A
)
{\displaystyle (\Gamma \vDash A)}
if and only if the sequent
Γ
⊢
A
{\displaystyle \Gamma \vdash A}
can be derived by the above rules.
In the sequent calculus, the rule of cut is admissible. This result is also referred to as Gentzen's Hauptsatz ("Main Theorem").
Variants
The above rules can be modified in various ways:
Minor structural alternatives
There is some freedom of choice regarding the technical details of how sequents and structural rules are formalized without changing what sequents the system derives.
First of all, as mentioned above, the sequents can be viewed to consist of sets or multisets. In this case, the rules for permuting and (when using sets) contracting formulae are unnecessary.
The rule of weakening becomes admissible if the axiom (I) is changed to derive any sequent of the form
Γ
,
A
⊢
A
,
Δ
{\displaystyle \Gamma ,A\vdash A,\Delta }
. Any weakening that appears in a derivation can then be moved to the beginning of the proof. This may be a convenient change when constructing proofs bottom-up.
One may also change whether rules with more than one premise share the same context for each of those premises or split their contexts between them: For example,
(
∨
L
)
{\displaystyle ({\lor }L)}
may be instead formulated as
Γ
,
A
⊢
Δ
Σ
,
B
⊢
Π
Γ
,
Σ
,
A
∨
B
⊢
Δ
,
Π
.
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma ,A\vdash \Delta \qquad \Sigma ,B\vdash \Pi }{\Gamma ,\Sigma ,A\lor B\vdash \Delta ,\Pi }}.}
Contraction and weakening make this version of the rule interderivable with the version above, although in their absence, as in linear logic, these rules define different connectives.
Absurdity
One can introduce
⊥
{\displaystyle \bot }
, the absurdity constant representing false, with the axiom:
⊥
⊢
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {}{\bot \vdash \quad }}}
Or if, as described above, weakening is to be an admissible rule, then with the axiom:
Γ
,
⊥
⊢
Δ
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {}{\Gamma ,\bot \vdash \Delta }}}
With
⊥
{\displaystyle \bot }
, negation can be subsumed as a special case of implication, via the definition
(
¬
A
)
⟺
(
A
→
⊥
)
{\displaystyle (\neg A)\iff (A\to \bot )}
.
Substructural logics
Main article: Substructural logic
Alternatively, one may restrict or forbid the use of some of the structural rules. This yields a variety of substructural logic systems. They are generally weaker than LK (i.e., they have fewer theorems), and thus not complete with respect to the standard semantics of first-order logic. However, they have other interesting properties that have led to applications in theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.
Intuitionistic sequent calculus: System LJ
Surprisingly, some small changes in the rules of LK suffice to turn it into a proof system for intuitionistic logic. To this end, one has to restrict to sequents with at most one formula on the right-hand side, and modify the rules to maintain this invariant. For example,
(
∨
L
)
{\displaystyle ({\lor }L)}
is reformulated as follows (where C is an arbitrary formula):
Γ
,
A
⊢
C
Γ
,
B
⊢
C
Γ
,
A
∨
B
⊢
C
(
∨
L
)
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma ,A\vdash C\qquad \Gamma ,B\vdash C}{\Gamma ,A\lor B\vdash C}}\quad ({\lor }L)}
The resulting system is called LJ. It is sound and complete with respect to intuitionistic logic and admits a similar cut-elimination proof. This can be used in proving disjunction and existence properties.
In fact, the only rules in LK that need to be restricted to single-formula consequents are
(
→
R
)
{\displaystyle ({\to }R)}
,
(
¬
R
)
{\displaystyle (\neg R)}
(which can be seen as a special case of
→
R
{\displaystyle {\to }R}
, as described above) and
(
∀
R
)
{\displaystyle ({\forall }R)}
. When multi-formula consequents are interpreted as disjunctions, all of the other inference rules of LK are derivable in LJ, while the rules
(
→
R
)
{\displaystyle ({\to }R)}
and
(
∀
R
)
{\displaystyle ({\forall }R)}
become
Γ
,
A
⊢
B
∨
C
Γ
⊢
(
A
→
B
)
∨
C
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma ,A\vdash B\lor C}{\Gamma \vdash (A\to B)\lor C}}}
and (when
y
{\displaystyle y}
does not occur free in the bottom sequent)
Γ
⊢
A
[
y
/
x
]
∨
C
Γ
⊢
(
∀
x
A
)
∨
C
.
{\displaystyle {\cfrac {\Gamma \vdash A\lor C}{\Gamma \vdash (\forall xA)\lor C}}.}
These rules are not intuitionistically valid.
See also
Cirquent calculus
Nested sequent calculus
Resolution (logic)
Proof theory
Notes
^ a b Gentzen 1934, Gentzen 1935.
^ a b Curry 1977, pp. 208–213, gives a 5-page proof of the elimination theorem. See also pages 188, 250.
^ a b Kleene 2009, pp. 453, gives a very brief proof of the cut-elimination theorem.
^ Curry 1977, pp. 189–244, calls Gentzen systems LC systems. Curry's emphasis is more on theory than on practical logic proofs.
^ Kleene 2009, pp. 440–516. This book is much more concerned with the theoretical, metamathematical implications of Gentzen-style sequent calculus than applications to practical logic proofs.
^ Kleene 2002, pp. 283–312, 331–361, defines Gentzen systems and proves various theorems within these systems, including Gödel's completeness theorem and Gentzen's theorem.
^ Smullyan 1995, pp. 101–127, gives a brief theoretical presentation of Gentzen systems. He uses the tableau proof layout style.
^ Curry 1977, pp. 184–244, compares natural deduction systems, denoted LA, and Gentzen systems, denoted LC. Curry's emphasis is more theoretical than practical.
^ Suppes 1999, pp. 25–150, is an introductory presentation of practical natural deduction of this kind. This became the basis of System L.
^ Lemmon 1965 is an elementary introduction to practical natural deduction based on the convenient abbreviated proof layout style System L based on Suppes 1999, pp. 25–150.
^ Here, "whenever" is used as an informal abbreviation "for every assignment of values to the free variables in the judgment"
^ Shankar, Natarajan; Owre, Sam; Rushby, John M.; Stringer-Calvert, David W. J. (2001-11-01). "PVS Prover Guide" (PDF). User guide. SRI International. Retrieved 2015-05-29.
^ For explanations of the disjunctive semantics for the right side of sequents, see Curry 1977, pp. 189–190, Kleene 2002, pp. 290, 297, Kleene 2009, p. 441, Hilbert & Bernays 1970, p. 385, Smullyan 1995, pp. 104–105 and Gentzen 1934, p. 180.
^ Buss 1998, p. 10
^ Gentzen 1934, p. 188. "Der Kalkül NJ hat manche formale Unschönheiten."
^ Gentzen 1934, p. 191. "In dem klassischen Kalkül NK nahm der Satz vom ausgeschlossenen Dritten eine Sonderstellung unter den Schlußweisen ein , indem er sich der Einführungs- und Beseitigungssystematik nicht einfügte. Bei dem im folgenden anzugebenden logistischen klassichen Kalkül LK wird diese Sonderstellung aufgehoben."
^ Gentzen 1934, p. 191. "Die damit erreichte Symmetrie erweist sich als für die klassische Logik angemessener."
^ Gentzen 1934, p. 191. "Hiermit haben wir einige Gesichtspunkte zur Begründung der Aufstellung der folgenden Kalküle angegeben. Im wesentlichen ist ihre Form jedoch durch die Rücksicht auf den nachher zu beweisenden 'Hauptsatz' bestimmt und kann daher vorläufig nicht näher begründet werden."
^ Kleene 2002, p. 441.
^ a b c Applied Logic, Univ. of Cornell: Lecture 9. Last Retrieved: 2016-06-25
^ "Remember, the way that you prove an implication is by assuming the hypothesis."—Philip Wadler, on 2 November 2015, in his Keynote: "Propositions as Types". Minute 14:36 /55:28 of Code Mesh video clip
^ Tait WW (2010). "Gentzen's original consistency proof and the Bar Theorem" (PDF). In Kahle R, Rathjen M (eds.). Gentzen's Centenary: The Quest for Consistency. New York: Springer. pp. 213–228.
^ Jan von Plato, Elements of Logical Reasoning, Cambridge University Press, 2014, p. 32.
^ Andrzej-Indrzejczak, An Introduction to the Theory and Applications of Propositional Sequent Calculi (2021, chapter "Gentzen's Sequent Calculus LK"). Accessed 3 August 2022.
^ Smullyan 1995, p. 107
^ Kleene 2002, p. 336, wrote in 1967 that "it was a major logical discovery by Gentzen 1934–5 that, when there is any (purely logical) proof of a proposition, there is a direct proof. The implications of this discovery are in theoretical logical investigations, rather than in building collections of proved formulas."
^ Gentzen 1934, p. 194, wrote: "Der Unterschied zwischen intuitionistischer und klassischer Logik ist bei den Kalkülen LJ und LK äußerlich ganz anderer Art als bei NJ und NK. Dort bestand er in Weglassung bzw. Hinzunahme des Satzes vom ausgeschlossenen Dritten, während er hier durch die Sukzedensbedingung ausgedrückt wird." English translation: "The difference between intuitionistic and classical logic is in the case of the calculi LJ and LK of an extremely, totally different kind to the case of NJ and NK. In the latter case, it consisted of the removal or addition respectively of the excluded middle rule, whereas in the former case, it is expressed through the succedent conditions."
^ M. Tiomkin, "Proving unprovability", pp.22--26. In Proceedings Of The Third Annual Symposium On Logic In Computer Science, July 5-8, 1988 (1988), IEEE. ISBN 0-8186-0853-6.
References
Buss, Samuel R. (1998). "An introduction to proof theory". In Samuel R. Buss (ed.). Handbook of proof theory. Elsevier. pp. 1–78. ISBN 0-444-89840-9.
Curry, Haskell Brooks (1977) . Foundations of mathematical logic. New York: Dover Publications Inc. ISBN 978-0-486-63462-3.
Gentzen, Gerhard Karl Erich (1934). "Untersuchungen über das logische Schließen. I". Mathematische Zeitschrift. 39 (2): 176–210. doi:10.1007/BF01201353. S2CID 121546341.
Gentzen, Gerhard Karl Erich (1935). "Untersuchungen über das logische Schließen. II". Mathematische Zeitschrift. 39 (3): 405–431. doi:10.1007/bf01201363. S2CID 186239837.
Girard, Jean-Yves; Paul Taylor; Yves Lafont (1990) . Proofs and Types. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Tracts in Theoretical Computer Science, 7). ISBN 0-521-37181-3.
Hilbert, David; Bernays, Paul (1970) . Grundlagen der Mathematik II (Second ed.). Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-642-86897-9.
Kleene, Stephen Cole (2009) . Introduction to metamathematics. Ishi Press International. ISBN 978-0-923891-57-2.
Kleene, Stephen Cole (2002) . Mathematical logic. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-42533-7.
Lemmon, Edward John (1965). Beginning logic. Thomas Nelson. ISBN 0-17-712040-1.
Mancosu, Paolo; Galvan, Sergio; Zach, Richard (2021). An Introduction to Proof Theory — Normalization, Cut-Elimination, and Consistency Proofs. Oxford University Press. p. 431. ISBN 978-0-19-289593-6.
Smullyan, Raymond Merrill (1995) . First-order logic. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-68370-6.
Suppes, Patrick Colonel (1999) . Introduction to logic. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-40687-9.
External links
Proof Theory (Sequent Calculi) in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
"Sequent calculus", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001
A Brief Diversion: Sequent Calculus
Interactive tutorial of the Sequent Calculus
vteDiagrams in logic
Venn diagram
Square of opposition
Porphyrian tree
Karnaugh map
Binary decision diagram
Propositional directed acyclic graph
Sentential decision diagram
Truth table
Sequent calculus
Method of analytic tableaux
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematical logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic"},{"link_name":"argumentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument"},{"link_name":"proof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_proof"},{"link_name":"tautology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautology_(logic)"},{"link_name":"sequent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequent"},{"link_name":"Gerhard Gentzen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Gentzen"},{"link_name":"inference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inference"},{"link_name":"David Hilbert's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hilbert"},{"link_name":"formal logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_logic"},{"link_name":"axioms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom"},{"link_name":"theorems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem"},{"link_name":"first-order language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-order_logic"},{"link_name":"proof calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_calculus"},{"link_name":"Hilbert style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert_system"},{"link_name":"Natural deduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_deduction"},{"link_name":"quantifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantification_(logic)"},{"link_name":"propositional calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional_calculus"},{"link_name":"free variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_variable"}],"text":"In mathematical logic, sequent calculus is a style of formal logical argumentation in which every line of a proof is a conditional tautology (called a sequent by Gerhard Gentzen) instead of an unconditional tautology. Each conditional tautology is inferred from other conditional tautologies on earlier lines in a formal argument according to rules and procedures of inference, giving a better approximation to the natural style of deduction used by mathematicians than to David Hilbert's earlier style of formal logic, in which every line was an unconditional tautology. More subtle distinctions may exist; for example, propositions may implicitly depend upon non-logical axioms. In that case, sequents signify conditional theorems in a first-order language rather than conditional tautologies.Sequent calculus is one of several extant styles of proof calculus for expressing line-by-line logical arguments.Hilbert style. Every line is an unconditional tautology (or theorem).\nGentzen style. Every line is a conditional tautology (or theorem) with zero or more conditions on the left.\nNatural deduction. Every (conditional) line has exactly one asserted proposition on the right.\nSequent calculus. Every (conditional) line has zero or more asserted propositions on the right.In other words, natural deduction and sequent calculus systems are particular distinct kinds of Gentzen-style systems. Hilbert-style systems typically have a very small number of inference rules, relying more on sets of axioms. Gentzen-style systems typically have very few axioms, if any, relying more on sets of rules.Gentzen-style systems have significant practical and theoretical advantages compared to Hilbert-style systems. For example, both natural deduction and sequent calculus systems facilitate the elimination and introduction of universal and existential quantifiers so that unquantified logical expressions can be manipulated according to the much simpler rules of propositional calculus. In a typical argument, quantifiers are eliminated, then propositional calculus is applied to unquantified expressions (which typically contain free variables), and then the quantifiers are reintroduced. This very much parallels the way in which mathematical proofs are carried out in practice by mathematicians. Predicate calculus proofs are generally much easier to discover with this approach, and are often shorter. Natural deduction systems are more suited to practical theorem-proving. Sequent calculus systems are more suited to theoretical analysis.","title":"Sequent calculus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"proof theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_theory"},{"link_name":"mathematical logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic"},{"link_name":"formal systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_system"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gentzen19341935-1"},{"link_name":"natural deduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_deduction"},{"link_name":"first-order logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-order_logic"},{"link_name":"classical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_logic"},{"link_name":"intuitionistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuitionistic_logic"},{"link_name":"cut-elimination theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cut-elimination_theorem"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-curry_cut_elimination-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kleene_cut_elimination-3"},{"link_name":"meta-theoretic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metatheory"},{"link_name":"consistency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistency"},{"link_name":"proof of the consistency of Peano arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentzen%27s_consistency_proof"},{"link_name":"Gödel's incompleteness theorems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorems"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"automated deduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_deduction"}],"text":"In proof theory and mathematical logic, sequent calculus is a family of formal systems sharing a certain style of inference and certain formal properties. The first sequent calculi systems, LK and LJ, were introduced in 1934/1935 by Gerhard Gentzen[1] as a tool for studying natural deduction in first-order logic (in classical and intuitionistic versions, respectively). Gentzen's so-called \"Main Theorem\" (Hauptsatz) about LK and LJ was the cut-elimination theorem,[2][3] a result with far-reaching meta-theoretic consequences, including consistency. Gentzen further demonstrated the power and flexibility of this technique a few years later, applying a cut-elimination argument to give a (transfinite) proof of the consistency of Peano arithmetic, in surprising response to Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Since this early work, sequent calculi, also called Gentzen systems,[4][5][6][7] and the general concepts relating to them, have been widely applied in the fields of proof theory, mathematical logic, and automated deduction.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"judgments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judgment_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"Hilbert-style deduction systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert_system"},{"link_name":"formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-formed_formula"},{"link_name":"higher-order logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher-order_logic"},{"link_name":"modal logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modal_logic"},{"link_name":"deduction theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deduction_theorem"},{"link_name":"natural deduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_deduction"}],"sub_title":"Hilbert-style deduction systems","text":"One way to classify different styles of deduction systems is to look at the form of judgments in the system, i.e., which things may appear as the conclusion of a (sub)proof. The simplest judgment form is used in Hilbert-style deduction systems, where a judgment has the formB\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}where \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n is any formula of first-order logic (or whatever logic the deduction system applies to, e.g., propositional calculus or a higher-order logic or a modal logic). The theorems are those formulae that appear as the concluding judgment in a valid proof. A Hilbert-style system needs no distinction between formulae and judgments; we make one here solely for comparison with the cases that follow.The price paid for the simple syntax of a Hilbert-style system is that complete formal proofs tend to get extremely long. Concrete arguments about proofs in such a system almost always appeal to the deduction theorem. This leads to the idea of including the deduction theorem as a formal rule in the system, which happens in natural deduction.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"turnstile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnstile_(symbol)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Natural deduction systems","text":"In natural deduction, judgments have the shapeA\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n A\n \n n\n \n \n ⊢\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{1},A_{2},\\ldots ,A_{n}\\vdash B}where the \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{i}}\n \n's and \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n are again formulae and \n \n \n \n n\n ≥\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\geq 0}\n \n. Permutations of the \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{i}}\n \n's are immaterial. In other words, a judgment consists of a list (possibly empty) of formulae on the left-hand side of a turnstile symbol \"\n \n \n \n ⊢\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash }\n \n\", with a single formula on the right-hand side.[8][9][10] The theorems are those formulae \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n ⊢\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash B}\n \n (with an empty left-hand side) is the conclusion of a valid proof.\n(In some presentations of natural deduction, the \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{i}}\n \ns and the turnstile are not written down explicitly; instead a two-dimensional notation from which they can be inferred is used.)The standard semantics of a judgment in natural deduction is that it asserts that whenever[11] \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{1}}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{2}}\n \n, etc., are all true, \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n will also be true. The judgmentsA\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n A\n \n n\n \n \n ⊢\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{1},\\ldots ,A_{n}\\vdash B}and⊢\n (\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n ∧\n ⋯\n ∧\n \n A\n \n n\n \n \n )\n →\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash (A_{1}\\land \\cdots \\land A_{n})\\rightarrow B}are equivalent in the strong sense that a proof of either one may be extended to a proof of the other.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"turnstile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnstile_(symbol)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pvs-prover-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"classical context","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_logic"},{"link_name":"De Morgan's laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Morgan%27s_laws"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Sequent calculus systems","text":"Finally, sequent calculus generalizes the form of a natural deduction judgment toA\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n A\n \n n\n \n \n ⊢\n \n B\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n B\n \n k\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{1},\\ldots ,A_{n}\\vdash B_{1},\\ldots ,B_{k},}a syntactic object called a sequent. The formulas on left-hand side of the turnstile are called the antecedent, and the formulas on right-hand side are called the succedent or consequent; together they are called cedents or sequents.[12] Again, \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{i}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n B\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle B_{i}}\n \n are formulae, and \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n and \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n are nonnegative integers, that is, the left-hand-side or the right-hand-side (or neither or both) may be empty. As in natural deduction, theorems are those \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n where \n \n \n \n ⊢\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash B}\n \n is the conclusion of a valid proof.The standard semantics of a sequent is an assertion that whenever every \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{i}}\n \n is true, at least one \n \n \n \n \n B\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle B_{i}}\n \n will also be true.[13] Thus the empty sequent, having both cedents empty, is false.[14] One way to express this is that a comma to the left of the turnstile should be thought of as an \"and\", and a comma to the right of the turnstile should be thought of as an (inclusive) \"or\". The sequentsA\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n A\n \n n\n \n \n ⊢\n \n B\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n B\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{1},\\ldots ,A_{n}\\vdash B_{1},\\ldots ,B_{k}}and⊢\n (\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n ∧\n ⋯\n ∧\n \n A\n \n n\n \n \n )\n →\n (\n \n B\n \n 1\n \n \n ∨\n ⋯\n ∨\n \n B\n \n k\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash (A_{1}\\land \\cdots \\land A_{n})\\rightarrow (B_{1}\\lor \\cdots \\lor B_{k})}are equivalent in the strong sense that a proof of either sequent may be extended to a proof of the other sequent.At first sight, this extension of the judgment form may appear to be a strange complication—it is not motivated by an obvious shortcoming of natural deduction, and it is initially confusing that the comma seems to mean entirely different things on the two sides of the turnstile. However, in a classical context the semantics of the sequent can also (by propositional tautology) be expressed either as⊢\n ¬\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n ∨\n ¬\n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n ∨\n ⋯\n ∨\n ¬\n \n A\n \n n\n \n \n ∨\n \n B\n \n 1\n \n \n ∨\n \n B\n \n 2\n \n \n ∨\n ⋯\n ∨\n \n B\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash \\neg A_{1}\\lor \\neg A_{2}\\lor \\cdots \\lor \\neg A_{n}\\lor B_{1}\\lor B_{2}\\lor \\cdots \\lor B_{k}}(at least one of the As is false, or one of the Bs is true)or as\n\n \n \n \n ⊢\n ¬\n (\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n ∧\n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n ∧\n ⋯\n ∧\n \n A\n \n n\n \n \n ∧\n ¬\n \n B\n \n 1\n \n \n ∧\n ¬\n \n B\n \n 2\n \n \n ∧\n ⋯\n ∧\n ¬\n \n B\n \n k\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash \\neg (A_{1}\\land A_{2}\\land \\cdots \\land A_{n}\\land \\neg B_{1}\\land \\neg B_{2}\\land \\cdots \\land \\neg B_{k})}(it cannot be the case that all of the As are true and all of the Bs are false).In these formulations, the only difference between formulae on either side of the turnstile is that one side is negated. Thus, swapping left for right in a sequent corresponds to negating all of the constituent formulae. This means that a symmetry such as De Morgan's laws, which manifests itself as logical negation on the semantic level, translates directly into a left-right symmetry of sequents—and indeed, the inference rules in sequent calculus for dealing with conjunction (∧) are mirror images of those dealing with disjunction (∨).Many logicians feel [citation needed] that this symmetric presentation offers a deeper insight in the structure of the logic than other styles of proof system, where the classical duality of negation is not as apparent in the rules.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"excluded middle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_excluded_middle"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Distinction between natural deduction and sequent calculus","text":"Gentzen asserted a sharp distinction between his single-output natural deduction systems (NK and NJ) and his multiple-output sequent calculus systems (LK and LJ). He wrote that the intuitionistic natural deduction system NJ was somewhat ugly.[15] He said that the special role of the excluded middle in the classical natural deduction system NK is removed in the classical sequent calculus system LK.[16] He said that the sequent calculus LJ gave more symmetry than natural deduction NJ in the case of intuitionistic logic, as also in the case of classical logic (LK versus NK).[17] Then he said that in addition to these reasons, the sequent calculus with multiple succedent formulas is intended particularly for his principal theorem (\"Hauptsatz\").[18]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gentzen19341935-1"},{"link_name":"Kleene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Cole_Kleene"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Origin of word \"sequent\"","text":"The word \"sequent\" is taken from the word \"Sequenz\" in Gentzen's 1934 paper.[1] Kleene makes the following comment on the translation into English: \"Gentzen says 'Sequenz', which we translate as 'sequent', because we have already used 'sequence' for any succession of objects, where the German is 'Folge'.\"[19]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sequent_calculus_proof_tree_example.png"}],"text":"A rooted tree describing a proof finding procedure by sequent calculus","title":"Proving logical formulas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"propositional logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional_logic"},{"link_name":"method of analytic tableaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_analytic_tableaux"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cornell09-20"},{"link_name":"turnstile symbol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnstile_(symbol)"},{"link_name":"implication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_consequence"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wadler-21"},{"link_name":"conjunction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_conjunction"},{"link_name":"disjunction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_disjunction"},{"link_name":"rooted tree graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cornell09-20"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tait-22"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cornell09-20"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundness"},{"link_name":"complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Completeness_(logic)"}],"sub_title":"Reduction trees","text":"Sequent calculus can be seen as a tool for proving formulas in propositional logic, similar to the method of analytic tableaux. It gives a series of steps that allows one to reduce the problem of proving a logical formula to simpler and simpler formulas until one arrives at trivial ones.[20]Consider the following formula:(\n (\n p\n →\n r\n )\n ∨\n (\n q\n →\n r\n )\n )\n →\n (\n (\n p\n ∧\n q\n )\n →\n r\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ((p\\rightarrow r)\\lor (q\\rightarrow r))\\rightarrow ((p\\land q)\\rightarrow r)}This is written in the following form, where the proposition that needs to be proven is to the right of the turnstile symbol \n \n \n \n ⊢\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash }\n \n:⊢\n (\n (\n p\n →\n r\n )\n ∨\n (\n q\n →\n r\n )\n )\n →\n (\n (\n p\n ∧\n q\n )\n →\n r\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash ((p\\rightarrow r)\\lor (q\\rightarrow r))\\rightarrow ((p\\land q)\\rightarrow r)}Now, instead of proving this from the axioms, it is enough to assume the premise of the implication and then try to prove its conclusion.[21] Hence one moves to the following sequent:(\n p\n →\n r\n )\n ∨\n (\n q\n →\n r\n )\n ⊢\n (\n p\n ∧\n q\n )\n →\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (p\\rightarrow r)\\lor (q\\rightarrow r)\\vdash (p\\land q)\\rightarrow r}Again the right hand side includes an implication, whose premise can further be assumed so that only its conclusion needs to be proven:(\n p\n →\n r\n )\n ∨\n (\n q\n →\n r\n )\n ,\n (\n p\n ∧\n q\n )\n ⊢\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (p\\rightarrow r)\\lor (q\\rightarrow r),(p\\land q)\\vdash r}Since the arguments in the left-hand side are assumed to be related by conjunction, this can be replaced by the following:(\n p\n →\n r\n )\n ∨\n (\n q\n →\n r\n )\n ,\n p\n ,\n q\n ⊢\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (p\\rightarrow r)\\lor (q\\rightarrow r),p,q\\vdash r}This is equivalent to proving the conclusion in both cases of the disjunction on the first argument on the left. Thus we may split the sequent to two, where we now have to prove each separately:p\n →\n r\n ,\n p\n ,\n q\n ⊢\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p\\rightarrow r,p,q\\vdash r}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n q\n →\n r\n ,\n p\n ,\n q\n ⊢\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle q\\rightarrow r,p,q\\vdash r}In the case of the first judgment, we rewrite \n \n \n \n p\n →\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p\\rightarrow r}\n \n as \n \n \n \n ¬\n p\n ∨\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lnot p\\lor r}\n \n and split the sequent again to get:¬\n p\n ,\n p\n ,\n q\n ⊢\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lnot p,p,q\\vdash r}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n r\n ,\n p\n ,\n q\n ⊢\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r,p,q\\vdash r}The second sequent is done; the first sequent can be further simplified into:p\n ,\n q\n ⊢\n p\n ,\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p,q\\vdash p,r}This process can always be continued until there are only atomic formulas in each side. \nThe process can be graphically described by a rooted tree graph, as depicted on the right. The root of the tree is the formula we wish to prove; the leaves consist of atomic formulas only. The tree is known as a reduction tree.[20][22]The items to the left of the turnstile are understood to be connected by conjunction, and those to the right by disjunction. Therefore, when both consist only of atomic symbols, the sequent is accepted axiomatically (and always true) if and only if at least one of the symbols on the right also appears on the left.Following are the rules by which one proceeds along the tree. Whenever one sequent is split into two, the tree vertex has two child vertices, and the tree is branched. Additionally, one may freely change the order of the arguments in each side; Γ and Δ stand for possible additional arguments.[20]The usual term for the horizontal line used in Gentzen-style layouts for natural deduction is inference line.[23]Starting with any formula in propositional logic, by a series of steps, the right side of the turnstile can be processed until it includes only atomic symbols. Then, the same is done for the left side. Since every logical operator appears in one of the rules above, and is removed by the rule, the process terminates when no logical operators remain: The formula has been decomposed.Thus, the sequents in the leaves of the trees include only atomic symbols, which are either provable by the axiom or not, according to whether one of the symbols on the right also appears on the left.It is easy to see that the steps in the tree preserve the semantic truth value of the formulas implied by them, with conjunction understood between the tree's different branches whenever there is a split. It is also obvious that an axiom is provable if and only if it is true for every assignment of truth values to the atomic symbols. Thus this system is sound and complete for classical propositional logic.","title":"Proving logical formulas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Frege's propositional calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frege%27s_propositional_calculus"},{"link_name":"Jan Łukasiewicz's axiomatization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional_calculus#Example"},{"link_name":"Hilbert system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert_system"},{"link_name":"shown below","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Example_derivations"}],"sub_title":"Relation to standard axiomatizations","text":"Sequent calculus is related to other axiomatizations of propositional calculus, such as Frege's propositional calculus or Jan Łukasiewicz's axiomatization (itself a part of the standard Hilbert system): Every formula that can be proven in these has a reduction tree.This can be shown as follows: Every proof in propositional calculus uses only axioms and the inference rules. Each use of an axiom scheme yields a true logical formula, and can thus be proven in sequent calculus; examples for these are shown below. The only inference rule in the systems mentioned above is modus ponens, which is implemented by the cut rule.","title":"Proving logical formulas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"rules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_inference"}],"text":"This section introduces the rules of the sequent calculus LK (standing for Logistische Kalkül) as introduced by Gentzen in 1934. [24]\nA (formal) proof in this calculus is a sequence of sequents, where each of the sequents is derivable from sequents appearing earlier in the sequence by using one of the rules below.","title":"The system LK"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"turnstile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnstile_(symbol)"},{"link_name":"§ Structural rules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Structural_rules"},{"link_name":"free","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_variables_and_bound_variables"},{"link_name":"quantification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)"}],"sub_title":"Inference rules","text":"The following notation will be used:⊢\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash }\n \n known as the turnstile, separates the assumptions on the left from the propositions on the right\n\n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n and \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n denote formulae of first-order predicate logic (one may also restrict this to propositional logic),\n\n \n \n \n Γ\n ,\n Δ\n ,\n Σ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Gamma ,\\Delta ,\\Sigma }\n \n, and \n \n \n \n Π\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Pi }\n \n are finite (possibly empty) sequences of formulae (in fact, the order of formulae does not matter; see § Structural rules), called contexts,\nwhen on the left of the \n \n \n \n ⊢\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash }\n \n, the sequence of formulas is considered conjunctively (all assumed to hold at the same time),\nwhile on the right of the \n \n \n \n ⊢\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash }\n \n, the sequence of formulas is considered disjunctively (at least one of the formulas must hold for any assignment of variables),\n\n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n denotes an arbitrary term,\n\n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n and \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n denote variables.\na variable is said to occur free within a formula if it is not bound by quantifiers \n \n \n \n ∀\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall }\n \n or \n \n \n \n ∃\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\exists }\n \n.\n\n \n \n \n A\n [\n t\n \n /\n \n x\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A[t/x]}\n \n denotes the formula that is obtained by substituting the term \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n for every free occurrence of the variable \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n in formula \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n with the restriction that the term \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n must be free for the variable \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n in \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n (i.e., no occurrence of any variable in \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n becomes bound in \n \n \n \n A\n [\n t\n \n /\n \n x\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A[t/x]}\n \n).\n\n \n \n \n W\n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle WL}\n \n, \n \n \n \n W\n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle WR}\n \n, \n \n \n \n C\n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle CL}\n \n, \n \n \n \n C\n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle CR}\n \n, \n \n \n \n P\n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle PL}\n \n, \n \n \n \n P\n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle PR}\n \n: These six stand for the two versions of each of three structural rules; one for use on the left ('L') of a \n \n \n \n ⊢\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash }\n \n, and the other on its right ('R'). The rules are abbreviated 'W' for Weakening (Left/Right), 'C' for Contraction, and 'P' for Permutation.Note that, contrary to the rules for proceeding along the reduction tree presented above, the following rules are for moving in the opposite directions, from axioms to theorems. Thus they are exact mirror-images of the rules above, except that here symmetry is not implicitly assumed, and rules regarding quantification are added.Restrictions: In the rules \n \n \n \n (\n \n ∀\n \n R\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\forall }R)}\n \n and \n \n \n \n (\n \n ∃\n \n L\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\exists }L)}\n \n, the variable \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n must not occur free anywhere in the respective lower sequents.","title":"The system LK"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"turnstile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnstile_(symbol)"},{"link_name":"cut-elimination theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cut-elimination_theorem"},{"link_name":"automated deduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_deduction"},{"link_name":"completeness of atomic initial sequents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Completeness_of_atomic_initial_sequents"},{"link_name":"atomic formulas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_formula"}],"sub_title":"An intuitive explanation","text":"The above rules can be divided into two major groups: logical and structural ones. Each of the logical rules introduces a new logical formula either on the left or on the right of the turnstile \n \n \n \n ⊢\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash }\n \n. In contrast, the structural rules operate on the structure of the sequents, ignoring the exact shape of the formulae. The two exceptions to this general scheme are the axiom of identity (I) and the rule of (Cut).Although stated in a formal way, the above rules allow for a very intuitive reading in terms of classical logic. Consider, for example, the rule \n \n \n \n (\n \n ∧\n \n \n L\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\land }L_{1})}\n \n. It says that, whenever one can prove that \n \n \n \n Δ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta }\n \n can be concluded from some sequence of formulae that contain \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n, then one can also conclude \n \n \n \n Δ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta }\n \n from the (stronger) assumption that \n \n \n \n A\n ∧\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\land B}\n \n holds. Likewise, the rule \n \n \n \n (\n \n ¬\n \n R\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\neg }R)}\n \n states that, if \n \n \n \n Γ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Gamma }\n \n and \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n suffice to conclude \n \n \n \n Δ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta }\n \n, then from \n \n \n \n Γ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Gamma }\n \n alone one can either still conclude \n \n \n \n Δ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta }\n \n or \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n must be false, i.e. \n \n \n \n \n ¬\n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\neg }A}\n \n holds. All the rules can be interpreted in this way.For an intuition about the quantifier rules, consider the rule \n \n \n \n (\n \n ∀\n \n R\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\forall }R)}\n \n. Of course concluding that \n \n \n \n ∀\n \n x\n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall {x}A}\n \n holds just from the fact that \n \n \n \n A\n [\n y\n \n /\n \n x\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A[y/x]}\n \n is true is not in general possible. If, however, the variable y is not mentioned elsewhere (i.e. it can still be chosen freely, without influencing the other formulae), then one may assume, that \n \n \n \n A\n [\n y\n \n /\n \n x\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A[y/x]}\n \n holds for any value of y. The other rules should then be pretty straightforward.Instead of viewing the rules as descriptions for legal derivations in predicate logic, one may also consider them as instructions for the construction of a proof for a given statement. In this case the rules can be read bottom-up; for example, \n \n \n \n (\n \n ∧\n \n R\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\land }R)}\n \n says that, to prove that \n \n \n \n A\n ∧\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\land B}\n \n follows from the assumptions \n \n \n \n Γ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Gamma }\n \n and \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Sigma }\n \n, it suffices to prove that \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n can be concluded from \n \n \n \n Γ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Gamma }\n \n and \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n can be concluded from \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Sigma }\n \n, respectively. Note that, given some antecedent, it is not clear how this is to be split into \n \n \n \n Γ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Gamma }\n \n and \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Sigma }\n \n. However, there are only finitely many possibilities to be checked since the antecedent by assumption is finite. This also illustrates how proof theory can be viewed as operating on proofs in a combinatorial fashion: given proofs for both \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n and \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n, one can construct a proof for \n \n \n \n A\n ∧\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\land B}\n \n.When looking for some proof, most of the rules offer more or less direct recipes of how to do this. The rule of cut is different: it states that, when a formula \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n can be concluded and this formula may also serve as a premise for concluding other statements, then the formula \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n can be \"cut out\" and the respective derivations are joined. When constructing a proof bottom-up, this creates the problem of guessing \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n (since it does not appear at all below). The cut-elimination theorem is thus crucial to the applications of sequent calculus in automated deduction: it states that all uses of the cut rule can be eliminated from a proof, implying that any provable sequent can be given a cut-free proof.The second rule that is somewhat special is the axiom of identity (I). The intuitive reading of this is obvious: every formula proves itself. Like the cut rule, the axiom of identity is somewhat redundant: the completeness of atomic initial sequents states that the rule can be restricted to atomic formulas without any loss of provability.Observe that all rules have mirror companions, except the ones for implication. This reflects the fact that the usual language of first-order logic does not include the \"is not implied by\" connective \n \n \n \n ↚\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\not \\leftarrow }\n \n that would be the De Morgan dual of implication. Adding such a connective with its natural rules would make the calculus completely left-right symmetric.","title":"The system LK"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Law of excluded middle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_excluded_middle"},{"link_name":"multisets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset"}],"sub_title":"Example derivations","text":"Here is the derivation of \"\n \n \n \n ⊢\n A\n ∨\n ¬\n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vdash A\\lor \\lnot A}\n \n\", known as\nthe Law of excluded middle (tertium non datur in Latin).Next is the proof of a simple fact involving quantifiers. Note that the converse is not true, and its falsity can be seen when attempting to derive it bottom-up, because an existing free variable cannot be used in substitution in the rules \n \n \n \n (\n ∀\n R\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (\\forall R)}\n \n and \n \n \n \n (\n ∃\n L\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (\\exists L)}\n \n.For something more interesting we shall prove \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n (\n \n A\n →\n \n (\n \n B\n ∨\n C\n \n )\n \n \n )\n \n →\n \n (\n \n \n (\n \n \n (\n \n B\n →\n ¬\n A\n \n )\n \n ∧\n ¬\n C\n \n )\n \n →\n ¬\n A\n \n )\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\left(\\left(A\\rightarrow \\left(B\\lor C\\right)\\right)\\rightarrow \\left(\\left(\\left(B\\rightarrow \\lnot A\\right)\\land \\lnot C\\right)\\rightarrow \\lnot A\\right)\\right)}}\n \n. It is straightforward to find the derivation, which exemplifies the usefulness of LK in automated proving.These derivations also emphasize the strictly formal structure of the sequent calculus. For example, the logical rules as defined above always act on a formula immediately adjacent to the turnstile, such that the permutation rules are necessary. Note, however, that this is in part an artifact of the presentation, in the original style of Gentzen. A common simplification involves the use of multisets of formulas in the interpretation of the sequent, rather than sequences, eliminating the need for an explicit permutation rule. This corresponds to shifting commutativity of assumptions and derivations outside the sequent calculus, whereas LK embeds it within the system itself.","title":"The system LK"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"analytic tableau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_analytic_tableaux"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Relation to analytic tableaux","text":"For certain formulations (i.e. variants) of the sequent calculus, a proof in such a calculus is isomorphic to an upside-down, closed analytic tableau.[25]","title":"The system LK"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sequences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence"},{"link_name":"sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"substructural logics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substructural_logic"}],"sub_title":"Structural rules","text":"The structural rules deserve some additional discussion.Weakening (W) allows the addition of arbitrary elements to a sequence. Intuitively, this is allowed in the antecedent because we can always restrict the scope of our proof (if all cars have wheels, then it's safe to say that all black cars have wheels); and in the succedent because we can always allow for alternative conclusions (if all cars have wheels, then it's safe to say that all cars have either wheels or wings).Contraction (C) and Permutation (P) assure that neither the order (P) nor the multiplicity of occurrences (C) of elements of the sequences matters. Thus, one could instead of sequences also consider sets.The extra effort of using sequences, however, is justified since part or all of the structural rules may be omitted. Doing so, one obtains the so-called substructural logics.","title":"The system LK"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundness"},{"link_name":"complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Completeness_(logic)"},{"link_name":"semantically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics"},{"link_name":"if and only if","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_and_only_if"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"cut is admissible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cut-elimination"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-curry_cut_elimination-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kleene_cut_elimination-3"}],"sub_title":"Properties of the system LK","text":"This system of rules can be shown to be both sound and complete with respect to first-order logic, i.e. a statement \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n follows semantically from a set of premises \n \n \n \n Γ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Gamma }\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n Γ\n ⊨\n A\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (\\Gamma \\vDash A)}\n \n if and only if the sequent \n \n \n \n Γ\n ⊢\n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Gamma \\vdash A}\n \n can be derived by the above rules.[26]In the sequent calculus, the rule of cut is admissible. This result is also referred to as Gentzen's Hauptsatz (\"Main Theorem\").[2][3]","title":"The system LK"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The above rules can be modified in various ways:","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"multisets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset"},{"link_name":"linear logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_logic"}],"sub_title":"Minor structural alternatives","text":"There is some freedom of choice regarding the technical details of how sequents and structural rules are formalized without changing what sequents the system derives.First of all, as mentioned above, the sequents can be viewed to consist of sets or multisets. In this case, the rules for permuting and (when using sets) contracting formulae are unnecessary.The rule of weakening becomes admissible if the axiom (I) is changed to derive any sequent of the form \n \n \n \n Γ\n ,\n A\n ⊢\n A\n ,\n Δ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Gamma ,A\\vdash A,\\Delta }\n \n. Any weakening that appears in a derivation can then be moved to the beginning of the proof. This may be a convenient change when constructing proofs bottom-up.One may also change whether rules with more than one premise share the same context for each of those premises or split their contexts between them: For example, \n \n \n \n (\n \n ∨\n \n L\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\lor }L)}\n \n may be instead formulated asΓ\n ,\n A\n ⊢\n Δ\n \n Σ\n ,\n B\n ⊢\n Π\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Γ\n ,\n Σ\n ,\n A\n ∨\n B\n ⊢\n Δ\n ,\n Π\n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\cfrac {\\Gamma ,A\\vdash \\Delta \\qquad \\Sigma ,B\\vdash \\Pi }{\\Gamma ,\\Sigma ,A\\lor B\\vdash \\Delta ,\\Pi }}.}Contraction and weakening make this version of the rule interderivable with the version above, although in their absence, as in linear logic, these rules define different connectives.","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"absurdity constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_explosion"}],"sub_title":"Absurdity","text":"One can introduce \n \n \n \n ⊥\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\bot }\n \n, the absurdity constant representing false, with the axiom:⊥\n ⊢\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\cfrac {}{\\bot \\vdash \\quad }}}Or if, as described above, weakening is to be an admissible rule, then with the axiom:Γ\n ,\n ⊥\n ⊢\n Δ\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\cfrac {}{\\Gamma ,\\bot \\vdash \\Delta }}}With \n \n \n \n ⊥\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\bot }\n \n, negation can be subsumed as a special case of implication, via the definition \n \n \n \n (\n ¬\n A\n )\n \n ⟺\n \n (\n A\n →\n ⊥\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (\\neg A)\\iff (A\\to \\bot )}\n \n.","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"substructural logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substructural_logic"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"}],"sub_title":"Substructural logics","text":"Alternatively, one may restrict or forbid the use of some of the structural rules. This yields a variety of substructural logic systems. They are generally weaker than LK (i.e., they have fewer theorems), and thus not complete with respect to the standard semantics of first-order logic. However, they have other interesting properties that have led to applications in theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"intuitionistic logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuitionistic_logic"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"disjunction and existence properties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjunction_and_existence_properties"}],"sub_title":"Intuitionistic sequent calculus: System LJ","text":"Surprisingly, some small changes in the rules of LK suffice to turn it into a proof system for intuitionistic logic.[27] To this end, one has to restrict to sequents with at most one formula on the right-hand side,[28] and modify the rules to maintain this invariant. For example, \n \n \n \n (\n \n ∨\n \n L\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\lor }L)}\n \n is reformulated as follows (where C is an arbitrary formula):Γ\n ,\n A\n ⊢\n C\n \n Γ\n ,\n B\n ⊢\n C\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Γ\n ,\n A\n ∨\n B\n ⊢\n C\n \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n ∨\n \n L\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\cfrac {\\Gamma ,A\\vdash C\\qquad \\Gamma ,B\\vdash C}{\\Gamma ,A\\lor B\\vdash C}}\\quad ({\\lor }L)}The resulting system is called LJ. It is sound and complete with respect to intuitionistic logic and admits a similar cut-elimination proof. This can be used in proving disjunction and existence properties.In fact, the only rules in LK that need to be restricted to single-formula consequents are \n \n \n \n (\n \n →\n \n R\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\to }R)}\n \n, \n \n \n \n (\n ¬\n R\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (\\neg R)}\n \n (which can be seen as a special case of \n \n \n \n \n →\n \n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\to }R}\n \n, as described above) and \n \n \n \n (\n \n ∀\n \n R\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\forall }R)}\n \n. When multi-formula consequents are interpreted as disjunctions, all of the other inference rules of LK are derivable in LJ, while the rules \n \n \n \n (\n \n →\n \n R\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\to }R)}\n \n and \n \n \n \n (\n \n ∀\n \n R\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\forall }R)}\n \n becomeΓ\n ,\n A\n ⊢\n B\n ∨\n C\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Γ\n ⊢\n (\n A\n →\n B\n )\n ∨\n C\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\cfrac {\\Gamma ,A\\vdash B\\lor C}{\\Gamma \\vdash (A\\to B)\\lor C}}}and (when \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n does not occur free in the bottom sequent)Γ\n ⊢\n A\n [\n y\n \n /\n \n x\n ]\n ∨\n C\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Γ\n ⊢\n (\n ∀\n x\n A\n )\n ∨\n C\n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\cfrac {\\Gamma \\vdash A[y/x]\\lor C}{\\Gamma \\vdash (\\forall xA)\\lor C}}.}These rules are not intuitionistically valid.","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-gentzen19341935_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-gentzen19341935_1-1"},{"link_name":"Gentzen 1934","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGentzen1934"},{"link_name":"Gentzen 1935","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGentzen1935"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-curry_cut_elimination_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-curry_cut_elimination_2-1"},{"link_name":"Curry 1977","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCurry1977"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-kleene_cut_elimination_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-kleene_cut_elimination_3-1"},{"link_name":"Kleene 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKleene2009"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Curry 1977","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCurry1977"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Kleene 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKleene2009"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Kleene 2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKleene2002"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Smullyan 1995","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFSmullyan1995"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"Curry 1977","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCurry1977"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"Suppes 1999","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFSuppes1999"},{"link_name":"System L","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_L"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"Lemmon 1965","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLemmon1965"},{"link_name":"System L","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_L"},{"link_name":"Suppes 1999","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFSuppes1999"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-pvs-prover_12-0"},{"link_name":"Shankar, Natarajan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natarajan_Shankar"},{"link_name":"Rushby, John M.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rushby"},{"link_name":"\"PVS Prover Guide\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//pvs.csl.sri.com/doc/pvs-prover-guide.pdf"},{"link_name":"SRI International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRI_International"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"Curry 1977","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCurry1977"},{"link_name":"Kleene 2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKleene2002"},{"link_name":"Kleene 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKleene2009"},{"link_name":"Hilbert & Bernays 1970","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFHilbertBernays1970"},{"link_name":"Smullyan 1995","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFSmullyan1995"},{"link_name":"Gentzen 1934","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGentzen1934"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"Buss 1998","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBuss1998"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"Gentzen 1934","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGentzen1934"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"Gentzen 1934","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGentzen1934"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"Gentzen 1934","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGentzen1934"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"Gentzen 1934","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGentzen1934"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"Kleene 2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKleene2002"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cornell09_20-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cornell09_20-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cornell09_20-2"},{"link_name":"Applied Logic, Univ. of Cornell: Lecture 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cs.cornell.edu/courses/cs4860/2009sp/lec-09.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Wadler_21-0"},{"link_name":"prove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_(truth)"},{"link_name":"implication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_consequence"},{"link_name":"hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis"},{"link_name":"Philip Wadler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Wadler"},{"link_name":"on 2 November 2015, in his Keynote: \"Propositions as Types\". Minute 14:36 /55:28 of Code Mesh video clip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.youtube.com/watch?v=OGF-TGd-CIo&list=PLWbHc_FXPo2jB6IZ887vLXsPoympL3KEy&index=11"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Tait_22-0"},{"link_name":"\"Gentzen's original consistency proof and the Bar Theorem\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//home.uchicago.edu/~wwtx/Gentzen.original.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"An Introduction to the Theory and Applications of Propositional Sequent Calculi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-57145-0_2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-25"},{"link_name":"Smullyan 1995","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFSmullyan1995"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-26"},{"link_name":"Kleene 2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKleene2002"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-27"},{"link_name":"Gentzen 1934","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGentzen1934"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"}],"text":"^ a b Gentzen 1934, Gentzen 1935.\n\n^ a b Curry 1977, pp. 208–213, gives a 5-page proof of the elimination theorem. See also pages 188, 250.\n\n^ a b Kleene 2009, pp. 453, gives a very brief proof of the cut-elimination theorem.\n\n^ Curry 1977, pp. 189–244, calls Gentzen systems LC systems. Curry's emphasis is more on theory than on practical logic proofs.\n\n^ Kleene 2009, pp. 440–516. This book is much more concerned with the theoretical, metamathematical implications of Gentzen-style sequent calculus than applications to practical logic proofs.\n\n^ Kleene 2002, pp. 283–312, 331–361, defines Gentzen systems and proves various theorems within these systems, including Gödel's completeness theorem and Gentzen's theorem.\n\n^ Smullyan 1995, pp. 101–127, gives a brief theoretical presentation of Gentzen systems. He uses the tableau proof layout style.\n\n^ Curry 1977, pp. 184–244, compares natural deduction systems, denoted LA, and Gentzen systems, denoted LC. Curry's emphasis is more theoretical than practical.\n\n^ Suppes 1999, pp. 25–150, is an introductory presentation of practical natural deduction of this kind. This became the basis of System L.\n\n^ Lemmon 1965 is an elementary introduction to practical natural deduction based on the convenient abbreviated proof layout style System L based on Suppes 1999, pp. 25–150.\n\n^ Here, \"whenever\" is used as an informal abbreviation \"for every assignment of values to the free variables in the judgment\"\n\n^ Shankar, Natarajan; Owre, Sam; Rushby, John M.; Stringer-Calvert, David W. J. (2001-11-01). \"PVS Prover Guide\" (PDF). User guide. SRI International. Retrieved 2015-05-29.\n\n^ For explanations of the disjunctive semantics for the right side of sequents, see Curry 1977, pp. 189–190, Kleene 2002, pp. 290, 297, Kleene 2009, p. 441, Hilbert & Bernays 1970, p. 385, Smullyan 1995, pp. 104–105 and Gentzen 1934, p. 180.\n\n^ Buss 1998, p. 10\n\n^ Gentzen 1934, p. 188. \"Der Kalkül NJ hat manche formale Unschönheiten.\"\n\n^ Gentzen 1934, p. 191. \"In dem klassischen Kalkül NK nahm der Satz vom ausgeschlossenen Dritten eine Sonderstellung unter den Schlußweisen ein [...], indem er sich der Einführungs- und Beseitigungssystematik nicht einfügte. Bei dem im folgenden anzugebenden logistischen klassichen Kalkül LK wird diese Sonderstellung aufgehoben.\"\n\n^ Gentzen 1934, p. 191. \"Die damit erreichte Symmetrie erweist sich als für die klassische Logik angemessener.\"\n\n^ Gentzen 1934, p. 191. \"Hiermit haben wir einige Gesichtspunkte zur Begründung der Aufstellung der folgenden Kalküle angegeben. Im wesentlichen ist ihre Form jedoch durch die Rücksicht auf den nachher zu beweisenden 'Hauptsatz' bestimmt und kann daher vorläufig nicht näher begründet werden.\"\n\n^ Kleene 2002, p. 441.\n\n^ a b c Applied Logic, Univ. of Cornell: Lecture 9. Last Retrieved: 2016-06-25\n\n^ \"Remember, the way that you prove an implication is by assuming the hypothesis.\"—Philip Wadler, on 2 November 2015, in his Keynote: \"Propositions as Types\". Minute 14:36 /55:28 of Code Mesh video clip \n\n^ Tait WW (2010). \"Gentzen's original consistency proof and the Bar Theorem\" (PDF). In Kahle R, Rathjen M (eds.). Gentzen's Centenary: The Quest for Consistency. New York: Springer. pp. 213–228.\n\n^ Jan von Plato, Elements of Logical Reasoning, Cambridge University Press, 2014, p. 32.\n\n^ Andrzej-Indrzejczak, An Introduction to the Theory and Applications of Propositional Sequent Calculi (2021, chapter \"Gentzen's Sequent Calculus LK\"). Accessed 3 August 2022.\n\n^ Smullyan 1995, p. 107\n\n^ Kleene 2002, p. 336, wrote in 1967 that \"it was a major logical discovery by Gentzen 1934–5 that, when there is any (purely logical) proof of a proposition, there is a direct proof. The implications of this discovery are in theoretical logical investigations, rather than in building collections of proved formulas.\"\n\n^ Gentzen 1934, p. 194, wrote: \"Der Unterschied zwischen intuitionistischer und klassischer Logik ist bei den Kalkülen LJ und LK äußerlich ganz anderer Art als bei NJ und NK. Dort bestand er in Weglassung bzw. Hinzunahme des Satzes vom ausgeschlossenen Dritten, während er hier durch die Sukzedensbedingung ausgedrückt wird.\" English translation: \"The difference between intuitionistic and classical logic is in the case of the calculi LJ and LK of an extremely, totally different kind to the case of NJ and NK. In the latter case, it consisted of the removal or addition respectively of the excluded middle rule, whereas in the former case, it is expressed through the succedent conditions.\"\n\n^ M. Tiomkin, \"Proving unprovability\", pp.22--26. In Proceedings Of The Third Annual Symposium On Logic In Computer Science, July 5-8, 1988 (1988), IEEE. ISBN 0-8186-0853-6.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"A rooted tree describing a proof finding procedure by sequent calculus","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Sequent_calculus_proof_tree_example.png/220px-Sequent_calculus_proof_tree_example.png"}]
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[{"title":"Cirquent calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirquent_calculus"},{"title":"Nested sequent calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nested_sequent_calculus"},{"title":"Resolution (logic)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resolution_(logic)"},{"title":"Proof theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_theory"}]
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[{"reference":"Shankar, Natarajan; Owre, Sam; Rushby, John M.; Stringer-Calvert, David W. J. (2001-11-01). \"PVS Prover Guide\" (PDF). User guide. SRI International. Retrieved 2015-05-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natarajan_Shankar","url_text":"Shankar, Natarajan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rushby","url_text":"Rushby, John M."},{"url":"http://pvs.csl.sri.com/doc/pvs-prover-guide.pdf","url_text":"\"PVS Prover Guide\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRI_International","url_text":"SRI International"}]},{"reference":"Tait WW (2010). \"Gentzen's original consistency proof and the Bar Theorem\" (PDF). In Kahle R, Rathjen M (eds.). Gentzen's Centenary: The Quest for Consistency. New York: Springer. pp. 213–228.","urls":[{"url":"http://home.uchicago.edu/~wwtx/Gentzen.original.pdf","url_text":"\"Gentzen's original consistency proof and the Bar Theorem\""}]},{"reference":"Buss, Samuel R. (1998). \"An introduction to proof theory\". In Samuel R. Buss (ed.). Handbook of proof theory. Elsevier. pp. 1–78. ISBN 0-444-89840-9.","urls":[{"url":"http://math.ucsd.edu/~sbuss/ResearchWeb/handbookI/","url_text":"Handbook of proof theory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-444-89840-9","url_text":"0-444-89840-9"}]},{"reference":"Curry, Haskell Brooks (1977) [1963]. Foundations of mathematical logic. New York: Dover Publications Inc. ISBN 978-0-486-63462-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskell_Curry","url_text":"Curry, Haskell Brooks"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-63462-3","url_text":"978-0-486-63462-3"}]},{"reference":"Gentzen, Gerhard Karl Erich (1934). \"Untersuchungen über das logische Schließen. I\". Mathematische Zeitschrift. 39 (2): 176–210. doi:10.1007/BF01201353. S2CID 121546341.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Gentzen","url_text":"Gentzen, Gerhard Karl Erich"},{"url":"http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dms/resolveppn/?PPN=GDZPPN002375508","url_text":"\"Untersuchungen über das logische Schließen. I\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01201353","url_text":"10.1007/BF01201353"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121546341","url_text":"121546341"}]},{"reference":"Gentzen, Gerhard Karl Erich (1935). \"Untersuchungen über das logische Schließen. II\". Mathematische Zeitschrift. 39 (3): 405–431. doi:10.1007/bf01201363. S2CID 186239837.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Gentzen","url_text":"Gentzen, Gerhard Karl Erich"},{"url":"http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dms/resolveppn/?PPN=GDZPPN002375605","url_text":"\"Untersuchungen über das logische Schließen. II\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01201363","url_text":"10.1007/bf01201363"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186239837","url_text":"186239837"}]},{"reference":"Girard, Jean-Yves; Paul Taylor; Yves Lafont (1990) [1989]. Proofs and Types. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Tracts in Theoretical Computer Science, 7). ISBN 0-521-37181-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Yves_Girard","url_text":"Girard, Jean-Yves"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/proofstypes0000gira","url_text":"Proofs and Types"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-37181-3","url_text":"0-521-37181-3"}]},{"reference":"Hilbert, David; Bernays, Paul (1970) [1939]. Grundlagen der Mathematik II (Second ed.). Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-642-86897-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hilbert","url_text":"Hilbert, David"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Bernays","url_text":"Bernays, Paul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-86897-9","url_text":"978-3-642-86897-9"}]},{"reference":"Kleene, Stephen Cole (2009) [1952]. Introduction to metamathematics. Ishi Press International. ISBN 978-0-923891-57-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Cole_Kleene","url_text":"Kleene, Stephen Cole"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-923891-57-2","url_text":"978-0-923891-57-2"}]},{"reference":"Kleene, Stephen Cole (2002) [1967]. Mathematical logic. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-42533-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Cole_Kleene","url_text":"Kleene, Stephen Cole"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-42533-7","url_text":"978-0-486-42533-7"}]},{"reference":"Lemmon, Edward John (1965). Beginning logic. Thomas Nelson. ISBN 0-17-712040-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lemmon","url_text":"Lemmon, Edward John"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-17-712040-1","url_text":"0-17-712040-1"}]},{"reference":"Mancosu, Paolo; Galvan, Sergio; Zach, Richard (2021). An Introduction to Proof Theory — Normalization, Cut-Elimination, and Consistency Proofs. Oxford University Press. p. 431. ISBN 978-0-19-289593-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Zach","url_text":"Zach, Richard"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-289593-6","url_text":"978-0-19-289593-6"}]},{"reference":"Smullyan, Raymond Merrill (1995) [1968]. First-order logic. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-68370-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Smullyan","url_text":"Smullyan, Raymond Merrill"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-68370-6","url_text":"978-0-486-68370-6"}]},{"reference":"Suppes, Patrick Colonel (1999) [1957]. Introduction to logic. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-40687-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Suppes","url_text":"Suppes, Patrick Colonel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-40687-9","url_text":"978-0-486-40687-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Sequent calculus\", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]","urls":[{"url":"https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Sequent_calculus","url_text":"\"Sequent calculus\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Mathematics","url_text":"Encyclopedia of Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Mathematical_Society","url_text":"EMS Press"}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://pvs.csl.sri.com/doc/pvs-prover-guide.pdf","external_links_name":"\"PVS Prover Guide\""},{"Link":"http://www.cs.cornell.edu/courses/cs4860/2009sp/lec-09.pdf","external_links_name":"Applied Logic, Univ. of Cornell: Lecture 9"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OGF-TGd-CIo&list=PLWbHc_FXPo2jB6IZ887vLXsPoympL3KEy&index=11","external_links_name":"on 2 November 2015, in his Keynote: \"Propositions as Types\". Minute 14:36 /55:28 of Code Mesh video clip"},{"Link":"http://home.uchicago.edu/~wwtx/Gentzen.original.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Gentzen's original consistency proof and the Bar Theorem\""},{"Link":"https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-57145-0_2","external_links_name":"An Introduction to the Theory and Applications of Propositional Sequent Calculi"},{"Link":"http://math.ucsd.edu/~sbuss/ResearchWeb/handbookI/","external_links_name":"Handbook of proof theory"},{"Link":"http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dms/resolveppn/?PPN=GDZPPN002375508","external_links_name":"\"Untersuchungen über das logische Schließen. I\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01201353","external_links_name":"10.1007/BF01201353"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121546341","external_links_name":"121546341"},{"Link":"http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dms/resolveppn/?PPN=GDZPPN002375605","external_links_name":"\"Untersuchungen über das logische Schließen. II\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01201363","external_links_name":"10.1007/bf01201363"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186239837","external_links_name":"186239837"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/proofstypes0000gira","external_links_name":"Proofs and Types"},{"Link":"https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/proof-theory/#SequCalc","external_links_name":"Proof Theory (Sequent Calculi)"},{"Link":"https://plato.stanford.edu/index.html","external_links_name":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy"},{"Link":"https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Sequent_calculus","external_links_name":"\"Sequent calculus\""},{"Link":"http://scienceblogs.com/goodmath/2006/07/17/a-brief-diversion-sequent-calc/","external_links_name":"A Brief Diversion: Sequent Calculus"},{"Link":"http://logitext.mit.edu/logitext.fcgi/tutorial","external_links_name":"Interactive tutorial of the Sequent Calculus"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serdar_Argic
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Serdar Argic
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["1 Usenet posts","1.1 Response","2 Popular culture","3 See also","4 References"]
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Turkish spammer and Armenian Genocide denier
Serdar Argic (Turkish: Serdar Argıç) was the alias used in one of the first automated newsgroup spam incidents on Usenet, with the objective of denying the Armenian genocide.
Usenet posts
For a period of several months in the first half of 1994, the Internet user under the pseudonym of "Serdar Argic" (with the address [email protected]) posted messages in any Usenet newsgroup thread involving the country of Turkey, arguing that the Armenian genocide had not occurred or that Armenians had committed genocide against Turks. Describing him in Net.wars, Wendy Grossman said:
Serdar Argic, who apparently managed to run a daily search on all of Usenet for mentions of Turkey, and followed up all such messages with lengthy and historically inaccurate diatribes about genocide against the Turks.
Argic's postings soon numbered in the tens of thousands, and averaged over 100 posts per day, the highest post count of any single Usenet entity at the time. He posted to several newsgroups, especially soc.history, soc.culture.Turkish, and misc.headlines. Because of the posting volume, repetitiveness and minimal responsiveness to follow-up posts, most observers concluded that it was the output of a program, or "bot", which scanned for any new appearances of the keywords "Turkey" or "Armenia" in certain newsgroups and replied with saved pages of political text. The bot would automatically post a reply even if the original message had simply mentioned a Thanksgiving turkey but was cross-posted to a soc.* group. The posts sometimes contained direct responses to specific statements, indicating some human intervention.
Response
Internet users sent complaints to UUNET, the Internet service provider hosting the account of Serdar Argic. UUNET never took any action based on the complaints, since Serdar Argic was posting from a host downstream from the host they fed (anatolia!zuma) over which they had no control. Serdar Argic became known as the Zumabot due to the name of his host.
Usenet messages can be cancelled, which prevents their further propagation. However, at the time, there was a fear of the free use of third-party cancellations, as it was felt they could set a precedent for the cancellation of posts by anyone simply disagreeing with the messages. Cancellations were rarely performed at the time, because spam was not the problem it became in subsequent years.
The Serdar Argic posts stopped in April 1994, after UUNET cancelled subscription of anatolia.
Popular culture
Ken MacLeod referred to Argic in his novel The Star Fraction as a slang term for "the lowest layer of paranoid drivel that infested the Cable, spun out by degenerate, bug-ridden, knee-jerk auto-post programs. Kill-file clutter." In his novel Accelerando, Charles Stross describes one character as "a kind of Serdar Argic of intellectual property."
See also
List of spammers
References
^ Wendy Grossman, Net.Wars, NYU Press, 1997, chapter 11 (a), (b)
^ "Hasan B-) Mutlu". Imperium.lenin.ru. Retrieved 2008-09-04.
^ "Serdar Argic in Eye Weekly". Jaedworks.com. Retrieved 2008-09-04.
^ "The Zumabot's Tale". Jaedworks.com. Retrieved 2008-09-04.
^ Charles Stross. "Accelerando". Accelerando.org. Archived from the original on 2008-05-19. Retrieved 2008-09-04.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Turkish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_language"},{"link_name":"newsgroup spam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsgroup_spam"},{"link_name":"Usenet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usenet"},{"link_name":"denying the Armenian genocide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_genocide_denial"}],"text":"Serdar Argic (Turkish: Serdar Argıç) was the alias used in one of the first automated newsgroup spam incidents on Usenet, with the objective of denying the Armenian genocide.","title":"Serdar Argic"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"newsgroup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsgroup"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Armenian genocide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_genocide"},{"link_name":"Armenians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians"},{"link_name":"genocide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide"},{"link_name":"Net.wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net.wars"},{"link_name":"Wendy Grossman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendy_Grossman"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"bot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_bot"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Thanksgiving turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanksgiving_turkey"}],"text":"For a period of several months in the first half of 1994, the Internet user under the pseudonym of \"Serdar Argic\" (with the address [email protected]) posted messages in any Usenet newsgroup thread involving the country of Turkey, arguing that the Armenian genocide had not occurred or that Armenians had committed genocide against Turks. Describing him in Net.wars, Wendy Grossman said:Serdar Argic, who apparently managed to run a daily search on all of Usenet for mentions of Turkey, and followed up all such messages with lengthy and historically inaccurate diatribes about genocide against the Turks.[1]Argic's postings soon numbered in the tens of thousands, and averaged over 100 posts per day,[2] the highest post count of any single Usenet entity at the time. He posted to several newsgroups, especially soc.history, soc.culture.Turkish, and misc.headlines. Because of the posting volume, repetitiveness and minimal responsiveness to follow-up posts, most observers concluded that it was the output of a program, or \"bot\", which scanned for any new appearances of the keywords \"Turkey\" or \"Armenia\" in certain newsgroups and replied with saved pages of political text.[3] The bot would automatically post a reply even if the original message had simply mentioned a Thanksgiving turkey but was cross-posted to a soc.* group. The posts sometimes contained direct responses to specific statements, indicating some human intervention.","title":"Usenet posts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"UUNET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UUNET"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Response","text":"Internet users sent complaints to UUNET, the Internet service provider hosting the account of Serdar Argic. UUNET never took any action based on the complaints, since Serdar Argic was posting from a host downstream from the host they fed (anatolia!zuma) over which they had no control. Serdar Argic became known as the Zumabot due to the name of his host.[4]Usenet messages can be cancelled, which prevents their further propagation. However, at the time, there was a fear of the free use of third-party cancellations, as it was felt they could set a precedent for the cancellation of posts by anyone simply disagreeing with the messages. Cancellations were rarely performed at the time, because spam was not the problem it became in subsequent years.The Serdar Argic posts stopped in April 1994, after UUNET cancelled subscription of anatolia.","title":"Usenet posts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ken MacLeod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_MacLeod"},{"link_name":"The Star Fraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Star_Fraction"},{"link_name":"slang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slang"},{"link_name":"Kill-file","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kill_file"},{"link_name":"Accelerando","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerando_(book)"},{"link_name":"Charles Stross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Stross"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Ken MacLeod referred to Argic in his novel The Star Fraction as a slang term for \"the lowest layer of paranoid drivel that infested the Cable, spun out by degenerate, bug-ridden, knee-jerk auto-post programs. Kill-file clutter.\" In his novel Accelerando, Charles Stross describes one character as \"a kind of Serdar Argic of intellectual property.\"[5]","title":"Popular culture"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"List of spammers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_spammers"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Hasan B-) Mutlu\". Imperium.lenin.ru. Retrieved 2008-09-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://imperium.lenin.ru/~verbit/scs/Mutlu_whatis.html","url_text":"\"Hasan B-) Mutlu\""}]},{"reference":"\"Serdar Argic in Eye Weekly\". Jaedworks.com. Retrieved 2008-09-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.jaedworks.com/shoebox/serdar-eye.html","url_text":"\"Serdar Argic in Eye Weekly\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Zumabot's Tale\". Jaedworks.com. Retrieved 2008-09-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.jaedworks.com/shoebox/zumabot.html","url_text":"\"The Zumabot's Tale\""}]},{"reference":"Charles Stross. \"Accelerando\". Accelerando.org. Archived from the original on 2008-05-19. Retrieved 2008-09-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080519054317/http://www.accelerando.org/_static/accelerando.html","url_text":"\"Accelerando\""},{"url":"http://www.accelerando.org/_static/accelerando.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://www.nyupress.org/netwars/pages/chapter11/ch11_03.html","external_links_name":"(a)"},{"Link":"http://www.nyupress.org/netwars/pages/chapter11/ch11_04.html","external_links_name":"(b)"},{"Link":"http://imperium.lenin.ru/~verbit/scs/Mutlu_whatis.html","external_links_name":"\"Hasan B-) Mutlu\""},{"Link":"http://www.jaedworks.com/shoebox/serdar-eye.html","external_links_name":"\"Serdar Argic in Eye Weekly\""},{"Link":"http://www.jaedworks.com/shoebox/zumabot.html","external_links_name":"\"The Zumabot's Tale\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080519054317/http://www.accelerando.org/_static/accelerando.html","external_links_name":"\"Accelerando\""},{"Link":"http://www.accelerando.org/_static/accelerando.html","external_links_name":"the original"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_manipulator
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Serial manipulator
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["1 Structure","2 Kinematics","2.1 Workspace","2.2 Singularity","2.3 Redundant manipulator","3 Manufacturers","4 See also","5 References"]
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Serial manipulators are the most common industrial robots and they are designed as a series of links connected by motor-actuated joints that extend from a base to an end-effector. Often they have an anthropomorphic arm structure described as having a "shoulder", an "elbow", and a "wrist".
Serial robots usually have six joints, because it requires at least six degrees of freedom to place a manipulated object in an arbitrary position and orientation in the workspace of the robot.
A popular application for serial robots in today's industry is the pick-and-place assembly robot, called a SCARA robot, which has four degrees of freedom.
A SCARA assembly robot.
Structure
An example of a serial manipulator with six DOF in a kinematic chain.
In its most general form, a serial robot consists of a number of rigid links connected to joints. Simplicity considerations in manufacturing and control have led to robots with only revolute or prismatic joints and orthogonal, parallel and/or intersecting joint axes (instead of arbitrarily placed joint axes).
Donald L. Pieper derived the first practically relevant result in this context, referred to as 321 kinematic structure:
The inverse kinematics of serial manipulators with six revolute joints, and with three consecutive joints intersecting, can be solved in closed-form, i.e. analytically
This result had a tremendous influence on the design of industrial robots.
The main advantage of a serial manipulator is a large workspace with respect to the size of the robot and the floor space it occupies. The main disadvantages of these robots are:
the low stiffness inherent to an open kinematic structure,
errors are accumulated and amplified from link to link,
the fact that they have to carry and move the large weight of most of the actuators, and
the relatively low effective load that they can manipulate.
Kinematics
The position and orientation of a robot's end effector are derived from the joint positions by means of a geometric model of the robot arm. For serial robots, the mapping from joint positions to end-effector pose is easy, the inverse mapping is more difficult. Therefore, most industrial robots have special designs that reduce the complexity of the inverse mapping.
Workspace
The reachable workspace of a robot's end-effector is the manifold of reachable frames. The dextrous workspace consists of the points of the reachable workspace where the robot can generate velocities that span the complete tangent space at that point, i.e., it can translate the manipulated object with three degrees of freedom, and rotate the object with three degrees of rotation freedom.
The relationships between joint space and Cartesian space coordinates of the object held by the robot are in general multiple-valued: the same pose can be reached by the serial arm in different ways, each with a different set of joint coordinates. Hence the reachable workspace of the robot is divided in configurations (also called assembly modes), in which the kinematic relationships are locally one-to-one.
Singularity
A singularity is a configuration of a serial manipulator in which the joint parameters no longer completely define the position and orientation of the end-effector. Singularities occur in configurations when joint axes align in a way that reduces the ability of the arm to position the end-effector. For example when a serial manipulator is fully extended it is in what is known as the boundary singularity.
At a singularity the end-effector loses one or more degrees of twist freedom (instantaneously, the end-effector cannot move in these directions). Serial robots with less than six independent joints are always singular in the sense that they can never span a six-dimensional twist space. This is often called an architectural singularity.
A singularity is usually not an isolated point in the workspace of the robot, but a sub-manifold.
Redundant manipulator
A redundant manipulator has more than six degrees of freedom which means that it has additional joint parameters that allow the configuration of the robot to change while it holds its end-effector in a fixed position and orientation.
A typical redundant manipulator has seven joints, for example three at the shoulder, one elbow joint and three at the wrist. This manipulator can move its elbow around a circle while it maintains a specific position and orientation of its end-effector.
A snake robot has many more than six degrees of freedom and is often called hyper-redundant.
Manufacturers
ABB Robotics
Adept Technology
Comau
Epson Robots
FANUC Robotics
Kawasaki Robotics
KUKA
Mitsubishi
Motoman
Staubli
Robotics Design
Universal Robots
See also
Parallel manipulator
Robot kinematics
References
^ D.L. Pieper. The kinematics of manipulators under computer control. PhD Thesis, Stanford University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 1968
^ What are singularities in a six-axis robot arm?
^ P. Moubarak, et al., A Globally Converging Algorithm for Adaptive Manipulation and Trajectory Following for Mobile Robots with Serial Redundant Arms, Robotica, 31 (8) (2013) 1299 – 1311.
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Pieper derived the first practically relevant result in this context,[1] referred to as 321 kinematic structure:\nThe inverse kinematics of serial manipulators with six revolute joints, and with three consecutive joints intersecting, can be solved in closed-form, i.e. analytically\nThis result had a tremendous influence on the design of industrial robots.The main advantage of a serial manipulator is a large workspace with respect to the size of the robot and the floor space it occupies. The main disadvantages of these robots are:the low stiffness inherent to an open kinematic structure,\nerrors are accumulated and amplified from link to link,\nthe fact that they have to carry and move the large weight of most of the actuators, and\nthe relatively low effective load that they can manipulate.","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"end effector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robot_end_effector"}],"text":"The position and orientation of a robot's end effector are derived from the joint positions by means of a geometric model of the robot arm. For serial robots, the mapping from joint positions to end-effector pose is easy, the inverse mapping is more difficult. Therefore, most industrial robots have special designs that reduce the complexity of the inverse mapping.","title":"Kinematics"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Workspace","text":"The reachable workspace of a robot's end-effector is the manifold of reachable frames. 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Serial robots with less than six independent joints are always singular in the sense that they can never span a six-dimensional twist space. This is often called an architectural singularity.\nA singularity is usually not an isolated point in the workspace of the robot, but a sub-manifold.","title":"Kinematics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Redundant manipulator","text":"A redundant manipulator has more than six degrees of freedom which means that it has additional joint parameters [3] that allow the configuration of the robot to change while it holds its end-effector in a fixed position and orientation.A typical redundant manipulator has seven joints, for example three at the shoulder, one elbow joint and three at the wrist. 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[{"image_text":"A SCARA assembly robot.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Scara.gif"},{"image_text":"An example of a serial manipulator with six DOF in a kinematic chain.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Robot_arm_model_1.png/300px-Robot_arm_model_1.png"}]
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[{"title":"Parallel manipulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_manipulator"},{"title":"Robot kinematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_kinematics"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurological
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Neurology
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["1 History","2 Training","3 Physical examination","4 Clinical tasks","4.1 General caseload","4.2 Overlapping areas","4.3 Relationship to clinical neurophysiology","4.4 Overlap with psychiatry","5 Neurological enhancement","6 See also","7 References"]
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Medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system
This article is about the branch of medicine. For the scientific study of the nervous system, see Neuroscience. For the journal, see Neurology (journal).
"Neurological sciences" redirects here. For the journal, see Neurological Sciences (journal).
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NeurologyA network of dendrites from neurons in a hippocampusSystemNervous systemSignificant diseasesNeuropathy, dementia, stroke, encephalopathy, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, meningitis, muscular dystrophy, migraine, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, narcolepsySignificant testsComputed axial tomography, MRI scan, lumbar puncture, electroencephalographySpecialistNeurologistGlossaryGlossary of medicine
Neurology (from Greek: νεῦρον (neûron), "string, nerve" and the suffix -logia, "study of") is the branch of medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the nervous system, which comprises the brain, the spinal cord and the peripheral nerves. Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of neuroscience, the scientific study of the nervous system.
A neurologist is a physician specializing in neurology and trained to investigate, diagnose and treat neurological disorders. Neurologists diagnose and treat myriad neurologic conditions, including stroke, epilepsy, movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease, brain infections, autoimmune neurologic disorders such as multiple sclerosis, sleep disorders, brain injury, headache disorders like migraine, tumors of the brain and dementias such as Alzheimer's disease. Neurologists may also have roles in clinical research, clinical trials, and basic or translational research. Neurology is a nonsurgical specialty, its corresponding surgical specialty is neurosurgery.
History
Main article: History of neurology
The academic discipline began between the 15th and 16th centuries with the work and research of many neurologists such as Thomas Willis, Robert Whytt, Matthew Baillie, Charles Bell, Moritz Heinrich Romberg, Duchenne de Boulogne, William A. Hammond, Jean-Martin Charcot, C. Miller Fisher and John Hughlings Jackson. Neo-Latin neurologia appeared in various texts from 1610 denoting an anatomical focus on the nerves (variably understood as vessels), and was most notably used by Willis, who preferred Greek νευρολογία.
Training
NeurologistOccupationNamesPhysician, Medical PractitionerOccupation typeProfessionActivity sectorsMedicineDescriptionEducation requiredM.D. or D.O. (US), M.B.B.S. (UK), D.M. (Doctorate of Medicine) (India), M.B. B.Ch. B.A.O. (Republic of Ireland)Fields ofemploymentHospitals, Clinics
Polish neurologist Edward Flatau greatly influenced the developing field of neurology. He published a human brain atlas in 1894 and wrote a fundamental book on migraines in 1912. Jean-Martin Charcot is considered one of the fathers of neurology. In the United States and Canada, neurologists are physicians who have completed a postgraduate training period known as residency specializing in neurology after graduation from medical school. This additional training period typically lasts four years, with the first year devoted to training in internal medicine. On average, neurologists complete a total of eight to ten years of training. This includes four years of medical school, four years of residency and an optional one to two years of fellowship.
While neurologists may treat general neurologic conditions, some neurologists go on to receive additional training focusing on a particular subspecialty in the field of neurology. These training programs are called fellowships, and are one to two years in duration. Subspecialties in the United States include brain injury medicine, clinical neurophysiology, epilepsy, neurodevelopmental disabilities, neuromuscular medicine, pain medicine, sleep medicine, neurocritical care, vascular neurology (stroke), behavioral neurology, child neurology, headache, neuroimmunology and infectious disease, movement disorders, neuroimaging, neurooncology, and neurorehabilitation.
In Germany, a compulsory year of psychiatry must be done to complete a residency of neurology.
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, neurology is a subspecialty of general (internal) medicine. After five years of medical school and two years as a Foundation Trainee, an aspiring neurologist must pass the examination for Membership of the Royal College of Physicians (or the Irish equivalent) and complete two years of core medical training before entering specialist training in neurology. Up to the 1960s, some intending to become neurologists would also spend two years working in psychiatric units before obtaining a diploma in psychological medicine. However, that was uncommon and, now that the MRCPsych takes three years to obtain, would no longer be practical. A period of research is essential, and obtaining a higher degree aids career progression. Many found it was eased after an attachment to the Institute of Neurology at Queen Square, London. Some neurologists enter the field of rehabilitation medicine (known as physiatry in the US) to specialise in neurological rehabilitation, which may include stroke medicine, as well as traumatic brain injuries.
Physical examination
Main article: Neurological examination
During a neurological examination, the neurologist reviews the patient's health history with special attention to the patient's neurologic complaints. The patient then takes a neurological exam. Typically, the exam tests mental status, function of the cranial nerves (including vision), strength, coordination, reflexes, sensation and gait. This information helps the neurologist determine whether the problem exists in the nervous system and the clinical localization. Localization of the pathology is the key process by which neurologists develop their differential diagnosis. Further tests may be needed to confirm a diagnosis and ultimately guide therapy and appropriate management. Useful adjunct imaging studies in neurology include CT scanning and MRI. Other tests used to assess muscle and nerve function include nerve conduction studies and electromyography.
Clinical tasks
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Neurologists examine patients who are referred to them by other physicians in both the inpatient and outpatient settings. Neurologists begin their interactions with patients by taking a comprehensive medical history, and then performing a physical examination focusing on evaluating the nervous system. Components of the neurological examination include assessment of the patient's cognitive function, cranial nerves, motor strength, sensation, reflexes, coordination, and gait.
In some instances, neurologists may order additional diagnostic tests as part of the evaluation. Commonly employed tests in neurology include imaging studies such as computed axial tomography (CAT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound of major blood vessels of the head and neck. Neurophysiologic studies, including electroencephalography (EEG), needle electromyography (EMG), nerve conduction studies (NCSs) and evoked potentials are also commonly ordered. Neurologists frequently perform lumbar punctures to assess characteristics of a patient's cerebrospinal fluid. Advances in genetic testing have made genetic testing an important tool in the classification of inherited neuromuscular disease and diagnosis of many other neurogenetic diseases. The role of genetic influences on the development of acquired neurologic diseases is an active area of research.
Some of the commonly encountered conditions treated by neurologists include headaches, radiculopathy, neuropathy, stroke, dementia, seizures and epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Parkinson's disease, Tourette's syndrome, multiple sclerosis, head trauma, sleep disorders, neuromuscular diseases, and various infections and tumors of the nervous system. Neurologists are also asked to evaluate unresponsive patients on life support to confirm brain death.
Treatment options vary depending on the neurological problem. They can include referring the patient to a physiotherapist, prescribing medications, or recommending a surgical procedure.
Some neurologists specialize in certain parts of the nervous system or in specific procedures. For example, clinical neurophysiologists specialize in the use of EEG and intraoperative monitoring to diagnose certain neurological disorders. Other neurologists specialize in the use of electrodiagnostic medicine studies – needle EMG and NCSs. In the US, physicians do not typically specialize in all the aspects of clinical neurophysiology – i.e. sleep, EEG, EMG, and NCSs. The American Board of Clinical Neurophysiology certifies US physicians in general clinical neurophysiology, epilepsy, and intraoperative monitoring. The American Board of Electrodiagnostic Medicine certifies US physicians in electrodiagnostic medicine and certifies technologists in nerve-conduction studies. Sleep medicine is a subspecialty field in the US under several medical specialties including anesthesiology, internal medicine, family medicine, and neurology. Neurosurgery is a distinct specialty that involves a different training path and emphasizes the surgical treatment of neurological disorders.
Also, many nonmedical doctors, those with doctoral degrees (usually PhDs) in subjects such as biology and chemistry, study and research the nervous system. Working in laboratories in universities, hospitals, and private companies, these neuroscientists perform clinical and laboratory experiments and tests to learn more about the nervous system and find cures or new treatments for diseases and disorders.
A great deal of overlap occurs between neuroscience and neurology. Many neurologists work in academic training hospitals, where they conduct research as neuroscientists in addition to treating patients and teaching neurology to medical students.
General caseload
Neurologists are responsible for the diagnosis, treatment, and management of all the conditions mentioned above. When surgical or endovascular intervention is required, the neurologist may refer the patient to a neurosurgeon or an interventional neuroradiologist. In some countries, additional legal responsibilities of a neurologist may include making a finding of brain death when it is suspected that a patient has died. Neurologists frequently care for people with hereditary (genetic) diseases when the major manifestations are neurological, as is frequently the case. Lumbar punctures are frequently performed by neurologists. Some neurologists may develop an interest in particular subfields, such as stroke, dementia, movement disorders, neurointensive care, headaches, epilepsy, sleep disorders, chronic pain management, multiple sclerosis, or neuromuscular diseases.
Overlapping areas
Some overlap also occurs with other specialties, varying from country to country and even within a local geographic area. Acute head trauma is most often treated by neurosurgeons, whereas sequelae of head trauma may be treated by neurologists or specialists in rehabilitation medicine. Although stroke cases have been traditionally managed by internal medicine or hospitalists, the emergence of vascular neurology and interventional neuroradiology has created a demand for stroke specialists. The establishment of Joint Commission-certified stroke centers has increased the role of neurologists in stroke care in many primary, as well as tertiary, hospitals. Some cases of nervous system infectious diseases are treated by infectious disease specialists. Most cases of headache are diagnosed and treated primarily by general practitioners, at least the less severe cases. Likewise, most cases of sciatica are treated by general practitioners, though they may be referred to neurologists or surgeons (neurosurgeons or orthopedic surgeons). Sleep disorders are also treated by pulmonologists and psychiatrists. Cerebral palsy is initially treated by pediatricians, but care may be transferred to an adult neurologist after the patient reaches a certain age. Physical medicine and rehabilitation physicians may treat patients with neuromuscular diseases with electrodiagnostic studies (needle EMG and nerve-conduction studies) and other diagnostic tools. In the United Kingdom and other countries, many of the conditions encountered by older patients such as movement disorders, including Parkinson's disease, stroke, dementia, or gait disorders, are managed predominantly by specialists in geriatric medicine.
Clinical neuropsychologists are often called upon to evaluate brain-behavior relationships for the purpose of assisting with differential diagnosis, planning rehabilitation strategies, documenting cognitive strengths and weaknesses, and measuring change over time (e.g., for identifying abnormal aging or tracking the progression of a dementia)
Relationship to clinical neurophysiology
In some countries such as the United States and Germany, neurologists may subspecialize in clinical neurophysiology, the field responsible for EEG and intraoperative monitoring, or in electrodiagnostic medicine nerve conduction studies, EMG, and evoked potentials. In other countries, this is an autonomous specialty (e.g., United Kingdom, Sweden, Spain).
Overlap with psychiatry
Further information: Psychoneuroimmunology and Neuropsychiatry
In the past, prior to the advent of more advanced diagnostic techniques such as MRI some neurologists have considered psychiatry and neurology to overlap. Although mental illnesses are believed by many to be neurological disorders affecting the central nervous system, traditionally they are classified separately, and treated by psychiatrists. In a 2002 review article in the American Journal of Psychiatry, Professor Joseph B. Martin, Dean of Harvard Medical School and a neurologist by training, wrote, "the separation of the two categories is arbitrary, often influenced by beliefs rather than proven scientific observations. And the fact that the brain and mind are one makes the separation artificial anyway".
Neurological disorders often have psychiatric manifestations, such as post-stroke depression, depression and dementia associated with Parkinson's disease, mood and cognitive dysfunctions in Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington disease, to name a few. Hence, the sharp distinction between neurology and psychiatry is not always on a biological basis. The dominance of psychoanalytic theory in the first three-quarters of the 20th century has since then been largely replaced by a focus on pharmacology. Despite the shift to a medical model, brain science has not advanced to a point where scientists or clinicians can point to readily discernible pathological lesions or genetic abnormalities that in and of themselves serve as reliable or predictive biomarkers of a given mental disorder.
Neurological enhancement
The emerging field of neurological enhancement highlights the potential of therapies to improve such things as workplace efficacy, attention in school, and overall happiness in personal lives. However, this field has also given rise to questions about neuroethics.
See also
Medicine portal
American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology
American Osteopathic Board of Neurology and Psychiatry
Developmental Neurorehabilitation
List of neurologists
List of women neuroscientists
Neuroepigenetics
Neurohospitalist, a physician interested in inpatient neurological care
References
^ ACGME (1 July 2016). "ACGME Program Requirements for Graduate Medical Education in Neurology" (PDF). www.acgme.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
^ a b "Working with Your Doctor". American Academy of Neurology. Archived from the original on 2 August 2014. Retrieved 28 October 2012.
^ "Neurological Disorders". Johns Hopkins Department of Neurology. 24 February 2020. Archived from the original on 15 September 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2021.
^ Janssen, Diederik F (10 April 2021). "The etymology of 'neurology', redux: early use of the term by Jean Riolan the Younger (1610)". Brain. 144 (4): awab023. doi:10.1093/brain/awab023. ISSN 0006-8950. PMID 33837748.
^ Mehta, Arpan R; Mehta, Puja R; Anderson, Stephen P; MacKinnon, Barbara L H; Compston, Alastair (10 April 2021). "Reply: The etymology of 'neurology', redux: early use of the term by Jean Riolan the Younger (1610)". Brain. 144 (4): awab024. doi:10.1093/brain/awab024. ISSN 0006-8950. PMC 7610959. PMID 33837768.
^ "Medical Practitioners Act, 1927". Irishstatutebook.ie. 28 May 1927. Archived from the original on 30 December 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
^ "Medical Council – Medical Council". Medicalcouncil.ie. 15 February 2010. Archived from the original on 25 November 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
^ Kumar DR, Aslinia F, Yale SH, Mazza JJ (12 November 2014). "Jean-Martin Charcot: The Father of Neurology". Clin Med Res. 9 (1): 46–9. doi:10.3121/cmr.2009.883. PMC 3064755. PMID 20739583.
^ "Length of Residencies". Washington University Medical School. Archived from the original on 16 October 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2021.
^ "Neurologist Profile" (PDF). Education Portal. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
^ "ABMS Guide to Medical Specialties" (PDF). American Board of Medical Specialties. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2012.
^ Nutma, E.; Willison, H.; Martino, G.; Amor, S. (September 2019). "Neuroimmunology – the past, present and future". Clinical and Experimental Immunology. 197 (3): 278–293. doi:10.1111/cei.13279. ISSN 0009-9104. PMC 6693969. PMID 30768789.
^ "Neurology Fellowships Directory". www.aan.com. Retrieved 5 June 2024.
^ Thiels, Cornelia (December 2013). "Neurology in the German training system for psychiatrists – a personal view". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 203 (6): 399–400. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.126516. ISSN 0007-1250. PMID 24297784.
^ Tuarez, Jaimar (28 October 2020). ""How long does it take to become a neurologist in the UK?"". neurotray.com. Archived from the original on 4 December 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
^ "Neurological Diagnostic Tests and Procedures Fact Sheet". Archived from the original on 4 December 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
^ "American Clinical Neurophysiology Society". Acns.org. Archived from the original on 24 March 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
^ "American Board of Clinical Neurophysiology, Inc". Abcn.org. Archived from the original on 22 March 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
^ "Specialty and Subspecialty Certificates". Abms.org. Archived from the original on 23 January 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
^ Martin JB (May 2002). "The integration of neurology, psychiatry, and neuroscience in the 21st century". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 159 (5): 695–704. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.5.695. PMID 11986119.
^ Kandel, Eric R. (1998). "A New Intellectual Framework for Psychiatry". American Journal of Psychiatry. 155 (4): 457–469. doi:10.1176/ajp.155.4.457. ISSN 0002-953X. PMID 9545989. Archived from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
^ Hamilton Roy (2011). "Looking at things in a different perspective created the idea of ethics of neural enhancement using noninvasive brain stimulation". Neurology. 76 (2): 187–193. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e318205d50d. PMC 3030230. PMID 21220723.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience"},{"link_name":"Neurology (journal)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurology_(journal)"},{"link_name":"Neurological Sciences (journal)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurological_Sciences_(journal)"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"νεῦρον (neûron)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BD%CE%B5%E1%BF%A6%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD"},{"link_name":"-logia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-logia"},{"link_name":"medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialty_(medicine)"},{"link_name":"nervous system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system"},{"link_name":"brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_brain"},{"link_name":"spinal cord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_cord"},{"link_name":"peripheral nerves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience"},{"link_name":"nervous system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system"},{"link_name":"physician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician"},{"link_name":"neurological disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurological_disorder"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WorkWYourDoc-2"},{"link_name":"stroke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke"},{"link_name":"epilepsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy"},{"link_name":"Parkinson's disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease"},{"link_name":"brain infections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_infections_of_the_central_nervous_system"},{"link_name":"multiple sclerosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis"},{"link_name":"sleep disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_disorder"},{"link_name":"migraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migraine"},{"link_name":"tumors of the brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_tumor"},{"link_name":"dementias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia"},{"link_name":"Alzheimer's disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"clinical research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_research"},{"link_name":"clinical trials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_trial"},{"link_name":"basic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_research"},{"link_name":"translational research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translational_research"},{"link_name":"surgical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical"},{"link_name":"neurosurgery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosurgery"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WorkWYourDoc-2"}],"text":"This article is about the branch of medicine. For the scientific study of the nervous system, see Neuroscience. For the journal, see Neurology (journal).\"Neurological sciences\" redirects here. For the journal, see Neurological Sciences (journal).Neurology (from Greek: νεῦρον (neûron), \"string, nerve\" and the suffix -logia, \"study of\") is the branch of medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the nervous system, which comprises the brain, the spinal cord and the peripheral nerves.[1] Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of neuroscience, the scientific study of the nervous system.A neurologist is a physician specializing in neurology and trained to investigate, diagnose and treat neurological disorders.[2] Neurologists diagnose and treat myriad neurologic conditions, including stroke, epilepsy, movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease, brain infections, autoimmune neurologic disorders such as multiple sclerosis, sleep disorders, brain injury, headache disorders like migraine, tumors of the brain and dementias such as Alzheimer's disease.[3] Neurologists may also have roles in clinical research, clinical trials, and basic or translational research. Neurology is a nonsurgical specialty, its corresponding surgical specialty is neurosurgery.[2]","title":"Neurology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thomas Willis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Willis"},{"link_name":"Robert Whytt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Whytt"},{"link_name":"Matthew Baillie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Baillie"},{"link_name":"Charles Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bell"},{"link_name":"Moritz Heinrich Romberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moritz_Heinrich_Romberg"},{"link_name":"Duchenne de Boulogne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchenne_de_Boulogne"},{"link_name":"William A. Hammond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_A._Hammond"},{"link_name":"Jean-Martin Charcot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Martin_Charcot"},{"link_name":"C. Miller Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Miller_Fisher"},{"link_name":"John Hughlings Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hughlings_Jackson"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The academic discipline began between the 15th and 16th centuries with the work and research of many neurologists such as Thomas Willis, Robert Whytt, Matthew Baillie, Charles Bell, Moritz Heinrich Romberg, Duchenne de Boulogne, William A. Hammond, Jean-Martin Charcot, C. Miller Fisher and John Hughlings Jackson. Neo-Latin neurologia appeared in various texts from 1610 denoting an anatomical focus on the nerves (variably understood as vessels), and was most notably used by Willis, who preferred Greek νευρολογία.[4][5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edward_Flatau.jpg"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_people"},{"link_name":"Edward Flatau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Flatau"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charcot1893.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jean-Martin Charcot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Martin_Charcot"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"residency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residency_(medicine)"},{"link_name":"medical school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_school"},{"link_name":"internal medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_medicine"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"fellowships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellowship_(medicine)"},{"link_name":"clinical neurophysiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology"},{"link_name":"epilepsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy"},{"link_name":"neuromuscular medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromuscular_medicine"},{"link_name":"pain medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_medicine"},{"link_name":"sleep medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_medicine"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"behavioral neurology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_neurology"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"movement disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movement_disorder"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Membership of the Royal College of Physicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membership_of_the_Royal_College_of_Physicians"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"MRCPsych","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRCPsych"},{"link_name":"Queen Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Square,_London"},{"link_name":"physiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiatry"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Polish neurologist Edward Flatau greatly influenced the developing field of neurology. He published a human brain atlas in 1894 and wrote a fundamental book on migraines in 1912.Jean-Martin Charcot is considered one of the fathers of neurology.[8]In the United States and Canada, neurologists are physicians who have completed a postgraduate training period known as residency specializing in neurology after graduation from medical school. This additional training period typically lasts four years, with the first year devoted to training in internal medicine.[9] On average, neurologists complete a total of eight to ten years of training. This includes four years of medical school, four years of residency and an optional one to two years of fellowship.[10]While neurologists may treat general neurologic conditions, some neurologists go on to receive additional training focusing on a particular subspecialty in the field of neurology. These training programs are called fellowships, and are one to two years in duration. Subspecialties in the United States include brain injury medicine, clinical neurophysiology, epilepsy, neurodevelopmental disabilities, neuromuscular medicine, pain medicine, sleep medicine, neurocritical care, vascular neurology (stroke),[11] behavioral neurology, child neurology, headache, neuroimmunology[12] and infectious disease, movement disorders, neuroimaging, neurooncology, and neurorehabilitation.[13]In Germany, a compulsory year of psychiatry must be done to complete a residency of neurology.[14]In the United Kingdom and Ireland, neurology is a subspecialty of general (internal) medicine. After five years of medical school and two years as a Foundation Trainee, an aspiring neurologist must pass the examination for Membership of the Royal College of Physicians (or the Irish equivalent) and complete two years of core medical training before entering specialist training in neurology.[15] Up to the 1960s, some intending to become neurologists would also spend two years working in psychiatric units before obtaining a diploma in psychological medicine. However, that was uncommon and, now that the MRCPsych takes three years to obtain, would no longer be practical. A period of research is essential, and obtaining a higher degree aids career progression. Many found it was eased after an attachment to the Institute of Neurology at Queen Square, London. Some neurologists enter the field of rehabilitation medicine (known as physiatry in the US) to specialise in neurological rehabilitation, which may include stroke medicine, as well as traumatic brain injuries.[citation needed]","title":"Training"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"neurological examination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurological_examination"},{"link_name":"cranial nerves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranial_nerves"}],"text":"During a neurological examination, the neurologist reviews the patient's health history with special attention to the patient's neurologic complaints. The patient then takes a neurological exam. Typically, the exam tests mental status, function of the cranial nerves (including vision), strength, coordination, reflexes, sensation and gait. This information helps the neurologist determine whether the problem exists in the nervous system and the clinical localization. Localization of the pathology is the key process by which neurologists develop their differential diagnosis. Further tests may be needed to confirm a diagnosis and ultimately guide therapy and appropriate management. Useful adjunct imaging studies in neurology include CT scanning and MRI. Other tests used to assess muscle and nerve function include nerve conduction studies and electromyography.","title":"Physical examination"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"inpatient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inpatient"},{"link_name":"outpatient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outpatient"},{"link_name":"medical history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_history"},{"link_name":"physical examination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_examination"},{"link_name":"neurological examination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurological_examination"},{"link_name":"cognitive function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_function"},{"link_name":"cranial nerves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranial_nerves"},{"link_name":"sensation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_nervous_system"},{"link_name":"reflexes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexes"},{"link_name":"coordination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_coordination"},{"link_name":"gait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gait"},{"link_name":"diagnostic tests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_tests"},{"link_name":"computed axial tomography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computed_axial_tomography"},{"link_name":"magnetic resonance imaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging"},{"link_name":"ultrasound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasound"},{"link_name":"electroencephalography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography"},{"link_name":"electromyography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromyography"},{"link_name":"nerve conduction studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerve_conduction_studies"},{"link_name":"evoked potentials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoked_potentials"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"lumbar punctures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumbar_puncture"},{"link_name":"cerebrospinal fluid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid"},{"link_name":"genetic testing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_testing"},{"link_name":"radiculopathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiculopathy"},{"link_name":"neuropathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropathy"},{"link_name":"dementia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia"},{"link_name":"seizures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seizure"},{"link_name":"epilepsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy"},{"link_name":"Alzheimer's disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease"},{"link_name":"attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit/hyperactivity_disorder"},{"link_name":"Parkinson's disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease"},{"link_name":"Tourette's syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourette%27s_syndrome"},{"link_name":"multiple sclerosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis"},{"link_name":"head trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_trauma"},{"link_name":"sleep disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_disorder"},{"link_name":"neuromuscular diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromuscular_disease"},{"link_name":"life support","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_support"},{"link_name":"brain death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_death"},{"link_name":"physiotherapist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiotherapist"},{"link_name":"intraoperative monitoring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intraoperative_neurophysiological_monitoring"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"electrodiagnostic medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodiagnostic_medicine"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"electrodiagnostic medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodiagnostic_medicine"},{"link_name":"anesthesiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anesthesiology"},{"link_name":"internal medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_medicine"},{"link_name":"family medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_medicine"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience"},{"link_name":"medical students","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_student"}],"text":"Neurologists examine patients who are referred to them by other physicians in both the inpatient and outpatient settings. Neurologists begin their interactions with patients by taking a comprehensive medical history, and then performing a physical examination focusing on evaluating the nervous system. Components of the neurological examination include assessment of the patient's cognitive function, cranial nerves, motor strength, sensation, reflexes, coordination, and gait.In some instances, neurologists may order additional diagnostic tests as part of the evaluation. Commonly employed tests in neurology include imaging studies such as computed axial tomography (CAT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound of major blood vessels of the head and neck. Neurophysiologic studies, including electroencephalography (EEG), needle electromyography (EMG), nerve conduction studies (NCSs) and evoked potentials are also commonly ordered.[16] Neurologists frequently perform lumbar punctures to assess characteristics of a patient's cerebrospinal fluid. Advances in genetic testing have made genetic testing an important tool in the classification of inherited neuromuscular disease and diagnosis of many other neurogenetic diseases. The role of genetic influences on the development of acquired neurologic diseases is an active area of research.Some of the commonly encountered conditions treated by neurologists include headaches, radiculopathy, neuropathy, stroke, dementia, seizures and epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Parkinson's disease, Tourette's syndrome, multiple sclerosis, head trauma, sleep disorders, neuromuscular diseases, and various infections and tumors of the nervous system. Neurologists are also asked to evaluate unresponsive patients on life support to confirm brain death.Treatment options vary depending on the neurological problem. They can include referring the patient to a physiotherapist, prescribing medications, or recommending a surgical procedure.Some neurologists specialize in certain parts of the nervous system or in specific procedures. For example, clinical neurophysiologists specialize in the use of EEG and intraoperative monitoring to diagnose certain neurological disorders.[17] Other neurologists specialize in the use of electrodiagnostic medicine studies – needle EMG and NCSs. In the US, physicians do not typically specialize in all the aspects of clinical neurophysiology – i.e. sleep, EEG, EMG, and NCSs. The American Board of Clinical Neurophysiology certifies US physicians in general clinical neurophysiology, epilepsy, and intraoperative monitoring.[18] The American Board of Electrodiagnostic Medicine certifies US physicians in electrodiagnostic medicine and certifies technologists in nerve-conduction studies. Sleep medicine is a subspecialty field in the US under several medical specialties including anesthesiology, internal medicine, family medicine, and neurology.[19] Neurosurgery is a distinct specialty that involves a different training path and emphasizes the surgical treatment of neurological disorders.Also, many nonmedical doctors, those with doctoral degrees (usually PhDs) in subjects such as biology and chemistry, study and research the nervous system. Working in laboratories in universities, hospitals, and private companies, these neuroscientists perform clinical and laboratory experiments and tests to learn more about the nervous system and find cures or new treatments for diseases and disorders.A great deal of overlap occurs between neuroscience and neurology. Many neurologists work in academic training hospitals, where they conduct research as neuroscientists in addition to treating patients and teaching neurology to medical students.","title":"Clinical tasks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"neurosurgeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosurgeon"},{"link_name":"interventional neuroradiologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interventional_neuroradiology"},{"link_name":"genetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics"},{"link_name":"Lumbar punctures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumbar_puncture"},{"link_name":"neurologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurologists"},{"link_name":"dementia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia"},{"link_name":"movement disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movement_disorders"},{"link_name":"neurointensive care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurointensive_care"},{"link_name":"epilepsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy"},{"link_name":"sleep disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_disorders"},{"link_name":"pain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain"},{"link_name":"multiple sclerosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis"},{"link_name":"neuromuscular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromuscular"}],"sub_title":"General caseload","text":"Neurologists are responsible for the diagnosis, treatment, and management of all the conditions mentioned above. When surgical or endovascular intervention is required, the neurologist may refer the patient to a neurosurgeon or an interventional neuroradiologist. In some countries, additional legal responsibilities of a neurologist may include making a finding of brain death when it is suspected that a patient has died. Neurologists frequently care for people with hereditary (genetic) diseases when the major manifestations are neurological, as is frequently the case. Lumbar punctures are frequently performed by neurologists. Some neurologists may develop an interest in particular subfields, such as stroke, dementia, movement disorders, neurointensive care, headaches, epilepsy, sleep disorders, chronic pain management, multiple sclerosis, or neuromuscular diseases.","title":"Clinical tasks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"head trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury"},{"link_name":"sequelae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequelae"},{"link_name":"specialists in rehabilitation medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation"},{"link_name":"interventional neuroradiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interventional_neuroradiology"},{"link_name":"Joint Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Commission"},{"link_name":"infectious diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_disease"},{"link_name":"general practitioners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_practitioner"},{"link_name":"sciatica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciatica"},{"link_name":"orthopedic surgeons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery"},{"link_name":"Sleep disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_disorders"},{"link_name":"pulmonologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonology"},{"link_name":"psychiatrists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatrists"},{"link_name":"Cerebral palsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_palsy"},{"link_name":"pediatricians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatrics"},{"link_name":"Physical medicine and rehabilitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation"},{"link_name":"geriatric medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geriatric_medicine"},{"link_name":"Clinical neuropsychologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_neuropsychology"},{"link_name":"evaluate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychological_assessment"},{"link_name":"behavior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavior"},{"link_name":"differential diagnosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis"},{"link_name":"rehabilitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation"},{"link_name":"cognitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive"},{"link_name":"aging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aging"},{"link_name":"dementia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia"}],"sub_title":"Overlapping areas","text":"Some overlap also occurs with other specialties, varying from country to country and even within a local geographic area. Acute head trauma is most often treated by neurosurgeons, whereas sequelae of head trauma may be treated by neurologists or specialists in rehabilitation medicine. Although stroke cases have been traditionally managed by internal medicine or hospitalists, the emergence of vascular neurology and interventional neuroradiology has created a demand for stroke specialists. The establishment of Joint Commission-certified stroke centers has increased the role of neurologists in stroke care in many primary, as well as tertiary, hospitals. Some cases of nervous system infectious diseases are treated by infectious disease specialists. Most cases of headache are diagnosed and treated primarily by general practitioners, at least the less severe cases. Likewise, most cases of sciatica are treated by general practitioners, though they may be referred to neurologists or surgeons (neurosurgeons or orthopedic surgeons). Sleep disorders are also treated by pulmonologists and psychiatrists. Cerebral palsy is initially treated by pediatricians, but care may be transferred to an adult neurologist after the patient reaches a certain age. Physical medicine and rehabilitation physicians may treat patients with neuromuscular diseases with electrodiagnostic studies (needle EMG and nerve-conduction studies) and other diagnostic tools. In the United Kingdom and other countries, many of the conditions encountered by older patients such as movement disorders, including Parkinson's disease, stroke, dementia, or gait disorders, are managed predominantly by specialists in geriatric medicine.Clinical neuropsychologists are often called upon to evaluate brain-behavior relationships for the purpose of assisting with differential diagnosis, planning rehabilitation strategies, documenting cognitive strengths and weaknesses, and measuring change over time (e.g., for identifying abnormal aging or tracking the progression of a dementia)","title":"Clinical tasks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"neurologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurologists"},{"link_name":"clinical neurophysiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology"},{"link_name":"intraoperative monitoring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intraoperative_neurophysiological_monitoring"},{"link_name":"nerve conduction studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerve_conduction_study"},{"link_name":"evoked potentials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoked_potentials"},{"link_name":"specialty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialty_(medicine)"}],"sub_title":"Relationship to clinical neurophysiology","text":"In some countries such as the United States and Germany, neurologists may subspecialize in clinical neurophysiology, the field responsible for EEG and intraoperative monitoring, or in electrodiagnostic medicine nerve conduction studies, EMG, and evoked potentials. In other countries, this is an autonomous specialty (e.g., United Kingdom, Sweden, Spain).","title":"Clinical tasks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Psychoneuroimmunology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoneuroimmunology"},{"link_name":"Neuropsychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychiatry"},{"link_name":"MRI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRI"},{"link_name":"mental illnesses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_illness"},{"link_name":"psychiatrists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatrists"},{"link_name":"American Journal of Psychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Psychiatry"},{"link_name":"Harvard Medical School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid11986119-20"},{"link_name":"Neurological disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurological_disorders"},{"link_name":"psychiatric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric"},{"link_name":"dementia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia"},{"link_name":"Parkinson's disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease"},{"link_name":"Huntington disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntington_disease"},{"link_name":"psychoanalytic theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_model"},{"link_name":"clinicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinicians"},{"link_name":"biomarkers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomarkers"}],"sub_title":"Overlap with psychiatry","text":"Further information: Psychoneuroimmunology and NeuropsychiatryIn the past, prior to the advent of more advanced diagnostic techniques such as MRI some neurologists have considered psychiatry and neurology to overlap. Although mental illnesses are believed by many to be neurological disorders affecting the central nervous system, traditionally they are classified separately, and treated by psychiatrists. In a 2002 review article in the American Journal of Psychiatry, Professor Joseph B. Martin, Dean of Harvard Medical School and a neurologist by training, wrote, \"the separation of the two categories is arbitrary, often influenced by beliefs rather than proven scientific observations. And the fact that the brain and mind are one makes the separation artificial anyway\".[20]Neurological disorders often have psychiatric manifestations, such as post-stroke depression, depression and dementia associated with Parkinson's disease, mood and cognitive dysfunctions in Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington disease, to name a few. Hence, the sharp distinction between neurology and psychiatry is not always on a biological basis. The dominance of psychoanalytic theory in the first three-quarters of the 20th century has since then been largely replaced by a focus on pharmacology.[21] Despite the shift to a medical model, brain science has not advanced to a point where scientists or clinicians can point to readily discernible pathological lesions or genetic abnormalities that in and of themselves serve as reliable or predictive biomarkers of a given mental disorder.","title":"Clinical tasks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"neuroethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics"}],"text":"The emerging field of neurological enhancement highlights the potential of therapies to improve such things as workplace efficacy, attention in school, and overall happiness in personal lives.[22] However, this field has also given rise to questions about neuroethics.","title":"Neurological enhancement"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Polish neurologist Edward Flatau greatly influenced the developing field of neurology. He published a human brain atlas in 1894 and wrote a fundamental book on migraines in 1912.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Edward_Flatau.jpg/170px-Edward_Flatau.jpg"},{"image_text":"Jean-Martin Charcot is considered one of the fathers of neurology.[8]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Charcot1893.jpg/170px-Charcot1893.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"Medicine portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Medicine"},{"title":"American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Board_of_Psychiatry_and_Neurology"},{"title":"American Osteopathic Board of Neurology and Psychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Osteopathic_Board_of_Neurology_and_Psychiatry"},{"title":"Developmental Neurorehabilitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_Neurorehabilitation"},{"title":"List of neurologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurologists"},{"title":"List of women neuroscientists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_neuroscientists"},{"title":"Neuroepigenetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroepigenetics"},{"title":"Neurohospitalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurohospitalist"}]
|
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view\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1192%2Fbjp.bp.113.126516","external_links_name":"10.1192/bjp.bp.113.126516"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0007-1250","external_links_name":"0007-1250"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24297784","external_links_name":"24297784"},{"Link":"https://neurotray.com/how-long-does-it-take-to-become-a-neurologist-in-the-uk/","external_links_name":"\"\"How long does it take to become a neurologist in the UK?\"\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211204170237/https://neurotray.com/how-long-does-it-take-to-become-a-neurologist-in-the-uk/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Fact-Sheets/Neurological-Diagnostic-Tests-and-Procedures-Fact","external_links_name":"\"Neurological Diagnostic Tests and Procedures Fact Sheet\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211204175121/https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Fact-Sheets/Neurological-Diagnostic-Tests-and-Procedures-Fact","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.acns.org/","external_links_name":"\"American Clinical Neurophysiology Society\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150324151533/http://www.acns.org/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.abcn.org/","external_links_name":"\"American Board of Clinical Neurophysiology, Inc\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150322065435/http://www.abcn.org/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.abms.org/member-boards/specialty-subspecialty-certificates/","external_links_name":"\"Specialty and Subspecialty Certificates\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200123231140/https://www.abms.org/member-boards/specialty-subspecialty-certificates/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.159.5.695","external_links_name":"10.1176/appi.ajp.159.5.695"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11986119","external_links_name":"11986119"},{"Link":"http://psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/ajp.155.4.457","external_links_name":"\"A New Intellectual Framework for Psychiatry\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fajp.155.4.457","external_links_name":"10.1176/ajp.155.4.457"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-953X","external_links_name":"0002-953X"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9545989","external_links_name":"9545989"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230117144615/https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/ajp.155.4.457","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3030230","external_links_name":"\"Looking at things in a different perspective created the idea of ethics of neural enhancement using noninvasive brain stimulation\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1212%2FWNL.0b013e318205d50d","external_links_name":"10.1212/WNL.0b013e318205d50d"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3030230","external_links_name":"3030230"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21220723","external_links_name":"21220723"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932618p","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932618p","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4041888-1","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007565532305171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85091139","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000055421&P_CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Latvia"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph123260&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_presence_detect
|
Serial presence detect
|
["1 Stored information","1.1 SDR SDRAM","1.2 DDR SDRAM","1.3 DDR2 SDRAM","1.4 DDR3 SDRAM","1.5 DDR4 SDRAM","1.6 DDR5 SDRAM","2 Extensions","2.1 Enhanced Performance Profiles (EPP)","2.2 Intel Extreme Memory Profile (XMP)","2.3 AMD Extended Profiles for Overclocking (EXPO)","2.4 Vendor-specific memory","3 Reading and writing SPD information","3.1 RGB LED control","4 On older equipment","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
|
Standardized way to automatically access information about a memory module
In computing, serial presence detect (SPD) is a standardized way to automatically access information about a memory module. Earlier 72-pin SIMMs included five pins that provided five bits of parallel presence detect (PPD) data, but the 168-pin DIMM standard changed to a serial presence detect to encode more information.
When an ordinary modern computer is turned on, it starts by doing a power-on self-test (POST). Since about the mid-1990s, this process includes automatically configuring the hardware currently present. SPD is a memory hardware feature that makes it possible for the computer to know what memory is present, and what memory timings to use to access the memory.
Some computers adapt to hardware changes completely automatically. In most cases, there is a special optional procedure for accessing BIOS parameters, to view and potentially make changes in settings. It may be possible to control how the computer uses the memory SPD data—to choose settings, selectively modify memory timings, or possibly to completely override the SPD data (see overclocking).
Stored information
For a memory module to support SPD, the JEDEC standards require that certain parameters be in the lower 128 bytes of an EEPROM located on the memory module. These bytes contain timing parameters, manufacturer, serial number and other useful information about the module. Devices utilizing the memory automatically determine key parameters of the module by reading this information. For example, the SPD data on an SDRAM module might provide information about the CAS latency so the system can set this correctly without user intervention.
The SPD EEPROM firmware is accessed using SMBus, a variant of the I2C protocol. This reduces the number of communication pins on the module to just two: a clock signal and a data signal. The EEPROM shares ground pins with the RAM, has its own power pin, and has three additional pins (SA0–2) to identify the slot, which are used to assign the EEPROM a unique address in the range 0x50–0x57. Not only can the communication lines be shared among 8 memory modules, the same SMBus is commonly used on motherboards for system health monitoring tasks such as reading power supply voltages, CPU temperatures, and fan speeds.
SPD EEPROMs also respond to I2C addresses 0x30–0x37 if they have not been write protected, and an extension (TSE series) uses addresses 0x18–0x1F to access an optional on-chip temperature sensor. All those values are seven-bit I2C addresses formed by a Device Type Identifier Code prefix (DTIC) with SA0-2: to read (1100) from slot 3, one uses 110 0011 = 0x33. With a final R/W bit it forms the 8-bit Device Select Code. Note that the semantics of slot-id is different for write-protection operations: for them they can be not passed by the SA pins at all.
Before SPD, memory chips were spotted with parallel presence detect (PPD). PPD used a separate pin for each bit of information, which meant that only the speed and density of the memory module could be stored because of the limited space for pins.
SDR SDRAM
Memory device on an SDRAM module, containing SPD data (red circled)
The first SPD specification was issued by JEDEC and tightened up by Intel as part of its PC100 memory specification introduced in 1998. Most values specified are in binary-coded decimal form. The most significant nibble can contain values from 10 to 15, and in some cases extends higher. In such cases, the encodings for 1, 2 and 3 are instead used to encode 16, 17 and 18. A most significant nibble of 0 is reserved to represent "undefined".
The SPD ROM defines up to three DRAM timings, for three CAS latencies specified by set bits in byte 18. First comes the highest CAS latency (fastest clock), then two lower CAS latencies with progressively lower clock speeds.
SPD contents for SDR SDRAM
Byte
Bit
Notes
(dec.)
(hex.)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
0x00
Number of bytes present
Typically 128
1
0x01
log2(size of SPD EEPROM)
Typically 8 (256 bytes)
2
0x02
Basic memory type (4: SPD SDRAM)
3
0x03
Bank 2 row address bits (0–15)
Bank 1 row address bits (1–15)
Bank 2 is 0 if same as bank 1
4
0x04
Bank 2 column address bits (0–15)
Bank 1 column address bits (1–15)
Bank 2 is 0 if same as bank 1
5
0x05
Number of RAM banks on module (1–255)
Commonly 1 or 2
6
0x06
Module data width low byte
Commonly 64, or 72 for ECC DIMMs
7
0x07
Module data width high byte
0, unless width ≥ 256 bits
8
0x08
Interface voltage level of this assembly (not the same as Vcc supply voltage) (0–4)
Decoded by table lookup
9
0x09
Nanoseconds (0–15)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Clock cycle time at highest CAS latency
10
0x0a
Nanoseconds (0–15)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
SDRAM access time from clock (tAC)
11
0x0b
DIMM configuration type (0–2): non-ECC, parity, ECC
Table lookup
12
0x0c
Self
Refresh period (0–5): 64, 256, 128, 32, 16, 8 kHz
Refresh requirements
13
0x0d
Bank 2 2×
Bank 1 primary SDRAM width (1–127, usually 8)
Width of bank 1 data SDRAM devices. Bank 2 may be same width, or 2× width if bit 7 is set.
14
0x0e
Bank 2 2×
Bank 1 ECC SDRAM width (0–127)
Width of bank 1 ECC/parity SDRAM devices. Bank 2 may be same width, or 2× width if bit 7 is set.
15
0x0f
Clock delay for random column reads
Typically 1
16
0x10
Page
—
—
—
8
4
2
1
Burst lengths supported (bitmap)
17
0x11
Banks per SDRAM device (1–255)
Typically 2 or 4
18
0x12
—
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
CAS latencies supported (bitmap)
19
0x13
—
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
CS latencies supported (bitmap)
20
0x14
—
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
WE latencies supported (bitmap)
21
0x15
—
Redundant
Diff. clock
Registered data
Buffered data
On-card PLL
Registered addr.
Buffered addr.
Memory module feature bitmap
22
0x16
—
—
Upper Vcc (supply voltage) tolerance
Lower Vcc (supply voltage) tolerance
Write/1 read burst
Precharge all
Auto-precharge
Early RAS precharge
Memory chip feature support bitmap
23
0x17
Nanoseconds (4–18)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0–9: 0.0–0.9)
Clock cycle time at medium CAS latency
24
0x18
Nanoseconds (4–18)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0–9: 0.0–0.9)
Data access time from clock (tAC)
25
0x19
Nanoseconds (1–63)
0.25 ns (0–3: 0.00–0.75)
Clock cycle time at short CAS latency.
26
0x1a
Nanoseconds (1–63)
0.25 ns (0–3: 0.00–0.75)
Data access time from clock (tAC)
27
0x1b
Nanoseconds (1–255)
Minimum row precharge time (tRP)
28
0x1c
Nanoseconds (1–255)
Minimum row active–row active delay (tRRD)
29
0x1d
Nanoseconds (1–255)
Minimum RAS to CAS delay (tRCD)
30
0x1e
Nanoseconds (1–255)
Minimum active to precharge time (tRAS)
31
0x1f
512 MiB
256 MiB
128 MiB
64 MiB
32 MiB
16 MiB
8 MiB
4 MiB
Module bank density (bitmap). Two bits set if different size banks.
32
0x20
Sign (1: −)
Nanoseconds (0–7)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0–9: 0.0–0.9)
Address/command setup time from clock
33
0x21
Sign (1: −)
Nanoseconds (0–7)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0–9: 0.0–0.9)
Address/command hold time after clock
34
0x22
Sign (1: −)
Nanoseconds (0–7)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0–9: 0.0–0.9)
Data input setup time from clock
35
0x23
Sign (1: −)
Nanoseconds (0–7)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0–9: 0.0–0.9)
Data input hold time after clock
36–61
0x24–0x3d
Reserved
For future standardization
62
0x3e
Major revision (0–9)
Minor revision (0–9)
SPD revision level; e.g., 1.2
63
0x3f
Checksum
Sum of bytes 0–62, not then negated
64–71
0x40–47
Manufacturer JEDEC id.
Stored little-endian, trailing zero-padded
72
0x48
Module manufacturing location
Vendor-specific code
73–90
0x49–0x5a
Module part number
ASCII, space-padded
91–92
0x5b–0x5c
Module revision code
Vendor-specific code
93
0x5d
Tens of years (0–9: 0–90)
Years (0–9)
Manufacturing date (YYWW)
94
0x5e
Tens of weeks (0–5: 0–50)
Weeks (0–9)
95–98
0x5f–0x62
Module serial number
Vendor-specific code
99–125
0x63–0x7f
Manufacturer-specific data
Could be enhanced performance profile
126
0x7e
0x66 for 66 MHz, 0x64 for 100 MHz
Intel frequency support
127
0x7f
CLK0
CLK1
CLK3
CLK3
90/100 °C
CL3
CL2
Concurrent AP
Intel feature bitmap
DDR SDRAM
The DDR DIMM SPD format is an extension of the SDR SDRAM format. Mostly, parameter ranges are rescaled to accommodate higher speeds.
SPD contents for DDR SDRAM
Byte
Bit
Notes
(dec.)
(hex.)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
0x00
Number of bytes written
Typically 128
1
0x01
log2(size of SPD EEPROM)
Typically 8 (256 bytes)
2
0x02
Basic memory type (7 = DDR SDRAM)
3
0x03
Bank 2 row address bits (0–15)
Bank 1 row address bits (1–15)
Bank 2 is 0 if same as bank 1.
4
0x04
Bank 2 column address bits (0–15)
Bank 1 column address bits (1–15)
Bank 2 is 0 if same as bank 1.
5
0x05
Number of RAM banks on module (1–255)
Commonly 1 or 2
6
0x06
Module data width low byte
Commonly 64, or 72 for ECC DIMMs
7
0x07
Module data width high byte
0, unless width ≥ 256 bits
8
0x08
Interface voltage level of this assembly (not the same as Vcc supply voltage) (0–5)
Decoded by table lookup
9
0x09
Nanoseconds (0–15)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Clock cycle time at highest CAS latency.
10
0x0a
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
SDRAM access time from clock (tAC)
11
0x0b
DIMM configuration type (0–2): non-ECC, parity, ECC
Table lookup
12
0x0c
Self
Refresh period (0–5): 64, 256, 128, 32, 16, 8 kHz
Refresh requirements
13
0x0d
Bank 2 2×
Bank 1 primary SDRAM width (1–127)
Width of bank 1 data SDRAM devices. Bank 2 may be same width, or 2× width if bit 7 is set.
14
0x0e
Bank 2 2×
Bank 1 ECC SDRAM width (0–127)
Width of bank 1 ECC/parity SDRAM devices. Bank 2 may be same width, or 2× width if bit 7 is set.
15
0x0f
Clock delay for random column reads
Typically 1
16
0x10
Page
—
—
—
8
4
2
1
Burst lengths supported (bitmap)
17
0x11
Banks per SDRAM device (1–255)
Typically 4
18
0x12
—
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
CAS latencies supported (bitmap)
19
0x13
—
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
CS latencies supported (bitmap)
20
0x14
—
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
WE latencies supported (bitmap)
21
0x15
—
x
Diff clock
FET switch external enable
FET switch on-board enable
On-card PLL
Registered
Buffered
Memory module feature bitmap
22
0x16
Fast AP
Concurrent auto precharge
Upper Vcc (supply voltage) tolerance
Lower Vcc (supply voltage) tolerance
—
—
—
Includes weak driver
Memory chip feature bitmap
23
0x17
Nanoseconds (0–15)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Clock cycle time at medium CAS latency.
24
0x18
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
Data access time from clock (tAC)
25
0x19
Nanoseconds (0–15)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Clock cycle time at short CAS latency.
26
0x1a
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
Data access time from clock (tAC)
27
0x1b
Nanoseconds (1–63)
0.25 ns (0–0.75)
Minimum row precharge time (tRP)
28
0x1c
Nanoseconds (1–63)
0.25 ns (0–0.75)
Minimum row active–row active delay (tRRD)
29
0x1d
Nanoseconds (1–63)
0.25 ns (0–0.75)
Minimum RAS to CAS delay (tRCD)
30
0x1e
Nanoseconds (1–255)
Minimum active to precharge time (tRAS)
31
0x1f
512 MiB
256 MiB
128 MiB
64 MiB
32 MiB
16 MiB/4 GiB
8 MiB/2 GiB
4 MiB/1 GiB
Module bank density (bitmap). Two bits set if different size banks.
32
0x20
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
Address/command setup time from clock
33
0x21
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
Address/command hold time after clock
34
0x22
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
Data input setup time from clock
35
0x23
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
Data input hold time after clock
36–40
0x24–0x28
Reserved
Superset information
41
0x29
Nanoseconds (1–255)
Minimum active to active/refresh time (tRC)
42
0x2a
Nanoseconds (1–255)
Minimum refresh to active/refresh time (tRFC)
43
0x2b
Nanoseconds (1–63, or 255: no maximum)
0.25 ns (0–0.75)
Maximum clock cycle time (tCK max.)
44
0x2c
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.01–2.55)
Maximum skew, DQS to any DQ. (tDQSQ max.)
45
0x2d
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–1.2)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
Read data hold skew factor (tQHS)
46
0x2e
Reserved
For future standardization
47
0x2f
—
Height
Height of DIMM module, table lookup
48–61
0x30–0x3d
Reserved
For future standardization
62
0x3e
Major revision (0–9)
Minor revision (0–9)
SPD revision level, 0.0 or 1.0
63
0x3f
Checksum
Sum of bytes 0–62, not then negated
64–71
0x40–47
Manufacturer JEDEC id.
Stored little-endian, trailing zero-padded
72
0x48
Module manufacturing location
Vendor-specific code
73–90
0x49–0x5a
Module part number
ASCII, space-padded
91–92
0x5b–0x5c
Module revision code
Vendor-specific code
93
0x5d
Tens of years (0–90)
Years (0–9)
Manufacturing date (YYWW)
94
0x5e
Tens of weeks (0–50)
Weeks (0–9)
95–98
0x5f–0x62
Module serial number
Vendor-specific code
99–127
0x63–0x7f
Manufacturer-specific data
Could be enhanced performance profile
DDR2 SDRAM
The DDR2 SPD standard makes a number of changes, but is roughly similar to the above. One notable deletion is the confusing and little-used support for DIMMs with two ranks of different sizes.
For cycle time fields (bytes 9, 23, 25 and 49), which are encoded in BCD, some additional encodings are defined for the tenths digit to represent some common timings exactly:
DDR2 BCD extensions
Hex
Binary
Significance
A
1010
0.25 (1⁄4)
B
1011
0.33 (1⁄3)
C
1100
0.66 (2⁄3)
D
1101
0.75 (3⁄4)
E
1110
0.875 (7⁄8, Nvidia XMP extension)
F
1111
Reserved
SPD contents for DDR2 SDRAM
Byte
Bit
Notes
Dec
Hex
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
0x00
Number of bytes written
Typically 128
1
0x01
log2(size of SPD EEPROM)
Typically 8 (256 bytes)
2
0x02
Basic memory type (8 = DDR2 SDRAM)
3
0x03
Reserved
Row address bits (1–15)
4
0x04
Reserved
Column address bits (1–15)
5
0x05
Vertical height
Stack?
ConC?
Ranks−1 (1–8)
Commonly 0 or 1, meaning 1 or 2
6
0x06
Module data width
Commonly 64, or 72 for ECC DIMMs
7
0x07
Reserved
8
0x08
Interface voltage level of this assembly (not the same as Vcc supply voltage) (0–5)
Decoded by table lookup.Commonly 5 = SSTL 1.8 V
9
0x09
Nanoseconds (0–15)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Clock cycle time at highest CAS latency.
10
0x0a
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
SDRAM access time from clock (tAC)
11
0x0b
DIMM configuration type (0–2): non-ECC, parity, ECC
Table lookup
12
0x0c
Self
Refresh period (0–5): 64, 256, 128, 32, 16, 8 kHz
Refresh requirements
13
0x0d
Primary SDRAM width (1–255)
Commonly 8 (module built from ×8 parts) or 16
14
0x0e
ECC SDRAM width (0–255)
Width of bank ECC/parity SDRAM devices. Commonly 0 or 8.
15
0x0f
Reserved
16
0x10
—
—
—
—
8
4
—
—
Burst lengths supported (bitmap)
17
0x11
Banks per SDRAM device (1–255)
Typically 4 or 8
18
0x12
7
6
5
4
3
2
—
—
CAS latencies supported (bitmap)
19
0x13
Reserved
20
0x14
—
—
Mini-UDIMM
Mini-RDIMM
Micro-DIMM
SO-DIMM
UDIMM
RDIMM
DIMM type of this assembly (bitmap)
21
0x15
—
Module is analysis probe
—
FET switch external enable
—
—
—
—
Memory module feature bitmap
22
0x16
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Includes weak driver
Memory chip feature bitmap
23
0x17
Nanoseconds (0–15)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Clock cycle time at medium CAS latency.
24
0x18
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
Data access time from clock (tAC)
25
0x19
Nanoseconds (0–15)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Clock cycle time at short CAS latency.
26
0x1a
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
Data access time from clock (tAC)
27
0x1b
Nanoseconds (1–63)
1/4 ns (0–0.75)
Minimum row precharge time (tRP)
28
0x1c
Nanoseconds (1–63)
1/4 ns (0–0.75)
Minimum row active–row active delay (tRRD)
29
0x1d
Nanoseconds (1–63)
1/4 ns (0–0.75)
Minimum RAS to CAS delay (tRCD)
30
0x1e
Nanoseconds (1–255)
Minimum active to precharge time (tRAS)
31
0x1f
512 MiB
256 MiB
128 MiB
16 GiB
8 GiB
4 GiB
2 GiB
1 GiB
Size of each rank (bitmap).
32
0x20
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–1.2)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
Address/command setup time from clock
33
0x21
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–1.2)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
Address/command hold time after clock
34
0x22
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
Data input setup time from strobe
35
0x23
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.00–0.09)
Data input hold time after strobe
36
0x24
Nanoseconds (1–63)
0.25 ns (0–0.75)
Minimum write recovery time (tWR)
37
0x25
Nanoseconds (1–63)
0.25 ns (0–0.75)
Internal write to read command delay (tWTR)
38
0x26
Nanoseconds (1–63)
0.25 ns (0–0.75)
Internal read to precharge command delay (tRTP)
39
0x27
Reserved
Reserved for "memory analysis probe characteristics"
40
0x28
—
tRC fractional ns (0–5):0, 0.25, 0.33, 0.5, 0.66, 0.75
tRFC fractional ns (0–5):0, 0.25, 0.33, 0.5, 0.66, 0.75
tRFC + 256 ns
Extension of bytes 41 and 42.
41
0x29
Nanoseconds (1–255)
Minimum active to active/refresh time (tRC)
42
0x2a
Nanoseconds (1–255)
Minimum refresh to active/refresh time (tRFC)
43
0x2b
Nanoseconds (0–15)
Tenths of nanoseconds (0.0–0.9)
Maximum clock cycle time (tCK max)
44
0x2c
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.01–2.55)
Maximum skew, DQS to any DQ. (tDQSQ max)
45
0x2d
Hundredths of nanoseconds (0.01–2.55)
Read data hold skew factor (tQHS)
46
0x2e
Microseconds (1–255)
PLL relock time
47–61
0x2f–0x3d
Reserved
For future standardization.
62
0x3e
Major revision (0–9)
Minor revision (0.0–0.9)
SPD revision level, usually 1.0
63
0x3f
Checksum
Sum of bytes 0–62, not negated
64–71
0x40–47
Manufacturer JEDEC ID
Stored little-endian, trailing zero-pad
72
0x48
Module manufacturing location
Vendor-specific code
73–90
0x49–0x5a
Module part number
ASCII, space-padded (limited to (,-,), A–Z, a–z, 0–9, space)
91–92
0x5b–0x5c
Module revision code
Vendor-specific code
93
0x5d
Years since 2000 (0–255)
Manufacturing date (YYWW)
94
0x5e
Weeks (1–52)
95–98
0x5f–0x62
Module serial number
Vendor-specific code
99–127
0x63–0x7f
Manufacturer-specific data
Could be enhanced performance profile
DDR3 SDRAM
The DDR3 SDRAM standard significantly overhauls and simplifies the SPD contents layout. Instead of a number of BCD-encoded nanosecond fields, some "timebase" units are specified to high precision, and various timing parameters are encoded as multiples of that base unit. Further, the practice of specifying different time values depending on the CAS latency has been dropped; now there are just a single set of timing parameters.
Revision 1.1 lets some parameters be expressed as a "medium time base" value plus a (signed, −128 +127) "fine time base" correction. Generally, the medium time base is 1/8 ns (125 ps), and the fine time base is 1, 2.5 or 5 ps. For compatibility with earlier versions that lack the correction, the medium time base number is usually rounded up and the correction is negative. Values that work this way are:
DDR3 SPD two-part timing parameters
MTB byte
FTB byte
Value
12
34
tCKmin, minimum clock period
16
35
tAAmin, minimum CAS latency time
18
36
tRCDmin, minimum RAS# to CAS# delay
20
37
tRPmin, minimum row precharge delay
21, 23
38
tRCmin, minimum active to active/precharge delay
SPD contents for DDR3 SDRAM
Byte
Bit
Notes
Dec
Hex
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
0x00
Exclude serial from CRC
SPD bytes total (undef/256)
SPD bytes used (undef/128/176/256)
1
0x01
SPD major revision
SPD minor revision
1.0, 1.1, 1.2 or 1.3
2
0x02
Basic memory type (11 = DDR3 SDRAM)
Type of RAM chips
3
0x03
Reserved
Module type
Type of module; e.g., 2 = Unbuffered DIMM, 3 = SO-DIMM, 11=LRDIMM
4
0x04
—
Bank address bits−3
log2(bits per chip)−28
Zero means 8 banks, 256 Mibit.
5
0x05
—
Row address bits−12
Column address bits−9
6
0x06
Reserved
1.25 V
1.35 V
Not 1.5 V
Modules voltages supported. 1.5 V is default.
7
0x07
—
ranks−1
log2(I/O bits/chip)−2
Module organization
8
0x08
—
ECC bits (001=8)
log2(data bits)−3
0x03 for 64-bit, non-ECC DIMM.
9
0x09
Dividend, picoseconds (1–15)
Divisor, picoseconds (1–15)
Fine Time Base, dividend/divisor
10
0x0a
Dividend, nanoseconds (1–255)
Medium Time Base, dividend/divisor; commonly 1/8
11
0x0b
Divisor, nanoseconds (1–255)
12
0x0c
Minimum cycle time tCKmin
In multiples of MTB
13
0x0d
Reserved
14
0x0e
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
CAS latencies supported (bitmap)
15
0x0f
—
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
16
0x10
Minimum CAS latency time, tAAmin
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 80/8 ns.
17
0x11
Minimum write recovery time, tWRmin
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 120/8 ns.
18
0x12
Minimum RAS to CAS delay time, tRCDmin
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 100/8 ns.
19
0x13
Minimum row to row active delay time, tRRDmin
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 60/8 ns.
20
0x14
Minimum row precharge time, tRPmin
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 100/8 ns.
21
0x15
tRCmin, bits 11:8
tRASmin, bits 11:8
Upper 4 bits of bytes 23 and 22
22
0x16
Minimum active to time, tRASmin, bits 7:0
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 280/8 ns.
23
0x17
Minimum active to active/refresh, tRCmin, bits 7:0
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 396/8 ns.
24
0x18
Minimum refresh recovery delay, tRFCmin, bits 7:0
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 1280/8 ns.
25
0x19
Minimum refresh recovery delay, tRFCmin, bits 15:8
26
0x1a
Minimum internal write to read delay, tWTRmin
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 60/8 ns.
27
0x1b
Minimum internal read to precharge delay, tRTPmin
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 60/8 ns.
28
0x1c
Reserved
tFAWmin, bits 11:8
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 240/8 ns.
29
0x1d
Minimum four activate window delay tFAWmin, bits 7:0
30
0x1e
DLL-off
—
RZQ/7
RZQ/6
SDRAM optional features support bitmap
31
0x1f
PASR
—
ODTS
ASR
ETR 1×
ETR (95 °C)
SDRAM thermal and refresh options
32
0x20
Present
Accuracy (TBD; currently 0 = undefined)
DIMM thermal sensor present?
33
0x21
Nonstd.
Die count
—
Signal load
Nonstandard SDRAM device type (e.g., stacked die)
34
0x22
tCKmin correction (new for 1.1)
Signed multiple of FTB, added to byte 12
35
0x23
tAAmin correction (new for 1.1)
Signed multiple of FTB, added to byte 16
36
0x24
tRCDmin correction (new for 1.1)
Signed multiple of FTB, added to byte 18
37
0x25
tRPmin correction (new for 1.1)
Signed multiple of FTB, added to byte 20
38
0x26
tRCmin correction (new for 1.1)
Signed multiple of FTB, added to byte 23
39–40
0x27–0x28
Reserved
For future standardization.
41
0x29
Vendor specific
tMAW
Maximum Activate Count (MAC) (untested/700k/600k/.../200k/reserved/∞)
For row hammer mitigation
42–59
0x2a–0x3b
Reserved
For future standardization.
60
0x3c
—
Module height, mm (1–31, >45)
Module nominal height
61
0x3d
Back thickness, mm (1–16)
Front thickness, mm (1–16)
Module thickness, value = ceil(mm) − 1
62
0x3e
Design
Revision
JEDEC design number
JEDEC reference design used (11111=none)
63–116
0x3f–0x74
Module-specific section
Differs between registered/unbuffered
117
0x75
Module manufacturer ID, lsbyte
Assigned by JEP-106
118
0x76
Module manufacturer ID, msbyte
119
0x77
Module manufacturing location
Vendor-specific code
120
0x78
Tens of years
Years
Manufacturing year (BCD)
121
0x79
Tens of weeks
Weeks
Manufacturing week (BCD)
122–125
0x7a–0x7d
Module serial number
Vendor-specific code
126–127
0x7e–0x7f
SPD CRC-16
Includes bytes 0–116 or 0–125; see byte 0 bit 7
128–145
0x80–0x91
Module part number
ASCII subset, space-padded
146–147
0x92–0x93
Module revision code
Vendor-defined
148–149
0x94–0x95
DRAM manufacturer ID
As distinct from module manufacturer
150–175
0x96–0xAF
Manufacturer-specific data
176–255
0xB0–0xFF
Available for customer use
The memory capacity of a module can be computed from bytes 4, 7 and 8. The module width (byte 8) divided by the number of bits per chip (byte 7) gives the number of chips per rank. That can then be multiplied by the per-chip capacity (byte 4) and the number of ranks of chips on the module (usually 1 or 2, from byte 7).
DDR4 SDRAM
The DDR4 SDRAM "Annex L" standard for SPD changes the EEPROM module used. Instead of the old AT24C02-compatible 256-byte EEPROMs, JEDEC now defines a new nonstandard EE1004 type with two pages at the SMBus level each with 256 bytes. The new memory still uses the old 0x50–0x57 addresses, but two additional address at 0x36 (SPA0) and 0x37 (SPA1) are now used to receive commands to select the currently-active page for the bus, a form of bank switching. Internally each logical page is further divided into two physical blocks of 128 bytes each, totaling four blocks and 512 bytes. Other semantics for "special" address ranges remain the same, although write protection is now addressed by blocks and a high voltage at SA0 is now required to change its status.
Annex L defines a few different layouts that can be plugged into a 512-byte (of which a maximum of 320 bytes are defined) template, depending on the type of the memory module. The bit definitions are similar to DDR3.
SPD contents for DDR4 SDRAM
Byte
Bit
Notes
Dec
Hex
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
0x00
SPD bytes used
1
0x01
SPD revision n
Typically 0x10, 0x11, 0x12
2
0x02
Basic memory type (12 = DDR4 SDRAM)
Type of RAM chips
3
0x03
Reserved
Module type
Type of module; e.g., 2 = Unbuffered DIMM, 3 = SO-DIMM, 11=LRDIMM
4
0x04
Bank group bits
Bank address bits−2
Total SDRAM capacity per die in megabits
Zero means no bank groups, 4 banks, 256 Mibit.
5
0x05
Reserved
Row address bits−12
Column address bits−9
6
0x06
Primary SDRAM package type
Die count
Reserved
Signal loading
7
0x07
Reserved
Maximum activate window (tMAW)
Maximum activate count (MAC)
SDRAM optional features
8
0x08
Reserved
SDRAM thermal and refresh options
9
0x09
Post package repair (PPR)
Soft PPR
Reserved
Other SDRAM optional features
10
0x0a
SDRAM package type
Die count−1
DRAM density ratio
Signal loading
Secondary SDRAM package type
11
0x0b
Reserved
Endurant flag
Operable flag
Module nominal voltage, VDD
12
0x0c
Reserved
Rank mix
Package ranks per DIMM−1
SDRAM device width
Module organization
13
0x0d
Reserved
Bus width extension
Primary bus width
Module memory bus width in bits
14
0x0e
Thermal sensor
Reserved
Module thermal sensor
15
0x0f
Reserved
Extended base module type
16
0x10
Reserved
17
0x11
Reserved
Medium timebase (MTB)
Fine timebase (FTB)
Measured in ps.
18
0x12
Minimum SDRAM cycle time, tCKAVGmin
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 100/8 ns.
19
0x13
Maximum SDRAM cycle time, tCKAVGmax
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 60/8 ns.
20
0x14
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
CAS latencies supported bit-mask
21
0x15
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
CAS latencies supported bit-mask
22
0x16
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
CAS latencies supported bit-mask
23
0x17
Low CL range
Reserved
36
35
34
33
32
31
CAS latencies supported bit-mask
24
0x18
Minimum CAS latency time, tAAmin
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 1280/8 ns.
25
0x19
Minimum RAS to CAS delay time, tRCDmin
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 60/8 ns.
26
0x1a
Minimum row precharge delay time, tRPmin
In multiples of MTB; e.g., 60/8 ns.
27
0x1b
Upper nibbles for tRASmin and tRCmin
28
0x1c
Minimum active to precharge delay time, tRASmin least significant byte
In multiples of MTB
29
0x1d
Minimum active to active/refresh delay time, tRCmin least significant byte
In multiples of MTB
30
0x1e
Minimum refresh recovery delay time, tRFC1min least significant byte
In multiples of MTB
31
0x1f
Minimum refresh recovery delay time, tRFC1min most significant byte
In multiples of MTB
32
0x20
Minimum refresh recovery delay time, tRFC2min least significant byte
In multiples of MTB
33
0x21
Minimum refresh recovery delay time, tRFC2min most significant byte
In multiples of MTB
34
0x22
Minimum refresh recovery delay time, tRFC4min least significant byte
In multiples of MTB
35
0x23
Minimum refresh recovery delay time, tRFC4min most significant byte
In multiples of MTB
36
0x24
Reserved
tFAWmin most significant nibble
37
0x25
Minimum four activate window delay time, tFAWmin least significant byte
In multiples of MTB
38
0x26
Minimum activate to activate delay time, tRRD_Smin, different bank group
In multiples of MTB
39
0x27
Minimum activate to activate delay time, tRRD_Lmin, same bank group
In multiples of MTB
40
0x28
Minimum CAS to CAS delay time, tCCD_Lmin, same bank group
In multiples of MTB
41
0x29
Upper nibble for tWRmin
42
0x2a
Minimum write recovery time, tWRmin
In multiples of MTB
43
0x2b
Upper nibbles for tWTRmin
44
0x2c
Minimum write to read time, tWTR_Smin, different bank group
In multiples of MTB
45
0x2d
Minimum write to read time, tWTR_Lmin, same bank group
In multiples of MTB
49–59
0x2e–0x3b
Reserved
Base configuration section
60–77
0x3c–0x4d
Connector to SDRAM bit mapping
78–116
0x4e–0x74
Reserved
Base configuration section
117
0x75
Fine offset for minimum CAS to CAS delay time, tCCD_Lmin, same bank
Two's complement multiplier for FTB units
118
0x76
Fine offset for minimum activate to activate delay time, tRRD_Lmin, same bank group
Two's complement multiplier for FTB units
119
0x77
Fine offset for minimum activate to activate delay time, tRRD_Smin, different bank group
Two's complement multiplier for FTB units
120
0x78
Fine offset for minimum active to active/refresh delay time, tRCmin
Two's complement multiplier for FTB units
121
0x79
Fine offset for minimum row precharge delay time, tRPmin
Two's complement multiplier for FTB units
122
0x7a
Fine offset for minimum RAS to CAS delay time, tRCDmin
Two's complement multiplier for FTB units
123
0x7b
Fine offset for minimum CAS latency time, tAAmin
Two's complement multiplier for FTB units
124
0x7c
Fine offset for SDRAM maximum cycle time, tCKAVGmax
Two's complement multiplier for FTB units
125
0x7d
Fine offset for SDRAM minimum cycle time, tCKAVGmin
Two's complement multiplier for FTB units
126
0x7e
Cyclic rendundancy code (CRC) for base config section, least significant byte
CRC16 algorithm
127
0x7f
Cyclic rendundancy code (CRC) for base config section, most significant byte
CRC16 algorithm
128–191
0x80–0xbf
Module-specific section
Dependent upon memory module family (UDIMM, RDIMM, LRDIMM)
192–255
0xc0–0xff
Hybrid memory architecture specific parameters
256–319
0x100–0x13f
Extended function parameter block
320–321
0x140–0x141
Module manufacturer
See JEP-106
322
0x142
Module manufacturing location
Manufacturer-defined manufacturing location code
323
0x143
Module manufacturing year
Represented in Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
324
0x144
Module manufacturing week
Represented in Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
325–328
0x145–0x148
Module serial number
Manufacturer-defined format for a unique serial number across part numbers
329–348
0x149–0x15c
Module part number
ASCII part number, unused digits should be set to 0x20
349
0x15d
Module revision code
Manufacturer-defined revision code
350–351
0x15e–0x15f
DRAM manufacturer ID code
See JEP-106
352
0x160
DRAM stepping
Manufacturer-defined stepping or 0xFF if not used
353–381
0x161–0x17d
Manufacturer's specific data
382–383
0x17e–0x17f
Reserved
DDR5 SDRAM
Preliminary table for DDR5, based on JESD400-5 specification.
DDR5 expands the SPD table to 1024-byte. SPD of DDR5 is using the I3C bus.
SPD contents for DDR5 SDRAM
Byte
Bit
Notes
Dec
Hex
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
0x00
Number of bytes in SPD device
1
0x01
SPD revision for base configuration parameters
2
0x02
Key byte / host bus command protocol type
3
0x03
Key byte / module type
4
0x04
First SDRAM density and package
5
0x05
First SDRAM addressing
6
0x06
First SDRAM I/O width
7
0x07
First SDRAM bank groups & banks per bank group
8
0x08
Second SDRAM density and package
9
0x09
Second SDRAM addressing
10
0x0a
Second SDRAM I/O width
11
0x0b
Second SDRAM bank groups & banks per bank group
12
0x0c
SDRAM optional features
13
0x0d
Thermal and refresh options
14
0x0e
Reserved
15
0x0f
Reserved
16
0x10
SDRAM nominal voltage, VDD
Extensions
The JEDEC standard only specifies some of the SPD bytes. The truly critical data fits into the first 64 bytes, while some of the remainder is earmarked for manufacturer identification. However, a 256-byte EEPROM is generally provided. A number of uses have been made of the remaining space.
Enhanced Performance Profiles (EPP)
Memory generally comes with conservative timing recommendations in the SPD ROM, to ensure basic functionality on all systems. Enthusiasts often spend considerable time manually adjusting the memory timings for higher speed.
Enhanced Performance Profiles is an extension of SPD, developed by Nvidia and Corsair, which includes additional information for higher-performance operation of DDR2 SDRAM, including supply voltages and command timing information not included in the JEDEC SPD spec. The EPP information is stored in the same EEPROM, but in bytes 99–127, which are unused by standard DDR2 SPD.
EPP SPD ROM usage
Bytes
Size
Full profiles
Abbreviated profiles
99–103
5
EPP header
104–109
6
Profile FP1
Profile AP1
110–115
6
Profile AP2
116–121
6
Profile FP2
Profile AP3
122–127
6
Profile AP4
The parameters are particularly designed to fit the memory controller on the nForce 5, nForce 6 and nForce 7 chipsets. Nvidia encourages support for EPP in the BIOS for its high-end motherboard chipsets. This is intended to provide "one-click overclocking" to get better performance with minimal effort.
Nvidia's name for EPP memory that has been qualified for performance and stability is "SLI-ready memory". The term "SLI-ready-memory" has caused some confusion, as it has nothing to do with SLI video. One can use EPP/SLI memory with a single video card (even a non-Nvidia card), and one can run a multi-card SLI video setup without EPP/SLI memory.
An extended version, EPP 2.0, supports DDR3 memory as well.
Intel Extreme Memory Profile (XMP)
A similar, Intel-developed JEDEC SPD extension was developed for DDR3 SDRAM DIMMs, later used in DDR4 SDRAM as well. XMP uses bytes 176–255, which are unallocated by JEDEC, to encode higher-performance memory timings.
Later, AMD developed AMP, an equivalent technology to XMP, for use in its "Radeon Memory" line of memory modules optimized for use in AMD platforms. Furthermore, motherboard developers implemented their own technologies to allow their AMD-based motherboards to read XMP profiles: MSI offers A-XMP, ASUS has DOCP (Direct Over Clock Profile), and Gigabyte has EOCP (Extended Over Clock Profile).
XMP SPD ROM usage
DDR3 Bytes
Size
Use
176–184
10
XMP header
185–219
33
XMP profile 1 ("enthusiast" settings)
220–254
36
XMP profile 2 ("extreme" settings)
The header contains the following data. Most importantly, it contains a "medium timebase" value MTB, as a rational number of nanoseconds (common values are 1/8, 1/12 and 1/16 ns). Many other later timing values are expressed as an integer number of MTB units.
Also included in the header is the number of DIMMs per memory channel that the profile is designed to support; including more DIMMs may not work well.
XMP Header bytes
DDR3 Byte
Bits
Use
176
7:0
XMP magic number byte 1 0x0C
177
7:0
XMP magic number byte 2 0x4A
178
0
Profile 1 enabled (if 0, disabled)
1
Profile 2 enabled
3:2
Profile 1 DIMMs per channel (1–4 encoded as 0–3)
5:4
Profile 2 DIMMs per channel
7:6
Reserved
179
3:0
XMP minor version number (x.0 or x.1)
7:4
XMP major version number (0.x or 1.x)
180
7:0
Medium timebase dividend for profile 1
181
7:0
Medium timebase divisor for profile 1 (MTB = dividend/divisor ns)
182
7:0
Medium timebase dividend for profile 2 (e.g. 8)
183
7:0
Medium timebase divisor for profile 2 (e.g. 1, giving MTB = 1/8 ns)
184
7:0
Reserved
XMP profile bytes
DDR3 Byte 1
DDR3 Byte 2
Bits
Use
185
220
0
Module Vdd voltage twentieths (0.00 or 0.05)
4:1
Module Vdd voltage tenths (0.0–0.9)
6:5
Module Vdd voltage units (0–2)
7
Reserved
186
221
7:0
Minimum SDRAM clock period tCKmin (MTB units)
187
222
7:0
Minimum CAS latency time tAAmin (MTB units)
188
223
7:0
CAS latencies supported (bitmap, 4–11 encoded as bits 0–7)
189
224
6:0
CAS latencies supported (bitmap, 12–18 encoded as bits 0–6)
7
Reserved
190
225
7:0
Minimum CAS write latency time tCWLmin (MTB units)
191
226
7:0
Minimum row precharge delay time tRPmin (MTB units)
192
227
7:0
Minimum RAS to CAS delay time tRCDmin (MTB units)
193
228
7:0
Minimum write recovery time tWRmin (MTB units)
194
229
3:0
tRASmin upper nibble (bits 11:8)
7:4
tRCmin upper nibble (bits 11:8)
195
230
7:0
Minimum active to precharge delay time tRASmin bits 7:0 (MTB units)
196
231
7:0
Minimum active to active/refresh delay time tRCmin bits 7:0 (MTB units)
197
232
7:0
Maximum average refresh interval tREFI lsbyte (MTB units)
198
233
7:0
Maximum average refresh interval tREFI msbyte (MTB units)
199
234
7:0
Minimum refresh recovery delay time tRFCmin lsbyte (MTB units)
200
235
7:0
Minimum refresh recovery delay time tRFCmin msbyte (MTB units)
201
236
7:0
Minimum internal read to precharge command delay time tRTPmin (MTB units)
202
237
7:0
Minimum row active to row active delay time tRRDmin (MTB units)
203
238
3:0
tFAWmin upper nibble (bits 11:8)
7:4
Reserved
204
239
7:0
Minimum four activate window delay time tFAWmin bits 7:0 (MTB units)
205
240
7:0
Minimum internal write to read command delay time tWTRmin (MTB units)
206
241
2:0
Write to read command turnaround time adjustment (0–7 clock cycles)
3
Write to read command turnaround adjustment sign (0=pull-in, 1=push-out)
6:4
Read to write command turnaround time adjustment (0–7 clock cycles)
7
Read to write command turnaround adjustment sign (0=pull-in, 1=push-out)
207
242
2:0
Back-to-back command turnaround time adjustment (0–7 clock cycles)
3
Back-to-back turnaround adjustment sign (0=pull-in, 1=push-out)
7:4
Reserved
208
243
7:0
System CMD rate mode. 0=JTAG default, otherwise in peculiar units of MTB × tCK/ns.E.g. if MTB is 1/8 ns, then this is in units of 1/8 clock cycle.
209
244
7:0
SDRAM auto self refresh performance.Standard version 1.1 says documentation is TBD.
210–218
245–253
7:0
Reserved
219
254
7:0
Reserved, vendor-specific personality code.
All data above are for DDR3 (XMP 1.1); DDR4 specs are not yet available.
AMD Extended Profiles for Overclocking (EXPO)
AMD's Extended Profiles for Overclocking (EXPO) is a JEDEC SPD extension developed for DDR5 DIMMs to apply a one-click automatic overclocking profile to system memory. AMD EXPO-certified DIMMs include optimised timings that optimise the performance of its Zen 4 processors. Unlike Intel's closed standard XMP, the EXPO standard is open and royalty-free. It can be used on Intel platforms. At launch in September 2022, there are 15 partner RAM kits with EXPO-certification available reaching up to 6400 MT/s.
Vendor-specific memory
A common misuse is to write information to certain memory regions to bind vendor-specific memory modules to a specific system. Fujitsu Technology Solutions is known to do this. Adding different memory module to the system usually results in a refusal or other counter-measures (like pressing F1 on every boot).
02 0E 00 01-00 00 00 EF-02 03 19 4D-BC 47 C3 46 ...........M.G.F
53 43 00 04-EF 4F 8D 1F-00 01 70 00-01 03 C1 CF SC...O....p.....
This is the output of a 512 MB memory module from Micron Technologies, branded for Fujitsu-Siemens Computers, note the "FSC" string.
The system BIOS rejects memory modules that don't have this information starting at offset 128h.
Some Packard Bell AMD laptops also use this method, in this case the symptoms can vary but it can lead to a flashing cursor rather than a beep pattern. Incidentally this can also be a symptom of BIOS corruption as well. Though upgrading a 2 GB to a 4 GB can also lead to issues.
Reading and writing SPD information
Memory module manufacturers write the SPD information to the EEPROM on the module. Motherboard BIOSes read the SPD information to configure the memory controller. There exist several programs that are able to read and modify SPD information on most, but not all motherboard chipsets.
dmidecode program that can decode information about memory (and other things) and runs on Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, BeOS, Cygwin and Solaris. dmidecode does not access SPD information directly; it reports the SMBIOS data about the memory. This information may be limited or incorrect.
On Linux systems and FreeBSD, the user space program decode-dimms provided by i2c-tools decodes and prints information on any memory with SPD information in the computer. It requires SMBus controller support in the kernel, the EEPROM kernel driver, and also that the SPD EEPROMs are connected to the SMBus. On older Linux distributions, decode-dimms.pl was available as part of lm_sensors.
OpenBSD has included a driver (spdmem(4)) since version 4.3 to provide information about memory modules. The driver was ported from NetBSD, where it is available since release 5.0.
Coreboot reads and uses SPD information to initialize all memory controllers in a computer with timing, size and other properties.
Windows systems use programs like HWiNFO, CPU-Z and Speccy, which can read and display DRAM module information from SPD.
Chipset-independent reading and writing of SPD information is done by accessing the memory's EEPROM directly with eeprom programmer hardware and software.
A not so common use for old laptops is as generic SMBus readers, as the internal EEPROM on the module can be disabled once the BIOS has read it so the bus is essentially available for use. The method used is to pull low the A0,A1 lines so the internal memory shuts down, allowing the external device to access the SMBus. Once this is done, a custom Linux build or DOS application can then access the external device. A common use is recovering data from LCD panel memory chips to retrofit a generic panel into a proprietary laptop.
On some chips it is also a good idea to separate write protect lines so that the onboard chips do not get wiped during reprogramming.
A related technique is rewriting the chip on webcams often included with many laptops as the bus speed is substantially higher and can even be modified so that 25x compatible chips can be read back for later cloning of the uEFI in the event of a chip failure.
This unfortunately only works on DDR3 and below, as DDR4 uses different security and can usually only be read. Its possible to use a tool like SPDTool or similar and replace the chip with one that has its WP line free so it can be altered in situ.
On some chipsets the message "Incompatible SMBus driver?" may be seen so read is also prevented.
RGB LED control
Some memory modules (especially on Gaming PCs) support RGB LEDs that are controlled by proprietary SMBus commands. This allows LED color control without additional connectors and cables. Kernel drivers from multiple manufacturers required to control the lights have been exploited to gain access ranging from full kernel memory access, to MSR and I/O port control numerous times in 2020 alone.
On older equipment
Some older equipment require the use of SIMMs with parallel presence detect (more commonly called simply presence detect or PD). Some of this equipment uses non-standard PD coding, IBM computers and Hewlett-Packard LaserJet and other printers in particular.
See also
Transducer electronic data sheet
References
^ Thomas P. Koenig; Nathan John (3 February 1997), "Serial Presence Detection poised for limelight", Electronic News, 43 (2153)
^ JEDEC Standard 21-C section 4.1.4 "Definition of the TSE2002av Serial Presence Detect (SPD) EEPROM with Temperature Sensor (TS) for Memory Module Applications"
^ "TN-04-42: Memory Module Serial Presence-Detect Write Protection" (PDF). Micron.
^ Dean Kent (24 October 1998). "Ram Guide". Tom's Hardware.
^ Shimpi, Anand Lal. "PC100 SDRAM: An Introduction". www.anandtech.com.
^ Application note INN-8668-APN3: SDRAM SPD Data Standards, memorytesters.com
^ PC SDRAM Serial Presence Detect (SPD) Specification (PDF), 1.2A, December 1997, p. 28
^ a b JEDEC Standard 21-C section 4.1.2.4 "SPDs for DDR SDRAM"
^ a b JEDEC Standard 21-C section 4.1.2.10 "Specific SPDs for DDR2 SDRAM"
^ "Understanding DDR3 Serial Presence Detect (SPD) Table".
^ JESD21-C Annex K: Serial Presence Detect for DDR3 SDRAM Modules, Release 4, SPD Revision 1.1
^ JESD21-C Annex K: Serial Presence Detect for DDR3 SDRAM Modules, Release 6, SPD Revision 1.3
^ Delvare, Jean. " eeprom: New ee1004 driver for DDR4 memory". LKML. Retrieved 7 November 2019.
^ a b JEDEC. "Annex L: Serial Presence Detect (SPD) for DDR4 SDRAM Modules" (PDF).
^ JEDEC. "EE1004 and TSE2004 Device Specification (Draft)" (PDF). Retrieved 7 November 2019.
^ JESD21-C Annex L: Serial Presence Detect for DDR4 SDRAM Modules, Release 5
^ "JESD400-5B(JESD400-5B)". jedec. 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
^ JEDEC Standard 21-C section 4.1.2.11 "Serial Presence Detect (SPD) for DDR3 SDRAM Modules"
^ JEDEC Standard 21-C section 4.1.2 "SERIAL PRESENCE DETECT STANDARD, General Standard"
^ JEDEC Standard 21-C section 4.1.2.5 "Specific PDs for Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)"
^ DDR2 UDIMM Enhanced Performance Profiles Design Specification (PDF), Nvidia, 12 May 2006, retrieved 5 May 2009
^ http://www.nvidia.com/docs/CP/45121/sli_memory.pdf
^ Enhanced Performance Profiles 2.0 (pp. 2–3)
^ "What Is Intel Extreme Memory Profile (Intel XMP)?". Intel. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
^ "Memory Profile Technology - AMP up your RAM". AMD. 2012. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
^ Martin, Ryan (23 July 2012). "AMD introduces its XMP-equivalent AMP - eTeknix". eTeknix. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
^ "MSI is worlds first brand to enable A-XMP on Ryzen for best DDR4 performance, launches new models". MSI. 21 March 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
^ Tradesman1 (26 August 2016). "What does XMP, DOCP, EOCP mean - Solved - Memory". Tom's Hardware Forums. Retrieved 8 January 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ a b c "Intel Extreme Memory Profile (XMP) Specification, Rev 1.1" (PDF). Intel. October 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 25 May 2010.
^ "AMD Extended Profiles for Overclocking". AMD. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
^ a b c Roach, Jacob (6 September 2022). "What is AMD EXPO and should my DDR5 have it?". Digital Trends. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
^ Bonshor, Gavin (30 August 2022). "AMD EXPO Memory Technology: One Click Overclocking Profiles For Ryzen 7000". AnandTech. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
^ "AMD announces EXPO technology for DDR5 memory overclocking". VideoCardz. 30 August 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
^ "Packard Bell LJ65 RAM upgrade". Tom's Hardware Forum. 9 January 2014.
^ "dmidecode: What's it good for?". Linux.com | The source for Linux information. 29 November 2004.
^ "decode-dimms(1)". Debian Manpage. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
^ "decode-dimms". www.freebsd.org. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
^ "HWiNFO - Professional System Information and Diagnostics". HWiNFO.
^ "VENGEANCE RGB PRO series DDR4 memory | Desktop Memory | CORSAIR". www.corsair.com. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
^ ActiveCyber. Viper RGB Driver Local Privilege Escalation (Technical report). CVE-2019-18845 – via MITRE Corporation.
^ ActiveCyber. CORSAIR iCUE Driver Local Privilege Escalation (CVE-2020-8808) (Technical report). CVE-2020-8808 – via MITRE Corporation.
^ ActiveCyber. ACTIVE-2020-003: Trident Z Lighting Control Driver Local Privilege Escalation (Technical report). CVE-2020-12446 – via MITRE Corporation.
External links
Serial Presence Detect Standard, General Standard
SPD Rev1.0 for DDR SDRAM
SPD Rev1.2 for DDR2 SDRAM
SPD Rev1.3 for DDR2 SDRAM
SPECIALITY DDR2-1066 SDRAM
Linux package i2c-tools
Instructions on how to use lm-sensors or i2c-tools to read the data Archived 19 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine
Memory Performance: 16GB DDR3-1333 to DDR3-2400 on Ivy Bridge IGP with G.Skill – explanation of various timing values
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing"},{"link_name":"memory module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_module"},{"link_name":"SIMMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIMM"},{"link_name":"DIMM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIMM"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"power-on self-test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power-on_self-test"},{"link_name":"memory timings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_timings"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"overclocking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overclocking"}],"text":"In computing, serial presence detect (SPD) is a standardized way to automatically access information about a memory module. Earlier 72-pin SIMMs included five pins that provided five bits of parallel presence detect (PPD) data, but the 168-pin DIMM standard changed to a serial presence detect to encode more information.[1]When an ordinary modern computer is turned on, it starts by doing a power-on self-test (POST). Since about the mid-1990s, this process includes automatically configuring the hardware currently present. SPD is a memory hardware feature that makes it possible for the computer to know what memory is present, and what memory timings to use to access the memory.Some computers adapt to hardware changes completely automatically. In most cases, there is a special optional procedure for accessing BIOS parameters, to view and potentially make changes in settings. It may be possible to control how the computer uses the memory SPD data—to choose settings, selectively modify memory timings, or possibly to completely override the SPD data (see overclocking).","title":"Serial presence detect"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"JEDEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JEDEC"},{"link_name":"EEPROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEPROM"},{"link_name":"SDRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDRAM"},{"link_name":"CAS latency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAS_latency"},{"link_name":"SMBus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMBus"},{"link_name":"I2C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I2C"},{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"seven-bit I2C addresses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I2C#7-bit_addressing"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"For a memory module to support SPD, the JEDEC standards require that certain parameters be in the lower 128 bytes of an EEPROM located on the memory module. These bytes contain timing parameters, manufacturer, serial number and other useful information about the module. Devices utilizing the memory automatically determine key parameters of the module by reading this information. For example, the SPD data on an SDRAM module might provide information about the CAS latency so the system can set this correctly without user intervention.The SPD EEPROM firmware is accessed using SMBus, a variant of the I2C protocol. This reduces the number of communication pins on the module to just two: a clock signal and a data signal. The EEPROM shares ground pins with the RAM, has its own power pin, and has three additional pins (SA0–2) to identify the slot, which are used to assign the EEPROM a unique address in the range 0x50–0x57. Not only can the communication lines be shared among 8 memory modules, the same SMBus is commonly used on motherboards for system health monitoring tasks such as reading power supply voltages, CPU temperatures, and fan speeds.SPD EEPROMs also respond to I2C addresses 0x30–0x37 if they have not been write protected, and an extension (TSE series) uses addresses 0x18–0x1F to access an optional on-chip temperature sensor. All those values are seven-bit I2C addresses formed by a Device Type Identifier Code prefix (DTIC) with SA0-2: to read (1100) from slot 3, one uses 110 0011 = 0x33. With a final R/W bit it forms the 8-bit Device Select Code.[2] Note that the semantics of slot-id is different for write-protection operations: for them they can be not passed by the SA pins at all.[3]Before SPD, memory chips were spotted with parallel presence detect (PPD). PPD used a separate pin for each bit of information, which meant that only the speed and density of the memory module could be stored because of the limited space for pins.","title":"Stored information"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SPD_SDRAM.jpg"},{"link_name":"SDRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDRAM"},{"link_name":"PC100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC100"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"binary-coded decimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal"},{"link_name":"nibble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibble"}],"sub_title":"SDR SDRAM","text":"Memory device on an SDRAM module, containing SPD data (red circled)The first SPD specification was issued by JEDEC and tightened up by Intel as part of its PC100 memory specification introduced in 1998.[4][5][6] Most values specified are in binary-coded decimal form. The most significant nibble can contain values from 10 to 15, and in some cases extends higher. In such cases, the encodings for 1, 2 and 3 are instead used to encode 16, 17 and 18. A most significant nibble of 0 is reserved to represent \"undefined\".The SPD ROM defines up to three DRAM timings, for three CAS latencies specified by set bits in byte 18. First comes the highest CAS latency (fastest clock), then two lower CAS latencies with progressively lower clock speeds.","title":"Stored information"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"DDR SDRAM","text":"The DDR DIMM SPD format is an extension of the SDR SDRAM format. Mostly, parameter ranges are rescaled to accommodate higher speeds.","title":"Stored information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BCD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal"}],"sub_title":"DDR2 SDRAM","text":"The DDR2 SPD standard makes a number of changes, but is roughly similar to the above. One notable deletion is the confusing and little-used support for DIMMs with two ranks of different sizes.For cycle time fields (bytes 9, 23, 25 and 49), which are encoded in BCD, some additional encodings are defined for the tenths digit to represent some common timings exactly:","title":"Stored information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"DDR3 SDRAM","text":"The DDR3 SDRAM standard significantly overhauls and simplifies the SPD contents layout. Instead of a number of BCD-encoded nanosecond fields, some \"timebase\" units are specified to high precision, and various timing parameters are encoded as multiples of that base unit.[10] Further, the practice of specifying different time values depending on the CAS latency has been dropped; now there are just a single set of timing parameters.Revision 1.1 lets some parameters be expressed as a \"medium time base\" value plus a (signed, −128 +127) \"fine time base\" correction. Generally, the medium time base is 1/8 ns (125 ps), and the fine time base is 1, 2.5 or 5 ps. For compatibility with earlier versions that lack the correction, the medium time base number is usually rounded up and the correction is negative. Values that work this way are:The memory capacity of a module can be computed from bytes 4, 7 and 8. The module width (byte 8) divided by the number of bits per chip (byte 7) gives the number of chips per rank. That can then be multiplied by the per-chip capacity (byte 4) and the number of ranks of chips on the module (usually 1 or 2, from byte 7).","title":"Stored information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bank switching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_switching"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-annex_l-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TSE2004-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-annex_l-14"}],"sub_title":"DDR4 SDRAM","text":"The DDR4 SDRAM \"Annex L\" standard for SPD changes the EEPROM module used. Instead of the old AT24C02-compatible 256-byte EEPROMs, JEDEC now defines a new nonstandard EE1004 type with two pages at the SMBus level each with 256 bytes. The new memory still uses the old 0x50–0x57 addresses, but two additional address at 0x36 (SPA0) and 0x37 (SPA1) are now used to receive commands to select the currently-active page for the bus, a form of bank switching.[13] Internally each logical page is further divided into two physical blocks of 128 bytes each, totaling four blocks and 512 bytes.[14] Other semantics for \"special\" address ranges remain the same, although write protection is now addressed by blocks and a high voltage at SA0 is now required to change its status.[15]Annex L defines a few different layouts that can be plugged into a 512-byte (of which a maximum of 320 bytes are defined) template, depending on the type of the memory module. The bit definitions are similar to DDR3.[14]","title":"Stored information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"I3C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I3C_(bus)"}],"sub_title":"DDR5 SDRAM","text":"Preliminary table for DDR5, based on JESD400-5 specification.[17]DDR5 expands the SPD table to 1024-byte. SPD of DDR5 is using the I3C bus.","title":"Stored information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spd_ddr-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spd_ddr2-9"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spd_ddr3-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spd_base-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spd_sdr-20"}],"text":"The JEDEC standard only specifies some of the SPD bytes. The truly critical data fits into the first 64 bytes,[8][9][18][19][20] while some of the remainder is earmarked for manufacturer identification. However, a 256-byte EEPROM is generally provided. A number of uses have been made of the remaining space.","title":"Extensions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nvidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia"},{"link_name":"Corsair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsair_Gaming"},{"link_name":"DDR2 SDRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDR2_SDRAM"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"nForce 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NForce_500"},{"link_name":"nForce 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NForce_600"},{"link_name":"nForce 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NForce_700"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"overclocking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overclocking"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"SLI video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalable_Link_Interface"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Enhanced Performance Profiles (EPP)","text":"Memory generally comes with conservative timing recommendations in the SPD ROM, to ensure basic functionality on all systems. Enthusiasts often spend considerable time manually adjusting the memory timings for higher speed.Enhanced Performance Profiles is an extension of SPD, developed by Nvidia and Corsair, which includes additional information for higher-performance operation of DDR2 SDRAM, including supply voltages and command timing information not included in the JEDEC SPD spec. The EPP information is stored in the same EEPROM, but in bytes 99–127, which are unused by standard DDR2 SPD.[21]The parameters are particularly designed to fit the memory controller on the nForce 5, nForce 6 and nForce 7 chipsets. Nvidia encourages support for EPP in the BIOS for its high-end motherboard chipsets. This is intended to provide \"one-click overclocking\" to get better performance with minimal effort.Nvidia's name for EPP memory that has been qualified for performance and stability is \"SLI-ready memory\".[22] The term \"SLI-ready-memory\" has caused some confusion, as it has nothing to do with SLI video. One can use EPP/SLI memory with a single video card (even a non-Nvidia card), and one can run a multi-card SLI video setup without EPP/SLI memory.An extended version, EPP 2.0, supports DDR3 memory as well.[23]","title":"Extensions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"DDR3 SDRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDR3_SDRAM"},{"link_name":"DDR4 SDRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDR4_SDRAM"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Intel Extreme Memory Profile (XMP)","text":"A similar, Intel-developed JEDEC SPD extension was developed for DDR3 SDRAM DIMMs, later used in DDR4 SDRAM as well. XMP uses bytes 176–255, which are unallocated by JEDEC, to encode higher-performance memory timings.[24]Later, AMD developed AMP, an equivalent technology to XMP, for use in its \"Radeon Memory\" line of memory modules optimized for use in AMD platforms.[25][26] Furthermore, motherboard developers implemented their own technologies to allow their AMD-based motherboards to read XMP profiles: MSI offers A-XMP,[27] ASUS has DOCP (Direct Over Clock Profile), and Gigabyte has EOCP (Extended Over Clock Profile).[28]The header contains the following data. Most importantly, it contains a \"medium timebase\" value MTB, as a rational number of nanoseconds (common values are 1/8, 1/12 and 1/16 ns). Many other later timing values are expressed as an integer number of MTB units.Also included in the header is the number of DIMMs per memory channel that the profile is designed to support; including more DIMMs may not work well.All data above are for DDR3 (XMP 1.1); DDR4 specs are not yet available.","title":"Extensions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DDR5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDR5_SDRAM"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JRoachDigitalTrends-31"},{"link_name":"Zen 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zen_4"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JRoachDigitalTrends-31"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JRoachDigitalTrends-31"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"AMD Extended Profiles for Overclocking (EXPO)","text":"AMD's Extended Profiles for Overclocking (EXPO) is a JEDEC SPD extension developed for DDR5 DIMMs to apply a one-click automatic overclocking profile to system memory.[30][31] AMD EXPO-certified DIMMs include optimised timings that optimise the performance of its Zen 4 processors.[32] Unlike Intel's closed standard XMP, the EXPO standard is open and royalty-free.[31] It can be used on Intel platforms.[31] At launch in September 2022, there are 15 partner RAM kits with EXPO-certification available reaching up to 6400 MT/s.[33]","title":"Extensions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fujitsu Technology Solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujitsu_Technology_Solutions"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Vendor-specific memory","text":"A common misuse is to write information to certain memory regions to bind vendor-specific memory modules to a specific system. Fujitsu Technology Solutions is known to do this. Adding different memory module to the system usually results in a refusal or other counter-measures (like pressing F1 on every boot).02 0E 00 01-00 00 00 EF-02 03 19 4D-BC 47 C3 46 ...........M.G.F\n53 43 00 04-EF 4F 8D 1F-00 01 70 00-01 03 C1 CF SC...O....p.....This is the output of a 512 MB memory module from Micron Technologies, branded for Fujitsu-Siemens Computers, note the \"FSC\" string.\nThe system BIOS rejects memory modules that don't have this information starting at offset 128h.Some Packard Bell AMD laptops also use this method, in this case the symptoms can vary but it can lead to a flashing cursor rather than a beep pattern. Incidentally this can also be a symptom of BIOS corruption as well.[34] Though upgrading a 2 GB to a 4 GB can also lead to issues.","title":"Extensions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"EEPROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEPROM"},{"link_name":"BIOSes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"dmidecode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.nongnu.org/dmidecode/"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"FreeBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBSD"},{"link_name":"NetBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetBSD"},{"link_name":"OpenBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBSD"},{"link_name":"BeOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BeOS"},{"link_name":"Cygwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cygwin"},{"link_name":"Solaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"SMBIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMBIOS"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"FreeBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBSD"},{"link_name":"user space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_space"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"SMBus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Management_Bus"},{"link_name":"lm_sensors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lm_sensors"},{"link_name":"spdmem(4)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//man.openbsd.org/spdmem.4"},{"link_name":"Coreboot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coreboot"},{"link_name":"memory controllers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_controller"},{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"HWiNFO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HWiNFO"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"CPU-Z","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU-Z"},{"link_name":"Speccy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speccy"}],"text":"Memory module manufacturers write the SPD information to the EEPROM on the module. Motherboard BIOSes read the SPD information to configure the memory controller. There exist several programs that are able to read and modify SPD information on most, but not all motherboard chipsets.dmidecode program that can decode information about memory (and other things) and runs on Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, BeOS, Cygwin and Solaris. dmidecode does not access SPD information directly; it reports the SMBIOS data about the memory.[35] This information may be limited or incorrect.\nOn Linux systems and FreeBSD, the user space program decode-dimms provided by i2c-tools decodes and prints information on any memory with SPD information in the computer.[36][37] It requires SMBus controller support in the kernel, the EEPROM kernel driver, and also that the SPD EEPROMs are connected to the SMBus. On older Linux distributions, decode-dimms.pl was available as part of lm_sensors.\nOpenBSD has included a driver (spdmem(4)) since version 4.3 to provide information about memory modules. The driver was ported from NetBSD, where it is available since release 5.0.\nCoreboot reads and uses SPD information to initialize all memory controllers in a computer with timing, size and other properties.\nWindows systems use programs like HWiNFO,[38] CPU-Z and Speccy, which can read and display DRAM module information from SPD.Chipset-independent reading and writing of SPD information is done by accessing the memory's EEPROM directly with eeprom programmer hardware and software.A not so common use for old laptops is as generic SMBus readers, as the internal EEPROM on the module can be disabled once the BIOS has read it so the bus is essentially available for use. The method used is to pull low the A0,A1 lines so the internal memory shuts down, allowing the external device to access the SMBus. Once this is done, a custom Linux build or DOS application can then access the external device. A common use is recovering data from LCD panel memory chips to retrofit a generic panel into a proprietary laptop.\nOn some chips it is also a good idea to separate write protect lines so that the onboard chips do not get wiped during reprogramming.\nA related technique is rewriting the chip on webcams often included with many laptops as the bus speed is substantially higher and can even be modified so that 25x compatible chips can be read back for later cloning of the uEFI in the event of a chip failure.This unfortunately only works on DDR3 and below, as DDR4 uses different security and can usually only be read. Its possible to use a tool like SPDTool or similar and replace the chip with one that has its WP line free so it can be altered in situ.\nOn some chipsets the message \"Incompatible SMBus driver?\" may be seen so read is also prevented.","title":"Reading and writing SPD information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gaming PCs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaming_PC"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"sub_title":"RGB LED control","text":"Some memory modules (especially on Gaming PCs)[39] support RGB LEDs that are controlled by proprietary SMBus commands. This allows LED color control without additional connectors and cables. Kernel drivers from multiple manufacturers required to control the lights have been exploited to gain access ranging from full kernel memory access, to MSR and I/O port control numerous times in 2020 alone.[40][41][42]","title":"Reading and writing SPD information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SIMMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIMM"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Hewlett-Packard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"LaserJet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LaserJet"}],"text":"Some older equipment require the use of SIMMs with parallel presence detect (more commonly called simply presence detect or PD). Some of this equipment uses non-standard PD coding, IBM computers and Hewlett-Packard LaserJet and other printers in particular.","title":"On older equipment"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Memory device on an SDRAM module, containing SPD data (red circled)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/SPD_SDRAM.jpg/220px-SPD_SDRAM.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"Transducer electronic data sheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transducer_electronic_data_sheet"}]
|
[{"reference":"Thomas P. Koenig; Nathan John (3 February 1997), \"Serial Presence Detection poised for limelight\", Electronic News, 43 (2153)","urls":[{"url":"http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EKF/is_n2153_v43/ai_19102210/","url_text":"\"Serial Presence Detection poised for limelight\""}]},{"reference":"\"TN-04-42: Memory Module Serial Presence-Detect Write Protection\" (PDF). Micron.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.micron.com/-/media/client/global/documents/products/technical-note/dram-modules/tn_04_42.pdf","url_text":"\"TN-04-42: Memory Module Serial Presence-Detect Write Protection\""}]},{"reference":"Dean Kent (24 October 1998). \"Ram Guide\". Tom's Hardware.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/ram-guide,89.html","url_text":"\"Ram Guide\""}]},{"reference":"Shimpi, Anand Lal. \"PC100 SDRAM: An Introduction\". www.anandtech.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/60","url_text":"\"PC100 SDRAM: An Introduction\""}]},{"reference":"PC SDRAM Serial Presence Detect (SPD) Specification (PDF), 1.2A, December 1997, p. 28","urls":[{"url":"http://www.taricorp.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/SPDSDRAM1.2a1.pdf","url_text":"PC SDRAM Serial Presence Detect (SPD) Specification"}]},{"reference":"\"Understanding DDR3 Serial Presence Detect (SPD) Table\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.simmtester.com/page/news/showpubnews.asp?num=153","url_text":"\"Understanding DDR3 Serial Presence Detect (SPD) Table\""}]},{"reference":"Delvare, Jean. \"[PATCH] eeprom: New ee1004 driver for DDR4 memory\". LKML. Retrieved 7 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://lkml.org/lkml/2017/11/20/131","url_text":"\"[PATCH] eeprom: New ee1004 driver for DDR4 memory\""}]},{"reference":"JEDEC. \"Annex L: Serial Presence Detect (SPD) for DDR4 SDRAM Modules\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.softnology.biz/pdf/4_01_02_AnnexL-R25_SPD_for_DDR4_SDRAM_Release_3_Sep2015.pdf","url_text":"\"Annex L: Serial Presence Detect (SPD) for DDR4 SDRAM Modules\""}]},{"reference":"JEDEC. \"EE1004 and TSE2004 Device Specification (Draft)\" (PDF). Retrieved 7 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.softnology.biz/pdf/ee1004_tse2004.pdf","url_text":"\"EE1004 and TSE2004 Device Specification (Draft)\""}]},{"reference":"\"JESD400-5B(JESD400-5B)\". jedec. 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jedec.org/standards-documents/docs/jesd400-5b","url_text":"\"JESD400-5B(JESD400-5B)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jedec&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"jedec"}]},{"reference":"DDR2 UDIMM Enhanced Performance Profiles Design Specification (PDF), Nvidia, 12 May 2006, retrieved 5 May 2009","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nvidia.com/content/epp/epp_specifications.pdf","url_text":"DDR2 UDIMM Enhanced Performance Profiles Design Specification"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia","url_text":"Nvidia"}]},{"reference":"\"What Is Intel Extreme Memory Profile (Intel XMP)?\". Intel. Retrieved 26 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.intel.co.uk/content/www/uk/en/gaming/extreme-memory-profile-xmp.html","url_text":"\"What Is Intel Extreme Memory Profile (Intel XMP)?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Memory Profile Technology - AMP up your RAM\". AMD. 2012. Retrieved 8 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amd.com/en/technologies/amp","url_text":"\"Memory Profile Technology - AMP up your RAM\""}]},{"reference":"Martin, Ryan (23 July 2012). \"AMD introduces its XMP-equivalent AMP - eTeknix\". eTeknix. Retrieved 8 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.eteknix.com/amd-introduces-its-xmp-equivalent-amp/","url_text":"\"AMD introduces its XMP-equivalent AMP - eTeknix\""}]},{"reference":"\"MSI is worlds first brand to enable A-XMP on Ryzen for best DDR4 performance, launches new models\". MSI. 21 March 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.msi.com/news/detail/0ec96be397dd6d3cf2fecb4a2d627c1c","url_text":"\"MSI is worlds first brand to enable A-XMP on Ryzen for best DDR4 performance, launches new models\""}]},{"reference":"Tradesman1 (26 August 2016). \"What does XMP, DOCP, EOCP mean - Solved - Memory\". Tom's Hardware Forums. Retrieved 8 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tomshardware.com/answers/id-3167421/xmp-docp-eocp.html#r18503260","url_text":"\"What does XMP, DOCP, EOCP mean - Solved - Memory\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel Extreme Memory Profile (XMP) Specification, Rev 1.1\" (PDF). Intel. October 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 25 May 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120306230940/http://www.softnology.biz/pdf/IntelXMP_Rev1.1.pdf","url_text":"\"Intel Extreme Memory Profile (XMP) Specification, Rev 1.1\""},{"url":"http://www.softnology.biz/pdf/Intel_XMP_Spec_Rev1.1.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"AMD Extended Profiles for Overclocking\". AMD. Retrieved 26 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amd.com/en/technologies/expo","url_text":"\"AMD Extended Profiles for Overclocking\""}]},{"reference":"Roach, Jacob (6 September 2022). \"What is AMD EXPO and should my DDR5 have it?\". Digital Trends. Retrieved 26 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/what-is-amd-expo/","url_text":"\"What is AMD EXPO and should my DDR5 have it?\""}]},{"reference":"Bonshor, Gavin (30 August 2022). \"AMD EXPO Memory Technology: One Click Overclocking Profiles For Ryzen 7000\". AnandTech. Retrieved 26 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/17556/amd-expo-memory-one-click-overclocking-profiles-for-ryzen-7000-feat-gskill-and-corsair","url_text":"\"AMD EXPO Memory Technology: One Click Overclocking Profiles For Ryzen 7000\""}]},{"reference":"\"AMD announces EXPO technology for DDR5 memory overclocking\". VideoCardz. 30 August 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://videocardz.com/newz/amd-announces-expo-technology-for-ddr5-memory-overclocking","url_text":"\"AMD announces EXPO technology for DDR5 memory overclocking\""}]},{"reference":"\"Packard Bell LJ65 RAM upgrade\". Tom's Hardware Forum. 9 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://forums.tomshardware.com/threads/packard-bell-lj65-ram-upgrade.1651388/","url_text":"\"Packard Bell LJ65 RAM upgrade\""}]},{"reference":"\"dmidecode: What's it good for?\". Linux.com | The source for Linux information. 29 November 2004.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.linux.com/news/dmidecode-whats-it-good","url_text":"\"dmidecode: What's it good for?\""}]},{"reference":"\"decode-dimms(1)\". Debian Manpage. Retrieved 16 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://manpages.debian.org/testing/i2c-tools/decode-dimms.1.en.html","url_text":"\"decode-dimms(1)\""}]},{"reference":"\"decode-dimms\". www.freebsd.org. Retrieved 24 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=decode-dimms","url_text":"\"decode-dimms\""}]},{"reference":"\"HWiNFO - Professional System Information and Diagnostics\". HWiNFO.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hwinfo.com/","url_text":"\"HWiNFO - Professional System Information and Diagnostics\""}]},{"reference":"\"VENGEANCE RGB PRO series DDR4 memory | Desktop Memory | CORSAIR\". www.corsair.com. Retrieved 26 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.corsair.com/us/en/vengeance-rgb-pro-memory","url_text":"\"VENGEANCE RGB PRO series DDR4 memory | Desktop Memory | CORSAIR\""}]},{"reference":"ActiveCyber. Viper RGB Driver Local Privilege Escalation (Technical report). CVE-2019-18845 – via MITRE Corporation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.activecyber.us/activelabs/viper-rgb-driver-local-privilege-escalation-cve-2019-18845","url_text":"Viper RGB Driver Local Privilege Escalation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CVE_(identifier)","url_text":"CVE"},{"url":"https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2019-18845","url_text":"2019-18845"}]},{"reference":"ActiveCyber. CORSAIR iCUE Driver Local Privilege Escalation (CVE-2020-8808) (Technical report). CVE-2020-8808 – via MITRE Corporation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.activecyber.us/activelabs/corsair-icue-driver-local-privilege-escalation-cve-2020-8808","url_text":"CORSAIR iCUE Driver Local Privilege Escalation (CVE-2020-8808)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CVE_(identifier)","url_text":"CVE"},{"url":"https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2020-8808","url_text":"2020-8808"}]},{"reference":"ActiveCyber. ACTIVE-2020-003: Trident Z Lighting Control Driver Local Privilege Escalation (Technical report). CVE-2020-12446 – via MITRE Corporation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.activecyber.us/activelabs/active-2020-003-trident-z-lighting-control-driver-local-privilege-escalation","url_text":"ACTIVE-2020-003: Trident Z Lighting Control Driver Local Privilege Escalation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CVE_(identifier)","url_text":"CVE"},{"url":"https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2020-12446","url_text":"2020-12446"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"http://www.nongnu.org/dmidecode/","external_links_name":"dmidecode"},{"Link":"https://man.openbsd.org/spdmem.4","external_links_name":"spdmem(4)"},{"Link":"http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EKF/is_n2153_v43/ai_19102210/","external_links_name":"\"Serial Presence Detection poised for limelight\""},{"Link":"http://www.jedec.org/sites/default/files/docs/4_01_04R21.pdf","external_links_name":"JEDEC Standard 21-C section 4.1.4"},{"Link":"https://www.micron.com/-/media/client/global/documents/products/technical-note/dram-modules/tn_04_42.pdf","external_links_name":"\"TN-04-42: Memory Module Serial Presence-Detect Write Protection\""},{"Link":"https://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/ram-guide,89.html","external_links_name":"\"Ram Guide\""},{"Link":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/60","external_links_name":"\"PC100 SDRAM: An Introduction\""},{"Link":"http://www.memorytesters.com/ramcheck/rc_ap3.htm","external_links_name":"Application note INN-8668-APN3: SDRAM SPD Data Standards"},{"Link":"http://www.taricorp.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/SPDSDRAM1.2a1.pdf","external_links_name":"PC SDRAM Serial Presence Detect (SPD) Specification"},{"Link":"http://www.jedec.org/download/search/4_01_02_04R13.PDF","external_links_name":"JEDEC Standard 21-C section 4.1.2.4"},{"Link":"http://www.jedec.org/download/search/4_01_02_10R13.pdf","external_links_name":"JEDEC Standard 21-C section 4.1.2.10"},{"Link":"http://www.simmtester.com/page/news/showpubnews.asp?num=153","external_links_name":"\"Understanding DDR3 Serial Presence Detect (SPD) Table\""},{"Link":"http://www.jedec.org/sites/default/files/docs/4_01_02_11R21.pdf","external_links_name":"JESD21-C Annex K: Serial Presence Detect for DDR3 SDRAM Modules"},{"Link":"http://www.softnology.biz/pdf/JEDEC_DDR3_SPD_4_01_02_11R24.pdf","external_links_name":"JESD21-C Annex K: Serial Presence Detect for DDR3 SDRAM Modules"},{"Link":"https://lkml.org/lkml/2017/11/20/131","external_links_name":"\"[PATCH] eeprom: New ee1004 driver for DDR4 memory\""},{"Link":"http://www.softnology.biz/pdf/4_01_02_AnnexL-R25_SPD_for_DDR4_SDRAM_Release_3_Sep2015.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Annex L: Serial Presence Detect (SPD) for DDR4 SDRAM Modules\""},{"Link":"http://www.softnology.biz/pdf/ee1004_tse2004.pdf","external_links_name":"\"EE1004 and TSE2004 Device Specification (Draft)\""},{"Link":"https://www.jedec.org/system/files/docs/4_01_02_AnnexL-5R29.pdf","external_links_name":"JESD21-C Annex L: Serial Presence Detect for DDR4 SDRAM Modules"},{"Link":"https://www.jedec.org/standards-documents/docs/jesd400-5b","external_links_name":"\"JESD400-5B(JESD400-5B)\""},{"Link":"http://www.jedec.org/download/search/4_01_02_11R18.pdf","external_links_name":"JEDEC Standard 21-C section 4.1.2.11"},{"Link":"http://www.jedec.org/download/search/4_01_02_00r9.pdf","external_links_name":"JEDEC Standard 21-C section 4.1.2"},{"Link":"http://www.jedec.org/download/search/4_01_02_05R12.PDF","external_links_name":"JEDEC Standard 21-C section 4.1.2.5"},{"Link":"http://www.nvidia.com/content/epp/epp_specifications.pdf","external_links_name":"DDR2 UDIMM Enhanced Performance Profiles Design Specification"},{"Link":"http://www.nvidia.com/docs/CP/45121/sli_memory.pdf","external_links_name":"http://www.nvidia.com/docs/CP/45121/sli_memory.pdf"},{"Link":"http://www.nvidia.com/docs/IO/52280/NVIDIA_EPP2_TB.pdf","external_links_name":"Enhanced Performance Profiles 2.0"},{"Link":"https://www.intel.co.uk/content/www/uk/en/gaming/extreme-memory-profile-xmp.html","external_links_name":"\"What Is Intel Extreme Memory Profile (Intel XMP)?\""},{"Link":"https://www.amd.com/en/technologies/amp","external_links_name":"\"Memory Profile Technology - AMP up your RAM\""},{"Link":"https://www.eteknix.com/amd-introduces-its-xmp-equivalent-amp/","external_links_name":"\"AMD introduces its XMP-equivalent AMP - eTeknix\""},{"Link":"https://www.msi.com/news/detail/0ec96be397dd6d3cf2fecb4a2d627c1c","external_links_name":"\"MSI is worlds first brand to enable A-XMP on Ryzen for best DDR4 performance, launches new models\""},{"Link":"http://www.tomshardware.com/answers/id-3167421/xmp-docp-eocp.html#r18503260","external_links_name":"\"What does XMP, DOCP, EOCP mean - Solved - Memory\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120306230940/http://www.softnology.biz/pdf/IntelXMP_Rev1.1.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Intel Extreme Memory Profile (XMP) Specification, Rev 1.1\""},{"Link":"http://www.softnology.biz/pdf/Intel_XMP_Spec_Rev1.1.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.amd.com/en/technologies/expo","external_links_name":"\"AMD Extended Profiles for Overclocking\""},{"Link":"https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/what-is-amd-expo/","external_links_name":"\"What is AMD EXPO and should my DDR5 have it?\""},{"Link":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/17556/amd-expo-memory-one-click-overclocking-profiles-for-ryzen-7000-feat-gskill-and-corsair","external_links_name":"\"AMD EXPO Memory Technology: One Click Overclocking Profiles For Ryzen 7000\""},{"Link":"https://videocardz.com/newz/amd-announces-expo-technology-for-ddr5-memory-overclocking","external_links_name":"\"AMD announces EXPO technology for DDR5 memory overclocking\""},{"Link":"https://forums.tomshardware.com/threads/packard-bell-lj65-ram-upgrade.1651388/","external_links_name":"\"Packard Bell LJ65 RAM upgrade\""},{"Link":"https://www.linux.com/news/dmidecode-whats-it-good","external_links_name":"\"dmidecode: What's it good for?\""},{"Link":"http://manpages.debian.org/testing/i2c-tools/decode-dimms.1.en.html","external_links_name":"\"decode-dimms(1)\""},{"Link":"https://www.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=decode-dimms","external_links_name":"\"decode-dimms\""},{"Link":"https://www.hwinfo.com/","external_links_name":"\"HWiNFO - Professional System Information and Diagnostics\""},{"Link":"https://www.corsair.com/us/en/vengeance-rgb-pro-memory","external_links_name":"\"VENGEANCE RGB PRO series DDR4 memory | Desktop Memory | CORSAIR\""},{"Link":"https://www.activecyber.us/activelabs/viper-rgb-driver-local-privilege-escalation-cve-2019-18845","external_links_name":"Viper RGB Driver Local Privilege Escalation"},{"Link":"https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2019-18845","external_links_name":"2019-18845"},{"Link":"https://www.activecyber.us/activelabs/corsair-icue-driver-local-privilege-escalation-cve-2020-8808","external_links_name":"CORSAIR iCUE Driver Local Privilege Escalation (CVE-2020-8808)"},{"Link":"https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2020-8808","external_links_name":"2020-8808"},{"Link":"https://www.activecyber.us/activelabs/active-2020-003-trident-z-lighting-control-driver-local-privilege-escalation","external_links_name":"ACTIVE-2020-003: Trident Z Lighting Control Driver Local Privilege Escalation"},{"Link":"https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2020-12446","external_links_name":"2020-12446"},{"Link":"http://www.jedec.org/sites/default/files/docs/4_01_02_11R21A.pdf","external_links_name":"Serial Presence Detect Standard, General Standard"},{"Link":"http://www.jedec.org/download/search/4_01_02_04R13.PDF","external_links_name":"SPD Rev1.0 for DDR SDRAM"},{"Link":"http://www.jedec.org/download/search/4_01_02_10R14.pdf","external_links_name":"SPD Rev1.2 for DDR2 SDRAM"},{"Link":"http://www.jedec.org/download/search/4_01_02_10R17.pdf","external_links_name":"SPD Rev1.3 for DDR2 SDRAM"},{"Link":"http://www.jedec.org/download/search/JESD208.pdf","external_links_name":"SPECIALITY DDR2-1066 SDRAM"},{"Link":"https://i2c.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/I2C_Tools","external_links_name":"i2c-tools"},{"Link":"http://ornellas.apanela.com/dokuwiki/pub:spd","external_links_name":"Instructions on how to use lm-sensors or i2c-tools to read the data"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070519080941/http://ornellas.apanela.com/dokuwiki/pub:spd","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.anandtech.com/show/6372/memory-performance-16gb-ddr31333-to-ddr32400-on-ivy-bridge-igp-with-gskill","external_links_name":"Memory Performance: 16GB DDR3-1333 to DDR3-2400 on Ivy Bridge IGP with G.Skill"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serialization
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Serialization
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["1 Uses","2 Drawbacks","3 Serialization formats","4 Programming language support","4.1 C and C++","4.2 CFML","4.3 Delphi","4.4 Go","4.5 Haskell","4.6 Java","4.7 JavaScript","4.8 Julia","4.9 Lisp","4.10 .NET Framework","4.11 OCaml","4.12 Perl","4.13 PHP","4.14 Prolog","4.15 Python","4.16 R","4.17 REBOL","4.18 Ruby","4.19 Rust","4.20 Smalltalk","4.21 Swift","4.22 Windows PowerShell","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
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Conversion process for computer data
This article is about data structure encoding. For other uses, see Serialization (disambiguation).
In computing, serialization (or serialisation) is the process of translating a data structure or object state into a format that can be stored (e.g. files in secondary storage devices, data buffers in primary storage devices) or transmitted (e.g. data streams over computer networks) and reconstructed later (possibly in a different computer environment). When the resulting series of bits is reread according to the serialization format, it can be used to create a semantically identical clone of the original object. For many complex objects, such as those that make extensive use of references, this process is not straightforward. Serialization of objects does not include any of their associated methods with which they were previously linked.
This process of serializing an object is also called marshalling an object in some situations. The opposite operation, extracting a data structure from a series of bytes, is deserialization, (also called unserialization or unmarshalling).
Uses
Uses of serialization include:
serializing data for transfer across wires and networks (messaging).
storing data (in databases, on hard disk drives).
remote procedure calls, e.g., as in SOAP.
distributing objects, especially in component-based software engineering such as COM, CORBA, etc.
detecting changes in time-varying data.
For some of these features to be useful, architecture independence must be maintained. For example, for maximal use of distribution, a computer running on a different hardware architecture should be able to reliably reconstruct a serialized data stream, regardless of endianness. This means that the simpler and faster procedure of directly copying the memory layout of the data structure cannot work reliably for all architectures. Serializing the data structure in an architecture-independent format means preventing the problems of byte ordering, memory layout, or simply different ways of representing data structures in different programming languages.
Inherent to any serialization scheme is that, because the encoding of the data is by definition serial, extracting one part of the serialized data structure requires that the entire object be read from start to end, and reconstructed. In many applications, this linearity is an asset, because it enables simple, common I/O interfaces to be utilized to hold and pass on the state of an object. In applications where higher performance is an issue, it can make sense to expend more effort to deal with a more complex, non-linear storage organization.
Even on a single machine, primitive pointer objects are too fragile to save because the objects to which they point may be reloaded to a different location in memory. To deal with this, the serialization process includes a step called unswizzling or pointer unswizzling, where direct pointer references are converted to references based on name or position. The deserialization process includes an inverse step called pointer swizzling.
Since both serializing and deserializing can be driven from common code (for example, the Serialize function in Microsoft Foundation Classes), it is possible for the common code to do both at the same time, and thus, 1) detect differences between the objects being serialized and their prior copies, and 2) provide the input for the next such detection. It is not necessary to actually build the prior copy because differences can be detected on the fly, a technique called differential execution. This is useful in the programming of user interfaces whose contents are time-varying — graphical objects can be created, removed, altered, or made to handle input events without necessarily having to write separate code to do those things.
Drawbacks
Serialization breaks the opacity of an abstract data type by potentially exposing private implementation details. Trivial implementations which serialize all data members may violate encapsulation.
To discourage competitors from making compatible products, publishers of proprietary software often keep the details of their programs' serialization formats a trade secret. Some deliberately obfuscate or even encrypt the serialized data. Yet, interoperability requires that applications be able to understand each other's serialization formats. Therefore, remote method call architectures such as CORBA define their serialization formats in detail.
Many institutions, such as archives and libraries, attempt to future proof their backup archives—in particular, database dumps—by storing them in some relatively human-readable serialized format.
Serialization formats
Main article: Comparison of data serialization formats
The Xerox Network Systems Courier technology in the early 1980s influenced the first widely adopted standard. Sun Microsystems published the External Data Representation (XDR) in 1987. XDR is an open format, and standardized as STD 67 (RFC 4506).
In the late 1990s, a push to provide an alternative to the standard serialization protocols started: XML, an SGML subset, was used to produce a human-readable text-based encoding. Such an encoding can be useful for persistent objects that may be read and understood by humans, or communicated to other systems regardless of programming language. It has the disadvantage of losing the more compact, byte-stream-based encoding, but by this point larger storage and transmission capacities made file size less of a concern than in the early days of computing. In the 2000s, XML was often used for asynchronous transfer of structured data between client and server in Ajax web applications. XML is an open format, and standardized as a W3C recommendation.
JSON is a lightweight plain-text alternative to XML, and is also commonly used for client-server communication in web applications. JSON is based on JavaScript syntax, but is independent of JavaScript and supported in many other programming languages. JSON is an open format, standardized as STD 90 (RFC 8259), ECMA-404, and ISO/IEC 21778:2017.
YAML is a strict superset of JSON and includes additional features such as a data type tags, support for cyclic data structures, indentation-sensitive syntax, and multiple forms of scalar data quoting. YAML is an open format.
Property lists are used for serialization by NeXTSTEP, GNUstep, macOS, and iOS frameworks. Property list, or p-list for short, doesn't refer to a single serialization format but instead several different variants, some human-readable and one binary.
For large volume scientific datasets, such as satellite data and output of numerical climate, weather, or ocean models, specific binary serialization standards have been developed, e.g. HDF, netCDF and the older GRIB.
Programming language support
Several object-oriented programming languages directly support object serialization (or object archival), either by syntactic sugar elements or providing a standard interface for doing so. The languages which do so include Ruby, Smalltalk, Python, PHP, Objective-C, Delphi, Java, and the .NET family of languages. There are also libraries available that add serialization support to languages that lack native support for it.
C and C++
C and C++ do not provide serialization as any sort of high-level construct, but both languages support writing any of the built-in data types, as well as plain old data structs, as binary data. As such, it is usually trivial to write custom serialization functions. Moreover, compiler-based solutions, such as the ODB ORM system for C++ and the gSOAP toolkit for C and C++, are capable of automatically producing serialization code with few or no modifications to class declarations. Other popular serialization frameworks are Boost.Serialization from the Boost Framework, the S11n framework, and Cereal. MFC framework (Microsoft) also provides serialization methodology as part of its Document-View architecture.
CFML
CFML allows data structures to be serialized to WDDX with the <cfwddx> tag and to JSON with the SerializeJSON() function.
Delphi
Delphi provides a built-in mechanism for serialization of components (also called persistent objects), which is fully integrated with its IDE. The component's contents are saved to a DFM file and reloaded on-the-fly.
Go
Go natively supports unmarshalling/marshalling of JSON and XML data. There are also third-party modules that support YAML and Protocol Buffers. Go also supports Gobs.
Haskell
In Haskell, serialization is supported for types that are members of the Read and Show type classes. Every type that is a member of the Read type class defines a function that will extract the data from the string representation of the dumped data. The Show type class, in turn, contains the show function from which a string representation of the object can be generated. The programmer need not define the functions explicitly—merely declaring a type to be deriving Read or deriving Show, or both, can make the compiler generate the appropriate functions for many cases (but not all: function types, for example, cannot automatically derive Show or Read). The auto-generated instance for Show also produces valid source code, so the same Haskell value can be generated by running the code produced by show in, for example, a Haskell interpreter. For more efficient serialization, there are haskell libraries that allow high-speed serialization in binary format, e.g. binary.
Java
Java provides automatic serialization which requires that the object be marked by implementing the java.io.Serializable interface. Implementing the interface marks the class as "okay to serialize", and Java then handles serialization internally. There are no serialization methods defined on the Serializable interface, but a serializable class can optionally define methods with certain special names and signatures that if defined, will be called as part of the serialization/deserialization process. The language also allows the developer to override the serialization process more thoroughly by implementing another interface, the Externalizable interface, which includes two special methods that are used to save and restore the object's state. There are three primary reasons why objects are not serializable by default and must implement the Serializable interface to access Java's serialization mechanism.Firstly, not all objects capture useful semantics in a serialized state. For example, a Thread object is tied to the state of the current JVM. There is no context in which a deserialized Thread object would maintain useful semantics.Secondly, the serialized state of an object forms part of its class' compatibility contract. Maintaining compatibility between versions of serializable classes requires additional effort and consideration. Therefore, making a class serializable needs to be a deliberate design decision and not a default condition.Lastly, serialization allows access to non-transient private members of a class that are not otherwise accessible. Classes containing sensitive information (for example, a password) should not be serializable nor externalizable.: 339–345 The standard encoding method uses a recursive graph-based translation of the object's class descriptor and serializable fields into a byte stream. Primitives as well as non-transient, non-static referenced objects are encoded into the stream. Each object that is referenced by the serialized object via a field that is not marked as transient must also be serialized; and if any object in the complete graph of non-transient object references is not serializable, then serialization will fail. The developer can influence this behavior by marking objects as transient, or by redefining the serialization for an object so that some portion of the reference graph is truncated and not serialized. Java does not use constructor to serialize objects. It is possible to serialize Java objects through JDBC and store them into a database. While Swing components do implement the Serializable interface, they are not guaranteed to be portable between different versions of the Java Virtual Machine. As such, a Swing component, or any component which inherits it, may be serialized to a byte stream, but it is not guaranteed that this will be re-constitutable on another machine.
JavaScript
Since ECMAScript 5.1, JavaScript has included the built-in JSON object and its methods JSON.parse() and JSON.stringify(). Although JSON is originally based on a subset of JavaScript, there are boundary cases where JSON is not valid JavaScript. Specifically, JSON allows the Unicode line terminators U+2028 LINE SEPARATOR and U+2029 PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR to appear unescaped in quoted strings, while ECMAScript 2018 and older does not. See the main article on JSON.
Julia
Julia implements serialization through the serialize() / deserialize() modules, intended to work within the same version of Julia, and/or instance of the same system image. The HDF5.jl package offers a more stable alternative, using a documented format and common library with wrappers for different languages, while the default serialization format is suggested to have been designed rather with maximal performance for network communication in mind.
Lisp
Generally a Lisp data structure can be serialized with the functions "read" and "print". A variable foo containing, for example, a list of arrays would be printed by (print foo). Similarly an object can be read from a stream named s by (read s). These two parts of the Lisp implementation are called the Printer and the Reader. The output of "print" is human readable; it uses lists demarked by parentheses, for example: (4 2.9 "x" y). In many types of Lisp, including Common Lisp, the printer cannot represent every type of data because it is not clear how to do so. In Common Lisp for example the printer cannot print CLOS objects. Instead the programmer may write a method on the generic function print-object, this will be invoked when the object is printed. This is somewhat similar to the method used in Ruby. Lisp code itself is written in the syntax of the reader, called read syntax. Most languages use separate and different parsers to deal with code and data, Lisp only uses one. A file containing lisp code may be read into memory as a data structure, transformed by another program, then possibly executed or written out, such as in a read–eval–print loop. Not all readers/writers support cyclic, recursive or shared structures.
.NET Framework
.NET Framework has several serializers designed by Microsoft. There are also many serializers by third parties. More than a dozen serializers are discussed and tested here. and here
OCaml
OCaml's standard library provides marshalling through the Marshal module and the Pervasives functions output_value and input_value. While OCaml programming is statically type-checked, uses of the Marshal module may break type guarantees, as there is no way to check whether an unmarshalled stream represents objects of the expected type. In OCaml it is difficult to marshal a function or a data structure which contains a function (e.g. an object which contains a method), because executable code in functions cannot be transmitted across different programs. (There is a flag to marshal the code position of a function but it can only be unmarshalled in exactly the same program). The standard marshalling functions can preserve sharing and handle cyclic data, which can be configured by a flag.
Perl
Several Perl modules available from CPAN provide serialization mechanisms, including Storable , JSON::XS and FreezeThaw. Storable includes functions to serialize and deserialize Perl data structures to and from files or Perl scalars. In addition to serializing directly to files, Storable includes the freeze function to return a serialized copy of the data packed into a scalar, and thaw to deserialize such a scalar. This is useful for sending a complex data structure over a network socket or storing it in a database. When serializing structures with Storable, there are network safe functions that always store their data in a format that is readable on any computer at a small cost of speed. These functions are named nstore, nfreeze, etc. There are no "n" functions for deserializing these structures — the regular thaw and retrieve deserialize structures serialized with the "n" functions and their machine-specific equivalents.
PHP
PHP originally implemented serialization through the built-in serialize() and unserialize() functions. PHP can serialize any of its data types except resources (file pointers, sockets, etc.). The built-in unserialize() function is often dangerous when used on completely untrusted data. For objects, there are two "magic methods" that can be implemented within a class — __sleep() and __wakeup() — that are called from within serialize() and unserialize(), respectively, that can clean up and restore an object. For example, it may be desirable to close a database connection on serialization and restore the connection on deserialization; this functionality would be handled in these two magic methods. They also permit the object to pick which properties are serialized. Since PHP 5.1, there is an object-oriented serialization mechanism for objects, the Serializable interface.
Prolog
Prolog's term structure, which is the only data structure of the language, can be serialized out through the built-in predicate write_term/3 and serialized-in through the built-in predicates read/1 and read_term/2. The resulting stream is uncompressed text (in some encoding determined by configuration of the target stream), with any free variables in the term represented by placeholder variable names. The predicate write_term/3 is standardized in the ISO Specification for Prolog (ISO/IEC 13211-1) on pages 59 ff. ("Writing a term, § 7.10.5"). Therefore it is expected that terms serialized-out by one implementation can be serialized-in by another without ambiguity or surprises. In practice, implementation-specific extensions (e.g. SWI-Prolog's dictionaries) may use non-standard term structures, so interoperability may break in edge cases. As examples, see the corresponding manual pages for SWI-Prolog, SICStus Prolog, GNU Prolog. Whether and how serialized terms received over the network are checked against a specification (after deserialization from the character stream has happened) is left to the implementer. Prolog's built-in Definite Clause Grammars can be applied at that stage.
Python
The core general serialization mechanism is the pickle standard library module, alluding to the database systems term pickling to describe data serialization (unpickling for deserializing). Pickle uses a simple stack-based virtual machine that records the instructions used to reconstruct the object. It is a cross-version customisable but unsafe (not secure against erroneous or malicious data) serialization format. Malformed or maliciously constructed data, may cause the deserializer to import arbitrary modules and instantiate any object. The standard library also includes modules serializing to standard data formats: json (with built-in support for basic scalar and collection types and able to support arbitrary types via encoding and decoding hooks). plistlib (with support for both binary and XML property list formats). xdrlib (with support for the External Data Representation (XDR) standard as described in RFC 1014). Finally, it is recommended that an object's __repr__ be evaluable in the right environment, making it a rough match for Common Lisp's print-object. Not all object types can be pickled automatically, especially ones that hold operating system resources like file handles, but users can register custom "reduction" and construction functions to support the pickling and unpickling of arbitrary types. Pickle was originally implemented as the pure Python pickle module, but, in versions of Python prior to 3.0, the cPickle module (also a built-in) offers improved performance (up to 1000 times faster). The cPickle was adapted from the Unladen Swallow project. In Python 3, users should always import the standard version, which attempts to import the accelerated version and falls back to the pure Python version.
R
R has the function dput which writes an ASCII text representation of an R object to a file or connection. A representation can be read from a file using dget. More specific, the function serialize serializes an R object to a connection, the output being a raw vector coded in hexadecimal format. The unserialize function allows to read an object from a connection or a raw vector.
REBOL
REBOL will serialize to file (save/all) or to a string! (mold/all). Strings and files can be deserialized using the polymorphic load function. RProtoBuf provides cross-language data serialization in R, using Protocol Buffers.
Ruby
Ruby includes the standard module Marshal with 2 methods dump and load, akin to the standard Unix utilities dump and restore. These methods serialize to the standard class String, that is, they effectively become a sequence of bytes. Some objects cannot be serialized (doing so would raise a TypeError exception): bindings, procedure objects, instances of class IO, singleton objects and interfaces. If a class requires custom serialization (for example, it requires certain cleanup actions done on dumping / restoring), it can be done by implementing 2 methods: _dump and _load. The instance method _dump should return a String object containing all the information necessary to reconstitute objects of this class and all referenced objects up to a maximum depth given as an integer parameter (a value of -1 implies that depth checking should be disabled). The class method _load should take a String and return an object of this class.
Rust
Serde is the most widely used library, or crate, for serialization in Rust.
Smalltalk
In general, non-recursive and non-sharing objects can be stored and retrieved in a human readable form using the storeOn:/readFrom: protocol. The storeOn: method generates the text of a Smalltalk expression which – when evaluated using readFrom: – recreates the original object. This scheme is special, in that it uses a procedural description of the object, not the data itself. It is therefore very flexible, allowing for classes to define more compact representations. However, in its original form, it does not handle cyclic data structures or preserve the identity of shared references (i.e. two references a single object will be restored as references to two equal, but not identical copies). For this, various portable and non-portable alternatives exist. Some of them are specific to a particular Smalltalk implementation or class library. There are several ways in Squeak Smalltalk to serialize and store objects. The easiest and most used are storeOn:/readFrom: and binary storage formats based on SmartRefStream serializers. In addition, bundled objects can be stored and retrieved using ImageSegments. Both provide a so-called "binary-object storage framework", which support serialization into and retrieval from a compact binary form. Both handle cyclic, recursive and shared structures, storage/retrieval of class and metaclass info and include mechanisms for "on the fly" object migration (i.e. to convert instances which were written by an older version of a class with a different object layout). The APIs are similar (storeBinary/readBinary), but the encoding details are different, making these two formats incompatible. However, the Smalltalk/X code is open source and free and can be loaded into other Smalltalks to allow for cross-dialect object interchange. Object serialization is not part of the ANSI Smalltalk specification. As a result, the code to serialize an object varies by Smalltalk implementation. The resulting binary data also varies. For instance, a serialized object created in Squeak Smalltalk cannot be restored in Ambrai Smalltalk. Consequently, various applications that do work on multiple Smalltalk implementations that rely on object serialization cannot share data between these different implementations. These applications include the MinneStore object database and some RPC packages. A solution to this problem is SIXX, which is a package for multiple Smalltalks that uses an XML-based format for serialization.
Swift
The Swift standard library provides two protocols, Encodable and Decodable (composed together as Codable), which allow instances of conforming types to be serialized to or deserialized from JSON, property lists, or other formats. Default implementations of these protocols can be generated by the compiler for types whose stored properties are also Decodable or Encodable.
Windows PowerShell
Windows PowerShell implements serialization through the built-in cmdlet Export-CliXML. Export-CliXML serializes .NET objects and stores the resulting XML in a file. To reconstitute the objects, use the Import-CliXML cmdlet, which generates a deserialized object from the XML in the exported file. Deserialized objects, often known as "property bags" are not live objects; they are snapshots that have properties, but no methods. Two dimensional data structures can also be (de)serialized in CSV format using the built-in cmdlets Import-CSV and Export-CSV.
See also
Commutation (telemetry)
Comparison of data serialization formats
Container format
Hibernate (Java)
XML Schema
Basic Encoding Rules
Google Protocol Buffers
Wikibase
Apache Avro
References
^ Cline, Marshall. "C++ FAQ: "What's This "Serialization" Thing All About?"". Archived from the original on 2015-04-05. It lets you take an object or group of objects, put them on a disk or send them through a wire or wireless transport mechanism, then later, perhaps on another computer, reverse the process, resurrecting the original object(s). The basic mechanisms are to flatten object(s) into a one-dimensional stream of bits, and to turn that stream of bits back into the original object(s).
^ "Module: Marshal (Ruby 3.0.2)". ruby-doc.org. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
^ a b "Marshal". OCaml. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
^ "Python 3.9.6 documentation - Python object serialization —pickle". Documentation - The Python Standard Library.
^ S. Miller, Mark. "Safe Serialization Under Mutual Suspicion". ERights.org. Serialization, explained below, is an example of a tool for use by objects within an object system for operating on the graph they are embedded in. This seems to require violating the encapsulation provided by the pure object model.
^ Sun Microsystems (1987). "XDR: External Data Representation Standard". RFC 1014. Network Working Group. Retrieved July 11, 2011.
^ "Serialization". www.boost.org.
^ beal, stephan. "s11n.net: object serialization/persistence in C++". s11n.net.
^ "cereal Docs - Main". uscilab.github.io.
^ "Package encoding". pkg.go.dev. 12 July 2021.
^ "GitHub - YAML support for the Go language". GitHub. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
^ "proto · pkg.go.dev". pkg.go.dev. Retrieved 2021-06-22.
^ "gob package - encoding/gob - pkg.go.dev". pkg.go.dev. Retrieved 2022-03-04.
^ "Text.Show Documentation". Retrieved 15 January 2014.
^ Bloch, Joshua (2018). "Effective Java: Programming Language Guide" (third ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0134685991.
^ "Ask TOM "Serializing Java Objects into the database (and ge..."". asktom.oracle.com.
^ "JSON". MDN Web Docs. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
^ "JSON". www.json.org. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
^ Holm, Magnus (15 May 2011). "JSON: The JavaScript subset that isn't". The timeless repository. Archived from the original on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
^ "TC39 Proposal: Subsume JSON". ECMA TC39 committee. 22 May 2018.
^ "Serialization". The Julia Language. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
^ "faster and more compact serialization of symbols and strings · JuliaLang/julia@bb67ff2". GitHub.
^ "HDF5.jl: Saving and loading data in the HDF5 file format". 20 August 2017 – via GitHub.
^ "Julia: how stable are serialize() / deserialize()". stackoverflow.com. 2014.
^ ".NET Serializers". There are many kinds of serializers; they produce very compact data very fast. There are serializers for messaging, for data stores, for marshaling objects. What is the best serializer in .NET?
^ "SERBENCH by aumcode". aumcode.github.io.
^ "PHP: Object Serialization - Manual". ca.php.net.
^ Esser, Stephen (2009-11-28). "Shocking News in PHP Exploitation". Suspekt... Archived from the original on 2012-01-06.
^ "PHP: Serializable - Manual". www.php.net.
^ ""Term reading and writing"". www.swi-prolog.org.
^ ""write_term/"". sicstus.sics.se.
^ ""Term input/output"". gprolog.org.
^ Herlihy, Maurice; Liskov, Barbara (October 1982). "A Value Transmission Method for Abstract Data Types" (PDF). ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems. 4 (4): 527–551. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.87.5301. doi:10.1145/69622.357182. ISSN 0164-0925. OCLC 67989840. S2CID 8126961.
^ Birrell, Andrew; Jones, Mike; Wobber, Ted (November 1987). "A simple and efficient implementation of a small database". Proceedings of the eleventh ACM Symposium on Operating systems principles - SOSP '87. Vol. 11. pp. 149–154. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.100.1457. doi:10.1145/41457.37517. ISBN 089791242X. ISSN 0163-5980. OCLC 476062921. S2CID 12908261. Our implementation makes use of a mechanism called "pickles", which will convert between any strongly typed data structure and a representation of that structure suitable for storing in permanent disk files. The operation Pickle.Write takes a pointer to a strongly typed data structure and delivers buffers of bits for writing to the disk. Conversely Pickle.Read reads buffers of bits from the disk and delivers a copy of the original data structure.(*) This conversion involves identifying the occurrences of addresses in the structure, and arranging that when the structure is read back from disk the addresses are replaced with addresses valid in the current execution environment. The pickle mechanism is entirely automatic: it is driven by the run-time typing structures that are present for our garbage collection mechanism. ... (*) Pickling is quite similar to the concept of marshalling in remote procedure calls. But in fact our pickling implementation works only by interpreting at run-time the structure of dynamically typed values, while our RPC implementation works only by generating code for the marshalling of statically typed values. Each facility would benefit from adding the mechanisms of the other, but that has not yet been done.
^ van Rossum, Guido (1 December 1994). "Flattening Python Objects". Python Programming Language – Legacy Website. Delaware, United States: Python Software Foundation. Retrieved 6 April 2017. Origin of the name 'flattening': Because I want to leave the original 'marshal' module alone, and Jim complained that 'serialization' also means something totally different that's actually relevant in the context of concurrent access to persistent objects, I'll use the term 'flattening' from now on. ... (The Modula-3 system uses the term 'pickled' data for this concept. They have probably solved all problems already, and in a type-safe manner :-)
^ a b "11.1. pickle — Python object serialization — Python 2.7.14rc1 documentation". docs.python.org.
^ "pickle — Python object serialization — Python v3.0.1 documentation". docs.python.org.
^ "What's New In Python 3.0 — Python v3.1.5 documentation". docs.python.org.
^
^
^ Eddelbuettel, Dirk; Stokely, Murray; Ooms, Jeroen (2014). "RProtoBuf: Efficient Cross-Language Data Serialization in R". Journal of Statistical Software. 71 (2). arXiv:1401.7372. doi:10.18637/jss.v071.i02. S2CID 36239952.
^ "MinneStore version 2". SourceForge. Archived from the original on 11 May 2008.
^ "What's new". SIXX - Smalltalk Instance eXchange in XML. 23 January 2010. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
^ "Swift Archival & Serialization". www.github.com. 2018-12-02.
External links
Java Object Serialization documentation
Java 1.4 Object Serialization documentation.
Durable Java: Serialization Archived 25 November 2005 at the Wayback Machine
XML Data Binding Resources
Databoard - Binary serialization with partial and random access, type system, RPC, type adaption, and text format
vteData exchange formatsHuman readable
Atom
CSV
EDIFACT
JSON
Web Encryption
Web Token
Web Signature
Property list
RDF
Rebol
TOML
XML
YAML
Binary
AMF
ASN.1
SMI
Avro
Base32
Base64
BSON
UBJSON
Cap'n Proto
CBOR
FlatBuffers
MessagePack
Property list
Protocol Buffers
Thrift
Cyphal DSDL
XDR
uuencode
yEnc
Comparison of data-serialization formats
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Serialization (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serialization_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"data structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_structure"},{"link_name":"object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"files","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_file"},{"link_name":"secondary storage devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_storage_devices"},{"link_name":"data buffers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_buffer"},{"link_name":"data streams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_stream"},{"link_name":"computer networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networks"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"references","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"marshalling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshalling_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ocaml-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"unmarshalling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unmarshalling"}],"text":"This article is about data structure encoding. For other uses, see Serialization (disambiguation).In computing, serialization (or serialisation) is the process of translating a data structure or object state into a format that can be stored (e.g. files in secondary storage devices, data buffers in primary storage devices) or transmitted (e.g. data streams over computer networks) and reconstructed later (possibly in a different computer environment).[1] When the resulting series of bits is reread according to the serialization format, it can be used to create a semantically identical clone of the original object. For many complex objects, such as those that make extensive use of references, this process is not straightforward. Serialization of objects does not include any of their associated methods with which they were previously linked.This process of serializing an object is also called marshalling an object in some situations.[2][3][4] The opposite operation, extracting a data structure from a series of bytes, is deserialization, (also called unserialization or unmarshalling).","title":"Serialization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"messaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messaging"},{"link_name":"databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database"},{"link_name":"hard disk drives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive"},{"link_name":"remote procedure calls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_procedure_call"},{"link_name":"SOAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOAP"},{"link_name":"component-based software engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Component-based_software_engineering"},{"link_name":"COM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Component_Object_Model"},{"link_name":"CORBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CORBA"},{"link_name":"hardware architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_architecture"},{"link_name":"endianness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness"},{"link_name":"byte ordering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_ordering"},{"link_name":"programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"pointer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointer_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"unswizzling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unswizzling"},{"link_name":"pointer swizzling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointer_swizzling"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Foundation Classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Foundation_Classes"}],"text":"Uses of serialization include:serializing data for transfer across wires and networks (messaging).\nstoring data (in databases, on hard disk drives).\nremote procedure calls, e.g., as in SOAP.\ndistributing objects, especially in component-based software engineering such as COM, CORBA, etc.\ndetecting changes in time-varying data.For some of these features to be useful, architecture independence must be maintained. For example, for maximal use of distribution, a computer running on a different hardware architecture should be able to reliably reconstruct a serialized data stream, regardless of endianness. This means that the simpler and faster procedure of directly copying the memory layout of the data structure cannot work reliably for all architectures. Serializing the data structure in an architecture-independent format means preventing the problems of byte ordering, memory layout, or simply different ways of representing data structures in different programming languages.Inherent to any serialization scheme is that, because the encoding of the data is by definition serial, extracting one part of the serialized data structure requires that the entire object be read from start to end, and reconstructed. In many applications, this linearity is an asset, because it enables simple, common I/O interfaces to be utilized to hold and pass on the state of an object. In applications where higher performance is an issue, it can make sense to expend more effort to deal with a more complex, non-linear storage organization.Even on a single machine, primitive pointer objects are too fragile to save because the objects to which they point may be reloaded to a different location in memory. To deal with this, the serialization process includes a step called unswizzling or pointer unswizzling, where direct pointer references are converted to references based on name or position. The deserialization process includes an inverse step called pointer swizzling.Since both serializing and deserializing can be driven from common code (for example, the Serialize function in Microsoft Foundation Classes), it is possible for the common code to do both at the same time, and thus, 1) detect differences between the objects being serialized and their prior copies, and 2) provide the input for the next such detection. It is not necessary to actually build the prior copy because differences can be detected on the fly, a technique called differential execution. This is useful in the programming of user interfaces whose contents are time-varying — graphical objects can be created, removed, altered, or made to handle input events without necessarily having to write separate code to do those things.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"abstract data type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_data_type"},{"link_name":"encapsulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encapsulation_(object-oriented_programming)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"proprietary software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software"},{"link_name":"trade secret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_secret"},{"link_name":"obfuscate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obfuscated_code"},{"link_name":"encrypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encryption"},{"link_name":"remote method call","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RMI-IIOP"},{"link_name":"CORBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CORBA"},{"link_name":"future proof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_proof"},{"link_name":"backup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backup"},{"link_name":"database dumps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_dump"},{"link_name":"human-readable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-readable"}],"text":"Serialization breaks the opacity of an abstract data type by potentially exposing private implementation details. Trivial implementations which serialize all data members may violate encapsulation.[5]To discourage competitors from making compatible products, publishers of proprietary software often keep the details of their programs' serialization formats a trade secret. Some deliberately obfuscate or even encrypt the serialized data. Yet, interoperability requires that applications be able to understand each other's serialization formats. Therefore, remote method call architectures such as CORBA define their serialization formats in detail.Many institutions, such as archives and libraries, attempt to future proof their backup archives—in particular, database dumps—by storing them in some relatively human-readable serialized format.","title":"Drawbacks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Xerox Network Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerox_Network_Systems"},{"link_name":"Sun Microsystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Microsystems"},{"link_name":"External Data Representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_Data_Representation"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"open format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_format"},{"link_name":"STD 67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//tools.ietf.org/html/std67"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"},{"link_name":"SGML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SGML"},{"link_name":"text-based encoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-to-text_encoding"},{"link_name":"Ajax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajax_(programming)"},{"link_name":"W3C recommendation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.w3.org/TR/xml11/"},{"link_name":"JSON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSON"},{"link_name":"JavaScript syntax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript_syntax"},{"link_name":"STD 90","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//tools.ietf.org/html/std90"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"8259","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8259"},{"link_name":"ECMA-404","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ecma-international.org/publications/files/ECMA-ST/ECMA-404.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISO/IEC 21778:2017","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.iso.org/standard/71616.html"},{"link_name":"YAML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YAML"},{"link_name":"Property lists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_list"},{"link_name":"NeXTSTEP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NeXTSTEP"},{"link_name":"GNUstep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNUstep"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"},{"link_name":"frameworks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_framework"},{"link_name":"HDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical_Data_Format"},{"link_name":"netCDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetCDF"},{"link_name":"GRIB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRIB"}],"text":"The Xerox Network Systems Courier technology in the early 1980s influenced the first widely adopted standard. Sun Microsystems published the External Data Representation (XDR) in 1987.[6] XDR is an open format, and standardized as STD 67 (RFC 4506).In the late 1990s, a push to provide an alternative to the standard serialization protocols started: XML, an SGML subset, was used to produce a human-readable text-based encoding. Such an encoding can be useful for persistent objects that may be read and understood by humans, or communicated to other systems regardless of programming language. It has the disadvantage of losing the more compact, byte-stream-based encoding, but by this point larger storage and transmission capacities made file size less of a concern than in the early days of computing. In the 2000s, XML was often used for asynchronous transfer of structured data between client and server in Ajax web applications. XML is an open format, and standardized as a W3C recommendation.JSON is a lightweight plain-text alternative to XML, and is also commonly used for client-server communication in web applications. JSON is based on JavaScript syntax, but is independent of JavaScript and supported in many other programming languages. JSON is an open format, standardized as STD 90 (RFC 8259), ECMA-404, and ISO/IEC 21778:2017.YAML is a strict superset of JSON and includes additional features such as a data type tags, support for cyclic data structures, indentation-sensitive syntax, and multiple forms of scalar data quoting. YAML is an open format.Property lists are used for serialization by NeXTSTEP, GNUstep, macOS, and iOS frameworks. Property list, or p-list for short, doesn't refer to a single serialization format but instead several different variants, some human-readable and one binary.For large volume scientific datasets, such as satellite data and output of numerical climate, weather, or ocean models, specific binary serialization standards have been developed, e.g. HDF, netCDF and the older GRIB.","title":"Serialization formats"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"object-oriented programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"},{"link_name":"syntactic sugar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_sugar"},{"link_name":"interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_programming_language"},{"link_name":"Smalltalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smalltalk"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"PHP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHP"},{"link_name":"Objective-C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective-C"},{"link_name":"Delphi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":".NET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_Framework"}],"text":"Several object-oriented programming languages directly support object serialization (or object archival), either by syntactic sugar elements or providing a standard interface for doing so. The languages which do so include Ruby, Smalltalk, Python, PHP, Objective-C, Delphi, Java, and the .NET family of languages. There are also libraries available that add serialization support to languages that lack native support for it.","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"data types","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_data_types"},{"link_name":"plain old data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain_old_data"},{"link_name":"structs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struct_(C_programming_language)"},{"link_name":"ODB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ODB_(C%2B%2B)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ORM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object%E2%80%93relational_mapping"},{"link_name":"gSOAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSOAP"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Boost Framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boost_C%2B%2B_Libraries"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"MFC framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Foundation_Class_Library"}],"sub_title":"C and C++","text":"C and C++ do not provide serialization as any sort of high-level construct, but both languages support writing any of the built-in data types, as well as plain old data structs, as binary data. As such, it is usually trivial to write custom serialization functions. Moreover, compiler-based solutions, such as the ODB ORM system for C++ and the gSOAP toolkit for C and C++, are capable of automatically producing serialization code with few or no modifications to class declarations. Other popular serialization frameworks are Boost.Serialization[7] from the Boost Framework, the S11n framework,[8] and Cereal.[9] MFC framework (Microsoft) also provides serialization methodology as part of its Document-View architecture.","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CFML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CFML"},{"link_name":"WDDX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WDDX"},{"link_name":"<cfwddx>","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//wikidocs.adobe.com/wiki/display/coldfusionen/cfwddx"},{"link_name":"JSON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSON"},{"link_name":"SerializeJSON()","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//wikidocs.adobe.com/wiki/display/coldfusionen/serializejson"}],"sub_title":"CFML","text":"CFML allows data structures to be serialized to WDDX with the <cfwddx> tag and to JSON with the SerializeJSON() function.","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Delphi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"IDE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_development_environment"}],"sub_title":"Delphi","text":"Delphi provides a built-in mechanism for serialization of components (also called persistent objects), which is fully integrated with its IDE. The component's contents are saved to a DFM file and reloaded on-the-fly.","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"JSON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSON"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"YAML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YAML"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Protocol Buffers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_Buffers"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Go","text":"Go natively supports unmarshalling/marshalling of JSON and XML data.[10] There are also third-party modules that support YAML[11] and Protocol Buffers.[12] Go also supports Gobs.[13]","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"type classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_class"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//hackage.haskell.org/package/binary"}],"sub_title":"Haskell","text":"In Haskell, serialization is supported for types that are members of the Read and Show type classes. Every type that is a member of the Read type class defines a function that will extract the data from the string representation of the dumped data. The Show type class, in turn, contains the show function from which a string representation of the object can be generated. The programmer need not define the functions explicitly—merely declaring a type to be deriving Read or deriving Show, or both, can make the compiler generate the appropriate functions for many cases (but not all: function types, for example, cannot automatically derive Show or Read). The auto-generated instance for Show also produces valid source code, so the same Haskell value can be generated by running the code produced by show in, for example, a Haskell interpreter.[14] For more efficient serialization, there are haskell libraries that allow high-speed serialization in binary format, e.g. binary.","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"marked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marker_interface_pattern"},{"link_name":"java.io.Serializable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//docs.oracle.com/en/java/javase/19/docs/api/java.base/java/io/Serializable.html"},{"link_name":"interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_(Java)"},{"link_name":"Externalizable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//docs.oracle.com/en/java/javase/19/docs/api/java.base/java/io/Externalizable.html"},{"link_name":"Thread","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//docs.oracle.com/en/java/javase/19/docs/api/java.base/java/lang/Thread.html"},{"link_name":"JVM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JVM"},{"link_name":"transient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transient_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bloch-15"},{"link_name":"Primitives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_data_type"},{"link_name":"JDBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JDBC"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Swing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swing_(Java)"}],"sub_title":"Java","text":"Java provides automatic serialization which requires that the object be marked by implementing the java.io.Serializable interface. Implementing the interface marks the class as \"okay to serialize\", and Java then handles serialization internally. There are no serialization methods defined on the Serializable interface, but a serializable class can optionally define methods with certain special names and signatures that if defined, will be called as part of the serialization/deserialization process. The language also allows the developer to override the serialization process more thoroughly by implementing another interface, the Externalizable interface, which includes two special methods that are used to save and restore the object's state. There are three primary reasons why objects are not serializable by default and must implement the Serializable interface to access Java's serialization mechanism.Firstly, not all objects capture useful semantics in a serialized state. For example, a Thread object is tied to the state of the current JVM. There is no context in which a deserialized Thread object would maintain useful semantics.Secondly, the serialized state of an object forms part of its class' compatibility contract. Maintaining compatibility between versions of serializable classes requires additional effort and consideration. Therefore, making a class serializable needs to be a deliberate design decision and not a default condition.Lastly, serialization allows access to non-transient private members of a class that are not otherwise accessible. Classes containing sensitive information (for example, a password) should not be serializable nor externalizable.[15]: 339–345 The standard encoding method uses a recursive graph-based translation of the object's class descriptor and serializable fields into a byte stream. Primitives as well as non-transient, non-static referenced objects are encoded into the stream. Each object that is referenced by the serialized object via a field that is not marked as transient must also be serialized; and if any object in the complete graph of non-transient object references is not serializable, then serialization will fail. The developer can influence this behavior by marking objects as transient, or by redefining the serialization for an object so that some portion of the reference graph is truncated and not serialized. Java does not use constructor to serialize objects. It is possible to serialize Java objects through JDBC and store them into a database.[16] While Swing components do implement the Serializable interface, they are not guaranteed to be portable between different versions of the Java Virtual Machine. As such, a Swing component, or any component which inherits it, may be serialized to a byte stream, but it is not guaranteed that this will be re-constitutable on another machine.","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"JavaScript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Unicode line terminators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode#Newlines"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-json-2028-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"the main article on JSON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSON#Data_portability_issues"},{"link_name":"broken anchor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS"}],"sub_title":"JavaScript","text":"Since ECMAScript 5.1,[17] JavaScript has included the built-in JSON object and its methods JSON.parse() and JSON.stringify(). Although JSON is originally based on a subset of JavaScript,[18] there are boundary cases where JSON is not valid JavaScript. Specifically, JSON allows the Unicode line terminators U+2028 LINE SEPARATOR and U+2029 PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR to appear unescaped in quoted strings, while ECMAScript 2018 and older does not.[19][20] See the main article on JSON[broken anchor].","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Julia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Julia","text":"Julia implements serialization through the serialize() / deserialize() modules,[21] intended to work within the same version of Julia, and/or instance of the same system image.[22] The HDF5.jl package offers a more stable alternative, using a documented format and common library with wrappers for different languages,[23] while the default serialization format is suggested to have been designed rather with maximal performance for network communication in mind.[24]","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lisp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Common Lisp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Lisp"},{"link_name":"read–eval–print loop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read%E2%80%93eval%E2%80%93print_loop"}],"sub_title":"Lisp","text":"Generally a Lisp data structure can be serialized with the functions \"read\" and \"print\". A variable foo containing, for example, a list of arrays would be printed by (print foo). Similarly an object can be read from a stream named s by (read s). These two parts of the Lisp implementation are called the Printer and the Reader. The output of \"print\" is human readable; it uses lists demarked by parentheses, for example: (4 2.9 \"x\" y). In many types of Lisp, including Common Lisp, the printer cannot represent every type of data because it is not clear how to do so. In Common Lisp for example the printer cannot print CLOS objects. Instead the programmer may write a method on the generic function print-object, this will be invoked when the object is printed. This is somewhat similar to the method used in Ruby. Lisp code itself is written in the syntax of the reader, called read syntax. Most languages use separate and different parsers to deal with code and data, Lisp only uses one. A file containing lisp code may be read into memory as a data structure, transformed by another program, then possibly executed or written out, such as in a read–eval–print loop. Not all readers/writers support cyclic, recursive or shared structures.","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":".NET Framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_Framework"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//geekswithblogs.net/LeonidGaneline/archive/2015/05/06/serializers-in-.net.-v.2.aspx"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aumcode.github.io/serbench"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":".NET Framework","text":".NET Framework has several serializers designed by Microsoft. There are also many serializers by third parties. More than a dozen serializers are discussed and tested here.[25] and here[26]","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OCaml","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCaml"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ocaml-3"}],"sub_title":"OCaml","text":"OCaml's standard library provides marshalling through the Marshal module[3] and the Pervasives functions output_value and input_value. While OCaml programming is statically type-checked, uses of the Marshal module may break type guarantees, as there is no way to check whether an unmarshalled stream represents objects of the expected type. In OCaml it is difficult to marshal a function or a data structure which contains a function (e.g. an object which contains a method), because executable code in functions cannot be transmitted across different programs. (There is a flag to marshal the code position of a function but it can only be unmarshalled in exactly the same program). The standard marshalling functions can preserve sharing and handle cyclic data, which can be configured by a flag.","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Perl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl"},{"link_name":"CPAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPAN"},{"link_name":"network socket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_socket"}],"sub_title":"Perl","text":"Several Perl modules available from CPAN provide serialization mechanisms, including Storable , JSON::XS and FreezeThaw. Storable includes functions to serialize and deserialize Perl data structures to and from files or Perl scalars. In addition to serializing directly to files, Storable includes the freeze function to return a serialized copy of the data packed into a scalar, and thaw to deserialize such a scalar. This is useful for sending a complex data structure over a network socket or storing it in a database. When serializing structures with Storable, there are network safe functions that always store their data in a format that is readable on any computer at a small cost of speed. These functions are named nstore, nfreeze, etc. There are no \"n\" functions for deserializing these structures — the regular thaw and retrieve deserialize structures serialized with the \"n\" functions and their machine-specific equivalents.","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PHP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHP"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"magic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_(programming)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Serializable-29"}],"sub_title":"PHP","text":"PHP originally implemented serialization through the built-in serialize() and unserialize() functions.[27] PHP can serialize any of its data types except resources (file pointers, sockets, etc.). The built-in unserialize() function is often dangerous when used on completely untrusted data.[28] For objects, there are two \"magic methods\" that can be implemented within a class — __sleep() and __wakeup() — that are called from within serialize() and unserialize(), respectively, that can clean up and restore an object. For example, it may be desirable to close a database connection on serialization and restore the connection on deserialization; this functionality would be handled in these two magic methods. They also permit the object to pick which properties are serialized. Since PHP 5.1, there is an object-oriented serialization mechanism for objects, the Serializable interface.[29]","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Prolog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolog"},{"link_name":"ISO Specification for Prolog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolog#ISO_Prolog"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Definite Clause Grammars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolog_syntax_and_semantics#Definite_clause_grammars"}],"sub_title":"Prolog","text":"Prolog's term structure, which is the only data structure of the language, can be serialized out through the built-in predicate write_term/3 and serialized-in through the built-in predicates read/1 and read_term/2. The resulting stream is uncompressed text (in some encoding determined by configuration of the target stream), with any free variables in the term represented by placeholder variable names. The predicate write_term/3 is standardized in the ISO Specification for Prolog (ISO/IEC 13211-1) on pages 59 ff. (\"Writing a term, § 7.10.5\"). Therefore it is expected that terms serialized-out by one implementation can be serialized-in by another without ambiguity or surprises. In practice, implementation-specific extensions (e.g. SWI-Prolog's dictionaries) may use non-standard term structures, so interoperability may break in edge cases. As examples, see the corresponding manual pages for SWI-Prolog,[30] SICStus Prolog,[31] GNU Prolog.[32] Whether and how serialized terms received over the network are checked against a specification (after deserialization from the character stream has happened) is left to the implementer. Prolog's built-in Definite Clause Grammars can be applied at that stage.","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"standard library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)#Libraries"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"stack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_(abstract_data_type)"},{"link_name":"virtual machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_machine"},{"link_name":"customisable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//docs.python.org/library/pickle.html#pickle-protocol"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"json","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//docs.python.org/library/json.html"},{"link_name":"encoding and decoding hooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//docs.python.org/library/json.html#encoders-and-decoders"},{"link_name":"plistlib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//docs.python.org/library/plistlib.html"},{"link_name":"property list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_list"},{"link_name":"xdrlib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//docs.python.org/library/xdrlib.html"},{"link_name":"__repr__","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//docs.python.org/reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__"},{"link_name":"print-object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.lispworks.com/documentation/HyperSpec/Body/f_pr_obj.htm"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"file handles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_handle"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-36"},{"link_name":"Unladen Swallow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unladen_Swallow"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"sub_title":"Python","text":"The core general serialization mechanism is the pickle standard library module, alluding to the database systems term pickling[33][34][35] to describe data serialization (unpickling for deserializing). Pickle uses a simple stack-based virtual machine that records the instructions used to reconstruct the object. It is a cross-version customisable but unsafe (not secure against erroneous or malicious data) serialization format. Malformed or maliciously constructed data, may cause the deserializer to import arbitrary modules and instantiate any object.[36][37] The standard library also includes modules serializing to standard data formats: json (with built-in support for basic scalar and collection types and able to support arbitrary types via encoding and decoding hooks). plistlib (with support for both binary and XML property list formats). xdrlib (with support for the External Data Representation (XDR) standard as described in RFC 1014). Finally, it is recommended that an object's __repr__ be evaluable in the right environment, making it a rough match for Common Lisp's print-object. Not all object types can be pickled automatically, especially ones that hold operating system resources like file handles, but users can register custom \"reduction\" and construction functions to support the pickling and unpickling of arbitrary types. Pickle was originally implemented as the pure Python pickle module, but, in versions of Python prior to 3.0, the cPickle module (also a built-in) offers improved performance (up to 1000 times faster[36]). The cPickle was adapted from the Unladen Swallow project. In Python 3, users should always import the standard version, which attempts to import the accelerated version and falls back to the pure Python version.[38]","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"sub_title":"R","text":"R has the function dput which writes an ASCII text representation of an R object to a file or connection. A representation can be read from a file using dget.[39] More specific, the function serialize serializes an R object to a connection, the output being a raw vector coded in hexadecimal format. The unserialize function allows to read an object from a connection or a raw vector.[40]","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"REBOL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REBOL"},{"link_name":"polymorphic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_polymorphism"},{"link_name":"Protocol Buffers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_Buffers"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"REBOL","text":"REBOL will serialize to file (save/all) or to a string! (mold/all). Strings and files can be deserialized using the polymorphic load function. RProtoBuf provides cross-language data serialization in R, using Protocol Buffers.[41]","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_programming_language"},{"link_name":"Marshal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ruby-doc.org/core/classes/Marshal.html"},{"link_name":"dump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dump_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"restore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Restore_(program)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"instance method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instance_method"},{"link_name":"class method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_method"}],"sub_title":"Ruby","text":"Ruby includes the standard module Marshal with 2 methods dump and load, akin to the standard Unix utilities dump and restore. These methods serialize to the standard class String, that is, they effectively become a sequence of bytes. Some objects cannot be serialized (doing so would raise a TypeError exception): bindings, procedure objects, instances of class IO, singleton objects and interfaces. If a class requires custom serialization (for example, it requires certain cleanup actions done on dumping / restoring), it can be done by implementing 2 methods: _dump and _load. The instance method _dump should return a String object containing all the information necessary to reconstitute objects of this class and all referenced objects up to a maximum depth given as an integer parameter (a value of -1 implies that depth checking should be disabled). The class method _load should take a String and return an object of this class.","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Serde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//serde.rs/"},{"link_name":"Rust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rust_programming_language"}],"sub_title":"Rust","text":"Serde is the most widely used library, or crate, for serialization in Rust.","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Squeak Smalltalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squeak"},{"link_name":"metaclass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaclass"},{"link_name":"Ambrai Smalltalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ambrai_Smalltalk&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"RPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_procedure_call"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"}],"sub_title":"Smalltalk","text":"In general, non-recursive and non-sharing objects can be stored and retrieved in a human readable form using the storeOn:/readFrom: protocol. The storeOn: method generates the text of a Smalltalk expression which – when evaluated using readFrom: – recreates the original object. This scheme is special, in that it uses a procedural description of the object, not the data itself. It is therefore very flexible, allowing for classes to define more compact representations. However, in its original form, it does not handle cyclic data structures or preserve the identity of shared references (i.e. two references a single object will be restored as references to two equal, but not identical copies). For this, various portable and non-portable alternatives exist. Some of them are specific to a particular Smalltalk implementation or class library. There are several ways in Squeak Smalltalk to serialize and store objects. The easiest and most used are storeOn:/readFrom: and binary storage formats based on SmartRefStream serializers. In addition, bundled objects can be stored and retrieved using ImageSegments. Both provide a so-called \"binary-object storage framework\", which support serialization into and retrieval from a compact binary form. Both handle cyclic, recursive and shared structures, storage/retrieval of class and metaclass info and include mechanisms for \"on the fly\" object migration (i.e. to convert instances which were written by an older version of a class with a different object layout). The APIs are similar (storeBinary/readBinary), but the encoding details are different, making these two formats incompatible. However, the Smalltalk/X code is open source and free and can be loaded into other Smalltalks to allow for cross-dialect object interchange. Object serialization is not part of the ANSI Smalltalk specification. As a result, the code to serialize an object varies by Smalltalk implementation. The resulting binary data also varies. For instance, a serialized object created in Squeak Smalltalk cannot be restored in Ambrai Smalltalk. Consequently, various applications that do work on multiple Smalltalk implementations that rely on object serialization cannot share data between these different implementations. These applications include the MinneStore object database[42] and some RPC packages. A solution to this problem is SIXX,[43] which is a package for multiple Smalltalks that uses an XML-based format for serialization.","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Swift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swift_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"JSON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSON"},{"link_name":"property lists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_list"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Swift","text":"The Swift standard library provides two protocols, Encodable and Decodable (composed together as Codable), which allow instances of conforming types to be serialized to or deserialized from JSON, property lists, or other formats.[44] Default implementations of these protocols can be generated by the compiler for types whose stored properties are also Decodable or Encodable.","title":"Programming language support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Windows PowerShell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_PowerShell"},{"link_name":"built-in","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_builtin"},{"link_name":"CSV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma-separated_values"}],"sub_title":"Windows PowerShell","text":"Windows PowerShell implements serialization through the built-in cmdlet Export-CliXML. Export-CliXML serializes .NET objects and stores the resulting XML in a file. To reconstitute the objects, use the Import-CliXML cmdlet, which generates a deserialized object from the XML in the exported file. Deserialized objects, often known as \"property bags\" are not live objects; they are snapshots that have properties, but no methods. Two dimensional data structures can also be (de)serialized in CSV format using the built-in cmdlets Import-CSV and Export-CSV.","title":"Programming language support"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Commutation (telemetry)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutation_(telemetry)"},{"title":"Comparison of data serialization formats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_data_serialization_formats"},{"title":"Container format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_format"},{"title":"Hibernate (Java)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibernate_(Java)"},{"title":"XML Schema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_Schema_(W3C)"},{"title":"Basic Encoding Rules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Encoding_Rules"},{"title":"Google Protocol Buffers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Protocol_Buffers"},{"title":"Wikibase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikidata"},{"title":"Apache Avro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Avro"}]
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[{"reference":"Cline, Marshall. \"C++ FAQ: \"What's This \"Serialization\" Thing All About?\"\". Archived from the original on 2015-04-05. It lets you take an object or group of objects, put them on a disk or send them through a wire or wireless transport mechanism, then later, perhaps on another computer, reverse the process, resurrecting the original object(s). The basic mechanisms are to flatten object(s) into a one-dimensional stream of bits, and to turn that stream of bits back into the original object(s).","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150405013606/http://isocpp.org/wiki/faq/serialization","url_text":"\"C++ FAQ: \"What's This \"Serialization\" Thing All About?\"\""},{"url":"http://www.parashift.com/c++-faq-lite/serialize-overview.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Module: Marshal (Ruby 3.0.2)\". ruby-doc.org. Retrieved 25 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://ruby-doc.org/core-3.0.2/Marshal.html","url_text":"\"Module: Marshal (Ruby 3.0.2)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Marshal\". OCaml. Retrieved 25 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://ocaml.org/api/Marshal.html","url_text":"\"Marshal\""}]},{"reference":"\"Python 3.9.6 documentation - Python object serialization —pickle\". Documentation - The Python Standard Library.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.python.org/3/library/pickle.html?highlight=marshalling#module-pickle","url_text":"\"Python 3.9.6 documentation - Python object serialization —pickle\""}]},{"reference":"S. Miller, Mark. \"Safe Serialization Under Mutual Suspicion\". ERights.org. Serialization, explained below, is an example of a tool for use by objects within an object system for operating on the graph they are embedded in. This seems to require violating the encapsulation provided by the pure object model.","urls":[{"url":"http://erights.org/data/serial/jhu-paper/intro.html","url_text":"\"Safe Serialization Under Mutual Suspicion\""}]},{"reference":"Sun Microsystems (1987). \"XDR: External Data Representation Standard\". RFC 1014. Network Working Group. 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serotine_bat
|
Serotine bat
|
["1 Taxonomy","2 Description","3 Distribution","4 Habitat","5 Biology","6 Diet","7 Reproduction","8 Echolocation","9 Conservation","10 References","11 External links"]
|
Species of bat
"Silky bat" redirects here. For another bat of a similar name in the leaf-nosed bat family, see Silky short-tailed bat.
Serotine bat
A serotine bat, crawling across a wooden surface
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:
Eukaryota
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Mammalia
Order:
Chiroptera
Family:
Vespertilionidae
Genus:
Eptesicus
Species:
E. serotinus
Binomial name
Eptesicus serotinus(Schreber, 1774)
Global range of E. serotinus (red) (includes E. pachyomus)
The serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus), also known as the common serotine bat, big brown bat, or silky bat, is a fairly large Eurasian bat with quite large ears. It has a wingspan of around 37 cm (15 in) and often hunts in woodland. It sometimes roosts in buildings, hanging upside down, in small groups or individually. The name serotine is derived from the Latin serotinus, which means 'evening', while the generic name derives from Greek ἔπιεν and οίκος, which means 'house flyer'.
Taxonomy
The following subspecies have been recognised.
Eptesicus serotinus boscai: southern Iberia and Morocco
Eptesicus serotinus pashtonus: Pakistan and Afghanistan
Eptesicus serotinus serotinus: northern and eastern Europe and western Asia
Eptesicus serotinus turcomanus: central Asia and Xinjiang
The Oriental serotine (E. pachyomus) and its constituent subspecies were formerly considered a subspecies of E. serotinus, comprising its eastern populations, and is still considered its closest relative, but phylogenetic evidence indicates a deep genetic divergence between E. serotinus and E. pachyomus, so they have been split as distinct species. The same occurred with the meridional serotine (E. isabellinus), which was formerly thought to comprise the southernmost populations of E. serotinus.
Description
The serotine bat has long fur which on the back is smoky-brown in colour, while the underparts are a paler yellowish-brown, the nose and triangular shaped ears are black, and the membranes of the wings are dark black or brown. The juveniles are darker than the adults. Serotine bats are easy to identify in flight, because its broad wings combined with its slow, highly manoeuvrable, flapping flight interspersed with brief glides is distinctive. The tragus has a relatively thin and pointed shape and is not kidney shaped as in Nyctalus.
Distribution
The serotine bat has a Palaearctic distribution lying between about 58 degrees and 30 degrees from southern Great Britain and Spain in the west, east to along the Himalayas to northeastern India and along the Tian Shan to southern Mongolia and northern China, and south to Turkey and Iran. It has been recorded as a vagrant on Lanzarote in the Canary Islands.
Habitat
The serotine bat utilises in a wide variety of habitats including temperate and subtropical dry forest, maquis, agricultural land, semi-desert and suburban areas.
Biology
In Europe serotine bats start to establish maternity colonies consisting almost exclusively of females from late May. Colonies usually remain at a single roost site during the breeding season, although occasionally the larger colonies will change roost sites. The female bats usually give birth to a single pup in early July, though births have been recorded as late as mid-August.
The female bats normally give birth to a single young in late summer, and the baby is occasionally carried by its mother for the first few days. The young bats usually make their first flights at around three weeks old, and at six weeks they can forage for themselves. Breeding colonies usually disperse by early September, although a few bats may use the colony site as a roost until early October. The male bats probably remain solitary or in small groups but are occasionally found with females in spring or autumn. Mating seems to take place in the autumn, but very little is known about the mating behaviour. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at one year old.
Serotine bats mainly use buildings for summer roosts, especially those older buildings with high gables and cavity walls, and often occur in churches; modern buildings are used infrequently. The roost is normally accessed at or near the gable apex or the lower eaves. The serotine bat is hardly ever found in trees, which were the most likely pre-human roost sites, and the species seems to be very oriented towards using buildings. The roost is sometimes shared with pipistrelles or brown long-eared bats, and this species has also been recorded associating with Natterer's bats, whiskered bats and noctule bats. Only a few serotine bats have been found in winter, but it seems likely that most hibernate in buildings in cavity walls and disused chimneys. There are a few records of them being found in the coldest parts of caves, either in roof crevices or in accumulations of boulders.
The foraging activity of serotine bats peaks at dusk, and there is a second period of activity around dawn. They commute on average 6.5 km (4.0 mi) to and from feeding areas per night, and forage in up to five distinct areas per night. This species uses three main feeding strategies: short flights, ground feeding and aerial hawking. It normally forages quite low, 0–5 m (0–16 ft) above the ground.
Diet
Similarly to the Nyctalus or Plecotus species, the serotine is mainly an aerial hawker focusing on hunting flying insects.
Reproduction
In 2023 it was reported that Serotine bat is the first known instance of non-penetrative reproductive sex in mammals, a reason seems to be that the male has a rather large penis which spans about a 22% of his entire body length making penetration difficult so the penis is just held firmly against the vulva.Their form of copulation is unique among mammals, but is more analogous to the cloacal kissing found among birds.
Echolocation
The frequencies used by this bat species for echolocation lie between 25–55 kHz, have most energy at 31 kHz and have an average duration of 8.8 ms.
Conservation
The serotine bat has declined in many areas in its European range. Loss of feeding habitat is thought to have played a part in the decline. In addition, as this bat almost exclusively roosts in buildings, it is highly vulnerable to disturbance from construction work and toxic timber treatments. In the United Kingdom serotine bats benefit from a very comprehensive level of legal protection, as is the case across much of Europe.
References
^ a b c d Godlevska, L.; Kruskop, S.V.; Gazaryan, S. (2021) . "Eptesicus serotinus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T85199559A195834153. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T85199559A195834153.en. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
^ "Serotine, Serotine Bat, Common Serotine Bat, Big Brown Bat, Silky Bat". Ch Boudet - Mammals' Planet. Archived from the original on 14 February 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
^ "Serotine bat". Animalia. Ukraine. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^ a b c d "Common serotine". University of Bristol. Retrieved 17 October 2016.
^ "Eptesicus serotinus (Schreber, 1774)". itis.gov. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
^ Srinivasulu, Chelmala; Srinivasulu, Bhargavi (2012). South Asian Mammals: Their Diversity, Distribution, and Status. p. 269. ISBN 978-1-4614-3449-8.
^ Juste, Javier; Benda, Petr; Garcia-Mudarra, Juan-Luis; Ibanez, Carlos (2013). "Phylogeny and systematics of Old World serotine bats (genus Eptesicus, Vespertilionidae, Chiroptera): an integrative approach" (PDF). Zoologica Scripta. 42 (5): 441–457. doi:10.1111/zsc.12020. hdl:10261/80441. S2CID 52950923.
^ a b "Serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus)". Wildscreen Arkive. Archived from the original on 2016-10-08. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
^ a b c "Serotine" (PDF). Bat Conservation Trust. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-10-22. Retrieved 17 October 2016.
^ GAJDOŠÍK M. & GAISLER J., 2004: Diet of two Eptesicus bat species in Moravia (Czech Republic). Folia Zoologica, 53: 7–16.
^ ANDĚRA M. & HORÁČEK I., 2005: Poznáváme naše savce . Sobotáles, Praha, 328 pp.
^ MIKULA, P., & ČMOKOVÁ, A. Lepidopterans in the summer diet of Eptesicus serotinus in Central Bohemia. Vespertilio 16: 197-201.
^ Fasel, Nicolas J.; Jeucken, Jan; Kravchenko, Kseniia; Fritze, Marcus; Ruczyński, Ireneusz; Komar, Ewa; Moiseienko, Marharyta; Shulenko, Alona; Vlaschenko, Anton; Christe, Philippe; Glaizot, Olivier; Holtze, Susanne (November 2023). "Mating without intromission in a bat". Current Biology. 33 (22): R1182–R1183. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.054.
^ Vaidyanathan, Gayathri (2023-11-20). "These bats are the first mammals found to have non-penetrative mating". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-023-03565-7. ISSN 0028-0836.
^ How big is too big? Bat’s enormous penis makes penetration impossible (Report). 2023-11-20. doi:10.1126/science.adn0624.
^ Roth, Annie (2023-11-20). "You Know About the Birds and the Bees, but Guess What These Bats Do". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-11-26.
^ Parsons, S.; Jones, G. (2000). "Acoustic identification of twelve species of echolocating bat by discriminant function analysis and artificial neural networks" (PDF). J Exp Biol. 203 (17): 2641–2656. doi:10.1242/jeb.203.17.2641.
^ Obrist, M.K.; Boesch, R.; Fluckiger, P.F. (2004). "Variability in echolocation call design of 26 Swiss bat species: Consequences, limits and options for automated field identification with a synergic pattern recognition approach" (PDF). Mammalia. 68 (4): 307–32. doi:10.1515/mamm.2004.030. S2CID 86180828.
External links
Media related to Eptesicus serotinus at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Eptesicus serotinus at Wikispecies
vteSpecies of subfamily Vespertilioninae
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Vespertilionidae
Aeorestes
Hoary bat (A. cinereus)
Big red bat (A. egregius)
Hawaiian hoary bat (A. semotus)
A. villosissimus
AfronycterisHeller's serotine (A. helios)
Banana serotine(A. nanus)Antrozous
Pallid bat (A. pallidus)
Arielulus
Collared pipistrelle (A. aureocollaris)
Black-gilded pipistrelle (A. circumdatus)
Coppery pipistrelle (A. cuprosus)
Social pipistrelle (A. societatis)
Necklace pipistrelle (A. torquatus)
Barbastella
Western barbastelle (B. barbastellus)
Beijing barbastelle (B. beijingensis)
Eastern barbastelle (B. darjelingensis)
Asian barbastelle (B. leucomelas)
Bauerus
Van Gelder's bat (B. dubiaquercus)
Chalinolobus
Large-eared pied bat (C. dwyeri)
Gould's wattled bat (C. gouldii)
Chocolate wattled bat (C. morio)
New Caledonia wattled bat (C. neocaledonicus)
Hoary wattled bat (C. nigrogriseus)
Little pied bat (C. picatus)
New Zealand long-tailed bat (C. tuberculatus)
Corynorhinus
Mexican big-eared bat (C. mexicanus)
Rafinesque's big-eared bat (C. rafinesquii)
Townsend's big-eared bat (C. townsendii)
Dasypterus
Southern yellow bat (D. ega)
Cuban yellow bat (D. insularis)
Northern yellow bat (D. intermedius)
Western yellow bat (D. xanthinus)
Eptesicus
E. anatolicus
Little black serotine (E. andinus)
Bobrinski's serotine (E. bobrinskoi)
Botta's serotine (E. bottae)
Brazilian brown bat (E. brasiliensis)
E. chiriquinus
Diminutive serotine (E. diminutus)
Surat serotine (E. dimissus)
Horn-skinned bat (E. floweri)
Argentine brown bat (E. furinalis)
Big brown bat (E. fuscus)
Gobi big brown bat (E. gobiensis)
Guadeloupe big brown bat (E. guadeloupensis)
Long-tailed house bat (E. hottentotus)
Harmless serotine (E. innoxius)
E. isabellinus
E. japonensis
Kobayashi's bat (E. kobayashii)
E. lobatus
Sind bat (E. nasutus)
Northern bat (E. nilssonii)
E. ognevi
E. pachyomus
Thick-eared bat (E. pachyotis)
Lagos serotine (E. platyops)
Serotine bat (E. serotinus)
E. taddeii
Sombre bat (E. tatei)
Euderma
Spotted bat (E. maculatum)
Eudiscopus
Disk-footed bat (E. denticulus)
Falsistrellus
Chocolate pipistrelle (F. affinis)
Western false pipistrelle (F. mackenziei)
Pungent pipistrelle (F. mordax)
Peters's pipistrelle (F. petersi)
Eastern false pipistrelle (F. tasmaniensis)
Glauconycteris
Allen's striped bat (G. alboguttata)
Silvered bat (G. argentata)
Beatrix's bat (G. beatrix)
Curry's bat (G. curryae)
Bibundi bat (G. egeria)
Glen's wattled bat (G. gleni)
Allen's spotted bat (G. humeralis)
Kenyan wattled bat (G. kenyacola)
Machado's butterfly bat (G. machadoi)
Abo bat (G. poensis)
Variegated butterfly bat (G. variegata)
Glischropus
G. aquilus
G. bucephalus
Javan thick-thumbed bat (G. javanus)
Common thick-thumbed bat (G. tylopus)
Hesperoptenus
Blanford's bat (H. blanfordi)
False serotine bat (H. doriae)
Gaskell's false serotine (H. gaskelli)
Tickell's bat (H. tickelli)
Large false serotine (H. tomesi)
Histiotus
Strange big-eared brown bat (H. alienus)
H. diaphanopterus
Humboldt big-eared brown bat (H. humboldti)
Thomas's big-eared brown bat (H. laephotis)
Big-eared brown bat (H. macrotus)
Southern big-eared brown bat (H. magellanicus)
Small big-eared brown bat (H. montanus)
Tropical big-eared brown bat (H. velatus)
Hypsugo
H. alaschanicus
H. anthonyi
Arabian pipistrelle (H. arabicus)
Desert pipistrelle (H. ariel)
H. bemainty
Cadorna's pipistrelle (H. cadornae)
Broad-headed pipistrelle (H. crassulus)
Long-toothed pipistrelle (H. dolichodon)
Eisentraut's pipistrelle (H. eisentrauti)
Brown pipistrelle (H. imbricatus)
Joffre's pipistrelle (H. joffrei)
Red-brown pipistrelle (H. kitcheneri)
Lanza's pipistrelle (H. lanzai)
Burma pipistrelle (H. lophurus)
Big-eared pipistrelle (H. macrotis)
Mouselike pipistrelle (H. musciculus)
Chinese pipistrelle (H. pulveratus)
Savi's pipistrelle (H. savii)
Vordermann's pipistrelle (H. vordermanni)
Ia
Great evening bat (I. io)
Idionycteris
Allen's big-eared bat (I. phyllotis)
Laephotis
Angolan long-eared bat (L. angolensis)
Botswanan long-eared bat (L. botswanae)
Namib long-eared bat (L. namibensis)
De Winton's long-eared bat (L. wintoni)
Lasionycteris
Silver-haired bat (L. noctivagans)
Lasiurus
L. arequipae
L. atratus
Desert red bat (L. blossevillii)
Eastern red bat (L. borealis)
Tacarcuna bat (L. castaneus)
Jamaican red bat (L. degelidus)
Hairy-tailed bat (L. ebenus)
Western red bat (L. frantzii))
Minor red bat (L. minor)
Pfeiffer's red bat (L. pfeifferi)
Saline red bat (L. salinae)
Seminole bat (L. seminolus)
Cinnamon red bat (L. varius)
Mimetillus
Moloney's mimic bat (M. moloneyi)
Neoromicia
Dark-brown serotine (N. brunnea)
Cape serotine (N. capensis)
Yellow serotine (N. flavescens)
N. grandidieri
Tiny serotine (N. guineensis)
N. isabella
Isalo serotine (N. malagasyensis)
Malagasy serotine (N. matroka)
Melck's house bat (N. melckorum)
Rendall's serotine (N. rendalli)
N. robertsi
Rosevear's serotine (N. roseveari)
Somali serotine (N. somalica)
N. stanleyi
White-winged serotine (N. tenuipinnis)
Zulu serotine (N. zuluensis)
Niumbaha
Pied bat (N. superba)
Nyctalus
Birdlike noctule (N. aviator)
Azores noctule (N. azoreum)
Nyctalus furvus (N. furvus)
Greater noctule bat (N. lasiopterus)
Lesser noctule (N. leisleri)
Mountain noctule (N. montanus)
Common noctule (N. noctula)
Chinese noctule (N. plancyi)
Nycticeinops
Schlieffen's bat (N. schlieffeni)
Nycticeius
Temminck's mysterious bat (N. aenobarbus)
Cuban evening bat (N. cubanus)
Evening bat (N. humeralis)
Nyctophilus
Northern long-eared bat (N. arnhemensis)
Eastern long-eared bat (N. bifax)
N. corbeni
N. daedalus
Lesser long-eared bat (N. geoffroyi)
Gould's long-eared bat (N. gouldi)
Sunda long-eared bat (N. heran)
Lord Howe long-eared bat (N. howensis)
N. major
Small-toothed long-eared bat (N. microdon)
New Guinea long-eared bat (N. microtis)
New Caledonian long-eared bat (N. nebulosus)
Tasmanian long-eared bat (N. sherrini)
Mount Missim long-eared bat (N. shirleyae)
Greater long-eared bat (N. timoriensis)
Pygmy long-eared bat (N. walkeri)
Otonycteris
Desert long-eared bat (O. hemprichii)
Otonycteris leucophaea (O. leucophaea)
Parastrellus
Western pipistrelle (P. hesperus)
Perimyotis
Eastern pipistrelle (P. subflavus)
Pharotis
New Guinea big-eared bat (P. imogene)
Philetor
Rohu's bat (P. brachypterus)
Pipistrellus
Japanese house bat (P. abramus)
Forest pipistrelle (P. adamsi)
Mount Gargues pipistrelle (P. aero)
Anchieta's pipistrelle (P. anchietae)
Angulate pipistrelle (P. angulatus)
Kelaart's pipistrelle (P. ceylonicus)
Greater Papuan pipistrelle (P. collinus)
Indian pipistrelle (P. coromandra)
P. dhofarensis
Egyptian pipistrelle (P. deserti)
Endo's pipistrelle (P. endoi)
P. hanaki
Dusky pipistrelle (P. hesperidus)
Aellen's pipistrelle (P. inexspectatus)
Java pipistrelle (P. javanicus)
Kuhl's pipistrelle (P. kuhlii)
Madeira pipistrelle (P. maderensis)
Minahassa pipistrelle (P. minahassae)
Christmas Island pipistrelle (P. murrayi)
Tiny pipistrelle (P. nanulus)
Nathusius's pipistrelle (P. nathusii)
Lesser Papuan pipistrelle (P. papuanus)
Mount Popa pipistrelle (P. paterculus)
Dar es Salaam pipistrelle (P. permixtus)
Common pipistrelle (P. pipistrellus)
Soprano pipistrelle (P. pygmaeus)
P. raceyi
Rüppell's pipistrelle (P. rueppellii)
Rusty pipistrelle (P. rusticus)
Narrow-winged pipistrelle (P. stenopterus)
Sturdee's pipistrelle (P. sturdeei)
Least pipistrelle (P. tenuis)
Watts's pipistrelle (P. wattsi)
Northern pipistrelle (P. westralis)
Plecotus
P. ariel
Brown long-eared bat (P. auritus)
Grey long-eared bat (P. austriacus)
Ethiopian big-eared bat (P. balensis)
P. begognae
Christie's big-eared bat (P. christiei)
P. gaisleri
P. homochrous
Kolombatovic's long-eared bat (P. kolombatovici)
P. kozlovi
Alpine long-eared bat (P. macrobullaris)
Ognev's long-eared bat (P. ognevi
Japanese long-eared bat (P. sacrimontis)
Sardinian long-eared bat (P. sardus)
P. strelkovi
Taiwan big-eared bat (P. taivanus)
Canary big-eared bat (P. teneriffae)
P. turkmenicus
P. wardi
Rhogeessa
Yucatan yellow bat (R. aeneus)
Allen's yellow bat (R. alleni)
Bickham's little yellow bat (R. bickhami)
Genoways's yellow bat (R. genowaysi)
Slender yellow bat (R. gracilis)
Husson's yellow bat (R. hussoni)
Thomas's yellow bat (R. io
Menchu's little yellow bat (R. menchuae)
Tiny yellow bat (R. minutilla)
Least yellow bat (R. mira)
Little yellow bat (R. parvula)
Black-winged little yellow bat (R. tumida)
R. velilla
Scoteanax
Rüppell's broad-nosed bat (S. rueppellii)
Scotoecus
White-bellied lesser house bat (S. albigula)
Light-winged lesser house bat (S. albofuscus)
Hinde's lesser house bat (S. hindei)
Dark-winged lesser house bat (S. hirundo)
Desert yellow bat (S. pallidus)
Scotomanes
Harlequin bat (S. ornatus)
Scotophilus
S. alvenslebeni
Andrew Rebori's house bat (S. andrewreborii)
Lesser yellow bat (S. borbonicus)
Sulawesi yellow bat (S. celebensis)
Sody's yellow house bat (S. collinus)
African yellow bat (S. dinganii)
Ejeta's house bat (S. ejetai)
Greater Asiatic yellow bat (S. heathii)
Lesser Asiatic yellow bat (S. kuhlii)
White-bellied yellow bat (S. leucogaster)
Livingstone's house bat (S. livingstonii)
Marovaza house bat (S. marovaza)
Schreber's yellow bat (S. nigrita)
S. nigritellus
Robbins's yellow bat (S. nucella)
Nut-colored yellow bat (S. nux)
Robust yellow bat (S. robustus)
S. tandrefana
Trujillo’s house bat (S. trujilloi)
Greenish yellow bat (S. viridis)
Scotorepens
Inland broad-nosed bat (S. balstoni)
Little broad-nosed bat (S. greyii)
Eastern broad-nosed bat (S. orion)
Northern broad-nosed bat (S. sanborni)
Scotozous
Dormer's bat (S. dormeri)
Tylonycteris
T. fulvida
T. malayana
Lesser bamboo bat (T. pachypus)
Pygmy bamboo bat (T. pygmaeus)
Greater bamboo bat (T. robustula)
T. tonkinensis
Vespadelus
Inland forest bat (V. baverstocki)
Northern cave bat (V. caurinus)
Large forest bat (V. darlingtoni)
Yellow-lipped bat (V. douglasorum)
Finlayson's cave bat (V. finlaysoni)
Eastern forest bat (V. pumilus)
Southern forest bat (V. regulus)
Eastern cave bat (V. troughtoni)
Little forest bat (V. vulturnus)
Vespertilio
Parti-coloured bat (V. murinus)
Asian particolored bat (V. sinensis)
Taxon identifiersEptesicus serotinus
Wikidata: Q214869
Wikispecies: Eptesicus (Eptesicus) serotinus
ADW: Eptesicus_serotinus
ARKive: eptesicus-serotinus
BioLib: 2264
BOLD: 15905
CMS: eptesicus-serotinus
EoL: 327660
EUNIS: 1395
Fauna Europaea: 305400
Fauna Europaea (new): 99d196ae-c961-4cda-b80d-2447a100804b
GBIF: 2432359
iNaturalist: 207811
IRMNG: 11058375
ITIS: 631969
IUCN: 7911
MSW: 13801865
NBN: NHMSYS0000528008
NCBI: 59452
Observation.org: 410
Open Tree of Life: 15443
TSA: 6604
WoRMS: 1037281
Vespertilio serotinus
Wikidata: Q109647660
CoL: 7FR47
EUNIS: 1585
GBIF: 9205248
ITIS: 946453
Paleobiology Database: 376838
ZooBank: EE16C344-80A9-4F74-9CE5-64E3B2DE8D9E
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"leaf-nosed bat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf-nosed_bat"},{"link_name":"Silky short-tailed bat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silky_short-tailed_bat"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mammal's_Planet-2"},{"link_name":"Eurasian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasia"},{"link_name":"bat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat"},{"link_name":"ears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ear"},{"link_name":"woodland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodland"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Animalia-3"}],"text":"\"Silky bat\" redirects here. For another bat of a similar name in the leaf-nosed bat family, see Silky short-tailed bat.The serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus), also known as the common serotine bat, big brown bat, or silky bat,[2] is a fairly large Eurasian bat with quite large ears. It has a wingspan of around 37 cm (15 in) and often hunts in woodland. It sometimes roosts in buildings, hanging upside down, in small groups or individually. The name serotine is derived from the Latin serotinus, which means 'evening', while the generic name derives from Greek ἔπιεν and οίκος, which means 'house flyer'.[3]","title":"Serotine bat"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Da_Zongfu-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iucn-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ITIS-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Iberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberia"},{"link_name":"Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"Xinjiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjiang"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Da_Zongfu-4"},{"link_name":"Oriental serotine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_serotine"},{"link_name":"meridional serotine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meridional_serotine"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Juste-7"}],"text":"The following subspecies have been recognised.[4][1][5][6]Eptesicus serotinus boscai: southern Iberia and Morocco\nEptesicus serotinus pashtonus: Pakistan and Afghanistan\nEptesicus serotinus serotinus: northern and eastern Europe and western Asia\nEptesicus serotinus turcomanus: central Asia and Xinjiang[4]The Oriental serotine (E. pachyomus) and its constituent subspecies were formerly considered a subspecies of E. serotinus, comprising its eastern populations, and is still considered its closest relative, but phylogenetic evidence indicates a deep genetic divergence between E. serotinus and E. pachyomus, so they have been split as distinct species. The same occurred with the meridional serotine (E. isabellinus), which was formerly thought to comprise the southernmost populations of E. serotinus.[7]","title":"Taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arkive-8"},{"link_name":"tragus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragus_(ear)"},{"link_name":"Nyctalus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyctalus"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Da_Zongfu-4"}],"text":"The serotine bat has long fur which on the back is smoky-brown in colour, while the underparts are a paler yellowish-brown, the nose and triangular shaped ears are black, and the membranes of the wings are dark black or brown. The juveniles are darker than the adults. Serotine bats are easy to identify in flight, because its broad wings combined with its slow, highly manoeuvrable, flapping flight interspersed with brief glides is distinctive.[8] The tragus has a relatively thin and pointed shape and is not kidney shaped as in Nyctalus.[4]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Palaearctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaearctic"},{"link_name":"Great Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"Himalayas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayas"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Tian Shan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tian_Shan"},{"link_name":"Mongolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Lanzarote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanzarote"},{"link_name":"Canary Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iucn-1"}],"text":"The serotine bat has a Palaearctic distribution lying between about 58 degrees and 30 degrees from southern Great Britain and Spain in the west, east to along the Himalayas to northeastern India and along the Tian Shan to southern Mongolia and northern China, and south to Turkey and Iran. It has been recorded as a vagrant on Lanzarote in the Canary Islands.[1]","title":"Distribution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"maquis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquis_shrubland"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iucn-1"}],"text":"The serotine bat utilises in a wide variety of habitats including temperate and subtropical dry forest, maquis, agricultural land, semi-desert and suburban areas.[1]","title":"Habitat"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-envtech-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-envtech-9"},{"link_name":"pipistrelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipistrelle"},{"link_name":"brown long-eared bats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_long-eared_bat"},{"link_name":"Natterer's bats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natterer%27s_bat"},{"link_name":"whiskered bats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiskered_bat"},{"link_name":"noctule bats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noctule_bat"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-envtech-9"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Da_Zongfu-4"}],"text":"In Europe serotine bats start to establish maternity colonies consisting almost exclusively of females from late May. Colonies usually remain at a single roost site during the breeding season, although occasionally the larger colonies will change roost sites. The female bats usually give birth to a single pup in early July, though births have been recorded as late as mid-August.[9]The female bats normally give birth to a single young in late summer, and the baby is occasionally carried by its mother for the first few days. The young bats usually make their first flights at around three weeks old, and at six weeks they can forage for themselves. Breeding colonies usually disperse by early September, although a few bats may use the colony site as a roost until early October. The male bats probably remain solitary or in small groups but are occasionally found with females in spring or autumn. Mating seems to take place in the autumn, but very little is known about the mating behaviour. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at one year old.[9]Serotine bats mainly use buildings for summer roosts, especially those older buildings with high gables and cavity walls, and often occur in churches; modern buildings are used infrequently. The roost is normally accessed at or near the gable apex or the lower eaves. The serotine bat is hardly ever found in trees, which were the most likely pre-human roost sites, and the species seems to be very oriented towards using buildings. The roost is sometimes shared with pipistrelles or brown long-eared bats, and this species has also been recorded associating with Natterer's bats, whiskered bats and noctule bats. Only a few serotine bats have been found in winter, but it seems likely that most hibernate in buildings in cavity walls and disused chimneys. There are a few records of them being found in the coldest parts of caves, either in roof crevices or in accumulations of boulders.[9]The foraging activity of serotine bats peaks at dusk, and there is a second period of activity around dawn. They commute on average 6.5 km (4.0 mi) to and from feeding areas per night, and forage in up to five distinct areas per night. This species uses three main feeding strategies: short flights, ground feeding and aerial hawking. It normally forages quite low, 0–5 m (0–16 ft) above the ground.[4]","title":"Biology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nyctalus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyctalus"},{"link_name":"Plecotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plecotus"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Similarly to the Nyctalus or Plecotus species, the serotine is mainly an aerial hawker focusing on hunting flying insects.[10][11][12]","title":"Diet"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"In 2023 it was reported that Serotine bat is the first known instance of non-penetrative reproductive sex in mammals, a reason seems to be that the male has a rather large penis which spans about a 22% of his entire body length making penetration difficult so the penis is just held firmly against the vulva.Their form of copulation is unique among mammals, but is more analogous to the cloacal kissing found among birds.[13][14][15][16]","title":"Reproduction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"echolocation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_echolocation"},{"link_name":"kHz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertz"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"The frequencies used by this bat species for echolocation lie between 25–55 kHz, have most energy at 31 kHz and have an average duration of 8.8 ms.[17][18]","title":"Echolocation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arkive-8"}],"text":"The serotine bat has declined in many areas in its European range. Loss of feeding habitat is thought to have played a part in the decline. In addition, as this bat almost exclusively roosts in buildings, it is highly vulnerable to disturbance from construction work and toxic timber treatments. In the United Kingdom serotine bats benefit from a very comprehensive level of legal protection, as is the case across much of Europe.[8]","title":"Conservation"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"Godlevska, L.; Kruskop, S.V.; Gazaryan, S. (2021) [amended version of 2020 assessment]. \"Eptesicus serotinus\". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T85199559A195834153. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T85199559A195834153.en. Retrieved 18 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/85199559/195834153","url_text":"\"Eptesicus serotinus\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN_Red_List","url_text":"IUCN Red List of Threatened Species"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T85199559A195834153.en","url_text":"10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T85199559A195834153.en"}]},{"reference":"\"Serotine, Serotine Bat, Common Serotine Bat, Big Brown Bat, Silky Bat\". Ch Boudet - Mammals' Planet. Archived from the original on 14 February 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180214073724/http://www.planet-mammiferes.org/drupal/en/node/38?indice=Eptesicus+serotinus","url_text":"\"Serotine, Serotine Bat, Common Serotine Bat, Big Brown Bat, Silky Bat\""},{"url":"http://www.planet-mammiferes.org/drupal/en/node/38?indice=Eptesicus+serotinus","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Serotine bat\". Animalia. Ukraine. Retrieved 28 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://animalia.bio/serotine-bat","url_text":"\"Serotine bat\""}]},{"reference":"\"Common serotine\". University of Bristol. Retrieved 17 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bio.bris.ac.uk/research/bats/China%20bats/eptesicusserotinus.html","url_text":"\"Common serotine\""}]},{"reference":"\"Eptesicus serotinus (Schreber, 1774)\". itis.gov. Retrieved 18 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=631969&print_version=PRT&source=to_print#null","url_text":"\"Eptesicus serotinus (Schreber, 1774)\""}]},{"reference":"Srinivasulu, Chelmala; Srinivasulu, Bhargavi (2012). South Asian Mammals: Their Diversity, Distribution, and Status. p. 269. ISBN 978-1-4614-3449-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-3449-8","url_text":"978-1-4614-3449-8"}]},{"reference":"Juste, Javier; Benda, Petr; Garcia-Mudarra, Juan-Luis; Ibanez, Carlos (2013). \"Phylogeny and systematics of Old World serotine bats (genus Eptesicus, Vespertilionidae, Chiroptera): an integrative approach\" (PDF). Zoologica Scripta. 42 (5): 441–457. doi:10.1111/zsc.12020. hdl:10261/80441. S2CID 52950923.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nm.cz/admin/files/PM/download/zivotopisy-publikace/juste2013zs.pdf","url_text":"\"Phylogeny and systematics of Old World serotine bats (genus Eptesicus, Vespertilionidae, Chiroptera): an integrative approach\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fzsc.12020","url_text":"10.1111/zsc.12020"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10261%2F80441","url_text":"10261/80441"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52950923","url_text":"52950923"}]},{"reference":"\"Serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus)\". Wildscreen Arkive. Archived from the original on 2016-10-08. Retrieved 18 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161008122613/http://www.arkive.org/serotine-bat/eptesicus-serotinus/","url_text":"\"Serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus)\""},{"url":"http://www.arkive.org/serotine-bat/eptesicus-serotinus/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Serotine\" (PDF). Bat Conservation Trust. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-10-22. Retrieved 17 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161022103525/http://www.envtech.co.uk/down/files/pdf/serotine.pdf","url_text":"\"Serotine\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat_Conservation_Trust","url_text":"Bat Conservation Trust"},{"url":"http://www.envtech.co.uk/down/files/pdf/serotine.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Fasel, Nicolas J.; Jeucken, Jan; Kravchenko, Kseniia; Fritze, Marcus; Ruczyński, Ireneusz; Komar, Ewa; Moiseienko, Marharyta; Shulenko, Alona; Vlaschenko, Anton; Christe, Philippe; Glaizot, Olivier; Holtze, Susanne (November 2023). \"Mating without intromission in a bat\". Current Biology. 33 (22): R1182–R1183. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.054.","urls":[{"url":"https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982223013040","url_text":"\"Mating without intromission in a bat\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2023.09.054","url_text":"10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.054"}]},{"reference":"Vaidyanathan, Gayathri (2023-11-20). \"These bats are the first mammals found to have non-penetrative mating\". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-023-03565-7. ISSN 0028-0836.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-03565-7","url_text":"\"These bats are the first mammals found to have non-penetrative mating\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-023-03565-7","url_text":"10.1038/d41586-023-03565-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836","url_text":"0028-0836"}]},{"reference":"How big is too big? Bat’s enormous penis makes penetration impossible (Report). 2023-11-20. doi:10.1126/science.adn0624.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.science.org/content/article/how-big-too-big-bat-s-enormous-penis-makes-penetration-impossible","url_text":"How big is too big? Bat’s enormous penis makes penetration impossible"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.adn0624","url_text":"10.1126/science.adn0624"}]},{"reference":"Roth, Annie (2023-11-20). \"You Know About the Birds and the Bees, but Guess What These Bats Do\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/20/science/bats-sex-cloacal-kiss.html","url_text":"\"You Know About the Birds and the Bees, but Guess What These Bats Do\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","url_text":"0362-4331"}]},{"reference":"Parsons, S.; Jones, G. (2000). \"Acoustic identification of twelve species of echolocating bat by discriminant function analysis and artificial neural networks\" (PDF). J Exp Biol. 203 (17): 2641–2656. doi:10.1242/jeb.203.17.2641.","urls":[{"url":"https://eprints.qut.edu.au/81294/1/81294.pdf","url_text":"\"Acoustic identification of twelve species of echolocating bat by discriminant function analysis and artificial neural networks\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.203.17.2641","url_text":"10.1242/jeb.203.17.2641"}]},{"reference":"Obrist, M.K.; Boesch, R.; Fluckiger, P.F. (2004). \"Variability in echolocation call design of 26 Swiss bat species: Consequences, limits and options for automated field identification with a synergic pattern recognition approach\" (PDF). Mammalia. 68 (4): 307–32. doi:10.1515/mamm.2004.030. S2CID 86180828.","urls":[{"url":"http://doc.rero.ch/record/290229/files/mamm.2004.030.pdf","url_text":"\"Variability in echolocation call design of 26 Swiss bat species: Consequences, limits and options for automated field identification with a synergic pattern recognition approach\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fmamm.2004.030","url_text":"10.1515/mamm.2004.030"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86180828","url_text":"86180828"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Ke
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Operation Ke
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["1 Background","1.1 Guadalcanal Campaign","1.2 Decision to withdraw","1.3 Plan and forces","2 Operation","2.1 Preparation","2.2 Withdrawal westward","2.3 Air campaign","2.4 Battle of Rennell Island","2.5 First evacuation run","2.6 Second and third evacuation runs","3 Aftermath","4 Notes","5 References","5.1 Print","5.2 Web"]
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Coordinates: 9°15′S 159°42′E / 9.250°S 159.700°E / -9.250; 159.7001943 Japanese withdrawal from Guadalcanal in WWII
Operation KePart of the Pacific Theater of World War IIThe crew of US PT boat PT 59 inspects the wreckage of the Japanese submarine I-1, sunk on 29 January 1943 at Kamimbo on Guadalcanal by HMNZS Kiwi and MoaDate14 January – 8 February 1943; 3 weeks and 4 daysLocationGuadalcanal, Solomon Islands9°15′S 159°42′E / 9.250°S 159.700°E / -9.250; 159.700Result
Japanese operational successBelligerents
Allied forces including: United States Australia New Zealand
JapanCommanders and leaders
William Halsey Jr Aubrey Fitch Alexander Patch Nathan F. Twining Francis P. Mulcahy J. Lawton Collins
Isoroku Yamamoto Hitoshi Imamura Jinichi Kusaka Gunichi Mikawa Harukichi Hyakutake Shintaro HashimotoCasualties and losses
1 heavy cruiser sunk,1 destroyer sunk,3 PT boats sunk,1 destroyer heavily damaged,53 aircraft destroyed
1 destroyer sunk,1 submarine sunk,3 destroyers heavily damaged,56 aircraft destroyed
vteGuadalcanal campaign
Land
Tulagi
Tenaru
Goettge Patrol
Edson's Ridge
Matanikau Actions
Henderson Field
Matanikau Offensive
Koli Point
Carlson's patrol
Mt. Austen
Naval
Savo Is.
Eastern Solomons
Cape Esperance
Santa Cruz Is.
Naval Guadalcanal
Tassafaronga
Ke
Rennell Island
vte Solomon Islands campaign
Southern Solomons
Tulagi
Guadalcanal
I-Go
Vengeance
SO and SE
Central Solomons
New Georgia Islands
Northern Solomons
Treasury Islands
Choiseul
Bougainville
Green Islands
Neutralisation of Rabaul
Operation Ke (ケ号作戦, Ke-gō Sakusen) was the largely successful withdrawal of Japanese forces from Guadalcanal, concluding the Guadalcanal Campaign of World War II. The operation took place between 14 January and 7 February 1943, and involved both Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) and Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) forces under the overall direction of the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters (IGH). Commanders of the operation included Isoroku Yamamoto and Hitoshi Imamura.
The Japanese decided to withdraw and concede Guadalcanal to Allied forces for several reasons. All attempts by the IJA to recapture Henderson Field, the airfield on Guadalcanal in use by Allied aircraft, had been repulsed with heavy losses. Japanese ground forces on the island had been reduced from 36,000 to 11,000 through starvation, disease, and battle casualties. IJN forces were also suffering heavy losses attempting to reinforce and resupply the ground forces on the island. These losses, plus the projected resources needed for further attempts to recapture Guadalcanal, were affecting strategic security and operations in other areas of the Japanese Empire. The decision to withdraw was endorsed by Emperor Hirohito on 31 December 1942.
The operation began on 14 January 1943 with the delivery of a battalion of infantry troops to Guadalcanal to act as rearguard for the evacuation. Around the same time, IJA and IJN air forces began an air superiority campaign around the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. During the air campaign, a US cruiser was sunk in the Battle of Rennell Island. Two days later, Japanese aircraft sank a US destroyer near Guadalcanal. The withdrawal was carried out on the nights of 1, 4, and 7 February by destroyers.
At a cost of one destroyer sunk and three damaged, the Japanese evacuated 10,652 men from Guadalcanal. During the evacuation 600 died and 3,000 more required extensive hospital care. On 9 February, Allied forces realized that the Japanese were gone and declared Guadalcanal secure, ending the six-month campaign for control of the island.
Background
Guadalcanal Campaign
Main article: Guadalcanal Campaign
On 7 August 1942, the US 1st Marine Division landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands. The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the US and Australia, and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of capturing or neutralizing the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign. The landings initiated the six-month-long Guadalcanal campaign.
Taking the Japanese by surprise, by nightfall on 8 August the Marines secured Tulagi and nearby islands as well as the Japanese airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal. The Allies later renamed it "Henderson Field". Allied aircraft operating out of Henderson were called the "Cactus Air Force" (CAF) after the Allied code name for Guadalcanal.
In response to the landings on Guadalcanal, the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters (IGH) assigned the Imperial Japanese Army's (IJA) 17th Army, a corps-sized command headquartered at Rabaul under the command of Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake, the task of retaking Guadalcanal. Because of the threat by CAF aircraft, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) was unable to use large, slow transport ships to deliver troops and supplies to the island. Instead, warships based at Rabaul and the Shortland Islands were used to carry forces to Guadalcanal. The Japanese warships, mainly light cruisers and destroyers from the Eighth Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa, were usually able to make the round trip down "The Slot" to Guadalcanal and back in a single night, thereby minimizing their exposure to CAF air attack. These high speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and were later called the "Tokyo Express" by Allied forces and "Rat Transportation" by the Japanese.
The Solomon Islands area in the south Pacific. The Japanese base at Rabaul is at the upper left. Guadalcanal (lower right) lies at the southeastern end of "The Slot".
Using forces delivered to Guadalcanal in this manner, the IJA tried three times to retake Henderson Field, but was defeated each time. After the third failure, an attempt by the IJN to deliver the rest of the IJA 38th Infantry Division and its heavy equipment failed during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal from 12 to 15 November. Because of this failure, the Japanese cancelled their next planned attempt to recapture Henderson Field.
In mid-November, Allied forces attacked the Japanese at Buna-Gona in New Guinea. Japanese Combined Fleet naval leaders, headquartered at Truk and under the overall command of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, felt Allied advances in New Guinea posed a greater threat to the security of the Japanese Empire than an Allied military presence in the southern Solomons. Therefore, Combined Fleet naval staff officers began to prepare plans for abandoning Guadalcanal and shifting priorities and resources to operations around New Guinea. At this time, the navy did not inform the army of their intentions in this regard.
As December began, the Japanese experienced considerable difficulty in keeping their troops on Guadalcanal resupplied because of Allied air and naval attacks on the Japanese supply chain of ships and bases. The few supplies delivered to the island were not enough to sustain Japanese troops who, by 7 December, were losing about 50 men each day to malnutrition, disease, and Allied ground or air attacks. The Japanese had delivered almost 30,000 army troops to Guadalcanal since the campaign began, but by December only about 20,000 of that number were still alive; of those, only around 12,000 remained more or less fit for combat duty, with the rest incapacitated by battle wounds, disease, or malnutrition.
The IJN continued to suffer losses and damage to its ships in attempting to keep the Japanese on Guadalcanal resupplied. One destroyer was sunk by American warships at the Battle of Tassafaronga on 30 November. Another destroyer plus a submarine were sunk and two destroyers damaged by American PT boat and CAF air attacks during subsequent resupply missions from 3–12 December. Compounding the navy's frustration, very few of the supplies carried on these missions reached IJA forces on the island. Combined Fleet leaders began telling their army counterparts the losses and damage to warships engaged in the resupply effort threatened future strategic plans for protecting the Japanese Empire.
Decision to withdraw
Takushiro Hattori, staff officer at Imperial General Headquarters
Throughout November, Japan's top military leaders at the IGH in Tokyo continued to openly support further efforts to retake Guadalcanal from Allied forces. At the same time, lower-ranking staff officers began to discreetly discuss abandoning the island. Takushiro Hattori and Masanobu Tsuji, each of whom had recently visited Guadalcanal, told their colleagues on the staff that any further attempt to retake the island was a lost cause. Ryūzō Sejima reported that the attrition of IJA troop-strength on Guadalcanal was so unexpectedly severe that future operations would be untenable. On 11 December two staff officers, IJN Commander Yuji Yamamoto and IJA Major Takahiko Hayashi, returned to Tokyo from Rabaul and confirmed Hattori's, Tsuji's, and Sejima's reports. They further reported that most of the IJN and IJA officers at Rabaul appeared to support abandoning Guadalcanal. Around this time, Japan's War Ministry informed the IGH that there was insufficient shipping to support both the effort to retake Guadalcanal and transport strategic resources to maintain Japan's economy and military forces.
On 19 December, a delegation of IGH staff officers led by IJA Colonel Joichiro Sanada, chief of the IGH's operations section, arrived at Rabaul for discussions about future plans concerning New Guinea and Guadalcanal. Hitoshi Imamura, commander of the 8th Area Army in charge of IJA operations in New Guinea and the Solomons, did not directly recommend a withdrawal from Guadalcanal but openly and clearly described the current difficulties involved with any further attempts to retake the island. Imamura also stated that any decision to withdraw should include plans to evacuate as many of the soldiers from Guadalcanal as possible.
Sanada returned to Tokyo on 25 December and recommended to the IGH that Guadalcanal be abandoned immediately and all priority given to the campaign in New Guinea. The IGH's top leaders agreed with Sanada's recommendation on 26 December and ordered their staffs to begin drafting plans for the withdrawal from Guadalcanal and establishment of a new defense line in the central Solomons.
On 28 December, General Hajime Sugiyama and Admiral Osami Nagano personally informed Emperor Hirohito of the decision to withdraw from Guadalcanal. On 31 December, the Emperor formally endorsed the decision.
Plan and forces
On 3 January, IGH informed the 8th Area Army and the Combined Fleet of the decision to withdraw from Guadalcanal. By 9 January, the Combined Fleet and 8th Area Army staffs together completed the plan, officially called Operation Ke after a mora in Japanese Kana vocabulary, to execute the evacuation.
The plan called for a battalion of IJA infantry to land by destroyer on Guadalcanal around 14 January to act as a rear guard during the evacuation. The 17th Army was to begin withdrawing to the western end of the island about 25 or 26 January. An air superiority campaign around the southern Solomons would begin on 28 January. The 17th Army would be picked up in three lifts by destroyers the first week of February with a target completion date of 10 February. At the same time, Japanese air and naval forces would conduct conspicuous maneuvers and minor attacks around New Guinea and the Marshall Islands along with deceptive radio traffic to try to confuse the Allies as to their intentions.
Gunichi Mikawa, commander of the 8th Fleet
Yamamoto detailed aircraft carriers Jun'yō and Zuihō, battleships Kongō and Haruna – with four heavy cruisers and a destroyer as the screening force – under Nobutake Kondō to provide distant cover for Ke around Ontong Java in the northern Solomons. The evacuation runs were to be carried out by Mikawa's 8th Fleet, consisting of heavy cruisers Chōkai and Kumano, light cruiser Sendai, and 21 destroyers. Mikawa's destroyers were charged with conducting the evacuation. Yamamoto expected that at least half of Mikawa's destroyers would be sunk during the operation.
Supporting the air superiority portion of the operation were the IJN's 11th Air Fleet and the IJA's 6th Air Division, based at Rabaul with 212 and 100 aircraft, respectively. 64 aircraft from carrier Zuikaku's air group were also temporarily assigned to Rabaul. An additional 60 floatplanes from the IJN's "R" Area Air Force, based at Rabaul, Bougainville and the Shortland Islands, brought the total number of Japanese aircraft involved in the operation to 436. The combined Japanese warship and naval air units in the area formed the Southeast Area Fleet, commanded by Jinichi Kusaka at Rabaul.
Opposing the Japanese and under the command of United States Navy Admiral William Halsey Jr., commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific, were fleet carriers USS Enterprise and USS Saratoga, six escort carriers, three fast battleships, four old battleships, 13 cruisers, and 45 destroyers. In the air, the 13th Air Force numbered 92 fighters and bombers under United States Army Brigadier General Nathan F. Twining and the CAF on Guadalcanal counted 81 aircraft under US Marine Brigadier General Francis P. Mulcahy. Rear Admiral Aubrey Fitch was overall commander of Aircraft South Pacific. The air units of the fleet and escort carriers added another 339 aircraft. In addition, 30 heavy bombers were stationed in New Guinea with sufficient range to conduct missions over the Solomon Islands. In total, the Allies possessed around 539 aircraft available to oppose the Ke operation.
By the first week of January, disease, starvation, and battle had reduced Hyakutake's command to about 14,000 troops, with many of them too sick and malnourished to fight. The 17th Army possessed three operable field cannon, with very little ammunition. In contrast, the Allied commander on the island, US Army Major General Alexander Patch, fielded a combined force of US Army and US Marines, designated the XIV Corps, totaling 50,666 men. At Patch's disposal were 167 artillery weapons, including 75 mm (2.95 in), 105 mm (4.13 in), and 155 mm (6.1 in) howitzers, and plentiful stocks of shells.
Operation
Preparation
On 1 January, the Japanese military changed their radio communication codes, making it more difficult for Allied intelligence, which had previously partially broken Japanese radio ciphers, to divine Japanese intentions and movement. As January progressed, Allied reconnaissance and radio traffic analysis noted the buildup of ships and aircraft at Truk, Rabaul, and the Shortland Islands. Allied analysts determined that the increased radio traffic in the Marshalls was a deception meant to divert attention from an operation about to take place in either New Guinea or the Solomons. Allied intelligence personnel misinterpreted the nature of the operation; on 26 January, the Allied Pacific Command's intelligence section informed Allied forces in the Pacific that the Japanese were preparing for a new offensive, called Ke, in either the Solomons or New Guinea.
On 14 January, an Express mission of nine destroyers delivered the Yano Battalion, designated as the rear guard for the Ke evacuation, to Guadalcanal. The battalion, commanded by Major Keiji Yano, consisted of 750 infantry and a battery of mountain guns crewed by another 100 men. Accompanying the battalion was Lieutenant Colonel Kumao Imoto, representing the 8th Area Army, who was to deliver the evacuation order and plan to Hyakutake. The 17th Army had not yet been informed of the decision to withdraw. CAF and 13th Air Force air attacks on the nine destroyers during their return trip damaged destroyers Arashi and Tanikaze and destroyed eight Japanese fighters escorting the convoy. Five American aircraft were shot down.
"It is a very difficult task for the army to withdraw under existing circumstances. However, the orders of the Area Army, based upon orders of the Emperor, must be carried out at any cost. I cannot guarantee it can be completely carried out."
Harukichi Hyakutake, 16 January 1943
Late on 15 January, Imoto reached 17th Army's headquarters at Kokumbona and informed Hyakutake and his staff of the decision to withdraw from the island. Grudgingly accepting the order on the 16th, the 17th Army staff communicated the Ke evacuation plan to their forces on the 18th. The plan directed the 38th Division, which was currently defending against an American offensive on ridges and hills in the interior of the island, to disengage and withdraw towards Cape Esperance on the western end of Guadalcanal beginning on the 20th. The 38th's retirement would be covered by the 2nd Infantry Division, in place on Guadalcanal since October 1942, and the Yano Battalion, both of which would then follow the 38th westward. Any troops unable to move were encouraged to kill themselves to "uphold the honor of the Imperial Army".
Withdrawal westward
Patch initiated a new offensive just as the 38th Division began to withdraw from the inland ridges and hills that it had occupied. On 20 January, the 25th Infantry Division, under Major General J. Lawton Collins, attacked several hills, designated Hills 87, 88, and 89 by the Americans, that formed a ridge that dominated Kokumbona. Encountering much lighter resistance than anticipated, the Americans seized the three hills by the morning of 22 January. Shifting forces to exploit the unexpected breakthrough, Collins quickly continued the advance and captured the next two hills, 90 and 91, by nightfall, placing the Americans in position to isolate and capture Kokumbona and trap the Japanese 2nd Division.
American forces capture Kokumbona and begin the push westward, 23–25 January.
Reacting quickly to the situation, the Japanese hurriedly evacuated Kokumbona and ordered the 2nd Division to retire westward immediately. The Americans captured Kokumbona on 23 January. Although some Japanese units were trapped between the American forces and destroyed, most of the 2nd Division's survivors escaped.
Still fearing a renewed and reinforced Japanese offensive, Patch committed the equivalent of only one regiment at a time to attack the Japanese forces west of Kokumbona, keeping the rest near Lunga Point to protect the airfield. The terrain west of Kokumbona favored the Japanese efforts to delay the Americans as the rest of the 17th Army continued its withdrawal towards Cape Esperance. The American advance was hemmed into a corridor only 300–600 yd (270–550 m) wide between the ocean and the thick, inland jungle and steep coral ridges. The ridges, running perpendicular to the coast, paralleled numerous streams and creeks that crossed the corridor with "washboard regularity."
On 26 January, a combined US Army and Marine unit called the Composite Army-Marine (CAM) Division advancing westward encountered the Yano Battalion at the Marmura River. Yano's troops temporarily halted the CAM's advance and then slowly withdrew westward over the next three days. On 29 January, the Yano retreated across the Bonegi River, where soldiers from the 2nd Division had constructed another defensive position.
The Japanese defenses at the Bonegi held up the American advance for almost three days. On 1 February, with help from a shore bombardment by the destroyers USS Wilson and Anderson, the Americans successfully crossed the river but did not immediately press the advance westward.
Air campaign
The Ke air superiority campaign began in mid-January with nightly harassment attacks on Henderson Field by 3–10 aircraft, causing little damage. On 20 January, a lone Kawanishi H8K bombed Espiritu Santo Naval Base. On 25 January, the IJN sent 58 Zero fighters on a daylight raid to Guadalcanal. In response, the CAF sent aloft eight Wildcat and six P-38 fighters, which shot down four Zeros without loss.
A second large raid was conducted on 27 January by nine Kawasaki Ki-48 "Lily" light bombers escorted by 74 Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar" fighters from the IJA's 6th Air Division from Rabaul. Twelve Wildcats, six P-38s, and 10 P-40s from Henderson met the raid over Guadalcanal. In the resulting action, the Japanese lost six fighters while the CAF lost one Wildcat, four P-40s, and two P-38s. The "Lily"s dropped their bombs on American positions around the Matanikau River, causing little damage.
Battle of Rennell Island
Main article: Battle of Rennell Island
Believing that the Japanese were beginning a major offensive in the southern Solomons aimed at Henderson Field, Halsey responded by sending, beginning on 29 January, a resupply convoy to Guadalcanal supported by most of his warship forces, separated into five task forces. These five task forces included two fleet carriers, two escort carriers, three battleships, 12 cruisers, and 25 destroyers.
Giffen's Task Force 18 heads towards Guadalcanal on 29 January.
Screening the approach of the transport convoy was Task Force 18 (TF 18), under Rear Admiral Robert C. Giffen, with three heavy and three light cruisers, two escort carriers, and eight destroyers. A fleet carrier task force, centered on the carrier Enterprise, steamed about 250 mi (220 nmi; 400 km) behind TF 18.
In addition to protecting the supply convoy, TF 18 was charged with rendezvousing with a force of four U.S. destroyers, stationed at Tulagi, at 21:00 on 29 January in order to conduct a sweep up "The Slot" north of Guadalcanal the next day to screen the unloading of the transports at Guadalcanal. As the escort carriers were too slow to allow Giffen's force to make the scheduled rendezvous, Giffen left the carriers behind with two destroyers at 14:00 on 29 January and steamed ahead.
Giffen's force was being tracked by Japanese submarines, who reported on Giffen's location and movement to their naval headquarters units. Around mid-afternoon, based on the submarine's reports, 16 G4M from the 705 Air Group and 16 Mitsubishi G3M "Nell" bombers from the 701 Air Group took off from Rabaul carrying torpedoes to attack Giffen's force, now located between Rennell Island and Guadalcanal.
The torpedo bombers attacked Giffen's ships in two waves between 19:00 and 20:00. Two torpedoes hit the heavy cruiser USS Chicago, causing heavy damage and bringing her to a dead stop. Three of the Japanese aircraft were shot down by anti-aircraft fire from Giffen's ships. In response, Halsey sent a tug to take Chicago under tow and ordered Giffen's task force to return to base the next day. Six destroyers were left behind to escort Chicago and the tugboat.
At 16:00 on 30 January, a flight of 11 Mitsubishi torpedo bombers from the 751 Air Group, based at Kavieng and staging through Buka, attacked the force towing Chicago. Fighter aircraft from Enterprise shot down eight of them, but most of the Japanese aircraft were able to release their torpedoes before crashing. One torpedo hit the destroyer USS La Vallette, causing heavy damage. Four more torpedoes hit Chicago, sinking her.
The transport convoy reached Guadalcanal and successfully unloaded its cargo on 30–31 January. The rest of Halsey's warships took station in the Coral Sea south of the Solomons to wait for the approach of any Japanese warship forces supporting what the Allies believed to be an imminent offensive. The departure of TF 18 from the Guadalcanal area removed a significant potential threat to the Ke operation.
At 18:30 on 29 January, two corvettes from the Royal New Zealand Navy, Moa and Kiwi, intercepted the Japanese submarine I-1, which was attempting a supply run, off of Kamimbo on Guadalcanal. The two corvettes rammed and sank I-1 after a 90-minute battle (09°13′S 159°40′E / 9.217°S 159.667°E / -9.217; 159.667).
First evacuation run
Leaving his cruisers at Kavieng, Mikawa gathered all 21 of his destroyers at the Japanese naval base in the Shortlands on 31 January to begin the evacuation runs. Rear Admiral Shintaro Hashimoto was placed in charge of this group of destroyers, titled the Reinforcement Unit. The "R" Area Air Force's 60 floatplanes were tasked with scouting for the Reinforcement Unit and helping defend against Allied PT boat attacks during the nighttime evacuation runs. Allied B-17 bombers attacked the Shortlands anchorage on the morning of 1 February, causing no damage and losing four aircraft to Japanese fighters. This same day, the IJA's 6th Air Division raided Henderson Field with 23 "Oscar"s and six "Lily"s but caused no damage and suffered the loss of one fighter.
Map of the final phase of the Guadalcanal Campaign, 26 January – 9 February, showing the American advances and Japanese defensive positions and evacuation points.
Believing that the Japanese might be retreating to the south coast of Guadalcanal, on the morning of 1 February Patch landed a reinforced battalion of army and Marine troops, about 1,500 men under the command of Colonel Alexander George, at Verahue on Guadalcanal's south coast. The U.S. troops were delivered to the landing location by a naval transport force of six landing craft tanks and one transport destroyer (USS Stringham), escorted by four other destroyers (the same destroyers that were to have joined TF 18 three days earlier). A Japanese reconnaissance aircraft spotted the naval landing force. Believing that the force posed a threat to that night's scheduled evacuation run, an airstrike of 13 Aichi D3A2 "Val" dive bombers escorted by 40 Zeros departed Buin, Bougainville to attack the ships.
Mistaking the Japanese strike aircraft as friendly, the U.S. destroyers withheld fire until the "Val"s began their attack. Beginning at 14:53, destroyer USS De Haven was rapidly hit by three bombs and sank almost immediately 2 mi (1.7 nmi; 3.2 km) south of Savo Island with the loss of 167 of her crew, including her captain. Destroyer USS Nicholas was damaged by several near-misses. Five "Val"s and three Zeros were lost to anti-aircraft fire and CAF fighters. The CAF lost three Wildcats in the engagement.
Hashimoto departed the Shortlands at 11:30 on 1 February with 20 destroyers for the first evacuation run. Eleven destroyers were designated as transports screened by the other nine. The destroyers were attacked in the late afternoon near Vangunu by 92 CAF aircraft in two waves. Makinami, Hashimoto's flagship, was heavily damaged by a near miss. Four CAF aircraft were shot down. Hashimoto transferred to Shirayuki and detached Fumizuki to tow Makinami back to base.
Eleven U.S. PT boats awaited Hashimoto's destroyers between Guadalcanal and Savo Island. Beginning at 22:45, Hashimoto's warships and the PT boats engaged in a series of running battles over the next three hours. Hashimoto's destroyers, with help from "R" Area aircraft, sank three of the PT boats.
In the meantime, the transport destroyers arrived off of two pick-up locations at Cape Esperance and Kamimbo at 22:40 and 24:00 respectively. Japanese naval personnel ferried the waiting troops out to the destroyers in barges and landing craft. Rear Admiral Tomiji Koyanagi, second-in-command of the Reinforcement Unit, described the evacuees: "They wore only the remains of clothes that were so soiled their physical deterioration was extreme. Probably they were happy but they showed no expression. Their digestive organs were so completely destroyed, we couldn't give them good food, only porridge." Another officer added that, "Their buttocks were so emaciated that their anuses were completely exposed, and on the destroyers that picked them up they suffered from constant and uncontrolled diarrhea."
After embarking 4,935 soldiers, mainly from the 38th Division, the transport destroyers ceased loading at 01:58 and prepared to depart for the return trip to the Shortlands. About this time, Makigumo, one of the screening destroyers, was suddenly wracked by a large explosion, caused by either a PT boat torpedo or a naval mine. Informed that Makigumo was immobilized, Hashimoto ordered her abandoned and scuttled (09°15′S 159°47′E / 9.250°S 159.783°E / -9.250; 159.783). During the return trip, the Reinforcement Unit was attacked by CAF aircraft at 08:00, but sustained no damage and arrived at the Shortlands without further incident at 12:00 on 2 February.
Second and third evacuation runs
On 4 February, Patch ordered the 161st Infantry Regiment to replace the 147th at the front and resume the advance westward. The Yano battalion retreated to new positions at the Segilau River and troops were sent to block the advance of George's force along the south coast. Meanwhile, Halsey's carrier and battleship task forces remained just beyond Japanese air attack range about 300 mi (260 nmi; 480 km) south of Guadalcanal.
Asagumo
Kondō sent two of his force's destroyers, Asagumo and Samidare, to the Shortlands to replace the two destroyers lost in the first evacuation run. Hashimoto led the second evacuation mission with 20 destroyers south toward Guadalcanal at 11:30 on 4 February. The CAF attacked Hashimoto in two waves beginning at 15:50 with a total of 74 aircraft. Bomb near-misses heavily damaged Maikaze, and Hashimoto detached Nagatsuki to tow her back to Shortland. The CAF lost 11 aircraft in the attack while the Japanese lost one Zero.
The U.S. PT boats did not sortie to attack Hashimoto's force this night and the loading went uneventfully. The Reinforcement Force embarked Hyakutake, his staff, and 3,921 men, mainly from the 2nd Division, and reached Bougainville without incident by 12:50 on 5 February. A CAF airstrike launched that morning failed to locate Hashimoto's force.
Believing that the Japanese operations on 1 and 4 February had been reinforcement, not evacuation missions, the American forces on Guadalcanal proceeded slowly and cautiously, advancing only about 900 yd (820 m) each day. George's force halted on 6 February after advancing to Titi on the south coast. On the north coast, the 161st finally began their attack westward at 10:00 on 6 February and reached the Umasani River the same day. At the same time, the Japanese were withdrawing their remaining 2,000 troops to Kamimbo.
On 7 February, the 161st crossed the Umasani and reached Bunina, about 9 mi (7.8 nmi; 14 km) from Cape Esperance. George's force, now commanded by George F. Ferry, advanced from Titi to Marovovo and dug in for the night about 2,000 yd (1,800 m) north of the village.
Aware of the presence of Halsey's carriers and other large warships near Guadalcanal, the Japanese considered canceling the third evacuation run, but decided to go ahead as planned. Kondō's force closed to within 550 mi (480 nmi; 890 km) of Guadalcanal from the north to be ready in case Halsey's warships attempted to intervene. Hashimoto departed the Shortlands with 18 destroyers midday of 7 February, this time taking a course south of the Solomons instead of down the Slot. A CAF strike force of 36 aircraft attacked Hashimoto at 17:55, heavily damaging Isokaze with a bomb near miss. Isokaze retired escorted by Kawakaze. The Allies and the Japanese each lost one aircraft in the attack.
Arriving off Kamimbo, Hashimoto's force loaded 1,972 soldiers by 00:03 on 8 February, unhindered by the U.S. Navy. For an additional 90 minutes, destroyer crewmen rowed their boats along the shore calling out again and again to make sure no one was left behind. At 01:32, the Reinforcement Group left Guadalcanal in its wake and reached Bougainville without incident at 10:00, completing the operation.
Aftermath
At dawn on 8 February, the U.S. Army forces on both coasts resumed their advances, encountering only a few sick and dying Japanese soldiers. Patch now realized that the Tokyo Express runs over the last week were evacuation, not reinforcement missions. At 16:50 on 9 February, the two American forces met on the west coast at the village of Tenaro. Patch sent a message to Halsey stating, "Total and complete defeat of Japanese forces on Guadalcanal effected 16:25 today...the Tokyo Express no longer has a terminus on Guadalcanal."
The Japanese had successfully evacuated a total of 10,652 men from Guadalcanal, about all that remained of the 36,000 total troops sent to the island during the campaign. Six hundred of the evacuees succumbed to their injuries or illnesses before they could receive sufficient medical care. Three thousand more required lengthy hospitalization or recuperation. After receiving word of the completion of the operation, Yamamoto commended all the units involved and ordered Kondō to return to Truk with his warships. The 2nd and 38th Divisions were shipped to Rabaul and partially reconstituted with replacements. The 2nd Division was relocated to the Philippines in March 1943 while the 38th was assigned to defend Rabaul and New Ireland. The 8th Area Army and Southeast Area Fleet reoriented their forces to defend the central Solomons at Kolombangara and New Georgia and prepared to send the reinforcements, mainly consisting of the 51st Infantry Division, originally detailed for Guadalcanal to New Guinea. The 17th Army was rebuilt around the 6th Infantry Division and headquartered on Bougainville. A few Japanese stragglers remained on Guadalcanal, many of whom were killed or captured by Allied patrols. The last known Japanese holdout surrendered in October 1947.
In hindsight, historians have faulted the Americans, especially Patch and Halsey, for not taking advantage of their ground, aerial, and naval superiority to prevent the successful Japanese evacuation of most of their surviving forces from Guadalcanal. Said Chester Nimitz, commander of Allied forces in the Pacific, of the success of Operation Ke, "Until the last moment it appeared that the Japanese were attempting a major reinforcement effort. Only the skill in keeping their plans disguised and bold celerity in carrying them out enabled the Japanese to withdraw the remnants of the Guadalcanal garrison. Not until all organized forces had been evacuated on 8 February did we realize the purpose of their air and naval dispositions."
Nevertheless, the successful campaign to recapture Guadalcanal from the Japanese was an important strategic victory for the U.S. and its allies. Building on their success at Guadalcanal and elsewhere, the Allies continued their campaign against Japan, ultimately culminating in Japan's defeat and the end of World War II.
Notes
^ Frank, pp. 595–596.
^ Zimmerman, p. 164; Frank, pp. 595–596.
^ Later, Japanese evacuation of Kiska (ja:キスカ島撤退作戦) was also officially named Operation Ke.
^ Hogue, Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal, pp. 235–236.
^ Morison, pp. 14–15; Miller, p. 143; Frank, p. 338; Shaw, p. 18.
^ Griffith, pp. 96–99; Dull, p. 225; Miller, pp. 137–138.
^ Frank, pp. 202, 210–211; Morison, pp. 81, 113–114.
^ Frank, pp. 141–158, 218–246, 337–367.
^ Frank, pp. 428–492; Morison, pp. 286–287.
^ Frank, p. 499.
^ Frank, pp. 493–527; Hough, pp. 364–365; Morison, pp. 324–325. The malaria rate among Japanese troops on Guadalcanal at this time was near 100% and some may have even engaged in cannibalism because of the lack of food.
^ Frank, pp. 513–524; Morison, pp. 318–321; Griffith, p. 268; Toland, p. 424.
^ Hayashi, p. 62; Griffith, p. 268; Frank, pp. 534–536; Toland, pp. 421–423.
^ Griffith, p. 268; Frank, pp. 536–538; Jersey, p. 384; Hayashi, p. 62. The 8th Area Army commanded the 17th Army on Guadalcanal and the 18th Army in New Guinea (Miller, p. 337). Sejima was included in the delegation to Rabaul.
^ Jersey, p. 384; Frank, p. 538; Griffith, p. 268; Hayashi, pp. 62–64; Toland, p. 426.
^ Hayashi, pp. 62–64; Griffith, p. 268; Frank, p. 539; Toland, p. 426. During the conference with Sugiyama and Nagano, the Emperor asked Nagano, "Why was it that it took the Americans just a few days to build an air base and the Japanese more than a month or so?" (The IJN originally occupied Guadalcanal and began constructing the airfield). Nagano apologized and replied that the Americans had used machines while the Japanese had to rely on manpower. (Toland, p. 426.)
^ Miller, p. 338; Frank, pp. 540–541; Morison, pp. 333–334; Rottman, p. 64; Griffith, p. 269; Jersey, p. 384; Hayashi, p. 64. Imamura and Jinichi Kusaka, IJN commander at Rabaul, at first objected to the withdrawal order but accepted it on being reminded that it had the Emperor's endorsement.
^ Frank, p. 541; Morison, p. 340.
^ Frank, pp. 542, 547–550; Morison, pp. 338, 363; Rottman, p. 64; Griffith, p. 278; Jersey, pp. 392–393. The 21 destroyers do not include Suzukaze and Hatsukaze which were damaged on Tokyo Express runs to Guadalcanal on 2 and 10 January. Suzukaze was damaged in the Slot by a near miss from a bomb dropped by a CAF aircraft. Hatsukaze was damaged by a PT boat torpedo between Doma Cove and Tassafaronga at Guadalcanal. Both Express missions together were able to successfully deliver about 80 tons of supplies, a significant boost for the 17th Army's depleted stores. Kondō's force consisted of carriers Zuihō and Jun'yō, battleships Kongō and Haruna, heavy cruisers Atago, Takao, Myōkō, and Haguro, light cruisers Jintsū, Agano, and Nagara, destroyers Kagerō, Asagumo, Shigure, Suzukaze, Samidare, Ōshio, Hatsuyuki, Shikinami, Arashio, and Arashi, and support ships Nippon Maru and Ken'yō Maru.
^ Frank, p. 543.
^ Frank, pp. 542–543. The four old battleships in Halsey's fleet were USS Maryland, USS Colorado, USS New Mexico and USS Mississippi (Frank, p. 751). Fifty-five B-17 and 60 B-24 heavy bombers with the range to reach Guadalcanal were assigned to the 5th Air Force in New Guinea, but only about 30 of them were operational at any one time (Frank, p. 752).
^ Frank, pp. 543–544; Rottman, p. 64. American artillery totals do not include anti-aircraft or coastal defense guns (Frank, p. 752). At this time, the Japanese 2nd Division was down to 3,700 still alive of the original 12,000 delivered to Guadalcanal.
^ Frank, pp. 545–546; Morison, pp. 340, 351; D'Albas, p. 237.
^ Griffith, p. 279; Frank, pp. 559–560; Morison, p. 339; Rottman, p. 64; Jersey, pp. 386–388; Toland, p. 427. The men of the Yano Battalion were drawn from personnel originally intended as replacements for the 38th Infantry Division's 230th Infantry Regiment already on Guadalcanal. Most of them were untrained reservists with an average age of 30. Also delivered on this mission were 150 communications specialist from the 8th Area Army to help coordinate the operation The first strike on the Express convoy on 15 January was by 15 CAF SBDs escorted by seven F4F Wildcats and six P-39 Airacobras. Two SBDs, one Wildcat, and two P-39s were downed along with three fighters from the IJA's 6th Air Division (Frank, p. 754). The second, later airstrike consisted of nine B-17s, presumably from the 13th Air Force, and 14 fighters, presumably from the CAF, suffered no losses and shot down five of ten F1M2 "Pete" aircraft from the "R" Area Air Force that were protecting the convoy. Arashi was forced to go to Truk for repairs. Tanikaze's captain, Commander Motoi Katsumi, was killed by the air attack (Nevitt, CombinedFleet.com).
^ Frank, p. 561.
^ Frank, pp. 541, 560–562; Miller, p. 349; Jersey, pp. 368, 388–389; Griffith, pp. 279–284; Rottman, p. 64; Toland, pp. 428–429. Marching to Kokumbona, Imoto later related that he passed numerous, unburied bodies and sick and emaciated Japanese soldiers. At first upon hearing the order to withdraw, Hyakutake, his chief of staff, Major General Shuichi Miyazaki, and senior staff officer Colonel Norio Konuma contemplated disobeying the order and sacrificing the 17th Army in a final attack on Allied forces. Hyakutake finally accepted the order at noon on 16 January. The delay in informing the 17th's subordinate units apparently was in part because Konuma had to carry the orders on foot, first to the 38th Division, then to the 2nd Division.
^ Hough, pp. 367–368; Frank, pp. 568–570; Miller, pp. 319–329; Morison, pp. 342–343. In the offensive, the 2nd Marine Division pressed the Japanese 2nd Division on the coast as the US 25th Division, using two of its three regiments, the 27th and 161st, attacked inland. The 161st was originally tasked with capturing three nearby hills, Hills X, Y, and Z, but was retasked to support the 27th after the latter captured Hill 87 much more quickly than anticipated.
^ Frank, p. 570; Miller, p. 329–332; Morison, p. 343. Morison says about 600 Japanese troops were killed in the taking of Kokumbona.
^ Griffith, pp. 284–285; Frank, pp. 570–572; Hough, pp. 369–371; Miller, p. 340.
^ Jersey, pp. 373, 375–376; Frank, p. 572; Morison, p. 343; Griffith, p. 285; Hough, pp. 369–371; Miller, p. 341; Shaw, pp. 50–51. At this time, the CAM consisted of units from the 6th Marine Regiment and US Army's 147th Infantry Regiment. According to Jersey, also defending the Bonegi were troops from the 229th Regiment.
^ Frank, p. 572; Morison, pp. 343–344; Jersey, pp. 373–374, 381; Miller, pp. 341–342. Between 10 and 31 January the Americans lost 189 soldiers and Marines killed. Exact Japanese casualties in the Marmura and Bonegi River actions are unknown but Japanese records described their losses as "heavy". During this time, the Americans captured 105 Japanese soldiers, 240 machine guns, 42 field pieces, 10 antiaircraft guns, 9 antitank guns, 142 mortars, 323 rifles, 18 radios, 1 radar, 13 trucks, 6 tractors, and 1 staff car, besides a quantity of ammunition, land mines, flame throwers, and piles of documents (Miller p. 342).
^ Frank, pp. 573–574, 756; Morison, pp. 340, 347. In addition to the four Zeros destroyed, six or more Zeros were damaged. One Mitsubishi G4M bomber sent along as a decoy failed to return. Two G4M's were lost during the night harassment campaign. A Zero was lost in a 20 January raid on Port Moresby. Chester Nimitz and Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox visited Espiritu Santo on 20 January and Guadalcanal on 21 January but were uninjured by the bombing attacks.
^ Frank, pp. 574, 756; Morison, pp. 347–348. The leader of the raid was Lieutenant Colonel Shuichi Okamoto. Two Mitsubishi Ki-46 "Dinah"s from the 76th Independent Chutai also accompanied the raid. The "Lily"s were from the 45th Sentai. Thirty-six of the "Oscar"s were from the 1st Sentai, 33 from the 11th Sentai, and five were from the Headquarters of the 12th Air Wing.
^ Morison, pp. 351–352; Frank, p. 577. The supply convoy consisted of four transports escorted by four destroyers and was designated Task Group (TG) 62.8.
^ Frank, pp. 577–578; Crenshaw, p. 62; Morison, pp. 352–353.
^ Frank, p. 578.
^ Morison, p. 354.
^ Morison, p. 354; Tagaya, p. 66 says that it was a Japanese search airplane that spotted Giffen.
^ Morison, pp. 354–355; Tagaya, p. 66.
^ Crenshaw, pp. 62–63; Morison, pp. 355–359; Frank, pp. 579–580.
^ Morison, pp. 360–363; Frank, pp. 580–581; Crenshaw, pp. 64–65; Tagaya, pp. 66–67. One other Mitsubishi G4M on a scouting mission was shot down by Enterprise aircraft just before the final attack on Chicago.
^ Morison, p. 363; Griffith, p. 285. After unloading their cargo, the transports evacuated the 2nd Marine Regiment from the island. The 2nd Marines had been on Guadalcanal since the beginning of the campaign.
^ Frank, pp. 574–576; Hackett and Kingsepp IJN Submarine I-1: Tabular Record of Movement Archived 16 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine; Morison, pp. 348–350; Jersey, p. 372. Moa and Kiwi were based at Tulagi along with two other New Zealand corvettes- Matai and Tui. Moa was under the command of (then) Lieutenant Commander Peter Phipps. I-1 was under the command of Lieutenant Commander Eiichi Sakamoto. Sixty-six of the submarine's crew survived to reach shore, but Sakamoto was killed along with 26 others of his crew. The submarine's gunnery officer, Ensign Ko Oikawa, was captured by Moa. I-1 sank in shallow water, leaving about 15 ft (4.6 m) of the sub sticking out of the water at a 45° angle. On the night of 2 February, three of the sub's survivors along with 11 other IJN personnel present on Guadalcanal unsuccessfully attempted to destroy the wrecked sub. On 10 February, a raid by nine Aichi D3A divebombers escorted by 28 Zeros from the 582nd Naval Air Group at Buin struck the wreck, damaging it further but failing to destroy it. On 13 and 15 February, Japanese submarine I-2 attempted unsuccessfully to locate the wreck and complete its destruction. Allied divers later recovered five code books from the submarine, including one for a version of the JN-25 code. Assuming that the code had been compromised, the IJN upgraded three major naval codes. (Hackett and Kingsepp)
^ Frank, pp. 582–583, 757–758. The Reinforcement Unit included Destroyer Squadron 10 (DesRon10). DesRon10 was normally under the command of Rear Admiral Susumu Kimura, but Kimura was injured when the U.S. submarine Nautilus damaged his flagship Akizuki with a torpedo near Shortland on 19 January (Nevitt, IJN Akizuki: Tabular Record of Movement Archived 25 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine). Kimura was replaced by Rear Admiral Tomiji Koyanagi who was also designated as commander of the Reinforcement Unit, but for the Ke operation Hashimoto was selected to command the unit. On the night of 28 January, six of the Reinforcement Unit's destroyers, Tokitsukaze, Kuroshio, Shirayuki, Urakaze, Hamakaze, and Kawakaze, had landed 328 men in the Russell Islands in case the islands were needed as a staging and support area for the evacuation. A CAF attack on these men injured 17 of them. The "R" Area Air Force on 1 February consisted of 12 Aichi E13A, 12 Nakajima A6M2-N, and 36 Mitsubishi F1M aircraft operating from the seaplane tenders Kamikawa Maru, Kunikawa Maru, and Sanyo Maru. Frank states that Sendai and Suzuya contributed six Aichi E16A aircraft, but Suzuya was in Japan at this time (Hackett and Kingsepp, IJN SUZUYA: Tabular Record of Movement Archived 1 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine) but Kumano was at Kavieng. The 204th, 253rd, 582nd, and Zuikaku's Air Groups stationed their Zeros and Aichi D3A at Buin for the operation. The 252nd Air Group was deployed to the Shortlands airfield. The B-17 raid on 1 February was intercepted by five Zeros from the 253rd, 12 from the 204th, 14 from the 582nd, and 17 from the 252nd.
^ Jersey, pp. 376–378; Frank, p. 583; Morison, pp. 364–365; Miller, pp. 343–345; Zimmerman, p. 162. Patch's landing force consisted of the 2nd Battalion, 132nd Infantry Regiment, the 132nd's anti-tank company, an additional company (Company M) from the regiment, one platoon from the regiment's Company K, Battery F of the 10th Marines with 75mm pack howitzers, one platoon of the 65th Engineers, and detachments from the 101st Medical Regiment, 26th Signal Company, and service personnel. The Japanese dive bombers were from the 582nd Air Group escorted by 21 Zeros from the 582nd and 19 Zeros from Zuikaku's air group.
^ Frank, pp. 584–585; Morison, p. 366; Brown, p. 81; Jersey, p. 377. With the two destroyers were LCTs 63 and 181 whose machine-guns assisted in shooting at the attacking aircraft. Nicholas and other ships recovered 146 De Haven survivors. De Haven's captain was Charles E. Tolman. Two of Nicholas crew were killed in the attack. Destroyers Radford and Fletcher were still near Verahue with two other LCTs at the time of the raid. The four destroyers together made up Destroyer Squadron 21 under the command of Captain Robert Briscoe. Jersey says the LCTs involved in the operation were 58, 60, 62, 156, and 158.
^ Frank, pp. 585–586, 758; Morison, p. 366; Jersey, pp. 392–393. Assigned as transports were Kazegumo, Makigumo, Yūgumo, Akigumo, Tanikaze, Urakaze, Hamakaze, Isokaze, Tokitsukaze, Yukikaze, Ōshio, and Arashio. Screening were Makinami, Maikaze, Kawakaze, Kuroshio, Shirayuki, Fumizuki, Satsuki, and Nagatsuki. A coastwatcher on Vella Lavella, either Henry Josselyn or John Keenan (Feldt, Eric, The Coast Watchers, Penguin Books, 1991 (1946), p. 241.) sighted the destroyers at 13:20 and notified Allied forces on Guadalcanal. The CAF aircraft claimed to have shot down 17 Zeros escorting the destroyers, but actual Japanese aircraft losses are unknown. After the attack, Makigumo and Yugumo were reassigned as escorts due to the departure of Makinami and Fumizuki. Makinami went to Japan for repairs, which were completed in September 1943 (Nevitt, CombinedFleet.com).
^ Frank, pp. 587–588; Morison, pp. 367–368; Jersey, pp. 393–395; Toland, pp. 429–430. PT 111 was sunk by gunfire from Kawakaze at 22:54, suffering two crewmen killed. PT 37 was sunk by destroyer gunfire sometime later, with all but one of her crew killed (nine). PT 123 was bombed and sunk by an "R" Area aircraft, killing four.
^ Frank, pp. 587–588.
^ Jersey, pp. 391–392; Frank, p. 588. IJN personnel from the 4th Maizuru SNLF, under Commander Namihira Sasakawa, assisted with the loading. Sasakawa supervised the Cape Esperance embarkation point and Commander Tamao Shinohara the Kamimbo embarkation point.
^ Griffith, p. 285; Frank, p. 588; Morison, pp. 367–368; Brown, p. 81; Dull, p. 268. Of the 5,000 evacuated this night, 2,316 were from the 38th Division, all that remained of the 8,000 originally landed on the island. U.S. destroyer-minelayers Tracy, Montgomery, and Preble had previously laid mines between Doma Cove and Cape Esperance and one of these may have claimed Makigumo. Five Makigumo crewmembers were killed, 237 were rescued (Nevitt, CombinedFleet.com). Eight 11th Air Fleet G4Ms attacked Henderson Field during the night, causing no damage. Six CAF SBDs attacked Hashimoto's force as it loaded the troops, also causing no damage. Among the troops evacuated this night was Tadayoshi Sano, commander of the 38th Division.
^ Frank, pp. 589–590; Jersey, pp. 378–380, 383, 400–401; Miller pp. 342–343, 346. The Japanese knew the approximate size of George's force after extracting the information from two American soldiers captured in a skirmish near Titi on the south coast. After their interrogations, the two Americans were summarily executed. Assisting the Yano Battalion, now numbering about 350 men after battle losses, were about 60 men from the 124th and 28th Infantry Regiments. On 3 February, the Japanese lost five G4M bombers from an abortive attack on Halsey's fleet, including one carrying Lieutenant Commander Genichi Mihara, commander of the 705th Air Group. The US 161st Regiment at this time was under the command of Colonel James Dalton II (Miller, p. 346).
^ Frank, pp. 590–591; Morison, pp. 369–370; Jersey, p. 395; Dull, p. 268. US aircraft losses included four Grumman TBF Avengers, three Douglas SBD Dauntlesses, three Grumman F4F Wildcats, and one Curtiss P-40 Warhawk. Maikaze went to Japan for repairs which were completed in July 1943 (Nevitt, CombinedFleet.com).
^ Griffith, p. 285; Frank, p. 591; Morison, p. 370. The evacuees included Masao Maruyama, commander of the 2nd Division. Japanese aircraft harassed Henderson Field and one PBY Catalina and five SBDs from the CAF tried to attack Hashimoto without success during the loading.
^ Jersey, pp. 391, 394; Frank, pp. 592–591; Miller, pp. 345–346. The Japanese rear guard was commanded by a Colonel Yutaka Matsuda.
^ Jersey, p. 383; Frank, pp. 593–594; Miller, pp. 345–347.
^ Frank, pp. 594–595; Morison, p. 370; Jersey, p. 396; Dull, p. 268. The CAF strike force consisted of 15 SBDs, 20 Wildcats, and one F5A. The F5A and one of the 49 Zeros escorting the convoy were shot down. Ten crewmembers were killed on Isokaze, which was repaired at Truk and returned to action in March 1943 (Nevitt, CombinedFleet.com).
^ Griffith, pp. 285–286; Frank, p. 595; Morison, p. 370; Jersey, pp. 396–400; Dull, p. 268. According to Jersey, the Yano Battalion had lost a total of 101 men covering the withdrawal. Yūgumo and Akigumo retrieved the Japanese troops from the Russells.
^ Jersey, p. 383; Frank, pp. 596–597; Morison, p. 371; Miller, pp. 346–348.
^ Frank, pp. 596–597; Morison, pp. 370–371; Rottman, pp. 64–65; D'Albas, p. 238; Griffith, pp. 269, 286; Jersey, pp. 400–401; Hayashi, pp. 65–66. Morison and D'Albas say 11,706 were evacuated. Hayashi says 11,083. More recent historical accounts use the 10,652 number. Among the last soldiers evacuated were 264 members of the 28th Infantry Regiment, all that remained of the 1,945 landed in August and September 1942. Of the approximately 4,000 members of the 35th Infantry Brigade landed in August and September 1942, 618 were evacuated during Ke. IJN personnel evacuated numbered 870, the rest were IJA. Jersey says that "hundreds" of stragglers were left behind on Guadalcanal. The Japanese 51st Infantry Division was almost completely wiped out en route to New Guinea during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea in March 1943.
^ Griffith, pp. 285–286; Frank, p. 597; Zimmerman, p. 162.
^ Frank, p. 597; Rottman, p. 64; Miller, pp. 348–350.
References
Print
Brown, David (1990). Warship Losses of World War Two. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-914-X.
Crenshaw, Russell Sydnor (1998). South Pacific Destroyer: The Battle for the Solomons from Savo Island to Vella Gulf. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-136-X.
D'Albas, Andrieu (1965). Death of a Navy: Japanese Naval Action in World War II. Devin-Adair Pub. ISBN 0-8159-5302-X.
Dull, Paul S. (1978). A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941–1945. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-097-1.
Frank, Richard B. (1990). Guadalcanal: The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle. New York: Penguin Group. ISBN 0-14-016561-4.
Griffith, Samuel B. (1963). The Battle for Guadalcanal. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06891-2.
Hayashi, Saburo (1959). Kogun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific War. Marine Corps Association. ASIN B000ID3YRK.
Jersey, Stanley Coleman (2008). Hell's Islands: The Untold Story of Guadalcanal. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-58544-616-2.
Letourneau, Roger; Letourneau, Dennis (2012). Operation Ke: The Cactus Air Force and the Japanese Withdrawal from Guadalcanal. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-446-5.
Morison, Samuel Eliot (1958). The Struggle for Guadalcanal, August 1942 – February 1943, vol. 5 of History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-58305-7.
Rottman, Gordon L. (2005). Japanese Army in World War II: The South Pacific and New Guinea, 1942–43. Dr. Duncan Anderson (consultant editor). Oxford and New York: Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-870-7.
Tagaya, Osamu (2001). Mitsubishi Type 1 "Rikko" 'Betty' Units of World War 2. New York: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84176-082-7.
Toland, John (2003) . The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936–1945. New York: The Modern Library. ISBN 0-8129-6858-1.
Web
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Operation Ke.
Hough, Frank O.; Ludwig, Verle E.; Shaw, Henry I. Jr. "Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal". History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Retrieved 16 May 2006.
Miller, John Jr. (1995) . Guadalcanal: The First Offensive. United States Army in World War II. United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 5-3. Archived from the original on 25 December 2007. Retrieved 4 July 2006.
Parshall, Jon; Bob Hackett; Sander Kingsepp; Allyn Nevitt. "Imperial Japanese Navy Page (Combinedfleet.com)". Retrieved 14 June 2006.
Shaw, Henry I. (1992). "First Offensive: The Marine Campaign For Guadalcanal". Marines in World War II Commemorative Series. Retrieved 25 July 2006.
Zimmerman, John L. (1949). "The Guadalcanal Campaign". Marines in World War II Historical Monograph. Retrieved 4 July 2006.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Guadalcanal"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Guadalcanal"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Guadalcanal"},{"link_name":"Guadalcanal campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign"},{"link_name":"Tulagi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tulagi_and_Gavutu%E2%80%93Tanambogo"},{"link_name":"Tenaru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Tenaru"},{"link_name":"Goettge Patrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Goettge"},{"link_name":"Edson's Ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Edson%27s_Ridge"},{"link_name":"Matanikau Actions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actions_along_the_Matanikau"},{"link_name":"Henderson Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_for_Henderson_Field"},{"link_name":"Matanikau Offensive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matanikau_Offensive"},{"link_name":"Koli Point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koli_Point_action"},{"link_name":"Carlson's patrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlson%27s_patrol"},{"link_name":"Mt. Austen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Austen,_the_Galloping_Horse,_and_the_Sea_Horse"},{"link_name":"Savo Is.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Savo_Island"},{"link_name":"Eastern Solomons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eastern_Solomons"},{"link_name":"Cape Esperance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Esperance"},{"link_name":"Santa Cruz Is.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Santa_Cruz_Islands"},{"link_name":"Naval Guadalcanal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Battle_of_Guadalcanal"},{"link_name":"Tassafaronga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tassafaronga"},{"link_name":"Ke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Rennell Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rennell_Island"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Solomons"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Solomons"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Solomons"},{"link_name":"Solomon Islands campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign"},{"link_name":"Tulagi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Tulagi_(May_1942)"},{"link_name":"Guadalcanal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign"},{"link_name":"I-Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_I-Go"},{"link_name":"Vengeance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Vengeance"},{"link_name":"SO and SE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_SO_and_SE"},{"link_name":"New Georgia Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Georgia_campaign"},{"link_name":"Treasury Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Treasury_Islands"},{"link_name":"Choiseul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raid_on_Choiseul"},{"link_name":"Bougainville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bougainville_campaign"},{"link_name":"Green Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Green_Islands"},{"link_name":"Neutralisation of Rabaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutralisation_of_Rabaul"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Guadalcanal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal"},{"link_name":"Guadalcanal Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Imperial Japanese Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army"},{"link_name":"Imperial Japanese Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy"},{"link_name":"Imperial General Headquarters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_General_Headquarters"},{"link_name":"Isoroku Yamamoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoroku_Yamamoto"},{"link_name":"Hitoshi Imamura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitoshi_Imamura"},{"link_name":"Allied","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Henderson Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henderson_Field_(Guadalcanal)"},{"link_name":"Japanese Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Hirohito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirohito"},{"link_name":"rearguard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rearguard"},{"link_name":"air superiority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_superiority"},{"link_name":"cruiser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruiser"},{"link_name":"Battle of Rennell Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rennell_Island"},{"link_name":"destroyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destroyer"}],"text":"1943 Japanese withdrawal from Guadalcanal in WWIIvteGuadalcanal campaign\nLand\nTulagi\nTenaru\nGoettge Patrol\nEdson's Ridge\nMatanikau Actions\nHenderson Field\nMatanikau Offensive\nKoli Point\nCarlson's patrol\nMt. Austen\nNaval\nSavo Is.\nEastern Solomons\nCape Esperance\nSanta Cruz Is.\nNaval Guadalcanal\nTassafaronga\nKe\nRennell Islandvte Solomon Islands campaign \nSouthern Solomons\nTulagi\nGuadalcanal\nI-Go\nVengeance\nSO and SE\nCentral Solomons\nNew Georgia Islands\nNorthern Solomons\nTreasury Islands\nChoiseul\nBougainville\nGreen Islands\nNeutralisation of RabaulOperation Ke (ケ号作戦, Ke-gō Sakusen)[3] was the largely successful withdrawal of Japanese forces from Guadalcanal, concluding the Guadalcanal Campaign of World War II. The operation took place between 14 January and 7 February 1943, and involved both Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) and Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) forces under the overall direction of the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters (IGH). Commanders of the operation included Isoroku Yamamoto and Hitoshi Imamura.The Japanese decided to withdraw and concede Guadalcanal to Allied forces for several reasons. All attempts by the IJA to recapture Henderson Field, the airfield on Guadalcanal in use by Allied aircraft, had been repulsed with heavy losses. Japanese ground forces on the island had been reduced from 36,000 to 11,000 through starvation, disease, and battle casualties. IJN forces were also suffering heavy losses attempting to reinforce and resupply the ground forces on the island. These losses, plus the projected resources needed for further attempts to recapture Guadalcanal, were affecting strategic security and operations in other areas of the Japanese Empire. The decision to withdraw was endorsed by Emperor Hirohito on 31 December 1942.The operation began on 14 January 1943 with the delivery of a battalion of infantry troops to Guadalcanal to act as rearguard for the evacuation. Around the same time, IJA and IJN air forces began an air superiority campaign around the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. During the air campaign, a US cruiser was sunk in the Battle of Rennell Island. Two days later, Japanese aircraft sank a US destroyer near Guadalcanal. The withdrawal was carried out on the nights of 1, 4, and 7 February by destroyers.At a cost of one destroyer sunk and three damaged, the Japanese evacuated 10,652 men from Guadalcanal. During the evacuation 600 died and 3,000 more required extensive hospital care. On 9 February, Allied forces realized that the Japanese were gone and declared Guadalcanal secure, ending the six-month campaign for control of the island.","title":"Operation Ke"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1st Marine Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Marine_Division"},{"link_name":"Tulagi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulagi"},{"link_name":"Florida Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida_Islands"},{"link_name":"Solomon Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islands"},{"link_name":"Rabaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabaul"},{"link_name":"New Guinea campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Guinea_campaign"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"secured Tulagi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tulagi_and_Gavutu-Tanambogo"},{"link_name":"Cactus Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cactus_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Imperial Japanese Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army"},{"link_name":"17th Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventeenth_Army_(Japan)"},{"link_name":"corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corps"},{"link_name":"Harukichi Hyakutake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harukichi_Hyakutake"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Imperial Japanese Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy"},{"link_name":"Shortland Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortland_Islands"},{"link_name":"cruisers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruiser"},{"link_name":"destroyers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destroyer"},{"link_name":"Eighth Fleet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IJN_8th_Fleet"},{"link_name":"Vice Admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_Admiral"},{"link_name":"Gunichi Mikawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunichi_Mikawa"},{"link_name":"The Slot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Georgia_Sound#WWII%E2%80%94The_Slot"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Express"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RabaulStrategicArea.jpg"},{"link_name":"Solomon Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islands"},{"link_name":"Pacific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific"},{"link_name":"Rabaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabaul"},{"link_name":"Guadalcanal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"38th Infantry Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/38th_Infantry_Division_(Imperial_Japanese_Army)"},{"link_name":"Naval Battle of Guadalcanal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Battle_of_Guadalcanal"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Buna-Gona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Buna-Gona"},{"link_name":"Combined Fleet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Fleet"},{"link_name":"Truk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuuk_Lagoon"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Battle of Tassafaronga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tassafaronga"},{"link_name":"PT boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PT_boat"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Guadalcanal Campaign","text":"On 7 August 1942, the US 1st Marine Division landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands. The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the US and Australia, and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of capturing or neutralizing the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign. The landings initiated the six-month-long Guadalcanal campaign.[4]Taking the Japanese by surprise, by nightfall on 8 August the Marines secured Tulagi and nearby islands as well as the Japanese airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal. The Allies later renamed it \"Henderson Field\". Allied aircraft operating out of Henderson were called the \"Cactus Air Force\" (CAF) after the Allied code name for Guadalcanal.[5]In response to the landings on Guadalcanal, the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters (IGH) assigned the Imperial Japanese Army's (IJA) 17th Army, a corps-sized command headquartered at Rabaul under the command of Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake, the task of retaking Guadalcanal.[6] Because of the threat by CAF aircraft, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) was unable to use large, slow transport ships to deliver troops and supplies to the island. Instead, warships based at Rabaul and the Shortland Islands were used to carry forces to Guadalcanal. The Japanese warships, mainly light cruisers and destroyers from the Eighth Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa, were usually able to make the round trip down \"The Slot\" to Guadalcanal and back in a single night, thereby minimizing their exposure to CAF air attack. These high speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and were later called the \"Tokyo Express\" by Allied forces and \"Rat Transportation\" by the Japanese.[7]The Solomon Islands area in the south Pacific. The Japanese base at Rabaul is at the upper left. Guadalcanal (lower right) lies at the southeastern end of \"The Slot\".Using forces delivered to Guadalcanal in this manner, the IJA tried three times to retake Henderson Field, but was defeated each time.[8] After the third failure, an attempt by the IJN to deliver the rest of the IJA 38th Infantry Division and its heavy equipment failed during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal from 12 to 15 November. Because of this failure, the Japanese cancelled their next planned attempt to recapture Henderson Field.[9]In mid-November, Allied forces attacked the Japanese at Buna-Gona in New Guinea. Japanese Combined Fleet naval leaders, headquartered at Truk and under the overall command of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, felt Allied advances in New Guinea posed a greater threat to the security of the Japanese Empire than an Allied military presence in the southern Solomons. Therefore, Combined Fleet naval staff officers began to prepare plans for abandoning Guadalcanal and shifting priorities and resources to operations around New Guinea. At this time, the navy did not inform the army of their intentions in this regard.[10]As December began, the Japanese experienced considerable difficulty in keeping their troops on Guadalcanal resupplied because of Allied air and naval attacks on the Japanese supply chain of ships and bases. The few supplies delivered to the island were not enough to sustain Japanese troops who, by 7 December, were losing about 50 men each day to malnutrition, disease, and Allied ground or air attacks. The Japanese had delivered almost 30,000 army troops to Guadalcanal since the campaign began, but by December only about 20,000 of that number were still alive; of those, only around 12,000 remained more or less fit for combat duty, with the rest incapacitated by battle wounds, disease, or malnutrition.[11]The IJN continued to suffer losses and damage to its ships in attempting to keep the Japanese on Guadalcanal resupplied. One destroyer was sunk by American warships at the Battle of Tassafaronga on 30 November. Another destroyer plus a submarine were sunk and two destroyers damaged by American PT boat and CAF air attacks during subsequent resupply missions from 3–12 December. Compounding the navy's frustration, very few of the supplies carried on these missions reached IJA forces on the island. Combined Fleet leaders began telling their army counterparts the losses and damage to warships engaged in the resupply effort threatened future strategic plans for protecting the Japanese Empire.[12]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TakushiroHattori.jpg"},{"link_name":"Takushiro Hattori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takushiro_Hattori"},{"link_name":"Imperial General Headquarters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_General_Headquarters"},{"link_name":"Takushiro Hattori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takushiro_Hattori"},{"link_name":"Masanobu Tsuji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masanobu_Tsuji"},{"link_name":"Ryūzō Sejima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ry%C5%ABz%C5%8D_Sejima"},{"link_name":"War Ministry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_War_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Joichiro Sanada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joichiro_Sanada"},{"link_name":"Hitoshi Imamura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitoshi_Imamura"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Hajime Sugiyama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hajime_Sugiyama"},{"link_name":"Osami Nagano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osami_Nagano"},{"link_name":"Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Hirohito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirohito"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Decision to withdraw","text":"Takushiro Hattori, staff officer at Imperial General HeadquartersThroughout November, Japan's top military leaders at the IGH in Tokyo continued to openly support further efforts to retake Guadalcanal from Allied forces. At the same time, lower-ranking staff officers began to discreetly discuss abandoning the island. Takushiro Hattori and Masanobu Tsuji, each of whom had recently visited Guadalcanal, told their colleagues on the staff that any further attempt to retake the island was a lost cause. Ryūzō Sejima reported that the attrition of IJA troop-strength on Guadalcanal was so unexpectedly severe that future operations would be untenable. On 11 December two staff officers, IJN Commander Yuji Yamamoto and IJA Major Takahiko Hayashi, returned to Tokyo from Rabaul and confirmed Hattori's, Tsuji's, and Sejima's reports. They further reported that most of the IJN and IJA officers at Rabaul appeared to support abandoning Guadalcanal. Around this time, Japan's War Ministry informed the IGH that there was insufficient shipping to support both the effort to retake Guadalcanal and transport strategic resources to maintain Japan's economy and military forces.[13]On 19 December, a delegation of IGH staff officers led by IJA Colonel Joichiro Sanada, chief of the IGH's operations section, arrived at Rabaul for discussions about future plans concerning New Guinea and Guadalcanal. Hitoshi Imamura, commander of the 8th Area Army in charge of IJA operations in New Guinea and the Solomons, did not directly recommend a withdrawal from Guadalcanal but openly and clearly described the current difficulties involved with any further attempts to retake the island. Imamura also stated that any decision to withdraw should include plans to evacuate as many of the soldiers from Guadalcanal as possible.[14]Sanada returned to Tokyo on 25 December and recommended to the IGH that Guadalcanal be abandoned immediately and all priority given to the campaign in New Guinea. The IGH's top leaders agreed with Sanada's recommendation on 26 December and ordered their staffs to begin drafting plans for the withdrawal from Guadalcanal and establishment of a new defense line in the central Solomons.[15]On 28 December, General Hajime Sugiyama and Admiral Osami Nagano personally informed Emperor Hirohito of the decision to withdraw from Guadalcanal. On 31 December, the Emperor formally endorsed the decision.[16]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"Kana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kana"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"air superiority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_superiority"},{"link_name":"Marshall Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Islands"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gunichi_Mikawa.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gunichi Mikawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunichi_Mikawa"},{"link_name":"aircraft carriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_carrier"},{"link_name":"Jun'yō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_aircraft_carrier_Jun%27y%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"Zuihō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_aircraft_carrier_Zuih%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"Kongō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_battleship_Kong%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"Haruna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_battleship_Haruna"},{"link_name":"Nobutake Kondō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobutake_Kond%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"Ontong Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontong_Java"},{"link_name":"Chōkai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_cruiser_Ch%C5%8Dkai"},{"link_name":"Kumano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_cruiser_Kumano"},{"link_name":"Sendai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_cruiser_Sendai"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Zuikaku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_aircraft_carrier_Zuikaku"},{"link_name":"\"R\" Area Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-Area_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Bougainville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bougainville_Island"},{"link_name":"Southeast Area Fleet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Area_Fleet"},{"link_name":"Jinichi Kusaka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinichi_Kusaka"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"Admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiral"},{"link_name":"William Halsey Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Halsey_Jr."},{"link_name":"USS Enterprise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Enterprise_(CV-6)"},{"link_name":"USS Saratoga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Saratoga_(CV-3)"},{"link_name":"escort carriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escort_carrier"},{"link_name":"13th Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteenth_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"Brigadier General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigadier_General"},{"link_name":"Nathan F. Twining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Farragut_Twining"},{"link_name":"Francis P. Mulcahy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_P._Mulcahy"},{"link_name":"Rear Admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rear_Admiral"},{"link_name":"Aubrey Fitch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aubrey_Fitch"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"field cannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery"},{"link_name":"Alexander Patch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Patch"},{"link_name":"XIV Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XIV_Corps_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"75 mm (2.95 in)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M116_howitzer"},{"link_name":"105 mm (4.13 in)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M101_howitzer"},{"link_name":"155 mm (6.1 in)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M114_155_mm_howitzer"},{"link_name":"howitzers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howitzer"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Plan and forces","text":"On 3 January, IGH informed the 8th Area Army and the Combined Fleet of the decision to withdraw from Guadalcanal. By 9 January, the Combined Fleet and 8th Area Army staffs together completed the plan, officially called Operation Ke after a mora in Japanese Kana vocabulary, to execute the evacuation.[17]The plan called for a battalion of IJA infantry to land by destroyer on Guadalcanal around 14 January to act as a rear guard during the evacuation. The 17th Army was to begin withdrawing to the western end of the island about 25 or 26 January. An air superiority campaign around the southern Solomons would begin on 28 January. The 17th Army would be picked up in three lifts by destroyers the first week of February with a target completion date of 10 February. At the same time, Japanese air and naval forces would conduct conspicuous maneuvers and minor attacks around New Guinea and the Marshall Islands along with deceptive radio traffic to try to confuse the Allies as to their intentions.[18]Gunichi Mikawa, commander of the 8th FleetYamamoto detailed aircraft carriers Jun'yō and Zuihō, battleships Kongō and Haruna – with four heavy cruisers and a destroyer as the screening force – under Nobutake Kondō to provide distant cover for Ke around Ontong Java in the northern Solomons. The evacuation runs were to be carried out by Mikawa's 8th Fleet, consisting of heavy cruisers Chōkai and Kumano, light cruiser Sendai, and 21 destroyers. Mikawa's destroyers were charged with conducting the evacuation. Yamamoto expected that at least half of Mikawa's destroyers would be sunk during the operation.[19]Supporting the air superiority portion of the operation were the IJN's 11th Air Fleet and the IJA's 6th Air Division, based at Rabaul with 212 and 100 aircraft, respectively. 64 aircraft from carrier Zuikaku's air group were also temporarily assigned to Rabaul. An additional 60 floatplanes from the IJN's \"R\" Area Air Force, based at Rabaul, Bougainville and the Shortland Islands, brought the total number of Japanese aircraft involved in the operation to 436. The combined Japanese warship and naval air units in the area formed the Southeast Area Fleet, commanded by Jinichi Kusaka at Rabaul.[20]Opposing the Japanese and under the command of United States Navy Admiral William Halsey Jr., commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific, were fleet carriers USS Enterprise and USS Saratoga, six escort carriers, three fast battleships, four old battleships, 13 cruisers, and 45 destroyers. In the air, the 13th Air Force numbered 92 fighters and bombers under United States Army Brigadier General Nathan F. Twining and the CAF on Guadalcanal counted 81 aircraft under US Marine Brigadier General Francis P. Mulcahy. Rear Admiral Aubrey Fitch was overall commander of Aircraft South Pacific. The air units of the fleet and escort carriers added another 339 aircraft. In addition, 30 heavy bombers were stationed in New Guinea with sufficient range to conduct missions over the Solomon Islands. In total, the Allies possessed around 539 aircraft available to oppose the Ke operation.[21]By the first week of January, disease, starvation, and battle had reduced Hyakutake's command to about 14,000 troops, with many of them too sick and malnourished to fight. The 17th Army possessed three operable field cannon, with very little ammunition. In contrast, the Allied commander on the island, US Army Major General Alexander Patch, fielded a combined force of US Army and US Marines, designated the XIV Corps, totaling 50,666 men. At Patch's disposal were 167 artillery weapons, including 75 mm (2.95 in), 105 mm (4.13 in), and 155 mm (6.1 in) howitzers, and plentiful stocks of shells.[22]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_intelligence"},{"link_name":"reconnaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconnaissance"},{"link_name":"Allied Pacific Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Pacific_Command"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"mountain guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_gun"},{"link_name":"Kumao Imoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumao_Imoto"},{"link_name":"Arashi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Arashi"},{"link_name":"Tanikaze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Tanikaze_(1940)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"offensive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Austen,_the_Galloping_Horse,_and_the_Sea_Horse"},{"link_name":"2nd Infantry Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_Division_(Imperial_Japanese_Army)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Preparation","text":"On 1 January, the Japanese military changed their radio communication codes, making it more difficult for Allied intelligence, which had previously partially broken Japanese radio ciphers, to divine Japanese intentions and movement. As January progressed, Allied reconnaissance and radio traffic analysis noted the buildup of ships and aircraft at Truk, Rabaul, and the Shortland Islands. Allied analysts determined that the increased radio traffic in the Marshalls was a deception meant to divert attention from an operation about to take place in either New Guinea or the Solomons. Allied intelligence personnel misinterpreted the nature of the operation; on 26 January, the Allied Pacific Command's intelligence section informed Allied forces in the Pacific that the Japanese were preparing for a new offensive, called Ke, in either the Solomons or New Guinea.[23]On 14 January, an Express mission of nine destroyers delivered the Yano Battalion, designated as the rear guard for the Ke evacuation, to Guadalcanal. The battalion, commanded by Major Keiji Yano, consisted of 750 infantry and a battery of mountain guns crewed by another 100 men. Accompanying the battalion was Lieutenant Colonel Kumao Imoto, representing the 8th Area Army, who was to deliver the evacuation order and plan to Hyakutake. The 17th Army had not yet been informed of the decision to withdraw. CAF and 13th Air Force air attacks on the nine destroyers during their return trip damaged destroyers Arashi and Tanikaze and destroyed eight Japanese fighters escorting the convoy. Five American aircraft were shot down.[24]Late on 15 January, Imoto reached 17th Army's headquarters at Kokumbona and informed Hyakutake and his staff of the decision to withdraw from the island. Grudgingly accepting the order on the 16th, the 17th Army staff communicated the Ke evacuation plan to their forces on the 18th. The plan directed the 38th Division, which was currently defending against an American offensive on ridges and hills in the interior of the island, to disengage and withdraw towards Cape Esperance on the western end of Guadalcanal beginning on the 20th. The 38th's retirement would be covered by the 2nd Infantry Division, in place on Guadalcanal since October 1942, and the Yano Battalion, both of which would then follow the 38th westward. Any troops unable to move were encouraged to kill themselves to \"uphold the honor of the Imperial Army\".[26]","title":"Operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"25th Infantry Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25th_Infantry_Division_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"J. Lawton Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Lawton_Collins"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GuadKokumbonaJan23-25.gif"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"USS Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Wilson"},{"link_name":"Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Anderson"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Withdrawal westward","text":"Patch initiated a new offensive just as the 38th Division began to withdraw from the inland ridges and hills that it had occupied. On 20 January, the 25th Infantry Division, under Major General J. Lawton Collins, attacked several hills, designated Hills 87, 88, and 89 by the Americans, that formed a ridge that dominated Kokumbona. Encountering much lighter resistance than anticipated, the Americans seized the three hills by the morning of 22 January. Shifting forces to exploit the unexpected breakthrough, Collins quickly continued the advance and captured the next two hills, 90 and 91, by nightfall, placing the Americans in position to isolate and capture Kokumbona and trap the Japanese 2nd Division.[27]American forces capture Kokumbona and begin the push westward, 23–25 January.Reacting quickly to the situation, the Japanese hurriedly evacuated Kokumbona and ordered the 2nd Division to retire westward immediately. The Americans captured Kokumbona on 23 January. Although some Japanese units were trapped between the American forces and destroyed, most of the 2nd Division's survivors escaped.[28]Still fearing a renewed and reinforced Japanese offensive, Patch committed the equivalent of only one regiment at a time to attack the Japanese forces west of Kokumbona, keeping the rest near Lunga Point to protect the airfield. The terrain west of Kokumbona favored the Japanese efforts to delay the Americans as the rest of the 17th Army continued its withdrawal towards Cape Esperance. The American advance was hemmed into a corridor only 300–600 yd (270–550 m) wide between the ocean and the thick, inland jungle and steep coral ridges. The ridges, running perpendicular to the coast, paralleled numerous streams and creeks that crossed the corridor with \"washboard regularity.\"[29]On 26 January, a combined US Army and Marine unit called the Composite Army-Marine (CAM) Division advancing westward encountered the Yano Battalion at the Marmura River. Yano's troops temporarily halted the CAM's advance and then slowly withdrew westward over the next three days. On 29 January, the Yano retreated across the Bonegi River, where soldiers from the 2nd Division had constructed another defensive position.[30]The Japanese defenses at the Bonegi held up the American advance for almost three days. On 1 February, with help from a shore bombardment by the destroyers USS Wilson and Anderson, the Americans successfully crossed the river but did not immediately press the advance westward.[31]","title":"Operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kawanishi H8K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawanishi_H8K"},{"link_name":"Espiritu Santo Naval Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espiritu_Santo_Naval_Base"},{"link_name":"Wildcat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F4F_Wildcat"},{"link_name":"P-38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-38_Lightning"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Kawasaki Ki-48","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawasaki_Ki-48"},{"link_name":"Nakajima Ki-43","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakajima_Ki-43"},{"link_name":"P-40s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_P-40"},{"link_name":"Matanikau River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matanikau_River"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"Air campaign","text":"The Ke air superiority campaign began in mid-January with nightly harassment attacks on Henderson Field by 3–10 aircraft, causing little damage. On 20 January, a lone Kawanishi H8K bombed Espiritu Santo Naval Base. On 25 January, the IJN sent 58 Zero fighters on a daylight raid to Guadalcanal. In response, the CAF sent aloft eight Wildcat and six P-38 fighters, which shot down four Zeros without loss.[32]A second large raid was conducted on 27 January by nine Kawasaki Ki-48 \"Lily\" light bombers escorted by 74 Nakajima Ki-43 \"Oscar\" fighters from the IJA's 6th Air Division from Rabaul. Twelve Wildcats, six P-38s, and 10 P-40s from Henderson met the raid over Guadalcanal. In the resulting action, the Japanese lost six fighters while the CAF lost one Wildcat, four P-40s, and two P-38s. The \"Lily\"s dropped their bombs on American positions around the Matanikau River, causing little damage.[33]","title":"Operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"task forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_force"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_cruisers_of_Task_Force_18_at_sea_en_route_to_Guadalcanal_on_29_January_1943.jpg"},{"link_name":"Robert C. Giffen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_C._Giffen"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Tulagi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulagi"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"705 Air Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=705_Air_Group&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mitsubishi G3M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitsubishi_G3M"},{"link_name":"701 Air Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=701_Air_Group&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Rennell Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennell_Island"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"USS Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Chicago_(CA-29)"},{"link_name":"tug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tugboat"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"751 Air Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=751_Air_Group&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kavieng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavieng"},{"link_name":"Buka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buka,_Papua_New_Guinea"},{"link_name":"USS La Vallette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_La_Vallette_(DD-448)"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Coral Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_Sea"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"corvettes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corvette"},{"link_name":"Royal New Zealand Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_New_Zealand_Navy"},{"link_name":"Moa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMNZS_Moa_(T233)"},{"link_name":"Kiwi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMNZS_Kiwi_(T102)"},{"link_name":"I-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_submarine_I-1"},{"link_name":"09°13′S 159°40′E / 9.217°S 159.667°E / -9.217; 159.667","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Operation_Ke¶ms=09_13_S_159_40_E_scale:3000000"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"Battle of Rennell Island","text":"Believing that the Japanese were beginning a major offensive in the southern Solomons aimed at Henderson Field, Halsey responded by sending, beginning on 29 January, a resupply convoy to Guadalcanal supported by most of his warship forces, separated into five task forces. These five task forces included two fleet carriers, two escort carriers, three battleships, 12 cruisers, and 25 destroyers.[34]Giffen's Task Force 18 heads towards Guadalcanal on 29 January.Screening the approach of the transport convoy was Task Force 18 (TF 18), under Rear Admiral Robert C. Giffen, with three heavy and three light cruisers, two escort carriers, and eight destroyers. A fleet carrier task force, centered on the carrier Enterprise, steamed about 250 mi (220 nmi; 400 km) behind TF 18.[35]In addition to protecting the supply convoy, TF 18 was charged with rendezvousing with a force of four U.S. destroyers, stationed at Tulagi, at 21:00 on 29 January in order to conduct a sweep up \"The Slot\" north of Guadalcanal the next day to screen the unloading of the transports at Guadalcanal.[36] As the escort carriers were too slow to allow Giffen's force to make the scheduled rendezvous, Giffen left the carriers behind with two destroyers at 14:00 on 29 January and steamed ahead.[37]Giffen's force was being tracked by Japanese submarines, who reported on Giffen's location and movement to their naval headquarters units.[38] Around mid-afternoon, based on the submarine's reports, 16 G4M from the 705 Air Group and 16 Mitsubishi G3M \"Nell\" bombers from the 701 Air Group took off from Rabaul carrying torpedoes to attack Giffen's force, now located between Rennell Island and Guadalcanal.[39]The torpedo bombers attacked Giffen's ships in two waves between 19:00 and 20:00. Two torpedoes hit the heavy cruiser USS Chicago, causing heavy damage and bringing her to a dead stop. Three of the Japanese aircraft were shot down by anti-aircraft fire from Giffen's ships. In response, Halsey sent a tug to take Chicago under tow and ordered Giffen's task force to return to base the next day. Six destroyers were left behind to escort Chicago and the tugboat.[40]At 16:00 on 30 January, a flight of 11 Mitsubishi torpedo bombers from the 751 Air Group, based at Kavieng and staging through Buka, attacked the force towing Chicago. Fighter aircraft from Enterprise shot down eight of them, but most of the Japanese aircraft were able to release their torpedoes before crashing. One torpedo hit the destroyer USS La Vallette, causing heavy damage. Four more torpedoes hit Chicago, sinking her.[41]The transport convoy reached Guadalcanal and successfully unloaded its cargo on 30–31 January. The rest of Halsey's warships took station in the Coral Sea south of the Solomons to wait for the approach of any Japanese warship forces supporting what the Allies believed to be an imminent offensive. The departure of TF 18 from the Guadalcanal area removed a significant potential threat to the Ke operation.[42]At 18:30 on 29 January, two corvettes from the Royal New Zealand Navy, Moa and Kiwi, intercepted the Japanese submarine I-1, which was attempting a supply run, off of Kamimbo on Guadalcanal. The two corvettes rammed and sank I-1 after a 90-minute battle (09°13′S 159°40′E / 9.217°S 159.667°E / -9.217; 159.667).[43]","title":"Operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shintaro Hashimoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shintaro_Hashimoto"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GuadFinalJan26-Feb9.gif"},{"link_name":"landing craft tanks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_craft_tank"},{"link_name":"USS Stringham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Stringham_(DD-83)"},{"link_name":"Aichi D3A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aichi_D3A"},{"link_name":"dive bombers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dive_bomber"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"USS De Haven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_De_Haven_(DD-469)"},{"link_name":"USS Nicholas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Nicholas_(DD-449)"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Vangunu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vangunu"},{"link_name":"Makinami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Makinami_(1941)"},{"link_name":"Shirayuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Shirayuki_(1928)"},{"link_name":"Fumizuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Fumizuki_(1926)"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Savo Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savo_Island"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Tomiji Koyanagi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomiji_Koyanagi"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Makigumo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Makigumo_(1941)"},{"link_name":"naval mine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_mine"},{"link_name":"09°15′S 159°47′E / 9.250°S 159.783°E / -9.250; 159.783","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Operation_Ke¶ms=09_15_S_159_47_E_scale:3000000"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"sub_title":"First evacuation run","text":"Leaving his cruisers at Kavieng, Mikawa gathered all 21 of his destroyers at the Japanese naval base in the Shortlands on 31 January to begin the evacuation runs. Rear Admiral Shintaro Hashimoto was placed in charge of this group of destroyers, titled the Reinforcement Unit. The \"R\" Area Air Force's 60 floatplanes were tasked with scouting for the Reinforcement Unit and helping defend against Allied PT boat attacks during the nighttime evacuation runs. Allied B-17 bombers attacked the Shortlands anchorage on the morning of 1 February, causing no damage and losing four aircraft to Japanese fighters. This same day, the IJA's 6th Air Division raided Henderson Field with 23 \"Oscar\"s and six \"Lily\"s but caused no damage and suffered the loss of one fighter.[44]Map of the final phase of the Guadalcanal Campaign, 26 January – 9 February, showing the American advances and Japanese defensive positions and evacuation points.Believing that the Japanese might be retreating to the south coast of Guadalcanal, on the morning of 1 February Patch landed a reinforced battalion of army and Marine troops, about 1,500 men under the command of Colonel Alexander George, at Verahue on Guadalcanal's south coast. The U.S. troops were delivered to the landing location by a naval transport force of six landing craft tanks and one transport destroyer (USS Stringham), escorted by four other destroyers (the same destroyers that were to have joined TF 18 three days earlier). A Japanese reconnaissance aircraft spotted the naval landing force. Believing that the force posed a threat to that night's scheduled evacuation run, an airstrike of 13 Aichi D3A2 \"Val\" dive bombers escorted by 40 Zeros departed Buin, Bougainville to attack the ships.[45]Mistaking the Japanese strike aircraft as friendly, the U.S. destroyers withheld fire until the \"Val\"s began their attack. Beginning at 14:53, destroyer USS De Haven was rapidly hit by three bombs and sank almost immediately 2 mi (1.7 nmi; 3.2 km) south of Savo Island with the loss of 167 of her crew, including her captain. Destroyer USS Nicholas was damaged by several near-misses. Five \"Val\"s and three Zeros were lost to anti-aircraft fire and CAF fighters. The CAF lost three Wildcats in the engagement.[46]Hashimoto departed the Shortlands at 11:30 on 1 February with 20 destroyers for the first evacuation run. Eleven destroyers were designated as transports screened by the other nine. The destroyers were attacked in the late afternoon near Vangunu by 92 CAF aircraft in two waves. Makinami, Hashimoto's flagship, was heavily damaged by a near miss. Four CAF aircraft were shot down. Hashimoto transferred to Shirayuki and detached Fumizuki to tow Makinami back to base.[47]Eleven U.S. PT boats awaited Hashimoto's destroyers between Guadalcanal and Savo Island. Beginning at 22:45, Hashimoto's warships and the PT boats engaged in a series of running battles over the next three hours. Hashimoto's destroyers, with help from \"R\" Area aircraft, sank three of the PT boats.[48]In the meantime, the transport destroyers arrived off of two pick-up locations at Cape Esperance and Kamimbo at 22:40 and 24:00 respectively. Japanese naval personnel ferried the waiting troops out to the destroyers in barges and landing craft. Rear Admiral Tomiji Koyanagi, second-in-command of the Reinforcement Unit, described the evacuees: \"They wore only the remains of clothes that were so soiled their physical deterioration was extreme. Probably they were happy but they showed no expression. Their digestive organs were so completely destroyed, we couldn't give them good food, only porridge.\"[49] Another officer added that, \"Their buttocks were so emaciated that their anuses were completely exposed, and on the destroyers that picked them up they suffered from constant and uncontrolled diarrhea.\"[50]After embarking 4,935 soldiers, mainly from the 38th Division, the transport destroyers ceased loading at 01:58 and prepared to depart for the return trip to the Shortlands. About this time, Makigumo, one of the screening destroyers, was suddenly wracked by a large explosion, caused by either a PT boat torpedo or a naval mine. Informed that Makigumo was immobilized, Hashimoto ordered her abandoned and scuttled (09°15′S 159°47′E / 9.250°S 159.783°E / -9.250; 159.783). During the return trip, the Reinforcement Unit was attacked by CAF aircraft at 08:00, but sustained no damage and arrived at the Shortlands without further incident at 12:00 on 2 February.[51]","title":"Operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Asagumo-1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Asagumo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Asagumo_(1937)"},{"link_name":"Asagumo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Asagumo_(1937)"},{"link_name":"Samidare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Samidare_(1935)"},{"link_name":"Maikaze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Maikaze"},{"link_name":"Nagatsuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Nagatsuki_(1926)"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Marovovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maravovo"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Isokaze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Isokaze_(1939)"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"}],"sub_title":"Second and third evacuation runs","text":"On 4 February, Patch ordered the 161st Infantry Regiment to replace the 147th at the front and resume the advance westward. The Yano battalion retreated to new positions at the Segilau River and troops were sent to block the advance of George's force along the south coast. Meanwhile, Halsey's carrier and battleship task forces remained just beyond Japanese air attack range about 300 mi (260 nmi; 480 km) south of Guadalcanal.[52]AsagumoKondō sent two of his force's destroyers, Asagumo and Samidare, to the Shortlands to replace the two destroyers lost in the first evacuation run. Hashimoto led the second evacuation mission with 20 destroyers south toward Guadalcanal at 11:30 on 4 February. The CAF attacked Hashimoto in two waves beginning at 15:50 with a total of 74 aircraft. Bomb near-misses heavily damaged Maikaze, and Hashimoto detached Nagatsuki to tow her back to Shortland. The CAF lost 11 aircraft in the attack while the Japanese lost one Zero.[53]The U.S. PT boats did not sortie to attack Hashimoto's force this night and the loading went uneventfully. The Reinforcement Force embarked Hyakutake, his staff, and 3,921 men, mainly from the 2nd Division, and reached Bougainville without incident by 12:50 on 5 February. A CAF airstrike launched that morning failed to locate Hashimoto's force.[54]Believing that the Japanese operations on 1 and 4 February had been reinforcement, not evacuation missions, the American forces on Guadalcanal proceeded slowly and cautiously, advancing only about 900 yd (820 m) each day. George's force halted on 6 February after advancing to Titi on the south coast. On the north coast, the 161st finally began their attack westward at 10:00 on 6 February and reached the Umasani River the same day. At the same time, the Japanese were withdrawing their remaining 2,000 troops to Kamimbo.[55]On 7 February, the 161st crossed the Umasani and reached Bunina, about 9 mi (7.8 nmi; 14 km) from Cape Esperance. George's force, now commanded by George F. Ferry, advanced from Titi to Marovovo and dug in for the night about 2,000 yd (1,800 m) north of the village.[56]Aware of the presence of Halsey's carriers and other large warships near Guadalcanal, the Japanese considered canceling the third evacuation run, but decided to go ahead as planned. Kondō's force closed to within 550 mi (480 nmi; 890 km) of Guadalcanal from the north to be ready in case Halsey's warships attempted to intervene. Hashimoto departed the Shortlands with 18 destroyers midday of 7 February, this time taking a course south of the Solomons instead of down the Slot. A CAF strike force of 36 aircraft attacked Hashimoto at 17:55, heavily damaging Isokaze with a bomb near miss. Isokaze retired escorted by Kawakaze. The Allies and the Japanese each lost one aircraft in the attack.[57]Arriving off Kamimbo, Hashimoto's force loaded 1,972 soldiers by 00:03 on 8 February, unhindered by the U.S. Navy. For an additional 90 minutes, destroyer crewmen rowed their boats along the shore calling out again and again to make sure no one was left behind. At 01:32, the Reinforcement Group left Guadalcanal in its wake and reached Bougainville without incident at 10:00, completing the operation.[58]","title":"Operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"New Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Ireland_(island)"},{"link_name":"8th Area Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th_Area_Army"},{"link_name":"Kolombangara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolombangara"},{"link_name":"New Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Georgia"},{"link_name":"6th Infantry Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_Division_(Imperial_Japanese_Army)"},{"link_name":"Japanese holdout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_holdout"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Chester Nimitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_Nimitz"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"text":"At dawn on 8 February, the U.S. Army forces on both coasts resumed their advances, encountering only a few sick and dying Japanese soldiers. Patch now realized that the Tokyo Express runs over the last week were evacuation, not reinforcement missions. At 16:50 on 9 February, the two American forces met on the west coast at the village of Tenaro. Patch sent a message to Halsey stating, \"Total and complete defeat of Japanese forces on Guadalcanal effected 16:25 today...the Tokyo Express no longer has a terminus on Guadalcanal.\"[59]The Japanese had successfully evacuated a total of 10,652 men from Guadalcanal, about all that remained of the 36,000 total troops sent to the island during the campaign. Six hundred of the evacuees succumbed to their injuries or illnesses before they could receive sufficient medical care. Three thousand more required lengthy hospitalization or recuperation. After receiving word of the completion of the operation, Yamamoto commended all the units involved and ordered Kondō to return to Truk with his warships. The 2nd and 38th Divisions were shipped to Rabaul and partially reconstituted with replacements. The 2nd Division was relocated to the Philippines in March 1943 while the 38th was assigned to defend Rabaul and New Ireland. The 8th Area Army and Southeast Area Fleet reoriented their forces to defend the central Solomons at Kolombangara and New Georgia and prepared to send the reinforcements, mainly consisting of the 51st Infantry Division, originally detailed for Guadalcanal to New Guinea. The 17th Army was rebuilt around the 6th Infantry Division and headquartered on Bougainville. A few Japanese stragglers remained on Guadalcanal, many of whom were killed or captured by Allied patrols. The last known Japanese holdout surrendered in October 1947.[60]In hindsight, historians have faulted the Americans, especially Patch and Halsey, for not taking advantage of their ground, aerial, and naval superiority to prevent the successful Japanese evacuation of most of their surviving forces from Guadalcanal. Said Chester Nimitz, commander of Allied forces in the Pacific, of the success of Operation Ke, \"Until the last moment it appeared that the Japanese were attempting a major reinforcement effort. Only the skill in keeping their plans disguised and bold celerity in carrying them out enabled the Japanese to withdraw the remnants of the Guadalcanal garrison. Not until all organized forces had been evacuated on 8 February did we realize the purpose of their air and naval dispositions.\"[61]Nevertheless, the successful campaign to recapture Guadalcanal from the Japanese was an important strategic victory for the U.S. and its allies. Building on their success at Guadalcanal and elsewhere, the Allies continued their campaign against Japan, ultimately culminating in Japan's defeat and the end of World War II.[62]","title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"ja:キスカ島撤退作戦","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AD%E3%82%B9%E3%82%AB%E5%B3%B6%E6%92%A4%E9%80%80%E4%BD%9C%E6%88%A6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"malaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria"},{"link_name":"cannibalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_cannibalism"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"18th 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Sano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadayoshi_Sano"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-52"},{"link_name":"summarily executed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summary_execution"},{"link_name":"James Dalton II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dalton_II"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-53"},{"link_name":"Grumman TBF Avengers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_TBF_Avenger"},{"link_name":"Douglas SBD Dauntlesses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_SBD_Dauntless"},{"link_name":"Grumman F4F Wildcats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_F4F_Wildcat"},{"link_name":"Curtiss P-40 Warhawk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_P-40_Warhawk"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-54"},{"link_name":"Masao Maruyama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masao_Maruyama_(Japanese_Army_officer)"},{"link_name":"PBY Catalina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBY_Catalina"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-55"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-56"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-57"},{"link_name":"F5A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-38_Lightning"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-58"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-59"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-60"},{"link_name":"Battle of the Bismarck Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bismarck_Sea"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-61"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-62"}],"text":"^ Frank, pp. 595–596.\n\n^ Zimmerman, p. 164; Frank, pp. 595–596.\n\n^ Later, Japanese evacuation of Kiska (ja:キスカ島撤退作戦) was also officially named Operation Ke.\n\n^ Hogue, Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal, pp. 235–236.\n\n^ Morison, pp. 14–15; Miller, p. 143; Frank, p. 338; Shaw, p. 18.\n\n^ Griffith, pp. 96–99; Dull, p. 225; Miller, pp. 137–138.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 202, 210–211; Morison, pp. 81, 113–114.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 141–158, 218–246, 337–367.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 428–492; Morison, pp. 286–287.\n\n^ Frank, p. 499.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 493–527; Hough, pp. 364–365; Morison, pp. 324–325. The malaria rate among Japanese troops on Guadalcanal at this time was near 100% and some may have even engaged in cannibalism because of the lack of food.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 513–524; Morison, pp. 318–321; Griffith, p. 268; Toland, p. 424.\n\n^ Hayashi, p. 62; Griffith, p. 268; Frank, pp. 534–536; Toland, pp. 421–423.\n\n^ Griffith, p. 268; Frank, pp. 536–538; Jersey, p. 384; Hayashi, p. 62. The 8th Area Army commanded the 17th Army on Guadalcanal and the 18th Army in New Guinea (Miller, p. 337). Sejima was included in the delegation to Rabaul.\n\n^ Jersey, p. 384; Frank, p. 538; Griffith, p. 268; Hayashi, pp. 62–64; Toland, p. 426.\n\n^ Hayashi, pp. 62–64; Griffith, p. 268; Frank, p. 539; Toland, p. 426. During the conference with Sugiyama and Nagano, the Emperor asked Nagano, \"Why was it that it took the Americans just a few days to build an air base and the Japanese more than a month or so?\" (The IJN originally occupied Guadalcanal and began constructing the airfield). Nagano apologized and replied that the Americans had used machines while the Japanese had to rely on manpower. (Toland, p. 426.)\n\n^ Miller, p. 338; Frank, pp. 540–541; Morison, pp. 333–334; Rottman, p. 64; Griffith, p. 269; Jersey, p. 384; Hayashi, p. 64. Imamura and Jinichi Kusaka, IJN commander at Rabaul, at first objected to the withdrawal order but accepted it on being reminded that it had the Emperor's endorsement.\n\n^ Frank, p. 541; Morison, p. 340.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 542, 547–550; Morison, pp. 338, 363; Rottman, p. 64; Griffith, p. 278; Jersey, pp. 392–393. The 21 destroyers do not include Suzukaze and Hatsukaze which were damaged on Tokyo Express runs to Guadalcanal on 2 and 10 January. Suzukaze was damaged in the Slot by a near miss from a bomb dropped by a CAF aircraft. Hatsukaze was damaged by a PT boat torpedo between Doma Cove and Tassafaronga at Guadalcanal. Both Express missions together were able to successfully deliver about 80 tons of supplies, a significant boost for the 17th Army's depleted stores. Kondō's force consisted of carriers Zuihō and Jun'yō, battleships Kongō and Haruna, heavy cruisers Atago, Takao, Myōkō, and Haguro, light cruisers Jintsū, Agano, and Nagara, destroyers Kagerō, Asagumo, Shigure, Suzukaze, Samidare, Ōshio, Hatsuyuki, Shikinami, Arashio, and Arashi, and support ships Nippon Maru and Ken'yō Maru.\n\n^ Frank, p. 543.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 542–543. The four old battleships in Halsey's fleet were USS Maryland, USS Colorado, USS New Mexico and USS Mississippi (Frank, p. 751). Fifty-five B-17 and 60 B-24 heavy bombers with the range to reach Guadalcanal were assigned to the 5th Air Force in New Guinea, but only about 30 of them were operational at any one time (Frank, p. 752).\n\n^ Frank, pp. 543–544; Rottman, p. 64. American artillery totals do not include anti-aircraft or coastal defense guns (Frank, p. 752). At this time, the Japanese 2nd Division was down to 3,700 still alive of the original 12,000 delivered to Guadalcanal.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 545–546; Morison, pp. 340, 351; D'Albas, p. 237.\n\n^ Griffith, p. 279; Frank, pp. 559–560; Morison, p. 339; Rottman, p. 64; Jersey, pp. 386–388; Toland, p. 427. The men of the Yano Battalion were drawn from personnel originally intended as replacements for the 38th Infantry Division's 230th Infantry Regiment already on Guadalcanal. Most of them were untrained reservists with an average age of 30. Also delivered on this mission were 150 communications specialist from the 8th Area Army to help coordinate the operation The first strike on the Express convoy on 15 January was by 15 CAF SBDs escorted by seven F4F Wildcats and six P-39 Airacobras. Two SBDs, one Wildcat, and two P-39s were downed along with three fighters from the IJA's 6th Air Division (Frank, p. 754). The second, later airstrike consisted of nine B-17s, presumably from the 13th Air Force, and 14 fighters, presumably from the CAF, suffered no losses and shot down five of ten F1M2 \"Pete\" aircraft from the \"R\" Area Air Force that were protecting the convoy. Arashi was forced to go to Truk for repairs. Tanikaze's captain, Commander Motoi Katsumi, was killed by the air attack (Nevitt, CombinedFleet.com).\n\n^ Frank, p. 561.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 541, 560–562; Miller, p. 349; Jersey, pp. 368, 388–389; Griffith, pp. 279–284; Rottman, p. 64; Toland, pp. 428–429. Marching to Kokumbona, Imoto later related that he passed numerous, unburied bodies and sick and emaciated Japanese soldiers. At first upon hearing the order to withdraw, Hyakutake, his chief of staff, Major General Shuichi Miyazaki, and senior staff officer Colonel Norio Konuma contemplated disobeying the order and sacrificing the 17th Army in a final attack on Allied forces. Hyakutake finally accepted the order at noon on 16 January. The delay in informing the 17th's subordinate units apparently was in part because Konuma had to carry the orders on foot, first to the 38th Division, then to the 2nd Division.\n\n^ Hough, pp. 367–368; Frank, pp. 568–570; Miller, pp. 319–329; Morison, pp. 342–343. In the offensive, the 2nd Marine Division pressed the Japanese 2nd Division on the coast as the US 25th Division, using two of its three regiments, the 27th and 161st, attacked inland. The 161st was originally tasked with capturing three nearby hills, Hills X, Y, and Z, but was retasked to support the 27th after the latter captured Hill 87 much more quickly than anticipated.\n\n^ Frank, p. 570; Miller, p. 329–332; Morison, p. 343. Morison says about 600 Japanese troops were killed in the taking of Kokumbona.\n\n^ Griffith, pp. 284–285; Frank, pp. 570–572; Hough, pp. 369–371; Miller, p. 340.\n\n^ Jersey, pp. 373, 375–376; Frank, p. 572; Morison, p. 343; Griffith, p. 285; Hough, pp. 369–371; Miller, p. 341; Shaw, pp. 50–51. At this time, the CAM consisted of units from the 6th Marine Regiment and US Army's 147th Infantry Regiment. According to Jersey, also defending the Bonegi were troops from the 229th Regiment.\n\n^ Frank, p. 572; Morison, pp. 343–344; Jersey, pp. 373–374, 381; Miller, pp. 341–342. Between 10 and 31 January the Americans lost 189 soldiers and Marines killed. Exact Japanese casualties in the Marmura and Bonegi River actions are unknown but Japanese records described their losses as \"heavy\". During this time, the Americans captured 105 Japanese soldiers, 240 machine guns, 42 field pieces, 10 antiaircraft guns, 9 antitank guns, 142 mortars, 323 rifles, 18 radios, 1 radar, 13 trucks, 6 tractors, and 1 staff car, besides a quantity of ammunition, land mines, flame throwers, and piles of documents (Miller p. 342).\n\n^ Frank, pp. 573–574, 756; Morison, pp. 340, 347. In addition to the four Zeros destroyed, six or more Zeros were damaged. One Mitsubishi G4M bomber sent along as a decoy failed to return. Two G4M's were lost during the night harassment campaign. A Zero was lost in a 20 January raid on Port Moresby. Chester Nimitz and Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox visited Espiritu Santo on 20 January and Guadalcanal on 21 January but were uninjured by the bombing attacks.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 574, 756; Morison, pp. 347–348. The leader of the raid was Lieutenant Colonel Shuichi Okamoto. Two Mitsubishi Ki-46 \"Dinah\"s from the 76th Independent Chutai also accompanied the raid. The \"Lily\"s were from the 45th Sentai. Thirty-six of the \"Oscar\"s were from the 1st Sentai, 33 from the 11th Sentai, and five were from the Headquarters of the 12th Air Wing.\n\n^ Morison, pp. 351–352; Frank, p. 577. The supply convoy consisted of four transports escorted by four destroyers and was designated Task Group (TG) 62.8.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 577–578; Crenshaw, p. 62; Morison, pp. 352–353.\n\n^ Frank, p. 578.\n\n^ Morison, p. 354.\n\n^ Morison, p. 354; Tagaya, p. 66 says that it was a Japanese search airplane that spotted Giffen.\n\n^ Morison, pp. 354–355; Tagaya, p. 66.\n\n^ Crenshaw, pp. 62–63; Morison, pp. 355–359; Frank, pp. 579–580.\n\n^ Morison, pp. 360–363; Frank, pp. 580–581; Crenshaw, pp. 64–65; Tagaya, pp. 66–67. One other Mitsubishi G4M on a scouting mission was shot down by Enterprise aircraft just before the final attack on Chicago.\n\n^ Morison, p. 363; Griffith, p. 285. After unloading their cargo, the transports evacuated the 2nd Marine Regiment from the island. The 2nd Marines had been on Guadalcanal since the beginning of the campaign.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 574–576; Hackett and Kingsepp IJN Submarine I-1: Tabular Record of Movement Archived 16 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine; Morison, pp. 348–350; Jersey, p. 372. Moa and Kiwi were based at Tulagi along with two other New Zealand corvettes- Matai and Tui. Moa was under the command of (then) Lieutenant Commander Peter Phipps. I-1 was under the command of Lieutenant Commander Eiichi Sakamoto. Sixty-six of the submarine's crew survived to reach shore, but Sakamoto was killed along with 26 others of his crew. The submarine's gunnery officer, Ensign Ko Oikawa, was captured by Moa. I-1 sank in shallow water, leaving about 15 ft (4.6 m) of the sub sticking out of the water at a 45° angle. On the night of 2 February, three of the sub's survivors along with 11 other IJN personnel present on Guadalcanal unsuccessfully attempted to destroy the wrecked sub. On 10 February, a raid by nine Aichi D3A divebombers escorted by 28 Zeros from the 582nd Naval Air Group at Buin struck the wreck, damaging it further but failing to destroy it. On 13 and 15 February, Japanese submarine I-2 attempted unsuccessfully to locate the wreck and complete its destruction. Allied divers later recovered five code books from the submarine, including one for a version of the JN-25 code. Assuming that the code had been compromised, the IJN upgraded three major naval codes. (Hackett and Kingsepp)\n\n^ Frank, pp. 582–583, 757–758. The Reinforcement Unit included Destroyer Squadron 10 (DesRon10). DesRon10 was normally under the command of Rear Admiral Susumu Kimura, but Kimura was injured when the U.S. submarine Nautilus damaged his flagship Akizuki with a torpedo near Shortland on 19 January (Nevitt, IJN Akizuki: Tabular Record of Movement Archived 25 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine). Kimura was replaced by Rear Admiral Tomiji Koyanagi who was also designated as commander of the Reinforcement Unit, but for the Ke operation Hashimoto was selected to command the unit. On the night of 28 January, six of the Reinforcement Unit's destroyers, Tokitsukaze, Kuroshio, Shirayuki, Urakaze, Hamakaze, and Kawakaze, had landed 328 men in the Russell Islands in case the islands were needed as a staging and support area for the evacuation. A CAF attack on these men injured 17 of them. The \"R\" Area Air Force on 1 February consisted of 12 Aichi E13A, 12 Nakajima A6M2-N, and 36 Mitsubishi F1M aircraft operating from the seaplane tenders Kamikawa Maru, Kunikawa Maru, and Sanyo Maru. Frank states that Sendai and Suzuya contributed six Aichi E16A aircraft, but Suzuya was in Japan at this time (Hackett and Kingsepp, IJN SUZUYA: Tabular Record of Movement Archived 1 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine) but Kumano was at Kavieng. The 204th, 253rd, 582nd, and Zuikaku's Air Groups stationed their Zeros and Aichi D3A at Buin for the operation. The 252nd Air Group was deployed to the Shortlands airfield. The B-17 raid on 1 February was intercepted by five Zeros from the 253rd, 12 from the 204th, 14 from the 582nd, and 17 from the 252nd.\n\n^ Jersey, pp. 376–378; Frank, p. 583; Morison, pp. 364–365; Miller, pp. 343–345; Zimmerman, p. 162. Patch's landing force consisted of the 2nd Battalion, 132nd Infantry Regiment, the 132nd's anti-tank company, an additional company (Company M) from the regiment, one platoon from the regiment's Company K, Battery F of the 10th Marines with 75mm pack howitzers, one platoon of the 65th Engineers, and detachments from the 101st Medical Regiment, 26th Signal Company, and service personnel. The Japanese dive bombers were from the 582nd Air Group escorted by 21 Zeros from the 582nd and 19 Zeros from Zuikaku's air group.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 584–585; Morison, p. 366; Brown, p. 81; Jersey, p. 377. With the two destroyers were LCTs 63 and 181 whose machine-guns assisted in shooting at the attacking aircraft. Nicholas and other ships recovered 146 De Haven survivors. De Haven's captain was Charles E. Tolman. Two of Nicholas crew were killed in the attack. Destroyers Radford and Fletcher were still near Verahue with two other LCTs at the time of the raid. The four destroyers together made up Destroyer Squadron 21 under the command of Captain Robert Briscoe. Jersey says the LCTs involved in the operation were 58, 60, 62, 156, and 158.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 585–586, 758; Morison, p. 366; Jersey, pp. 392–393. Assigned as transports were Kazegumo, Makigumo, Yūgumo, Akigumo, Tanikaze, Urakaze, Hamakaze, Isokaze, Tokitsukaze, Yukikaze, Ōshio, and Arashio. Screening were Makinami, Maikaze, Kawakaze, Kuroshio, Shirayuki, Fumizuki, Satsuki, and Nagatsuki. A coastwatcher on Vella Lavella, either Henry Josselyn or John Keenan (Feldt, Eric, The Coast Watchers, Penguin Books, 1991 (1946), p. 241.) sighted the destroyers at 13:20 and notified Allied forces on Guadalcanal. The CAF aircraft claimed to have shot down 17 Zeros escorting the destroyers, but actual Japanese aircraft losses are unknown. After the attack, Makigumo and Yugumo were reassigned as escorts due to the departure of Makinami and Fumizuki. Makinami went to Japan for repairs, which were completed in September 1943 (Nevitt, CombinedFleet.com).\n\n^ Frank, pp. 587–588; Morison, pp. 367–368; Jersey, pp. 393–395; Toland, pp. 429–430. PT 111 was sunk by gunfire from Kawakaze at 22:54, suffering two crewmen killed. PT 37 was sunk by destroyer gunfire sometime later, with all but one of her crew killed (nine). PT 123 was bombed and sunk by an \"R\" Area aircraft, killing four.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 587–588.\n\n^ Jersey, pp. 391–392; Frank, p. 588. IJN personnel from the 4th Maizuru SNLF, under Commander Namihira Sasakawa, assisted with the loading. Sasakawa supervised the Cape Esperance embarkation point and Commander Tamao Shinohara the Kamimbo embarkation point.\n\n^ Griffith, p. 285; Frank, p. 588; Morison, pp. 367–368; Brown, p. 81; Dull, p. 268. Of the 5,000 evacuated this night, 2,316 were from the 38th Division, all that remained of the 8,000 originally landed on the island. U.S. destroyer-minelayers Tracy, Montgomery, and Preble had previously laid mines between Doma Cove and Cape Esperance and one of these may have claimed Makigumo. Five Makigumo crewmembers were killed, 237 were rescued (Nevitt, CombinedFleet.com). Eight 11th Air Fleet G4Ms attacked Henderson Field during the night, causing no damage. Six CAF SBDs attacked Hashimoto's force as it loaded the troops, also causing no damage. Among the troops evacuated this night was Tadayoshi Sano, commander of the 38th Division.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 589–590; Jersey, pp. 378–380, 383, 400–401; Miller pp. 342–343, 346. The Japanese knew the approximate size of George's force after extracting the information from two American soldiers captured in a skirmish near Titi on the south coast. After their interrogations, the two Americans were summarily executed. Assisting the Yano Battalion, now numbering about 350 men after battle losses, were about 60 men from the 124th and 28th Infantry Regiments. On 3 February, the Japanese lost five G4M bombers from an abortive attack on Halsey's fleet, including one carrying Lieutenant Commander Genichi Mihara, commander of the 705th Air Group. The US 161st Regiment at this time was under the command of Colonel James Dalton II (Miller, p. 346).\n\n^ Frank, pp. 590–591; Morison, pp. 369–370; Jersey, p. 395; Dull, p. 268. US aircraft losses included four Grumman TBF Avengers, three Douglas SBD Dauntlesses, three Grumman F4F Wildcats, and one Curtiss P-40 Warhawk. Maikaze went to Japan for repairs which were completed in July 1943 (Nevitt, CombinedFleet.com).\n\n^ Griffith, p. 285; Frank, p. 591; Morison, p. 370. The evacuees included Masao Maruyama, commander of the 2nd Division. Japanese aircraft harassed Henderson Field and one PBY Catalina and five SBDs from the CAF tried to attack Hashimoto without success during the loading.\n\n^ Jersey, pp. 391, 394; Frank, pp. 592–591; Miller, pp. 345–346. The Japanese rear guard was commanded by a Colonel Yutaka Matsuda.\n\n^ Jersey, p. 383; Frank, pp. 593–594; Miller, pp. 345–347.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 594–595; Morison, p. 370; Jersey, p. 396; Dull, p. 268. The CAF strike force consisted of 15 SBDs, 20 Wildcats, and one F5A. The F5A and one of the 49 Zeros escorting the convoy were shot down. Ten crewmembers were killed on Isokaze, which was repaired at Truk and returned to action in March 1943 (Nevitt, CombinedFleet.com).\n\n^ Griffith, pp. 285–286; Frank, p. 595; Morison, p. 370; Jersey, pp. 396–400; Dull, p. 268. According to Jersey, the Yano Battalion had lost a total of 101 men covering the withdrawal. Yūgumo and Akigumo retrieved the Japanese troops from the Russells.\n\n^ Jersey, p. 383; Frank, pp. 596–597; Morison, p. 371; Miller, pp. 346–348.\n\n^ Frank, pp. 596–597; Morison, pp. 370–371; Rottman, pp. 64–65; D'Albas, p. 238; Griffith, pp. 269, 286; Jersey, pp. 400–401; Hayashi, pp. 65–66. Morison and D'Albas say 11,706 were evacuated. Hayashi says 11,083. More recent historical accounts use the 10,652 number. Among the last soldiers evacuated were 264 members of the 28th Infantry Regiment, all that remained of the 1,945 landed in August and September 1942. Of the approximately 4,000 members of the 35th Infantry Brigade landed in August and September 1942, 618 were evacuated during Ke. IJN personnel evacuated numbered 870, the rest were IJA. Jersey says that \"hundreds\" of stragglers were left behind on Guadalcanal. The Japanese 51st Infantry Division was almost completely wiped out en route to New Guinea during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea in March 1943.\n\n^ Griffith, pp. 285–286; Frank, p. 597; Zimmerman, p. 162.\n\n^ Frank, p. 597; Rottman, p. 64; Miller, pp. 348–350.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"The Solomon Islands area in the south Pacific. The Japanese base at Rabaul is at the upper left. Guadalcanal (lower right) lies at the southeastern end of \"The Slot\".","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/RabaulStrategicArea.jpg/220px-RabaulStrategicArea.jpg"},{"image_text":"Takushiro Hattori, staff officer at Imperial General Headquarters","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/TakushiroHattori.jpg/170px-TakushiroHattori.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gunichi Mikawa, commander of the 8th Fleet","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Gunichi_Mikawa.jpg/170px-Gunichi_Mikawa.jpg"},{"image_text":"American forces capture Kokumbona and begin the push westward, 23–25 January.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/GuadKokumbonaJan23-25.gif/220px-GuadKokumbonaJan23-25.gif"},{"image_text":"Giffen's Task Force 18 heads towards Guadalcanal on 29 January.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/US_cruisers_of_Task_Force_18_at_sea_en_route_to_Guadalcanal_on_29_January_1943.jpg/220px-US_cruisers_of_Task_Force_18_at_sea_en_route_to_Guadalcanal_on_29_January_1943.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map of the final phase of the Guadalcanal Campaign, 26 January – 9 February, showing the American advances and Japanese defensive positions and evacuation points.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/GuadFinalJan26-Feb9.gif/220px-GuadFinalJan26-Feb9.gif"},{"image_text":"Asagumo","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Asagumo-1.jpg/220px-Asagumo-1.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Brown, David (1990). Warship Losses of World War Two. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-914-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-914-X","url_text":"1-55750-914-X"}]},{"reference":"Crenshaw, Russell Sydnor (1998). South Pacific Destroyer: The Battle for the Solomons from Savo Island to Vella Gulf. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-136-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-136-X","url_text":"1-55750-136-X"}]},{"reference":"D'Albas, Andrieu (1965). Death of a Navy: Japanese Naval Action in World War II. Devin-Adair Pub. ISBN 0-8159-5302-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8159-5302-X","url_text":"0-8159-5302-X"}]},{"reference":"Dull, Paul S. (1978). A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941–1945. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-097-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/battlehistoryofi0000dull","url_text":"A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941–1945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87021-097-1","url_text":"0-87021-097-1"}]},{"reference":"Frank, Richard B. (1990). Guadalcanal: The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle. New York: Penguin Group. ISBN 0-14-016561-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_B._Frank","url_text":"Frank, Richard B."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/guadalcanal00rich","url_text":"Guadalcanal: The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin_Group","url_text":"Penguin Group"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-016561-4","url_text":"0-14-016561-4"}]},{"reference":"Griffith, Samuel B. (1963). The Battle for Guadalcanal. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06891-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-06891-2","url_text":"0-252-06891-2"}]},{"reference":"Hayashi, Saburo (1959). Kogun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific War. Marine Corps Association. ASIN B000ID3YRK.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)","url_text":"ASIN"},{"url":"https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000ID3YRK","url_text":"B000ID3YRK"}]},{"reference":"Jersey, Stanley Coleman (2008). Hell's Islands: The Untold Story of Guadalcanal. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-58544-616-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_Station,_Texas","url_text":"College Station, Texas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58544-616-2","url_text":"978-1-58544-616-2"}]},{"reference":"Letourneau, Roger; Letourneau, Dennis (2012). Operation Ke: The Cactus Air Force and the Japanese Withdrawal from Guadalcanal. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-446-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-446-5","url_text":"978-1-59114-446-5"}]},{"reference":"Morison, Samuel Eliot (1958). The Struggle for Guadalcanal, August 1942 – February 1943, vol. 5 of History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-58305-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Eliot_Morison","url_text":"Morison, Samuel Eliot"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little,_Brown_and_Company","url_text":"Little, Brown and Company"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-316-58305-7","url_text":"0-316-58305-7"}]},{"reference":"Rottman, Gordon L. (2005). Japanese Army in World War II: The South Pacific and New Guinea, 1942–43. Dr. Duncan Anderson (consultant editor). Oxford and New York: Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-870-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84176-870-7","url_text":"1-84176-870-7"}]},{"reference":"Tagaya, Osamu (2001). Mitsubishi Type 1 \"Rikko\" 'Betty' Units of World War 2. New York: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84176-082-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-082-7","url_text":"978-1-84176-082-7"}]},{"reference":"Toland, John (2003) [First published in 1970]. The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936–1945. New York: The Modern Library. ISBN 0-8129-6858-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Toland_(author)","url_text":"Toland, John"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rising_Sun:_The_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Japanese_Empire,_1936%E2%80%931945","url_text":"The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936–1945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8129-6858-1","url_text":"0-8129-6858-1"}]},{"reference":"Hough, Frank O.; Ludwig, Verle E.; Shaw, Henry I. Jr. \"Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal\". History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Retrieved 16 May 2006.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/I/index.html","url_text":"\"Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal\""}]},{"reference":"Miller, John Jr. (1995) [1949]. Guadalcanal: The First Offensive. United States Army in World War II. United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 5-3. Archived from the original on 25 December 2007. Retrieved 4 July 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071225214108/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/GuadC/GC-fm.htm","url_text":"Guadalcanal: The First Offensive"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Center_of_Military_History","url_text":"United States Army Center of Military History"},{"url":"http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/GuadC/GC-fm.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Parshall, Jon; Bob Hackett; Sander Kingsepp; Allyn Nevitt. \"Imperial Japanese Navy Page (Combinedfleet.com)\". Retrieved 14 June 2006.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.combinedfleet.com/kaigun.htm","url_text":"\"Imperial Japanese Navy Page (Combinedfleet.com)\""}]},{"reference":"Shaw, Henry I. (1992). \"First Offensive: The Marine Campaign For Guadalcanal\". Marines in World War II Commemorative Series. Retrieved 25 July 2006.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-C-Guadalcanal/index.html","url_text":"\"First Offensive: The Marine Campaign For Guadalcanal\""}]},{"reference":"Zimmerman, John L. (1949). \"The Guadalcanal Campaign\". Marines in World War II Historical Monograph. Retrieved 4 July 2006.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-M-Guadalcanal.html","url_text":"\"The Guadalcanal Campaign\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_software
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Server (computing)
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["1 History","2 Operation","3 Purpose","4 Hardware","4.1 Large servers","4.2 Clusters","4.3 Appliances","4.4 Mobile","5 Operating systems","6 Energy consumption","7 See also","8 Notes","9 References","10 Further reading"]
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Computer to access a central resource or service on a network
A computer network diagram of client computers communicating with a server computer via the Internet
Wikimedia Foundation rackmount servers on racks in a data center
The first WWW server is located at CERN with its original sticker that says: "This machine is a server. DO NOT POWER IT DOWN!!"
A server is a computer that provides information to other computers called "clients" on computer network. This architecture is called the client–server model. Servers can provide various functionalities, often called "services", such as sharing data or resources among multiple clients or performing computations for a client. A single server can serve multiple clients, and a single client can use multiple servers. A client process may run on the same device or may connect over a network to a server on a different device. Typical servers are database servers, file servers, mail servers, print servers, web servers, game servers, and application servers.
Client–server systems are usually most frequently implemented by (and often identified with) the request–response model: a client sends a request to the server, which performs some action and sends a response back to the client, typically with a result or acknowledgment. Designating a computer as "server-class hardware" implies that it is specialized for running servers on it. This often implies that it is more powerful and reliable than standard personal computers, but alternatively, large computing clusters may be composed of many relatively simple, replaceable server components.
History
The use of the word server in computing comes from queueing theory, where it dates to the mid 20th century, being notably used in Kendall (1953) (along with "service"), the paper that introduced Kendall's notation. In earlier papers, such as the Erlang (1909), more concrete terms such as " operators" are used.
In computing, "server" dates at least to RFC 5 (1969), one of the earliest documents describing ARPANET (the predecessor of Internet), and is contrasted with "user", distinguishing two types of host: "server-host" and "user-host". The use of "serving" also dates to early documents, such as RFC 4, contrasting "serving-host" with "using-host".
The Jargon File defines server in the common sense of a process performing service for requests, usually remote, with the 1981 version reading:
SERVER n. A kind of DAEMON which performs a service for the requester, which often runs on a computer other than the one on which the server runs. The average utilization of a server in the early 2000s was 5 to 15%, but with the adoption of virtualization this figure started to increase to reduce the number of servers needed.
Operation
A network based on the client–server model where multiple individual clients request services and resources from centralized servers
Strictly speaking, the term server refers to a computer program or process (running program). Through metonymy, it refers to a device used for (or a device dedicated to) running one or several server programs. On a network, such a device is called a host. In addition to server, the words serve and service (as verb and as noun respectively) are frequently used, though servicer and servant are not. The word service (noun) may refer to the abstract form of functionality, e.g. Web service. Alternatively, it may refer to a computer program that turns a computer into a server, e.g. Windows service. Originally used as "servers serve users" (and "users use servers"), in the sense of "obey", today one often says that "servers serve data", in the same sense as "give". For instance, web servers "serve web pages to users" or "service their requests".
The server is part of the client–server model; in this model, a server serves data for clients. The nature of communication between a client and server is request and response. This is in contrast with peer-to-peer model in which the relationship is on-demand reciprocation. In principle, any computerized process that can be used or called by another process (particularly remotely, particularly to share a resource) is a server, and the calling process or processes is a client. Thus any general-purpose computer connected to a network can host servers. For example, if files on a device are shared by some process, that process is a file server. Similarly, web server software can run on any capable computer, and so a laptop or a personal computer can host a web server.
While request–response is the most common client-server design, there are others, such as the publish–subscribe pattern. In the publish-subscribe pattern, clients register with a pub-sub server, subscribing to specified types of messages; this initial registration may be done by request-response. Thereafter, the pub-sub server forwards matching messages to the clients without any further requests: the server pushes messages to the client, rather than the client pulling messages from the server as in request-response.
Purpose
Main category: Servers (computing)
The role of a server is to share data as well as to share resources and distribute work. A server computer can serve its own computer programs as well; depending on the scenario, this could be part of a quid pro quo transaction, or simply a technical possibility. The following table shows several scenarios in which a server is used.
Server type
Purpose
Clients
Application server
Hosts application back ends that user clients (front ends, web apps or locally installed applications) in the network connect to and use. These servers do not need to be part of the World Wide Web; any local network would do.
Clients with a browser or a local front end, or a web server
Catalog server
Maintains an index or table of contents of information that can be found across a large distributed network, such as computers, users, files shared on file servers, and web apps. Directory servers and name servers are examples of catalog servers.
Any computer program that needs to find something on the network, such a Domain member attempting to log in, an email client looking for an email address, or a user looking for a file
Communications server
Maintains an environment needed for one communication endpoint (user or devices) to find other endpoints and communicate with them. It may or may not include a directory of communication endpoints and a presence detection service, depending on the openness and security parameters of the network
Communication endpoints (users or devices)
Computing server
Shares vast amounts of computing resources, especially CPU and random-access memory, over a network.
Any computer program that needs more CPU power and RAM than a personal computer can probably afford. The client must be a networked computer; otherwise, there would be no client-server model.
Database server
Maintains and shares any form of database (organized collections of data with predefined properties that may be displayed in a table) over a network.
Spreadsheets, accounting software, asset management software or virtually any computer program that consumes well-organized data, especially in large volumes
Fax server
Shares one or more fax machines over a network, thus eliminating the hassle of physical access
Any fax sender or recipient
File server
Shares files and folders, storage space to hold files and folders, or both, over a network
Networked computers are the intended clients, even though local programs can be clients
Game server
Enables several computers or gaming devices to play multiplayer video games
Personal computers or gaming consoles
Mail server
Makes email communication possible in the same way that a post office makes snail mail communication possible
Senders and recipients of email
Media server
Shares digital video or digital audio over a network through media streaming (transmitting content in a way that portions received can be watched or listened to as they arrive, as opposed to downloading an entire file and then using it)
User-attended personal computers equipped with a monitor and a speaker
Print server
Shares one or more printers over a network, thus eliminating the hassle of physical access
Computers in need of printing something
Sound server
Enables computer programs to play and record sound, individually or cooperatively
Computer programs of the same computer and network clients.
Proxy server
Acts as an intermediary between a client and a server, accepting incoming traffic from the client and sending it to the server. Reasons for doing so include content control and filtering, improving traffic performance, preventing unauthorized network access or simply routing the traffic over a large and complex network.
Any networked computer
Virtual server
Shares hardware and software resources with other virtual servers. It exists only as defined within specialized software called hypervisor. The hypervisor presents virtual hardware to the server as if it were real physical hardware. Server virtualization allows for a more efficient infrastructure.
Any networked computer
Web server
Hosts web pages. A web server is what makes the World Wide Web possible. Each website has one or more web servers. Also, each server can host multiple websites.
Computers with a web browser
Almost the entire structure of the Internet is based upon a client–server model. High-level root nameservers, DNS, and routers direct the traffic on the internet. There are millions of servers connected to the Internet, running continuously throughout the world and virtually every action taken by an ordinary Internet user requires one or more interactions with one or more servers. There are exceptions that do not use dedicated servers; for example, peer-to-peer file sharing and some implementations of telephony (e.g. pre-Microsoft Skype).
Hardware
A rack-mountable server with the top cover removed to reveal internal components
Hardware requirement for servers vary widely, depending on the server's purpose and its software. Servers often are more powerful and expensive than the clients that connect to them.
The name server is used both for the hardware and software pieces. For the hardware servers, it is usually limited to mean the high-end machines although software servers can run on a variety of hardwares.
Since servers are usually accessed over a network, many run unattended without a computer monitor or input device, audio hardware and USB interfaces. Many servers do not have a graphical user interface (GUI). They are configured and managed remotely. Remote management can be conducted via various methods including Microsoft Management Console (MMC), PowerShell, SSH and browser-based out-of-band management systems such as Dell's iDRAC or HP's iLo.
Large servers
Large traditional single servers would need to be run for long periods without interruption. Availability would have to be very high, making hardware reliability and durability extremely important. Mission-critical enterprise servers would be very fault tolerant and use specialized hardware with low failure rates in order to maximize uptime. Uninterruptible power supplies might be incorporated to guard against power failure. Servers typically include hardware redundancy such as dual power supplies, RAID disk systems, and ECC memory, along with extensive pre-boot memory testing and verification. Critical components might be hot swappable, allowing technicians to replace them on the running server without shutting it down, and to guard against overheating, servers might have more powerful fans or use water cooling. They will often be able to be configured, powered up and down, or rebooted remotely, using out-of-band management, typically based on IPMI. Server casings are usually flat and wide, and designed to be rack-mounted, either on 19-inch racks or on Open Racks.
These types of servers are often housed in dedicated data centers. These will normally have very stable power and Internet and increased security. Noise is also less of a concern, but power consumption and heat output can be a serious issue. Server rooms are equipped with air conditioning devices.
A server rack seen from the rear
Wikimedia Foundation servers as seen from the front
Wikimedia Foundation servers as seen from the rear
Wikimedia Foundation servers as seen from the rear
Clusters
Main article: Server farm
A server farm or server cluster is a collection of computer servers maintained by an organization to supply server functionality far beyond the capability of a single device. Modern data centers are now often built of very large clusters of much simpler servers, and there is a collaborative effort, Open Compute Project around this concept.
Appliances
A class of small specialist servers called network appliances are generally at the low end of the scale, often being smaller than common desktop computers.
Mobile
A mobile server has a portable form factor, e.g. a laptop. In contrast to large data centers or rack servers, the mobile server is designed for on-the-road or ad hoc deployment into emergency, disaster or temporary environments where traditional servers are not feasible due to their power requirements, size, and deployment time. The main beneficiaries of so-called "server on the go" technology include network managers, software or database developers, training centers, military personnel, law enforcement, forensics, emergency relief groups, and service organizations. To facilitate portability, features such as the keyboard, display, battery (uninterruptible power supply, to provide power redundancy in case of failure), and mouse are all integrated into the chassis.
Operating systems
Sun's Cobalt Qube 3; a computer server appliance (2002); running Cobalt Linux (a customized version of Red Hat Linux, using the 2.2 Linux kernel), complete with the Apache web server.
On the Internet, the dominant operating systems among servers are UNIX-like open-source distributions, such as those based on Linux and FreeBSD, with Windows Server also having a significant share. Proprietary operating systems such as z/OS and macOS Server are also deployed, but in much smaller numbers. Servers that run Linux are commonly used as Webservers or Databanks. Windows Servers are used for Networks that are made out of Windows Clients.
Specialist server-oriented operating systems have traditionally had features such as:
GUI not available or optional
Ability to reconfigure and update both hardware and software to some extent without restart
Advanced backup facilities to permit regular and frequent online backups of critical data,
Transparent data transfer between different volumes or devices
Flexible and advanced networking capabilities
Automation capabilities such as daemons in UNIX and services in Windows
Tight system security, with advanced user, resource, data, and memory protection.
Advanced detection and alerting on conditions such as overheating, processor and disk failure.
In practice, today many desktop and server operating systems share similar code bases, differing mostly in configuration.
Energy consumption
In 2010, data centers (servers, cooling, and other electrical infrastructure) were responsible for 1.1-1.5% of electrical energy consumption worldwide and 1.7-2.2% in the United States. One estimate is that total energy consumption for information and communications technology saves more than 5 times its carbon footprint in the rest of the economy by increasing efficiency.
Global energy consumption is increasing due to the increasing demand of data and bandwidth. Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) states that data centers used 91 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) electrical energy in 2013 which accounts to 3% of global electricity usage.
Environmental groups have placed focus on the carbon emissions of data centers as it accounts to 200 million metric tons of carbon dioxide in a year.
See also
Peer-to-peer
Notes
^ A CORBA servant is a server-side object to which method calls from remote method invocation are forwarded, but this is an uncommon usage.
References
^ "1.1.2.2 Clients and Servers". Cisco Networking Academy. Archived from the original on 2024-04-07. Retrieved 2024-04-07. Servers are hosts that have software installed that enable them to provide information...Clients are computer hosts that have software installed that enable them to request and display the information obtained from the server.
^ Windows Server Administration Fundamentals. Microsoft Official Academic Course. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 2011. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-0-470-90182-3.
^ Comer, Douglas E.; Stevens, David L (1993). Vol III: Client-Server Programming and Applications. Internetworking with TCP/IP. West Lafayette, IN: Prentice Hall. pp. 11d. ISBN 978-0-13-474222-9.
^ Richard A. Henle; Boris W. Kuvshinoff; C. M. Kuvshinoff (1992). Desktop computers: in perspective. Oxford University Press. p. 417. ISBN 978-0-19-507031-6. Server is a fairly recent computer networking term derived from queuing theory.
^ Rulifson, Jeff (June 1969). DEL. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC0005. RFC 5. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
^ Shapiro, Elmer B. (March 1969). Network Timetable. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC0004. RFC 4. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
^ server
^
^ "Chip Aging Accelerates". 14 February 2018.
^ Using the HTTP Publish-Subscribe Server, Oracle
^ IT Explained. "Server - Definition and Details". www.paessler.com.
^ IT Explained. "DNS Server Not Responding". www.dnsservernotresponding.org. Archived from the original on 2020-09-26. Retrieved 2020-02-11.
^ "Web Servers". IT Business Edge. Retrieved July 31, 2013.
^ Li, Huang, Shen, Chu (2010). ""A Realistic Evaluation of Memory Hardware Errors and Software System Susceptibility". Usenix Annual Tech Conference 2010" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2017-01-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ "Google uncloaks once-secret server". CNET. CBS Interactive. Retrieved 2017-01-30.
^ "Mobile Server, Power to go, EUROCOM Panther 5SE". Archived from the original on 2013-03-17.
^ "Mobile Server Notebook". 27 January 2022.
^ "Server-caliber Computer Doubles as a Mobile Workstation". Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2020-02-08.
^ "Usage statistics and market share of Linux for websites". Retrieved 18 Jan 2013.
^ "Server Oriented Operating System". Retrieved 2010-05-25.
^ Markoff, John (31 Jul 2011). "Data Centers Using Less Power Than Forecast, Report Says". NY Times. Retrieved 18 Jan 2013.
^ "SMART 2020: Enabling the low carbon economy in the information age" (PDF). The Climate Group. 6 Oct 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2010. Retrieved 18 Jan 2013.
Further reading
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Servers.
Erlang, Agner Krarup (1909). "The theory of probabilities and telephone conversations" (PDF). Nyt Tidsskrift for Matematik B. 20: 33–39. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-01.
Kendall, D. G. (1953). "Stochastic Processes Occurring in the Theory of Queues and their Analysis by the Method of the Imbedded Markov Chain". The Annals of Mathematical Statistics. 24 (3): 338–354. doi:10.1214/aoms/1177728975. JSTOR 2236285.
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Czech Republic
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Client-server-model.svg"},{"link_name":"computer network diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network_diagram"},{"link_name":"client","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikimedia_Foundation_Servers-8055_35.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wikimedia Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First-server-cern-computer-center.jpg"},{"link_name":"WWW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web"},{"link_name":"CERN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN"},{"link_name":"computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer"},{"link_name":"clients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client_(computing)"},{"link_name":"computer network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cisco_Networking_Academy_x508-1"},{"link_name":"architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_architecture"},{"link_name":"client–server model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_model"},{"link_name":"resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_resource"},{"link_name":"computations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computation"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"database servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_server"},{"link_name":"file servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_server"},{"link_name":"mail servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_server"},{"link_name":"print servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Print_server"},{"link_name":"web servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_server"},{"link_name":"game servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_server"},{"link_name":"application servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_server"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"request–response","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request%E2%80%93response"},{"link_name":"personal computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"computing clusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing_cluster"}],"text":"A computer network diagram of client computers communicating with a server computer via the InternetWikimedia Foundation rackmount servers on racks in a data centerThe first WWW server is located at CERN with its original sticker that says: \"This machine is a server. DO NOT POWER IT DOWN!!\"A server is a computer that provides information to other computers called \"clients\" on computer network.[1] This architecture is called the client–server model. Servers can provide various functionalities, often called \"services\", such as sharing data or resources among multiple clients or performing computations for a client. A single server can serve multiple clients, and a single client can use multiple servers. A client process may run on the same device or may connect over a network to a server on a different device.[2] Typical servers are database servers, file servers, mail servers, print servers, web servers, game servers, and application servers.[3]Client–server systems are usually most frequently implemented by (and often identified with) the request–response model: a client sends a request to the server, which performs some action and sends a response back to the client, typically with a result or acknowledgment. Designating a computer as \"server-class hardware\" implies that it is specialized for running servers on it. This often implies that it is more powerful and reliable than standard personal computers, but alternatively, large computing clusters may be composed of many relatively simple, replaceable server components.","title":"Server (computing)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"queueing theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queueing_theory"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Kendall (1953)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKendall1953"},{"link_name":"Kendall's notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kendall%27s_notation"},{"link_name":"Erlang (1909)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFErlang1909"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rulifson-5"},{"link_name":"ARPANET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"host","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_(network)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Jargon File","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargon_File"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"DAEMON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daemon_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"The use of the word server in computing comes from queueing theory,[4] where it dates to the mid 20th century, being notably used in Kendall (1953) (along with \"service\"), the paper that introduced Kendall's notation. In earlier papers, such as the Erlang (1909), more concrete terms such as \"[telephone] operators\" are used.In computing, \"server\" dates at least to RFC 5 (1969),[5] one of the earliest documents describing ARPANET (the predecessor of Internet), and is contrasted with \"user\", distinguishing two types of host: \"server-host\" and \"user-host\". The use of \"serving\" also dates to early documents, such as RFC 4,[6] contrasting \"serving-host\" with \"using-host\".The Jargon File defines server in the common sense of a process performing service for requests, usually remote,[7] with the 1981 version reading:[8]SERVER n. A kind of DAEMON which performs a service for the requester, which often runs on a computer other than the one on which the server runs.The average utilization of a server in the early 2000s was 5 to 15%, but with the adoption of virtualization this figure started to increase to reduce the number of servers needed.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Server-based-network.svg"},{"link_name":"client–server model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_model"},{"link_name":"computer program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_program"},{"link_name":"process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_(computing)"},{"link_name":"metonymy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonymy"},{"link_name":"host","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_(network)"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Web service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_service"},{"link_name":"Windows service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_service"},{"link_name":"web servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_server"},{"link_name":"client–server model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_model"},{"link_name":"clients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client_(computing)"},{"link_name":"request and response","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request%E2%80%93response"},{"link_name":"peer-to-peer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-peer"},{"link_name":"file server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_server"},{"link_name":"web server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_server"},{"link_name":"laptop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop"},{"link_name":"publish–subscribe pattern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publish%E2%80%93subscribe_pattern"},{"link_name":"pushes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Push_technology"},{"link_name":"pulling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pull_technology"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"A network based on the client–server model where multiple individual clients request services and resources from centralized serversStrictly speaking, the term server refers to a computer program or process (running program). Through metonymy, it refers to a device used for (or a device dedicated to) running one or several server programs. On a network, such a device is called a host. In addition to server, the words serve and service (as verb and as noun respectively) are frequently used, though servicer and servant are not.[a] The word service (noun) may refer to the abstract form of functionality, e.g. Web service. Alternatively, it may refer to a computer program that turns a computer into a server, e.g. Windows service. Originally used as \"servers serve users\" (and \"users use servers\"), in the sense of \"obey\", today one often says that \"servers serve data\", in the same sense as \"give\". For instance, web servers \"serve [up] web pages to users\" or \"service their requests\".The server is part of the client–server model; in this model, a server serves data for clients. The nature of communication between a client and server is request and response. This is in contrast with peer-to-peer model in which the relationship is on-demand reciprocation. In principle, any computerized process that can be used or called by another process (particularly remotely, particularly to share a resource) is a server, and the calling process or processes is a client. Thus any general-purpose computer connected to a network can host servers. For example, if files on a device are shared by some process, that process is a file server. Similarly, web server software can run on any capable computer, and so a laptop or a personal computer can host a web server.While request–response is the most common client-server design, there are others, such as the publish–subscribe pattern. In the publish-subscribe pattern, clients register with a pub-sub server, subscribing to specified types of messages; this initial registration may be done by request-response. Thereafter, the pub-sub server forwards matching messages to the clients without any further requests: the server pushes messages to the client, rather than the client pulling messages from the server as in request-response.[10]","title":"Operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Servers (computing)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Servers_(computing)"},{"link_name":"resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_resource"},{"link_name":"quid pro quo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quid_pro_quo"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"client–server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server"},{"link_name":"root nameservers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_nameserver"},{"link_name":"DNS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"peer-to-peer file sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_sharing"},{"link_name":"telephony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephony"},{"link_name":"Skype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype"}],"text":"Main category: Servers (computing)The role of a server is to share data as well as to share resources and distribute work. A server computer can serve its own computer programs as well; depending on the scenario, this could be part of a quid pro quo transaction, or simply a technical possibility. The following table shows several scenarios in which a server is used.Almost the entire structure of the Internet is based upon a client–server model. High-level root nameservers, DNS, and routers direct the traffic on the internet. There are millions of servers connected to the Internet, running continuously throughout the world[13] and virtually every action taken by an ordinary Internet user requires one or more interactions with one or more servers. There are exceptions that do not use dedicated servers; for example, peer-to-peer file sharing and some implementations of telephony (e.g. pre-Microsoft Skype).","title":"Purpose"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inside_and_Rear_of_Webserver.jpg"},{"link_name":"rack-mountable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19-inch_rack"},{"link_name":"Hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware"},{"link_name":"computer monitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_monitor"},{"link_name":"USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Serial_Bus"},{"link_name":"graphical user interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Management Console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Management_Console"},{"link_name":"PowerShell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerShell"},{"link_name":"SSH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Shell"},{"link_name":"browser-based","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser"},{"link_name":"out-of-band management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-of-band_management"},{"link_name":"iDRAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_DRAC"},{"link_name":"iLo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Integrated_Lights-Out"}],"text":"A rack-mountable server with the top cover removed to reveal internal componentsHardware requirement for servers vary widely, depending on the server's purpose and its software. Servers often are more powerful and expensive than the clients that connect to them.The name server is used both for the hardware and software pieces. For the hardware servers, it is usually limited to mean the high-end machines although software servers can run on a variety of hardwares.Since servers are usually accessed over a network, many run unattended without a computer monitor or input device, audio hardware and USB interfaces. Many servers do not have a graphical user interface (GUI). They are configured and managed remotely. Remote management can be conducted via various methods including Microsoft Management Console (MMC), PowerShell, SSH and browser-based out-of-band management systems such as Dell's iDRAC or HP's iLo.","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Availability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability"},{"link_name":"Mission-critical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission-critical"},{"link_name":"fault tolerant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_tolerance"},{"link_name":"failure rates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_rate"},{"link_name":"uptime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uptime"},{"link_name":"Uninterruptible power supplies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uninterruptible_power_supply"},{"link_name":"redundancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redundancy_(engineering)"},{"link_name":"power supplies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supply"},{"link_name":"RAID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAID"},{"link_name":"disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk"},{"link_name":"ECC memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECC_memory"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"pre-boot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preboot_Execution_Environment"},{"link_name":"hot swappable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_swappable"},{"link_name":"water cooling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_cooling"},{"link_name":"out-of-band management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-of-band_management"},{"link_name":"IPMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_Platform_Management_Interface"},{"link_name":"flat and wide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rack_unit"},{"link_name":"19-inch racks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19-inch_rack"},{"link_name":"Open Racks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Rack"},{"link_name":"data centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_centers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DL380sREAR.jpg"},{"link_name":"server rack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_rack"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikimedia_Foundation_Servers-8055_08.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wikimedia Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikimedia_Foundation_Servers-8055_23.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wikimedia Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikimedia_Foundation_Servers-8055_02.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wikimedia Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation"}],"sub_title":"Large servers","text":"Large traditional single servers would need to be run for long periods without interruption. Availability would have to be very high, making hardware reliability and durability extremely important. Mission-critical enterprise servers would be very fault tolerant and use specialized hardware with low failure rates in order to maximize uptime. Uninterruptible power supplies might be incorporated to guard against power failure. Servers typically include hardware redundancy such as dual power supplies, RAID disk systems, and ECC memory,[14] along with extensive pre-boot memory testing and verification. Critical components might be hot swappable, allowing technicians to replace them on the running server without shutting it down, and to guard against overheating, servers might have more powerful fans or use water cooling. They will often be able to be configured, powered up and down, or rebooted remotely, using out-of-band management, typically based on IPMI. Server casings are usually flat and wide, and designed to be rack-mounted, either on 19-inch racks or on Open Racks.These types of servers are often housed in dedicated data centers. These will normally have very stable power and Internet and increased security. Noise is also less of a concern, but power consumption and heat output can be a serious issue. Server rooms are equipped with air conditioning devices.A server rack seen from the rear\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tWikimedia Foundation servers as seen from the front\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tWikimedia Foundation servers as seen from the rear\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tWikimedia Foundation servers as seen from the rear","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"data centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_center"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Open Compute Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Compute_Project"}],"sub_title":"Clusters","text":"A server farm or server cluster is a collection of computer servers maintained by an organization to supply server functionality far beyond the capability of a single device. Modern data centers are now often built of very large clusters of much simpler servers,[15] and there is a collaborative effort, Open Compute Project around this concept.","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"network appliances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_appliance"}],"sub_title":"Appliances","text":"A class of small specialist servers called network appliances are generally at the low end of the scale, often being smaller than common desktop computers.","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"laptop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"data centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_center"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-deskeng1-19"},{"link_name":"keyboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_keyboard"},{"link_name":"display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Display_device"},{"link_name":"battery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"uninterruptible power supply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uninterruptible_power_supply"}],"sub_title":"Mobile","text":"A mobile server has a portable form factor, e.g. a laptop.[16] In contrast to large data centers or rack servers, the mobile server is designed for on-the-road or ad hoc deployment into emergency, disaster or temporary environments where traditional servers are not feasible due to their power requirements, size, and deployment time.[17] The main beneficiaries of so-called \"server on the go\" technology include network managers, software or database developers, training centers, military personnel, law enforcement, forensics, emergency relief groups, and service organizations.[18] To facilitate portability, features such as the keyboard, display, battery (uninterruptible power supply, to provide power redundancy in case of failure), and mouse are all integrated into the chassis.","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cobalt_Qube_3_Front.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cobalt Qube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobalt_Qube"},{"link_name":"server appliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_appliance"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"open-source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source_software"},{"link_name":"distributions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_distribution"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"FreeBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBSD"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-linuxusage-20"},{"link_name":"Windows Server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Server"},{"link_name":"z/OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z/OS"},{"link_name":"macOS Server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS_Server"},{"link_name":"GUI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUI"},{"link_name":"reconfigure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconfigurable_computing"},{"link_name":"backup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backup"},{"link_name":"data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data"},{"link_name":"Transparent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_transparency"},{"link_name":"volumes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_(computing)"},{"link_name":"daemons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daemon_(computer_software)"},{"link_name":"services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_service"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"code bases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_base"}],"text":"Sun's Cobalt Qube 3; a computer server appliance (2002); running Cobalt Linux (a customized version of Red Hat Linux, using the 2.2 Linux kernel), complete with the Apache web server.On the Internet, the dominant operating systems among servers are UNIX-like open-source distributions, such as those based on Linux and FreeBSD,[19] with Windows Server also having a significant share. Proprietary operating systems such as z/OS and macOS Server are also deployed, but in much smaller numbers. Servers that run Linux are commonly used as Webservers or Databanks. Windows Servers are used for Networks that are made out of Windows Clients.Specialist server-oriented operating systems have traditionally had features such as:GUI not available or optional\nAbility to reconfigure and update both hardware and software to some extent without restart\nAdvanced backup facilities to permit regular and frequent online backups of critical data,\nTransparent data transfer between different volumes or devices\nFlexible and advanced networking capabilities\nAutomation capabilities such as daemons in UNIX and services in Windows\nTight system security, with advanced user, resource, data, and memory protection.\nAdvanced detection and alerting on conditions such as overheating, processor and disk failure.[20]In practice, today many desktop and server operating systems share similar code bases, differing mostly in configuration.","title":"Operating systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"needs update","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"carbon footprint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Natural Resources Defense Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Resources_Defense_Council"},{"link_name":"91 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) electrical energy in 2013 which accounts to 3% of global electricity usage.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//lifelinedatacenters.com/data-center/reduce-data-center-carbon-footprints/"},{"link_name":"needs update","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"Environmental groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_groups"},{"link_name":"carbon dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide"}],"text":"In 2010, data centers (servers, cooling, and other electrical infrastructure) were responsible for 1.1-1.5% of electrical energy consumption worldwide and 1.7-2.2% in the United States.[21][needs update] One estimate is that total energy consumption for information and communications technology saves more than 5 times its carbon footprint[22] in the rest of the economy by increasing efficiency.Global energy consumption is increasing due to the increasing demand of data and bandwidth. Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) states that data centers used 91 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) electrical energy in 2013 which accounts to 3% of global electricity usage.[needs update]Environmental groups have placed focus on the carbon emissions of data centers as it accounts to 200 million metric tons of carbon dioxide in a year.","title":"Energy consumption"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"CORBA servant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servant_(CORBA)"},{"link_name":"object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"method calls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_call"},{"link_name":"remote method invocation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_method_invocation"},{"link_name":"forwarded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forwarding_(object-oriented_programming)"}],"text":"^ A CORBA servant is a server-side object to which method calls from remote method invocation are forwarded, but this is an uncommon usage.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Servers"},{"link_name":"Erlang, Agner Krarup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agner_Krarup_Erlang"},{"link_name":"\"The theory of probabilities and telephone conversations\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20111001212934/http://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps131-137.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps131-137.pdf"},{"link_name":"Kendall, D. G.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_George_Kendall"},{"link_name":"\"Stochastic Processes Occurring in the Theory of Queues and their Analysis by the Method of the Imbedded Markov Chain\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1214%2Faoms%2F1177728975"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1214/aoms/1177728975","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1214%2Faoms%2F1177728975"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2236285","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2236285"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Computer_sizes"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Computer_sizes"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Computer_sizes"},{"link_name":"Computer sizes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_size_categories"},{"link_name":"classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classes_of_computers"},{"link_name":"Micro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputer"},{"link_name":"Appliances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_appliance"},{"link_name":"Arcade cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_cabinet"},{"link_name":"Diskless node","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diskless_node"},{"link_name":"Video game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console"},{"link_name":"Home console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_video_game_console"},{"link_name":"Microconsole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microconsole"},{"link_name":"Internet appliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_appliance"},{"link_name":"Intelligent terminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_terminal"},{"link_name":"Interactive 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PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blade_PC"},{"link_name":"Mobile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_computing"},{"link_name":"Laptop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop"},{"link_name":"2-in-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-in-1_laptop"},{"link_name":"Convertible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-in-1_laptop#2-in-1_convertible"},{"link_name":"Detachable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-in-1_laptop#2-in-1_detachable"},{"link_name":"Cloudbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloudbook"},{"link_name":"Mobile workstation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_workstation"},{"link_name":"Notebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notebook_form_factor"},{"link_name":"Subnotebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnotebook"},{"link_name":"Netbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netbook"},{"link_name":"Smartbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartbook"},{"link_name":"Handheld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_device"},{"link_name":"Electronic organizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_organizer"},{"link_name":"E-reader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-reader"},{"link_name":"Handheld game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_game_console"},{"link_name":"Handheld PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_PC"},{"link_name":"Mobile data terminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_data_terminal"},{"link_name":"Mobile phone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone"},{"link_name":"Camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_phone"},{"link_name":"Feature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_phone"},{"link_name":"Smartphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"Palmtop PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmtop_PC"},{"link_name":"Personal digital assistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant"},{"link_name":"Phablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phablet"},{"link_name":"Pocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocket_computer"},{"link_name":"Portable data terminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_data_terminal"},{"link_name":"Portable media player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_media_player"},{"link_name":"Siftable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siftable"},{"link_name":"Tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_computer"},{"link_name":"Ultra-mobile PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-mobile_PC"},{"link_name":"Virtual pet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_pet"},{"link_name":"Calculator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator"},{"link_name":"Graphing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphing_calculator"},{"link_name":"Programmable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_calculator"},{"link_name":"Scientific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_calculator"},{"link_name":"Wearable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wearable_computer"},{"link_name":"Activity tracker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_tracker"},{"link_name":"Smart band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_band"},{"link_name":"Digital wristwatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watch#Digital"},{"link_name":"Calculator watch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator_watch"},{"link_name":"Smartwatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartwatch"},{"link_name":"Sportwatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS_watch"},{"link_name":"Smartglasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartglasses"},{"link_name":"Smart ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_ring"},{"link_name":"Midrange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midrange_computer"},{"link_name":"Mini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputer"},{"link_name":"Supermini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superminicomputer"},{"link_name":"Grid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_computing"},{"link_name":"Mainframe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer"},{"link_name":"Minisuper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minisupercomputer"},{"link_name":"Super","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer"},{"link_name":"Embedded system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system"},{"link_name":"Information appliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_appliance"},{"link_name":"Microcontroller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontroller"},{"link_name":"Nano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanocomputer"},{"link_name":"Rugged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugged_computer"},{"link_name":"Rugged smartphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugged_smartphone"},{"link_name":"Single-board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-board_computer"},{"link_name":"Computer-on-module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-on-module"},{"link_name":"Smartdust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartdust"},{"link_name":"Wireless sensor network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_sensor_network"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Classes_of_computers"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44127#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/4209324-7"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007544366605171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh93000502"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph135500&CON_LNG=ENG"}],"text":"Wikimedia Commons has media related to Servers.Erlang, Agner Krarup (1909). \"The theory of probabilities and telephone conversations\" (PDF). Nyt Tidsskrift for Matematik B. 20: 33–39. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-01.\nKendall, D. G. (1953). \"Stochastic Processes Occurring in the Theory of Queues and their Analysis by the Method of the Imbedded Markov Chain\". The Annals of Mathematical Statistics. 24 (3): 338–354. doi:10.1214/aoms/1177728975. JSTOR 2236285.vteComputer sizes and classesMicroStaticAppliances\nArcade cabinet\nDiskless node\nVideo game console\nHome console\nMicroconsole\nInternet appliance\nIntelligent terminal\nInteractive kiosk\nRich client\nSimulator\nSmart speaker\nSmart TV\nThin client\nComputersBy use\nGaming\nHome\nIndustrial\nPersonal\nPersonal super\nPublic\nServer\nHome server\nWorkstation\nBy size\nAll-in-one\nPanel\nTabletop\nSurface\nDesktop\nDeskside\nPizza box\nTower\nPortable\nSmall form factor\nMini PC\nPlug\nRack\nBlade server\nBlade PC\nMobileLaptop\n2-in-1\nConvertible\nDetachable\nCloudbook\nMobile workstation\nNotebook\nSubnotebook\nNetbook\nSmartbook\nHandheld\nElectronic organizer\nE-reader\nHandheld game console\nHandheld PC\nMobile data terminal\nMobile phone\nCamera\nFeature\nSmartphone\nPalmtop PC\nPersonal digital assistant\nPhablet\nPocket\nPortable data terminal\nPortable media player\nSiftable\nTablet\nUltra-mobile PC\nVirtual pet\nCalculator\nGraphing\nProgrammable\nScientific\nWearable\nActivity tracker\nSmart band\nDigital wristwatch\nCalculator watch\nSmartwatch\nSportwatch\nSmartglasses\nSmart ring\nMidrange\nMini\nSupermini\nLarge\nGrid\nMainframe\nMinisuper\nSuper\nOthers\nEmbedded system\nInformation appliance\nMicrocontroller\nNano\nRugged\nRugged smartphone\nSingle-board\nComputer-on-module\nSmartdust\nWireless sensor network\n\n CategoryAuthority control databases: National \nGermany\nIsrael\nUnited States\nCzech Republic","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"A computer network diagram of client computers communicating with a server computer via the Internet","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Client-server-model.svg/200px-Client-server-model.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Wikimedia Foundation rackmount servers on racks in a data center","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Wikimedia_Foundation_Servers-8055_35.jpg/220px-Wikimedia_Foundation_Servers-8055_35.jpg"},{"image_text":"The first WWW server is located at CERN with its original sticker that says: \"This machine is a server. DO NOT POWER IT DOWN!!\"","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/First-server-cern-computer-center.jpg/220px-First-server-cern-computer-center.jpg"},{"image_text":"A network based on the client–server model where multiple individual clients request services and resources from centralized servers","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Server-based-network.svg/220px-Server-based-network.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A rack-mountable server with the top cover removed to reveal internal components","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Inside_and_Rear_of_Webserver.jpg/220px-Inside_and_Rear_of_Webserver.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sun's Cobalt Qube 3; a computer server appliance (2002); running Cobalt Linux (a customized version of Red Hat Linux, using the 2.2 Linux kernel), complete with the Apache web server.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Cobalt_Qube_3_Front.jpg/220px-Cobalt_Qube_3_Front.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Peer-to-peer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-peer#Distributed_storage_and_search"}]
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[{"reference":"\"1.1.2.2 Clients and Servers\". Cisco Networking Academy. Archived from the original on 2024-04-07. Retrieved 2024-04-07. Servers are hosts that have software installed that enable them to provide information...Clients are computer hosts that have software installed that enable them to request and display the information obtained from the server.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240407111300/http://cisco.num.edu.mn/CCNA_R&S1/course/module1/1.1.2.2/1.1.2.2.html","url_text":"\"1.1.2.2 Clients and Servers\""},{"url":"http://cisco.num.edu.mn/CCNA_R&S1/course/module1/1.1.2.2/1.1.2.2.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Windows Server Administration Fundamentals. Microsoft Official Academic Course. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 2011. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-0-470-90182-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/windowsserveradm00cour","url_text":"Windows Server Administration Fundamentals"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/windowsserveradm00cour/page/n21","url_text":"2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-90182-3","url_text":"978-0-470-90182-3"}]},{"reference":"Comer, Douglas E.; Stevens, David L (1993). Vol III: Client-Server Programming and Applications. Internetworking with TCP/IP. West Lafayette, IN: Prentice Hall. pp. 11d. ISBN 978-0-13-474222-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/internetworkingw00come_0","url_text":"Vol III: Client-Server Programming and Applications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prentice_Hall","url_text":"Prentice Hall"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-474222-9","url_text":"978-0-13-474222-9"}]},{"reference":"Richard A. Henle; Boris W. Kuvshinoff; C. M. Kuvshinoff (1992). Desktop computers: in perspective. Oxford University Press. p. 417. ISBN 978-0-19-507031-6. Server is a fairly recent computer networking term derived from queuing theory.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=g4krAAAAYAAJ&q=server+%22queuing+theory%22","url_text":"Desktop computers: in perspective"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507031-6","url_text":"978-0-19-507031-6"}]},{"reference":"Rulifson, Jeff (June 1969). DEL. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC0005. RFC 5. Retrieved 30 November 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Rulifson","url_text":"Rulifson, Jeff"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5","url_text":"DEL"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force","url_text":"IETF"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC0005","url_text":"10.17487/RFC0005"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments","url_text":"RFC"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5","url_text":"5"}]},{"reference":"Shapiro, Elmer B. (March 1969). Network Timetable. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC0004. RFC 4. 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Archived from the original on 2020-09-26. Retrieved 2020-02-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200926091559/https://dnsservernotresponding.org/","url_text":"\"DNS Server Not Responding\""},{"url":"https://dnsservernotresponding.org/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Web Servers\". IT Business Edge. Retrieved July 31, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.serverwatch.com/stypes/index.php/V2Vi","url_text":"\"Web Servers\""}]},{"reference":"Li, Huang, Shen, Chu (2010). \"\"A Realistic Evaluation of Memory Hardware Errors and Software System Susceptibility\". Usenix Annual Tech Conference 2010\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2017-01-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cs.rochester.edu/~kshen/papers/usenix2010-li.pdf","url_text":"\"\"A Realistic Evaluation of Memory Hardware Errors and Software System Susceptibility\". Usenix Annual Tech Conference 2010\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.cs.rochester.edu/~kshen/papers/usenix2010-li.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Google uncloaks once-secret server\". CNET. CBS Interactive. Retrieved 2017-01-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnet.com/news/google-uncloaks-once-secret-server-10209580/","url_text":"\"Google uncloaks once-secret server\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mobile Server, Power to go, EUROCOM Panther 5SE\". Archived from the original on 2013-03-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130317041045/http://www.eurocom.com/products/showroom/products_files/mobileserver/mobileserver.cfm","url_text":"\"Mobile Server, Power to go, EUROCOM Panther 5SE\""},{"url":"http://www.eurocom.com/products/showroom/products_files/mobileserver/mobileserver.cfm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Mobile Server Notebook\". 27 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.notebookreview.com/default.asp?newsID=6833&news=Getax+X500+rugged+mobile+server+notebook","url_text":"\"Mobile Server Notebook\""}]},{"reference":"\"Server-caliber Computer Doubles as a Mobile Workstation\". Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2020-02-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225722/http://www.deskeng.com/articles/aaambz.htm","url_text":"\"Server-caliber Computer Doubles as a Mobile Workstation\""},{"url":"http://www.deskeng.com/articles/aaambz.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Usage statistics and market share of Linux for websites\". Retrieved 18 Jan 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://w3techs.com/technologies/details/os-linux/all/all","url_text":"\"Usage statistics and market share of Linux for websites\""}]},{"reference":"\"Server Oriented Operating System\". Retrieved 2010-05-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ingelec.uns.edu.ar/rts/soos/","url_text":"\"Server Oriented Operating System\""}]},{"reference":"Markoff, John (31 Jul 2011). \"Data Centers Using Less Power Than Forecast, Report Says\". NY Times. Retrieved 18 Jan 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/01/technology/data-centers-using-less-power-than-forecast-report-says.html?_r=0","url_text":"\"Data Centers Using Less Power Than Forecast, Report Says\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NY_Times","url_text":"NY Times"}]},{"reference":"\"SMART 2020: Enabling the low carbon economy in the information age\" (PDF). The Climate Group. 6 Oct 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2010. Retrieved 18 Jan 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101122051650/http://www.smart2020.org/_assets/files/02_Smart2020Report.pdf","url_text":"\"SMART 2020: Enabling the low carbon economy in the information age\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Climate_Group","url_text":"The Climate Group"},{"url":"http://www.smart2020.org/_assets/files/02_Smart2020Report.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Erlang, Agner Krarup (1909). \"The theory of probabilities and telephone conversations\" (PDF). Nyt Tidsskrift for Matematik B. 20: 33–39. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agner_Krarup_Erlang","url_text":"Erlang, Agner Krarup"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111001212934/http://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps131-137.pdf","url_text":"\"The theory of probabilities and telephone conversations\""},{"url":"http://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps131-137.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kendall, D. G. (1953). \"Stochastic Processes Occurring in the Theory of Queues and their Analysis by the Method of the Imbedded Markov Chain\". The Annals of Mathematical Statistics. 24 (3): 338–354. doi:10.1214/aoms/1177728975. JSTOR 2236285.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_George_Kendall","url_text":"Kendall, D. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide
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Tide
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["1 Characteristics","1.1 Reference levels","2 Tidal constituents","2.1 Principal lunar semi-diurnal constituent","2.2 Range variation: springs and neaps","2.3 Lunar distance","2.4 Other constituents","2.5 Phase and amplitude","3 History","3.1 History of tidal theory","3.2 History of tidal observation","4 Physics","4.1 Forces","4.2 Equilibrium","4.3 Laplace's tidal equations","4.4 Amplitude and cycle time","4.5 Dissipation","4.6 Bathymetry","5 Observation and prediction","5.1 Timing","5.2 Analysis","5.3 Example calculation","5.4 Current","5.5 Power generation","6 Navigation","7 Biological aspects","7.1 Intertidal ecology","7.2 Biological rhythms","8 Other tides","8.1 Lake tides","8.2 Atmospheric tides","8.3 Earth tides","8.4 Galactic tides","9 Misnomers","10 See also","11 Notes","12 References","13 Further reading","14 External links"]
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Rise and fall of the sea level under astronomical gravitational influences
For other uses, see Tide (disambiguation).
"Ebbing" redirects here. For the song by Swans, see The Beggar. For the fictional town, see Ebbing, Missouri.
"Ebb tide" redirects here. For other uses, see Ebb tide (disambiguation).
Simplified schematic of only the lunar portion of Earth's tides, showing (exaggerated) high tides at the sublunar point and its antipode for the hypothetical case of an ocean of constant depth without land, and on the assumption that Earth is not rotating; otherwise there is a lag angle. Solar tides not shown.
Earth's rotation drags the position of the tidal bulge ahead of the position directly under the Moon showing the lag angle.
In Maine (U.S.), low tide occurs roughly at moonrise and high tide with a high Moon, corresponding to the simple gravity model of two tidal bulges; at most places however, the Moon and tides have a phase shift.
Tide coming in, video stops about 1+1⁄2 hours before high tide
Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon (and to a much lesser extent, the Sun) and are also caused by the Earth and Moon orbiting one another.
Tide tables can be used for any given locale to find the predicted times and amplitude (or "tidal range").
The predictions are influenced by many factors including the alignment of the Sun and Moon, the phase and amplitude of the tide (pattern of tides in the deep ocean), the amphidromic systems of the oceans, and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry (see Timing). They are however only predictions, the actual time and height of the tide is affected by wind and atmospheric pressure. Many shorelines experience semi-diurnal tides—two nearly equal high and low tides each day. Other locations have a diurnal tide—one high and low tide each day. A "mixed tide"—two uneven magnitude tides a day—is a third regular category.
Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors, which determine the lunitidal interval. To make accurate records, tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time. Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes. These data are compared to the reference (or datum) level usually called mean sea level.
While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations, sea levels are also subject to change from thermal expansion, wind, and barometric pressure changes, resulting in storm surges, especially in shallow seas and near coasts.
Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans, but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present. For example, the shape of the solid part of the Earth is affected slightly by Earth tide, though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements.
Characteristics
Types of tides (See Timing (below) for coastal map)
Four stages in the tidal cycle are named:
The water stops falling, reaching a local minimum called low tide.
Sea level rises over several hours, covering the intertidal zone; flood tide.
The water stops rising, reaching a local maximum called high tide.
Sea level falls over several hours, revealing the intertidal zone; ebb tide.
Oscillating currents produced by tides are known as tidal streams or tidal currents. The moment that the tidal current ceases is called slack water or slack tide. The tide then reverses direction and is said to be turning. Slack water usually occurs near high water and low water, but there are locations where the moments of slack tide differ significantly from those of high and low water.
Tides are commonly semi-diurnal (two high waters and two low waters each day), or diurnal (one tidal cycle per day). The two high waters on a given day are typically not the same height (the daily inequality); these are the higher high water and the lower high water in tide tables. Similarly, the two low waters each day are the higher low water and the lower low water. The daily inequality is not consistent and is generally small when the Moon is over the Equator.
Reference levels
See also: Chart datum § Definitions
The following reference tide levels can be defined, from the highest level to the lowest:
Highest astronomical tide (HAT) – The highest tide which can be predicted to occur. Note that meteorological conditions may add extra height to the HAT.
Mean high water springs (MHWS) – The average of the two high tides on the days of spring tides.
Mean high water neaps (MHWN) – The average of the two high tides on the days of neap tides.
Mean sea level (MSL) – This is the average sea level. The MSL is constant for any location over a long period.
Mean low water neaps (MLWN) – The average of the two low tides on the days of neap tides.
Mean low water springs (MLWS) – The average of the two low tides on the days of spring tides.
Lowest astronomical tide (LAT) – The lowest tide which can be predicted to occur.
Illustration by the course of half a month
Tidal constituents
Further information: Theory of tides § Tidal constituents, and Long-period tides
See also: Earth tide § Tidal constituents
Tidal constituents are the net result of multiple influences impacting tidal changes over certain periods of time. Primary constituents include the Earth's rotation, the position of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth, the Moon's altitude (elevation) above the Earth's Equator, and bathymetry. Variations with periods of less than half a day are called harmonic constituents. Conversely, cycles of days, months, or years are referred to as long period constituents.
Tidal forces affect the entire earth, but the movement of solid Earth occurs by mere centimeters. In contrast, the atmosphere is much more fluid and compressible so its surface moves by kilometers, in the sense of the contour level of a particular low pressure in the outer atmosphere.
Principal lunar semi-diurnal constituent
Global surface elevation of M2 ocean tide (NASA)
In most locations, the largest constituent is the principal lunar semi-diurnal, also known as the M2 tidal constituent or M2 tidal constituent. Its period is about 12 hours and 25.2 minutes, exactly half a tidal lunar day, which is the average time separating one lunar zenith from the next, and thus is the time required for the Earth to rotate once relative to the Moon. Simple tide clocks track this constituent. The lunar day is longer than the Earth day because the Moon orbits in the same direction the Earth spins. This is analogous to the minute hand on a watch crossing the hour hand at 12:00 and then again at about 1:05½ (not at 1:00).
The Moon orbits the Earth in the same direction as the Earth rotates on its axis, so it takes slightly more than a day—about 24 hours and 50 minutes—for the Moon to return to the same location in the sky. During this time, it has passed overhead (culmination) once and underfoot once (at an hour angle of 00:00 and 12:00 respectively), so in many places the period of strongest tidal forcing is the above-mentioned, about 12 hours and 25 minutes. The moment of highest tide is not necessarily when the Moon is nearest to zenith or nadir, but the period of the forcing still determines the time between high tides.
Because the gravitational field created by the Moon weakens with distance from the Moon, it exerts a slightly stronger than average force on the side of the Earth facing the Moon, and a slightly weaker force on the opposite side. The Moon thus tends to "stretch" the Earth slightly along the line connecting the two bodies. The solid Earth deforms a bit, but ocean water, being fluid, is free to move much more in response to the tidal force, particularly horizontally (see equilibrium tide).
As the Earth rotates, the magnitude and direction of the tidal force at any particular point on the Earth's surface change constantly; although the ocean never reaches equilibrium—there is never time for the fluid to "catch up" to the state it would eventually reach if the tidal force were constant—the changing tidal force nonetheless causes rhythmic changes in sea surface height.
When there are two high tides each day with different heights (and two low tides also of different heights), the pattern is called a mixed semi-diurnal tide.
Range variation: springs and neaps
Further information: Tidal range
The types of tides
The semi-diurnal range (the difference in height between high and low waters over about half a day) varies in a two-week cycle. Approximately twice a month, around new moon and full moon when the Sun, Moon, and Earth form a line (a configuration known as a syzygy), the tidal force due to the Sun reinforces that due to the Moon. The tide's range is then at its maximum; this is called the spring tide. It is not named after the season, but, like that word, derives from the meaning "jump, burst forth, rise", as in a natural spring.
Spring tides are sometimes referred to as syzygy tides.
When the Moon is at first quarter or third quarter, the Sun and Moon are separated by 90° when viewed from the Earth, and the solar tidal force partially cancels the Moon's tidal force. At these points in the lunar cycle, the tide's range is at its minimum; this is called the neap tide, or neaps. "Neap" is an Anglo-Saxon word meaning "without the power", as in forðganges nip (forth-going without-the-power).
Neap tides are sometimes referred to as quadrature tides.
Spring tides result in high waters that are higher than average, low waters that are lower than average, "slack water" time that is shorter than average, and stronger tidal currents than average. Neaps result in less extreme tidal conditions. There is about a seven-day interval between springs and neaps.
Spring tide: Sun and Moon on the same side (0°)
Neap tide: Sun and Moon at 90°
Spring tide: Sun and Moon at opposite sides (180°)
Neap tide: Sun and Moon at 270°
Spring tide: Sun and Moon at the same side (cycle restarts)
Lunar distance
Low tide at Bangchuidao scenic area, Dalian, Liaoning Province, China
Low tide at Ocean Beach in San Francisco, California, U.S.
Low tide at Bar Harbor, Maine, U.S. (2014)
The changing distance separating the Moon and Earth also affects tide heights. When the Moon is closest, at perigee, the range increases, and when it is at apogee, the range shrinks. Six or eight times a year perigee coincides with either a new or full moon causing perigean spring tides with the largest tidal range. The difference between the height of a tide at perigean spring tide and the spring tide when the moon is at apogee depends on location but can be large as a foot higher.
Other constituents
These include solar gravitational effects, the obliquity (tilt) of the Earth's Equator and rotational axis, the inclination of the plane of the lunar orbit and the elliptical shape of the Earth's orbit of the Sun.
A compound tide (or overtide) results from the shallow-water interaction of its two parent waves.
Phase and amplitude
M2 tidal constituent. Red is most extreme (highest highs, lowest lows), with blues being least extreme. White cotidal lines converge in blue areas indicating little or no tide. Around these convergences, called amphidromic points, curved arrows show the direction of the tides, each indicating a synchronized 6-hour period. Tidal ranges generally increase with increasing distance from amphidromic points. Tide waves move around these points, generally counterclockwise in the N. Hemisphere and clockwise in the S. Hemisphere
Because the M2 tidal constituent dominates in most locations, the stage or phase of a tide, denoted by the time in hours after high water, is a useful concept. Tidal stage is also measured in degrees, with 360° per tidal cycle. Lines of constant tidal phase are called cotidal lines, which are analogous to contour lines of constant altitude on topographical maps, and when plotted form a cotidal map or cotidal chart. High water is reached simultaneously along the cotidal lines extending from the coast out into the ocean, and cotidal lines (and hence tidal phases) advance along the coast. Semi-diurnal and long phase constituents are measured from high water, diurnal from maximum flood tide. This and the discussion that follows is precisely true only for a single tidal constituent.
For an ocean in the shape of a circular basin enclosed by a coastline, the cotidal lines point radially inward and must eventually meet at a common point, the amphidromic point. The amphidromic point is at once cotidal with high and low waters, which is satisfied by zero tidal motion. (The rare exception occurs when the tide encircles an island, as it does around New Zealand, Iceland and Madagascar.) Tidal motion generally lessens moving away from continental coasts, so that crossing the cotidal lines are contours of constant amplitude (half the distance between high and low water) which decrease to zero at the amphidromic point. For a semi-diurnal tide the amphidromic point can be thought of roughly like the center of a clock face, with the hour hand pointing in the direction of the high water cotidal line, which is directly opposite the low water cotidal line. High water rotates about the amphidromic point once every 12 hours in the direction of rising cotidal lines, and away from ebbing cotidal lines. This rotation, caused by the Coriolis effect, is generally clockwise in the southern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere. The difference of cotidal phase from the phase of a reference tide is the epoch. The reference tide is the hypothetical constituent "equilibrium tide" on a landless Earth measured at 0° longitude, the Greenwich meridian.
In the North Atlantic, because the cotidal lines circulate counterclockwise around the amphidromic point, the high tide passes New York Harbor approximately an hour ahead of Norfolk Harbor. South of Cape Hatteras the tidal forces are more complex, and cannot be predicted reliably based on the North Atlantic cotidal lines.
History
History of tidal theory
Further information: Theory of tides § History
Investigation into tidal physics was important in the early development of celestial mechanics, with the existence of two daily tides being explained by the Moon's gravity. Later the daily tides were explained more precisely by the interaction of the Moon's and the Sun's gravity.
Seleucus of Seleucia theorized around 150 BC that tides were caused by the Moon. The influence of the Moon on bodies of water was also mentioned in Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos.
In De temporum ratione (The Reckoning of Time) of 725 Bede linked semidurnal tides and the phenomenon of varying tidal heights to the Moon and its phases. Bede starts by noting that the tides rise and fall 4/5 of an hour later each day, just as the Moon rises and sets 4/5 of an hour later. He goes on to emphasise that in two lunar months (59 days) the Moon circles the Earth 57 times and there are 114 tides. Bede then observes that the height of tides varies over the month. Increasing tides are called malinae and decreasing tides ledones and that the month is divided into four parts of seven or eight days with alternating malinae and ledones. In the same passage he also notes the effect of winds to hold back tides. Bede also records that the time of tides varies from place to place. To the north of Bede's location (Monkwearmouth) the tides are earlier, to the south later. He explains that the tide "deserts these shores in order to be able all the more to be able to flood other when it arrives there" noting that "the Moon which signals the rise of tide here, signals its retreat in other regions far from this quarter of the heavens".
Later medieval understanding of the tides was primarily based on works of Muslim astronomers, which became available through Latin translation starting from the 12th century. Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi (d. circa 886), in his Introductorium in astronomiam, taught that ebb and flood tides were caused by the Moon. Abu Ma'shar discussed the effects of wind and Moon's phases relative to the Sun on the tides. In the 12th century, al-Bitruji (d. circa 1204) contributed the notion that the tides were caused by the general circulation of the heavens.
Simon Stevin, in his 1608 De spiegheling der Ebbenvloet (The theory of ebb and flood), dismissed a large number of misconceptions that still existed about ebb and flood. Stevin pleaded for the idea that the attraction of the Moon was responsible for the tides and spoke in clear terms about ebb, flood, spring tide and neap tide, stressing that further research needed to be made.
In 1609 Johannes Kepler also correctly suggested that the gravitation of the Moon caused the tides, which he based upon ancient observations and correlations.
Galileo Galilei in his 1632 Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, whose working title was Dialogue on the Tides, gave an explanation of the tides. The resulting theory, however, was incorrect as he attributed the tides to the sloshing of water caused by the Earth's movement around the Sun. He hoped to provide mechanical proof of the Earth's movement. The value of his tidal theory is disputed. Galileo rejected Kepler's explanation of the tides.
Isaac Newton (1642–1727) was the first person to explain tides as the product of the gravitational attraction of astronomical masses. His explanation of the tides (and many other phenomena) was published in the Principia (1687) and used his theory of universal gravitation to explain the lunar and solar attractions as the origin of the tide-generating forces.
Newton and others before Pierre-Simon Laplace worked the problem from the perspective of a static system (equilibrium theory), that provided an approximation that described the tides that would occur in a non-inertial ocean evenly covering the whole Earth. The tide-generating force (or its corresponding potential) is still relevant to tidal theory, but as an intermediate quantity (forcing function) rather than as a final result; theory must also consider the Earth's accumulated dynamic tidal response to the applied forces, which response is influenced by ocean depth, the Earth's rotation, and other factors.
In 1740, the Académie Royale des Sciences in Paris offered a prize for the best theoretical essay on tides. Daniel Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, Colin Maclaurin and Antoine Cavalleri shared the prize.
Maclaurin used Newton's theory to show that a smooth sphere covered by a sufficiently deep ocean under the tidal force of a single deforming body is a prolate spheroid (essentially a three-dimensional oval) with major axis directed toward the deforming body. Maclaurin was the first to write about the Earth's rotational effects on motion. Euler realized that the tidal force's horizontal component (more than the vertical) drives the tide. In 1744 Jean le Rond d'Alembert studied tidal equations for the atmosphere which did not include rotation.
In 1770 James Cook's barque HMS Endeavour grounded on the Great Barrier Reef. Attempts were made to refloat her on the following tide which failed, but the tide after that lifted her clear with ease. Whilst she was being repaired in the mouth of the Endeavour River Cook observed the tides over a period of seven weeks. At neap tides both tides in a day were similar, but at springs the tides rose 7 feet (2.1 m) in the morning but 9 feet (2.7 m) in the evening.
Pierre-Simon Laplace formulated a system of partial differential equations relating the ocean's horizontal flow to its surface height, the first major dynamic theory for water tides. The Laplace tidal equations are still in use today. William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, rewrote Laplace's equations in terms of vorticity which allowed for solutions describing tidally driven coastally trapped waves, known as Kelvin waves.
Others including Kelvin and Henri Poincaré further developed Laplace's theory. Based on these developments and the lunar theory of E W Brown describing the motions of the Moon, Arthur Thomas Doodson developed and published in 1921 the first modern development of the tide-generating potential in harmonic form: Doodson distinguished 388 tidal frequencies. Some of his methods remain in use.
History of tidal observation
Brouscon's Almanach of 1546: Compass bearings of high waters in the Bay of Biscay (left) and the coast from Brittany to Dover (right).
Brouscon's Almanach of 1546: Tidal diagrams "according to the age of the moon".
From ancient times, tidal observation and discussion has increased in sophistication, first marking the daily recurrence, then tides' relationship to the Sun and moon. Pytheas travelled to the British Isles about 325 BC and seems to be the first to have related spring tides to the phase of the moon.
In the 2nd century BC, the Hellenistic astronomer Seleucus of Seleucia correctly described the phenomenon of tides in order to support his heliocentric theory. He correctly theorized that tides were caused by the moon, although he believed that the interaction was mediated by the pneuma. He noted that tides varied in time and strength in different parts of the world. According to Strabo (1.1.9), Seleucus was the first to link tides to the lunar attraction, and that the height of the tides depends on the moon's position relative to the Sun.
The Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder collates many tidal observations, e.g., the spring tides are a few days after (or before) new and full moon and are highest around the equinoxes, though Pliny noted many relationships now regarded as fanciful. In his Geography, Strabo described tides in the Persian Gulf having their greatest range when the moon was furthest from the plane of the Equator. All this despite the relatively small amplitude of Mediterranean basin tides. (The strong currents through the Euripus Strait and the Strait of Messina puzzled Aristotle.) Philostratus discussed tides in Book Five of The Life of Apollonius of Tyana. Philostratus mentions the moon, but attributes tides to "spirits". In Europe around 730 AD, the Venerable Bede described how the rising tide on one coast of the British Isles coincided with the fall on the other and described the time progression of high water along the Northumbrian coast.
The first tide table in China was recorded in 1056 AD primarily for visitors wishing to see the famous tidal bore in the Qiantang River. The first known British tide table is thought to be that of John Wallingford, who died Abbot of St. Albans in 1213, based on high water occurring 48 minutes later each day, and three hours earlier at the Thames mouth than upriver at London.
In 1614 Claude d'Abbeville published the work "Histoire de la mission de pères capucins en l’Isle de Maragnan et terres circonvoisines", where he exposed that the Tupinambá people already had an understanding of the relation between the Moon and the tides before Europe.
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) led the first systematic harmonic analysis of tidal records starting in 1867. The main result was the building of a tide-predicting machine using a system of pulleys to add together six harmonic time functions. It was "programmed" by resetting gears and chains to adjust phasing and amplitudes. Similar machines were used until the 1960s.
The first known sea-level record of an entire spring–neap cycle was made in 1831 on the Navy Dock in the Thames Estuary. Many large ports had automatic tide gauge stations by 1850.
John Lubbock was one of the first to map co-tidal lines, for Great Britain, Ireland and adjacent coasts, in 1840. William Whewell expanded this work ending with a nearly global chart in 1836. In order to make these maps consistent, he hypothesized the existence of a region with no tidal rise or fall where co-tidal lines meet in the mid-ocean. The existence of such an amphidromic point, as they are now known, was confirmed in 1840 by Captain William Hewett, RN, from careful soundings in the North Sea.
Much later, in the late 20th century, geologists noticed tidal rhythmites, which document the occurrence of ancient tides in the geological record, notably in the Carboniferous.
Physics
Main article: Theory of tides
Forces
Main article: Tidal force
The tidal force produced by a massive object (Moon, hereafter) on a small particle located on or in an extensive body (Earth, hereafter) is the vector difference between the gravitational force exerted by the Moon on the particle, and the gravitational force that would be exerted on the particle if it were located at the Earth's center of mass.
Whereas the gravitational force subjected by a celestial body on Earth varies inversely as the square of its distance to the Earth, the maximal tidal force varies inversely as, approximately, the cube of this distance. If the tidal force caused by each body were instead equal to its full gravitational force (which is not the case due to the free fall of the whole Earth, not only the oceans, towards these bodies) a different pattern of tidal forces would be observed, e.g. with a much stronger influence from the Sun than from the Moon: The solar gravitational force on the Earth is on average 179 times stronger than the lunar, but because the Sun is on average 389 times farther from the Earth, its field gradient is weaker. The overall proportionality is
tidal force
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∝
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(
r
d
)
3
,
{\displaystyle {\text{tidal force}}\propto {\frac {M}{d^{3}}}\propto \rho \left({\frac {r}{d}}\right)^{3},}
where M is the mass of the heavenly body, d is its distance, ρ is its average density, and r is its radius. The ratio r/d is related to the angle subtended by the object in the sky. Since the Sun and the Moon have practically the same diameter in the sky, the tidal force of the Sun is less than that of the Moon because its average density is much less, and it is only 46% as large as the lunar, thus during a spring tide, the Moon contributes 69% while the Sun contributes 31%. More precisely, the lunar tidal acceleration (along the Moon–Earth axis, at the Earth's surface) is about 1.1×10−7 g, while the solar tidal acceleration (along the Sun–Earth axis, at the Earth's surface) is about 0.52×10−7 g, where g is the gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface. The effects of the other planets vary as their distances from Earth vary. When Venus is closest to Earth, its effect is 0.000113 times the solar effect. At other times, Jupiter or Mars may have the most effect.
The lunar gravity residual field at the Earth's surface is known as the tide-generating force. This is the primary mechanism that drives tidal action and explains two simultaneous tidal bulges; Earth's rotation further accounts for two daily high waters at any location. The figure shows both the tidal field (thick red arrows) and the gravity field (thin blue arrows) exerted on Earth's surface and center (label O) by the Moon (label S).
The ocean's surface is approximated by a surface referred to as the geoid, which takes into consideration the gravitational force exerted by the earth as well as centrifugal force due to rotation. Now consider the effect of massive external bodies such as the Moon and Sun. These bodies have strong gravitational fields that diminish with distance and cause the ocean's surface to deviate from the geoid. They establish a new equilibrium ocean surface which bulges toward the moon on one side and away from the moon on the other side. The earth's rotation relative to this shape causes the daily tidal cycle. The ocean surface tends toward this equilibrium shape, which is constantly changing, and never quite attains it. When the ocean surface is not aligned with it, it's as though the surface is sloping, and water accelerates in the down-slope direction.
Equilibrium
The equilibrium tide is the idealized tide assuming a landless Earth.
It would produce a tidal bulge in the ocean, elongated towards the attracting body (Moon or Sun).
It is not caused by the vertical pull nearest or farthest from the body, which is very weak; rather, it is caused by the tangential or tractive tidal force, which is strongest at about 45 degrees from the body, resulting in a horizontal tidal current.
Laplace's tidal equations
Ocean depths are much smaller than their horizontal extent. Thus, the response to tidal forcing can be modelled using the Laplace tidal equations which incorporate the following features:
The vertical (or radial) velocity is negligible, and there is no vertical shear—this is a sheet flow.
The forcing is only horizontal (tangential).
The Coriolis effect appears as an inertial force (fictitious) acting laterally to the direction of flow and proportional to velocity.
The surface height's rate of change is proportional to the negative divergence of velocity multiplied by the depth. As the horizontal velocity stretches or compresses the ocean as a sheet, the volume thins or thickens, respectively.
The boundary conditions dictate no flow across the coastline and free slip at the bottom.
The Coriolis effect (inertial force) steers flows moving towards the Equator to the west and flows moving away from the Equator toward the east, allowing coastally trapped waves. Finally, a dissipation term can be added which is an analog to viscosity.
Amplitude and cycle time
The theoretical amplitude of oceanic tides caused by the Moon is about 54 centimetres (21 in) at the highest point, which corresponds to the amplitude that would be reached if the ocean possessed a uniform depth, there were no landmasses, and the Earth were rotating in step with the Moon's orbit. The Sun similarly causes tides, of which the theoretical amplitude is about 25 centimetres (9.8 in) (46% of that of the Moon) with a cycle time of 12 hours. At spring tide the two effects add to each other to a theoretical level of 79 centimetres (31 in), while at neap tide the theoretical level is reduced to 29 centimetres (11 in). Since the orbits of the Earth about the Sun, and the Moon about the Earth, are elliptical, tidal amplitudes change somewhat as a result of the varying Earth–Sun and Earth–Moon distances. This causes a variation in the tidal force and theoretical amplitude of about ±18% for the Moon and ±5% for the Sun. If both the Sun and Moon were at their closest positions and aligned at new moon, the theoretical amplitude would reach 93 centimetres (37 in).
Real amplitudes differ considerably, not only because of depth variations and continental obstacles, but also because wave propagation across the ocean has a natural period of the same order of magnitude as the rotation period: if there were no land masses, it would take about 30 hours for a long wavelength surface wave to propagate along the Equator halfway around the Earth (by comparison, the Earth's lithosphere has a natural period of about 57 minutes). Earth tides, which raise and lower the bottom of the ocean, and the tide's own gravitational self attraction are both significant and further complicate the ocean's response to tidal forces.
Dissipation
See also: Tidal acceleration
Earth's tidal oscillations introduce dissipation at an average rate of about 3.75 terawatts. About 98% of this dissipation is by marine tidal movement. Dissipation arises as basin-scale tidal flows drive smaller-scale flows which experience turbulent dissipation. This tidal drag creates torque on the moon that gradually transfers angular momentum to its orbit, and a gradual increase in Earth–moon separation. The equal and opposite torque on the Earth correspondingly decreases its rotational velocity. Thus, over geologic time, the moon recedes from the Earth, at about 3.8 centimetres (1.5 in)/year, lengthening the terrestrial day.
Day length has increased by about 2 hours in the last 600 million years. Assuming (as a crude approximation) that the deceleration rate has been constant, this would imply that 70 million years ago, day length was on the order of 1% shorter with about 4 more days per year.
Bathymetry
The harbour of Gorey, Jersey falls dry at low tide.
The shape of the shoreline and the ocean floor changes the way that tides propagate, so there is no simple, general rule that predicts the time of high water from the Moon's position in the sky. Coastal characteristics such as underwater bathymetry and coastline shape mean that individual location characteristics affect tide forecasting; actual high water time and height may differ from model predictions due to the coastal morphology's effects on tidal flow. However, for a given location the relationship between lunar altitude and the time of high or low tide (the lunitidal interval) is relatively constant and predictable, as is the time of high or low tide relative to other points on the same coast. For example, the high tide at Norfolk, Virginia, U.S., predictably occurs approximately two and a half hours before the Moon passes directly overhead.
Land masses and ocean basins act as barriers against water moving freely around the globe, and their varied shapes and sizes affect the size of tidal frequencies. As a result, tidal patterns vary. For example, in the U.S., the East coast has predominantly semi-diurnal tides, as do Europe's Atlantic coasts, while the West coast predominantly has mixed tides. Human changes to the landscape can also significantly alter local tides.
Observation and prediction
Timing
The same tidal forcing has different results depending on many factors, including coast orientation, continental shelf margin, water body dimensions.
The tidal forces due to the Moon and Sun generate very long waves which travel all around the ocean following the paths shown in co-tidal charts. The time when the crest of the wave reaches a port then gives the time of high water at the port. The time taken for the wave to travel around the ocean also means that there is a delay between the phases of the Moon and their effect on the tide. Springs and neaps in the North Sea, for example, are two days behind the new/full moon and first/third quarter moon. This is called the tide's age.
The ocean bathymetry greatly influences the tide's exact time and height at a particular coastal point. There are some extreme cases; the Bay of Fundy, on the east coast of Canada, is often stated to have the world's highest tides because of its shape, bathymetry, and its distance from the continental shelf edge. Measurements made in November 1998 at Burntcoat Head in the Bay of Fundy recorded a maximum range of 16.3 metres (53 ft) and a highest predicted extreme of 17 metres (56 ft). Similar measurements made in March 2002 at Leaf Basin, Ungava Bay in northern Quebec gave similar values (allowing for measurement errors), a maximum range of 16.2 metres (53 ft) and a highest predicted extreme of 16.8 metres (55 ft). Ungava Bay and the Bay of Fundy lie similar distances from the continental shelf edge, but Ungava Bay is only free of pack ice for about four months every year while the Bay of Fundy rarely freezes.
Southampton in the United Kingdom has a double high water caused by the interaction between the M2 and M4 tidal constituents (Shallow water overtides of principal lunar). Portland has double low waters for the same reason. The M4 tide is found all along the south coast of the United Kingdom, but its effect is most noticeable between the Isle of Wight and Portland because the M2 tide is lowest in this region.
Because the oscillation modes of the Mediterranean Sea and the Baltic Sea do not coincide with any significant astronomical forcing period, the largest tides are close to their narrow connections with the Atlantic Ocean. Extremely small tides also occur for the same reason in the Gulf of Mexico and Sea of Japan. Elsewhere, as along the southern coast of Australia, low tides can be due to the presence of a nearby amphidrome.
Analysis
A regular water level chart
Isaac Newton's theory of gravitation first enabled an explanation of why there were generally two tides a day, not one, and offered hope for a detailed understanding of tidal forces and behavior. Although it may seem that tides could be predicted via a sufficiently detailed knowledge of instantaneous astronomical forcings, the actual tide at a given location is determined by astronomical forces accumulated by the body of water over many days. In addition, accurate results would require detailed knowledge of the shape of all the ocean basins—their bathymetry, and coastline shape.
Current procedure for analysing tides follows the method of harmonic analysis introduced in the 1860s by William Thomson. It is based on the principle that the astronomical theories of the motions of Sun and Moon determine a large number of component frequencies, and at each frequency there is a component of force tending to produce tidal motion, but that at each place of interest on the Earth, the tides respond at each frequency with an amplitude and phase peculiar to that locality. At each place of interest, the tide heights are therefore measured for a period of time sufficiently long (usually more than a year in the case of a new port not previously studied) to enable the response at each significant tide-generating frequency to be distinguished by analysis, and to extract the tidal constants for a sufficient number of the strongest known components of the astronomical tidal forces to enable practical tide prediction. The tide heights are expected to follow the tidal force, with a constant amplitude and phase delay for each component. Because astronomical frequencies and phases can be calculated with certainty, the tide height at other times can then be predicted once the response to the harmonic components of the astronomical tide-generating forces has been found.
The main patterns in the tides are
the twice-daily variation
the difference between the first and second tide of a day
the spring–neap cycle
the annual variation
The Highest Astronomical Tide is the perigean spring tide when both the Sun and Moon are closest to the Earth.
When confronted by a periodically varying function, the standard approach is to employ Fourier series, a form of analysis that uses sinusoidal functions as a basis set, having frequencies that are zero, one, two, three, etc. times the frequency of a particular fundamental cycle. These multiples are called harmonics of the fundamental frequency, and the process is termed harmonic analysis. If the basis set of sinusoidal functions suit the behaviour being modelled, relatively few harmonic terms need to be added. Orbital paths are very nearly circular, so sinusoidal variations are suitable for tides.
For the analysis of tide heights, the Fourier series approach has in practice to be made more elaborate than the use of a single frequency and its harmonics. The tidal patterns are decomposed into many sinusoids having many fundamental frequencies, corresponding (as in the lunar theory) to many different combinations of the motions of the Earth, the Moon, and the angles that define the shape and location of their orbits.
For tides, then, harmonic analysis is not limited to harmonics of a single frequency. In other words, the harmonies are multiples of many fundamental frequencies, not just of the fundamental frequency of the simpler Fourier series approach. Their representation as a Fourier series having only one fundamental frequency and its (integer) multiples would require many terms, and would be severely limited in the time-range for which it would be valid.
The study of tide height by harmonic analysis was begun by Laplace, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), and George Darwin. A.T. Doodson extended their work, introducing the Doodson Number notation to organise the hundreds of resulting terms. This approach has been the international standard ever since, and the complications arise as follows: the tide-raising force is notionally given by sums of several terms. Each term is of the form
A
o
cos
(
ω
t
+
p
)
,
{\displaystyle A_{o}\cos(\omega t+p),}
where
Ao is the amplitude,
ω is the angular frequency, usually given in degrees per hour, corresponding to t measured in hours,
p is the phase offset with regard to the astronomical state at time t = 0.
There is one term for the Moon and a second term for the Sun. The phase p of the first harmonic for the Moon term is called the lunitidal interval or high water interval.
The next refinement is to accommodate the harmonic terms due to the elliptical shape of the orbits. To do so, the value of the amplitude is taken to be not a constant, but varying with time, about the average amplitude Ao. To do so, replace Ao in the above equation with A(t) where A is another sinusoid, similar to the cycles and epicycles of Ptolemaic theory. This gives
A
(
t
)
=
A
o
(
1
+
A
a
cos
(
ω
a
t
+
p
a
)
)
,
{\displaystyle A(t)=A_{o}{\bigl (}1+A_{a}\cos(\omega _{a}t+p_{a}){\bigr )},}
which is to say an average value Ao with a sinusoidal variation about it of magnitude Aa, with frequency ωa and phase pa. Substituting this for Ao in the original equation gives a product of two cosine factors:
A
o
(
1
+
A
a
cos
(
ω
a
t
+
p
a
)
)
cos
(
ω
t
+
p
)
.
{\displaystyle A_{o}{\bigl (}1+A_{a}\cos(\omega _{a}t+p_{a}){\bigr )}\cos(\omega t+p).}
Given that for any x and y
cos
x
cos
y
=
1
2
cos
(
x
+
y
)
+
1
2
cos
(
x
−
y
)
,
{\displaystyle \cos x\cos y={\tfrac {1}{2}}\cos(x+y)+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\cos(x-y),}
it is clear that a compound term involving the product of two cosine terms each with their own frequency is the same as three simple cosine terms that are to be added at the original frequency and also at frequencies which are the sum and difference of the two frequencies of the product term. (Three, not two terms, since the whole expression is
(
1
+
cos
x
)
cos
y
{\displaystyle (1+\cos x)\cos y}
.) Consider further that the tidal force on a location depends also on whether the Moon (or the Sun) is above or below the plane of the Equator, and that these attributes have their own periods also incommensurable with a day and a month, and it is clear that many combinations result. With a careful choice of the basic astronomical frequencies, the Doodson Number annotates the particular additions and differences to form the frequency of each simple cosine term.
Tidal prediction summing constituent parts. The tidal coefficients are defined on the page theory of tides.
Remember that astronomical tides do not include weather effects. Also, changes to local conditions (sandbank movement, dredging harbour mouths, etc.) away from those prevailing at the measurement time affect the tide's actual timing and magnitude. Organisations quoting a "highest astronomical tide" for some location may exaggerate the figure as a safety factor against analytical uncertainties, distance from the nearest measurement point, changes since the last observation time, ground subsidence, etc., to avert liability should an engineering work be overtopped. Special care is needed when assessing the size of a "weather surge" by subtracting the astronomical tide from the observed tide.
Careful Fourier data analysis over a nineteen-year period (the National Tidal Datum Epoch in the U.S.) uses frequencies called the tidal harmonic constituents. Nineteen years is preferred because the Earth, Moon and Sun's relative positions repeat almost exactly in the Metonic cycle of 19 years, which is long enough to include the 18.613 year lunar nodal tidal constituent. This analysis can be done using only the knowledge of the forcing period, but without detailed understanding of the mathematical derivation, which means that useful tidal tables have been constructed for centuries. The resulting amplitudes and phases can then be used to predict the expected tides. These are usually dominated by the constituents near 12 hours (the semi-diurnal constituents), but there are major constituents near 24 hours (diurnal) as well. Longer term constituents are 14 day or fortnightly, monthly, and semiannual. Semi-diurnal tides dominated coastline, but some areas such as the South China Sea and the Gulf of Mexico are primarily diurnal. In the semi-diurnal areas, the primary constituents M2 (lunar) and S2 (solar) periods differ slightly, so that the relative phases, and thus the amplitude of the combined tide, change fortnightly (14 day period).
In the M2 plot above, each cotidal line differs by one hour from its neighbors, and the thicker lines show tides in phase with equilibrium at Greenwich. The lines rotate around the amphidromic points counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere so that from Baja California Peninsula to Alaska and from France to Ireland the M2 tide propagates northward. In the southern hemisphere this direction is clockwise. On the other hand, M2 tide propagates counterclockwise around New Zealand, but this is because the islands act as a dam and permit the tides to have different heights on the islands' opposite sides. (The tides do propagate northward on the east side and southward on the west coast, as predicted by theory.)
The exception is at Cook Strait where the tidal currents periodically link high to low water. This is because cotidal lines 180° around the amphidromes are in opposite phase, for example high water across from low water at each end of Cook Strait. Each tidal constituent has a different pattern of amplitudes, phases, and amphidromic points, so the M2 patterns cannot be used for other tide components.
Example calculation
Tides at Bridgeport, Connecticut, U.S. during a 50-hour period.
Tides at Bridgeport, Connecticut, U.S. during a 30-day period.
Tides at Bridgeport, Connecticut, U.S. during a 400-day period.
Tidal patterns in Cook Strait. The south part (Nelson) has two spring tides per month, versus only one on the north side (Wellington and Napier).
Because the Moon is moving in its orbit around the Earth and in the same sense as the Earth's rotation, a point on the Earth must rotate slightly further to catch up so that the time between semi-diurnal tides is not twelve but 12.4206 hours—a bit over twenty-five minutes extra. The two peaks are not equal. The two high tides a day alternate in maximum heights: lower high (just under three feet), higher high (just over three feet), and again lower high. Likewise for the low tides.
When the Earth, Moon, and Sun are in line (Sun–Earth–Moon, or Sun–Moon–Earth) the two main influences combine to produce spring tides; when the two forces are opposing each other as when the angle Moon–Earth–Sun is close to ninety degrees, neap tides result. As the Moon moves around its orbit it changes from north of the Equator to south of the Equator. The alternation in high tide heights becomes smaller, until they are the same (at the lunar equinox, the Moon is above the Equator), then redevelop but with the other polarity, waxing to a maximum difference and then waning again.
Current
The tides' influence on current or flow is much more difficult to analyze, and data is much more difficult to collect. A tidal height is a scalar quantity and varies smoothly over a wide region. A flow is a vector quantity, with magnitude and direction, both of which can vary substantially with depth and over short distances due to local bathymetry. Also, although a water channel's center is the most useful measuring site, mariners object when current-measuring equipment obstructs waterways. A flow proceeding up a curved channel may have similar magnitude, even though its direction varies continuously along the channel. Surprisingly, flood and ebb flows are often not in opposite directions. Flow direction is determined by the upstream channel's shape, not the downstream channel's shape. Likewise, eddies may form in only one flow direction.
Nevertheless, tidal current analysis is similar to tidal heights analysis: in the simple case, at a given location the flood flow is in mostly one direction, and the ebb flow in another direction. Flood velocities are given positive sign, and ebb velocities negative sign. Analysis proceeds as though these are tide heights.
In more complex situations, the main ebb and flood flows do not dominate. Instead, the flow direction and magnitude trace an ellipse over a tidal cycle (on a polar plot) instead of along the ebb and flood lines. In this case, analysis might proceed along pairs of directions, with the primary and secondary directions at right angles. An alternative is to treat the tidal flows as complex numbers, as each value has both a magnitude and a direction.
Tide flow information is most commonly seen on nautical charts, presented as a table of flow speeds and bearings at hourly intervals, with separate tables for spring and neap tides. The timing is relative to high water at some harbour where the tidal behaviour is similar in pattern, though it may be far away.
As with tide height predictions, tide flow predictions based only on astronomical factors do not incorporate weather conditions, which can completely change the outcome.
The tidal flow through Cook Strait between the two main islands of New Zealand is particularly interesting, as the tides on each side of the strait are almost exactly out of phase, so that one side's high water is simultaneous with the other's low water. Strong currents result, with almost zero tidal height change in the strait's center. Yet, although the tidal surge normally flows in one direction for six hours and in the reverse direction for six hours, a particular surge might last eight or ten hours with the reverse surge enfeebled. In especially boisterous weather conditions, the reverse surge might be entirely overcome so that the flow continues in the same direction through three or more surge periods.
A further complication for Cook Strait's flow pattern is that the tide at the south side (e.g. at Nelson) follows the common bi-weekly spring–neap tide cycle (as found along the west side of the country), but the north side's tidal pattern has only one cycle per month, as on the east side: Wellington, and Napier.
The graph of Cook Strait's tides shows separately the high water and low water height and time, through November 2007; these are not measured values but instead are calculated from tidal parameters derived from years-old measurements. Cook Strait's nautical chart offers tidal current information. For instance the January 1979 edition for 41°13·9’S 174°29·6’E (north west of Cape Terawhiti) refers timings to Westport while the January 2004 issue refers to Wellington. Near Cape Terawhiti in the middle of Cook Strait the tidal height variation is almost nil while the tidal current reaches its maximum, especially near the notorious Karori Rip. Aside from weather effects, the actual currents through Cook Strait are influenced by the tidal height differences between the two ends of the strait and as can be seen, only one of the two spring tides at the north west end of the strait near Nelson has a counterpart spring tide at the south east end (Wellington), so the resulting behaviour follows neither reference harbour.
Power generation
Main article: Tidal power
Tidal energy can be extracted by two means: inserting a water turbine into a tidal current, or building ponds that release/admit water through a turbine. In the first case, the energy amount is entirely determined by the timing and tidal current magnitude. However, the best currents may be unavailable because the turbines would obstruct ships. In the second, the impoundment dams are expensive to construct, natural water cycles are completely disrupted, ship navigation is disrupted. However, with multiple ponds, power can be generated at chosen times. So far, there are few installed systems for tidal power generation (most famously, La Rance at Saint Malo, France) which face many difficulties. Aside from environmental issues, simply withstanding corrosion and biological fouling pose engineering challenges.
Tidal power proponents point out that, unlike wind power systems, generation levels can be reliably predicted, save for weather effects. While some generation is possible for most of the tidal cycle, in practice turbines lose efficiency at lower operating rates. Since the power available from a flow is proportional to the cube of the flow speed, the times during which high power generation is possible are brief.
Navigation
US civil and maritime uses of tidal data
Tidal flows are important for navigation, and significant errors in position occur if they are not accommodated. Tidal heights are also important; for example many rivers and harbours have a shallow "bar" at the entrance which prevents boats with significant draft from entering at low tide.
Until the advent of automated navigation, competence in calculating tidal effects was important to naval officers. The certificate of examination for lieutenants in the Royal Navy once declared that the prospective officer was able to "shift his tides".
Tidal flow timings and velocities appear in tide charts or a tidal stream atlas. Tide charts come in sets. Each chart covers a single hour between one high water and another (they ignore the leftover 24 minutes) and show the average tidal flow for that hour. An arrow on the tidal chart indicates the direction and the average flow speed (usually in knots) for spring and neap tides. If a tide chart is not available, most nautical charts have "tidal diamonds" which relate specific points on the chart to a table giving tidal flow direction and speed.
The standard procedure to counteract tidal effects on navigation is to (1) calculate a "dead reckoning" position (or DR) from travel distance and direction, (2) mark the chart (with a vertical cross like a plus sign) and (3) draw a line from the DR in the tide's direction. The distance the tide moves the boat along this line is computed by the tidal speed, and this gives an "estimated position" or EP (traditionally marked with a dot in a triangle).
Tidal Indicator, Delaware River, Delaware c. 1897. At the time shown in the figure, the tide is 1+1⁄4 feet above mean low water and is still falling, as indicated by pointing of the arrow. Indicator is powered by system of pulleys, cables and a float. (Report Of The Superintendent Of The Coast & Geodetic Survey Showing The Progress Of The Work During The Fiscal Year Ending With June 1897 (p. 483))
Nautical charts display the water's "charted depth" at specific locations with "soundings" and the use of bathymetric contour lines to depict the submerged surface's shape. These depths are relative to a "chart datum", which is typically the water level at the lowest possible astronomical tide (although other datums are commonly used, especially historically, and tides may be lower or higher for meteorological reasons) and are therefore the minimum possible water depth during the tidal cycle. "Drying heights" may also be shown on the chart, which are the heights of the exposed seabed at the lowest astronomical tide.
Tide tables list each day's high and low water heights and times. To calculate the actual water depth, add the charted depth to the published tide height. Depth for other times can be derived from tidal curves published for major ports. The rule of twelfths can suffice if an accurate curve is not available. This approximation presumes that the increase in depth in the six hours between low and high water is: first hour — 1/12, second — 2/12, third — 3/12, fourth — 3/12, fifth — 2/12, sixth — 1/12.
Biological aspects
Intertidal ecology
A rock, seen at low water, exhibiting typical intertidal zonation.
Main article: Intertidal ecology
Further information: Intertidal zone
Intertidal ecology is the study of ecosystems between the low- and high-water lines along a shore. At low water, the intertidal zone is exposed (or emersed), whereas at high water, it is underwater (or immersed). Intertidal ecologists therefore study the interactions between intertidal organisms and their environment, as well as among the different species. The most important interactions may vary according to the type of intertidal community. The broadest classifications are based on substrates — rocky shore or soft bottom.
Intertidal organisms experience a highly variable and often hostile environment, and have adapted to cope with and even exploit these conditions. One easily visible feature is vertical zonation, in which the community divides into distinct horizontal bands of specific species at each elevation above low water. A species' ability to cope with desiccation determines its upper limit, while competition with other species sets its lower limit.
Humans use intertidal regions for food and recreation. Overexploitation can damage intertidals directly. Other anthropogenic actions such as introducing invasive species and climate change have large negative effects. Marine Protected Areas are one option communities can apply to protect these areas and aid scientific research.
Biological rhythms
The approximately 12-hour and fortnightly tidal cycle has large effects on intertidal and marine organisms. Hence their biological rhythms tend to occur in rough multiples of these periods. Many other animals such as the vertebrates, display similar circatidal rhythms. Examples include gestation and egg hatching. In humans, the menstrual cycle lasts roughly a lunar month, an even multiple of the tidal period. Such parallels at least hint at the common descent of all animals from a marine ancestor.
Other tides
When oscillating tidal currents in the stratified ocean flow over uneven bottom topography, they generate internal waves with tidal frequencies. Such waves are called internal tides.
Shallow areas in otherwise open water can experience rotary tidal currents, flowing in directions that continually change and thus the flow direction (not the flow) completes a full rotation in 12+1⁄2 hours (for example, the Nantucket Shoals).
In addition to oceanic tides, large lakes can experience small tides and even planets can experience atmospheric tides and Earth tides. These are continuum mechanical phenomena. The first two take place in fluids. The third affects the Earth's thin solid crust surrounding its semi-liquid interior (with various modifications).
Lake tides
Large lakes such as Superior and Erie can experience tides of 1 to 4 cm (0.39 to 1.6 in), but these can be masked by meteorologically induced phenomena such as seiche. The tide in Lake Michigan is described as 1.3 to 3.8 cm (0.5 to 1.5 in) or 4.4 cm (1+3⁄4 in). This is so small that other larger effects completely mask any tide, and as such these lakes are considered non-tidal.
Atmospheric tides
Main article: Atmospheric tide
Atmospheric tides are negligible at ground level and aviation altitudes, masked by weather's much more important effects. Atmospheric tides are both gravitational and thermal in origin and are the dominant dynamics from about 80 to 120 kilometres (50 to 75 mi), above which the molecular density becomes too low to support fluid behavior.
Earth tides
Main article: Earth tide
Earth tides or terrestrial tides affect the entire Earth's mass, which acts similarly to a liquid gyroscope with a very thin crust. The Earth's crust shifts (in/out, east/west, north/south) in response to lunar and solar gravitation, ocean tides, and atmospheric loading. While negligible for most human activities, terrestrial tides' semi-diurnal amplitude can reach about 55 centimetres (22 in) at the Equator—15 centimetres (5.9 in) due to the Sun—which is important in GPS calibration and VLBI measurements. Precise astronomical angular measurements require knowledge of the Earth's rotation rate and polar motion, both of which are influenced by Earth tides. The semi-diurnal M2 Earth tides are nearly in phase with the Moon with a lag of about two hours.
Galactic tides
Galactic tides are the tidal forces exerted by galaxies on stars within them and satellite galaxies orbiting them. The galactic tide's effects on the Solar System's Oort cloud are believed to cause 90 percent of long-period comets.
Misnomers
Tsunamis, the large waves that occur after earthquakes, are sometimes called tidal waves, but this name is given by their resemblance to the tide, rather than any causal link to the tide. Other phenomena unrelated to tides but using the word tide are rip tide, storm tide, hurricane tide, and black or red tides. Many of these usages are historic and refer to the earlier meaning of tide as "a portion of time, a season" and "a stream, current or flood".
See also
Aquaculture – Farming of aquatic organisms
Clairaut's theorem – Theorem about gravityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Coastal erosion – Displacement of land along the coastline
Establishment of a port
Head of tide, also known as tidal reach, or tidal limit – Farthest point upstream where a river is affected by tidal fluctuations
Hough function – Eigenfunctions of Laplace's tidal equations which govern fluid motion on a rotating sphere
King tide – An especially high spring tide
Lunar Laser Ranging experiment – Measuring the distance between the Earth and the Moon with laser lightPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Lunar phase – Shape of the Moon's sunlit portion as viewed from Earth
Raised beach, also known as Marine terrace – Emergent coastal landform
Mean high water spring – Level of water from which depths displayed on a nautical chart are measuredPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Mean low water spring – Level of water from which depths displayed on a nautical chart are measuredPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Orbit of the Moon – The Moon's circuit around Earth
Primitive equations – Equations to approximate global atmospheric flow
Tidal barrage – Dam-like structure
Tidal island – Island accessible by foot at low tide
Tidal locking – Situation in which an astronomical object's orbital period matches its rotational period
Tidal prism – Volume of water in an estuary or inlet between mean high tide and mean low tide
Tidal resonance – Enhanced tide due to ocean resonance
Tidal river – River where flow and level are influenced by tides
Tidal stream generator – Type of tidal power generation technology
Tidal triggering of earthquakes – Idea that tidal forces may induce seismicity
Tide pool – Rocky pool on a seashore, separated from the sea at low tide, filled with seawater
Tideline – Where two ocean currents converge
Tides in marginal seas – Dynamics of tidal wave deformation in the shallow waters of the marginal seas
Portals: Geography Oceans Water Solar System Earth sciences Geophysics
Notes
^ Coastal orientation and geometry affects the phase, direction, and amplitude of amphidromic systems, coastal Kelvin waves as well as resonant seiches in bays. In estuaries, seasonal river outflows influence tidal flow.
^ Tide tables usually list mean lower low water (mllw, the 19 year average of mean lower low waters), mean higher low water (mhlw), mean lower high water (mlhw), mean higher high water (mhhw), as well as perigean tides. These are mean values in the sense that they derive from mean data.
^ "The moon, too, as the heavenly body nearest the earth, bestows her effluence most abundantly upon mundane things, for most of them, animate or inanimate, are sympathetic to her and change in company with her; the rivers increase and diminish their streams with her light, the seas turn their own tides with her rising and setting, … "
^ "Orbis virtutis tractoriæ, quæ est in Luna, porrigitur utque ad Terras, & prolectat aquas sub Zonam Torridam, … Celeriter vero Luna verticem transvolante, cum aquæ tam celeriter sequi non possint, fluxus quidem fit Oceani sub Torrida in Occidentem, … " (The sphere of the lifting power, which is in the moon, is extended as far as to the earth and attracts the waters under the torrid zone, … However the moon flies swiftly across the zenith ; because the waters cannot follow so quickly, the tide of the ocean under the torrid is indeed made to the west, …"
^ See for example, in the 'Principia' (Book 1) (1729 translation), Corollaries 19 and 20 to Proposition 66, on pages 251–254, referring back to page 234 et seq.; and in Book 3 Propositions 24, 36 and 37, starting on page 255.
^ According to NASA the lunar tidal force is 2.21 times larger than the solar.
^ See Tidal force – Mathematical treatment and sources cited there.
^ "The ocean does not produce tides as a direct response to the vertical forces at the bulges. The tidal force is only about 1 ten millionth the size of the gravitational force owing to the Earth's gravity. It is the horizontal component of the tidal force that produces the tidal bulge, causing fluid to converge at the sublunar and antipodal points and move away from the poles, causing a contraction there." (...) "The projection of the tidal force onto the horizontal direction is called the tractive force (see Knauss, Fig. 10.11). This force causes an acceleration of water towards the sublunar and antipodal points, building up water until the pressure gradient force from the bulging sea surface exactly balances the tractive force field."
^ "While the solar and lunar envelopes are thought of as representing the actual ocean waters, another very important factor must be recognized. The components of the tide-generating forces acting tangentially along the water surface turn out to be the most important. Just as it is easier to slide a bucket of water across a floor rather than to lift it, the horizontal tractive components move the waters toward the points directly beneath and away from the sun or moon far more effectively than the vertical components can lift them. These tractive forces are most responsible for trying to form
the ocean into the symmetrical egg-shaped distensions (the tide potential, the equilibrium tide). They reach their maximums in rings 45° from the points directly beneath and away from the sun or moon."
^ "... the gravitational effect that causes the tides is much too weak to lift the oceans 12 inches vertically away from the earth. It is possible, however, to move the oceans horizontally within the earth's gravitational field. This gathers the oceans toward two points where the height of the water becomes elevated by the converging volume of water."
^ The day is currently lengthening at a rate of about 0.002 seconds per century.
^ To demonstrate this Tides Home Page offers a tidal height pattern converted into an .mp3 sound file, and the rich sound is quite different from a pure tone.
References
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Further reading
150 Years of Tides on the Western Coast: The Longest Series of Tidal Observations in the Americas Archived 2011-05-05 at the Wayback Machine NOAA (2004).
Eugene I. Butikov: A dynamical picture of the ocean tides Archived 2008-09-11 at the Wayback Machine
Tides and centrifugal force Archived 2007-05-12 at the Wayback Machine: Why the centrifugal force does not explain the tide's opposite lobe (with nice animations).
O. Toledano et al. (2008): Tides in asynchronous binary systems Archived 2017-08-09 at the Wayback Machine
Gaylord Johnson "How Moon and Sun Generate the Tides" Archived 2023-09-16 at the Wayback Machine Popular Science, April 1934
Simon, Bernard (2013) . Coastal Tides. Translated by Manley, David. Institut océanographique, Fondation Albert Ier, Prince de Monaco. ISBN 978-2-903581-83-1. Archived from the original on 2022-11-13. Retrieved 2021-10-18.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Tides.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tides.
NOAA Tides and Currents information and data
History of tide prediction Archived 2015-05-09 at the Wayback Machine
Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
UK Admiralty Easytide
UK, South Atlantic, British Overseas Territories and Gibraltar tide times from the UK National Tidal and Sea Level Facility
Tide Predictions for Australia, South Pacific & Antarctica
Tide and Current Predictor, for stations around the world
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Hydrox
Nitrox
Oxygen
Travel gas
Trimix
Buoyancy andtrim equipment
Buoyancy compensator
Power inflator
Dump valve
Variable buoyancy pressure vessel
Diving weighting system
Ankle weights
Integrated weights
Trim weights
Weight belt
Decompressionequipment
Decompression buoy
Decompression chamber
Decompression cylinder
Decompression trapeze
Dive computer
Diving bell
Diving shot
Diving stage
Jersey upline
Jonline
Diving suit
Atmospheric diving suit
JIM suit
Newtsuit
Dry suit
Sladen suit
Standard diving suit
Rash vest
Wetsuit
Dive skins
Hot-water suit
Helmetsand masks
Anti-fog
Diving helmet
Free-flow helmet
Lightweight demand helmet
Orinasal mask
Reclaim helmet
Shallow water helmet
Standard diving helmet
Diving mask
Band mask
Full-face mask
Half mask
Instrumentation
Bottom timer
Depth gauge
Dive computer
Dive timer
Diving watch
Helium release valve
Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor
Pneumofathometer
Submersible pressure gauge
Mobilityequipment
Diver propulsion vehicle
Diving bell
Closed bell
Wet bell
Diving stage
Swimfin
Monofin
PowerSwim
Towboard
Wet sub
Safetyequipment
Alternative air source
Octopus regulator
Pony bottle
Bolt snap
Buddy line
Dive light
Diver's cutting tool
Diver's knife
Diver's telephone
Through-water communications
Underwater acoustic communication
Diving bell
Diving safety harness
Emergency gas supply
Bailout block
Bailout bottle
Lifeline
Screw gate carabiner
Emergency locator beacon
Rescue tether
Safety helmet
Shark-proof cage
Snoopy loop
Navigation equipment
Distance line
Diving compass
Dive reel
Line marker
Surface marker buoy
Silt screw
Underwaterbreathingapparatus
Atmospheric diving suit
Diving cylinder
Burst disc
Scuba cylinder valve
Diving helmet
Reclaim helmet
Diving regulator
Mechanism of diving regulators
Regulator malfunction
Regulator freeze
Single-hose regulator
Twin-hose regulator
Full-face diving mask
Open-circuitscuba
Scuba set
Bailout bottle
Decompression cylinder
Independent doubles
Manifolded twin set
Scuba manifold
Pony bottle
Scuba configuration
Sidemount
Sling cylinder
Diving rebreathers
Carbon dioxide scrubber
Carleton CDBA
Clearance Divers Life Support Equipment
Cryogenic rebreather
CUMA
DSEA
Dolphin
Halcyon PVR-BASC
Halcyon RB80
IDA71
Interspiro DCSC
LAR-5
LAR-6
LAR-V
LARU
Mark IV Amphibian
Porpoise
Ray
Siebe Gorman CDBA
Salvus
Siva
Surface-supplieddiving equipment
Air line
Diver's umbilical
Diving air compressor
Gas panel
Hookah
Scuba replacement
Snuba
Standard diving dress
Divingequipmentmanufacturers
AP Diving
Apeks
Aqua Lung America
Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique
Beuchat
René Cavalero
Cis-Lunar
Cressi-Sub
Dacor
DESCO
Dive Xtras
Divex
Diving Unlimited International
Drägerwerk
Fenzy
Maurice Fernez
Technisub
Oscar Gugen
Heinke
HeinrichsWeikamp
Johnson Outdoors
Mares
Morse Diving
Nemrod
Oceanic Worldwide
Porpoise
Shearwater Research
Siebe Gorman
Submarine Products
Suunto
Diving support equipmentAccess equipment
Boarding stirrup
Diver lift
Diving bell
Diving ladder
Diving platform (scuba)
Diving stage
Downline
Jackstay
Launch and recovery system
Messenger line
Moon pool
Breathing gashandling
Air filtration
Activated carbon
Hopcalite
Molecular sieve
Silica gel
Booster pump
Carbon dioxide scrubber
Cascade filling system
Diver's pump
Diving air compressor
Diving air filter
Water separator
High pressure breathing air compressor
Low pressure breathing air compressor
Gas blending
Gas blending for scuba diving
Gas panel
Gas reclaim system
Gas storage bank
Gas storage quad
Gas storage tube
Helium analyzer
Nitrox production
Membrane gas separation
Pressure swing adsorption
Oxygen analyser
Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor
Oxygen compatibility
Decompressionequipment
Air-lock
Built-in breathing system
Decompression tables
Diving bell
Bell cursor
Closed bell
Clump weight
Launch and recovery system
Wet bell
Diving chamber
Diving stage
Recreational Dive Planner
Saturation system
Platforms
Dive boat
Canoe and kayak diving
Combat Rubber Raiding Craft
Liveaboard
Subskimmer
Diving support vessel
HMS Challenger (K07)
Underwaterhabitat
Aquarius Reef Base
Continental Shelf Station Two
Helgoland Habitat
Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station
SEALAB
Tektite habitat
Remotely operatedunderwater vehicles
8A4-class ROUV
ABISMO
Atlantis ROV Team
CURV
Deep Drone
Épaulard
Global Explorer ROV
Goldfish-class ROUV
Kaikō ROV
Kaşif ROUV
Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System
Mini Rover ROV
OpenROV
ROV KIEL 6000
ROV PHOCA
Scorpio ROV
Sea Dragon-class ROV
Seabed tractor
Seafox drone
SeaPerch
SJT-class ROUV
T1200 Trenching Unit
VideoRay UROVs
Safety equipment
Diver down flag
Diving shot
ENOS Rescue-System
Hyperbaric lifeboat
Hyperbaric stretcher
Jackstay
Jonline
Reserve gas supply
General
Diving spread
Air spread
Saturation spread
Hot water system
Sonar
Underwater acoustic positioning system
Underwater acoustic communication
FreedivingActivities
Aquathlon
Apnoea finswimming
Freediving
Haenyeo
Pearl hunting
Ama
Snorkeling
Spearfishing
Underwater football
Underwater hockey
Underwater rugby
Underwater target shooting
Competitions
Nordic Deep
Vertical Blue
Disciplines
Constant weight (CWT)
Constant weight bi-fins (CWTB)
Constant weight without fins (CNF)
Dynamic apnea (DYN)
Dynamic apnea without fins (DNF)
Free immersion (FIM)
No-limits apnea (NLT)
Static apnea (STA)
Skandalopetra diving
Variable weight apnea (VWT)
Variable weight apnea without fins
Equipment
Diving mask
Diving suit
Hawaiian sling
Polespear
Snorkel (swimming)
Speargun
Swimfins
Monofin
Water polo cap
Freedivers
Deborah Andollo
Simone Arrigoni
Peppo Biscarini
Michael Board
Sara Campbell
Derya Can Göçen
Goran Čolak
Carlos Coste
Robert Croft
Mandy-Rae Cruickshank
Yasemin Dalkılıç
Leonardo D'Imporzano
Flavia Eberhard
Şahika Ercümen
Emma Farrell
Francisco Ferreras
Pierre Frolla
Flavia Eberhard
Mehgan Heaney-Grier
Elisabeth Kristoffersen
Andriy Yevhenovych Khvetkevych
Loïc Leferme
Enzo Maiorca
Jacques Mayol
Audrey Mestre
Karol Meyer
Kate Middleton
Stéphane Mifsud
Alexey Molchanov
Natalia Molchanova
Dave Mullins
Patrick Musimu
Guillaume Néry
Herbert Nitsch
Umberto Pelizzari
Liv Philip
Annelie Pompe
Stig Severinsen
Tom Sietas
Aharon Solomons
Martin Štěpánek
Walter Steyn
Tanya Streeter
William Trubridge
Devrim Cenk Ulusoy
Fatma Uruk
Danai Varveri
Alessia Zecchini
Nataliia Zharkova
Hazards
Barotrauma
Drowning
Freediving blackout
Deep-water blackout
Shallow-water blackout
Hypercapnia
Hypothermia
Historical
Ama
Octopus wrestling
Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming
Organisations
AIDA International
Scuba Schools International
Australian Underwater Federation
British Freediving Association
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques
Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
Performance Freediving International
Professional divingOccupations
Ama
Commercial diver
Commercial offshore diver
Hazmat diver
Divemaster
Diving instructor
Diving safety officer
Diving superintendent
Diving supervisor
Haenyeo
Media diver
Police diver
Public safety diver
Scientific diver
Underwater archaeologist
Militarydiving
Army engineer diver
Canadian Armed Forces Divers
Clearance diver
Frogman
Minentaucher
Royal Navy ships diver
United States military divers
U.S. Navy diver
U.S.Navy master diver
Militarydivingunits
Clearance Diving Branch (RAN)
Commando Hubert
Combat Divers Service (Lithuania)
Comando Raggruppamento Subacquei e Incursori Teseo Tesei
Decima Flottiglia MAS
Frogman Corps (Denmark)
Fuerzas Especiales
Fukuryu
GRUMEC
Grup Gerak Khas
Jagdkommando
JW Formoza
JW GROM
JW Komandosów
Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine
KOPASKA
MARCOS
Marine Commandos
Marinejegerkommandoen
Marine Raider Regiment
Minedykkerkommandoen
Namibian Marine Corps Operational Diving Unit
Naval Diving Unit (Singapore)
Naval Service Diving Section
Naval Special Operations Command
Operational Diving Division (SA Navy)
Royal Engineers
Russian commando frogmen
Sappers Divers Group
Shayetet 13
Special Air Service
Special Air Service Regiment
Special Actions Detachment
Special Boat Service
Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka)
Special Forces Command (Turkey)
Special Forces Group (Belgium)
Special Operations Battalion (Croatia)
Special Service Group (Navy)
Special Warfare Diving and Salvage
Tactical Divers Group
US Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance
US Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions
US Navy SEALs
Underwater Construction Teams
Underwater Demolition Command
Underwater Demolition Team
Underwater Offence (Turkish Armed Forces)
UNGERIN
Underwaterwork
Commercial offshore diving
Dive leader
Diver training
Recreational diver training
Hazmat diving
Hyperbaric welding
Marine construction
Offshore construction
Underwater construction
Media diving
Nondestructive testing
Pearl hunting
Police diving
Potable water diving
Public safety diving
Scientific diving
Ships husbandry
Sponge diving
Submarine pipeline
Underwater archaeology
Archaeology of shipwrecks
Underwater cutting and welding
Underwater demolition
Underwater inspection
Underwater logging
Underwater photography
Underwater search and recovery
Underwater searches
Underwater videography
Underwater survey
Salvage diving
SS Egypt
Kronan
La Belle
SS Laurentic
RMS Lusitania
Mars
Mary Rose
USS Monitor
HMS Royal George
Vasa
Divingcontractors
COMEX
Helix Energy Solutions Group
International Marine Contractors Association
Tools andequipment
Abrasive waterjet
Airlift
Baited remote underwater video
In-water surface cleaning
Brush cart
Cavitation cleaning
Pressure washing
Pigging
Lifting bag
Remotely operated underwater vehicle
Thermal lance
Tremie
Water jetting
Underwaterweapons
Limpet mine
Speargun
Hawaiian sling
Polespear
Underwaterfirearm
Gyrojet
Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun
Powerhead
Underwater pistols
Heckler & Koch P11
SPP-1 underwater pistol
Underwater revolvers
AAI underwater revolver
Underwater rifles
ADS amphibious rifle
APS underwater rifle
ASM-DT amphibious rifle
QBS-06
Recreational diving
Recreational dive sites
Index of recreational dive sites
List of wreck diving sites
Outline of recreational dive sites
Specialties
Altitude diving
Cave diving
Deep diving
Ice diving
Muck diving
Open-water diving
Rebreather diving
Sidemount diving
Solo diving
Technical diving
Underwater photography
Wreck diving
Diverorganisations
British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
Cave Diving Group (CDG)
Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
Quintana Roo Speleological Survey (QRSS)
Woodville Karst Plain Project (WKPP)
Diving tourismindustry
Dive center
Diving in East Timor
Diving in the Maldives
Environmental impact of recreational diving
Scuba diving tourism
Scuba diving in the Cayman Islands
Shark tourism
Sinking ships for wreck diving sites
Underwater diving on Guam
Diving eventsand festivals
Diversnight
Underwater Bike Race
Diving safety
Human factors in diving equipment design
Human factors in diving safety
Life-support system
Safety-critical system
Scuba diving fatalities
Underwater diving emergency
Water safety
Water surface searches
Divinghazards
List of diving hazards and precautions
Environmental
Current
Delta-P
Entanglement hazard
Overhead
Silt out
Wave action
Equipment
Freeflow
Use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment
Failure of diving equipment other than breathing apparatus
Single point of failure
Physiological
Cold shock response
Decompression
Nitrogen narcosis
Oxygen toxicity
Seasickness
Uncontrolled decompression
Diver behaviour and competence
Lack of competence
Overconfidence effect
Panic
Task loading
Trait anxiety
Willful violation
Consequences
Barotrauma
Decompression sickness
Drowning
Hypothermia
Hypoxia
Hypercapnia
Hyperthermia
Non-freezing cold injury
Divingprocedures
Ascending and descending
Emergency ascent
Boat diving
Canoe and kayak diving
Buddy diving
buddy check
Decompression
Decompression practice
Pyle stop
Ratio decompression
Dive briefing
Dive log
Dive planning
Rule of thirds
Scuba gas planning
Diver communications
Diver rescue
Diver training
Doing It Right
Drift diving
Gas blending for scuba diving
Night diving
Rebreather diving
Scuba gas management
Solo diving
Riskmanagement
Checklist
Hazard identification and risk assessment
Hazard analysis
Job safety analysis
Risk assessment
Hyperbaric evacuation and rescue
Risk control
Hierarchy of hazard controls
Incident pit
Lockout–tagout
Permit To Work
Redundancy
Safety data sheet
Situation awareness
Diving team
Bellman
Chamber operator
Diver medical technician
Diver's attendant
Diving supervisor
Diving systems technician
Gas man
Life support technician
Stand-by diver
Equipmentsafety
Breathing gas quality
Testing and inspection of diving cylinders
Hydrostatic test
Sustained load cracking
Diving regulator
Breathing performance of regulators
Occupationalsafety andhealth
Association of Diving Contractors International
International Marine Contractors Association
Code of practice
Contingency plan
Diving regulations
Emergency response plan
Diving safety officer
Diving superintendent
Diving supervisor
Operations manual
Standard operating procedure
Diving medicineDivingdisorders
List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders
Cramp
Motion sickness
Surfer's ear
Pressurerelated
Alternobaric vertigo
Barostriction
Barotrauma
Air embolism
Aerosinusitis
Barodontalgia
Dental barotrauma
Middle ear barotrauma
Pulmonary barotrauma
Compression arthralgia
Decompression illness
Dysbarism
Oxygen
Freediving blackout
Hyperoxia
Hypoxia
Oxygen toxicity
Inert gases
Avascular necrosis
Decompression sickness
Dysbaric osteonecrosis
Inner ear decompression sickness
Isobaric counterdiffusion
Taravana
High-pressure nervous syndrome
Hydrogen narcosis
Nitrogen narcosis
Carbon dioxide
Hypercapnia
Hypocapnia
Breathing gascontaminants
Carbon monoxide poisoning
Immersionrelated
Asphyxia
Drowning
Hypothermia
Immersion diuresis
Instinctive drowning response
Laryngospasm
Salt water aspiration syndrome
Swimming-induced pulmonary edema
Treatment
Demand valve oxygen therapy
First aid
Hyperbaric medicine
Hyperbaric treatment schedules
In-water recompression
Oxygen therapy
Therapeutic recompression
Personnel
Diving Medical Examiner
Diving Medical Practitioner
Diving Medical Technician
Hyperbaric nursing
Screening
Atrial septal defect
Effects of drugs on fitness to dive
Fitness to dive
Psychological fitness to dive
ResearchResearchers indiving physiologyand medicine
Arthur J. Bachrach
Albert R. Behnke
Peter B. Bennett
Paul Bert
George F. Bond
Robert Boyle
Alf O. Brubakk
Albert A. Bühlmann
John R. Clarke
Guybon Chesney Castell Damant
Kenneth William Donald
William Paul Fife
John Scott Haldane
Robert William Hamilton Jr.
Henry Valence Hempleman
Leonard Erskine Hill
Brian Andrew Hills
Felix Hoppe-Seyler
Christian J. Lambertsen
Simon Mitchell
Charles Momsen
Neal W. Pollock
John Rawlins
Charles Wesley Shilling
Edward D. Thalmann
Jacques Triger
Diving medicalresearchorganisations
Aerospace Medical Association
Divers Alert Network (DAN)
Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC)
Diving Medical Advisory Council (DMAC)
European Diving Technology Committee (EDTC)
European Underwater and Baromedical Society (EUBS)
National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology
Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine
Rubicon Foundation
South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society (SPUMS)
Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association (SAUHMA)
Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS)
United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU)
Law
Civil liability in recreational diving
Diving regulations
Duty of care
List of legislation regulating underwater diving
Investigation of diving accidents
Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage
History of underwater diving
History of decompression research and development
History of Diving Museum
History of scuba diving
List of researchers in underwater diving
Lyons Maritime Museum
Man in the Sea Museum
Timeline of diving technology
Pearling in Western Australia
US Navy decompression models and tables
Archeologicalsites
SS Commodore
USS Monitor
Queen Anne's Revenge
Whydah Gally
Underwater artand artists
The Diver
Jason deCaires Taylor
Engineersand inventors
Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont
William Beebe
Georges Beuchat
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
Joseph-Martin Cabirol
John R. Clarke
Jacques Cousteau
Charles Anthony Deane
John Deane
Louis de Corlieu
Auguste Denayrouze
Ted Eldred
Henry Fleuss
Émile Gagnan
Karl Heinrich Klingert
Peter Kreeft
Christian J. Lambertsen
Yves Le Prieur
John Lethbridge
Ernest William Moir
Joseph Salim Peress
Auguste Piccard
Joe Savoie
Willard Franklyn Searle
Gordon Smith
Augustus Siebe
Pierre-Marie Touboulic
Jacques Triger
Historicalequipment
Aqua-Lung
RV Calypso
SP-350 Denise
Magnesium torch
Nikonos
Porpoise regulator
Standard diving dress
Sub Marine Explorer
Vintage scuba
Diverpropulsionvehicles
Advanced SEAL Delivery System
Cosmos CE2F series
Dry Combat Submersible
Human torpedo
Motorised Submersible Canoe
Necker Nymph
R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle
SEAL Delivery Vehicle
Shallow Water Combat Submersible
Siluro San Bartolomeo
Welfreighter
Wet Nellie
Military andcovert operations
Raid on Alexandria (1941)
Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior
Scientific projects
1992 cageless shark-diving expedition
Mission 31
Awards and events
Hans Hass Award
International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame
London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures
NOGI Awards
Women Divers Hall of Fame
IncidentsDive boat incidents
Sinking of MV Conception
Diver rescues
Alpazat cave rescue
Tham Luang cave rescue
Early diving
John Day (carpenter)
Charles Spalding
Ebenezer Watson
Freediving fatalities
Loïc Leferme
Audrey Mestre
Nicholas Mevoli
Natalia Molchanova
Offshorediving incidents
Byford Dolphin diving bell accident
Drill Master diving accident
Star Canopus diving accident
Stena Seaspread diving accident
Venture One diving accident
Waage Drill II diving accident
Wildrake diving accident
Professionaldiving fatalities
Roger Baldwin
John Bennett
Victor F. Guiel Jr.
Francis P. Hammerberg
Craig M. Hoffman
Peter Henry Michael Holmes
Johnson Sea Link accident
Edwin Clayton Link
Gerard Anthony Prangley
Per Skipnes
Robert John Smyth
Albert D. Stover
Richard A. Walker
Lothar Michael Ward
Joachim Wendler
Bradley Westell
Arne Zetterström
Scuba divingfatalities
1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident
Ricardo Armbruster
Allan Bridge
David Bright
Berry L. Cannon
Cotton Coulson
Cláudio Coutinho
E. Yale Dawson
Deon Dreyer
Milan Dufek
Sheck Exley
Maurice Fargues
Fernando Garfella Palmer
Guy Garman
Steve Irwin
death
Jim Jones
Henry Way Kendall
Artur Kozłowski
Yuri Lipski
Kirsty MacColl
Agnes Milowka
François de Roubaix
Chris and Chrissy Rouse
Dave Shaw
Wesley C. Skiles
Dewey Smith
Rob Stewart
Esbjörn Svensson
Josef Velek
PublicationsManuals
NOAA Diving Manual
U.S. Navy Diving Manual
Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival
Underwater Handbook
Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving
Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving
The new science of skin and scuba diving
Professional Diver's Handbook
Basic Scuba
Standards andCodes of Practice
Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO)
DIN 7876
IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving
ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers
General non-fiction
The Darkness Beckons
Goldfinder
The Last Dive
Shadow Divers
The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure
Research
List of Divers Alert Network publications
Dive guides
Training and registrationDivertraining
Competence and assessment
Competency-based learning
Refresher training
Skill assessment
Diver training standard
Diving instructor
Diving school
Occupational diver training
Commercial diver training
Military diver training
Public safety diver training
Scientific diver training
Recreational diver training
Introductory diving
Teaching method
Muscle memory
Overlearning
Stress exposure training
Skills
Combat sidestroke
Diver navigation
Diver trim
Ear clearing
Frenzel maneuver
Valsalva maneuver
Finning techniques
Scuba skills
Buddy breathing
Low impact diving
Diamond Reef System
Surface-supplied diving skills
Underwater searches
RecreationalscubacertificationlevelsCore diving skills
Advanced Open Water Diver
Autonomous diver
CMAS* scuba diver
CMAS** scuba diver
Introductory diving
Low Impact Diver
Master Scuba Diver
Open Water Diver
Supervised diver
Leadership skills
Dive leader
Divemaster
Diving instructor
Master Instructor
Specialist skills
Rescue Diver
Solo diver
Diver trainingcertificationand registrationorganisations
European Underwater Federation (EUF)
International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum (IDRCF)
International Diving Schools Association (IDSA)
International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA)
List of diver certification organizations
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Nautical Archaeology Society
Universal Referral Program
World Recreational Scuba Training Council (WRSTC)
Commercial divercertificationauthorities
Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme (ADAS)
Commercial diver registration in South Africa
Divers Institute of Technology
Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
Department of Employment and Labour
Commercial divingschools
Divers Academy International
Norwegian diver school
Free-divingcertificationagencies
AIDA International (AIDA)
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
Performance Freediving International (PI)
Scuba Schools International (SSI)
Recreationalscubacertificationagencies
American Canadian Underwater Certifications (ACUC)
American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée (ANMP)
British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
International Life Saving Federation (ILS)
Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF)
National Academy of Scuba Educators (NASE)
National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond (NOB)
Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
Professional Technical and Recreational Diving (ProTec)
Rebreather Association of International Divers (RAID)
Sub-Aqua Association (SAA)
Scuba Diving International (SDI)
Scuba Educators International (SEI)
Scottish Sub Aqua Club (ScotSAC)
Scuba Schools International (SSI)
Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
United Diving Instructors (UDI)
YMCA SCUBA Program
Scientific divercertificationauthorities
American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS)
CMAS Scientific Committee
Technical divercertificationagencies
American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
Diving Science and Technology (DSAT)
Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
Professional Technical and Recreational Diving (ProTec)
Rebreather Association of International Divers (RAID)
Trimix Scuba Association (TSA)
Technical Extended Range (TXR)
Cavediving
Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
Cave Diving Group (CDG)
Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group (CDG)
National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
Technical Diving International (TDI)
Military divertraining centres
Defence Diving School
Navy Diving Salvage and Training Center
Underwater Escape Training Unit
Military divertraining courses
United States Marine Corps Combatant Diver Course
Underwater sportsSurface snorkeling
Finswimming
Snorkeling/breath-hold
Spearfishing
Underwater football
Underwater hockey
Australia
Turkey
Underwater rugby
Colombia
United States
Underwater target shooting
Breath-hold
Aquathlon
Apnoea finswimming
Freediving
Open Circuit Scuba
Immersion finswimming
Sport diving
Underwater cycling
Underwater orienteering
Underwater photography
Rebreather
Underwater photography
Sports governingorganisations and federations
International
AIDA International
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques)
National
AIDA Hellas
Australian Underwater Federation
British Freediving Association
British Octopush Association
British Underwater Sports Association
Comhairle Fo-Thuinn
Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tide (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"The Beggar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beggar_(album)"},{"link_name":"Ebbing, Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebbing,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"Ebb tide (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebb_tide_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tide_overview.svg"},{"link_name":"antipode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipodal_point"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tidal_circularization_figure1.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tide_and_Moon.jpg"},{"link_name":"Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine"},{"link_name":"phase shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_shift"},{"link_name":"sea levels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level"},{"link_name":"gravitational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity"},{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"},{"link_name":"Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth"},{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"Tide tables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide_table"},{"link_name":"amplitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude"},{"link_name":"tidal range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_range"},{"link_name":"phase and amplitude of the tide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Phase_and_amplitude"},{"link_name":"amphidromic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphidromic"},{"link_name":"coastline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast"},{"link_name":"bathymetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathymetry"},{"link_name":"Timing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Timing"},{"link_name":"atmospheric pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure"},{"link_name":"semi-diurnal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-diurnal"},{"link_name":"diurnal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diurnal_cycle"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reddy-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hubbard-2"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"lunitidal interval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunitidal_interval"},{"link_name":"tide gauges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide_gauge"},{"link_name":"mean sea level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_sea_level"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"thermal expansion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansion"},{"link_name":"storm surges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_surge"},{"link_name":"Earth tide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_tide"}],"text":"Rise and fall of the sea level under astronomical gravitational influencesFor other uses, see Tide (disambiguation).\"Ebbing\" redirects here. For the song by Swans, see The Beggar. For the fictional town, see Ebbing, Missouri.\"Ebb tide\" redirects here. For other uses, see Ebb tide (disambiguation).Simplified schematic of only the lunar portion of Earth's tides, showing (exaggerated) high tides at the sublunar point and its antipode for the hypothetical case of an ocean of constant depth without land, and on the assumption that Earth is not rotating; otherwise there is a lag angle. Solar tides not shown.Earth's rotation drags the position of the tidal bulge ahead of the position directly under the Moon showing the lag angle.In Maine (U.S.), low tide occurs roughly at moonrise and high tide with a high Moon, corresponding to the simple gravity model of two tidal bulges; at most places however, the Moon and tides have a phase shift.Tide coming in, video stops about 1+1⁄2 hours before high tideTides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon (and to a much lesser extent, the Sun) and are also caused by the Earth and Moon orbiting one another.Tide tables can be used for any given locale to find the predicted times and amplitude (or \"tidal range\"). \nThe predictions are influenced by many factors including the alignment of the Sun and Moon, the phase and amplitude of the tide (pattern of tides in the deep ocean), the amphidromic systems of the oceans, and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry (see Timing). They are however only predictions, the actual time and height of the tide is affected by wind and atmospheric pressure. Many shorelines experience semi-diurnal tides—two nearly equal high and low tides each day. Other locations have a diurnal tide—one high and low tide each day. A \"mixed tide\"—two uneven magnitude tides a day—is a third regular category.[1][2][a]Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors, which determine the lunitidal interval. To make accurate records, tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time. Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes. These data are compared to the reference (or datum) level usually called mean sea level.[3]While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations, sea levels are also subject to change from thermal expansion, wind, and barometric pressure changes, resulting in storm surges, especially in shallow seas and near coasts.Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans, but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present. For example, the shape of the solid part of the Earth is affected slightly by Earth tide, though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements.","title":"Tide"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tide_type.svg"},{"link_name":"local minimum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_minimum"},{"link_name":"intertidal zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertidal_zone"},{"link_name":"local maximum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_maximum"},{"link_name":"currents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_(fluid)"},{"link_name":"tidal currents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_currents"},{"link_name":"slack water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slack_water"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"tide tables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide_table"},{"link_name":"Equator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equator"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Types of tides (See Timing (below) for coastal map)Four stages in the tidal cycle are named:The water stops falling, reaching a local minimum called low tide.\nSea level rises over several hours, covering the intertidal zone; flood tide.\nThe water stops rising, reaching a local maximum called high tide.\nSea level falls over several hours, revealing the intertidal zone; ebb tide.Oscillating currents produced by tides are known as tidal streams or tidal currents. The moment that the tidal current ceases is called slack water or slack tide. The tide then reverses direction and is said to be turning. Slack water usually occurs near high water and low water, but there are locations where the moments of slack tide differ significantly from those of high and low water.[4]Tides are commonly semi-diurnal (two high waters and two low waters each day), or diurnal (one tidal cycle per day). The two high waters on a given day are typically not the same height (the daily inequality); these are the higher high water and the lower high water in tide tables. Similarly, the two low waters each day are the higher low water and the lower low water. The daily inequality is not consistent and is generally small when the Moon is over the Equator.[b]","title":"Characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chart datum § Definitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chart_datum#Definitions"},{"link_name":"Highest astronomical tide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highest_astronomical_tide"},{"link_name":"Mean high water springs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_high_water_springs"},{"link_name":"Mean sea level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_sea_level"},{"link_name":"Mean low water springs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_low_water_springs"},{"link_name":"Lowest astronomical tide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowest_astronomical_tide"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tide_terms.png"}],"sub_title":"Reference levels","text":"See also: Chart datum § DefinitionsThe following reference tide levels can be defined, from the highest level to the lowest:Highest astronomical tide (HAT) – The highest tide which can be predicted to occur. Note that meteorological conditions may add extra height to the HAT.\nMean high water springs (MHWS) – The average of the two high tides on the days of spring tides.\nMean high water neaps (MHWN) – The average of the two high tides on the days of neap tides.\nMean sea level (MSL) – This is the average sea level. The MSL is constant for any location over a long period.\nMean low water neaps (MLWN) – The average of the two low tides on the days of neap tides.\nMean low water springs (MLWS) – The average of the two low tides on the days of spring tides.\nLowest astronomical tide (LAT) – The lowest tide which can be predicted to occur.[6]Illustration by the course of half a month","title":"Characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Theory of tides § Tidal constituents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_tides#Tidal_constituents"},{"link_name":"Long-period tides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-period_tides"},{"link_name":"Earth tide § Tidal constituents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_tide#Tidal_constituents"},{"link_name":"bathymetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathymetry"},{"link_name":"affect the entire earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_tide"}],"text":"Further information: Theory of tides § Tidal constituents, and Long-period tidesSee also: Earth tide § Tidal constituentsTidal constituents are the net result of multiple influences impacting tidal changes over certain periods of time. Primary constituents include the Earth's rotation, the position of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth, the Moon's altitude (elevation) above the Earth's Equator, and bathymetry. Variations with periods of less than half a day are called harmonic constituents. Conversely, cycles of days, months, or years are referred to as long period constituents.Tidal forces affect the entire earth, but the movement of solid Earth occurs by mere centimeters. In contrast, the atmosphere is much more fluid and compressible so its surface moves by kilometers, in the sense of the contour level of a particular low pressure in the outer atmosphere.","title":"Tidal constituents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASA2016-9"},{"link_name":"zenith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenith"},{"link_name":"tide clocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide_clock"},{"link_name":"culmination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culmination"},{"link_name":"hour angle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hour_angle"},{"link_name":"zenith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenith"},{"link_name":"nadir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadir"},{"link_name":"equilibrium tide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilibrium_tide"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-noaa7-10"}],"sub_title":"Principal lunar semi-diurnal constituent","text":"Global surface elevation of M2 ocean tide (NASA)[7]In most locations, the largest constituent is the principal lunar semi-diurnal, also known as the M2 tidal constituent or M2 tidal constituent. Its period is about 12 hours and 25.2 minutes, exactly half a tidal lunar day, which is the average time separating one lunar zenith from the next, and thus is the time required for the Earth to rotate once relative to the Moon. Simple tide clocks track this constituent. The lunar day is longer than the Earth day because the Moon orbits in the same direction the Earth spins. This is analogous to the minute hand on a watch crossing the hour hand at 12:00 and then again at about 1:05½ (not at 1:00).The Moon orbits the Earth in the same direction as the Earth rotates on its axis, so it takes slightly more than a day—about 24 hours and 50 minutes—for the Moon to return to the same location in the sky. During this time, it has passed overhead (culmination) once and underfoot once (at an hour angle of 00:00 and 12:00 respectively), so in many places the period of strongest tidal forcing is the above-mentioned, about 12 hours and 25 minutes. The moment of highest tide is not necessarily when the Moon is nearest to zenith or nadir, but the period of the forcing still determines the time between high tides.Because the gravitational field created by the Moon weakens with distance from the Moon, it exerts a slightly stronger than average force on the side of the Earth facing the Moon, and a slightly weaker force on the opposite side. The Moon thus tends to \"stretch\" the Earth slightly along the line connecting the two bodies. The solid Earth deforms a bit, but ocean water, being fluid, is free to move much more in response to the tidal force, particularly horizontally (see equilibrium tide).As the Earth rotates, the magnitude and direction of the tidal force at any particular point on the Earth's surface change constantly; although the ocean never reaches equilibrium—there is never time for the fluid to \"catch up\" to the state it would eventually reach if the tidal force were constant—the changing tidal force nonetheless causes rhythmic changes in sea surface height.When there are two high tides each day with different heights (and two low tides also of different heights), the pattern is called a mixed semi-diurnal tide.[8]","title":"Tidal constituents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tidal range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_range"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tide_schematic.svg"},{"link_name":"new moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_moon"},{"link_name":"full moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_moon"},{"link_name":"syzygy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syzygy_(astronomy)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"tidal force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_force"},{"link_name":"season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(season)"},{"link_name":"spring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harris1981-12"},{"link_name":"first quarter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbous"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harris1981-12"},{"link_name":"slack water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slack_water"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:High_tide_sun_moon_same_side_beginning.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Low_tide_sun_moon_90_degrees.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:High_tide_sun_moon_opposite_side.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Low_tide_sun_moon_270_degrees.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:High_tide_sun_moon_same_side_end.png"}],"sub_title":"Range variation: springs and neaps","text":"Further information: Tidal rangeThe types of tidesThe semi-diurnal range (the difference in height between high and low waters over about half a day) varies in a two-week cycle. Approximately twice a month, around new moon and full moon when the Sun, Moon, and Earth form a line (a configuration known as a syzygy[9]), the tidal force due to the Sun reinforces that due to the Moon. The tide's range is then at its maximum; this is called the spring tide. It is not named after the season, but, like that word, derives from the meaning \"jump, burst forth, rise\", as in a natural spring. \nSpring tides are sometimes referred to as syzygy tides.[10]When the Moon is at first quarter or third quarter, the Sun and Moon are separated by 90° when viewed from the Earth, and the solar tidal force partially cancels the Moon's tidal force. At these points in the lunar cycle, the tide's range is at its minimum; this is called the neap tide, or neaps. \"Neap\" is an Anglo-Saxon word meaning \"without the power\", as in forðganges nip (forth-going without-the-power).[11]\nNeap tides are sometimes referred to as quadrature tides.[10]Spring tides result in high waters that are higher than average, low waters that are lower than average, \"slack water\" time that is shorter than average, and stronger tidal currents than average. Neaps result in less extreme tidal conditions. There is about a seven-day interval between springs and neaps.Spring tide: Sun and Moon on the same side (0°)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNeap tide: Sun and Moon at 90°\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSpring tide: Sun and Moon at opposite sides (180°)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNeap tide: Sun and Moon at 270°\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSpring tide: Sun and Moon at the same side (cycle restarts)","title":"Tidal constituents"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bangchuidao_Island.JPG"},{"link_name":"Dalian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalian"},{"link_name":"Liaoning Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liaoning_Province"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Negative_low_tide_at_Ocean_Beach_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ocean Beach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Beach,_San_Francisco,_California"},{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atlantic_coast_at_low_tide,_Bar_Harbor_IMG_2262.JPG"},{"link_name":"Bar Harbor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_Harbor,_Maine"},{"link_name":"Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine"},{"link_name":"perigee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perigee"},{"link_name":"apogee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apogee"},{"link_name":"perigean spring tides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide"},{"link_name":"tidal range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_range"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Lunar distance","text":"Low tide at Bangchuidao scenic area, Dalian, Liaoning Province, ChinaLow tide at Ocean Beach in San Francisco, California, U.S.Low tide at Bar Harbor, Maine, U.S. (2014)The changing distance separating the Moon and Earth also affects tide heights. When the Moon is closest, at perigee, the range increases, and when it is at apogee, the range shrinks. Six or eight times a year perigee coincides with either a new or full moon causing perigean spring tides with the largest tidal range. The difference between the height of a tide at perigean spring tide and the spring tide when the moon is at apogee depends on location but can be large as a foot higher.[12]","title":"Tidal constituents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-leprovost-15"}],"sub_title":"Other constituents","text":"These include solar gravitational effects, the obliquity (tilt) of the Earth's Equator and rotational axis, the inclination of the plane of the lunar orbit and the elliptical shape of the Earth's orbit of the Sun.A compound tide (or overtide) results from the shallow-water interaction of its two parent waves.[13]","title":"Tidal constituents"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:M2_tidal_constituent.jpg"},{"link_name":"amphidromic points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphidromic_point"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"cotidal lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotidal_line"},{"link_name":"contour lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contour_lines"},{"link_name":"topographical maps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topographical_maps"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"amphidromic point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphidromic_point"},{"link_name":"Iceland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland"},{"link_name":"Madagascar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar"},{"link_name":"Coriolis effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_effect"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Phase and amplitude","text":"M2 tidal constituent. Red is most extreme (highest highs, lowest lows), with blues being least extreme. White cotidal lines converge in blue areas indicating little or no tide. Around these convergences, called amphidromic points, curved arrows show the direction of the tides, each indicating a synchronized 6-hour period. Tidal ranges generally increase with increasing distance from amphidromic points. Tide waves move around these points, generally counterclockwise in the N. Hemisphere and clockwise in the S. Hemisphere [14][15]Because the M2 tidal constituent dominates in most locations, the stage or phase of a tide, denoted by the time in hours after high water, is a useful concept. Tidal stage is also measured in degrees, with 360° per tidal cycle. Lines of constant tidal phase are called cotidal lines, which are analogous to contour lines of constant altitude on topographical maps, and when plotted form a cotidal map or cotidal chart.[16] High water is reached simultaneously along the cotidal lines extending from the coast out into the ocean, and cotidal lines (and hence tidal phases) advance along the coast. Semi-diurnal and long phase constituents are measured from high water, diurnal from maximum flood tide. This and the discussion that follows is precisely true only for a single tidal constituent.For an ocean in the shape of a circular basin enclosed by a coastline, the cotidal lines point radially inward and must eventually meet at a common point, the amphidromic point. The amphidromic point is at once cotidal with high and low waters, which is satisfied by zero tidal motion. (The rare exception occurs when the tide encircles an island, as it does around New Zealand, Iceland and Madagascar.) Tidal motion generally lessens moving away from continental coasts, so that crossing the cotidal lines are contours of constant amplitude (half the distance between high and low water) which decrease to zero at the amphidromic point. For a semi-diurnal tide the amphidromic point can be thought of roughly like the center of a clock face, with the hour hand pointing in the direction of the high water cotidal line, which is directly opposite the low water cotidal line. High water rotates about the amphidromic point once every 12 hours in the direction of rising cotidal lines, and away from ebbing cotidal lines. This rotation, caused by the Coriolis effect, is generally clockwise in the southern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere. The difference of cotidal phase from the phase of a reference tide is the epoch. The reference tide is the hypothetical constituent \"equilibrium tide\" on a landless Earth measured at 0° longitude, the Greenwich meridian.[17]In the North Atlantic, because the cotidal lines circulate counterclockwise around the amphidromic point, the high tide passes New York Harbor approximately an hour ahead of Norfolk Harbor. South of Cape Hatteras the tidal forces are more complex, and cannot be predicted reliably based on the North Atlantic cotidal lines.","title":"Tidal constituents"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Theory of tides § History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_tides#History"},{"link_name":"celestial mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_mechanics"},{"link_name":"Seleucus of Seleucia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucus_of_Seleucia"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy"},{"link_name":"Tetrabiblos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrabiblos"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"The Reckoning of Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Reckoning_of_Time"},{"link_name":"Bede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wallis-22"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBede199983-23"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBede199984-24"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBede199984-24"},{"link_name":"Monkwearmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monkwearmouth"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBede199985-25"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBede199985-25"},{"link_name":"Muslim astronomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_astronomers"},{"link_name":"Latin translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tolmacheva-26"},{"link_name":"Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Ma%27shar_al-Balkhi"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tolmacheva-26"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tolmacheva-26"},{"link_name":"al-Bitruji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Bitruji"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tolmacheva-26"},{"link_name":"Simon Stevin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevin"},{"link_name":"spring tide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_tide"},{"link_name":"neap tide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neap_tide"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Johannes Kepler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Galileo Galilei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei"},{"link_name":"Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems"},{"link_name":"Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"Principia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiae_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-slc-ch2-31"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"theory of universal gravitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Pierre-Simon Laplace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-slc-ch2-31"},{"link_name":"potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_potential"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Académie Royale des Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_Royale_des_Sciences"},{"link_name":"Daniel Bernoulli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Bernoulli"},{"link_name":"Leonhard Euler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler"},{"link_name":"Colin Maclaurin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Maclaurin"},{"link_name":"Antoine Cavalleri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Cavalleri"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EulerAiton1996-35"},{"link_name":"prolate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolate"},{"link_name":"rotational effects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_effect"},{"link_name":"Jean le Rond d'Alembert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert"},{"link_name":"James Cook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cook"},{"link_name":"barque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barque"},{"link_name":"HMS Endeavour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Endeavour"},{"link_name":"Great Barrier Reef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef"},{"link_name":"Endeavour River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endeavour_River"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cook-36"},{"link_name":"partial differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"Laplace tidal equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laplace%27s_tidal_equations"},{"link_name":"William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin"},{"link_name":"vorticity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorticity"},{"link_name":"Kelvin waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin_wave"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tidhist-37"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Henri Poincaré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"lunar theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_theory"},{"link_name":"E W Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_William_Brown"},{"link_name":"Arthur Thomas Doodson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Thomas_Doodson"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"sub_title":"History of tidal theory","text":"Further information: Theory of tides § HistoryInvestigation into tidal physics was important in the early development of celestial mechanics, with the existence of two daily tides being explained by the Moon's gravity. Later the daily tides were explained more precisely by the interaction of the Moon's and the Sun's gravity.Seleucus of Seleucia theorized around 150 BC that tides were caused by the Moon. The influence of the Moon on bodies of water was also mentioned in Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos.[c]In De temporum ratione (The Reckoning of Time) of 725 Bede linked semidurnal tides and the phenomenon of varying tidal heights to the Moon and its phases. Bede starts by noting that the tides rise and fall 4/5 of an hour later each day, just as the Moon rises and sets 4/5 of an hour later.[19] He goes on to emphasise that in two lunar months (59 days) the Moon circles the Earth 57 times and there are 114 tides.[20] Bede then observes that the height of tides varies over the month. Increasing tides are called malinae and decreasing tides ledones and that the month is divided into four parts of seven or eight days with alternating malinae and ledones.[21] In the same passage he also notes the effect of winds to hold back tides.[21] Bede also records that the time of tides varies from place to place. To the north of Bede's location (Monkwearmouth) the tides are earlier, to the south later.[22] He explains that the tide \"deserts these shores in order to be able all the more to be able to flood other [shores] when it arrives there\" noting that \"the Moon which signals the rise of tide here, signals its retreat in other regions far from this quarter of the heavens\".[22]Later medieval understanding of the tides was primarily based on works of Muslim astronomers, which became available through Latin translation starting from the 12th century.[23] Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi (d. circa 886), in his Introductorium in astronomiam, taught that ebb and flood tides were caused by the Moon.[23] Abu Ma'shar discussed the effects of wind and Moon's phases relative to the Sun on the tides.[23] In the 12th century, al-Bitruji (d. circa 1204) contributed the notion that the tides were caused by the general circulation of the heavens.[23]Simon Stevin, in his 1608 De spiegheling der Ebbenvloet (The theory of ebb and flood), dismissed a large number of misconceptions that still existed about ebb and flood. Stevin pleaded for the idea that the attraction of the Moon was responsible for the tides and spoke in clear terms about ebb, flood, spring tide and neap tide, stressing that further research needed to be made.[24][25]In 1609 Johannes Kepler also correctly suggested that the gravitation of the Moon caused the tides,[d] which he based upon ancient observations and correlations.Galileo Galilei in his 1632 Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, whose working title was Dialogue on the Tides, gave an explanation of the tides. The resulting theory, however, was incorrect as he attributed the tides to the sloshing of water caused by the Earth's movement around the Sun. He hoped to provide mechanical proof of the Earth's movement. The value of his tidal theory is disputed. Galileo rejected Kepler's explanation of the tides.Isaac Newton (1642–1727) was the first person to explain tides as the product of the gravitational attraction of astronomical masses. His explanation of the tides (and many other phenomena) was published in the Principia (1687)[27][28] and used his theory of universal gravitation to explain the lunar and solar attractions as the origin of the tide-generating forces.[e]\nNewton and others before Pierre-Simon Laplace worked the problem from the perspective of a static system (equilibrium theory), that provided an approximation that described the tides that would occur in a non-inertial ocean evenly covering the whole Earth.[27] The tide-generating force (or its corresponding potential) is still relevant to tidal theory, but as an intermediate quantity (forcing function) rather than as a final result; theory must also consider the Earth's accumulated dynamic tidal response to the applied forces, which response is influenced by ocean depth, the Earth's rotation, and other factors.[29]In 1740, the Académie Royale des Sciences in Paris offered a prize for the best theoretical essay on tides. Daniel Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, Colin Maclaurin and Antoine Cavalleri shared the prize.[30]Maclaurin used Newton's theory to show that a smooth sphere covered by a sufficiently deep ocean under the tidal force of a single deforming body is a prolate spheroid (essentially a three-dimensional oval) with major axis directed toward the deforming body. Maclaurin was the first to write about the Earth's rotational effects on motion. Euler realized that the tidal force's horizontal component (more than the vertical) drives the tide. In 1744 Jean le Rond d'Alembert studied tidal equations for the atmosphere which did not include rotation.In 1770 James Cook's barque HMS Endeavour grounded on the Great Barrier Reef. Attempts were made to refloat her on the following tide which failed, but the tide after that lifted her clear with ease. Whilst she was being repaired in the mouth of the Endeavour River Cook observed the tides over a period of seven weeks. At neap tides both tides in a day were similar, but at springs the tides rose 7 feet (2.1 m) in the morning but 9 feet (2.7 m) in the evening.[31]Pierre-Simon Laplace formulated a system of partial differential equations relating the ocean's horizontal flow to its surface height, the first major dynamic theory for water tides. The Laplace tidal equations are still in use today. William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, rewrote Laplace's equations in terms of vorticity which allowed for solutions describing tidally driven coastally trapped waves, known as Kelvin waves.[32][33][34]Others including Kelvin and Henri Poincaré further developed Laplace's theory. Based on these developments and the lunar theory of E W Brown describing the motions of the Moon, Arthur Thomas Doodson developed and published in 1921[35] the first modern development of the tide-generating potential in harmonic form: Doodson distinguished 388 tidal frequencies.[36] Some of his methods remain in use.[37]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brouscon_Almanach_1546_Compass_bearing_of_high_waters_in_the_Bay_of_Biscay_left_Brittany_to_Dover_right.jpg"},{"link_name":"Brouscon's Almanach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_Brouscon"},{"link_name":"Bay of Biscay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Biscay"},{"link_name":"Brittany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittany"},{"link_name":"Dover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brouscon_Almanach_1546_Tidal_diagrams_according_to_the_age_of_the_Moon.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pytheas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytheas"},{"link_name":"British Isles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isles"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic astronomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_astronomer"},{"link_name":"Seleucus of Seleucia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucus_of_Seleucia"},{"link_name":"heliocentric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrism"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"pneuma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneuma"},{"link_name":"Strabo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Naturalis Historia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)"},{"link_name":"Pliny the Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Persian Gulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean"},{"link_name":"Euripus Strait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripus_Strait"},{"link_name":"Strait of Messina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Messina"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"Philostratus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philostratus"},{"link_name":"Apollonius of Tyana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyana"},{"link_name":"Bede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede"},{"link_name":"tide table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide_table"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"tidal bore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_bore"},{"link_name":"Qiantang River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiantang_River"},{"link_name":"Thames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thames"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Claude d'Abbeville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_d%27Abbeville"},{"link_name":"Tupinambá people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupinamb%C3%A1_people"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin"},{"link_name":"harmonic analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_analysis"},{"link_name":"tide-predicting machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide-predicting_machine"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Thames Estuary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thames_Estuary"},{"link_name":"John Lubbock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_John_Lubbock,_3rd_Baronet"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"William Whewell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Whewell"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"amphidromic point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphidromic_point"},{"link_name":"Captain William Hewett, RN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hewett_(died_1840)"},{"link_name":"North Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cartwright2000-51"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tidhist-37"},{"link_name":"rhythmites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythmite"},{"link_name":"Carboniferous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferous"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kuecher_et_al._1990-52"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Archer_et_al._1995-53"}],"sub_title":"History of tidal observation","text":"Brouscon's Almanach of 1546: Compass bearings of high waters in the Bay of Biscay (left) and the coast from Brittany to Dover (right).Brouscon's Almanach of 1546: Tidal diagrams \"according to the age of the moon\".From ancient times, tidal observation and discussion has increased in sophistication, first marking the daily recurrence, then tides' relationship to the Sun and moon. Pytheas travelled to the British Isles about 325 BC and seems to be the first to have related spring tides to the phase of the moon.In the 2nd century BC, the Hellenistic astronomer Seleucus of Seleucia correctly described the phenomenon of tides in order to support his heliocentric theory.[38] He correctly theorized that tides were caused by the moon, although he believed that the interaction was mediated by the pneuma. He noted that tides varied in time and strength in different parts of the world. According to Strabo (1.1.9), Seleucus was the first to link tides to the lunar attraction, and that the height of the tides depends on the moon's position relative to the Sun.[39]The Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder collates many tidal observations, e.g., the spring tides are a few days after (or before) new and full moon and are highest around the equinoxes, though Pliny noted many relationships now regarded as fanciful. In his Geography, Strabo described tides in the Persian Gulf having their greatest range when the moon was furthest from the plane of the Equator. All this despite the relatively small amplitude of Mediterranean basin tides. (The strong currents through the Euripus Strait and the Strait of Messina puzzled Aristotle.) Philostratus discussed tides in Book Five of The Life of Apollonius of Tyana. Philostratus mentions the moon, but attributes tides to \"spirits\". In Europe around 730 AD, the Venerable Bede described how the rising tide on one coast of the British Isles coincided with the fall on the other and described the time progression of high water along the Northumbrian coast.The first tide table in China was recorded in 1056 AD primarily for visitors wishing to see the famous tidal bore in the Qiantang River. The first known British tide table is thought to be that of John Wallingford, who died Abbot of St. Albans in 1213, based on high water occurring 48 minutes later each day, and three hours earlier at the Thames mouth than upriver at London.[40]In 1614 Claude d'Abbeville published the work \"Histoire de la mission de pères capucins en l’Isle de Maragnan et terres circonvoisines\", where he exposed that the Tupinambá people already had an understanding of the relation between the Moon and the tides before Europe.[41]William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) led the first systematic harmonic analysis of tidal records starting in 1867. The main result was the building of a tide-predicting machine using a system of pulleys to add together six harmonic time functions. It was \"programmed\" by resetting gears and chains to adjust phasing and amplitudes. Similar machines were used until the 1960s.[42]The first known sea-level record of an entire spring–neap cycle was made in 1831 on the Navy Dock in the Thames Estuary. Many large ports had automatic tide gauge stations by 1850.John Lubbock was one of the first to map co-tidal lines, for Great Britain, Ireland and adjacent coasts, in 1840.[43] William Whewell expanded this work ending with a nearly global chart in 1836.[44] In order to make these maps consistent, he hypothesized the existence of a region with no tidal rise or fall where co-tidal lines meet in the mid-ocean. The existence of such an amphidromic point, as they are now known, was confirmed in 1840 by Captain William Hewett, RN, from careful soundings in the North Sea.[45][46][32]Much later, in the late 20th century, geologists noticed tidal rhythmites, which document the occurrence of ancient tides in the geological record, notably in the Carboniferous.[47][48]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Physics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gravitational force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_force"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"free fall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_fall"},{"link_name":"[f]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"gravitational acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_gravity"},{"link_name":"[g]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Science_Mission_Directorate_2000-57"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tidal_field_and_gravity_field.svg"},{"link_name":"gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity"},{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_field"},{"link_name":"tide-generating force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide-generating_force"},{"link_name":"geoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoid"},{"link_name":"centrifugal force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifugal_force"}],"sub_title":"Forces","text":"The tidal force produced by a massive object (Moon, hereafter) on a small particle located on or in an extensive body (Earth, hereafter) is the vector difference between the gravitational force exerted by the Moon on the particle, and the gravitational force that would be exerted on the particle if it were located at the Earth's center of mass.Whereas the gravitational force subjected by a celestial body on Earth varies inversely as the square of its distance to the Earth, the maximal tidal force varies inversely as, approximately, the cube of this distance.[49] If the tidal force caused by each body were instead equal to its full gravitational force (which is not the case due to the free fall of the whole Earth, not only the oceans, towards these bodies) a different pattern of tidal forces would be observed, e.g. with a much stronger influence from the Sun than from the Moon: The solar gravitational force on the Earth is on average 179 times stronger than the lunar, but because the Sun is on average 389 times farther from the Earth, its field gradient is weaker. The overall proportionality istidal force\n \n ∝\n \n \n M\n \n d\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n ∝\n ρ\n \n \n (\n \n \n r\n d\n \n \n )\n \n \n 3\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{tidal force}}\\propto {\\frac {M}{d^{3}}}\\propto \\rho \\left({\\frac {r}{d}}\\right)^{3},}where M is the mass of the heavenly body, d is its distance, ρ is its average density, and r is its radius. The ratio r/d is related to the angle subtended by the object in the sky. Since the Sun and the Moon have practically the same diameter in the sky, the tidal force of the Sun is less than that of the Moon because its average density is much less, and it is only 46% as large as the lunar,[f] thus during a spring tide, the Moon contributes 69% while the Sun contributes 31%. More precisely, the lunar tidal acceleration (along the Moon–Earth axis, at the Earth's surface) is about 1.1×10−7 g, while the solar tidal acceleration (along the Sun–Earth axis, at the Earth's surface) is about 0.52×10−7 g, where g is the gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface.[g] The effects of the other planets vary as their distances from Earth vary. When Venus is closest to Earth, its effect is 0.000113 times the solar effect.[50] At other times, Jupiter or Mars may have the most effect.The lunar gravity residual field at the Earth's surface is known as the tide-generating force. This is the primary mechanism that drives tidal action and explains two simultaneous tidal bulges; Earth's rotation further accounts for two daily high waters at any location. The figure shows both the tidal field (thick red arrows) and the gravity field (thin blue arrows) exerted on Earth's surface and center (label O) by the Moon (label S).The ocean's surface is approximated by a surface referred to as the geoid, which takes into consideration the gravitational force exerted by the earth as well as centrifugal force due to rotation. Now consider the effect of massive external bodies such as the Moon and Sun. These bodies have strong gravitational fields that diminish with distance and cause the ocean's surface to deviate from the geoid. They establish a new equilibrium ocean surface which bulges toward the moon on one side and away from the moon on the other side. The earth's rotation relative to this shape causes the daily tidal cycle. The ocean surface tends toward this equilibrium shape, which is constantly changing, and never quite attains it. When the ocean surface is not aligned with it, it's as though the surface is sloping, and water accelerates in the down-slope direction.","title":"Physics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMS_Glossary_2020-58"},{"link_name":"tractive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_force"},{"link_name":"[h]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[j]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PBS_LearningMedia_2020-65"}],"sub_title":"Equilibrium","text":"The equilibrium tide is the idealized tide assuming a landless Earth.[51]\nIt would produce a tidal bulge in the ocean, elongated towards the attracting body (Moon or Sun).\nIt is not caused by the vertical pull nearest or farthest from the body, which is very weak; rather, it is caused by the tangential or tractive tidal force, which is strongest at about 45 degrees from the body, resulting in a horizontal tidal current.[h]\n[i]\n[j][55]","title":"Physics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"modelled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_(abstract)"},{"link_name":"Laplace tidal equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laplace%27s_tidal_equations"},{"link_name":"shear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_shear"},{"link_name":"tangential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangent"},{"link_name":"Coriolis effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_effect"}],"sub_title":"Laplace's tidal equations","text":"Ocean depths are much smaller than their horizontal extent. Thus, the response to tidal forcing can be modelled using the Laplace tidal equations which incorporate the following features:The vertical (or radial) velocity is negligible, and there is no vertical shear—this is a sheet flow.\nThe forcing is only horizontal (tangential).\nThe Coriolis effect appears as an inertial force (fictitious) acting laterally to the direction of flow and proportional to velocity.\nThe surface height's rate of change is proportional to the negative divergence of velocity multiplied by the depth. As the horizontal velocity stretches or compresses the ocean as a sheet, the volume thins or thickens, respectively.The boundary conditions dictate no flow across the coastline and free slip at the bottom.The Coriolis effect (inertial force) steers flows moving towards the Equator to the west and flows moving away from the Equator toward the east, allowing coastally trapped waves. Finally, a dissipation term can be added which is an analog to viscosity.","title":"Physics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"amplitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude"},{"link_name":"lithosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithosphere"},{"link_name":"Earth tides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_tide"}],"sub_title":"Amplitude and cycle time","text":"The theoretical amplitude of oceanic tides caused by the Moon is about 54 centimetres (21 in) at the highest point, which corresponds to the amplitude that would be reached if the ocean possessed a uniform depth, there were no landmasses, and the Earth were rotating in step with the Moon's orbit. The Sun similarly causes tides, of which the theoretical amplitude is about 25 centimetres (9.8 in) (46% of that of the Moon) with a cycle time of 12 hours. At spring tide the two effects add to each other to a theoretical level of 79 centimetres (31 in), while at neap tide the theoretical level is reduced to 29 centimetres (11 in). Since the orbits of the Earth about the Sun, and the Moon about the Earth, are elliptical, tidal amplitudes change somewhat as a result of the varying Earth–Sun and Earth–Moon distances. This causes a variation in the tidal force and theoretical amplitude of about ±18% for the Moon and ±5% for the Sun. If both the Sun and Moon were at their closest positions and aligned at new moon, the theoretical amplitude would reach 93 centimetres (37 in).Real amplitudes differ considerably, not only because of depth variations and continental obstacles, but also because wave propagation across the ocean has a natural period of the same order of magnitude as the rotation period: if there were no land masses, it would take about 30 hours for a long wavelength surface wave to propagate along the Equator halfway around the Earth (by comparison, the Earth's lithosphere has a natural period of about 57 minutes). Earth tides, which raise and lower the bottom of the ocean, and the tide's own gravitational self attraction are both significant and further complicate the ocean's response to tidal forces.","title":"Physics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tidal acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_acceleration"},{"link_name":"average","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Average"},{"link_name":"terawatts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terawatt"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Munk1998-66"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ray1996-67"},{"link_name":"[k]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Day length has increased","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_acceleration"}],"sub_title":"Dissipation","text":"See also: Tidal accelerationEarth's tidal oscillations introduce dissipation at an average rate of about 3.75 terawatts.[56] About 98% of this dissipation is by marine tidal movement.[57] Dissipation arises as basin-scale tidal flows drive smaller-scale flows which experience turbulent dissipation. This tidal drag creates torque on the moon that gradually transfers angular momentum to its orbit, and a gradual increase in Earth–moon separation. The equal and opposite torque on the Earth correspondingly decreases its rotational velocity. Thus, over geologic time, the moon recedes from the Earth, at about 3.8 centimetres (1.5 in)/year, lengthening the terrestrial day.[k]Day length has increased by about 2 hours in the last 600 million years. Assuming (as a crude approximation) that the deceleration rate has been constant, this would imply that 70 million years ago, day length was on the order of 1% shorter with about 4 more days per year.","title":"Physics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gorey_Harbour_at_low_tide.JPG"},{"link_name":"Gorey, Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorey,_Jersey"},{"link_name":"bathymetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathymetry"},{"link_name":"altitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altitude_(astronomy)"},{"link_name":"lunitidal interval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunitidal_interval"},{"link_name":"Norfolk, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-noaa7b-70"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"}],"sub_title":"Bathymetry","text":"The harbour of Gorey, Jersey falls dry at low tide.The shape of the shoreline and the ocean floor changes the way that tides propagate, so there is no simple, general rule that predicts the time of high water from the Moon's position in the sky. Coastal characteristics such as underwater bathymetry and coastline shape mean that individual location characteristics affect tide forecasting; actual high water time and height may differ from model predictions due to the coastal morphology's effects on tidal flow. However, for a given location the relationship between lunar altitude and the time of high or low tide (the lunitidal interval) is relatively constant and predictable, as is the time of high or low tide relative to other points on the same coast. For example, the high tide at Norfolk, Virginia, U.S., predictably occurs approximately two and a half hours before the Moon passes directly overhead.Land masses and ocean basins act as barriers against water moving freely around the globe, and their varied shapes and sizes affect the size of tidal frequencies. As a result, tidal patterns vary. For example, in the U.S., the East coast has predominantly semi-diurnal tides, as do Europe's Atlantic coasts, while the West coast predominantly has mixed tides.[59][60][61] Human changes to the landscape can also significantly alter local tides.[62]","title":"Physics"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Observation and prediction"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diurnal_tide_types_map.jpg"},{"link_name":"co-tidal charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Phase_and_amplitude"},{"link_name":"North Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"bathymetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathymetry"},{"link_name":"coastal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast"},{"link_name":"Bay of Fundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Fundy"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BIO2004-77"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FundyWorkshop-78"},{"link_name":"Ungava Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungava_Bay"},{"link_name":"Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BIO2004-77"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FundyWorkshop-78"},{"link_name":"pack ice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pack_ice"},{"link_name":"Southampton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southampton"},{"link_name":"M4 tidal constituents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_tides#Short_period"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pingree_1978-79"},{"link_name":"Portland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Portland"},{"link_name":"Isle of Wight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Wight"},{"link_name":"Portland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Portland"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea"},{"link_name":"Baltic Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea"},{"link_name":"Gulf of Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico"},{"link_name":"Sea of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"amphidrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphidromic_point"}],"sub_title":"Timing","text":"The same tidal forcing has different results depending on many factors, including coast orientation, continental shelf margin, water body dimensions.The tidal forces due to the Moon and Sun generate very long waves which travel all around the ocean following the paths shown in co-tidal charts. The time when the crest of the wave reaches a port then gives the time of high water at the port. The time taken for the wave to travel around the ocean also means that there is a delay between the phases of the Moon and their effect on the tide. Springs and neaps in the North Sea, for example, are two days behind the new/full moon and first/third quarter moon. This is called the tide's age.[63][64]The ocean bathymetry greatly influences the tide's exact time and height at a particular coastal point. There are some extreme cases; the Bay of Fundy, on the east coast of Canada, is often stated to have the world's highest tides because of its shape, bathymetry, and its distance from the continental shelf edge.[65] Measurements made in November 1998 at Burntcoat Head in the Bay of Fundy recorded a maximum range of 16.3 metres (53 ft) and a highest predicted extreme of 17 metres (56 ft).[66][67] Similar measurements made in March 2002 at Leaf Basin, Ungava Bay in northern Quebec gave similar values (allowing for measurement errors), a maximum range of 16.2 metres (53 ft) and a highest predicted extreme of 16.8 metres (55 ft).[66][67] Ungava Bay and the Bay of Fundy lie similar distances from the continental shelf edge, but Ungava Bay is only free of pack ice for about four months every year while the Bay of Fundy rarely freezes.Southampton in the United Kingdom has a double high water caused by the interaction between the M2 and M4 tidal constituents (Shallow water overtides of principal lunar).[68] Portland has double low waters for the same reason. The M4 tide is found all along the south coast of the United Kingdom, but its effect is most noticeable between the Isle of Wight and Portland because the M2 tide is lowest in this region.Because the oscillation modes of the Mediterranean Sea and the Baltic Sea do not coincide with any significant astronomical forcing period, the largest tides are close to their narrow connections with the Atlantic Ocean. Extremely small tides also occur for the same reason in the Gulf of Mexico and Sea of Japan. Elsewhere, as along the southern coast of Australia, low tides can be due to the presence of a nearby amphidrome.","title":"Observation and prediction"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Water_surface_level_changes_with_tides.svg"},{"link_name":"Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"bathymetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathymetry"},{"link_name":"William Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Kelvin"},{"link_name":"Fourier series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series"},{"link_name":"sinusoidal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_wave"},{"link_name":"harmonic analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_analysis"},{"link_name":"lunar theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_theory#Results_of_the_theories"},{"link_name":"[l]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"George Darwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Darwin"},{"link_name":"A.T. Doodson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Thomas_Doodson"},{"link_name":"lunitidal interval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunitidal_interval"},{"link_name":"Ptolemaic theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tidal_constituent_sum.gif"},{"link_name":"theory of tides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_tides#Tidal_constituents"},{"link_name":"data analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis"},{"link_name":"Metonic cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle"},{"link_name":"lunar nodal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_node"},{"link_name":"tidal constituent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_tide#Tidal_constituents"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"South China Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China_Sea"},{"link_name":"Gulf of Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"amphidromic points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphidromic_point"},{"link_name":"Baja California Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baja_California_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland"},{"link_name":"Cook Strait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook_Strait"}],"sub_title":"Analysis","text":"A regular water level chartIsaac Newton's theory of gravitation first enabled an explanation of why there were generally two tides a day, not one, and offered hope for a detailed understanding of tidal forces and behavior. Although it may seem that tides could be predicted via a sufficiently detailed knowledge of instantaneous astronomical forcings, the actual tide at a given location is determined by astronomical forces accumulated by the body of water over many days. In addition, accurate results would require detailed knowledge of the shape of all the ocean basins—their bathymetry, and coastline shape.Current procedure for analysing tides follows the method of harmonic analysis introduced in the 1860s by William Thomson. It is based on the principle that the astronomical theories of the motions of Sun and Moon determine a large number of component frequencies, and at each frequency there is a component of force tending to produce tidal motion, but that at each place of interest on the Earth, the tides respond at each frequency with an amplitude and phase peculiar to that locality. At each place of interest, the tide heights are therefore measured for a period of time sufficiently long (usually more than a year in the case of a new port not previously studied) to enable the response at each significant tide-generating frequency to be distinguished by analysis, and to extract the tidal constants for a sufficient number of the strongest known components of the astronomical tidal forces to enable practical tide prediction. The tide heights are expected to follow the tidal force, with a constant amplitude and phase delay for each component. Because astronomical frequencies and phases can be calculated with certainty, the tide height at other times can then be predicted once the response to the harmonic components of the astronomical tide-generating forces has been found.The main patterns in the tides arethe twice-daily variation\nthe difference between the first and second tide of a day\nthe spring–neap cycle\nthe annual variationThe Highest Astronomical Tide is the perigean spring tide when both the Sun and Moon are closest to the Earth.When confronted by a periodically varying function, the standard approach is to employ Fourier series, a form of analysis that uses sinusoidal functions as a basis set, having frequencies that are zero, one, two, three, etc. times the frequency of a particular fundamental cycle. These multiples are called harmonics of the fundamental frequency, and the process is termed harmonic analysis. If the basis set of sinusoidal functions suit the behaviour being modelled, relatively few harmonic terms need to be added. Orbital paths are very nearly circular, so sinusoidal variations are suitable for tides.For the analysis of tide heights, the Fourier series approach has in practice to be made more elaborate than the use of a single frequency and its harmonics. The tidal patterns are decomposed into many sinusoids having many fundamental frequencies, corresponding (as in the lunar theory) to many different combinations of the motions of the Earth, the Moon, and the angles that define the shape and location of their orbits.For tides, then, harmonic analysis is not limited to harmonics of a single frequency.[l] In other words, the harmonies are multiples of many fundamental frequencies, not just of the fundamental frequency of the simpler Fourier series approach. Their representation as a Fourier series having only one fundamental frequency and its (integer) multiples would require many terms, and would be severely limited in the time-range for which it would be valid.The study of tide height by harmonic analysis was begun by Laplace, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), and George Darwin. A.T. Doodson extended their work, introducing the Doodson Number notation to organise the hundreds of resulting terms. This approach has been the international standard ever since, and the complications arise as follows: the tide-raising force is notionally given by sums of several terms. Each term is of the formA\n \n o\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n ω\n t\n +\n p\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{o}\\cos(\\omega t+p),}whereAo is the amplitude,\nω is the angular frequency, usually given in degrees per hour, corresponding to t measured in hours,\np is the phase offset with regard to the astronomical state at time t = 0.There is one term for the Moon and a second term for the Sun. The phase p of the first harmonic for the Moon term is called the lunitidal interval or high water interval.The next refinement is to accommodate the harmonic terms due to the elliptical shape of the orbits. To do so, the value of the amplitude is taken to be not a constant, but varying with time, about the average amplitude Ao. To do so, replace Ao in the above equation with A(t) where A is another sinusoid, similar to the cycles and epicycles of Ptolemaic theory. This givesA\n (\n t\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n o\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n 1\n +\n \n A\n \n a\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n a\n \n \n t\n +\n \n p\n \n a\n \n \n )\n \n \n )\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(t)=A_{o}{\\bigl (}1+A_{a}\\cos(\\omega _{a}t+p_{a}){\\bigr )},}which is to say an average value Ao with a sinusoidal variation about it of magnitude Aa, with frequency ωa and phase pa. Substituting this for Ao in the original equation gives a product of two cosine factors:A\n \n o\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n 1\n +\n \n A\n \n a\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n a\n \n \n t\n +\n \n p\n \n a\n \n \n )\n \n \n )\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n ω\n t\n +\n p\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{o}{\\bigl (}1+A_{a}\\cos(\\omega _{a}t+p_{a}){\\bigr )}\\cos(\\omega t+p).}Given that for any x and ycos\n \n x\n cos\n \n y\n =\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n cos\n \n (\n x\n +\n y\n )\n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n cos\n \n (\n x\n −\n y\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\cos x\\cos y={\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\cos(x+y)+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\cos(x-y),}it is clear that a compound term involving the product of two cosine terms each with their own frequency is the same as three simple cosine terms that are to be added at the original frequency and also at frequencies which are the sum and difference of the two frequencies of the product term. (Three, not two terms, since the whole expression is \n \n \n \n (\n 1\n +\n cos\n \n x\n )\n cos\n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (1+\\cos x)\\cos y}\n \n.) Consider further that the tidal force on a location depends also on whether the Moon (or the Sun) is above or below the plane of the Equator, and that these attributes have their own periods also incommensurable with a day and a month, and it is clear that many combinations result. With a careful choice of the basic astronomical frequencies, the Doodson Number annotates the particular additions and differences to form the frequency of each simple cosine term.Tidal prediction summing constituent parts. The tidal coefficients are defined on the page theory of tides.Remember that astronomical tides do not include weather effects. Also, changes to local conditions (sandbank movement, dredging harbour mouths, etc.) away from those prevailing at the measurement time affect the tide's actual timing and magnitude. Organisations quoting a \"highest astronomical tide\" for some location may exaggerate the figure as a safety factor against analytical uncertainties, distance from the nearest measurement point, changes since the last observation time, ground subsidence, etc., to avert liability should an engineering work be overtopped. Special care is needed when assessing the size of a \"weather surge\" by subtracting the astronomical tide from the observed tide.Careful Fourier data analysis over a nineteen-year period (the National Tidal Datum Epoch in the U.S.) uses frequencies called the tidal harmonic constituents. Nineteen years is preferred because the Earth, Moon and Sun's relative positions repeat almost exactly in the Metonic cycle of 19 years, which is long enough to include the 18.613 year lunar nodal tidal constituent. This analysis can be done using only the knowledge of the forcing period, but without detailed understanding of the mathematical derivation, which means that useful tidal tables have been constructed for centuries.[69] The resulting amplitudes and phases can then be used to predict the expected tides. These are usually dominated by the constituents near 12 hours (the semi-diurnal constituents), but there are major constituents near 24 hours (diurnal) as well. Longer term constituents are 14 day or fortnightly, monthly, and semiannual. Semi-diurnal tides dominated coastline, but some areas such as the South China Sea and the Gulf of Mexico are primarily diurnal. In the semi-diurnal areas, the primary constituents M2 (lunar) and S2 (solar) periods differ slightly, so that the relative phases, and thus the amplitude of the combined tide, change fortnightly (14 day period).[70]In the M2 plot above, each cotidal line differs by one hour from its neighbors, and the thicker lines show tides in phase with equilibrium at Greenwich. The lines rotate around the amphidromic points counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere so that from Baja California Peninsula to Alaska and from France to Ireland the M2 tide propagates northward. In the southern hemisphere this direction is clockwise. On the other hand, M2 tide propagates counterclockwise around New Zealand, but this is because the islands act as a dam and permit the tides to have different heights on the islands' opposite sides. (The tides do propagate northward on the east side and southward on the west coast, as predicted by theory.)The exception is at Cook Strait where the tidal currents periodically link high to low water. This is because cotidal lines 180° around the amphidromes are in opposite phase, for example high water across from low water at each end of Cook Strait. Each tidal constituent has a different pattern of amplitudes, phases, and amphidromic points, so the M2 patterns cannot be used for other tide components.","title":"Observation and prediction"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tide.Bridgeport.50h.svg"},{"link_name":"Bridgeport, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgeport,_Connecticut"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tide.Bridgeport.30d.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tide.Bridgeport.400d.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tide.NZ.November.png"}],"sub_title":"Example calculation","text":"Tides at Bridgeport, Connecticut, U.S. during a 50-hour period.Tides at Bridgeport, Connecticut, U.S. during a 30-day period.Tides at Bridgeport, Connecticut, U.S. during a 400-day period.Tidal patterns in Cook Strait. The south part (Nelson) has two spring tides per month, versus only one on the north side (Wellington and Napier).Because the Moon is moving in its orbit around the Earth and in the same sense as the Earth's rotation, a point on the Earth must rotate slightly further to catch up so that the time between semi-diurnal tides is not twelve but 12.4206 hours—a bit over twenty-five minutes extra. The two peaks are not equal. The two high tides a day alternate in maximum heights: lower high (just under three feet), higher high (just over three feet), and again lower high. Likewise for the low tides.When the Earth, Moon, and Sun are in line (Sun–Earth–Moon, or Sun–Moon–Earth) the two main influences combine to produce spring tides; when the two forces are opposing each other as when the angle Moon–Earth–Sun is close to ninety degrees, neap tides result. As the Moon moves around its orbit it changes from north of the Equator to south of the Equator. The alternation in high tide heights becomes smaller, until they are the same (at the lunar equinox, the Moon is above the Equator), then redevelop but with the other polarity, waxing to a maximum difference and then waning again.","title":"Observation and prediction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_current"},{"link_name":"scalar quantity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_quantity_(physics)"},{"link_name":"vector quantity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_quantity"},{"link_name":"eddies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)"},{"link_name":"nautical charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_chart"},{"link_name":"Cook Strait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook_Strait"},{"link_name":"Nelson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson,_New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"Wellington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington"},{"link_name":"Napier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napier,_New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"Cape Terawhiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Terawhiti"},{"link_name":"Westport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westport,_New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Current","text":"The tides' influence on current or flow is much more difficult to analyze, and data is much more difficult to collect. A tidal height is a scalar quantity and varies smoothly over a wide region. A flow is a vector quantity, with magnitude and direction, both of which can vary substantially with depth and over short distances due to local bathymetry. Also, although a water channel's center is the most useful measuring site, mariners object when current-measuring equipment obstructs waterways. A flow proceeding up a curved channel may have similar magnitude, even though its direction varies continuously along the channel. Surprisingly, flood and ebb flows are often not in opposite directions. Flow direction is determined by the upstream channel's shape, not the downstream channel's shape. Likewise, eddies may form in only one flow direction.Nevertheless, tidal current analysis is similar to tidal heights analysis: in the simple case, at a given location the flood flow is in mostly one direction, and the ebb flow in another direction. Flood velocities are given positive sign, and ebb velocities negative sign. Analysis proceeds as though these are tide heights.In more complex situations, the main ebb and flood flows do not dominate. Instead, the flow direction and magnitude trace an ellipse over a tidal cycle (on a polar plot) instead of along the ebb and flood lines. In this case, analysis might proceed along pairs of directions, with the primary and secondary directions at right angles. An alternative is to treat the tidal flows as complex numbers, as each value has both a magnitude and a direction.Tide flow information is most commonly seen on nautical charts, presented as a table of flow speeds and bearings at hourly intervals, with separate tables for spring and neap tides. The timing is relative to high water at some harbour where the tidal behaviour is similar in pattern, though it may be far away.As with tide height predictions, tide flow predictions based only on astronomical factors do not incorporate weather conditions, which can completely change the outcome.The tidal flow through Cook Strait between the two main islands of New Zealand is particularly interesting, as the tides on each side of the strait are almost exactly out of phase, so that one side's high water is simultaneous with the other's low water. Strong currents result, with almost zero tidal height change in the strait's center. Yet, although the tidal surge normally flows in one direction for six hours and in the reverse direction for six hours, a particular surge might last eight or ten hours with the reverse surge enfeebled. In especially boisterous weather conditions, the reverse surge might be entirely overcome so that the flow continues in the same direction through three or more surge periods.A further complication for Cook Strait's flow pattern is that the tide at the south side (e.g. at Nelson) follows the common bi-weekly spring–neap tide cycle (as found along the west side of the country), but the north side's tidal pattern has only one cycle per month, as on the east side: Wellington, and Napier.The graph of Cook Strait's tides shows separately the high water and low water height and time, through November 2007; these are not measured values but instead are calculated from tidal parameters derived from years-old measurements. Cook Strait's nautical chart offers tidal current information. For instance the January 1979 edition for 41°13·9’S 174°29·6’E (north west of Cape Terawhiti) refers timings to Westport while the January 2004 issue refers to Wellington. Near Cape Terawhiti in the middle of Cook Strait the tidal height variation is almost nil while the tidal current reaches its maximum, especially near the notorious Karori Rip. Aside from weather effects, the actual currents through Cook Strait are influenced by the tidal height differences between the two ends of the strait and as can be seen, only one of the two spring tides at the north west end of the strait near Nelson has a counterpart spring tide at the south east end (Wellington), so the resulting behaviour follows neither reference harbour.[citation needed]","title":"Observation and prediction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"turbine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbine"},{"link_name":"La Rance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rance_tidal_power_plant"},{"link_name":"Saint Malo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Malo"}],"sub_title":"Power generation","text":"Tidal energy can be extracted by two means: inserting a water turbine into a tidal current, or building ponds that release/admit water through a turbine. In the first case, the energy amount is entirely determined by the timing and tidal current magnitude. However, the best currents may be unavailable because the turbines would obstruct ships. In the second, the impoundment dams are expensive to construct, natural water cycles are completely disrupted, ship navigation is disrupted. However, with multiple ponds, power can be generated at chosen times. So far, there are few installed systems for tidal power generation (most famously, La Rance at Saint Malo, France) which face many difficulties. Aside from environmental issues, simply withstanding corrosion and biological fouling pose engineering challenges.Tidal power proponents point out that, unlike wind power systems, generation levels can be reliably predicted, save for weather effects. While some generation is possible for most of the tidal cycle, in practice turbines lose efficiency at lower operating rates. Since the power available from a flow is proportional to the cube of the flow speed, the times during which high power generation is possible are brief.","title":"Observation and prediction"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tide_legal_use.gif"},{"link_name":"draft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draft_(hull)"},{"link_name":"Royal Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"tidal stream atlas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_stream_atlas"},{"link_name":"knots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knot_(unit)"},{"link_name":"tidal diamonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_diamond"},{"link_name":"dead reckoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_reckoning"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tidal_Indicator_Delaware_River_ca1897.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nautical charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_chart"},{"link_name":"soundings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo_sounding"},{"link_name":"contour lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contour_line"},{"link_name":"chart datum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chart_datum"},{"link_name":"seabed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabed"},{"link_name":"rule of twelfths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths"}],"text":"US civil and maritime uses of tidal dataTidal flows are important for navigation, and significant errors in position occur if they are not accommodated. Tidal heights are also important; for example many rivers and harbours have a shallow \"bar\" at the entrance which prevents boats with significant draft from entering at low tide.Until the advent of automated navigation, competence in calculating tidal effects was important to naval officers. The certificate of examination for lieutenants in the Royal Navy once declared that the prospective officer was able to \"shift his tides\".[71]Tidal flow timings and velocities appear in tide charts or a tidal stream atlas. Tide charts come in sets. Each chart covers a single hour between one high water and another (they ignore the leftover 24 minutes) and show the average tidal flow for that hour. An arrow on the tidal chart indicates the direction and the average flow speed (usually in knots) for spring and neap tides. If a tide chart is not available, most nautical charts have \"tidal diamonds\" which relate specific points on the chart to a table giving tidal flow direction and speed.The standard procedure to counteract tidal effects on navigation is to (1) calculate a \"dead reckoning\" position (or DR) from travel distance and direction, (2) mark the chart (with a vertical cross like a plus sign) and (3) draw a line from the DR in the tide's direction. The distance the tide moves the boat along this line is computed by the tidal speed, and this gives an \"estimated position\" or EP (traditionally marked with a dot in a triangle).Tidal Indicator, Delaware River, Delaware c. 1897. At the time shown in the figure, the tide is 1+1⁄4 feet above mean low water and is still falling, as indicated by pointing of the arrow. Indicator is powered by system of pulleys, cables and a float. (Report Of The Superintendent Of The Coast & Geodetic Survey Showing The Progress Of The Work During The Fiscal Year Ending With June 1897 (p. 483))Nautical charts display the water's \"charted depth\" at specific locations with \"soundings\" and the use of bathymetric contour lines to depict the submerged surface's shape. These depths are relative to a \"chart datum\", which is typically the water level at the lowest possible astronomical tide (although other datums are commonly used, especially historically, and tides may be lower or higher for meteorological reasons) and are therefore the minimum possible water depth during the tidal cycle. \"Drying heights\" may also be shown on the chart, which are the heights of the exposed seabed at the lowest astronomical tide.Tide tables list each day's high and low water heights and times. To calculate the actual water depth, add the charted depth to the published tide height. Depth for other times can be derived from tidal curves published for major ports. The rule of twelfths can suffice if an accurate curve is not available. This approximation presumes that the increase in depth in the six hours between low and high water is: first hour — 1/12, second — 2/12, third — 3/12, fourth — 3/12, fifth — 2/12, sixth — 1/12.","title":"Navigation"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Biological aspects"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intertide_zonation_at_Kalaloch.jpg"},{"link_name":"Intertidal zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertidal_zone"},{"link_name":"ecosystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem"},{"link_name":"ecologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologist"},{"link_name":"different species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_interaction"},{"link_name":"rocky shore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_shore"},{"link_name":"adapted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation"},{"link_name":"vertical zonation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_zonation"},{"link_name":"desiccation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desiccation"},{"link_name":"competition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition_(biology)"},{"link_name":"use","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources"},{"link_name":"intertidal regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertidal_ecology"},{"link_name":"Overexploitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overexploitation"},{"link_name":"invasive species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species"},{"link_name":"climate change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming"},{"link_name":"Marine Protected Areas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Protected_Area"},{"link_name":"research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research"}],"sub_title":"Intertidal ecology","text":"A rock, seen at low water, exhibiting typical intertidal zonation.Further information: Intertidal zoneIntertidal ecology is the study of ecosystems between the low- and high-water lines along a shore. At low water, the intertidal zone is exposed (or emersed), whereas at high water, it is underwater (or immersed). Intertidal ecologists therefore study the interactions between intertidal organisms and their environment, as well as among the different species. The most important interactions may vary according to the type of intertidal community. The broadest classifications are based on substrates — rocky shore or soft bottom.Intertidal organisms experience a highly variable and often hostile environment, and have adapted to cope with and even exploit these conditions. One easily visible feature is vertical zonation, in which the community divides into distinct horizontal bands of specific species at each elevation above low water. A species' ability to cope with desiccation determines its upper limit, while competition with other species sets its lower limit.Humans use intertidal regions for food and recreation. Overexploitation can damage intertidals directly. Other anthropogenic actions such as introducing invasive species and climate change have large negative effects. Marine Protected Areas are one option communities can apply to protect these areas and aid scientific research.","title":"Biological aspects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"biological rhythms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_rhythm"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"vertebrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"gestation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestation"},{"link_name":"menstrual cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menstrual_cycle"},{"link_name":"lunar month","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_month"},{"link_name":"common descent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_descent"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Descent-88"}],"sub_title":"Biological rhythms","text":"The approximately 12-hour and fortnightly tidal cycle has large effects on intertidal[72] and marine organisms.[73] Hence their biological rhythms tend to occur in rough multiples of these periods.[74] Many other animals such as the vertebrates, display similar circatidal rhythms.[75] Examples include gestation and egg hatching. In humans, the menstrual cycle lasts roughly a lunar month, an even multiple of the tidal period. Such parallels at least hint at the common descent of all animals from a marine ancestor.[76]","title":"Biological aspects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"internal waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_wave"},{"link_name":"internal tides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_tide"},{"link_name":"Nantucket Shoals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nantucket_Shoals"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rocur-89"},{"link_name":"atmospheric tides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_tide"},{"link_name":"Earth tides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_tide"},{"link_name":"continuum mechanical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"fluids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_mechanics"},{"link_name":"solid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_mechanics"}],"text":"When oscillating tidal currents in the stratified ocean flow over uneven bottom topography, they generate internal waves with tidal frequencies. Such waves are called internal tides.Shallow areas in otherwise open water can experience rotary tidal currents, flowing in directions that continually change and thus the flow direction (not the flow) completes a full rotation in 12+1⁄2 hours (for example, the Nantucket Shoals).[77]In addition to oceanic tides, large lakes can experience small tides and even planets can experience atmospheric tides and Earth tides. These are continuum mechanical phenomena. The first two take place in fluids. The third affects the Earth's thin solid crust surrounding its semi-liquid interior (with various modifications).","title":"Other tides"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Superior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Superior"},{"link_name":"Erie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Erie"},{"link_name":"seiche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seiche"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"Lake Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Michigan"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"}],"sub_title":"Lake tides","text":"Large lakes such as Superior and Erie can experience tides of 1 to 4 cm (0.39 to 1.6 in), but these can be masked by meteorologically induced phenomena such as seiche.[78] The tide in Lake Michigan is described as 1.3 to 3.8 cm (0.5 to 1.5 in)[79] or 4.4 cm (1+3⁄4 in).[80] This is so small that other larger effects completely mask any tide, and as such these lakes are considered non-tidal.[81]","title":"Other tides"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"weather","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather"}],"sub_title":"Atmospheric tides","text":"Atmospheric tides are negligible at ground level and aviation altitudes, masked by weather's much more important effects. Atmospheric tides are both gravitational and thermal in origin and are the dominant dynamics from about 80 to 120 kilometres (50 to 75 mi), above which the molecular density becomes too low to support fluid behavior.","title":"Other tides"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gyroscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscope"},{"link_name":"GPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS"},{"link_name":"VLBI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLBI"},{"link_name":"polar motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_motion"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Earth tides","text":"Earth tides or terrestrial tides affect the entire Earth's mass, which acts similarly to a liquid gyroscope with a very thin crust. The Earth's crust shifts (in/out, east/west, north/south) in response to lunar and solar gravitation, ocean tides, and atmospheric loading. While negligible for most human activities, terrestrial tides' semi-diurnal amplitude can reach about 55 centimetres (22 in) at the Equator—15 centimetres (5.9 in) due to the Sun—which is important in GPS calibration and VLBI measurements. Precise astronomical angular measurements require knowledge of the Earth's rotation rate and polar motion, both of which are influenced by Earth tides. The semi-diurnal M2 Earth tides are nearly in phase with the Moon with a lag of about two hours.[citation needed]","title":"Other tides"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Galactic tides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_tide"},{"link_name":"satellite galaxies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_galaxy"},{"link_name":"Solar System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System"},{"link_name":"Oort cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"}],"sub_title":"Galactic tides","text":"Galactic tides are the tidal forces exerted by galaxies on stars within them and satellite galaxies orbiting them. The galactic tide's effects on the Solar System's Oort cloud are believed to cause 90 percent of long-period comets.[82]","title":"Other tides"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tsunamis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami"},{"link_name":"rip tide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rip_current"},{"link_name":"storm tide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_tide"},{"link_name":"hurricane tide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_tide"},{"link_name":"black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_spill"},{"link_name":"red tides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_tide"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"}],"text":"Tsunamis, the large waves that occur after earthquakes, are sometimes called tidal waves, but this name is given by their resemblance to the tide, rather than any causal link to the tide. Other phenomena unrelated to tides but using the word tide are rip tide, storm tide, hurricane tide, and black or red tides. Many of these usages are historic and refer to the earlier meaning of tide as \"a portion of time, a season\" and \"a stream, current or flood\".[83]","title":"Misnomers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"amphidromic systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphidromic_system"},{"link_name":"Kelvin waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin_wave"},{"link_name":"seiches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seiche"},{"link_name":"estuaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estuary"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-30"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-33"},{"link_name":"Corollaries 19 and 20 to Proposition 66, on pages 251–254","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA251"},{"link_name":"Propositions 24, 36 and 37, starting on page 255","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bub_gb_6EqxPav3vIsC/page/n279"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-55"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/19980224174548/http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/961029b.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-56"},{"link_name":"Tidal force – Mathematical treatment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_force#Formulation"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-60"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-62"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hicks2006-61"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-64"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-69"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-80"},{"link_name":"Tides Home Page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.arachnoid.com/tides/index.html"}],"text":"^ Coastal orientation and geometry affects the phase, direction, and amplitude of amphidromic systems, coastal Kelvin waves as well as resonant seiches in bays. In estuaries, seasonal river outflows influence tidal flow.\n\n^ Tide tables usually list mean lower low water (mllw, the 19 year average of mean lower low waters), mean higher low water (mhlw), mean lower high water (mlhw), mean higher high water (mhhw), as well as perigean tides. These are mean values in the sense that they derive from mean data.[5]\n\n^ \"The moon, too, as the heavenly body nearest the earth, bestows her effluence most abundantly upon mundane things, for most of them, animate or inanimate, are sympathetic to her and change in company with her; the rivers increase and diminish their streams with her light, the seas turn their own tides with her rising and setting, … \"[18]\n\n^ \"Orbis virtutis tractoriæ, quæ est in Luna, porrigitur utque ad Terras, & prolectat aquas sub Zonam Torridam, … Celeriter vero Luna verticem transvolante, cum aquæ tam celeriter sequi non possint, fluxus quidem fit Oceani sub Torrida in Occidentem, … \" (The sphere of the lifting power, which is [centered] in the moon, is extended as far as to the earth and attracts the waters under the torrid zone, … However the moon flies swiftly across the zenith ; because the waters cannot follow so quickly, the tide of the ocean under the torrid [zone] is indeed made to the west, …\"[26]\n\n^ See for example, in the 'Principia' (Book 1) (1729 translation), Corollaries 19 and 20 to Proposition 66, on pages 251–254, referring back to page 234 et seq.; and in Book 3 Propositions 24, 36 and 37, starting on page 255.\n\n^ According to NASA the lunar tidal force is 2.21 times larger than the solar.\n\n^ See Tidal force – Mathematical treatment and sources cited there.\n\n^ \"The ocean does not produce tides as a direct response to the vertical forces at the bulges. The tidal force is only about 1 ten millionth the size of the gravitational force owing to the Earth's gravity. It is the horizontal component of the tidal force that produces the tidal bulge, causing fluid to converge at the sublunar and antipodal points and move away from the poles, causing a contraction there.\" (...) \"The projection of the tidal force onto the horizontal direction is called the tractive force (see Knauss, Fig. 10.11). This force causes an acceleration of water towards the sublunar and antipodal points, building up water until the pressure gradient force from the bulging sea surface exactly balances the tractive force field.\"[52]\n\n^ \"While the solar and lunar envelopes are thought of as representing the actual ocean waters, another very important factor must be recognized. The components of the tide-generating forces acting tangentially along the water surface turn out to be the most important. Just as it is easier to slide a bucket of water across a floor rather than to lift it, the horizontal tractive components move the waters toward the points directly beneath and away from the sun or moon far more effectively than the vertical components can lift them. These tractive forces are most responsible for trying to form\nthe ocean into the symmetrical egg-shaped distensions (the tide potential, the equilibrium tide). They reach their maximums in rings 45° from the points directly beneath and away from the sun or moon.\"[53]\n\n^ \"... the gravitational effect that causes the tides is much too weak to lift the oceans 12 inches vertically away from the earth. It is possible, however, to move the oceans horizontally within the earth's gravitational field. This gathers the oceans toward two points where the height of the water becomes elevated by the converging volume of water.\"[54]\n\n^ The day is currently lengthening at a rate of about 0.002 seconds per century.[58]\n\n^ To demonstrate this Tides Home Page offers a tidal height pattern converted into an .mp3 sound file, and the rich sound is quite different from a pure tone.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"150 Years of Tides on the Western Coast: The Longest Series of Tidal Observations in the Americas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/150_years_of_tides.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110505153935/http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/150_years_of_tides.pdf"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"Eugene I. Butikov: A dynamical picture of the ocean tides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//faculty.ifmo.ru/butikov/Projects/tides1.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20080911141308/http://faculty.ifmo.ru/butikov/Projects/tides1.pdf"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"Tides and centrifugal force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.vialattea.net/maree/eng/index.htm"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070512004000/http://www.vialattea.net/maree/eng/index.htm"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"O. Toledano et al. (2008): Tides in asynchronous binary systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0610563v1"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170809040314/https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0610563v1"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"\"How Moon and Sun Generate the Tides\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=uSgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA50"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20230916153532/https://books.google.com/books?id=uSgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA50"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"Coastal Tides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20221113030309/https://diffusion.shom.fr/pro/coastal-tides-version-anglaise-de-la-maree-oceanique-cotiere.html"},{"link_name":"Institut océanographique, Fondation Albert Ier, Prince de Monaco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_oc%C3%A9anographique,_Fondation_Albert_Ier,_Prince_de_Monaco"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-2-903581-83-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-903581-83-1"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//diffusion.shom.fr/pro/coastal-tides-version-anglaise-de-la-maree-oceanique-cotiere.html"}],"text":"150 Years of Tides on the Western Coast: The Longest Series of Tidal Observations in the Americas Archived 2011-05-05 at the Wayback Machine NOAA (2004).\nEugene I. Butikov: A dynamical picture of the ocean tides Archived 2008-09-11 at the Wayback Machine\nTides and centrifugal force Archived 2007-05-12 at the Wayback Machine: Why the centrifugal force does not explain the tide's opposite lobe (with nice animations).\nO. Toledano et al. (2008): Tides in asynchronous binary systems Archived 2017-08-09 at the Wayback Machine\nGaylord Johnson \"How Moon and Sun Generate the Tides\" Archived 2023-09-16 at the Wayback Machine Popular Science, April 1934Simon, Bernard (2013) [2007]. Coastal Tides. Translated by Manley, David. Institut océanographique, Fondation Albert Ier, Prince de Monaco. ISBN 978-2-903581-83-1. Archived from the original on 2022-11-13. Retrieved 2021-10-18.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Simplified schematic of only the lunar portion of Earth's tides, showing (exaggerated) high tides at the sublunar point and its antipode for the hypothetical case of an ocean of constant depth without land, and on the assumption that Earth is not rotating; otherwise there is a lag angle. Solar tides not shown.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Tide_overview.svg/300px-Tide_overview.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Earth's rotation drags the position of the tidal bulge ahead of the position directly under the Moon showing the lag angle.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Tidal_circularization_figure1.svg/220px-Tidal_circularization_figure1.svg.png"},{"image_text":"In Maine (U.S.), low tide occurs roughly at moonrise and high tide with a high Moon, corresponding to the simple gravity model of two tidal bulges; at most places however, the Moon and tides have a phase shift.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Tide_and_Moon.jpg/220px-Tide_and_Moon.jpg"},{"image_text":"Tide coming in, video stops about 1+1⁄2 hours before high tide"},{"image_text":"Types of tides (See Timing (below) for coastal map)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Tide_type.svg/220px-Tide_type.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Illustration by the course of half a month","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Tide_terms.png/800px-Tide_terms.png"},{"image_text":"Global surface elevation of M2 ocean tide (NASA)[7]"},{"image_text":"The types of tides","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Tide_schematic.svg/220px-Tide_schematic.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Low tide at Bangchuidao scenic area, Dalian, Liaoning Province, China","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Bangchuidao_Island.JPG/220px-Bangchuidao_Island.JPG"},{"image_text":"Low tide at Ocean Beach in San Francisco, California, U.S.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Negative_low_tide_at_Ocean_Beach_1.jpg/220px-Negative_low_tide_at_Ocean_Beach_1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Low tide at Bar Harbor, Maine, U.S. (2014)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Atlantic_coast_at_low_tide%2C_Bar_Harbor_IMG_2262.JPG/220px-Atlantic_coast_at_low_tide%2C_Bar_Harbor_IMG_2262.JPG"},{"image_text":"M2 tidal constituent. Red is most extreme (highest highs, lowest lows), with blues being least extreme. White cotidal lines converge in blue areas indicating little or no tide. Around these convergences, called amphidromic points, curved arrows show the direction of the tides, each indicating a synchronized 6-hour period. Tidal ranges generally increase with increasing distance from amphidromic points. Tide waves move around these points, generally counterclockwise in the N. Hemisphere and clockwise in the S. Hemisphere [14][15]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/M2_tidal_constituent.jpg/220px-M2_tidal_constituent.jpg"},{"image_text":"Brouscon's Almanach of 1546: Compass bearings of high waters in the Bay of Biscay (left) and the coast from Brittany to Dover (right).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Brouscon_Almanach_1546_Compass_bearing_of_high_waters_in_the_Bay_of_Biscay_left_Brittany_to_Dover_right.jpg/220px-Brouscon_Almanach_1546_Compass_bearing_of_high_waters_in_the_Bay_of_Biscay_left_Brittany_to_Dover_right.jpg"},{"image_text":"Brouscon's Almanach of 1546: Tidal diagrams \"according to the age of the moon\".","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Brouscon_Almanach_1546_Tidal_diagrams_according_to_the_age_of_the_Moon.jpg/220px-Brouscon_Almanach_1546_Tidal_diagrams_according_to_the_age_of_the_Moon.jpg"},{"image_text":"The lunar gravity residual field at the Earth's surface is known as the tide-generating force. This is the primary mechanism that drives tidal action and explains two simultaneous tidal bulges; Earth's rotation further accounts for two daily high waters at any location. The figure shows both the tidal field (thick red arrows) and the gravity field (thin blue arrows) exerted on Earth's surface and center (label O) by the Moon (label S).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Tidal_field_and_gravity_field.svg/220px-Tidal_field_and_gravity_field.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The harbour of Gorey, Jersey falls dry at low tide.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Gorey_Harbour_at_low_tide.JPG/220px-Gorey_Harbour_at_low_tide.JPG"},{"image_text":"The same tidal forcing has different results depending on many factors, including coast orientation, continental shelf margin, water body dimensions.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Diurnal_tide_types_map.jpg/220px-Diurnal_tide_types_map.jpg"},{"image_text":"A regular water level chart","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Water_surface_level_changes_with_tides.svg/440px-Water_surface_level_changes_with_tides.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Tidal prediction summing constituent parts. The tidal coefficients are defined on the page theory of tides.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Tidal_constituent_sum.gif/220px-Tidal_constituent_sum.gif"},{"image_text":"Tides at Bridgeport, Connecticut, U.S. during a 50-hour period.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Tide.Bridgeport.50h.svg/220px-Tide.Bridgeport.50h.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Tides at Bridgeport, Connecticut, U.S. during a 30-day period.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Tide.Bridgeport.30d.svg/220px-Tide.Bridgeport.30d.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Tides at Bridgeport, Connecticut, U.S. during a 400-day period.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Tide.Bridgeport.400d.svg/220px-Tide.Bridgeport.400d.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Tidal patterns in Cook Strait. The south part (Nelson) has two spring tides per month, versus only one on the north side (Wellington and Napier).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Tide.NZ.November.png/220px-Tide.NZ.November.png"},{"image_text":"US civil and maritime uses of tidal data","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Tide_legal_use.gif/220px-Tide_legal_use.gif"},{"image_text":"Tidal Indicator, Delaware River, Delaware c. 1897. At the time shown in the figure, the tide is 1+1⁄4 feet above mean low water and is still falling, as indicated by pointing of the arrow. Indicator is powered by system of pulleys, cables and a float. (Report Of The Superintendent Of The Coast & Geodetic Survey Showing The Progress Of The Work During The Fiscal Year Ending With June 1897 (p. 483))","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Tidal_Indicator_Delaware_River_ca1897.jpg/220px-Tidal_Indicator_Delaware_River_ca1897.jpg"},{"image_text":"A rock, seen at low water, exhibiting typical intertidal zonation.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Intertide_zonation_at_Kalaloch.jpg/170px-Intertide_zonation_at_Kalaloch.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"Aquaculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture"},{"title":"Clairaut's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clairaut%27s_theorem"},{"title":"Coastal erosion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_erosion"},{"title":"Establishment of a port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Establishment_of_a_port"},{"title":"Head of tide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_tide"},{"title":"Hough function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hough_function"},{"title":"King tide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_tide"},{"title":"Lunar Laser Ranging experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Laser_Ranging_experiment"},{"title":"Lunar phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_phase"},{"title":"Raised beach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raised_beach"},{"title":"Mean high water spring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_high_water_spring"},{"title":"Mean low water spring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_low_water_spring"},{"title":"Orbit of the Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit_of_the_Moon"},{"title":"Primitive equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_equations"},{"title":"Tidal barrage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_barrage"},{"title":"Tidal island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_island"},{"title":"Tidal locking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_locking"},{"title":"Tidal prism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_prism"},{"title":"Tidal resonance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_resonance"},{"title":"Tidal river","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_river"},{"title":"Tidal stream generator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_stream_generator"},{"title":"Tidal triggering of earthquakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_triggering_of_earthquakes"},{"title":"Tide pool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide_pool"},{"title":"Tideline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tideline"},{"title":"Tides in marginal seas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tides_in_marginal_seas"},{"title":"Portals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals"},{"title":"Geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Geography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg"},{"title":"Oceans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Oceans"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Drinking_water.jpg"},{"title":"Water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Water"},{"title":"Solar System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Solar_System"},{"title":"Earth sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Geodynamo_Between_Reversals.gif"},{"title":"Geophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Geophysics"}]
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[{"reference":"Reddy, M.P.M. & Affholder, M. (2002). Descriptive physical oceanography: State of the Art. Taylor & Francis. p. 249. ISBN 90-5410-706-5. OCLC 223133263. Archived from the original on 2023-09-16. Retrieved 2022-01-05 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2NC3JmKI7mYC&q=centrifugal&pg=PA436","url_text":"Descriptive physical oceanography: State of the Art"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis","url_text":"Taylor & Francis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-5410-706-5","url_text":"90-5410-706-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/223133263","url_text":"223133263"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230916153028/https://books.google.com/books?id=2NC3JmKI7mYC&q=centrifugal&pg=PA436","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Books","url_text":"Google Books"}]},{"reference":"Hubbard, Richard (1893). Boater's Bowditch: The Small Craft American Practical Navigator. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 54. ISBN 0-07-136136-7. OCLC 44059064. Archived from the original on 2023-09-16. Retrieved 2022-01-05 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nfWSxRr8VP4C&q=centrifugal+revolution+and+rotation&pg=PA54","url_text":"Boater's Bowditch: The Small Craft American Practical Navigator"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw-Hill","url_text":"McGraw-Hill"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-136136-7","url_text":"0-07-136136-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44059064","url_text":"44059064"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230916153028/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfWSxRr8VP4C&q=centrifugal+revolution+and+rotation&pg=PA54","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Books","url_text":"Google Books"}]},{"reference":"\"Tidal lunar day\". NOAA. Archived from the original on 2018-08-17. Retrieved 2007-04-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/tides/media/supp_tide05.html","url_text":"\"Tidal lunar day\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOAA","url_text":"NOAA"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180817075116/https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/tides/media/supp_tide05.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Mellor, George L. (1996). Introduction to physical oceanography. Springer. p. 169. ISBN 1-56396-210-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56396-210-1","url_text":"1-56396-210-1"}]},{"reference":"\"Glossary of Coastal Terminology: H–M\". Washington Department of Ecology, State of Washington. Archived from the original on 21 November 2017. 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(2008): Tides in asynchronous binary systems"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170809040314/https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0610563v1","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=uSgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA50","external_links_name":"\"How Moon and Sun Generate the Tides\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230916153532/https://books.google.com/books?id=uSgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA50","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221113030309/https://diffusion.shom.fr/pro/coastal-tides-version-anglaise-de-la-maree-oceanique-cotiere.html","external_links_name":"Coastal Tides"},{"Link":"https://diffusion.shom.fr/pro/coastal-tides-version-anglaise-de-la-maree-oceanique-cotiere.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/","external_links_name":"NOAA Tides and Currents information and data"},{"Link":"http://www.co-ops.nos.noaa.gov/predhist.html","external_links_name":"History of tide prediction"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150509125035/http://co-ops.nos.noaa.gov/predhist.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/ocng_textbook/chapter17/chapter17_04.htm","external_links_name":"Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000526/http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/ocng_textbook/chapter17/chapter17_04.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://easytide.ukho.gov.uk/EasyTide/EasyTide/index.aspx","external_links_name":"UK Admiralty Easytide"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050406202200/http://www.pol.ac.uk/ntslf/tidalp.html","external_links_name":"UK, South Atlantic, British Overseas Territories and Gibraltar tide times from the UK National Tidal and Sea Level Facility"},{"Link":"http://www.bom.gov.au/oceanography/tides/index.shtml","external_links_name":"Tide Predictions for Australia, South Pacific & Antarctica"},{"Link":"http://tbone.biol.sc.edu/tide/index.html","external_links_name":"Tide and Current Predictor, for stations around the world"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1150792/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119582518","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119582518","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4020945-3","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007536570705171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85135283","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00573677","external_links_name":"Japan"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph208847&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesquilinear_form
|
Sesquilinear form
|
["1 Informal introduction","2 Convention","3 Complex vector spaces","3.1 Matrix representation","3.2 Hermitian form","3.3 Skew-Hermitian form","4 Over a division ring","4.1 Definition","4.2 Orthogonality","4.3 Reflexivity","4.4 Hermitian variations","4.5 Example","5 In projective geometry","6 Over arbitrary rings","7 See also","8 Notes","9 References","10 External links"]
|
Generalization of a bilinear form
In mathematics, a sesquilinear form is a generalization of a bilinear form that, in turn, is a generalization of the concept of the dot product of Euclidean space. A bilinear form is linear in each of its arguments, but a sesquilinear form allows one of the arguments to be "twisted" in a semilinear manner, thus the name; which originates from the Latin numerical prefix sesqui- meaning "one and a half". The basic concept of the dot product – producing a scalar from a pair of vectors – can be generalized by allowing a broader range of scalar values and, perhaps simultaneously, by widening the definition of a vector.
A motivating special case is a sesquilinear form on a complex vector space, V. This is a map V × V → C that is linear in one argument and "twists" the linearity of the other argument by complex conjugation (referred to as being antilinear in the other argument). This case arises naturally in mathematical physics applications. Another important case allows the scalars to come from any field and the twist is provided by a field automorphism.
An application in projective geometry requires that the scalars come from a division ring (skew field), K, and this means that the "vectors" should be replaced by elements of a K-module. In a very general setting, sesquilinear forms can be defined over R-modules for arbitrary rings R.
Informal introduction
Sesquilinear forms abstract and generalize the basic notion of a Hermitian form on complex vector space. Hermitian forms are commonly seen in physics, as the inner product on a complex Hilbert space. In such cases, the standard Hermitian form on Cn is given by
⟨
w
,
z
⟩
=
∑
i
=
1
n
w
¯
i
z
i
.
{\displaystyle \langle w,z\rangle =\sum _{i=1}^{n}{\overline {w}}_{i}z_{i}.}
where
w
¯
i
{\displaystyle {\overline {w}}_{i}}
denotes the complex conjugate of
w
i
.
{\displaystyle w_{i}~.}
This product may be generalized to situations where one is not working with an orthonormal basis for Cn, or even any basis at all. By inserting an extra factor of
i
{\displaystyle i}
into the product, one obtains the skew-Hermitian form, defined more precisely, below. There is no particular reason to restrict the definition to the complex numbers; it can be defined for arbitrary rings carrying an antiautomorphism, informally understood to be a generalized concept of "complex conjugation" for the ring.
Convention
Conventions differ as to which argument should be linear. In the commutative case, we shall take the first to be linear, as is common in the mathematical literature, except in the section devoted to sesquilinear forms on complex vector spaces. There we use the other convention and take the first argument to be conjugate-linear (i.e. antilinear) and the second to be linear. This is the convention used mostly by physicists and originates in Dirac's bra–ket notation in quantum mechanics. It is also consistent with the definition of the usual (Euclidean) product of
w
,
z
∈
C
n
{\displaystyle w,z\in \mathbb {C} ^{n}}
as
w
∗
z
{\displaystyle w^{*}z}
.
In the more general noncommutative setting, with right modules we take the second argument to be linear and with left modules we take the first argument to be linear.
Complex vector spaces
See also: Antidual space and Dual system
Assumption: In this section, sesquilinear forms are antilinear in their first argument and linear in their second.
Over a complex vector space
V
{\displaystyle V}
a map
φ
:
V
×
V
→
C
{\displaystyle \varphi :V\times V\to \mathbb {C} }
is sesquilinear if
φ
(
x
+
y
,
z
+
w
)
=
φ
(
x
,
z
)
+
φ
(
x
,
w
)
+
φ
(
y
,
z
)
+
φ
(
y
,
w
)
φ
(
a
x
,
b
y
)
=
a
¯
b
φ
(
x
,
y
)
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\varphi (x+y,z+w)=\varphi (x,z)+\varphi (x,w)+\varphi (y,z)+\varphi (y,w)\\&\varphi (ax,by)={\overline {a}}b\,\varphi (x,y)\end{aligned}}}
for all
x
,
y
,
z
,
w
∈
V
{\displaystyle x,y,z,w\in V}
and all
a
,
b
∈
C
.
{\displaystyle a,b\in \mathbb {C} .}
Here,
a
¯
{\displaystyle {\overline {a}}}
is the complex conjugate of a scalar
a
.
{\displaystyle a.}
A complex sesquilinear form can also be viewed as a complex bilinear map
V
¯
×
V
→
C
{\displaystyle {\overline {V}}\times V\to \mathbb {C} }
where
V
¯
{\displaystyle {\overline {V}}}
is the complex conjugate vector space to
V
.
{\displaystyle V.}
By the universal property of tensor products these are in one-to-one correspondence with complex linear maps
V
¯
⊗
V
→
C
.
{\displaystyle {\overline {V}}\otimes V\to \mathbb {C} .}
For a fixed
z
∈
V
{\displaystyle z\in V}
the map
w
↦
φ
(
z
,
w
)
{\displaystyle w\mapsto \varphi (z,w)}
is a linear functional on
V
{\displaystyle V}
(i.e. an element of the dual space
V
∗
{\displaystyle V^{*}}
). Likewise, the map
w
↦
φ
(
w
,
z
)
{\displaystyle w\mapsto \varphi (w,z)}
is a conjugate-linear functional on
V
.
{\displaystyle V.}
Given any complex sesquilinear form
φ
{\displaystyle \varphi }
on
V
{\displaystyle V}
we can define a second complex sesquilinear form
ψ
{\displaystyle \psi }
via the conjugate transpose:
ψ
(
w
,
z
)
=
φ
(
z
,
w
)
¯
.
{\displaystyle \psi (w,z)={\overline {\varphi (z,w)}}.}
In general,
ψ
{\displaystyle \psi }
and
φ
{\displaystyle \varphi }
will be different. If they are the same then
φ
{\displaystyle \varphi }
is said to be Hermitian. If they are negatives of one another, then
φ
{\displaystyle \varphi }
is said to be skew-Hermitian. Every sesquilinear form can be written as a sum of a Hermitian form and a skew-Hermitian form.
Matrix representation
If
V
{\displaystyle V}
is a finite-dimensional complex vector space, then relative to any basis
{
e
i
}
i
{\displaystyle \left\{e_{i}\right\}_{i}}
of
V
,
{\displaystyle V,}
a sesquilinear form is represented by a matrix
A
,
{\displaystyle A,}
and given by
φ
(
w
,
z
)
=
φ
(
∑
i
w
i
e
i
,
∑
j
z
j
e
j
)
=
∑
i
∑
j
w
i
¯
z
j
φ
(
e
i
,
e
j
)
=
w
†
A
z
.
{\displaystyle \varphi (w,z)=\varphi \left(\sum _{i}w_{i}e_{i},\sum _{j}z_{j}e_{j}\right)=\sum _{i}\sum _{j}{\overline {w_{i}}}z_{j}\varphi \left(e_{i},e_{j}\right)=w^{\dagger }Az.}
where
w
†
{\displaystyle w^{\dagger }}
is the conjugate transpose. The components of the matrix
A
{\displaystyle A}
are given by
A
i
j
:=
φ
(
e
i
,
e
j
)
.
{\displaystyle A_{ij}:=\varphi \left(e_{i},e_{j}\right).}
Hermitian form
The term Hermitian form may also refer to a different concept than that explained below: it may refer to a certain differential form on a Hermitian manifold.
A complex Hermitian form (also called a symmetric sesquilinear form), is a sesquilinear form
h
:
V
×
V
→
C
{\displaystyle h:V\times V\to \mathbb {C} }
such that
h
(
w
,
z
)
=
h
(
z
,
w
)
¯
.
{\displaystyle h(w,z)={\overline {h(z,w)}}.}
The standard Hermitian form on
C
n
{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{n}}
is given (again, using the "physics" convention of linearity in the second and conjugate linearity in the first variable) by
⟨
w
,
z
⟩
=
∑
i
=
1
n
w
¯
i
z
i
.
{\displaystyle \langle w,z\rangle =\sum _{i=1}^{n}{\overline {w}}_{i}z_{i}.}
More generally, the inner product on any complex Hilbert space is a Hermitian form.
A minus sign is introduced in the Hermitian form
w
w
∗
−
z
z
∗
{\displaystyle ww^{*}-zz^{*}}
to define the group SU(1,1).
A vector space with a Hermitian form
(
V
,
h
)
{\displaystyle (V,h)}
is called a Hermitian space.
The matrix representation of a complex Hermitian form is a Hermitian matrix.
A complex Hermitian form applied to a single vector
|
z
|
h
=
h
(
z
,
z
)
{\displaystyle |z|_{h}=h(z,z)}
is always a real number. One can show that a complex sesquilinear form is Hermitian if and only if the associated quadratic form is real for all
z
∈
V
.
{\displaystyle z\in V.}
Skew-Hermitian form
A complex skew-Hermitian form (also called an antisymmetric sesquilinear form), is a complex sesquilinear form
s
:
V
×
V
→
C
{\displaystyle s:V\times V\to \mathbb {C} }
such that
s
(
w
,
z
)
=
−
s
(
z
,
w
)
¯
.
{\displaystyle s(w,z)=-{\overline {s(z,w)}}.}
Every complex skew-Hermitian form can be written as the imaginary unit
i
:=
−
1
{\displaystyle i:={\sqrt {-1}}}
times a Hermitian form.
The matrix representation of a complex skew-Hermitian form is a skew-Hermitian matrix.
A complex skew-Hermitian form applied to a single vector
|
z
|
s
=
s
(
z
,
z
)
{\displaystyle |z|_{s}=s(z,z)}
is always a purely imaginary number.
Over a division ring
This section applies unchanged when the division ring K is commutative. More specific terminology then also applies: the division ring is a field, the anti-automorphism is also an automorphism, and the right module is a vector space. The following applies to a left module with suitable reordering of expressions.
Definition
A σ-sesquilinear form over a right K-module M is a bi-additive map φ : M × M → K with an associated anti-automorphism σ of a division ring K such that, for all x, y in M and all α, β in K,
φ
(
x
α
,
y
β
)
=
σ
(
α
)
φ
(
x
,
y
)
β
.
{\displaystyle \varphi (x\alpha ,y\beta )=\sigma (\alpha )\,\varphi (x,y)\,\beta .}
The associated anti-automorphism σ for any nonzero sesquilinear form φ is uniquely determined by φ.
Orthogonality
Given a sesquilinear form φ over a module M and a subspace (submodule) W of M, the orthogonal complement of W with respect to φ is
W
⊥
=
{
v
∈
M
∣
φ
(
v
,
w
)
=
0
,
∀
w
∈
W
}
.
{\displaystyle W^{\perp }=\{\mathbf {v} \in M\mid \varphi (\mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {w} )=0,\ \forall \mathbf {w} \in W\}.}
Similarly, x ∈ M is orthogonal to y ∈ M with respect to φ, written x ⊥φ y (or simply x ⊥ y if φ can be inferred from the context), when φ(x, y) = 0. This relation need not be symmetric, i.e. x ⊥ y does not imply y ⊥ x (but see § Reflexivity below).
Reflexivity
A sesquilinear form φ is reflexive if, for all x, y in M,
φ
(
x
,
y
)
=
0
{\displaystyle \varphi (x,y)=0}
implies
φ
(
y
,
x
)
=
0.
{\displaystyle \varphi (y,x)=0.}
That is, a sesquilinear form is reflexive precisely when the derived orthogonality relation is symmetric.
Hermitian variations
A σ-sesquilinear form φ is called (σ, ε)-Hermitian if there exists ε in K such that, for all x, y in M,
φ
(
x
,
y
)
=
σ
(
φ
(
y
,
x
)
)
ε
.
{\displaystyle \varphi (x,y)=\sigma (\varphi (y,x))\,\varepsilon .}
If ε = 1, the form is called σ-Hermitian, and if ε = −1, it is called σ-anti-Hermitian. (When σ is implied, respectively simply Hermitian or anti-Hermitian.)
For a nonzero (σ, ε)-Hermitian form, it follows that for all α in K,
σ
(
ε
)
=
ε
−
1
{\displaystyle \sigma (\varepsilon )=\varepsilon ^{-1}}
σ
(
σ
(
α
)
)
=
ε
α
ε
−
1
.
{\displaystyle \sigma (\sigma (\alpha ))=\varepsilon \alpha \varepsilon ^{-1}.}
It also follows that φ(x, x) is a fixed point of the map α ↦ σ(α)ε. The fixed points of this map form a subgroup of the additive group of K.
A (σ, ε)-Hermitian form is reflexive, and every reflexive σ-sesquilinear form is (σ, ε)-Hermitian for some ε.
In the special case that σ is the identity map (i.e., σ = id), K is commutative, φ is a bilinear form and ε2 = 1. Then for ε = 1 the bilinear form is called symmetric, and for ε = −1 is called skew-symmetric.
Example
Let V be the three dimensional vector space over the finite field F = GF(q2), where q is a prime power. With respect to the standard basis we can write x = (x1, x2, x3) and y = (y1, y2, y3) and define the map φ by:
φ
(
x
,
y
)
=
x
1
y
1
q
+
x
2
y
2
q
+
x
3
y
3
q
.
{\displaystyle \varphi (x,y)=x_{1}y_{1}{}^{q}+x_{2}y_{2}{}^{q}+x_{3}y_{3}{}^{q}.}
The map σ : t ↦ tq is an involutory automorphism of F. The map φ is then a σ-sesquilinear form. The matrix Mφ associated to this form is the identity matrix. This is a Hermitian form.
In projective geometry
Assumption: In this section, sesquilinear forms are antilinear (resp. linear) in their second (resp. first) argument.
In a projective geometry G, a permutation δ of the subspaces that inverts inclusion, i.e.
S ⊆ T ⇒ Tδ ⊆ Sδ for all subspaces S, T of G,
is called a correlation. A result of Birkhoff and von Neumann (1936) shows that the correlations of desarguesian projective geometries correspond to the nondegenerate sesquilinear forms on the underlying vector space. A sesquilinear form φ is nondegenerate if φ(x, y) = 0 for all y in V (if and) only if x = 0.
To achieve full generality of this statement, and since every desarguesian projective geometry may be coordinatized by a division ring, Reinhold Baer extended the definition of a sesquilinear form to a division ring, which requires replacing vector spaces by R-modules. (In the geometric literature these are still referred to as either left or right vector spaces over skewfields.)
Over arbitrary rings
The specialization of the above section to skewfields was a consequence of the application to projective geometry, and not intrinsic to the nature of sesquilinear forms. Only the minor modifications needed to take into account the non-commutativity of multiplication are required to generalize the arbitrary field version of the definition to arbitrary rings.
Let R be a ring, V an R-module and σ an antiautomorphism of R.
A map φ : V × V → R is σ-sesquilinear if
φ
(
x
+
y
,
z
+
w
)
=
φ
(
x
,
z
)
+
φ
(
x
,
w
)
+
φ
(
y
,
z
)
+
φ
(
y
,
w
)
{\displaystyle \varphi (x+y,z+w)=\varphi (x,z)+\varphi (x,w)+\varphi (y,z)+\varphi (y,w)}
φ
(
c
x
,
d
y
)
=
c
φ
(
x
,
y
)
σ
(
d
)
{\displaystyle \varphi (cx,dy)=c\,\varphi (x,y)\,\sigma (d)}
for all x, y, z, w in V and all c, d in R.
An element x is orthogonal to another element y with respect to the sesquilinear form φ (written x ⊥ y) if φ(x, y) = 0. This relation need not be symmetric, i.e. x ⊥ y does not imply y ⊥ x.
A sesquilinear form φ : V × V → R is reflexive (or orthosymmetric) if φ(x, y) = 0 implies φ(y, x) = 0 for all x, y in V.
A sesquilinear form φ : V × V → R is Hermitian if there exists σ such that: 325
φ
(
x
,
y
)
=
σ
(
φ
(
y
,
x
)
)
{\displaystyle \varphi (x,y)=\sigma (\varphi (y,x))}
for all x, y in V. A Hermitian form is necessarily reflexive, and if it is nonzero, the associated antiautomorphism σ is an involution (i.e. of order 2).
Since for an antiautomorphism σ we have σ(st) = σ(t)σ(s) for all s, t in R, if σ = id, then R must be commutative and φ is a bilinear form. In particular, if, in this case, R is a skewfield, then R is a field and V is a vector space with a bilinear form.
An antiautomorphism σ : R → R can also be viewed as an isomorphism R → Rop, where Rop is the opposite ring of R, which has the same underlying set and the same addition, but whose multiplication operation (∗) is defined by a ∗ b = ba, where the product on the right is the product in R. It follows from this that a right (left) R-module V can be turned into a left (right) Rop-module, Vo. Thus, the sesquilinear form φ : V × V → R can be viewed as a bilinear form φ′ : V × Vo → R.
See also
*-ring
Notes
^ footnote 1 in Anthony Knapp Basic Algebra (2007) pg. 255
^
"Combinatorics", Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute, Held at Nijenrode Castle, Breukelen, the Netherlands, 8–20 July 1974, D. Reidel: 456–457, 1975 –
^
Sesquilinear form at the Encyclopedia of Mathematics
^ Simeon Ball (2015), Finite Geometry and Combinatorial Applications, Cambridge University Press, p. 28 –
^ a b
Dembowski 1968, p. 42
^ When char K = 2, skew-symmetric and symmetric bilinear forms coincide since then 1 = −1. In all cases, alternating bilinear forms are a subset of skew-symmetric bilinear forms, and need not be considered separately.
^ Birkhoff, G.; von Neumann, J. (1936), "The logic of quantum mechanics", Annals of Mathematics, 37 (4): 823–843, doi:10.2307/1968621, JSTOR 1968621
^ Baer, Reinhold (2005) , Linear Algebra and Projective Geometry, Dover, ISBN 978-0-486-44565-6
^ Baer's terminology gives a third way to refer to these ideas, so he must be read with caution.
^ Faure, Claude-Alain; Frölicher, Alfred (2000), Modern Projective Geometry, Kluwer Academic Publishers
^ Jacobson 2009, p. 164
References
Dembowski, Peter (1968), Finite geometries, Ergebnisse der Mathematik und ihrer Grenzgebiete, Band 44, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 3-540-61786-8, MR 0233275
Gruenberg, K.W.; Weir, A.J. (1977), Linear Geometry (2nd ed.), Springer, ISBN 0-387-90227-9
Jacobson, Nathan J. (2009) , Basic Algebra I (2nd ed.), Dover, ISBN 978-0-486-47189-1
External links
"Sesquilinear form", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001
vteHilbert spacesBasic concepts
Adjoint
Inner product and L-semi-inner product
Hilbert space and Prehilbert space
Orthogonal complement
Orthonormal basis
Main results
Bessel's inequality
Cauchy–Schwarz inequality
Riesz representation
Other results
Hilbert projection theorem
Parseval's identity
Polarization identity (Parallelogram law)
Maps
Compact operator on Hilbert space
Densely defined
Hermitian form
Hilbert–Schmidt
Normal
Self-adjoint
Sesquilinear form
Trace class
Unitary
Examples
Cn(K) with K compact & n<∞
Segal–Bargmann F
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"bilinear form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilinear_form"},{"link_name":"dot product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_product"},{"link_name":"Euclidean space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_space"},{"link_name":"linear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_map"},{"link_name":"semilinear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semilinear_map"},{"link_name":"numerical prefix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_prefix"},{"link_name":"sesqui-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sesqui-"},{"link_name":"scalar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"complex vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_vector_space"},{"link_name":"complex conjugation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_conjugate"},{"link_name":"antilinear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antilinear"},{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"field automorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_automorphism"},{"link_name":"projective geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective_geometry"},{"link_name":"division ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_ring"},{"link_name":"K-module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-module"},{"link_name":"rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_(mathematics)"}],"text":"In mathematics, a sesquilinear form is a generalization of a bilinear form that, in turn, is a generalization of the concept of the dot product of Euclidean space. A bilinear form is linear in each of its arguments, but a sesquilinear form allows one of the arguments to be \"twisted\" in a semilinear manner, thus the name; which originates from the Latin numerical prefix sesqui- meaning \"one and a half\". The basic concept of the dot product – producing a scalar from a pair of vectors – can be generalized by allowing a broader range of scalar values and, perhaps simultaneously, by widening the definition of a vector.A motivating special case is a sesquilinear form on a complex vector space, V. This is a map V × V → C that is linear in one argument and \"twists\" the linearity of the other argument by complex conjugation (referred to as being antilinear in the other argument). This case arises naturally in mathematical physics applications. Another important case allows the scalars to come from any field and the twist is provided by a field automorphism.An application in projective geometry requires that the scalars come from a division ring (skew field), K, and this means that the \"vectors\" should be replaced by elements of a K-module. In a very general setting, sesquilinear forms can be defined over R-modules for arbitrary rings R.","title":"Sesquilinear form"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"complex vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_vector_space"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"inner product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_product"},{"link_name":"Hilbert space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert_space"},{"link_name":"complex conjugate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_conjugate"},{"link_name":"rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"antiautomorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiautomorphism"}],"text":"Sesquilinear forms abstract and generalize the basic notion of a Hermitian form on complex vector space. Hermitian forms are commonly seen in physics, as the inner product on a complex Hilbert space. In such cases, the standard Hermitian form on Cn is given by⟨\n w\n ,\n z\n ⟩\n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n w\n ¯\n \n \n \n i\n \n \n \n z\n \n i\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle w,z\\rangle =\\sum _{i=1}^{n}{\\overline {w}}_{i}z_{i}.}where \n \n \n \n \n \n \n w\n ¯\n \n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\overline {w}}_{i}}\n \n denotes the complex conjugate of \n \n \n \n \n w\n \n i\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle w_{i}~.}\n \n This product may be generalized to situations where one is not working with an orthonormal basis for Cn, or even any basis at all. By inserting an extra factor of \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i}\n \n into the product, one obtains the skew-Hermitian form, defined more precisely, below. There is no particular reason to restrict the definition to the complex numbers; it can be defined for arbitrary rings carrying an antiautomorphism, informally understood to be a generalized concept of \"complex conjugation\" for the ring.","title":"Informal introduction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Dirac's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Dirac"},{"link_name":"bra–ket notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bra%E2%80%93ket_notation"},{"link_name":"quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"}],"text":"Conventions differ as to which argument should be linear. In the commutative case, we shall take the first to be linear, as is common in the mathematical literature, except in the section devoted to sesquilinear forms on complex vector spaces. There we use the other convention and take the first argument to be conjugate-linear (i.e. antilinear) and the second to be linear. This is the convention used mostly by physicists[1] and originates in Dirac's bra–ket notation in quantum mechanics. It is also consistent with the definition of the usual (Euclidean) product of \n \n \n \n w\n ,\n z\n ∈\n \n \n C\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle w,z\\in \\mathbb {C} ^{n}}\n \n as \n \n \n \n \n w\n \n ∗\n \n \n z\n \n \n {\\displaystyle w^{*}z}\n \n.In the more general noncommutative setting, with right modules we take the second argument to be linear and with left modules we take the first argument to be linear.","title":"Convention"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Antidual space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidual_space"},{"link_name":"Dual system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_system"},{"link_name":"antilinear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antilinear_map"},{"link_name":"linear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_map"},{"link_name":"complex vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_vector_space"},{"link_name":"bilinear map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilinear_map"},{"link_name":"linear functional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_functional"},{"link_name":"dual space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_space"},{"link_name":"conjugate-linear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate-linear"},{"link_name":"functional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"conjugate transpose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_transpose"}],"text":"See also: Antidual space and Dual systemAssumption: In this section, sesquilinear forms are antilinear in their first argument and linear in their second.Over a complex vector space \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n a map \n \n \n \n φ\n :\n V\n ×\n V\n →\n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi :V\\times V\\to \\mathbb {C} }\n \n is sesquilinear ifφ\n (\n x\n +\n y\n ,\n z\n +\n w\n )\n =\n φ\n (\n x\n ,\n z\n )\n +\n φ\n (\n x\n ,\n w\n )\n +\n φ\n (\n y\n ,\n z\n )\n +\n φ\n (\n y\n ,\n w\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n φ\n (\n a\n x\n ,\n b\n y\n )\n =\n \n \n a\n ¯\n \n \n b\n \n φ\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}&\\varphi (x+y,z+w)=\\varphi (x,z)+\\varphi (x,w)+\\varphi (y,z)+\\varphi (y,w)\\\\&\\varphi (ax,by)={\\overline {a}}b\\,\\varphi (x,y)\\end{aligned}}}for all \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ,\n z\n ,\n w\n ∈\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,y,z,w\\in V}\n \n and all \n \n \n \n a\n ,\n b\n ∈\n \n C\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a,b\\in \\mathbb {C} .}\n \n Here, \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\overline {a}}}\n \n is the complex conjugate of a scalar \n \n \n \n a\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a.}A complex sesquilinear form can also be viewed as a complex bilinear mapV\n ¯\n \n \n ×\n V\n →\n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\overline {V}}\\times V\\to \\mathbb {C} }V\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\overline {V}}}complex conjugate vector spaceV\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V.}universal propertytensor productsV\n ¯\n \n \n ⊗\n V\n →\n \n C\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\overline {V}}\\otimes V\\to \\mathbb {C} .}For a fixed \n \n \n \n z\n ∈\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle z\\in V}\n \n the map \n \n \n \n w\n ↦\n φ\n (\n z\n ,\n w\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle w\\mapsto \\varphi (z,w)}\n \n is a linear functional on \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n (i.e. an element of the dual space \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V^{*}}\n \n). Likewise, the map \n \n \n \n w\n ↦\n φ\n (\n w\n ,\n z\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle w\\mapsto \\varphi (w,z)}\n \n is a conjugate-linear functional on \n \n \n \n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V.}Given any complex sesquilinear form \n \n \n \n φ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi }\n \n on \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n we can define a second complex sesquilinear form \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi }\n \n via the conjugate transpose:ψ\n (\n w\n ,\n z\n )\n =\n \n \n \n φ\n (\n z\n ,\n w\n )\n \n ¯\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi (w,z)={\\overline {\\varphi (z,w)}}.}ψ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi }φ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi }φ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi }Hermitianφ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi }skew-Hermitian","title":"Complex vector spaces"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basis_(linear_algebra)"},{"link_name":"matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)"}],"sub_title":"Matrix representation","text":"If \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is a finite-dimensional complex vector space, then relative to any basis \n \n \n \n \n \n {\n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n }\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left\\{e_{i}\\right\\}_{i}}\n \n of \n \n \n \n V\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V,}\n \n a sesquilinear form is represented by a matrix \n \n \n \n A\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A,}\n \n and given byφ\n (\n w\n ,\n z\n )\n =\n φ\n \n (\n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n \n w\n \n i\n \n \n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n ∑\n \n j\n \n \n \n z\n \n j\n \n \n \n e\n \n j\n \n \n \n )\n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n \n ∑\n \n j\n \n \n \n \n \n w\n \n i\n \n \n ¯\n \n \n \n z\n \n j\n \n \n φ\n \n (\n \n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n e\n \n j\n \n \n \n )\n \n =\n \n w\n \n †\n \n \n A\n z\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (w,z)=\\varphi \\left(\\sum _{i}w_{i}e_{i},\\sum _{j}z_{j}e_{j}\\right)=\\sum _{i}\\sum _{j}{\\overline {w_{i}}}z_{j}\\varphi \\left(e_{i},e_{j}\\right)=w^{\\dagger }Az.}w\n \n †\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle w^{\\dagger }}conjugate transposeA\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}A\n \n i\n j\n \n \n :=\n φ\n \n (\n \n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n e\n \n j\n \n \n \n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{ij}:=\\varphi \\left(e_{i},e_{j}\\right).}","title":"Complex vector spaces"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"differential form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_form"},{"link_name":"Hermitian manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitian_manifold"},{"link_name":"SU(1,1)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SU(1,1)"},{"link_name":"Hermitian matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitian_matrix"}],"sub_title":"Hermitian form","text":"The term Hermitian form may also refer to a different concept than that explained below: it may refer to a certain differential form on a Hermitian manifold.A complex Hermitian form (also called a symmetric sesquilinear form), is a sesquilinear form \n \n \n \n h\n :\n V\n ×\n V\n →\n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle h:V\\times V\\to \\mathbb {C} }\n \n such thath\n (\n w\n ,\n z\n )\n =\n \n \n \n h\n (\n z\n ,\n w\n )\n \n ¯\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle h(w,z)={\\overline {h(z,w)}}.}C\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} ^{n}}⟨\n w\n ,\n z\n ⟩\n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n w\n ¯\n \n \n \n i\n \n \n \n z\n \n i\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle w,z\\rangle =\\sum _{i=1}^{n}{\\overline {w}}_{i}z_{i}.}inner productHilbert spaceA minus sign is introduced in the Hermitian form \n \n \n \n w\n \n w\n \n ∗\n \n \n −\n z\n \n z\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle ww^{*}-zz^{*}}\n \n to define the group SU(1,1).A vector space with a Hermitian form \n \n \n \n (\n V\n ,\n h\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (V,h)}\n \n is called a Hermitian space.The matrix representation of a complex Hermitian form is a Hermitian matrix.A complex Hermitian form applied to a single vector|\n \n z\n \n \n |\n \n \n h\n \n \n =\n h\n (\n z\n ,\n z\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |z|_{h}=h(z,z)}real numberif and only ifquadratic formz\n ∈\n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle z\\in V.}","title":"Complex vector spaces"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"skew-Hermitian matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skew-Hermitian_matrix"}],"sub_title":"Skew-Hermitian form","text":"A complex skew-Hermitian form (also called an antisymmetric sesquilinear form), is a complex sesquilinear form \n \n \n \n s\n :\n V\n ×\n V\n →\n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle s:V\\times V\\to \\mathbb {C} }\n \n such thats\n (\n w\n ,\n z\n )\n =\n −\n \n \n \n s\n (\n z\n ,\n w\n )\n \n ¯\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(w,z)=-{\\overline {s(z,w)}}.}imaginary uniti\n :=\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle i:={\\sqrt {-1}}}The matrix representation of a complex skew-Hermitian form is a skew-Hermitian matrix.A complex skew-Hermitian form applied to a single vector|\n \n z\n \n \n |\n \n \n s\n \n \n =\n s\n (\n z\n ,\n z\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |z|_{s}=s(z,z)}imaginary number","title":"Complex vector spaces"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"commutative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_ring"}],"text":"This section applies unchanged when the division ring K is commutative. More specific terminology then also applies: the division ring is a field, the anti-automorphism is also an automorphism, and the right module is a vector space. The following applies to a left module with suitable reordering of expressions.","title":"Over a division ring"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bi-additive map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi-additive_map"},{"link_name":"anti-automorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-automorphism"},{"link_name":"division ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_ring"}],"sub_title":"Definition","text":"A σ-sesquilinear form over a right K-module M is a bi-additive map φ : M × M → K with an associated anti-automorphism σ of a division ring K such that, for all x, y in M and all α, β in K,φ\n (\n x\n α\n ,\n y\n β\n )\n =\n σ\n (\n α\n )\n \n φ\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n \n β\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (x\\alpha ,y\\beta )=\\sigma (\\alpha )\\,\\varphi (x,y)\\,\\beta .}The associated anti-automorphism σ for any nonzero sesquilinear form φ is uniquely determined by φ.","title":"Over a division ring"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"submodule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submodule"},{"link_name":"relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_relation"},{"link_name":"symmetric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_relation"},{"link_name":"§ Reflexivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Reflexivity"}],"sub_title":"Orthogonality","text":"Given a sesquilinear form φ over a module M and a subspace (submodule) W of M, the orthogonal complement of W with respect to φ isW\n \n ⊥\n \n \n =\n {\n \n v\n \n ∈\n M\n ∣\n φ\n (\n \n v\n \n ,\n \n w\n \n )\n =\n 0\n ,\n \n ∀\n \n w\n \n ∈\n W\n }\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle W^{\\perp }=\\{\\mathbf {v} \\in M\\mid \\varphi (\\mathbf {v} ,\\mathbf {w} )=0,\\ \\forall \\mathbf {w} \\in W\\}.}Similarly, x ∈ M is orthogonal to y ∈ M with respect to φ, written x ⊥φ y (or simply x ⊥ y if φ can be inferred from the context), when φ(x, y) = 0. This relation need not be symmetric, i.e. x ⊥ y does not imply y ⊥ x (but see § Reflexivity below).","title":"Over a division ring"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Reflexivity","text":"A sesquilinear form φ is reflexive if, for all x, y in M,φ\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (x,y)=0}\n \n implies \n \n \n \n φ\n (\n y\n ,\n x\n )\n =\n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (y,x)=0.}That is, a sesquilinear form is reflexive precisely when the derived orthogonality relation is symmetric.","title":"Over a division ring"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fixed point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_point_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"subgroup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subgroup"},{"link_name":"additive group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_group"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Demb42-5"},{"link_name":"identity map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_map"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Hermitian variations","text":"A σ-sesquilinear form φ is called (σ, ε)-Hermitian if there exists ε in K such that, for all x, y in M,φ\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n =\n σ\n (\n φ\n (\n y\n ,\n x\n )\n )\n \n ε\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (x,y)=\\sigma (\\varphi (y,x))\\,\\varepsilon .}If ε = 1, the form is called σ-Hermitian, and if ε = −1, it is called σ-anti-Hermitian. (When σ is implied, respectively simply Hermitian or anti-Hermitian.)For a nonzero (σ, ε)-Hermitian form, it follows that for all α in K,σ\n (\n ε\n )\n =\n \n ε\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma (\\varepsilon )=\\varepsilon ^{-1}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n σ\n (\n σ\n (\n α\n )\n )\n =\n ε\n α\n \n ε\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma (\\sigma (\\alpha ))=\\varepsilon \\alpha \\varepsilon ^{-1}.}It also follows that φ(x, x) is a fixed point of the map α ↦ σ(α)ε. The fixed points of this map form a subgroup of the additive group of K.A (σ, ε)-Hermitian form is reflexive, and every reflexive σ-sesquilinear form is (σ, ε)-Hermitian for some ε.[2][3][4][5]In the special case that σ is the identity map (i.e., σ = id), K is commutative, φ is a bilinear form and ε2 = 1. Then for ε = 1 the bilinear form is called symmetric, and for ε = −1 is called skew-symmetric.[6]","title":"Over a division ring"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"finite field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_field"},{"link_name":"prime power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_power"},{"link_name":"involutory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involution_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"identity matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_matrix"}],"sub_title":"Example","text":"Let V be the three dimensional vector space over the finite field F = GF(q2), where q is a prime power. With respect to the standard basis we can write x = (x1, x2, x3) and y = (y1, y2, y3) and define the map φ by:φ\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n =\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n q\n \n \n +\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n q\n \n \n +\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n \n y\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n q\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (x,y)=x_{1}y_{1}{}^{q}+x_{2}y_{2}{}^{q}+x_{3}y_{3}{}^{q}.}The map σ : t ↦ tq is an involutory automorphism of F. The map φ is then a σ-sesquilinear form. The matrix Mφ associated to this form is the identity matrix. This is a Hermitian form.","title":"Over a division ring"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"antilinear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antilinear_map"},{"link_name":"linear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_map"},{"link_name":"projective geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective_geometry"},{"link_name":"permutation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation"},{"link_name":"correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_(projective_geometry)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"desarguesian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desarguesian"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Demb42-5"},{"link_name":"division ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_ring"},{"link_name":"Reinhold Baer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhold_Baer"},{"link_name":"R-modules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Module_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Assumption: In this section, sesquilinear forms are antilinear (resp. linear) in their second (resp. first) argument.In a projective geometry G, a permutation δ of the subspaces that inverts inclusion, i.e.S ⊆ T ⇒ Tδ ⊆ Sδ for all subspaces S, T of G,is called a correlation. A result of Birkhoff and von Neumann (1936)[7] shows that the correlations of desarguesian projective geometries correspond to the nondegenerate sesquilinear forms on the underlying vector space.[5] A sesquilinear form φ is nondegenerate if φ(x, y) = 0 for all y in V (if and) only if x = 0.To achieve full generality of this statement, and since every desarguesian projective geometry may be coordinatized by a division ring, Reinhold Baer extended the definition of a sesquilinear form to a division ring, which requires replacing vector spaces by R-modules.[8] (In the geometric literature these are still referred to as either left or right vector spaces over skewfields.)[9]","title":"In projective geometry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Module_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"antiautomorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiautomorphism"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"involution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involution_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"isomorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_homomorphism"},{"link_name":"opposite ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposite_ring"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"The specialization of the above section to skewfields was a consequence of the application to projective geometry, and not intrinsic to the nature of sesquilinear forms. Only the minor modifications needed to take into account the non-commutativity of multiplication are required to generalize the arbitrary field version of the definition to arbitrary rings.Let R be a ring, V an R-module and σ an antiautomorphism of R.A map φ : V × V → R is σ-sesquilinear ifφ\n (\n x\n +\n y\n ,\n z\n +\n w\n )\n =\n φ\n (\n x\n ,\n z\n )\n +\n φ\n (\n x\n ,\n w\n )\n +\n φ\n (\n y\n ,\n z\n )\n +\n φ\n (\n y\n ,\n w\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (x+y,z+w)=\\varphi (x,z)+\\varphi (x,w)+\\varphi (y,z)+\\varphi (y,w)}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n φ\n (\n c\n x\n ,\n d\n y\n )\n =\n c\n \n φ\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n \n σ\n (\n d\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (cx,dy)=c\\,\\varphi (x,y)\\,\\sigma (d)}for all x, y, z, w in V and all c, d in R.An element x is orthogonal to another element y with respect to the sesquilinear form φ (written x ⊥ y) if φ(x, y) = 0. This relation need not be symmetric, i.e. x ⊥ y does not imply y ⊥ x.A sesquilinear form φ : V × V → R is reflexive (or orthosymmetric) if φ(x, y) = 0 implies φ(y, x) = 0 for all x, y in V.A sesquilinear form φ : V × V → R is Hermitian if there exists σ such that[10]: 325φ\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n =\n σ\n (\n φ\n (\n y\n ,\n x\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (x,y)=\\sigma (\\varphi (y,x))}for all x, y in V. A Hermitian form is necessarily reflexive, and if it is nonzero, the associated antiautomorphism σ is an involution (i.e. of order 2).Since for an antiautomorphism σ we have σ(st) = σ(t)σ(s) for all s, t in R, if σ = id, then R must be commutative and φ is a bilinear form. In particular, if, in this case, R is a skewfield, then R is a field and V is a vector space with a bilinear form.An antiautomorphism σ : R → R can also be viewed as an isomorphism R → Rop, where Rop is the opposite ring of R, which has the same underlying set and the same addition, but whose multiplication operation (∗) is defined by a ∗ b = ba, where the product on the right is the product in R. It follows from this that a right (left) R-module V can be turned into a left (right) Rop-module, Vo.[11] Thus, the sesquilinear form φ : V × V → R can be viewed as a bilinear form φ′ : V × Vo → R.","title":"Over arbitrary rings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Anthony Knapp Basic Algebra (2007) pg. 255","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=NSXCaGSVaX4C&dq=sesquilinear+forms+over+general+fields&pg=PA255"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"D. Reidel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._Reidel"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=S9q8uKabV60C&pg=PA456"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Sesquilinear form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Sesquilinear_form"},{"link_name":"Encyclopedia of Mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Mathematics"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=ScvSCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA28"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Demb42_5-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Demb42_5-1"},{"link_name":"Dembowski 1968","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDembowski1968"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"char","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characteristic_(algebra)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/1968621","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F1968621"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1968621","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/1968621"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-486-44565-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-44565-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"Kluwer Academic Publishers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kluwer_Academic_Publishers"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"Jacobson 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFJacobson2009"}],"text":"^ footnote 1 in Anthony Knapp Basic Algebra (2007) pg. 255\n\n^ \n\"Combinatorics\", Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute, Held at Nijenrode Castle, Breukelen, the Netherlands, 8–20 July 1974, D. Reidel: 456–457, 1975 – [1]\n\n^ \nSesquilinear form at the Encyclopedia of Mathematics\n\n^ Simeon Ball (2015), Finite Geometry and Combinatorial Applications, Cambridge University Press, p. 28 – [2]\n\n^ a b \nDembowski 1968, p. 42\n\n^ When char K = 2, skew-symmetric and symmetric bilinear forms coincide since then 1 = −1. In all cases, alternating bilinear forms are a subset of skew-symmetric bilinear forms, and need not be considered separately.\n\n^ Birkhoff, G.; von Neumann, J. (1936), \"The logic of quantum mechanics\", Annals of Mathematics, 37 (4): 823–843, doi:10.2307/1968621, JSTOR 1968621\n\n^ Baer, Reinhold (2005) [1952], Linear Algebra and Projective Geometry, Dover, ISBN 978-0-486-44565-6\n\n^ Baer's terminology gives a third way to refer to these ideas, so he must be read with caution.\n\n^ Faure, Claude-Alain; Frölicher, Alfred (2000), Modern Projective Geometry, Kluwer Academic Publishers\n\n^ Jacobson 2009, p. 164","title":"Notes"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"*-ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/*-ring"}]
|
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|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_cover
|
Set cover problem
|
["1 Variants","2 Linear program formulation","3 Hitting set formulation","4 Greedy algorithm","5 Low-frequency systems","6 Inapproximability results","7 Weighted set cover","8 Fractional set cover","9 Related problems","10 Notes","11 References","12 External links"]
|
Classical problem in combinatorics
Example of an instance of set cover problem.
The set cover problem is a classical question in combinatorics, computer science, operations research, and complexity theory.
Given a set of elements {1, 2, …, n} (called the universe) and a collection S of m subsets whose union equals the universe, the set cover problem is to identify the smallest sub-collection of S whose union equals the universe. For example, consider the universe U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and the collection of sets S = { {1, 2, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}, {4, 5} }. Clearly the union of S is U. However, we can cover all elements with only two sets: { {1, 2, 3}, {4, 5} }, see picture. Therefore, the solution to the set cover problem has size 2.
More formally, given a universe
U
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {U}}}
and a family
S
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}}
of subsets of
U
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {U}}}
, a set cover is a subfamily
C
⊆
S
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {C}}\subseteq {\mathcal {S}}}
of sets whose union is
U
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {U}}}
.
In the set cover decision problem, the input is a pair
(
U
,
S
)
{\displaystyle ({\mathcal {U}},{\mathcal {S}})}
and an integer
k
{\displaystyle k}
; the question is whether there is a set cover of size
k
{\displaystyle k}
or less.
In the set cover optimization problem, the input is a pair
(
U
,
S
)
{\displaystyle ({\mathcal {U}},{\mathcal {S}})}
, and the task is to find a set cover that uses the fewest sets.
The decision version of set covering is NP-complete. It is one of Karp's 21 NP-complete problems shown to be NP-complete in 1972. The optimization/search version of set cover is NP-hard. It is a problem "whose study has led to the development of fundamental techniques for the entire field" of approximation algorithms.
Variants
In the weighted set cover problem, each set is assigned a positive weight (representing its cost), and the goal is to find a set cover with a smallest weight. The usual (unweighted) set cover corresponds to all sets having a weight of 1.
In the fractional set cover problem, it is allowed to select fractions of sets, rather than entire sets. A fractional set cover is an assignment of a fraction (a number in ) to each set in
S
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}}
, such that for each element x in the universe, the sum of fractions of sets that contain x is at least 1. The goal is to find a fractional set cover in which the sum of fractions is as small as possible. Note that a (usual) set cover is equivalent to a fractional set cover in which all fractions are either 0 or 1; therefore, the size of the smallest fractional cover is at most the size of the smallest cover, but may be smaller. For example, consider the universe U = {1, 2, 3} and the collection of sets S = { {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 1} }. The smallest set cover has a size of 2, e.g. { {1, 2}, {2, 3} }. But there is a fractional set cover of size 1.5, in which a 0.5 fraction of each set is taken. Covering/packing-problem pairs
Covering problems Packing problems Minimum set cover Maximum set packing Minimum edge cover Maximum matching Minimum vertex cover Maximum independent set Bin covering Bin packing Polygon covering Rectangle packing
vte
Linear program formulation
The set cover problem can be formulated as the following integer linear program (ILP).
minimize
∑
s
∈
S
x
s
{\displaystyle \sum _{s\in {\mathcal {S}}}x_{s}}
(minimize the number of sets)
subject to
∑
s
:
e
∈
s
x
s
⩾
1
{\displaystyle \sum _{s\colon e\in s}x_{s}\geqslant 1}
for all
e
∈
U
{\displaystyle e\in {\mathcal {U}}}
(cover every element of the universe)
x
s
∈
{
0
,
1
}
{\displaystyle x_{s}\in \{0,1\}}
for all
s
∈
S
{\displaystyle s\in {\mathcal {S}}}
.
(every set is either in the set cover or not)
For a more compact representation of the covering constraint, one can define an incidence matrix
A
{\displaystyle A}
, where each row corresponds to an element and each column corresponds to a set, and
A
e
,
s
=
1
{\displaystyle A_{e,s}=1}
if element e is in set s, and
A
e
,
s
=
0
{\displaystyle A_{e,s}=0}
otherwise. Then, the covering constraint can be written as
A
x
⩾
1
{\displaystyle Ax\geqslant 1}
.
Weighted set cover is described by a program identical to the one given above, except that the objective function to minimize is
∑
s
∈
S
w
s
x
s
{\displaystyle \sum _{s\in {\mathcal {S}}}w_{s}x_{s}}
, where
w
s
{\displaystyle w_{s}}
is the weight of set
s
∈
S
{\displaystyle s\in {\mathcal {S}}}
.
Fractional set cover is described by a program identical to the one given above, except that
x
s
{\displaystyle x_{s}}
can be non-integer, so the last constraint is replaced by
0
≤
x
s
≤
1
{\displaystyle 0\leq x_{s}\leq 1}
.
This linear program belongs to the more general class of LPs for covering problems, as all the coefficients in the objective function and both sides of the constraints are non-negative. The integrality gap of the ILP is at most
log
n
{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \log n}
(where
n
{\displaystyle \scriptstyle n}
is the size of the universe). It has been shown that its relaxation indeed gives a factor-
log
n
{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \log n}
approximation algorithm for the minimum set cover problem. See randomized rounding#setcover for a detailed explanation.
Hitting set formulation
Set covering is equivalent to the hitting set problem. That is seen by observing that an instance of set covering can
be viewed as an arbitrary bipartite graph, with the universe represented by vertices on the left, the sets represented by vertices on the
right, and edges representing the membership of elements to sets. The task is then to find a minimum cardinality subset of left-vertices that has a non-trivial intersection with each of the right-vertices, which is precisely the hitting set problem.
In the field of computational geometry, a hitting set for a collection of geometrical objects is also called a stabbing set or piercing set.
Greedy algorithm
There is a greedy algorithm for polynomial time approximation of set covering that chooses sets according to one rule: at each stage, choose the set that contains the largest number of uncovered elements. This method can be implemented in time linear in the sum of sizes of the input sets, using a bucket queue to prioritize the sets. It achieves an approximation ratio of
H
(
s
)
{\displaystyle H(s)}
, where
s
{\displaystyle s}
is the size of the set to be covered. In other words, it finds a covering that may be
H
(
n
)
{\displaystyle H(n)}
times as large as the minimum one, where
H
(
n
)
{\displaystyle H(n)}
is the
n
{\displaystyle n}
-th harmonic number:
H
(
n
)
=
∑
k
=
1
n
1
k
≤
ln
n
+
1
{\displaystyle H(n)=\sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{k}}\leq \ln {n}+1}
This greedy algorithm actually achieves an approximation ratio of
H
(
s
′
)
{\displaystyle H(s^{\prime })}
where
s
′
{\displaystyle s^{\prime }}
is the maximum cardinality set of
S
{\displaystyle S}
. For
δ
−
{\displaystyle \delta -}
dense instances, however, there exists a
c
ln
m
{\displaystyle c\ln {m}}
-approximation algorithm for every
c
>
0
{\displaystyle c>0}
.
Tight example for the greedy algorithm with k=3
There is a standard example on which the greedy algorithm achieves an approximation ratio of
log
2
(
n
)
/
2
{\displaystyle \log _{2}(n)/2}
.
The universe consists of
n
=
2
(
k
+
1
)
−
2
{\displaystyle n=2^{(k+1)}-2}
elements. The set system consists of
k
{\displaystyle k}
pairwise disjoint sets
S
1
,
…
,
S
k
{\displaystyle S_{1},\ldots ,S_{k}}
with sizes
2
,
4
,
8
,
…
,
2
k
{\displaystyle 2,4,8,\ldots ,2^{k}}
respectively, as well as two additional disjoint sets
T
0
,
T
1
{\displaystyle T_{0},T_{1}}
,
each of which contains half of the elements from each
S
i
{\displaystyle S_{i}}
. On this input, the greedy algorithm takes the sets
S
k
,
…
,
S
1
{\displaystyle S_{k},\ldots ,S_{1}}
, in that order, while the optimal solution consists only of
T
0
{\displaystyle T_{0}}
and
T
1
{\displaystyle T_{1}}
.
An example of such an input for
k
=
3
{\displaystyle k=3}
is pictured on the right.
Inapproximability results show that the greedy algorithm is essentially the best-possible polynomial time approximation algorithm for set cover up to lower order terms
(see Inapproximability results below), under plausible complexity assumptions. A tighter analysis for the greedy algorithm shows that the approximation ratio is exactly
ln
n
−
ln
ln
n
+
Θ
(
1
)
{\displaystyle \ln {n}-\ln {\ln {n}}+\Theta (1)}
.
Low-frequency systems
If each element occurs in at most f sets, then a solution can be found in polynomial time that approximates the optimum to within a factor of f using LP relaxation.
If the constraint
x
S
∈
{
0
,
1
}
{\displaystyle x_{S}\in \{0,1\}}
is replaced by
x
S
≥
0
{\displaystyle x_{S}\geq 0}
for all S in
S
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}}
in the integer linear program shown above, then it becomes a (non-integer) linear program L. The algorithm can be described as follows:
Find an optimal solution O for the program L using some polynomial-time method of solving linear programs.
Pick all sets S for which the corresponding variable xS has value at least 1/f in the solution O.
Inapproximability results
When
n
{\displaystyle n}
refers to the size of the universe, Lund & Yannakakis (1994) showed that set covering cannot be approximated in polynomial time to within a factor of
1
2
log
2
n
≈
0.72
ln
n
{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}\log _{2}{n}\approx 0.72\ln {n}}
, unless NP has quasi-polynomial time algorithms. Feige (1998) improved this lower bound to
(
1
−
o
(
1
)
)
⋅
ln
n
{\displaystyle {\bigl (}1-o(1){\bigr )}\cdot \ln {n}}
under the same assumptions, which essentially matches the approximation ratio achieved by the greedy algorithm. Raz & Safra (1997) established a lower bound
of
c
⋅
ln
n
{\displaystyle c\cdot \ln {n}}
, where
c
{\displaystyle c}
is a certain constant, under the weaker assumption that P
≠
{\displaystyle \not =}
NP.
A similar result with a higher value of
c
{\displaystyle c}
was recently proved by Alon, Moshkovitz & Safra (2006). Dinur & Steurer (2013) showed optimal inapproximability by proving that it cannot be approximated to
(
1
−
o
(
1
)
)
⋅
ln
n
{\displaystyle {\bigl (}1-o(1){\bigr )}\cdot \ln {n}}
unless P
=
{\displaystyle =}
NP.
In low-frequency systems, Dinur et al. (2003) proved it is NP-hard to approximate set cover to better than
f
−
1
−
ϵ
{\displaystyle f-1-\epsilon }
.
If the Unique games conjecture is true, this can be improved to
f
−
ϵ
{\displaystyle f-\epsilon }
as proven by Khot & Regev (2008).
Trevisan (2001) proves that set cover instances with sets of size at most
Δ
{\displaystyle \Delta }
cannot be approximated to a factor better than
ln
Δ
−
O
(
ln
ln
Δ
)
{\displaystyle \ln \Delta -O(\ln \ln \Delta )}
unless P
=
{\displaystyle =}
NP, thus making the approximation of
ln
Δ
+
1
{\displaystyle \ln \Delta +1}
of the greedy algorithm essentially tight in this case.
Weighted set cover
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2017)
Relaxing the integer linear program for weighted set cover stated above, one may use randomized rounding to get an
O
(
log
n
)
{\displaystyle O(\log n)}
-factor approximation. Non weighted set cover can be adapted to the weighted case.
Fractional set cover
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2023)
Related problems
Hitting set is an equivalent reformulation of Set Cover.
Vertex cover is a special case of Hitting Set.
Edge cover is a special case of Set Cover.
Geometric set cover is a special case of Set Cover when the universe is a set of points in
R
d
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{d}}
and the sets are induced by the intersection of the universe and geometric shapes (e.g., disks, rectangles).
Set packing
Maximum coverage problem is to choose at most k sets to cover as many elements as possible.
Dominating set is the problem of selecting a set of vertices (the dominating set) in a graph such that all other vertices are adjacent to at least one vertex in the dominating set. The Dominating set problem was shown to be NP complete through a reduction from Set cover.
Exact cover problem is to choose a set cover with no element included in more than one covering set.
Red-blue set cover.
Set-cover abduction.
Monotone dualization is a computational problem equivalent to either listing all minimal hitting sets or listing all minimal set covers of a given set family.
Notes
^ Korte & Vygen 2012, p. 414.
^ Vazirani (2001, p. 15)
^ Vazirani (2001, p. 108)
^ Vazirani (2001, pp. 110–112)
^ Nielsen, Frank (2000-09-06). "Fast stabbing of boxes in high dimensions" (PDF). Theoretical Computer Science. 246 (1): 53–72. doi:10.1016/S0304-3975(98)00336-3. ISSN 0304-3975.
^ Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2009) , "Exercise 35.3-3", Introduction to Algorithms (3rd ed.), MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, p. 1122, ISBN 0-262-03384-4
^ Chvatal, V. (August 1979), "A Greedy Heuristic for the Set-Covering Problem", Mathematics of Operations Research, 4 (3): 233–235, doi:10.1287/moor.4.3.233, JSTOR 3689577
^
Karpinski & Zelikovsky 1998
^ Slavík Petr A tight analysis of the greedy algorithm for set cover. STOC'96, Pages 435-441, doi:10.1145/237814.237991
^ Vazirani (2001, pp. 118–119)
^ Vazirani (2001, Chapter 14)
^ Information., Sandia National Laboratories. United States. Department of Energy. United States. Department of Energy. Office of Scientific and Technical (1999). On the Red-Blue Set Cover Problem. United States. Dept. of Energy. OCLC 68396743.
^ Gainer-Dewar, Andrew; Vera-Licona, Paola (2017), "The minimal hitting set generation problem: algorithms and computation", SIAM Journal on Discrete Mathematics, 31 (1): 63–100, arXiv:1601.02939, doi:10.1137/15M1055024, MR 3590650, S2CID 9240467
References
Alon, Noga; Moshkovitz, Dana; Safra, Shmuel (2006), "Algorithmic construction of sets for k-restrictions", ACM Trans. Algorithms, 2 (2): 153–177, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.138.8682, doi:10.1145/1150334.1150336, ISSN 1549-6325, S2CID 11922650.
Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2001), Introduction to Algorithms, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, pp. 1033–1038, ISBN 978-0-262-03293-3
Feige, Uriel (1998), "A threshold of ln n for approximating set cover", Journal of the ACM, 45 (4): 634–652, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.70.5014, doi:10.1145/285055.285059, ISSN 0004-5411, S2CID 52827488.
Karpinski, Marek; Zelikovsky, Alexander (1998), "Approximating dense cases of covering problems", Proceedings of the DIMACS Workshop on Network Design: Connectivity and Facilities Location, vol. 40, American Mathematical Society, pp. 169–178, ISBN 9780821870846
Lund, Carsten; Yannakakis, Mihalis (1994), "On the hardness of approximating minimization problems", Journal of the ACM, 41 (5): 960–981, doi:10.1145/185675.306789, ISSN 0004-5411, S2CID 9021065.
Raz, Ran; Safra, Shmuel (1997), "A sub-constant error-probability low-degree test, and a sub-constant error-probability PCP characterization of NP", STOC '97: Proceedings of the twenty-ninth annual ACM symposium on Theory of computing, ACM, pp. 475–484, ISBN 978-0-89791-888-6.
Dinur, Irit; Steurer, David (2013), "Analytical approach to parallel repetition", STOC '14: Proceedings of the forty-sixth annual ACM symposium on Theory of computing, ACM, pp. 624–633.
Vazirani, Vijay V. (2001), Approximation Algorithms (PDF), Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-540-65367-7
Korte, Bernhard; Vygen, Jens (2012), Combinatorial Optimization: Theory and Algorithms (5 ed.), Springer, ISBN 978-3-642-24487-2
Cardoso, Nuno; Abreu, Rui (2014), "An Efficient Distributed Algorithm for Computing Minimal Hitting Sets" (PDF), Proceedings of the 25th International Workshop on Principles of Diagnosis, Graz, Austria, doi:10.5281/zenodo.10037{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Dinur, Irit; Guruswami, Venkatesan; Khot, Subhash; Regev, Oded (2003), A new multilayered PCP and the hardness of hypergraph vertex cover, Association for Computing Machinery, pp. 595–601, ISBN 1581136749
Khot, Subhash; Regev, Oded (2008), Vertex cover might be hard to approximate to within 2−
ϵ
{\displaystyle \epsilon }
, Journal of Computer and System Sciences, pp. 335–349
Trevisan, Luca (2001), Non-approximability results for optimization problems on bounded degree instances, Association for Computing Machinery, pp. 453–461
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Set cover problem.
Benchmarks with Hidden Optimum Solutions for Set Covering, Set Packing and Winner Determination
A compendium of NP optimization problems - Minimum Set Cover
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SetCover.svg"},{"link_name":"combinatorics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorics"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"operations research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operations_research"},{"link_name":"complexity theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory"},{"link_name":"set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_(set_theory)"},{"link_name":"decision problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_problem"},{"link_name":"optimization problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimization_problem"},{"link_name":"NP-complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-complete"},{"link_name":"Karp's 21 NP-complete problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karp%27s_21_NP-complete_problems"},{"link_name":"NP-complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-complete"},{"link_name":"NP-hard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-hard"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorteVygen2012414-1"},{"link_name":"approximation algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximation_algorithms"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Example of an instance of set cover problem.The set cover problem is a classical question in combinatorics, computer science, operations research, and complexity theory.Given a set of elements {1, 2, …, n} (called the universe) and a collection S of m subsets whose union equals the universe, the set cover problem is to identify the smallest sub-collection of S whose union equals the universe. For example, consider the universe U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and the collection of sets S = { {1, 2, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}, {4, 5} }. Clearly the union of S is U. However, we can cover all elements with only two sets: { {1, 2, 3}, {4, 5} }, see picture. Therefore, the solution to the set cover problem has size 2.More formally, given a universe \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {U}}}\n \n and a family \n \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {S}}}\n \n of subsets of \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {U}}}\n \n, a set cover is a subfamily \n \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n ⊆\n \n \n S\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {C}}\\subseteq {\\mathcal {S}}}\n \n of sets whose union is \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {U}}}\n \n.In the set cover decision problem, the input is a pair \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n U\n \n \n ,\n \n \n S\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\mathcal {U}},{\\mathcal {S}})}\n \n and an integer \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n; the question is whether there is a set cover of size \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n or less.\nIn the set cover optimization problem, the input is a pair \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n U\n \n \n ,\n \n \n S\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\mathcal {U}},{\\mathcal {S}})}\n \n, and the task is to find a set cover that uses the fewest sets.The decision version of set covering is NP-complete. It is one of Karp's 21 NP-complete problems shown to be NP-complete in 1972. The optimization/search version of set cover is NP-hard.[1] It is a problem \"whose study has led to the development of fundamental techniques for the entire field\" of approximation algorithms.[2]","title":"Set cover problem"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"In the weighted set cover problem, each set is assigned a positive weight (representing its cost), and the goal is to find a set cover with a smallest weight. The usual (unweighted) set cover corresponds to all sets having a weight of 1.In the fractional set cover problem, it is allowed to select fractions of sets, rather than entire sets. A fractional set cover is an assignment of a fraction (a number in [0,1]) to each set in \n \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {S}}}\n \n, such that for each element x in the universe, the sum of fractions of sets that contain x is at least 1. The goal is to find a fractional set cover in which the sum of fractions is as small as possible. Note that a (usual) set cover is equivalent to a fractional set cover in which all fractions are either 0 or 1; therefore, the size of the smallest fractional cover is at most the size of the smallest cover, but may be smaller. For example, consider the universe U = {1, 2, 3} and the collection of sets S = { {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 1} }. The smallest set cover has a size of 2, e.g. { {1, 2}, {2, 3} }. But there is a fractional set cover of size 1.5, in which a 0.5 fraction of each set is taken.","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"integer linear program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_linear_program"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"incidence matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidence_matrix"},{"link_name":"covering problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covering_problem"},{"link_name":"integrality gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_programming_relaxation#Approximation_and_integrality_gap"},{"link_name":"relaxation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_programming_relaxation"},{"link_name":"approximation algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximation_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"randomized rounding#setcover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_rounding#setcover"}],"text":"The set cover problem can be formulated as the following integer linear program (ILP).[3]For a more compact representation of the covering constraint, one can define an incidence matrix \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n, where each row corresponds to an element and each column corresponds to a set, and \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n e\n ,\n s\n \n \n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{e,s}=1}\n \n if element e is in set s, and \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n e\n ,\n s\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{e,s}=0}\n \n otherwise. Then, the covering constraint can be written as \n \n \n \n A\n x\n ⩾\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Ax\\geqslant 1}\n \n.Weighted set cover is described by a program identical to the one given above, except that the objective function to minimize is \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n s\n ∈\n \n \n S\n \n \n \n \n \n w\n \n s\n \n \n \n x\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum _{s\\in {\\mathcal {S}}}w_{s}x_{s}}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n \n w\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle w_{s}}\n \n is the weight of set \n \n \n \n s\n ∈\n \n \n S\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle s\\in {\\mathcal {S}}}\n \n.Fractional set cover is described by a program identical to the one given above, except that \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{s}}\n \n can be non-integer, so the last constraint is replaced by \n \n \n \n 0\n ≤\n \n x\n \n s\n \n \n ≤\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0\\leq x_{s}\\leq 1}\n \n.This linear program belongs to the more general class of LPs for covering problems, as all the coefficients in the objective function and both sides of the constraints are non-negative. The integrality gap of the ILP is at most \n \n \n \n \n log\n \n n\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\scriptstyle \\log n}\n \n (where \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\scriptstyle n}\n \n is the size of the universe). It has been shown that its relaxation indeed gives a factor-\n \n \n \n \n log\n \n n\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\scriptstyle \\log n}\n \n approximation algorithm for the minimum set cover problem.[4] See randomized rounding#setcover for a detailed explanation.","title":"Linear program formulation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bipartite graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipartite_graph"},{"link_name":"computational geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_geometry"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Set covering is equivalent to the hitting set problem. That is seen by observing that an instance of set covering can\nbe viewed as an arbitrary bipartite graph, with the universe represented by vertices on the left, the sets represented by vertices on the\nright, and edges representing the membership of elements to sets. The task is then to find a minimum cardinality subset of left-vertices that has a non-trivial intersection with each of the right-vertices, which is precisely the hitting set problem.In the field of computational geometry, a hitting set for a collection of geometrical objects is also called a stabbing set or piercing set.[5]","title":"Hitting set formulation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"greedy algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greedy_algorithm"},{"link_name":"bucket queue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_queue"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"harmonic number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_number"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SetCoverGreedy.gif"},{"link_name":"greedy algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greedy_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Inapproximability results","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Inapproximability_results"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"There is a greedy algorithm for polynomial time approximation of set covering that chooses sets according to one rule: at each stage, choose the set that contains the largest number of uncovered elements. This method can be implemented in time linear in the sum of sizes of the input sets, using a bucket queue to prioritize the sets.[6] It achieves an approximation ratio of \n \n \n \n H\n (\n s\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H(s)}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n s\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s}\n \n is the size of the set to be covered.[7] In other words, it finds a covering that may be \n \n \n \n H\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H(n)}\n \n times as large as the minimum one, where \n \n \n \n H\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H(n)}\n \n is the \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n-th harmonic number:H\n (\n n\n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n 1\n k\n \n \n ≤\n ln\n \n \n n\n \n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H(n)=\\sum _{k=1}^{n}{\\frac {1}{k}}\\leq \\ln {n}+1}This greedy algorithm actually achieves an approximation ratio of \n \n \n \n H\n (\n \n s\n \n ′\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H(s^{\\prime })}\n \n where \n \n \n \n \n s\n \n ′\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle s^{\\prime }}\n \n is the maximum cardinality set of \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n. For \n \n \n \n δ\n −\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\delta -}\n \ndense instances, however, there exists a \n \n \n \n c\n ln\n \n \n m\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle c\\ln {m}}\n \n-approximation algorithm for every \n \n \n \n c\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c>0}\n \n.[8]Tight example for the greedy algorithm with k=3There is a standard example on which the greedy algorithm achieves an approximation ratio of \n \n \n \n \n log\n \n 2\n \n \n \n (\n n\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\log _{2}(n)/2}\n \n.\nThe universe consists of \n \n \n \n n\n =\n \n 2\n \n (\n k\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n=2^{(k+1)}-2}\n \n elements. The set system consists of \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n pairwise disjoint sets \n\n \n \n \n \n S\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n S\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S_{1},\\ldots ,S_{k}}\n \n with sizes \n \n \n \n 2\n ,\n 4\n ,\n 8\n ,\n …\n ,\n \n 2\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2,4,8,\\ldots ,2^{k}}\n \n respectively, as well as two additional disjoint sets \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n 0\n \n \n ,\n \n T\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T_{0},T_{1}}\n \n,\neach of which contains half of the elements from each \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S_{i}}\n \n. On this input, the greedy algorithm takes the sets\n\n \n \n \n \n S\n \n k\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n S\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S_{k},\\ldots ,S_{1}}\n \n, in that order, while the optimal solution consists only of \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T_{0}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T_{1}}\n \n.\nAn example of such an input for \n \n \n \n k\n =\n 3\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k=3}\n \n is pictured on the right.Inapproximability results show that the greedy algorithm is essentially the best-possible polynomial time approximation algorithm for set cover up to lower order terms\n(see Inapproximability results below), under plausible complexity assumptions. A tighter analysis for the greedy algorithm shows that the approximation ratio is exactly \n \n \n \n ln\n \n \n n\n \n −\n ln\n \n \n ln\n \n \n n\n \n \n +\n Θ\n (\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ln {n}-\\ln {\\ln {n}}+\\Theta (1)}\n \n.[9]","title":"Greedy algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"LP relaxation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_programming_relaxation"},{"link_name":"above","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Integer_linear_program_formulation"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"If each element occurs in at most f sets, then a solution can be found in polynomial time that approximates the optimum to within a factor of f using LP relaxation.If the constraint \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n S\n \n \n ∈\n {\n 0\n ,\n 1\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{S}\\in \\{0,1\\}}\n \n is replaced by \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n S\n \n \n ≥\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{S}\\geq 0}\n \n for all S in \n \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {S}}}\n \n in the integer linear program shown above, then it becomes a (non-integer) linear program L. The algorithm can be described as follows:Find an optimal solution O for the program L using some polynomial-time method of solving linear programs.\nPick all sets S for which the corresponding variable xS has value at least 1/f in the solution O.[10]","title":"Low-frequency systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lund & Yannakakis (1994)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLundYannakakis1994"},{"link_name":"quasi-polynomial time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-polynomial_time"},{"link_name":"Feige","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uriel_Feige"},{"link_name":"Raz & Safra (1997)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRazSafra1997"},{"link_name":"Alon, Moshkovitz & Safra (2006)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFAlonMoshkovitzSafra2006"},{"link_name":"Dinur & Steurer (2013)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDinurSteurer2013"},{"link_name":"Dinur et al. (2003)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDinurGuruswamiKhotRegev2003"},{"link_name":"Unique games conjecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unique_games_conjecture"},{"link_name":"Khot & Regev (2008)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKhotRegev2008"},{"link_name":"Trevisan (2001)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFTrevisan2001"}],"text":"When \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n refers to the size of the universe, Lund & Yannakakis (1994) showed that set covering cannot be approximated in polynomial time to within a factor of \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n log\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n ≈\n 0.72\n ln\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\log _{2}{n}\\approx 0.72\\ln {n}}\n \n, unless NP has quasi-polynomial time algorithms. Feige (1998) improved this lower bound to \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n 1\n −\n o\n (\n 1\n )\n \n \n )\n \n \n ⋅\n ln\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\bigl (}1-o(1){\\bigr )}\\cdot \\ln {n}}\n \n under the same assumptions, which essentially matches the approximation ratio achieved by the greedy algorithm. Raz & Safra (1997) established a lower bound\nof \n \n \n \n c\n ⋅\n ln\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle c\\cdot \\ln {n}}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}\n \n is a certain constant, under the weaker assumption that P\n \n \n \n ≠\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\not =}\n \nNP.\nA similar result with a higher value of \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}\n \n was recently proved by Alon, Moshkovitz & Safra (2006). Dinur & Steurer (2013) showed optimal inapproximability by proving that it cannot be approximated to \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n 1\n −\n o\n (\n 1\n )\n \n \n )\n \n \n ⋅\n ln\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\bigl (}1-o(1){\\bigr )}\\cdot \\ln {n}}\n \n unless P\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n {\\displaystyle =}\n \nNP.In low-frequency systems, Dinur et al. (2003) proved it is NP-hard to approximate set cover to better than \n \n \n \n f\n −\n 1\n −\n ϵ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f-1-\\epsilon }\n \n.\nIf the Unique games conjecture is true, this can be improved to \n \n \n \n f\n −\n ϵ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f-\\epsilon }\n \n as proven by Khot & Regev (2008).Trevisan (2001) proves that set cover instances with sets of size at most \n \n \n \n Δ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta }\n \n cannot be approximated to a factor better than \n \n \n \n ln\n \n Δ\n −\n O\n (\n ln\n \n ln\n \n Δ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ln \\Delta -O(\\ln \\ln \\Delta )}\n \n unless P\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n {\\displaystyle =}\n \nNP, thus making the approximation of \n \n \n \n ln\n \n Δ\n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ln \\Delta +1}\n \n of the greedy algorithm essentially tight in this case.","title":"Inapproximability results"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Relaxing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_programming_relaxation"},{"link_name":"above","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Integer_linear_program_formulation"},{"link_name":"randomized rounding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_rounding"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Relaxing the integer linear program for weighted set cover stated above, one may use randomized rounding to get an \n \n \n \n O\n (\n log\n \n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(\\log n)}\n \n-factor approximation. Non weighted set cover can be adapted to the weighted case.[11]","title":"Weighted set cover"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Fractional set cover"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vertex cover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_cover_problem"},{"link_name":"Edge cover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_cover_problem"},{"link_name":"Geometric set cover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_Set_Cover_Problem"},{"link_name":"Set packing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_packing"},{"link_name":"Maximum coverage problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_coverage_problem"},{"link_name":"Dominating set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominating_set"},{"link_name":"Exact cover problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exact_cover_problem"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Set-cover abduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set-cover_abduction"},{"link_name":"Monotone dualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotone_dualization"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Hitting set is an equivalent reformulation of Set Cover.\nVertex cover is a special case of Hitting Set.\nEdge cover is a special case of Set Cover.\nGeometric set cover is a special case of Set Cover when the universe is a set of points in \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{d}}\n \n and the sets are induced by the intersection of the universe and geometric shapes (e.g., disks, rectangles).\nSet packing\nMaximum coverage problem is to choose at most k sets to cover as many elements as possible.\nDominating set is the problem of selecting a set of vertices (the dominating set) in a graph such that all other vertices are adjacent to at least one vertex in the dominating set. The Dominating set problem was shown to be NP complete through a reduction from Set cover.\nExact cover problem is to choose a set cover with no element included in more than one covering set.\nRed-blue set cover.[12]\nSet-cover abduction.\nMonotone dualization is a computational problem equivalent to either listing all minimal hitting sets or listing all minimal set covers of a given set family.[13]","title":"Related problems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKorteVygen2012414_1-0"},{"link_name":"Korte & Vygen 2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKorteVygen2012"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Vazirani (2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFVazirani2001"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Vazirani (2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFVazirani2001"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Vazirani (2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFVazirani2001"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"Fast stabbing of boxes in high dimensions\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.lix.polytechnique.fr/%7Enielsen/pdf/2000-FastStabbingBoxes-TCS.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/S0304-3975(98)00336-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0304-3975%2898%2900336-3"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0304-3975","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0304-3975"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Cormen, Thomas H.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_H._Cormen"},{"link_name":"Leiserson, Charles E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_E._Leiserson"},{"link_name":"Rivest, Ronald L.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Rivest"},{"link_name":"Stein, Clifford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Stein"},{"link_name":"Introduction to Algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Algorithms"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-262-03384-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-03384-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Chvatal, V.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Chv%C3%A1tal"},{"link_name":"Mathematics of Operations Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_of_Operations_Research"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1287/moor.4.3.233","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1287%2Fmoor.4.3.233"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3689577","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/3689577"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"Karpinski & Zelikovsky 1998","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKarpinskiZelikovsky1998"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"A tight analysis of the greedy algorithm for set cover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=237991"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1145/237814.237991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1145%2F237814.237991"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"Vazirani (2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFVazirani2001"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"Vazirani (2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFVazirani2001"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"On the Red-Blue Set Cover Problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//worldcat.org/oclc/68396743"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"68396743","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/68396743"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"SIAM Journal on Discrete Mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIAM_Journal_on_Discrete_Mathematics"},{"link_name":"arXiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1601.02939","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/abs/1601.02939"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1137/15M1055024","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1137%2F15M1055024"},{"link_name":"MR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3590650","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=3590650"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9240467","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9240467"}],"text":"^ Korte & Vygen 2012, p. 414.\n\n^ Vazirani (2001, p. 15)\n\n^ Vazirani (2001, p. 108)\n\n^ Vazirani (2001, pp. 110–112)\n\n^ Nielsen, Frank (2000-09-06). \"Fast stabbing of boxes in high dimensions\" (PDF). Theoretical Computer Science. 246 (1): 53–72. doi:10.1016/S0304-3975(98)00336-3. ISSN 0304-3975.\n\n^ Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2009) [1990], \"Exercise 35.3-3\", Introduction to Algorithms (3rd ed.), MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, p. 1122, ISBN 0-262-03384-4\n\n^ Chvatal, V. (August 1979), \"A Greedy Heuristic for the Set-Covering Problem\", Mathematics of Operations Research, 4 (3): 233–235, doi:10.1287/moor.4.3.233, JSTOR 3689577\n\n^ \nKarpinski & Zelikovsky 1998\n\n^ Slavík Petr A tight analysis of the greedy algorithm for set cover. STOC'96, Pages 435-441, doi:10.1145/237814.237991\n\n^ Vazirani (2001, pp. 118–119)\n\n^ Vazirani (2001, Chapter 14)\n\n^ Information., Sandia National Laboratories. United States. Department of Energy. United States. Department of Energy. Office of Scientific and Technical (1999). On the Red-Blue Set Cover Problem. United States. Dept. of Energy. OCLC 68396743.\n\n^ Gainer-Dewar, Andrew; Vera-Licona, Paola (2017), \"The minimal hitting set generation problem: algorithms and computation\", SIAM Journal on Discrete Mathematics, 31 (1): 63–100, arXiv:1601.02939, doi:10.1137/15M1055024, MR 3590650, S2CID 9240467","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Example of an instance of set cover problem.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/SetCover.svg/220px-SetCover.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Tight example for the greedy algorithm with k=3","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/SetCoverGreedy.gif"}]
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[{"reference":"Nielsen, Frank (2000-09-06). \"Fast stabbing of boxes in high dimensions\" (PDF). Theoretical Computer Science. 246 (1): 53–72. doi:10.1016/S0304-3975(98)00336-3. ISSN 0304-3975.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lix.polytechnique.fr/%7Enielsen/pdf/2000-FastStabbingBoxes-TCS.pdf","url_text":"\"Fast stabbing of boxes in high dimensions\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0304-3975%2898%2900336-3","url_text":"10.1016/S0304-3975(98)00336-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0304-3975","url_text":"0304-3975"}]},{"reference":"Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2009) [1990], \"Exercise 35.3-3\", Introduction to Algorithms (3rd ed.), MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, p. 1122, ISBN 0-262-03384-4","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_H._Cormen","url_text":"Cormen, Thomas H."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_E._Leiserson","url_text":"Leiserson, Charles E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Rivest","url_text":"Rivest, Ronald L."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Stein","url_text":"Stein, Clifford"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Algorithms","url_text":"Introduction to Algorithms"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-03384-4","url_text":"0-262-03384-4"}]},{"reference":"Chvatal, V. (August 1979), \"A Greedy Heuristic for the Set-Covering Problem\", Mathematics of Operations Research, 4 (3): 233–235, doi:10.1287/moor.4.3.233, JSTOR 3689577","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Chv%C3%A1tal","url_text":"Chvatal, V."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_of_Operations_Research","url_text":"Mathematics of Operations Research"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1287%2Fmoor.4.3.233","url_text":"10.1287/moor.4.3.233"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3689577","url_text":"3689577"}]},{"reference":"Information., Sandia National Laboratories. United States. Department of Energy. United States. Department of Energy. Office of Scientific and Technical (1999). On the Red-Blue Set Cover Problem. United States. Dept. of Energy. OCLC 68396743.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/68396743","url_text":"On the Red-Blue Set Cover Problem"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/68396743","url_text":"68396743"}]},{"reference":"Gainer-Dewar, Andrew; Vera-Licona, Paola (2017), \"The minimal hitting set generation problem: algorithms and computation\", SIAM Journal on Discrete Mathematics, 31 (1): 63–100, arXiv:1601.02939, doi:10.1137/15M1055024, MR 3590650, S2CID 9240467","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIAM_Journal_on_Discrete_Mathematics","url_text":"SIAM Journal on Discrete Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1601.02939","url_text":"1601.02939"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1137%2F15M1055024","url_text":"10.1137/15M1055024"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=3590650","url_text":"3590650"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9240467","url_text":"9240467"}]},{"reference":"Alon, Noga; Moshkovitz, Dana; Safra, Shmuel (2006), \"Algorithmic construction of sets for k-restrictions\", ACM Trans. Algorithms, 2 (2): 153–177, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.138.8682, doi:10.1145/1150334.1150336, ISSN 1549-6325, S2CID 11922650","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noga_Alon","url_text":"Alon, Noga"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dana_Moshkovitz","url_text":"Moshkovitz, Dana"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shmuel_Safra","url_text":"Safra, Shmuel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.138.8682","url_text":"10.1.1.138.8682"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1150334.1150336","url_text":"10.1145/1150334.1150336"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1549-6325","url_text":"1549-6325"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11922650","url_text":"11922650"}]},{"reference":"Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2001), Introduction to Algorithms, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, pp. 1033–1038, ISBN 978-0-262-03293-3","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_H._Cormen","url_text":"Cormen, Thomas H."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_E._Leiserson","url_text":"Leiserson, Charles E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_L._Rivest","url_text":"Rivest, Ronald L."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Stein","url_text":"Stein, Clifford"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03293-3","url_text":"978-0-262-03293-3"}]},{"reference":"Feige, Uriel (1998), \"A threshold of ln n for approximating set cover\", Journal of the ACM, 45 (4): 634–652, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.70.5014, doi:10.1145/285055.285059, ISSN 0004-5411, S2CID 52827488","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uriel_Feige","url_text":"Feige, Uriel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_ACM","url_text":"Journal of the ACM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.70.5014","url_text":"10.1.1.70.5014"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F285055.285059","url_text":"10.1145/285055.285059"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0004-5411","url_text":"0004-5411"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52827488","url_text":"52827488"}]},{"reference":"Karpinski, Marek; Zelikovsky, Alexander (1998), \"Approximating dense cases of covering problems\", Proceedings of the DIMACS Workshop on Network Design: Connectivity and Facilities Location, vol. 40, American Mathematical Society, pp. 169–178, ISBN 9780821870846","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=IMmuF0RZk1MC&q=karpinski+zelikovsky+cover+dense&pg=PA169","url_text":"Proceedings of the DIMACS Workshop on Network Design: Connectivity and Facilities Location"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780821870846","url_text":"9780821870846"}]},{"reference":"Lund, Carsten; Yannakakis, Mihalis (1994), \"On the hardness of approximating minimization problems\", Journal of the ACM, 41 (5): 960–981, doi:10.1145/185675.306789, ISSN 0004-5411, S2CID 9021065","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carsten_Lund","url_text":"Lund, Carsten"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihalis_Yannakakis","url_text":"Yannakakis, Mihalis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_ACM","url_text":"Journal of the ACM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F185675.306789","url_text":"10.1145/185675.306789"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0004-5411","url_text":"0004-5411"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9021065","url_text":"9021065"}]},{"reference":"Raz, Ran; Safra, Shmuel (1997), \"A sub-constant error-probability low-degree test, and a sub-constant error-probability PCP characterization of NP\", STOC '97: Proceedings of the twenty-ninth annual ACM symposium on Theory of computing, ACM, pp. 475–484, ISBN 978-0-89791-888-6","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ran_Raz","url_text":"Raz, Ran"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shmuel_Safra","url_text":"Safra, Shmuel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89791-888-6","url_text":"978-0-89791-888-6"}]},{"reference":"Dinur, Irit; Steurer, David (2013), \"Analytical approach to parallel repetition\", STOC '14: Proceedings of the forty-sixth annual ACM symposium on Theory of computing, ACM, pp. 624–633","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irit_Dinur","url_text":"Dinur, Irit"}]},{"reference":"Vazirani, Vijay V. (2001), Approximation Algorithms (PDF), Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-540-65367-7","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijay_Vazirani","url_text":"Vazirani, Vijay V."},{"url":"https://www.ics.uci.edu/~vazirani/book.pdf","url_text":"Approximation Algorithms"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-65367-7","url_text":"978-3-540-65367-7"}]},{"reference":"Korte, Bernhard; Vygen, Jens (2012), Combinatorial Optimization: Theory and Algorithms (5 ed.), Springer, ISBN 978-3-642-24487-2","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Korte","url_text":"Korte, Bernhard"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-24487-2","url_text":"978-3-642-24487-2"}]},{"reference":"Cardoso, Nuno; Abreu, Rui (2014), \"An Efficient Distributed Algorithm for Computing Minimal Hitting Sets\" (PDF), Proceedings of the 25th International Workshop on Principles of Diagnosis, Graz, Austria, doi:10.5281/zenodo.10037","urls":[{"url":"http://dx-2014.ist.tugraz.at/papers/DX14_Mon_PM_S1_paper1.pdf","url_text":"\"An Efficient Distributed Algorithm for Computing Minimal Hitting Sets\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.10037","url_text":"10.5281/zenodo.10037"}]},{"reference":"Dinur, Irit; Guruswami, Venkatesan; Khot, Subhash; Regev, Oded (2003), A new multilayered PCP and the hardness of hypergraph vertex cover, Association for Computing Machinery, pp. 595–601, ISBN 1581136749","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irit_Dinur","url_text":"Dinur, Irit"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venkatesan_Guruswami","url_text":"Guruswami, Venkatesan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subhash_Khot","url_text":"Khot, Subhash"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oded_Regev","url_text":"Regev, Oded"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/780542.780629","url_text":"A new multilayered PCP and the hardness of hypergraph vertex cover"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1581136749","url_text":"1581136749"}]},{"reference":"Khot, Subhash; Regev, Oded (2008), Vertex cover might be hard to approximate to within 2−\n \n \n \n ϵ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\epsilon }\n \n, Journal of Computer and System Sciences, pp. 335–349","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subhash_Khot","url_text":"Khot, Subhash"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oded_Regev","url_text":"Regev, Oded"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcss.2007.06.019","url_text":"Vertex cover might be hard to approximate to within 2−\n \n \n \n ϵ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\epsilon }"}]},{"reference":"Trevisan, Luca (2001), Non-approximability results for optimization problems on bounded degree instances, Association for Computing Machinery, pp. 453–461","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Trevisan","url_text":"Trevisan, Luca"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/380752.380839","url_text":"Non-approximability results for optimization problems on bounded degree instances"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_(academic)
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Academic minor
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["1 Postgraduate minor","2 See also","3 References"]
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Secondary undergraduate academic discipline
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Academic minor" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
An academic minor is a college or university student's declared secondary academic discipline during their undergraduate studies. As with a major, the college or university in question lays out a framework of required classes or class types a student must complete to earn the minor – although the latitude the student is given changes from college to college. Academic minors and majors differ in that the former is subordinate to the latter – fewer courses are required to complete a minor program of study than a major program of study. To obtain an academic minor, a total of three years of study at a university in a selected subject is the usual requirement.
Some students will prepare for their intended career with their major, while pursuing personal interests with a minor, for example, majoring in civil engineering while minoring in a foreign language or performing arts. Other students may pursue a minor to provide specific specialization and thus make themselves more attractive to employers. It is not infrequent for a physics major to minor in computer science, or an engineering or economics student to minor in mathematics. Students intending to become secondary education teachers often major in their teaching subject area (for example, history or chemistry) and minor in education.
Postgraduate minor
While academic minors are usually associated with undergraduate degrees as a student's secondary focus, academic minors also exist at the postgraduate level, particularly in US institutions. Sometimes this can refer to a student's minor or secondary field within their discipline, such as a political science PhD student pursuing a major field in American politics and a minor field in political theory, or a religious studies PhD student pursuing a major field in theology and a minor field in history of religion.
However, as in undergraduate courses of study, outside postgraduate study minors also exist at many universities – sometimes officially and sometimes unofficially. For example, at Oregon State University, master's and PhD students are able to pursue an official postgraduate minor in addition to the discipline of their degree. At Florida State University, postgraduate minors exist on an unofficial basis on the grounds that a master's or doctoral student takes at least 9 and at most 18 credit hours in a secondary field outside of his or her academic discipline.
Typically, an outside minor at the maximum allowed credit hours or quarter credit units (typically 18 credit hours in many public universities, or 24 credit units at others) fulfills a qualifying requirement to teach the discipline as an adjunct at a community college or state college, and the research experience and connections from an outside minor can also be tailored toward pursuing a non-academic career related to the minor field.
Some PhD students, pursuing an outside postgraduate minor, choose to integrate the minor field into their dissertation, with a scholar from their minor field serving as an outside committee member on their dissertation.
See also
Academia
British undergraduate degree classification
Curriculum
Double degree
Higher education
References
^ Stache, Carolyn; Perlman, Baron; McCann, Lee; McFadden, Susan (April 1994). "A National Survey of the Academic Minor and Psychology". Teaching of Psychology. 21 (2). Taylor & Francis: 69–74. doi:10.1207/s15328023top2102_1.
^ Claybourn, Cole (11 September 2023). "What a Minor Is and Why It May (or May Not) Matter". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
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As with a major, the college or university in question lays out a framework of required classes or class types a student must complete to earn the minor – although the latitude the student is given changes from college to college. Academic minors and majors differ in that the former is subordinate to the latter – fewer courses are required to complete a minor program of study than a major program of study.[1][2] To obtain an academic minor, a total of three years of study at a university in a selected subject is the usual requirement.Some students will prepare for their intended career with their major, while pursuing personal interests with a minor, for example, majoring in civil engineering while minoring in a foreign language or performing arts. Other students may pursue a minor to provide specific specialization and thus make themselves more attractive to employers. It is not infrequent for a physics major to minor in computer science, or an engineering or economics student to minor in mathematics. Students intending to become secondary education teachers often major in their teaching subject area (for example, history or chemistry) and minor in education.","title":"Academic minor"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oregon State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon_State_University"},{"link_name":"Florida State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida_State_University"},{"link_name":"adjunct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjunct_professor"},{"link_name":"community college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_college"},{"link_name":"state college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_university"}],"text":"While academic minors are usually associated with undergraduate degrees as a student's secondary focus, academic minors also exist at the postgraduate level, particularly in US institutions. Sometimes this can refer to a student's minor or secondary field within their discipline, such as a political science PhD student pursuing a major field in American politics and a minor field in political theory, or a religious studies PhD student pursuing a major field in theology and a minor field in history of religion.However, as in undergraduate courses of study, outside postgraduate study minors also exist at many universities – sometimes officially and sometimes unofficially. For example, at Oregon State University, master's and PhD students are able to pursue an official postgraduate minor in addition to the discipline of their degree. At Florida State University, postgraduate minors exist on an unofficial basis on the grounds that a master's or doctoral student takes at least 9 and at most 18 credit hours in a secondary field outside of his or her academic discipline.\nTypically, an outside minor at the maximum allowed credit hours or quarter credit units (typically 18 credit hours in many public universities, or 24 credit units at others) fulfills a qualifying requirement to teach the discipline as an adjunct at a community college or state college, and the research experience and connections from an outside minor can also be tailored toward pursuing a non-academic career related to the minor field. \nSome PhD students, pursuing an outside postgraduate minor, choose to integrate the minor field into their dissertation, with a scholar from their minor field serving as an outside committee member on their dissertation.","title":"Postgraduate minor"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_(law)
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Minor (law)
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["1 By country","1.1 Canada","1.2 Italy","1.3 Mexico","1.4 India","1.5 Thailand","1.6 United Kingdom","1.7 United States","2 Emancipation of minors","3 References","4 External links"]
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Person below a certain age prescribed by law
"Underage" redirects here. For the TV series, see Underage (TV series). For the music festival, see Underage Festival.
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In law, a minor is someone under a certain age, usually the age of majority, which demarcates an underage individual from legal adulthood. The age of majority depends upon jurisdiction and application, but it is commonly 18. Minor may also be used in contexts that are unconnected to the overall age of majority. For example, the smoking and drinking age in the United States is 21, and younger people below this age are sometimes called minors in the context of tobacco and alcohol law, even if they are at least 18. The terms underage or minor often refer to those under the age of majority, but may also refer to a person under other legal age limits, such as the age of consent, marriageable age, driving age, voting age, working age, etc. Such age limits are often different from the age of majority.
The concept of minor is not sharply defined in most jurisdictions. The age of criminal responsibility, of ability to legally consent to sexual activity, at which school attendance is no longer compulsory and thus a person may leave school, at which legally-binding contracts may be entered into, and so on and so forth, may be different from one another.
In many countries, including Australia, Serbia, India, Brazil, Croatia, Colombia, and the UK a minor is defined as a person under the age of 18. In the United States, where the age of majority is set by individual states, "minor" usually refers to someone under 18 but can in some areas (such as alcohol, gambling, and handguns) mean under 21. In the criminal justice system a minor may be tried and punished either "as a juvenile" or "as an adult".
In Taiwan and Thailand, a minor is a person under 20 years of age, and, in South Korea, a person under 19 years of age. In New Zealand, the age of majority is also 20 years of age, but most of the rights of adulthood are assumed at lower ages.
By country
Canada
Main article: Youth Criminal Justice Act
For all provincial laws (such as alcohol and tobacco regulation), the provincial and territorial governments have the power to set the age of majority in their respective province or territory, and the age varies across Canada.
Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Saskatchewan, and Prince Edward Island have the age of majority set at 18, while in British Columbia, Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick the age of majority is 19. In the provinces of Saskatchewan, Ontario, New Brunswick, British Columbia, Nova Scotia, the legal gambling age and the legal drinking age are both 19, while in Alberta, Quebec, and Manitoba it is 18 which is the age of majority.
Under cannabis laws, a minor means anyone under 19 in the country except for Quebec which has a legal age of 21, and Alberta which is age 18.
Italy
In Italy, law nr. 39 of March 8, 1975, states that a minor is a person under the age of 18. Citizens under the age of 18 may not vote, be elected, obtain a driving license for automobiles or issue or sign legal instruments. Crimes committed in Italy by minors are tried in a juvenile court.
Mexico
In all 31 states, a minor is referred to as someone under the age of 18.
Minors aged 16 or 17 who are charged with crimes could sometimes be treated as an adult.
India
In all 28 states and 8 union territories, a minor is referred to as someone under the age of 18. In rare cases minors aged 16 or 17 who are charged with extremely heinous crimes could sometimes be treated as an adult.
Thailand
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Minor" law – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
The Civil and Commercial Code of the Kingdom of Thailand does not define minor; however, sections 19 and 20 read as follows:
Section 19 – A person, on completion of 20 years of age, ceases to be a minor and becomes sui juris.
Section 20 – A minor becomes sui juris upon marriage, provided the marriage is made in accordance with the provisions of Section 1448.
Hence, a minor in Thailand refers to any person under the age of 20, unless they are married. A minor is restricted from doing juristic acts – for example, signing contracts. When minors wish to do a juristic act, they have to obtain the consent from their legal representative, usually (but not always) the parents and otherwise the act is voidable. The exceptions are acts by which a minor merely acquires a right or is freed from a duty, acts that are strictly personal, and acts that are suitable to the person's condition in life and are required for their reasonable needs. A minor can make a will at the age of fifteen.
United Kingdom
Further information: Law of England and Wales, Law of Northern Ireland, and Law of Scotland
In England and Wales, the Family Law Reform Act 1969 set the age of majority in both nations at 18. While in Northern Ireland, the age of majority is set at 18 by the Age of Majority Act (Northern Ireland) 1969 - (which directly corresponds to the former legislation, enacted in England and Wales). In Scotland, the Age of Legal Capacity (Scotland) Act 1991 sets out that the legal age of capacity within the country is 16.
The age of criminal responsibility in England and Wales and in Northern Ireland is 10; and 12 in Scotland, formerly 8, which was the lowest age in Europe.
In England and Wales, cases of minors breaking the law are often dealt with by a youth offending team. If they are incarcerated, they are sent to a Young Offender Institution.
Things that persons under 18 are prohibited from doing include sitting on a jury, voting, standing as a candidate, buying or renting films with an 18 certificate or R18 certificate or seeing them in a cinema, being depicted in pornographic materials, suing without a litigant friend, being civilly liable, accessing adoption records and purchasing alcohol, tobacco products, knives and fireworks. The rules on minimum age for sale of these products are frequently broken so in practice drinking and smoking takes place before the age of majority; however many UK shops are tightening restrictions on them by asking for identifying documentation from potentially underage customers.
Driving certain large vehicles, acting as personal license holder for licensed premises, and adopting a child are permitted only upon the age of 21. The minimum age to drive a HGV1 vehicle was reduced to 18. However, certain vehicles, e.g., steamrollers, require that someone be 21 years of age to obtain an operating license.
United States
In the United States as of 1971, minor is generally legally defined as a person under the age of 18. However, in the context of alcohol or gambling laws (see legal drinking age and gambling age), people under the age of 21 may also sometimes be referred to as minors. However, not all minors are considered juveniles in terms of criminal responsibility. As is frequently the case in the United States, the laws vary widely by state.
Under this distinction, those considered juveniles are usually (but not always) tried in juvenile court, and they may be afforded other special protections. For example, in some states a parent or guardian must be present during police questioning, or their names may be kept confidential when they are accused of a crime. For many crimes (especially more violent crimes), the age at which a minor may be tried as an adult is variable below the age of 18 or (less often) below 16.
The death penalty for those who have committed a crime while under the age of 18 was discontinued by the U.S. Supreme Court case Roper v. Simmons in 2005. The court's 5–4 decision was written by Justice Kennedy and joined by Justices Ginsburg, Stevens, Breyer, and Souter, and cited international law, child developmental science, and many other factors in reaching its conclusion.
The twenty-sixth amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1971, granted all citizens the right to vote in every state, in every election, from the age of 18, reducing the minimum ages for most privileges that had previously been set at 21 (signing contracts, marrying without parental consent, termination of legal parental custody) to 18, with the exception of drinking, which had been raised to 21 around the 1980s due to teen drunk driving cases protested by the Mothers Against Drunk Driving.
Main article: Minors detained in the global war on terror
The U.S. Department of Defense took the position that they would not consider "enemy combatants" held in extrajudicial detention in the Guantanamo Bay detainment camps minors unless they were less than sixteen years old. In any event, they separated only three of more than a dozen detainees under 16 from the adult prison population. Several dozen detainees between sixteen and eighteen were detained with the adult prison population. Now those under 18 are kept separate, in line with the age of majority and world expectations.
Some states, including Florida, have passed laws that allow a person accused of an extremely heinous crime, such as murder, to be tried as an adult, regardless of age. These laws have been challenged by the American Civil Liberties Union. An estimated 250,000 youth are tried, sentenced, or incarcerated as adults every year across the United States.
Emancipation of minors
Main article: Emancipation of minors
Emancipation of minors is a legal mechanism by which a minor is no longer under the control of their parents or guardians, and is given the legal rights associated with adults. Depending on country, emancipation may happen in different manners: through marriage, attaining economic self-sufficiency, obtaining an educational degree or diploma, or participating in a form of military service. In the United States, all states have some form of emancipation of minors.
References
^ a b "Liquor Control Act". State of Connecticut. 'Minor' means any person under twenty-one years of age.
^ a b "Offenses Against the Family". State of Tennessee. As used in this section, minor means a person under twenty-one (21) years of age.
^ "Zakon o maloletnim učiniocima krivičnih dela i krivičnopravnoj zaštiti maloletnih lica". www.paragraf.rs (in Serbian). Retrieved 2021-07-31.
^ "Age of Majority Act 1970". Retrieved 9 August 2016.
^ "Age of Majority Table". Archived from the original on 2012-07-18. Retrieved 2009-11-26.
^ "Drinking age will remain 19 in Saskatchewan". CBC News. (March 8, 2013). Retrieved June 13, 2015.
^ "Italie". WIPO Lex. WIPO. Retrieved 7 September 2012.
^ Coleman, Bennet & (2017-12-21). "Class XI student to be tried as adult for Ryan boy's Murder". The Times of India. Retrieved 2017-12-23.
^ "Age of Criminal Responsibility (Scotland) Act 2019".
^ "Age of criminal responsibility".
^ "Youth justice – Department of Justice". youthjusticeagencyni.gov.uk. 2 September 2015.
^ "Children and the Scottish Criminal Justice System" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-02-04. Retrieved 2013-01-21.
^ Gaines, Larry K and Roger Leroy Miller. "Criminal Justice in Action" 4th ed., Thompson Wadsworth Publishing, 2007. Pg 495
^ "Roper v. Simmons (No. 03-633)". LII / Legal Information Institute.
^ Schmitz, Gregor Peter (April 2011). "Files Reveal Many Inmates Were Minors". Der Spiegel.
^ "Campaign for Youth Justice, Key Facts: Youth in the Justice System. Washington, D.C.: Campaign for Youth Justice, 2007. Web. May 2011. Citing Woolard, J. "Juveniles within Adult Correctional Settings: Legal Pathways and Developmental Considerations." International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 4.1 (2005)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-22. Retrieved 2013-04-02.
^ Staff, L. I. I. (6 August 2007). "Emancipation of Minors". LII / Legal Information Institute.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Minor (law).
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Infant".
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Underage (TV series)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underage_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Underage Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underage_Festival"},{"link_name":"law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law"},{"link_name":"age of majority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_majority"},{"link_name":"legal adulthood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_adulthood"},{"link_name":"jurisdiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisdiction_(area)"},{"link_name":"smoking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoking_age"},{"link_name":"drinking age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_drinking_age"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CTLaw-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TNLaw-2"},{"link_name":"age of consent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_consent"},{"link_name":"marriageable age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriageable_age"},{"link_name":"driving age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driving_age"},{"link_name":"voting age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_age"},{"link_name":"working age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_working_age"},{"link_name":"age of criminal responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_criminal_responsibility"},{"link_name":"consent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consent_(criminal_law)"},{"link_name":"compulsory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsory_schooling"},{"link_name":"leave school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School-leaving_age"},{"link_name":"legally-binding contracts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Croatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia"},{"link_name":"Colombia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia"},{"link_name":"UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"gambling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambling_age"},{"link_name":"handguns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overview_of_gun_laws_by_nation"},{"link_name":"criminal justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_justice"},{"link_name":"tried","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_(law)"},{"link_name":"punished","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(law)"},{"link_name":"as a juvenile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juvenile_law"},{"link_name":"as an adult","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_as_an_adult"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"\"Underage\" redirects here. For the TV series, see Underage (TV series). For the music festival, see Underage Festival.In law, a minor is someone under a certain age, usually the age of majority, which demarcates an underage individual from legal adulthood. The age of majority depends upon jurisdiction and application, but it is commonly 18. Minor may also be used in contexts that are unconnected to the overall age of majority. For example, the smoking and drinking age in the United States is 21, and younger people below this age are sometimes called minors in the context of tobacco and alcohol law, even if they are at least 18.[1][2] The terms underage or minor often refer to those under the age of majority, but may also refer to a person under other legal age limits, such as the age of consent, marriageable age, driving age, voting age, working age, etc. Such age limits are often different from the age of majority.The concept of minor is not sharply defined in most jurisdictions. The age of criminal responsibility, of ability to legally consent to sexual activity, at which school attendance is no longer compulsory and thus a person may leave school, at which legally-binding contracts may be entered into, and so on and so forth, may be different from one another.In many countries, including Australia, Serbia,[3] India, Brazil, Croatia, Colombia, and the UK a minor is defined as a person under the age of 18. In the United States, where the age of majority is set by individual states, \"minor\" usually refers to someone under 18 but can in some areas (such as alcohol, gambling, and handguns) mean under 21. In the criminal justice system a minor may be tried and punished either \"as a juvenile\" or \"as an adult\".In Taiwan and Thailand, a minor is a person under 20 years of age, and, in South Korea, a person under 19 years of age. In New Zealand, the age of majority is also 20 years of age,[4] but most of the rights of adulthood are assumed at lower ages.","title":"Minor (law)"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Alberta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta"},{"link_name":"Manitoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manitoba"},{"link_name":"Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario"},{"link_name":"Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec"},{"link_name":"Saskatchewan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saskatchewan"},{"link_name":"Prince Edward Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Edward_Island"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Yukon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon"},{"link_name":"Northwest Territories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Territories"},{"link_name":"Nunavut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunavut"},{"link_name":"Newfoundland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador"},{"link_name":"Nova Scotia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_Scotia"},{"link_name":"New Brunswick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Brunswick"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Saskatchewan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saskatchewan"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Canada","text":"For all provincial laws (such as alcohol and tobacco regulation), the provincial and territorial governments have the power to set the age of majority in their respective province or territory, and the age varies across Canada.Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Saskatchewan, and Prince Edward Island have the age of majority set at 18, while in British Columbia, Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick the age of majority is 19.[5] In the provinces of Saskatchewan, Ontario, New Brunswick, British Columbia, Nova Scotia, the legal gambling age and the legal drinking age are both 19, while in Alberta, Quebec, and Manitoba it is 18 which is the age of majority.[6]Under cannabis laws, a minor means anyone under 19 in the country except for Quebec which has a legal age of 21, and Alberta which is age 18.","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"legal instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_instrument"}],"sub_title":"Italy","text":"In Italy, law nr. 39 of March 8, 1975, states that a minor is a person under the age of 18.[7] Citizens under the age of 18 may not vote, be elected, obtain a driving license for automobiles or issue or sign legal instruments. Crimes committed in Italy by minors are tried in a juvenile court.","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Mexico","text":"In all 31 states, a minor is referred to as someone under the age of 18.Minors aged 16 or 17 who are charged with crimes could sometimes be treated as an adult.","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_of_India"},{"link_name":"union territories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Territory"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"India","text":"In all 28 states and 8 union territories, a minor is referred to as someone under the age of 18. In rare cases minors aged 16 or 17 who are charged with extremely heinous crimes could sometimes be treated as an adult.[8]","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sui juris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_juris"},{"link_name":"will","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_(law)"}],"sub_title":"Thailand","text":"The Civil and Commercial Code of the Kingdom of Thailand does not define minor; however, sections 19 and 20 read as follows:Section 19 – A person, on completion of 20 years of age, ceases to be a minor and becomes sui juris.\nSection 20 – A minor becomes sui juris upon marriage, provided the marriage is made in accordance with the provisions of Section 1448.Hence, a minor in Thailand refers to any person under the age of 20, unless they are married. A minor is restricted from doing juristic acts – for example, signing contracts. When minors wish to do a juristic act, they have to obtain the consent from their legal representative, usually (but not always) the parents and otherwise the act is voidable. The exceptions are acts by which a minor merely acquires a right or is freed from a duty, acts that are strictly personal, and acts that are suitable to the person's condition in life and are required for their reasonable needs. A minor can make a will at the age of fifteen.","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Law of England and Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_England_and_Wales"},{"link_name":"Law of Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Northern_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Law of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"England and Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England_and_Wales"},{"link_name":"Family Law Reform Act 1969","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Law_Reform_Act_1969"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Age of Legal Capacity (Scotland) Act 1991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Legal_Capacity_(Scotland)_Act_1991"},{"link_name":"The age of criminal responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_age_of_criminal_responsibility"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"minors breaking the law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_offender"},{"link_name":"youth offending team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_offending_team"},{"link_name":"incarcerated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarcerated"},{"link_name":"Young Offender Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Young_Offender_Institution"},{"link_name":"18 certificate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18_(British_Board_of_Film_Classification)"},{"link_name":"R18 certificate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R18_(British_Board_of_Film_Classification)"},{"link_name":"steamrollers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamroller"}],"sub_title":"United Kingdom","text":"Further information: Law of England and Wales, Law of Northern Ireland, and Law of ScotlandIn England and Wales, the Family Law Reform Act 1969 set the age of majority in both nations at 18. While in Northern Ireland, the age of majority is set at 18 by the Age of Majority Act (Northern Ireland) 1969 - (which directly corresponds to the former legislation, enacted in England and Wales). In Scotland, the Age of Legal Capacity (Scotland) Act 1991 sets out that the legal age of capacity within the country is 16.The age of criminal responsibility in England and Wales and in Northern Ireland is 10; and 12 in Scotland,[9] formerly 8, which was the lowest age in Europe.[10][11][12]In England and Wales, cases of minors breaking the law are often dealt with by a youth offending team. If they are incarcerated, they are sent to a Young Offender Institution.Things that persons under 18 are prohibited from doing include sitting on a jury, voting, standing as a candidate, buying or renting films with an 18 certificate or R18 certificate or seeing them in a cinema, being depicted in pornographic materials, suing without a litigant friend, being civilly liable, accessing adoption records and purchasing alcohol, tobacco products, knives and fireworks. The rules on minimum age for sale of these products are frequently broken so in practice drinking and smoking takes place before the age of majority; however many UK shops are tightening restrictions on them by asking for identifying documentation from potentially underage customers.Driving certain large vehicles, acting as personal license holder for licensed premises, and adopting a child are permitted only upon the age of 21. The minimum age to drive a HGV1 vehicle was reduced to 18. However, certain vehicles, e.g., steamrollers, require that someone be 21 years of age to obtain an operating license.","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"alcohol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_beverages"},{"link_name":"gambling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambling"},{"link_name":"legal drinking age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_drinking_age"},{"link_name":"gambling age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambling_age"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CTLaw-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TNLaw-2"},{"link_name":"juvenile court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juvenile_court"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"U.S. Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court"},{"link_name":"Roper v. Simmons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roper_v._Simmons"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"drunk driving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drunk_driving"},{"link_name":"Mothers Against Drunk Driving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mothers_Against_Drunk_Driving"},{"link_name":"U.S. Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"enemy combatants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enemy_combatant"},{"link_name":"extrajudicial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrajudicial"},{"link_name":"Guantanamo Bay detainment camps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_detainment_camp"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida"},{"link_name":"American Civil Liberties Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"In the United States as of 1971, minor is generally legally defined as a person under the age of 18. However, in the context of alcohol or gambling laws (see legal drinking age and gambling age), people under the age of 21 may also sometimes be referred to as minors.[1][2] However, not all minors are considered juveniles in terms of criminal responsibility. As is frequently the case in the United States, the laws vary widely by state.Under this distinction, those considered juveniles are usually (but not always) tried in juvenile court, and they may be afforded other special protections. For example, in some states a parent or guardian must be present during police questioning, or their names may be kept confidential when they are accused of a crime. For many crimes (especially more violent crimes), the age at which a minor may be tried as an adult is variable below the age of 18 or (less often) below 16.[13]\nThe death penalty for those who have committed a crime while under the age of 18 was discontinued by the U.S. Supreme Court case Roper v. Simmons in 2005.[14] The court's 5–4 decision was written by Justice Kennedy and joined by Justices Ginsburg, Stevens, Breyer, and Souter, and cited international law, child developmental science, and many other factors in reaching its conclusion.The twenty-sixth amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1971, granted all citizens the right to vote in every state, in every election, from the age of 18, reducing the minimum ages for most privileges that had previously been set at 21 (signing contracts, marrying without parental consent, termination of legal parental custody) to 18, with the exception of drinking, which had been raised to 21 around the 1980s due to teen drunk driving cases protested by the Mothers Against Drunk Driving.The U.S. Department of Defense took the position that they would not consider \"enemy combatants\" held in extrajudicial detention in the Guantanamo Bay detainment camps minors unless they were less than sixteen years old.[15] In any event, they separated only three of more than a dozen detainees under 16 from the adult prison population. Several dozen detainees between sixteen and eighteen were detained with the adult prison population. Now those under 18 are kept separate, in line with the age of majority and world expectations.Some states, including Florida, have passed laws that allow a person accused of an extremely heinous crime, such as murder, to be tried as an adult, regardless of age. These laws have been challenged by the American Civil Liberties Union. An estimated 250,000 youth are tried, sentenced, or incarcerated as adults every year across the United States.[16]","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"marriage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage"},{"link_name":"degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_degree"},{"link_name":"diploma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diploma"},{"link_name":"military service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_service"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Emancipation of minors is a legal mechanism by which a minor is no longer under the control of their parents or guardians, and is given the legal rights associated with adults. Depending on country, emancipation may happen in different manners: through marriage, attaining economic self-sufficiency, obtaining an educational degree or diploma, or participating in a form of military service. In the United States, all states have some form of emancipation of minors.[17]","title":"Emancipation of minors"}]
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|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPa
|
Pascal (unit)
|
["1 Etymology","2 Definition","3 Standard units","4 Uses","4.1 Hectopascal and millibar units","5 Multiples and submultiples","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
|
SI derived unit of pressure
"Pascals" redirects here. For other uses, see Pascal (disambiguation)."Hectopascal" redirects here. For the song, see Hectopascal (song).
pascalA pressure gauge reading in psi (red scale) and kPa (black scale)General informationUnit systemSIUnit ofpressure or stressSymbolPaNamed afterBlaise PascalConversions
1 Pa in ...... is equal to ...
SI base units: kg⋅m−1⋅s−2 US customary units: 1.45038×10−4 psi atmosphere: 9.86923×10−6 atm bar: 10−5 bar barye (CGS unit) 10 Ba
The pascal (symbol: Pa) is the unit of pressure in the International System of Units (SI). It is also used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Young's modulus, and ultimate tensile strength. The unit, named after Blaise Pascal, is an SI coherent derived unit defined as one newton per square metre (N/m2). It is also equivalent to 10 barye (10 Ba) in the CGS system.
Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal (1 hPa = 100 Pa), which is equal to one millibar, and the kilopascal (1 kPa = 1000 Pa), which is equal to one centibar.
The unit of measurement called standard atmosphere (atm) is defined as 101,325 Pa.
Meteorological observations typically report atmospheric pressure in hectopascals per the recommendation of the World Meteorological Organization, thus a standard atmosphere (atm) or typical sea-level air pressure is about 1013 hPa. Reports in the United States typically use inches of mercury or millibars (hectopascals). In Canada these reports are given in kilopascals.
Etymology
The unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre (N/m2) by the 14th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1971.
Definition
The pascal can be expressed using SI derived units, or alternatively solely SI base units, as:
1
P
a
=
1
N
m
2
=
1
k
g
m
⋅
s
2
=
1
J
m
3
{\displaystyle {\rm {1~Pa=1~{\frac {N}{m^{2}}}=1~{\frac {kg}{m{\cdot }s^{2}}}=1~{\frac {J}{m^{3}}}}}}
where N is the newton, m is the metre, kg is the kilogram, s is the second, and J is the joule.
One pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre.
Standard units
The unit of measurement called an atmosphere or a standard atmosphere (atm) is 101325 Pa (101.325 kPa). This value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as the International Organization for Standardization's ISO 2787 (pneumatic tools and compressors), ISO 2533 (aerospace) and ISO 5024 (petroleum). In contrast, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances.
Unicode has dedicated code-points U+33A9 ㎩ SQUARE PA and U+33AA ㎪ SQUARE KPA in the CJK Compatibility block, but these exist only for backward-compatibility with some older ideographic character-sets and are therefore deprecated.
Uses
The pascal (Pa) or kilopascal (kPa) as a unit of pressure measurement is widely used throughout the world and has largely replaced the pounds per square inch (psi) unit, except in some countries that still use the imperial measurement system or the US customary system, including the United States.
Geophysicists use the gigapascal (GPa) in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth.
Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, and often displays the Young's modulus or shear modulus of tissue in kilopascals.
In materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering the megapascal (MPa) is the preferred unit for these uses, because the pascal represents a very small quantity.
Approximate Young's modulus for common substances
Material
Young's modulus (GPa)
Nylon 6
2–4
Hemp fibre
35
Aluminium
69
Tooth enamel
83
Copper
117
Structural steel
200
Diamond
1220
The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density, the joule per cubic metre. This applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields.
The pascal is used to measure sound pressure. Loudness is the subjective experience of sound pressure and is measured as a sound pressure level (SPL) on a logarithmic scale of the sound pressure relative to some reference pressure. For sound in air, a pressure of 20 μPa is considered to be at the threshold of hearing for humans and is a common reference pressure, so that its SPL is zero.
The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa.
In medicine, blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg, very close to one Torr). The normal adult blood pressure is less than 120 mmHg systolic BP (SBP) and less than 80 mmHg diastolic BP (DBP). Convert mmHg to SI units as follows: 1 mmHg = 0.13332 kPa. Hence normal blood pressure in SI units is less than 16.0 kPa SBP and less than 10.7 kPa DBP. These values are similar to the pressure of water column of average human height; so pressure has to be measured on arm roughly at the level of the heart.
Hectopascal and millibar units
Main article: Bar (unit)
The units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar (100,000 Pa), which is close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals (hPa) unit, equal to 100 pascals or 1 millibar. Exceptions include Canada, which uses kilopascals (kPa). In many other fields of science, prefixes that are a power of 1000 are preferred, which excludes the hectopascal from use.
Many countries also use millibars. In practically all other fields, the kilopascal is used instead.
Multiples and submultiples
Decimal multiples and submultiples are formed using standard SI units.
Multiples
Submultiples
Value
Name
Symbol
Value
Name
Symbol
101 Pa
decapascal
daPa
10−1 Pa
decipascal
dPa
102 Pa
hectopascal
hPa
10−2 Pa
centipascal
cPa
103 Pa
kilopascal
kPa
10−3 Pa
millipascal
mPa
105 Pa
bar (non-SI unit)
bar
106 Pa
megapascal
MPa
10−6 Pa
micropascal
μPa
109 Pa
gigapascal
GPa
10−9 Pa
nanopascal
nPa
1012 Pa
terapascal
TPa
10−12 Pa
picopascal
pPa
1015 Pa
petapascal
PPa
10−15 Pa
femtopascal
fPa
1018 Pa
exapascal
EPa
10−18 Pa
attopascal
aPa
1021 Pa
zettapascal
ZPa
10−21 Pa
zeptopascal
zPa
1024 Pa
yottapascal
YPa
10−24 Pa
yoctopascal
yPa
1027 Pa
ronnapascal
RPa
10−27Pa
rontopascal
rPa
1030 Pa
quettapascal
QPa
10−30 Pa
quectopascal
qPa
See also
Atmospheric pressure which gives the usage of the hbar and the mbar
Centimetre of water
Meteorology
Metric prefix
Orders of magnitude (pressure)
Pascal's law
Pressure measurement
References
^ International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (8th ed.), p. 118, ISBN 92-822-2213-6, archived (PDF) from the original on 4 June 2021, retrieved 16 December 2021
^ "Definition of the standard atmosphere". BIPM. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
^ "National Weather Service glossary page on inches of mercury".
^ "US government atmospheric pressure map".
^ "The Weather Channel".
^ Canada, Environment (16 April 2013). "Canadian Weather - Environment Canada". weather.gc.ca.
^ bipm.fr. Archived 30 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Minutes of the 14. General Conference on Weights and Measures, 1971, p. 78.
^ Table 3 (Section 2.2.2). Archived 18 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine. SI Brochure. International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
^ "Resolution 4 of the 10th meeting of the CGPM". Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures. 1954. Archived from the original on 30 March 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
^ IUPAC.org, Gold Book, Standard Pressure
^ "CJK Compatibility" (PDF). 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
^ The Unicode Standard, Version 8.0.0. Mountain View, CA: The Unicode Consortium. 2015. ISBN 978-1-936213-10-8. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
^ "Tensile Modulus – Modulus of Elasticity or Young's Modulus – for some common Materials". Retrieved 16 February 2015.
^ "Chapter 7 ResNet Standards: ResNet National Standard for Home Energy Audits" (PDF). ResNet. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
^ "BP Guideline | Target:BP". American Heart Association. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
^ "KNMI – Weer – Waarnemingen". Retrieved 4 December 2016.
^ "Comment convertir la pression? – IRM". Retrieved 4 December 2016.
^ "DWD". Archived from the original on 10 February 2008. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
^ "Japan Meteorological Agency – Weather Maps". Retrieved 4 December 2016.
^ "MDD". Archived from the original on 6 May 2006.
^ NOAA
^ United Kingdom, Met Office. "Key to symbols and terms". Retrieved 4 December 2016.
^ "CTV News, weather; current conditions in Montreal". Archived from the original on 4 June 2011.
^ Canada, Environment. "Montréal, QC – 7 Day Forecast – Environment Canada". Archived from the original on 30 November 2017. Retrieved 4 December 2016.
^ Ambler Thompson (Editor) Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) (rev. ): The ..., p. 66, at Google Books
External links
vteSI unitsBase units
ampere
candela
kelvin
kilogram
metre
mole
second
Derived units with special names
becquerel
coulomb
degree Celsius
farad
gray
henry
hertz
joule
katal
lumen
lux
newton
ohm
pascal
radian
siemens
sievert
steradian
tesla
volt
watt
weber
Other accepted units
astronomical unit
dalton
day
decibel
degree of arc
electronvolt
hectare
hour
litre
minute
minute and second of arc
neper
tonne
See also
Conversion of units
Metric prefixes
Historical definitions of the SI base units
2019 redefinition
System of units of measurement
Category
|
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For other uses, see Pascal (disambiguation).\"Hectopascal\" redirects here. For the song, see Hectopascal (song).The pascal (symbol: Pa) is the unit of pressure in the International System of Units (SI). It is also used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Young's modulus, and ultimate tensile strength. The unit, named after Blaise Pascal, is an SI coherent derived unit defined as one newton per square metre (N/m2).[1] It is also equivalent to 10 barye (10 Ba) in the CGS system. \nCommon multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal (1 hPa = 100 Pa), which is equal to one millibar, and the kilopascal (1 kPa = 1000 Pa), which is equal to one centibar.The unit of measurement called standard atmosphere (atm) is defined as 101,325 Pa.[2]\nMeteorological observations typically report atmospheric pressure in hectopascals per the recommendation of the World Meteorological Organization, thus a standard atmosphere (atm) or typical sea-level air pressure is about 1013 hPa. Reports in the United States typically use inches of mercury[3] or millibars (hectopascals).[4][5] In Canada these reports are given in kilopascals.[6]","title":"Pascal (unit)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Blaise Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pascal"},{"link_name":"barometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barometer"},{"link_name":"General Conference on Weights and Measures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Conference_on_Weights_and_Measures"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGPM14-8"}],"text":"The unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre (N/m2) by the 14th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1971.[7][8]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SI derived units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI_derived_unit"},{"link_name":"SI base units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI_base_unit"},{"link_name":"newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_(unit)"},{"link_name":"metre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre"},{"link_name":"kilogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilogram"},{"link_name":"second","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second"},{"link_name":"joule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"The pascal can be expressed using SI derived units, or alternatively solely SI base units, as:1\n \n P\n a\n =\n 1\n \n \n \n N\n \n m\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n =\n 1\n \n \n \n \n k\n g\n \n \n m\n \n ⋅\n \n \n s\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n 1\n \n \n \n J\n \n m\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\rm {1~Pa=1~{\\frac {N}{m^{2}}}=1~{\\frac {kg}{m{\\cdot }s^{2}}}=1~{\\frac {J}{m^{3}}}}}}where N is the newton, m is the metre, kg is the kilogram, s is the second, and J is the joule.[9]One pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre.","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"atmosphere or a standard atmosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_atmosphere_(unit)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"International Organization for Standardization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization"},{"link_name":"ISO 2533","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_2533"},{"link_name":"International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Unicode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode"},{"link_name":"CJK Compatibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CJK_Compatibility"},{"link_name":"deprecated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deprecate"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"The unit of measurement called an atmosphere or a standard atmosphere (atm) is 101325 Pa (101.325 kPa).[10] This value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as the International Organization for Standardization's ISO 2787 (pneumatic tools and compressors), ISO 2533 (aerospace) and ISO 5024 (petroleum). In contrast, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances.[11]Unicode has dedicated code-points U+33A9 ㎩ SQUARE PA and U+33AA ㎪ SQUARE KPA in the CJK Compatibility block, but these exist only for backward-compatibility with some older ideographic character-sets and are therefore deprecated.[12][13]","title":"Standard units"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pounds per square inch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pounds_per_square_inch"},{"link_name":"imperial measurement system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_measurement_system"},{"link_name":"US customary system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_customary_system"},{"link_name":"Geophysicists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysics"},{"link_name":"Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth"},{"link_name":"elastography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastography"},{"link_name":"ultrasound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_ultrasonography"},{"link_name":"magnetic resonance imaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging"},{"link_name":"Young's modulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%27s_modulus"},{"link_name":"shear modulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_modulus"},{"link_name":"materials science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"stiffness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%27s_modulus"},{"link_name":"tensile strength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_strength"},{"link_name":"compressive strength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressive_strength"},{"link_name":"energy density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_density"},{"link_name":"electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_potential_energy"},{"link_name":"magnetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field#Energy_stored_in_magnetic_fields"},{"link_name":"gravitational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_energy"},{"link_name":"sound pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_pressure"},{"link_name":"Loudness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudness"},{"link_name":"sound pressure level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_pressure#Sound_pressure_level"},{"link_name":"threshold of hearing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshold_of_hearing"},{"link_name":"The airtightness of buildings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blower_door"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"millimeters of mercury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millimetre_of_mercury"},{"link_name":"Torr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torr"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"The pascal (Pa) or kilopascal (kPa) as a unit of pressure measurement is widely used throughout the world and has largely replaced the pounds per square inch (psi) unit, except in some countries that still use the imperial measurement system or the US customary system, including the United States.Geophysicists use the gigapascal (GPa) in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth.Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, and often displays the Young's modulus or shear modulus of tissue in kilopascals.In materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering the megapascal (MPa) is the preferred unit for these uses, because the pascal represents a very small quantity.The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density, the joule per cubic metre. This applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields.The pascal is used to measure sound pressure. Loudness is the subjective experience of sound pressure and is measured as a sound pressure level (SPL) on a logarithmic scale of the sound pressure relative to some reference pressure. For sound in air, a pressure of 20 μPa is considered to be at the threshold of hearing for humans and is a common reference pressure, so that its SPL is zero.The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa.[15]In medicine, blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg, very close to one Torr). The normal adult blood pressure is less than 120 mmHg systolic BP (SBP) and less than 80 mmHg diastolic BP (DBP).[16] Convert mmHg to SI units as follows: 1 mmHg = 0.13332 kPa. Hence normal blood pressure in SI units is less than 16.0 kPa SBP and less than 10.7 kPa DBP. These values are similar to the pressure of water column of average human height; so pressure has to be measured on arm roughly at the level of the heart.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"meteorology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorology"},{"link_name":"bar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_(unit)"},{"link_name":"SI units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Hectopascal and millibar units","text":"The units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar (100,000 Pa), which is close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals (hPa) unit, equal to 100 pascals or 1 millibar.[17][18][19][20][21][22][23] Exceptions include Canada, which uses kilopascals (kPa). In many other fields of science, prefixes that are a power of 1000 are preferred, which excludes the hectopascal from use.[24][25]Many countries also use millibars. In practically all other fields, the kilopascal is used instead.[26]","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SI units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units"}],"text":"Decimal multiples and submultiples are formed using standard SI units.","title":"Multiples and submultiples"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Atmospheric pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure"},{"title":"Centimetre of water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centimetre_of_water"},{"title":"Meteorology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorology"},{"title":"Metric prefix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_prefix"},{"title":"Orders of magnitude (pressure)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(pressure)"},{"title":"Pascal's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_law"},{"title":"Pressure measurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_measurement"}]
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[{"reference":"International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (8th ed.), p. 118, ISBN 92-822-2213-6, archived (PDF) from the original on 4 June 2021, retrieved 16 December 2021","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Bureau_of_Weights_and_Measures","url_text":"International Bureau of Weights and Measures"},{"url":"https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41483022/si_brochure_8.pdf","url_text":"The International System of Units (SI)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-822-2213-6","url_text":"92-822-2213-6"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210604163219/https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41483022/si_brochure_8.pdf","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of the standard atmosphere\". BIPM. Retrieved 16 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bipm.org/jsp/en/ViewCGPMResolution.jsp?CGPM=10&RES=4","url_text":"\"Definition of the standard atmosphere\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIPM","url_text":"BIPM"}]},{"reference":"\"National Weather Service glossary page on inches of mercury\".","urls":[{"url":"https://w1.weather.gov/glossary/index.php?word=inches+of+mercury","url_text":"\"National Weather Service glossary page on inches of mercury\""}]},{"reference":"\"US government atmospheric pressure map\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/sfc/90fwbg.gif","url_text":"\"US government atmospheric pressure map\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Weather Channel\".","urls":[{"url":"https://s.w-x.co/util/image/map/WEB_Current_Weather_Map_1280x720.jpg?v=ap&w=1280&h=720&api=7db9fe61-7414-47b5-9871-e17d87b8b6a0","url_text":"\"The Weather Channel\""}]},{"reference":"Canada, Environment (16 April 2013). \"Canadian Weather - Environment Canada\". weather.gc.ca.","urls":[{"url":"https://weather.gc.ca/canada_e.html","url_text":"\"Canadian Weather - Environment Canada\""}]},{"reference":"\"Resolution 4 of the 10th meeting of the CGPM\". Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures. 1954. Archived from the original on 30 March 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210330142301/http://www.bipm.org/jsp/en/ViewCGPMResolution.jsp?CGPM=10&RES=4","url_text":"\"Resolution 4 of the 10th meeting of the CGPM\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Conference_on_Weights_and_Measures","url_text":"Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures"},{"url":"http://www.bipm.org/jsp/en/ViewCGPMResolution.jsp?CGPM=10&RES=4","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"CJK Compatibility\" (PDF). 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U3300.pdf","url_text":"\"CJK Compatibility\""}]},{"reference":"The Unicode Standard, Version 8.0.0. Mountain View, CA: The Unicode Consortium. 2015. ISBN 978-1-936213-10-8. Retrieved 21 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0","url_text":"The Unicode Standard, Version 8.0.0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-936213-10-8","url_text":"978-1-936213-10-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Tensile Modulus – Modulus of Elasticity or Young's Modulus – for some common Materials\". Retrieved 16 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/young-modulus-d_417.html","url_text":"\"Tensile Modulus – Modulus of Elasticity or Young's Modulus – for some common Materials\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chapter 7 ResNet Standards: ResNet National Standard for Home Energy Audits\" (PDF). ResNet. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 3 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110726045004/http://www.resnet.us/hotnews/revised_chapter_seven_final_9-16-10.pdf","url_text":"\"Chapter 7 ResNet Standards: ResNet National Standard for Home Energy Audits\""},{"url":"http://www.resnet.us/hotnews/revised_chapter_seven_final_9-16-10.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"BP Guideline | Target:BP\". American Heart Association. Retrieved 18 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://targetbp.org/guidelines17/","url_text":"\"BP Guideline | Target:BP\""}]},{"reference":"\"KNMI – Weer – Waarnemingen\". Retrieved 4 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.knmi.nl/actueel/","url_text":"\"KNMI – Weer – Waarnemingen\""}]},{"reference":"\"Comment convertir la pression? – IRM\". Retrieved 4 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.meteo.be/meteo/view/fr/68771-FAQ%20sur%20le%20temps.html?view=195695","url_text":"\"Comment convertir la pression? – IRM\""}]},{"reference":"\"DWD\". Archived from the original on 10 February 2008. Retrieved 20 December 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080210040845/http://www.dwd.de/de/WundK/W_aktuell/Beobachtungen.htm","url_text":"\"DWD\""},{"url":"http://www.dwd.de/de/WundK/W_aktuell/Beobachtungen.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Japan Meteorological Agency – Weather Maps\". Retrieved 4 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.jma.go.jp/en/g3/index.html","url_text":"\"Japan Meteorological Agency – Weather Maps\""}]},{"reference":"\"MDD\". Archived from the original on 6 May 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060506192242/http://www.meteoam.it/modules.php?name=analisiPrevisioniSuolo","url_text":"\"MDD\""},{"url":"http://www.meteoam.it/modules.php?name=analisiPrevisioniSuolo","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"United Kingdom, Met Office. \"Key to symbols and terms\". Retrieved 4 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/guide/weather/symbols#units","url_text":"\"Key to symbols and terms\""}]},{"reference":"\"CTV News, weather; current conditions in Montreal\". Archived from the original on 4 June 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110604131321/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/HTMLTemplate/!ctvDynNews/Weather/Weather?City=Montreal","url_text":"\"CTV News, weather; current conditions in Montreal\""},{"url":"http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/HTMLTemplate/!ctvDynNews/Weather/Weather?City=Montreal","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Canada, Environment. \"Montréal, QC – 7 Day Forecast – Environment Canada\". Archived from the original on 30 November 2017. Retrieved 4 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171130163853/http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca/city/pages/qc-147_metric_e.html","url_text":"\"Montréal, QC – 7 Day Forecast – Environment Canada\""},{"url":"http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca/city/pages/qc-147_metric_e.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41483022/si_brochure_8.pdf","external_links_name":"The International System of Units (SI)"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210604163219/https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41483022/si_brochure_8.pdf","external_links_name":"archived"},{"Link":"http://www.bipm.org/jsp/en/ViewCGPMResolution.jsp?CGPM=10&RES=4","external_links_name":"\"Definition of the standard atmosphere\""},{"Link":"https://w1.weather.gov/glossary/index.php?word=inches+of+mercury","external_links_name":"\"National Weather Service glossary page on inches of mercury\""},{"Link":"https://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/sfc/90fwbg.gif","external_links_name":"\"US government atmospheric pressure map\""},{"Link":"https://s.w-x.co/util/image/map/WEB_Current_Weather_Map_1280x720.jpg?v=ap&w=1280&h=720&api=7db9fe61-7414-47b5-9871-e17d87b8b6a0","external_links_name":"\"The Weather Channel\""},{"Link":"https://weather.gc.ca/canada_e.html","external_links_name":"\"Canadian Weather - Environment Canada\""},{"Link":"http://www.bipm.fr/en/convention/cgpm/14/pascal-siemens.html","external_links_name":"bipm.fr"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070630020548/http://www.bipm.fr/en/convention/cgpm/14/pascal-siemens.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/CGPM/CGPM14.pdf#page=78","external_links_name":"Minutes of the 14. General Conference on Weights and Measures"},{"Link":"http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter2/2-2/table3.html","external_links_name":"Table 3 (Section 2.2.2)"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070618123613/http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter2/2-2/table3.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210330142301/http://www.bipm.org/jsp/en/ViewCGPMResolution.jsp?CGPM=10&RES=4","external_links_name":"\"Resolution 4 of the 10th meeting of the CGPM\""},{"Link":"http://www.bipm.org/jsp/en/ViewCGPMResolution.jsp?CGPM=10&RES=4","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://goldbook.iupac.org/S05921.html","external_links_name":"Standard Pressure"},{"Link":"https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U3300.pdf","external_links_name":"\"CJK Compatibility\""},{"Link":"https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0","external_links_name":"The Unicode Standard, Version 8.0.0"},{"Link":"http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/young-modulus-d_417.html","external_links_name":"\"Tensile Modulus – Modulus of Elasticity or Young's Modulus – for some common Materials\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110726045004/http://www.resnet.us/hotnews/revised_chapter_seven_final_9-16-10.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Chapter 7 ResNet Standards: ResNet National Standard for Home Energy Audits\""},{"Link":"http://www.resnet.us/hotnews/revised_chapter_seven_final_9-16-10.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://targetbp.org/guidelines17/","external_links_name":"\"BP Guideline | Target:BP\""},{"Link":"http://www.knmi.nl/actueel/","external_links_name":"\"KNMI – Weer – Waarnemingen\""},{"Link":"http://www.meteo.be/meteo/view/fr/68771-FAQ%20sur%20le%20temps.html?view=195695","external_links_name":"\"Comment convertir la pression? – IRM\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080210040845/http://www.dwd.de/de/WundK/W_aktuell/Beobachtungen.htm","external_links_name":"\"DWD\""},{"Link":"http://www.dwd.de/de/WundK/W_aktuell/Beobachtungen.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.jma.go.jp/en/g3/index.html","external_links_name":"\"Japan Meteorological Agency – Weather Maps\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060506192242/http://www.meteoam.it/modules.php?name=analisiPrevisioniSuolo","external_links_name":"\"MDD\""},{"Link":"http://www.meteoam.it/modules.php?name=analisiPrevisioniSuolo","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://weather.noaa.gov/weather/current/KDCA.html","external_links_name":"NOAA"},{"Link":"http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/guide/weather/symbols#units","external_links_name":"\"Key to symbols and terms\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110604131321/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/HTMLTemplate/!ctvDynNews/Weather/Weather?City=Montreal","external_links_name":"\"CTV News, weather; current conditions in Montreal\""},{"Link":"http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/HTMLTemplate/!ctvDynNews/Weather/Weather?City=Montreal","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171130163853/http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca/city/pages/qc-147_metric_e.html","external_links_name":"\"Montréal, QC – 7 Day Forecast – Environment Canada\""},{"Link":"http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca/city/pages/qc-147_metric_e.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=pTw-SCI7EkoC&pg=PA66","external_links_name":"Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) (rev. ): The ..."}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_Message_Authentication_Code
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Galois/Counter Mode
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["1 Basic operation","2 Mathematical basis","3 Use","4 Performance","5 Patents","6 Security","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
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Authenticated encryption mode for block ciphers
In cryptography, Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) is a mode of operation for symmetric-key cryptographic block ciphers which is widely adopted for its performance. GCM throughput rates for state-of-the-art, high-speed communication channels can be achieved with inexpensive hardware resources.
The GCM algorithm provides both data authenticity (integrity) and confidentiality and belongs to the class of authenticated encryption with associated data (AEAD) methods. This means that as input it takes a key K, some plaintext P, and some associated data AD; it then encrypts the plaintext using the key to produce ciphertext C, and computes an authentication tag T from the ciphertext and the associated data (which remains unencrypted). A recipient with knowledge of K, upon reception of AD, C and T, can decrypt the ciphertext to recover the plaintext P and can check the tag T to ensure that neither ciphertext nor associated data were tampered with.
GCM uses a block cipher with block size 128 bits (commonly AES-128) operated in counter mode for encryption, and uses arithmetic in the Galois field GF(2128) to compute the authentication tag; hence the name.
Galois Message Authentication Code (GMAC) is an authentication-only variant of the GCM which can form an incremental message authentication code. Both GCM and GMAC can accept initialization vectors of arbitrary length.
Different block cipher modes of operation can have significantly different performance and efficiency characteristics, even when used with the same block cipher. GCM can take full advantage of parallel processing and implementing GCM can make efficient use of an instruction pipeline or a hardware pipeline. By contrast, the cipher block chaining (CBC) mode of operation incurs pipeline stalls that hamper its efficiency and performance.
Basic operation
Like in normal counter mode, blocks are numbered sequentially, and then this block number is combined with an initialization vector (IV) and encrypted with a block cipher E, usually AES. The result of this encryption is then XORed with the plaintext to produce the ciphertext. Like all counter modes, this is essentially a stream cipher, and so it is essential that a different IV is used for each stream that is encrypted.
The ciphertext blocks are considered coefficients of a polynomial which is then evaluated at a key-dependent point H, using finite field arithmetic. The result is then encrypted, producing an authentication tag that can be used to verify the integrity of the data. The encrypted text then contains the IV, ciphertext, and authentication tag.
GCM operation. For simplicity, a case with only a single block of additional authenticated data (labeled Auth Data 1) and two blocks of plaintext is shown. Encryption: A series of 128-bit counters is encrypted using the block cipher E with key K; this can occur in parallel. The results are combined using bitwise XOR with 128-bit plaintext blocks, producing a series of ciphertext blocks. Authentication: The Additional Data and these ciphertext blocks are combined using multiplication with a key-dependent constant H in the Galois field GF(2128) to produce the authentication tag.
Mathematical basis
GCM combines the well-known counter mode of encryption with the new Galois mode of authentication. The key feature is the ease of parallel computation of the Galois field multiplication used for authentication. This feature permits higher throughput than encryption algorithms, like CBC, which use chaining modes. The GF(2128) field used is defined by the polynomial
x
128
+
x
7
+
x
2
+
x
+
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{\displaystyle x^{128}+x^{7}+x^{2}+x+1}
The authentication tag is constructed by feeding blocks of data into the GHASH function and encrypting the result. This GHASH function is defined by
GHASH
(
H
,
A
,
C
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=
X
m
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1
{\displaystyle \operatorname {GHASH} (H,A,C)=X_{m+n+1}}
where H = Ek(0128) is the hash key, a string of 128 zero bits encrypted using the block cipher, A is data which is only authenticated (not encrypted), C is the ciphertext, m is the number of 128-bit blocks in A (rounded up), n is the number of 128-bit blocks in C (rounded up), and the variable Xi for i = 0, ..., m + n + 1 is defined below.
First, the authenticated text and the cipher text are separately zero-padded to multiples of 128 bits and combined into a single message Si:
S
i
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{
A
i
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i
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∥
0
128
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,
…
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C
n
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∥
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128
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for
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len
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{\displaystyle S_{i}={\begin{cases}A_{i}&{\text{for }}i=1,\ldots ,m-1\\A_{m}^{*}\parallel 0^{128-v}&{\text{for }}i=m\\C_{i-m}&{\text{for }}i=m+1,\ldots ,m+n-1\\C_{n}^{*}\parallel 0^{128-u}&{\text{for }}i=m+n\\\operatorname {len} (A)\parallel \operatorname {len} (C)&{\text{for }}i=m+n+1\end{cases}}}
where len(A) and len(C) are the 64-bit representations of the bit lengths of A and C, respectively, v = len(A) mod 128 is the bit length of the final block of A, u = len(C) mod 128 is the bit length of the final block of C, and
∥
{\displaystyle \parallel }
denotes concatenation of bit strings.
Then Xi is defined as:
X
i
=
∑
j
=
1
i
S
j
⋅
H
i
−
j
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1
=
{
0
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{\displaystyle X_{i}=\sum _{j=1}^{i}S_{j}\cdot H^{i-j+1}={\begin{cases}0&{\text{for }}i=0\\\left(X_{i-1}\oplus S_{i}\right)\cdot H&{\text{for }}i=1,\ldots ,m+n+1\end{cases}}}
The second form is an efficient iterative algorithm (each Xi depends on Xi−1) produced by applying Horner's method to the first. Only the final Xm+n+1 remains an output.
If it is necessary to parallelize the hash computation, this can be done by interleaving k times:
X
i
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0
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≤
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{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}X_{i}^{'}&={\begin{cases}0&{\text{for }}i\leq 0\\\left(X_{i-k}^{'}\oplus S_{i}\right)\cdot H^{k}&{\text{for }}i=1,\ldots ,m+n+1-k\\\end{cases}}\\X_{i}&=\sum _{j=1}^{k}\left(X_{i+j-2k}^{'}\oplus S_{i+j-k}\right)\cdot H^{k-j+1}\end{aligned}}}
If the length of the IV is not 96, the GHASH function is used to calculate Counter 0:
C
o
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n
t
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r
0
=
{
I
V
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31
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1
for
len
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I
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96
GHASH
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0
64
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len
64
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I
V
)
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with
s
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len
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I
V
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mod
128
otherwise
{\displaystyle \mathrm {Counter0} ={\begin{cases}IV\parallel 0^{31}\parallel 1&{\text{for }}\operatorname {len} (IV)=96\\\operatorname {GHASH} \left(IV\parallel 0^{s}\parallel 0^{64}\parallel \operatorname {len} _{64}(IV)\right){\text{ with }}s=128-\operatorname {len} (IV)\mod 128&{\text{otherwise}}\end{cases}}}
GCM was designed by John Viega and David A. McGrew to be an improvement to Carter–Wegman counter mode (CWC mode).
In November 2007, NIST announced the release of NIST Special Publication 800-38D Recommendation for Block Cipher Modes of Operation: Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) and GMAC making GCM and GMAC official standards.
Use
GCM mode is used in the IEEE 802.1AE (MACsec) Ethernet security, WPA3-Enterprise Wifi security protocol, IEEE 802.11ad (also dubbed WiGig), ANSI (INCITS) Fibre Channel Security Protocols (FC-SP), IEEE P1619.1 tape storage, IETF IPsec standards, SSH, TLS 1.2 and TLS 1.3. AES-GCM is included in the NSA Suite B Cryptography and its latest replacement in 2018 Commercial National Security Algorithm (CNSA) suite. GCM mode is used in the SoftEther VPN server and client, as well as OpenVPN since version 2.4.
Performance
GCM requires one block cipher operation and one 128-bit multiplication in the Galois field per each block (128 bit) of encrypted and authenticated data. The block cipher operations are easily pipelined or parallelized; the multiplication operations are easily pipelined and can be parallelized with some modest effort (either by parallelizing the actual operation, by adapting Horner's method per the original NIST submission, or both).
Intel has added the PCLMULQDQ instruction, highlighting its use for GCM. In 2011, SPARC added the XMULX and XMULXHI instructions, which also perform 64 × 64 bit carry-less multiplication. In 2015, SPARC added the XMPMUL instruction, which performs XOR multiplication of much larger values, up to 2048 × 2048 bit input values producing a 4096-bit result. These instructions enable fast multiplication over GF(2n), and can be used with any field representation.
Impressive performance results are published for GCM on a number of platforms. Käsper and Schwabe described a "Faster and Timing-Attack Resistant AES-GCM" that achieves 10.68 cycles per byte AES-GCM authenticated encryption on 64-bit Intel processors. Dai et al. report 3.5 cycles per byte for the same algorithm when using Intel's AES-NI and PCLMULQDQ instructions. Shay Gueron and Vlad Krasnov achieved 2.47 cycles per byte on the 3rd generation Intel processors. Appropriate patches were prepared for the OpenSSL and NSS libraries.
When both authentication and encryption need to be performed on a message, a software implementation can achieve speed gains by overlapping the execution of those operations. Performance is increased by exploiting instruction-level parallelism by interleaving operations. This process is called function stitching, and while in principle it can be applied to any combination of cryptographic algorithms, GCM is especially suitable. Manley and Gregg show the ease of optimizing when using function stitching with GCM. They present a program generator that takes an annotated C version of a cryptographic algorithm and generates code that runs well on the target processor.
GCM has been criticized in the embedded world (for example by Silicon Labs) because the parallel processing is not suited for performant use of cryptographic hardware engines. As a result, GCM reduces the performance of encryption for some of the most performance-sensitive devices. Specialized hardware accelerators for ChaCha20-Poly1305 are less complex compared to AES accelerators.
Patents
According to the authors' statement, GCM is unencumbered by patents.
Security
GCM is proven secure in the concrete security model. It is secure when it is used with a block cipher that is indistinguishable from a random permutation; however, security depends on choosing a unique initialization vector for every encryption performed with the same key (see stream cipher attack). For any given key, GCM is limited to encrypting 239 − 256 bits of plain text (64 GiB). NIST Special Publication 800-38D includes guidelines for initialization vector selection.
The authentication strength depends on the length of the authentication tag, like with all symmetric message authentication codes. The use of shorter authentication tags with GCM is discouraged. The bit-length of the tag, denoted t, is a security parameter. In general, t may be any one of the following five values: 128, 120, 112, 104, or 96. For certain applications, t may be 64 or 32, but the use of these two tag lengths constrains the length of the input data and the lifetime of the key. Appendix C in NIST SP 800-38D provides guidance for these constraints (for example, if t = 32 and the maximal packet size is 210 bytes, the authentication decryption function should be invoked no more than 211 times; if t = 64 and the maximal packet size is 215 bytes, the authentication decryption function should be invoked no more than 232 times).
Like with any message authentication code, if the adversary chooses a t-bit tag at random, it is expected to be correct for given data with probability measure 2−t. With GCM, however, an adversary can increase their likelihood of success by choosing tags with n words – the total length of the ciphertext plus any additional authenticated data (AAD) – with probability measure 2−t by a factor of n. Although, one must bear in mind that these optimal tags are still dominated by the algorithm's survival measure 1 − n⋅2−t for arbitrarily large t. Moreover, GCM is neither well-suited for use with very short tag-lengths nor very long messages.
Ferguson and Saarinen independently described how an attacker can perform optimal attacks against GCM authentication, which meet the lower bound on its security. Ferguson showed that, if n denotes the total number of blocks in the encoding (the input to the GHASH function), then there is a method of constructing a targeted ciphertext forgery that is expected to succeed with a probability of approximately n⋅2−t. If the tag length t is shorter than 128, then each successful forgery in this attack increases the probability that subsequent targeted forgeries will succeed, and leaks information about the hash subkey, H. Eventually, H may be compromised entirely and the authentication assurance is completely lost.
Independent of this attack, an adversary may attempt to systematically guess many different tags for a given input to authenticated decryption and thereby increase the probability that one (or more) of them, eventually, will be considered valid. For this reason, the system or protocol that implements GCM should monitor and, if necessary, limit the number of unsuccessful verification attempts for each key.
Saarinen described GCM weak keys. This work gives some valuable insights into how polynomial hash-based authentication works. More precisely, this work describes a particular way of forging a GCM message, given a valid GCM message, that works with probability of about n⋅2−128 for messages that are n × 128 bits long. However, this work does not show a more effective attack than was previously known; the success probability in observation 1 of this paper matches that of lemma 2 from the INDOCRYPT 2004 analysis (setting w = 128 and l = n × 128). Saarinen also described a GCM variant Sophie Germain Counter Mode (SGCM) based on Sophie Germain primes.
See also
Authenticated encryption
Block cipher mode of operation
AES-GCM-SIV
References
^ RFC 5288 AES Galois Counter Mode (GCM) Cipher Suites for TLS
^ Lemsitzer, S.; Wolkerstorfer, J.; Felber, N.; Braendli, M. (2007). "Multi-gigabit GCM-AES Architecture Optimized for FPGAs". In Paillier, P.; Verbauwhede, I. (eds.). Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems - CHES 2007. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4727. Springer. pp. 227–238. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74735-2_16. ISBN 978-3-540-74734-5.
^ McGrew, David A.; Viega, John (2005). "The Galois/Counter Mode of Operation (GCM)" (PDF). p. 5. Retrieved 20 July 2013. Note that there is a typo in the formulas in the article.
^ Kohno, Tadayoshi; Viega, John; Whiting, Doug (2004). "CWC: A High-Performance Conventional Authenticated Encryption Mode". In Roy, Bimal; Meier, Willi (eds.). Fast Software Encryption. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 3017. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 408–426. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-25937-4_26. ISBN 978-3-540-25937-4.
^ a b Dworkin, Morris (2007–2011). Recommendation for Block Cipher Modes of Operation: Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) and GMAC (PDF) (Technical report). NIST. 800-38D. Retrieved 2015-08-18.
^ RFC 4106 The Use of Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) in IPsec Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
^ RFC 4543 The Use of Galois Message Authentication Code (GMAC) in IPsec ESP and AH
^ RFC 5647 AES Galois Counter Mode for the Secure Shell Transport Layer Protocol
^ RFC 5288 AES Galois Counter Mode (GCM) Cipher Suites for TLS
^ RFC 6367 Addition of the Camellia Cipher Suites to Transport Layer Security (TLS)
^ RFC 8446 The Transport Layer Security protocol version 1.3
^ "Algorithm Registration - Computer Security Objects Register | CSRC | CSRC". 24 May 2016.
^ "Why SoftEther VPN – SoftEther VPN Project".
^ Gueron, Shay; Kounavis, Michael (April 2014). "Intel Carry-Less Multiplication Instruction and its Usage for Computing the GCM Mode (Revision 2.02)" (PDF). Retrieved 2023-09-01.
^ Käsper, E.; Schwabe, P. (2009). "Faster and Timing-Attack Resistant AES-GCM". In Clavier, C.; Gaj, K. (eds.). Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems - CHES 2009. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 5747. Springer. pp. 1–17. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-04138-9_1. ISBN 978-3-642-04138-9.
^ Gueron, Shay. "AES-GCM for Efficient Authenticated Encryption – Ending the Reign of HMAC-SHA-1?" (PDF). Workshop on Real-World Cryptography. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
^ Gopal, V., Feghali, W., Guilford, J., Ozturk, E., Wolrich, G., Dixon, M., Locktyukhin, M., Perminov, M. "Fast Cryptographic Computation on Intel Architecture via Function Stitching" Intel Corp. (2010)
^ Manley, Raymond; Gregg, David (2010). "A Program Generator for Intel AES-NI Instructions". In Gong, G.; Gupta, K.C. (eds.). Progress in Cryptology - INDOCRYPT 2010. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 6498. Springer. pp. 311–327. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-17401-8_22. ISBN 978-3-642-17400-1.
^ "IoT Security Part 6: Galois Counter Mode". 2016-05-06. Retrieved 2023-10-17.
^ Pfau, Johannes; Reuter, Maximilian; Harbaum, Tanja; Hofmann, Klaus; Becker, Jurgen (September 2019). "A Hardware Perspective on the ChaCha Ciphers: Scalable Chacha8/12/20 Implementations Ranging from 476 Slices to Bitrates of 175 Gbit/s": 294–299. doi:10.1109/SOCC46988.2019.1570548289. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ McGrew, David A.; Viega, John. "The Galois/Counter Mode of Operation (GCM) Intellectual Property Statement" (PDF). Computer Security Resource Center, NIST.
^ McGrew, David A.; Viega, John (2004). "The Security and Performance of the Galois/counter mode (GCM) of Operation". Proceedings of INDOCRYPT 2004. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 3348. Springer. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1.4591. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-30556-9_27. ISBN 978-3-540-30556-9.
^ Niels Ferguson, Authentication Weaknesses in GCM, 2005-05-20
^ Markku-Juhani O. Saarinen (2011-04-20). "Cycling Attacks on GCM, GHASH and Other Polynomial MACs and Hashes". Cryptology ePrint Archive. FSE 2012.
External links
NIST Special Publication SP800-38D defining GCM and GMAC
RFC 4106: The Use of Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) in IPsec Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
RFC 4543: The Use of Galois Message Authentication Code (GMAC) in IPsec ESP and AH
RFC 5288: AES Galois Counter Mode (GCM) Cipher Suites for TLS
RFC 6367: Addition of the Camellia Cipher Suites to Transport Layer Security (TLS)
IEEE 802.1AE – Media Access Control (MAC) Security
IEEE Security in Storage Working Group developed the P1619.1 standard
INCITS T11 Technical Committee works on Fibre Channel – Security Protocols project.
AES-GCM and AES-CCM Authenticated Encryption in Secure RTP (SRTP)
The Galois/Counter Mode of Operation (GCM)
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"mode of operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher_mode_of_operation"},{"link_name":"symmetric-key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric-key_algorithm"},{"link_name":"block ciphers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"authenticated encryption with associated data (AEAD)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authenticated_encryption"},{"link_name":"AES-128","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AES-128"},{"link_name":"counter mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter_mode"},{"link_name":"Galois field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_field"},{"link_name":"message authentication code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_authentication_code"},{"link_name":"initialization vectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initialization_vector"},{"link_name":"parallel processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_processing_(computing)"},{"link_name":"instruction pipeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_pipeline"},{"link_name":"cipher block chaining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cipher_block_chaining"},{"link_name":"pipeline stalls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_stall"}],"text":"In cryptography, Galois/Counter Mode (GCM)[1] is a mode of operation for symmetric-key cryptographic block ciphers which is widely adopted for its performance. GCM throughput rates for state-of-the-art, high-speed communication channels can be achieved with inexpensive hardware resources.[2]The GCM algorithm provides both data authenticity (integrity) and confidentiality and belongs to the class of authenticated encryption with associated data (AEAD) methods. This means that as input it takes a key K, some plaintext P, and some associated data AD; it then encrypts the plaintext using the key to produce ciphertext C, and computes an authentication tag T from the ciphertext and the associated data (which remains unencrypted). A recipient with knowledge of K, upon reception of AD, C and T, can decrypt the ciphertext to recover the plaintext P and can check the tag T to ensure that neither ciphertext nor associated data were tampered with.GCM uses a block cipher with block size 128 bits (commonly AES-128) operated in counter mode for encryption, and uses arithmetic in the Galois field GF(2128) to compute the authentication tag; hence the name.Galois Message Authentication Code (GMAC) is an authentication-only variant of the GCM which can form an incremental message authentication code. Both GCM and GMAC can accept initialization vectors of arbitrary length.Different block cipher modes of operation can have significantly different performance and efficiency characteristics, even when used with the same block cipher. GCM can take full advantage of parallel processing and implementing GCM can make efficient use of an instruction pipeline or a hardware pipeline. By contrast, the cipher block chaining (CBC) mode of operation incurs pipeline stalls that hamper its efficiency and performance.","title":"Galois/Counter Mode"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"counter mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher_mode_of_operation#Counter_(CTR)"},{"link_name":"initialization vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initialization_vector"},{"link_name":"AES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Encryption_Standard"},{"link_name":"XORed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitwise_XOR"},{"link_name":"plaintext","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaintext"},{"link_name":"ciphertext","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciphertext"},{"link_name":"stream cipher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_cipher"},{"link_name":"polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"finite field arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_field_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"authentication tag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authentication_tag"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GCM-Galois_Counter_Mode_with_IV.svg"}],"text":"Like in normal counter mode, blocks are numbered sequentially, and then this block number is combined with an initialization vector (IV) and encrypted with a block cipher E, usually AES. The result of this encryption is then XORed with the plaintext to produce the ciphertext. Like all counter modes, this is essentially a stream cipher, and so it is essential that a different IV is used for each stream that is encrypted.The ciphertext blocks are considered coefficients of a polynomial which is then evaluated at a key-dependent point H, using finite field arithmetic. The result is then encrypted, producing an authentication tag that can be used to verify the integrity of the data. The encrypted text then contains the IV, ciphertext, and authentication tag.GCM operation. For simplicity, a case with only a single block of additional authenticated data (labeled Auth Data 1) and two blocks of plaintext is shown. Encryption: A series of 128-bit counters is encrypted using the block cipher E with key K; this can occur in parallel. The results are combined using bitwise XOR with 128-bit plaintext blocks, producing a series of ciphertext blocks. Authentication: The Additional Data and these ciphertext blocks are combined using multiplication with a key-dependent constant H in the Galois field GF(2128) to produce the authentication tag.","title":"Basic operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"counter mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher_modes_of_operation#Counter_(CTR)"},{"link_name":"Galois field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_field"},{"link_name":"CBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher_modes_of_operation#Cipher_Block_Chaining_(CBC)"},{"link_name":"block cipher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher"},{"link_name":"ciphertext","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciphertext"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Horner's method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horner%27s_method"},{"link_name":"John Viega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Viega"},{"link_name":"Carter–Wegman counter mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CWC_mode"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"NIST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIST"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NIST-SP-800-38D-5"}],"text":"GCM combines the well-known counter mode of encryption with the new Galois mode of authentication. The key feature is the ease of parallel computation of the Galois field multiplication used for authentication. This feature permits higher throughput than encryption algorithms, like CBC, which use chaining modes. The GF(2128) field used is defined by the polynomialx\n \n 128\n \n \n +\n \n x\n \n 7\n \n \n +\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n x\n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{128}+x^{7}+x^{2}+x+1}The authentication tag is constructed by feeding blocks of data into the GHASH function and encrypting the result. This GHASH function is defined byGHASH\n \n (\n H\n ,\n A\n ,\n C\n )\n =\n \n X\n \n m\n +\n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {GHASH} (H,A,C)=X_{m+n+1}}where H = Ek(0128) is the hash key, a string of 128 zero bits encrypted using the block cipher, A is data which is only authenticated (not encrypted), C is the ciphertext, m is the number of 128-bit blocks in A (rounded up), n is the number of 128-bit blocks in C (rounded up), and the variable Xi for i = 0, ..., m + n + 1 is defined below.[3]First, the authenticated text and the cipher text are separately zero-padded to multiples of 128 bits and combined into a single message Si:S\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n \n A\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n \n for \n \n i\n =\n 1\n ,\n …\n ,\n m\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n m\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ∥\n \n 0\n \n 128\n −\n v\n \n \n \n \n \n for \n \n i\n =\n m\n \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n i\n −\n m\n \n \n \n \n \n for \n \n i\n =\n m\n +\n 1\n ,\n …\n ,\n m\n +\n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n n\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ∥\n \n 0\n \n 128\n −\n u\n \n \n \n \n \n for \n \n i\n =\n m\n +\n n\n \n \n \n \n len\n \n (\n A\n )\n ∥\n len\n \n (\n C\n )\n \n \n \n for \n \n i\n =\n m\n +\n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S_{i}={\\begin{cases}A_{i}&{\\text{for }}i=1,\\ldots ,m-1\\\\A_{m}^{*}\\parallel 0^{128-v}&{\\text{for }}i=m\\\\C_{i-m}&{\\text{for }}i=m+1,\\ldots ,m+n-1\\\\C_{n}^{*}\\parallel 0^{128-u}&{\\text{for }}i=m+n\\\\\\operatorname {len} (A)\\parallel \\operatorname {len} (C)&{\\text{for }}i=m+n+1\\end{cases}}}where len(A) and len(C) are the 64-bit representations of the bit lengths of A and C, respectively, v = len(A) mod 128 is the bit length of the final block of A, u = len(C) mod 128 is the bit length of the final block of C, and \n \n \n \n ∥\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\parallel }\n \n denotes concatenation of bit strings.Then Xi is defined as:X\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n j\n =\n 1\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n S\n \n j\n \n \n ⋅\n \n H\n \n i\n −\n j\n +\n 1\n \n \n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n for \n \n i\n =\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n X\n \n i\n −\n 1\n \n \n ⊕\n \n S\n \n i\n \n \n \n )\n \n ⋅\n H\n \n \n \n for \n \n i\n =\n 1\n ,\n …\n ,\n m\n +\n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}=\\sum _{j=1}^{i}S_{j}\\cdot H^{i-j+1}={\\begin{cases}0&{\\text{for }}i=0\\\\\\left(X_{i-1}\\oplus S_{i}\\right)\\cdot H&{\\text{for }}i=1,\\ldots ,m+n+1\\end{cases}}}The second form is an efficient iterative algorithm (each Xi depends on Xi−1) produced by applying Horner's method to the first. Only the final Xm+n+1 remains an output.If it is necessary to parallelize the hash computation, this can be done by interleaving k times:X\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n ′\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n for \n \n i\n ≤\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n X\n \n i\n −\n k\n \n \n \n \n ′\n \n \n \n ⊕\n \n S\n \n i\n \n \n \n )\n \n ⋅\n \n H\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n \n for \n \n i\n =\n 1\n ,\n …\n ,\n m\n +\n n\n +\n 1\n −\n k\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n j\n =\n 1\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n X\n \n i\n +\n j\n −\n 2\n k\n \n \n \n \n ′\n \n \n \n ⊕\n \n S\n \n i\n +\n j\n −\n k\n \n \n \n )\n \n ⋅\n \n H\n \n k\n −\n j\n +\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}X_{i}^{'}&={\\begin{cases}0&{\\text{for }}i\\leq 0\\\\\\left(X_{i-k}^{'}\\oplus S_{i}\\right)\\cdot H^{k}&{\\text{for }}i=1,\\ldots ,m+n+1-k\\\\\\end{cases}}\\\\[6pt]X_{i}&=\\sum _{j=1}^{k}\\left(X_{i+j-2k}^{'}\\oplus S_{i+j-k}\\right)\\cdot H^{k-j+1}\\end{aligned}}}If the length of the IV is not 96, the GHASH function is used to calculate Counter 0:C\n o\n u\n n\n t\n e\n r\n 0\n \n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n I\n V\n ∥\n \n 0\n \n 31\n \n \n ∥\n 1\n \n \n \n for \n \n len\n \n (\n I\n V\n )\n =\n 96\n \n \n \n \n GHASH\n \n \n (\n \n I\n V\n ∥\n \n 0\n \n s\n \n \n ∥\n \n 0\n \n 64\n \n \n ∥\n \n len\n \n 64\n \n \n \n (\n I\n V\n )\n \n )\n \n \n with \n \n s\n =\n 128\n −\n len\n \n (\n I\n V\n )\n \n mod\n \n \n 128\n \n \n \n otherwise\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {Counter0} ={\\begin{cases}IV\\parallel 0^{31}\\parallel 1&{\\text{for }}\\operatorname {len} (IV)=96\\\\\\operatorname {GHASH} \\left(IV\\parallel 0^{s}\\parallel 0^{64}\\parallel \\operatorname {len} _{64}(IV)\\right){\\text{ with }}s=128-\\operatorname {len} (IV)\\mod 128&{\\text{otherwise}}\\end{cases}}}GCM was designed by John Viega and David A. McGrew to be an improvement to Carter–Wegman counter mode (CWC mode).[4]In November 2007, NIST announced the release of NIST Special Publication 800-38D Recommendation for Block Cipher Modes of Operation: Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) and GMAC making GCM and GMAC official standards.[5]","title":"Mathematical basis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IEEE 802.1AE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.1AE"},{"link_name":"WPA3-Enterprise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi_Protected_Access"},{"link_name":"IEEE 802.11ad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/802.11ad"},{"link_name":"WiGig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiGig"},{"link_name":"INCITS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INCITS"},{"link_name":"Fibre Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel"},{"link_name":"IEEE P1619","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_P1619"},{"link_name":"IETF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force"},{"link_name":"IPsec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPsec"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"SSH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Shell"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"TLS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"NSA Suite B Cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSA_Suite_B_Cryptography"},{"link_name":"Commercial National Security Algorithm (CNSA)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_National_Security_Algorithm_Suite"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"SoftEther VPN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SoftEther_VPN"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"OpenVPN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenVPN"}],"text":"GCM mode is used in the IEEE 802.1AE (MACsec) Ethernet security, WPA3-Enterprise Wifi security protocol, IEEE 802.11ad (also dubbed WiGig), ANSI (INCITS) Fibre Channel Security Protocols (FC-SP), IEEE P1619.1 tape storage, IETF IPsec standards,[6][7] SSH,[8] TLS 1.2[9][10] and TLS 1.3.[11] AES-GCM is included in the NSA Suite B Cryptography and its latest replacement in 2018 Commercial National Security Algorithm (CNSA) suite.[12] GCM mode is used in the SoftEther VPN server and client,[13] as well as OpenVPN since version 2.4.","title":"Use"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Galois field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_field"},{"link_name":"Horner's method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horner%27s_method"},{"link_name":"PCLMULQDQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CLMUL_instruction_set"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"carry-less multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carry-less_product"},{"link_name":"Timing-Attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timing_attack"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Shay Gueron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shay_Gueron&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vlad Krasnov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vlad_Krasnov&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"OpenSSL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenSSL"},{"link_name":"NSS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Security_Services"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"instruction-level parallelism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction-level_parallelism"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"ChaCha20-Poly1305","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChaCha20-Poly1305"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"GCM requires one block cipher operation and one 128-bit multiplication in the Galois field per each block (128 bit) of encrypted and authenticated data. The block cipher operations are easily pipelined or parallelized; the multiplication operations are easily pipelined and can be parallelized with some modest effort (either by parallelizing the actual operation, by adapting Horner's method per the original NIST submission, or both).Intel has added the PCLMULQDQ instruction, highlighting its use for GCM.[14] In 2011, SPARC added the XMULX and XMULXHI instructions, which also perform 64 × 64 bit carry-less multiplication. In 2015, SPARC added the XMPMUL instruction, which performs XOR multiplication of much larger values, up to 2048 × 2048 bit input values producing a 4096-bit result. These instructions enable fast multiplication over GF(2n), and can be used with any field representation.Impressive performance results are published for GCM on a number of platforms. Käsper and Schwabe described a \"Faster and Timing-Attack Resistant AES-GCM\"[15] that achieves 10.68 cycles per byte AES-GCM authenticated encryption on 64-bit Intel processors. Dai et al. report 3.5 cycles per byte for the same algorithm when using Intel's AES-NI and PCLMULQDQ instructions. Shay Gueron and Vlad Krasnov achieved 2.47 cycles per byte on the 3rd generation Intel processors. Appropriate patches were prepared for the OpenSSL and NSS libraries.[16]When both authentication and encryption need to be performed on a message, a software implementation can achieve speed gains by overlapping the execution of those operations. Performance is increased by exploiting instruction-level parallelism by interleaving operations. This process is called function stitching,[17] and while in principle it can be applied to any combination of cryptographic algorithms, GCM is especially suitable. Manley and Gregg[18] show the ease of optimizing when using function stitching with GCM. They present a program generator that takes an annotated C version of a cryptographic algorithm and generates code that runs well on the target processor.GCM has been criticized in the embedded world (for example by Silicon Labs) because the parallel processing is not suited for performant use of cryptographic hardware engines. As a result, GCM reduces the performance of encryption for some of the most performance-sensitive devices.[19] Specialized hardware accelerators for ChaCha20-Poly1305 are less complex compared to AES accelerators.[20]","title":"Performance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"According to the authors' statement, GCM is unencumbered by patents.[21]","title":"Patents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"concrete security model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_security"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"initialization vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initialization_vector"},{"link_name":"stream cipher attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_cipher_attack"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NIST-SP-800-38D-5"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"weak keys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_key"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gcm-ghash-weak-keys-24"},{"link_name":"Sophie Germain Counter Mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie_Germain_Counter_Mode"},{"link_name":"Sophie Germain primes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie_Germain_prime"}],"text":"GCM is proven secure in the concrete security model.[22] It is secure when it is used with a block cipher that is indistinguishable from a random permutation; however, security depends on choosing a unique initialization vector for every encryption performed with the same key (see stream cipher attack). For any given key, GCM is limited to encrypting 239 − 256 bits of plain text (64 GiB). NIST Special Publication 800-38D[5] includes guidelines for initialization vector selection.The authentication strength depends on the length of the authentication tag, like with all symmetric message authentication codes. The use of shorter authentication tags with GCM is discouraged. The bit-length of the tag, denoted t, is a security parameter. In general, t may be any one of the following five values: 128, 120, 112, 104, or 96. For certain applications, t may be 64 or 32, but the use of these two tag lengths constrains the length of the input data and the lifetime of the key. Appendix C in NIST SP 800-38D provides guidance for these constraints (for example, if t = 32 and the maximal packet size is 210 bytes, the authentication decryption function should be invoked no more than 211 times; if t = 64 and the maximal packet size is 215 bytes, the authentication decryption function should be invoked no more than 232 times).Like with any message authentication code, if the adversary chooses a t-bit tag at random, it is expected to be correct for given data with probability measure 2−t. With GCM, however, an adversary can increase their likelihood of success by choosing tags with n words – the total length of the ciphertext plus any additional authenticated data (AAD) – with probability measure 2−t by a factor of n. Although, one must bear in mind that these optimal tags are still dominated by the algorithm's survival measure 1 − n⋅2−t for arbitrarily large t. Moreover, GCM is neither well-suited for use with very short tag-lengths nor very long messages.Ferguson and Saarinen independently described how an attacker can perform optimal attacks against GCM authentication, which meet the lower bound on its security. Ferguson showed that, if n denotes the total number of blocks in the encoding (the input to the GHASH function), then there is a method of constructing a targeted ciphertext forgery that is expected to succeed with a probability of approximately n⋅2−t. If the tag length t is shorter than 128, then each successful forgery in this attack increases the probability that subsequent targeted forgeries will succeed, and leaks information about the hash subkey, H. Eventually, H may be compromised entirely and the authentication assurance is completely lost.[23]Independent of this attack, an adversary may attempt to systematically guess many different tags for a given input to authenticated decryption and thereby increase the probability that one (or more) of them, eventually, will be considered valid. For this reason, the system or protocol that implements GCM should monitor and, if necessary, limit the number of unsuccessful verification attempts for each key.Saarinen described GCM weak keys.[24] This work gives some valuable insights into how polynomial hash-based authentication works. More precisely, this work describes a particular way of forging a GCM message, given a valid GCM message, that works with probability of about n⋅2−128 for messages that are n × 128 bits long. However, this work does not show a more effective attack than was previously known; the success probability in observation 1 of this paper matches that of lemma 2 from the INDOCRYPT 2004 analysis (setting w = 128 and l = n × 128). Saarinen also described a GCM variant Sophie Germain Counter Mode (SGCM) based on Sophie Germain primes.","title":"Security"}]
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[{"image_text":"GCM operation. For simplicity, a case with only a single block of additional authenticated data (labeled Auth Data 1) and two blocks of plaintext is shown. Encryption: A series of 128-bit counters is encrypted using the block cipher E with key K; this can occur in parallel. The results are combined using bitwise XOR with 128-bit plaintext blocks, producing a series of ciphertext blocks. Authentication: The Additional Data and these ciphertext blocks are combined using multiplication with a key-dependent constant H in the Galois field GF(2128) to produce the authentication tag.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/GCM-Galois_Counter_Mode_with_IV.svg/500px-GCM-Galois_Counter_Mode_with_IV.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Authenticated encryption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authenticated_encryption"},{"title":"Block cipher mode of operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher_mode_of_operation"},{"title":"AES-GCM-SIV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AES-GCM-SIV"}]
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[{"reference":"Lemsitzer, S.; Wolkerstorfer, J.; Felber, N.; Braendli, M. (2007). \"Multi-gigabit GCM-AES Architecture Optimized for FPGAs\". In Paillier, P.; Verbauwhede, I. (eds.). Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems - CHES 2007. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4727. Springer. pp. 227–238. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74735-2_16. ISBN 978-3-540-74734-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-74735-2_16","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-540-74735-2_16"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-74734-5","url_text":"978-3-540-74734-5"}]},{"reference":"McGrew, David A.; Viega, John (2005). \"The Galois/Counter Mode of Operation (GCM)\" (PDF). p. 5. Retrieved 20 July 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Viega","url_text":"Viega, John"},{"url":"http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/toolkit/BCM/documents/proposedmodes/gcm/gcm-spec.pdf","url_text":"\"The Galois/Counter Mode of Operation (GCM)\""}]},{"reference":"Kohno, Tadayoshi; Viega, John; Whiting, Doug (2004). \"CWC: A High-Performance Conventional Authenticated Encryption Mode\". In Roy, Bimal; Meier, Willi (eds.). Fast Software Encryption. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 3017. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 408–426. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-25937-4_26. ISBN 978-3-540-25937-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-25937-4_26","url_text":"\"CWC: A High-Performance Conventional Authenticated Encryption Mode\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-25937-4_26","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-540-25937-4_26"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-25937-4","url_text":"978-3-540-25937-4"}]},{"reference":"Dworkin, Morris (2007–2011). Recommendation for Block Cipher Modes of Operation: Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) and GMAC (PDF) (Technical report). NIST. 800-38D. Retrieved 2015-08-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-38D/SP-800-38D.pdf","url_text":"Recommendation for Block Cipher Modes of Operation: Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) and GMAC"}]},{"reference":"\"Algorithm Registration - Computer Security Objects Register | CSRC | CSRC\". 24 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://csrc.nist.gov/projects/computer-security-objects-register/algorithm-registration#AES","url_text":"\"Algorithm Registration - Computer Security Objects Register | CSRC | CSRC\""}]},{"reference":"\"Why SoftEther VPN – SoftEther VPN Project\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.softether.org/1-features","url_text":"\"Why SoftEther VPN – SoftEther VPN Project\""}]},{"reference":"Gueron, Shay; Kounavis, Michael (April 2014). \"Intel Carry-Less Multiplication Instruction and its Usage for Computing the GCM Mode (Revision 2.02)\" (PDF). Retrieved 2023-09-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.intel.com/content/dam/develop/external/us/en/documents/clmul-wp-rev-2-02-2014-04-20.pdf","url_text":"\"Intel Carry-Less Multiplication Instruction and its Usage for Computing the GCM Mode (Revision 2.02)\""}]},{"reference":"Käsper, E.; Schwabe, P. (2009). \"Faster and Timing-Attack Resistant AES-GCM\". In Clavier, C.; Gaj, K. (eds.). Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems - CHES 2009. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 5747. Springer. pp. 1–17. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-04138-9_1. ISBN 978-3-642-04138-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-04138-9_1","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-642-04138-9_1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-04138-9","url_text":"978-3-642-04138-9"}]},{"reference":"Gueron, Shay. \"AES-GCM for Efficient Authenticated Encryption – Ending the Reign of HMAC-SHA-1?\" (PDF). Workshop on Real-World Cryptography. Retrieved 8 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://crypto.stanford.edu/RealWorldCrypto/slides/gueron.pdf","url_text":"\"AES-GCM for Efficient Authenticated Encryption – Ending the Reign of HMAC-SHA-1?\""}]},{"reference":"Manley, Raymond; Gregg, David (2010). \"A Program Generator for Intel AES-NI Instructions\". In Gong, G.; Gupta, K.C. (eds.). Progress in Cryptology - INDOCRYPT 2010. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 6498. Springer. pp. 311–327. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-17401-8_22. ISBN 978-3-642-17400-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-17401-8_22","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-642-17401-8_22"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-17400-1","url_text":"978-3-642-17400-1"}]},{"reference":"\"IoT Security Part 6: Galois Counter Mode\". 2016-05-06. Retrieved 2023-10-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://community.silabs.com/s/share/a5U1M000000knwAUAQ/iot-security-part-6-galois-counter-mode?language=en_US","url_text":"\"IoT Security Part 6: Galois Counter Mode\""}]},{"reference":"Pfau, Johannes; Reuter, Maximilian; Harbaum, Tanja; Hofmann, Klaus; Becker, Jurgen (September 2019). \"A Hardware Perspective on the ChaCha Ciphers: Scalable Chacha8/12/20 Implementations Ranging from 476 Slices to Bitrates of 175 Gbit/s\": 294–299. doi:10.1109/SOCC46988.2019.1570548289.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FSOCC46988.2019.1570548289","url_text":"10.1109/SOCC46988.2019.1570548289"}]},{"reference":"McGrew, David A.; Viega, John. \"The Galois/Counter Mode of Operation (GCM) Intellectual Property Statement\" (PDF). Computer Security Resource Center, NIST.","urls":[{"url":"http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/toolkit/BCM/documents/proposedmodes/gcm/gcm-nist-ipr.pdf","url_text":"\"The Galois/Counter Mode of Operation (GCM) Intellectual Property Statement\""}]},{"reference":"McGrew, David A.; Viega, John (2004). \"The Security and Performance of the Galois/counter mode (GCM) of Operation\". Proceedings of INDOCRYPT 2004. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 3348. Springer. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1.4591. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-30556-9_27. ISBN 978-3-540-30556-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.1.4591","url_text":"10.1.1.1.4591"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-30556-9_27","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-540-30556-9_27"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-30556-9","url_text":"978-3-540-30556-9"}]},{"reference":"Markku-Juhani O. Saarinen (2011-04-20). \"Cycling Attacks on GCM, GHASH and Other Polynomial MACs and Hashes\". Cryptology ePrint Archive. FSE 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://eprint.iacr.org/2011/202","url_text":"\"Cycling Attacks on GCM, GHASH and Other Polynomial MACs and Hashes\""}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameHouse
|
GameHouse
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["1 History","2 Locations","3 RealArcade","3.1 Sales model","4 References","5 External links"]
|
Video gaming division of RealNetworks
GameHouseCompany typeDivisionIndustryVideo gamesPredecessorRealArcadeFounded1998; 26 years ago (1998)FoundersBen ExworthyGarr GodfreyHeadquartersSeattle, Washington, United StatesServicesOnline and offline video game development, publication and distributionParentRealNetworksWebsitewww.gamehouse.com
GameHouse Inc. is an American casual game developer, publisher, digital video game distributor, and portal, based in Seattle, Washington, United States. It is a division of RealNetworks.
GameHouse distributes casual games for PC and Mac computers, as well as for mobile devices such as phones and tablets (on both iOS (iTunes) and Android (Google Play and the Amazon Appstore)).
GameHouse offers 2,300+ online and downloadable games, consisting of both in-house produced titles (such as the Delicious series) and third party games.
History
GameHouse was founded by Ben Exworthy and Garr Godfrey in 1998.
The first downloadable game developed by the company was Collapse!, a game similar to SameGame. In 2003, company revenues topped $10 million ($5.5 million net). In 2004, GameHouse was acquired by RealNetworks for $14.6 million cash and about 3.3 million RNWK shares, then estimated at $21 million.
After the acquisition, the GameHouse studio continued operations as a developer, while its games were distributed via RealNetworks, and the GameHouse game portal continued to operate alongside the RealArcade gaming service.
On November 3, 2009, RealArcade had announced they are merging with GameHouse to create a large distribution platform. Such plans include migrating the accounts of users from RealArcade, offering discounts and special offers to GamePass members and new social community opportunities. The merger was completed on November 13. As a result, all customers visiting the RealArcade website are redirected to Gamehouse.com. By 2010, RealArcade Mobile was rebranded as GameHouse.
Locations
GameHouse's main offices are in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. The company also has studios in Barcelona and Alicante (Spain). GameHouse has been working on developing their own original story games such as the Delicious series and Zylom. In collaboration with Blue Giraffe, it launched Delicious: Emily's Christmas Carol in December 2016. The company continues to release multiple story-driven time management games per year on mobile while maintaining Zylom and GameHouse websites on which they publish games by other developers too.
Zylom is part of the Gamehouse Studios Europe which operate the main GameHouse properties globally.
RealArcade
RealArcade (Formerly RealOne Arcade) was a gaming service run by RealNetworks that sold casual-style computer games to individual users. Its purpose was to let users download demo versions of games, and optionally buy the full versions.
Sales model
RealArcade distributes games on a time-limited demo basis. Each game downloaded has a trial time of 60 minutes unless differently specified by each publisher. Once the trial time expires, users are required either to uninstall the game from their computer or to purchase the full version of the game. Users can also subscribe to a RealNetworks service called GamePass. For a monthly fee, it offers a free ownership of a single game of their choice per month at no additional fees and $5.00 off each game purchase.
References
^ "Company Overview of GameHouse, Inc". www.bloomberg.com. Retrieved October 11, 2017.
^ Loughane, E (2005). Net Success Interviews. Lulu.com. p. 201. ISBN 978-1411626980.
^ "GameHouse, Inc.: Private Company Information - Bloomberg". www.bloomberg.com. Retrieved October 11, 2017.
^ Dbritto, Simran (January 1, 2022). "Looking For Great Games? You, Will, Find Them On Gamehouse! Try Any Game Free Or Get Unlimited Access To All The Games You Love From Your Favorite Genres". IWMBuzz. Retrieved May 3, 2022.
^ a b "RealNetworks, Inc. - Acquisition History". realnetworks.com. Archived from the original on April 4, 2016. Retrieved August 29, 2015.
^ "RealArcade announces Gamehouse Merger". Archived from the original on July 15, 2011. Retrieved November 6, 2009.
^ Jordan, Jon (March 2, 2010). "RealArcade Mobile rebranded as GameHouse on carrier decks". pocketgamer.biz. Retrieved May 3, 2022.
^ Tyrsina, Radu (December 10, 2016). "Delicious: Emily's Christmas Carol is a fun cooking game for Windows PCs". Windows Report - Error-free Tech Life. Retrieved May 3, 2022.
^ "Privacy Policy".
^ Mossberg, Walter (September 11, 2003). "Gore-Free PC Games Can Help While Away Those Senior Moments". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on January 30, 2024. Retrieved January 30, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ Ryan, Michael E. (January 8, 2001). "PC Magazine Reviews: RealArcade". Retrieved December 14, 2008.
^ "GamePass by RealArcade". Archived from the original on October 10, 2008. Retrieved December 14, 2008.
External links
Official website
RealArcade Games Preservation Project archive
Authority control databases
VIAF
vteDigital distribution of software
App store
Cloud gaming
Content delivery network
Digital library
Digital distribution of video games
List of mobile app distribution platforms
Over-the-air update
Package manager
Software distribution
ActivePersonal computers
Amazon Digital Game Store
Battle.net
Big Fish Games
Chrome Web Store
Digital River
Direct2Drive
Discord
DLsite
Discover
DMM Games
Epic Games Store
Flathub
GameHouse
GamersGate
Gamesplanet
Game Jolt
GNOME Software
GOG.com
Humble Store
itch.io
MacGameStore
MacUpdate
Mac App Store
Microsoft Store
MSN Games
Origin
Pogo.com
Pokki
PureOS Software Center
Robot Cache
Snap Store
Steam
Ubisoft Connect
WeGame
WildTangent
Consoles
Microsoft Store
Nintendo eShop
PlayStation Store
Xbox Games Store
Mobile devices & Smart TVs
Amazon Appstore
Apple App Store
Appland
Aptoide
Cafe Bazaar
Cydia
F-Droid
Galaxy Store
GetJar
Google Play
Huawei AppGallery
Meta Horizon Store
MiKandi
OpenStore
PureOS Software Center
SlideME
Arcade
ALL.Net
E-Amusement
NESiCAxLive
Defunct
Allmyapps
BlackBerry World
Club Nokia
Desura
Download!
GameAgent
GameShadow
GameTap
Games for Windows Marketplace
Handango
Impulse
Intel AppUp
Kartridge
Kazaa
N-Gage
Nokia Store
Opera Mobile Store
PlayNow Arena
Stardock Central
Triton
Ubuntu App Store
Ubuntu Software Center
Vodafone live!
Wii Shop Channel
Windows Marketplace
Windows Marketplace for Mobile
Windows Phone Store
Xbox Live Arcade
Yahoo! Games
Zune Marketplace
Category
Portal
|
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It is a division of RealNetworks.GameHouse distributes casual games for PC and Mac computers, as well as for mobile devices such as phones and tablets (on both iOS (iTunes) and Android (Google Play and the Amazon Appstore)).GameHouse offers 2,300+ online and downloadable games, consisting of both in-house produced titles (such as the Delicious series) and third party games.","title":"GameHouse"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Collapse!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collapse!"},{"link_name":"SameGame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SameGame"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-realnetworks1-5"},{"link_name":"RealNetworks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealNetworks"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-realnetworks1-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"GameHouse was founded by Ben Exworthy and Garr Godfrey[2] in 1998.[3]The first downloadable game developed by the company was Collapse!, a game similar to SameGame.[4] In 2003, company revenues topped $10 million ($5.5 million net).[5] In 2004, GameHouse was acquired by RealNetworks for $14.6 million cash and about 3.3 million RNWK shares, then estimated at $21 million.[5]After the acquisition, the GameHouse studio continued operations as a developer, while its games were distributed via RealNetworks, and the GameHouse game portal continued to operate alongside the RealArcade gaming service.On November 3, 2009, RealArcade had announced they are merging with GameHouse to create a large distribution platform. Such plans include migrating the accounts of users from RealArcade, offering discounts and special offers to GamePass members and new social community opportunities.[6] The merger was completed on November 13. As a result, all customers visiting the RealArcade website are redirected to Gamehouse.com. By 2010, RealArcade Mobile was rebranded as GameHouse.[7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"GameHouse's main offices are in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. The company also has studios in Barcelona and Alicante (Spain). GameHouse has been working on developing their own original story games such as the Delicious series and Zylom. In collaboration with Blue Giraffe, it launched Delicious: Emily's Christmas Carol in December 2016.[8] The company continues to release multiple story-driven time management games per year on mobile while maintaining Zylom and GameHouse websites on which they publish games by other developers too.Zylom is part of the Gamehouse Studios Europe which operate the main GameHouse properties globally.[9]","title":"Locations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RealNetworks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealNetworks"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"RealArcade (Formerly RealOne Arcade) was a gaming service run by RealNetworks that sold casual-style computer games to individual users.[10] Its purpose was to let users download demo versions of games, and optionally buy the full versions.[11]","title":"RealArcade"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Sales model","text":"RealArcade distributes games on a time-limited demo basis.[citation needed] Each game downloaded has a trial time of 60 minutes unless differently specified by each publisher. Once the trial time expires, users are required either to uninstall the game from their computer or to purchase the full version of the game. Users can also subscribe to a RealNetworks service called GamePass. For a monthly fee, it offers a free ownership of a single game of their choice per month at no additional fees and $5.00 off each game purchase.[12]","title":"RealArcade"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"\"Company Overview of GameHouse, Inc\". www.bloomberg.com. Retrieved October 11, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=7917578","url_text":"\"Company Overview of GameHouse, Inc\""}]},{"reference":"Loughane, E (2005). Net Success Interviews. Lulu.com. p. 201. ISBN 978-1411626980.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QiuJlGtVjM0C&q=game+house+was+founded&pg=PA261","url_text":"Net Success Interviews"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1411626980","url_text":"978-1411626980"}]},{"reference":"\"GameHouse, Inc.: Private Company Information - Bloomberg\". www.bloomberg.com. Retrieved October 11, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=7917578","url_text":"\"GameHouse, Inc.: Private Company Information - Bloomberg\""}]},{"reference":"Dbritto, Simran (January 1, 2022). \"Looking For Great Games? You, Will, Find Them On Gamehouse! Try Any Game Free Or Get Unlimited Access To All The Games You Love From Your Favorite Genres\". IWMBuzz. Retrieved May 3, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iwmbuzz.com/gaming/looking-for-great-games-you-will-find-them-on-gamehouse-try-any-game-free-or-get-unlimited-access-to-all-the-games-you-love-from-your-favorite-genres/2022/01/01","url_text":"\"Looking For Great Games? You, Will, Find Them On Gamehouse! Try Any Game Free Or Get Unlimited Access To All The Games You Love From Your Favorite Genres\""}]},{"reference":"\"RealNetworks, Inc. - Acquisition History\". realnetworks.com. Archived from the original on April 4, 2016. Retrieved August 29, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160404051612/http://investor.realnetworks.com/faq.cfm?faqid=2","url_text":"\"RealNetworks, Inc. - Acquisition History\""},{"url":"http://investor.realnetworks.com/faq.cfm?faqid=2","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"RealArcade announces Gamehouse Merger\". Archived from the original on July 15, 2011. Retrieved November 6, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110715161501/http://www.realarcade.com/gamehouse","url_text":"\"RealArcade announces Gamehouse Merger\""},{"url":"http://www.realarcade.com/gamehouse","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Jordan, Jon (March 2, 2010). \"RealArcade Mobile rebranded as GameHouse on carrier decks\". pocketgamer.biz. Retrieved May 3, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pocketgamer.biz/news/18848/realarcade-mobile-rebranded-as-gamehouse-on-carrier-decks/","url_text":"\"RealArcade Mobile rebranded as GameHouse on carrier decks\""}]},{"reference":"Tyrsina, Radu (December 10, 2016). \"Delicious: Emily's Christmas Carol is a fun cooking game for Windows PCs\". Windows Report - Error-free Tech Life. Retrieved May 3, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://windowsreport.com/delicious-emilys-christmas-carol-cooking-game/","url_text":"\"Delicious: Emily's Christmas Carol is a fun cooking game for Windows PCs\""}]},{"reference":"\"Privacy Policy\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zylom.com/us/en/about_us.jsp","url_text":"\"Privacy Policy\""}]},{"reference":"Mossberg, Walter (September 11, 2003). \"Gore-Free PC Games Can Help While Away Those Senior Moments\". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on January 30, 2024. Retrieved January 30, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20240130142012/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB106323038086874500","url_text":"\"Gore-Free PC Games Can Help While Away Those Senior Moments\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal","url_text":"The Wall Street Journal"}]},{"reference":"Ryan, Michael E. (January 8, 2001). \"PC Magazine Reviews: RealArcade\". Retrieved December 14, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,33221,00.asp","url_text":"\"PC Magazine Reviews: RealArcade\""}]},{"reference":"\"GamePass by RealArcade\". Archived from the original on October 10, 2008. Retrieved December 14, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081010160539/http://www.realarcade.com/gamepass","url_text":"\"GamePass by RealArcade\""},{"url":"http://www.realarcade.com/gamepass","url_text":"the original"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"http://www.gamehouse.com/","external_links_name":"www.gamehouse.com"},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=7917578","external_links_name":"\"Company Overview of GameHouse, Inc\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QiuJlGtVjM0C&q=game+house+was+founded&pg=PA261","external_links_name":"Net Success Interviews"},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=7917578","external_links_name":"\"GameHouse, Inc.: Private Company Information - Bloomberg\""},{"Link":"https://www.iwmbuzz.com/gaming/looking-for-great-games-you-will-find-them-on-gamehouse-try-any-game-free-or-get-unlimited-access-to-all-the-games-you-love-from-your-favorite-genres/2022/01/01","external_links_name":"\"Looking For Great Games? You, Will, Find Them On Gamehouse! Try Any Game Free Or Get Unlimited Access To All The Games You Love From Your Favorite Genres\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160404051612/http://investor.realnetworks.com/faq.cfm?faqid=2","external_links_name":"\"RealNetworks, Inc. - Acquisition History\""},{"Link":"http://investor.realnetworks.com/faq.cfm?faqid=2","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110715161501/http://www.realarcade.com/gamehouse","external_links_name":"\"RealArcade announces Gamehouse Merger\""},{"Link":"http://www.realarcade.com/gamehouse","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.pocketgamer.biz/news/18848/realarcade-mobile-rebranded-as-gamehouse-on-carrier-decks/","external_links_name":"\"RealArcade Mobile rebranded as GameHouse on carrier decks\""},{"Link":"https://windowsreport.com/delicious-emilys-christmas-carol-cooking-game/","external_links_name":"\"Delicious: Emily's Christmas Carol is a fun cooking game for Windows PCs\""},{"Link":"https://www.zylom.com/us/en/about_us.jsp","external_links_name":"\"Privacy Policy\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20240130142012/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB106323038086874500","external_links_name":"\"Gore-Free PC Games Can Help While Away Those Senior Moments\""},{"Link":"https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,33221,00.asp","external_links_name":"\"PC Magazine Reviews: RealArcade\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081010160539/http://www.realarcade.com/gamepass","external_links_name":"\"GamePass by RealArcade\""},{"Link":"http://www.realarcade.com/gamepass","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.gamehouse.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/com.real.arcade","external_links_name":"RealArcade Games Preservation Project archive"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/145844907","external_links_name":"VIAF"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_line
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Nintendo video game consoles
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["1 Home consoles","1.1 Color TV-Game (1977–1983)","1.2 Family Computer and Nintendo Entertainment System (1983 and 1985)","1.3 Super Famicom and Super Nintendo Entertainment System (1990 and 1991)","1.4 Nintendo 64 (1996 and 1997)","1.5 GameCube (2001)","1.6 Wii (2006)","1.7 Wii U (2012)","2 Handheld consoles","2.1 Game & Watch series (1980–1991, 2020–2021)","2.2 Game Boy (1989)","2.3 Game Boy Color (1998)","2.4 Game Boy Advance (2001)","2.5 Pokémon Mini (2001)","2.6 Nintendo DS (2004)","2.7 Nintendo 3DS (2011)","3 Hybrid consoles","3.1 Virtual Boy (1995)","3.2 Nintendo Switch (2017)","4 Other hardware","5 References"]
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A size comparison of the (top to bottom) Wii (2006), GameCube (2001), Nintendo 64 (1996), North American SNES (1991) and the NES outside of Japan (1985)
The Japanese multinational consumer electronics company Nintendo has developed seven home video game consoles and multiple portable consoles for use with external media, as well as dedicated consoles and other hardware for their consoles. As of September 30, 2021, in addition to Nintendo Switch, Nintendo has sold over 863.07 million hardware units.
The company's first console, the Color TV-Game, was a success in Japan but was never released in other territories. Their first systems to achieve worldwide success were the Game & Watch handheld series, before achieving greater worldwide success with the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), originally released as the Family Computer (Famicom) in Japan in 1983. The NES restarted the video game industry after the video game crash of 1983, and was an international success. In 1989, Nintendo released the Game Boy, which became the first handheld console to sell in large numbers. In the early 1990s, Nintendo's market lead began to decrease; although the 1990 Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) was a strong seller, the Sega Genesis was a very strong contender. Nintendo and Sega would both lose a significant portion of the console market towards the end of the 1990s, as Sony's PlayStation became the most popular console, beating the Nintendo 64, though Nintendo managed to sell more than Sega Saturn.
The Dreamcast, released in 1998, PlayStation 2, released in 2000, and Microsoft's Xbox, released in 2001, would eventually relegate Nintendo to third place in the international market, despite the release of the GameCube. However, they retained their lead in the handheld console market, with the Game Boy Color and Game Boy Advance models. Towards the middle of the 2000s, Nintendo introduced the first successful handheld device with a touch screen (DS) and the first successful console designed for motion controlled inputs (the Wii); they became some of the best-selling consoles of all time. In 2011, Nintendo became the first major company to release a handheld game console with stereoscopic 3D capabilities, with the 3DS, which had very strong sales from the beginning. The Wii U, released in November 2012, was much less successful, and sales were significantly lower than predicted. The company's most recent console, Nintendo Switch, was released in March 2017 and has become the company's best-selling home console and the overall third best-selling console of all time.
Home consoles
Color TV-Game (1977–1983)
Main article: Color TV-Game
One of five Color TV-Game consolesColor TV-Game is a series of five dedicated home consoles released only in Japan. Each of the consoles contained a small number of games and a built-in controller. In total, approximately 3 million units were sold.
The Color TV-Game series consists of:
Color TV-Game 6, released June 1, 1977, with six variations of Pong: Tennis, Hockey, and Volleyball in Singles or Doubles mode. Sold approximately 1 million units.
Color TV-Game 15, released June 8, 1977, with 15 variations of Pong. This was the most popular console in the series, selling just over 1 million units.
Color TV-Game Racing 112, released June 8, 1978, with a racing game. Notable for being the first Nintendo project that Shigeru Miyamoto worked on. Sold approximately half a million units.
Color TV-Game Block Breaker, released April 23, 1979, with a game based on Breakout. Sold approximately half a million units.
Computer TV-Game, released in 1980, with Computer Othello. Sold in limited quantities.
Family Computer and Nintendo Entertainment System (1983 and 1985)
Main article: Nintendo Entertainment System
North American version of the Nintendo Entertainment System
Released July 15, 1983, the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) is an 8-bit video game console released by Nintendo in North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Oceania, and Africa and was Nintendo's first home video game console released outside Japan. In Japan, it is known as the "Family Computer" (or "Famicom", as it is commonly abbreviated). Selling 61.91 million units worldwide, the NES helped revitalize the video game industry following the video game crash of 1983 and set the standard for subsequent consoles in everything from game design to business practices. The NES was the first console for which the manufacturer openly courted third-party developers. Many of Nintendo's most iconic franchises, such as The Legend of Zelda and Metroid were started on the NES. Nintendo continued to repair Famicom consoles in Japan until October 31, 2007, attributing the decision to discontinue support to an increasing shortage of the necessary parts.
Nintendo released a software-emulation-based version of the Nintendo Entertainment System on November 10, 2016. Called the NES Classic Edition, it is a dedicated console that comes with a single controller and 30 preloaded games.
Super Famicom and Super Nintendo Entertainment System (1990 and 1991)
Main article: Super Nintendo Entertainment System
North American version of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System
Released November 21, 1990, The Super Nintendo Entertainment System, officially abbreviated the Super NES or SNES and colloquially shortened to Super Nintendo, is a 16-bit video game console released by Nintendo in North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Oceania and Africa. In Japan it is known as the Super Famicom. In South Korea, it is known as the Super Comboy and was distributed by Hyundai Electronics.
The SNES was Nintendo's third home console (second outside of Japan), following the Nintendo Entertainment System. Whereas the earlier console had struggled in the PAL region and large parts of Asia, the SNES was a global success, albeit one that could not match its predecessor's popularity in Northeast Asia and North America—due in part to increased competition from Sega's Genesis console. Despite its relatively late start, the SNES became the best selling console of the 16-bit era, selling 49.10 million systems worldwide. The SNES library is known for upgrading some of Nintendo's most famous franchises, and making the games even more critically acclaimed, such as Super Metroid, The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past, Final Fantasy IV and VI, Donkey Kong Country, and Super Mario World, as well starting some popular franchises such as Star Fox and Mega Man X.
Similarly to the NES Classic Edition released prior, Nintendo released a software-emulation-based version of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System on September 29, 2017. Called the Super NES Classic Edition, it, like its predecessor, is a dedicated console that comes with two controllers and 21 preloaded games, one of which, Star Fox 2, is a title originally developed for the system that went unreleased.
Nintendo 64 (1996 and 1997)
Main article: Nintendo 64
A Nintendo 64
The Nintendo 64 was released on June 23, 1996 in Japan, on September 29, 1996, in North America, and March 1, 1997, in Europe and Australia. It was commonly called the N64, and codenamed Ultra 64. The Nintendo 64 was Nintendo's third home video game console for the international market. It was released with three launch games in Japan (Super Mario 64, Pilotwings 64, and Saikyo Habu Shogi) and two in North America (Super Mario 64 and Pilotwings 64). PAL regions also had three launch titles (Super Mario 64, Shadows of the Empire and Pilotwings 64) with Turok: Dinosaur Hunter delayed until three days after launch. Other key games included Donkey Kong 64, Diddy Kong Racing, Banjo-Kazooie, two games in The Legend of Zelda series, GoldenEye 007, Mario Kart 64, Super Smash Bros., and Star Fox 64. The Nintendo 64 sold 32.93 million systems.
GameCube (2001)
Main article: GameCube
A GameCube
The Nintendo GameCube (commonly shortened to GameCube, NGC, or GCN) was released on September 14, 2001. It was Nintendo's sixth generation game console, the same generation as Sega's Dreamcast, Sony's PlayStation 2, and Microsoft's Xbox. Until the console's unveiling at SpaceWorld 2000, the design project was known as Dolphin—this can still be seen in the console and its accessories' model numbers. The GameCube is the most compact sixth generation console. The GameCube is Nintendo's first game console to use optical discs rather than game cartridges. An agreement with the optical drive manufacturer Matsushita led to a DVD-playing GameCube system named the Panasonic Q, which was only released in Japan. Much of Nintendo's core line-up centered on sequels to their established hit franchises such as Super Mario Sunshine, Super Smash Bros. Melee, The Legend of Zelda: Wind Waker, Metroid Prime, Pokémon Colosseum, and Star Fox Adventures, while new franchises like Animal Crossing and Pikmin were born, although the former franchise had seen a Japan-exclusive release on the N64. The GameCube has sold 21.74 million units.
Wii (2006)
Main article: Wii
A Wii (left) and its Wii Remote (right)
Nintendo released the Wii on November 19, 2006, as their seventh-generation home console. Nintendo designed the console to appeal towards a wider audience than those of its main competitors, the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, including "casual" players and audiences that were new to video games.
These aims were emphasized by the console's distinguishing feature, the Wii Remote—a handheld motion controller that can detect motion and rotation in three dimensions, using a mixture of internal sensors and infrared positioning. The controller includes an expansion port that can be used to connect other accessories, such as the Nunchuk—an attachment with an analog stick and additional buttons, a "Classic Controller" gamepad providing a traditional control scheme, and Wii MotionPlus—an accessory designed to enhance the motion detection capabilities of the original Wii Remote models.
The Wii's internal hardware is an updated derivative of that of the GameCube; in comparison to its seventh-generation competitors, the Wii had lower overall graphics capabilities, and does not output in high-definition. The Wii also featured internet-enabled features; the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection service allowed supported games to offer online multiplayer and other features, while the WiiConnect24 feature allowed messages and updates to be downloaded while the console was in standby. Through Wii Shop Channel, additional games and apps can be downloaded or purchased for the console, including Virtual Console—a selection of classic video games emulated from older consoles. That service was discontinued as of January 30, 2019. Early models of the Wii also had backwards compatibility with GameCube games and controllers, but this was dropped from later hardware revisions, namely the Wii Family Edition and the Wii Mini.
The Wii was a major success for Nintendo; in April 2007, the Wall Street Journal declared that Nintendo had "become the company to beat in the games business", citing the success of the Wii and the portable Nintendo DS line. As of March 31, 2016, the Wii has sold 101.63 million consoles worldwide. Wii Sports—a collection of sports minigames that were designed to leverage the Wii Remote, was bundled with the console outside of Japan, and had a major cultural impact as the console's "killer app" among the mainstream audience.
Wii U (2012)
Main article: Wii U
A Wii U (right) and its GamePad (left)
The Wii U was released on November 18, 2012 as a direct successor to the Wii, and the first entry in the eighth generation of home video game consoles. The Wii U's distinguishing hardware feature is the GamePad, a tablet-like controller which contains a touchscreen that wirelessly streams a video output from the console. The GamePad's display can be used to provide alternative or complementary perspectives within a game, or as the main display instead of a television. In particular, Nintendo promoted the concept of "asymmetric" multiplayer, where a player with the GamePad would have a different objective and perspective than that of other players. Alongside the GamePad, the Wii U supports Wii controllers and games. A conventional gamepad known as the Wii U Pro Controller was also released.
The Wii U features more-extensive online functionality than the Wii, using the Nintendo Network platform; as with the Wii, it supports online multiplayer and downloading and purchasing new games and apps, but also allows video chat. It previously featured an internal social network known as Miiverse, which allowed users to write and draw posts in game-specific communities, the service was discontinued on November 8, 2017. Nintendo also attempted to provide second screen experiences for television programming for the Wii U through a feature known as Nintendo TVii, but it was discontinued outside of Japan in August 2015. Unlike the Wii, the Wii U's hardware is capable of high-definition graphics.
The Wii U was met with low adoption, attributed by Nintendo executives to a lack of third-party support; poor marketing of the system, which led to a lack of clarity of the Wii U game pad from being a tablet device; and the subsequent release of the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One the following year. However, some critics argued that the Wii U still had advantages over PS4 and Xbox One, including its lower cost and notable early exclusives such as Super Mario 3D World. Sales steadily increased following the release of several notable first-party exclusives, including new entries in the Mario Kart and Super Smash Bros. franchises, and the new franchise Splatoon.
In January 2017, a Nintendo spokesperson stated that production of the console had ended, with just 13.56 million units sold worldwide.
Handheld consoles
Game & Watch series (1980–1991, 2020–2021)
A Game & Watch with Donkey Kong 2 as pre-installed game
Main article: Game & Watch series
The Game & Watch series of handheld electronic games made by Nintendo and created by its game designer Gunpei Yokoi from 1980 to 1991. Most featured a single game that could be played on an LCD screen, in addition to a clock and an alarm. Most titles had a "GAME A" (easy mode) and a "GAME B" (hard mode) button. Game B is usually a faster, more difficult version of Game A. Different models were manufactured, with some consoles having two screens (the Multiscreen Series) and a clam-shell design. The Nintendo DS later reused this design. The Game & Watch made handhelds vastly popular. Many toy companies followed in the footsteps of Game & Watch, such as Tiger Electronics and their Star Wars themed games. Nintendo's Game & Watch units were eventually superseded by the original Game Boy. Each Game & Watch was only able to play one game, due to the use of a segmented LCD display being pre-printed with an overlay. The speed and responsiveness of the games was also limited by the time it took the LCD to change state.
The Game & Watch series sold 43.4 million units worldwide, including 12.87 million units in Japan and 30.53 million overseas. A special Game & Watch edition, as part of Super Mario Bros.' 35th anniversary, was released on November 13, 2020. Another special Game & Watch edition was released to celebrate The Legend of Zelda's 35th anniversary, which was released on November 12, 2021.
Game Boy (1989)
An original Game Boy
Main article: Game Boy
The Game Boy is the first handheld game console sold by Nintendo that features interchangeable ROM cartridges for each game, unlike the Game & Watch that has a different system for each game. Released in 1989 in Japan, it is one of the world's best-selling game console lines, with over 100 million units sold worldwide. The Game Boy is the first console in the Game Boy family and sold in a number of different revisions and variations, including the streamlined Game Boy Pocket and Game Boy Light in Japan. In 1998, Nintendo planned to release the Game Boy Advance, but it had to be pushed back, releasing the Game Boy Color, a new Game Boy platform with color graphics. Combined, the Game Boy and Game Boy Color sold 118.69 million units worldwide.
Game Boy Color (1998)
An Atomic Purple Game Boy Color
Main article: Game Boy Color
In 1998, Nintendo introduced the Game Boy Color as the successor to the original Game Boy. It features a color screen and an 8-bit processor and a custom Zilog Z80 central processing unit. It features full compatibility with all previously released Game Boy games, and can apply preset color filters over them to replace their grayscale visuals. It was made to compete with the WonderSwan Color and the Neo Geo Pocket. Its best selling game was Pokémon Gold and Silver On the Nintendo Switch Online subscription, Game Boy Color video games are included within the Nintendo Switch Online – Game Boy application instead of being listed as a separate console.
Game Boy Advance (2001)
Main article: Game Boy Advance
An original Game Boy Advance
In March 2001, Nintendo introduced the Game Boy Advance (abbreviated GBA), the first major technological upgrade in the Game Boy line. Nintendo later released two revised models of the Game Boy Advance, the Game Boy Advance SP and the Game Boy Micro in 2003 and 2005, respectively. The Game Boy Advance SP features a smaller clamshell design, and introduced a built-in screen light and rechargeable battery which became standard features for future Nintendo handhelds. The Game Boy Micro is an even smaller variant with interchangeable designer faceplates. Unlike the previous models, the Micro lacks Game Boy/Game Boy Color backwards compatibility and e-Reader support. As of June 30, 2010, the three Game Boy Advance models have sold 81.51 million units worldwide.
Pokémon Mini (2001)
Pokémon Mini
Main article: Pokémon Mini
In November 2001, Nintendo introduced the Pokémon Mini, a portable console themed around the Pokémon franchise. It was Nintendo's cheapest console ever produced, with games costing US$15 (equivalent to $25.81 in 2023) each in the United States, and the console costing US$45 (equivalent to $77.43 in 2023). This remains the smallest cartridge-based game console ever made. Sales of the Pokémon Mini were mostly poor. It released in the colors Wooper Blue, Chikorita Green, and Smoochum Purple. Every console is bundled with the game Pokémon Party Mini. The system has only released in North America, Japan, and Europe, seeing no further release in other regions.
Nintendo DS (2004)
An original Nintendo DS
Main article: Nintendo DS
The Nintendo DS (abbreviated NDS, DS, or the full name Nintendo Dual Screen, and iQue DS in China) is a handheld game console developed and manufactured by Nintendo, released on November 21, 2004, as the first system in the Nintendo DS family. It is visibly distinguishable by its horizontal clamshell design, and the presence of two displays, the lower of which acts as a touchscreen. The system also has a built-in microphone and supports wireless IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) standards, allowing players to interact with each other within short range (10–30 meters, depending on conditions) or over the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection service via a standard Wi-Fi access point. According to Nintendo, the letters "DS" in the name stand for "Developers' System" and "Double Screen", the former of which refers to the features of the handheld designed to encourage innovative gameplay ideas among developers. The system was known as "Project Nitro" during development.
On March 2, 2006, Nintendo released the Nintendo DS Lite, a redesigned model of the Nintendo DS, in Japan. It was later released in North America, Australia, and Europe. A second redesign of the Nintendo DS, the Nintendo DSi, was released on November 1, 2008, in Japan, on April 2, 2009, in Australia, April 3, 2009, in Europe, and April 5, 2009, in North America. It contains two cameras and downloadable software capabilities, plus a built-in flash memory and web browser. An SD card slot replaces the Game Boy Advance cartridge slot. A similar model, known as the Nintendo DSi XL, was released in 2009 in Japan and 2010 worldwide. It features the same configurations as its predecessor, but is slightly larger and features a large stylus designed for home use.
As of December 31, 2013, Nintendo DS consoles have sold 154.98 million units, including 93.86 million Nintendo DS Lites, and the Nintendo DSi consoles have sold 41.33 million units. It is currently Nintendo's best-selling video game console of all time.
Nintendo 3DS (2011)
An original Nintendo 3DS
Main article: Nintendo 3DS
Although the name and look of the device are similar to that of the DS series, the Nintendo 3DS (also 3DS or N3DS for short) is the successor to the DS and is a brand new console. The Nintendo 3DS was released on February 26, 2011.
It contains three cameras, two on the outside (for 3D photographs) and one internal one above the top screen. The bottom screen is a touch screen comparable to the DS bottom screens, and the top screen is Wide Screen and an autostereoscopic 3D LCD. Autostereoscopy is a process that sends different images to the left and right eyes to enable the viewer to view the screen in 3D "without the need for special glasses". The 3DS is said to enhance Nintendo's online experience. In July 2012, the 3DS XL was released, similar to the change between the DSi and DSi XL. It has 90% larger screens and design changes such as a matte finish and the stylus in a more accessible area.
The Nintendo 2DS was released on October 12, 2013. It is a variant designed to be affordable without the clamshell design or 3D capabilities of the 3DS. Another redesign, the New Nintendo 3DS and New 3DS XL, was released in Japan in October 2014, Australia for November 2014, and everywhere else in February 2015. It includes a C-Stick, ZR and ZL shoulder buttons, and a faster CPU, allowing for more software specifically for the New Nintendo 3DS (such as Xenoblade Chronicles 3D). Like the original 3DS, the New Nintendo 3DS also has an XL form.
As of December 31, 2013, Nintendo has sold 42.74 million units, including 15.21 million Nintendo 3DS XLs and 2.11 million Nintendo 2DS units.
The last handheld console in the 3DS family was the New Nintendo 2DS XL, which was released in June/July 2017 across five different countries. Production ceased on all Nintendo 3DS family systems on September 16, 2020.
Hybrid consoles
Virtual Boy (1995)
Main article: Virtual Boy
A Virtual Boy
The Virtual Boy (also known as the VR-32 during development, abbreviated VB) was the first portable game console capable of displaying true 3D graphics. Most video games are forced to use monocular cues to achieve the illusion of three dimensions on a two-dimensional screen, but the Virtual Boy was able to create a more accurate illusion of depth through an effect known as parallax. The Nintendo 3DS also uses this technology. In a manner similar to using a head-mounted display, the user looks into an eyepiece made of neoprene on the front of the machine, and then an eyeglass-style projector allows viewing of the monochromatic (in this case, red) image. It was released on July 21, 1995, in Japan and August 14, 1995, in North America and at a price of around US$180. It was never released in Europe, although a release schedule was initially planned. The system met with a lukewarm reception that was unaffected by continued price drops. Exactly 14 titles were released for Virtual Boy in North America, but only a few were met with positive reception. Nintendo discontinued the Virtual Boy within a few months of release.
Nintendo Switch (2017)
Main article: Nintendo Switch
The Nintendo Switch, docked (right) and its Joy-Con controllers, detached
The Nintendo Switch was released on March 3, 2017, and is Nintendo's second entry in the eighth generation of home video game consoles. The system was code-named "NX" prior to its official announcement. It is a hybrid device that can be used as a home console inserted to the Nintendo Switch Dock attached to a television, stood up on a table with the kickstand, or as a tablet-like portable console. It features two detachable wireless controllers called Joy-Con, that can be used individually or attached to a grip to provide a more traditional gamepad form. Both Joy-Con are built with motion sensors and HD Rumble, Nintendo's haptic vibration feedback system for improved gameplay experiences. However, only the right Joy-Con has an NFC reader on its analog joystick for Amiibo and an IR sensor on the back. The Nintendo Switch Pro Controller is a traditional style controller much like the one of the GameCube.
The Nintendo Switch has currently sold 141.32 million units as of March 31, 2024, outselling all of Nintendo's previous video game consoles, except the Nintendo DS, making it the best-selling home console from Nintendo and the third best-selling video game console of all time.
The Nintendo Switch Lite is a more affordable version of the Nintendo Switch released by Nintendo on September 20, 2019. The Switch Lite console is similar to a regular Nintendo Switch and can play almost all standard Switch games, but is a handheld portable-only version and is also slightly smaller. It comes in five color variations: grey, turquoise, coral, yellow, and blue, as well as some special editions. Its Joy-Con controllers cannot be detached like in the original Nintendo Switch model.
A second variation, the Nintendo Switch – OLED Model, was released in 2021, which makes several adjustments and improvements over the original, including an improved kickstand, a larger OLED screen, and larger storage (64 GB instead of the regular 32 GB present in the original Nintendo Switch model and the Nintendo Switch Lite).
Other hardware
Game Boy Camera – a monochrome camera cartridge for the original version of the Game Boy which includes a picture editor and the ability to print pictures via Game Boy Printer.
Satellaview – only released in Japan, an add-on for the Super Famicom (Japanese SNES) which allowed anyone to download games by a satellite.
Game Boy Player – an adapter for playing Game Boy games on the GameCube.
Game Boy Printer – an adapter designed for printing things from the Game Boy onto adhesive stickers. For example, it was used for printing out Game Boy Camera pictures and Pokémon information from the Pokédex in the Game Boy Pokémon games.
e-Reader – an add-on for the Game Boy Advance for scanning special "e-Reader cards", paper cards with specially encoded data printed on them.
iQue Player – a version of the Nintendo 64, with double the clock speed and downloadable games, released only in China.
iQue DS – a version of the Nintendo DS released only in China.
Nintendo 64DD – only released in Japan, this add-on system's games are on rewritable magnetic disks. Games released include a paint and 3D construction package, F-Zero X Expansion Kit, for creating new F-Zero X tracks, a sequel to the SNES version of SimCity, SimCity 64 and others.
Mobile System GB – only released in Japan, an adapter to play Game Boy Color games on mobile phones. Pokémon Crystal was the first game to take advantage of the Mobile System. The player can hook an adapter to their Game Boy and connect it to a mobile phone which people can receive news, trade, and battle with other players across Japan.
Pokémon Pikachu – a handheld device similar to the popular Tamagotchi toy which allows the user to take care of Pikachu in the manner of a pet.
Super Game Boy – adapter for playing Game Boy games on the Super NES, displayed in color.
Triforce – an arcade system based on GameCube hardware, developed in partnership with Sega and Namco.
Yakuman – a handheld mahjong game released in 1983.
GameCube Microphone – used in Karaoke Revolution Party, Mario Party 6, Mario Party 7 and Odama for the GameCube. It recognizes basic sounds and incorporates them into gameplay.
Nintendo Gateway – a proprietary hardware/software console available on commercial aircraft and hotel properties, providing shopping, information, and interactive entertainment.
Panasonic Q – a version of the GameCube which could play DVDs developed by Panasonic.
Visteon Dockable Entertainment System – a portable DVD player containing officially licensed Game Boy Advance hardware.
Pokéwalker – a Pedometer used in Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver that can be used to enhance a Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver game by giving some special Pokémon and items as well as other added benefits that reward depending on how many steps one can take.
Activity Meter – an Infrared (IR) Pedometer for use the Nintendo DS game, Personal Trainer: Walking.
Fit Meter – a portable accessory for use with the Wii U game, Wii Fit U, that tracks the number of steps taken and the elevation climbed. Can be synced with the game using the Wii U GamePad.
Poké Ball Plus – a Joy-Con replacement used with Pokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu! and Let's Go, Eevee! that can be used similarly to it, and can also be used to bring the player's Pokémon character with them for in-game rewards.
References
^ Sheff, David; Eddy, Andy (1999). Game Over: How Nintendo Zapped an American Industry, Captured Your Dollars, and Enslaved Your Children. GamePress. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-9669617-0-6. Nintendo entered the home market in Japan with the dramatic unveiling of Color TV-Game 6, which played six versions of light tennis. It was followed by a more powerful sequel, Color TV-Game 15. A million units of each were sold. The engineering team also came up with systems that played a more complex game, called "Blockbuster," as well as a racing game. Half a million units of these were sold.
^ 初代「ファミコン」など公式修理サポート終了. ITmedia News (in Japanese). ITmedia. October 16, 2007. Retrieved January 20, 2008.
^ RyanDG (October 16, 2007). "Nintendo of Japan dropping Hardware support for the Famicom". Arcade Renaissance. Archived from the original on March 17, 2008. Retrieved January 20, 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ "Nintendo's classic Famicom faces end of road". AFP. October 31, 2007. Archived from the original (Reprint) on November 5, 2007. Retrieved November 9, 2007.
^ Nintendo. "NES Classic Edition". Retrieved March 15, 2017.
^ a b c d e f g h "Consolidated Sales Transition by Region" (PDF). Nintendo. January 28, 2014. Retrieved January 29, 2014.
^ Nintendo. "SNES Classic Edition". Retrieved May 14, 2020.
^ a b c Schiesel, Seth (November 24, 2006). "Getting Everybody Back in the Game". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved August 20, 2017.
^ a b "Nintendo hopes Wii spells wiinner". USA Today. Retrieved August 20, 2017.
^ Casamassina, Matt (March 29, 2006). "Revolution's Horsepower". IGN. Retrieved August 20, 2017.
^ Nick Wingfield and Yukari Iwatani Kane, Wii and DS Turn Also-Ran Nintendo Into Winner in Videogames Business, Wall Street Journal, April 19, 2007
^ "IR Information : Sales Data – Hardware and Software Sales Units". Nintendo Co., Ltd.
^ Boyes, Emma (February 23, 2007). "Study: Wii kids lose weight". GameSpot. Retrieved August 20, 2017.
^ "Iwata: Wii Sports 2 benched for now". GameSpot. September 18, 2007. Retrieved August 20, 2017.
^ Crecente, Brian (November 16, 2012), The surprising (mundane) tech behind the Wii U's magical GamePad, retrieved August 20, 2017
^ a b c "Wii U review". Polygon. November 18, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2017.
^ Caoili, Eric. "Nintendo Unveils Wii U, Controller With Built-In 6.2" Touchscreen". Gamasutra. Retrieved August 20, 2017.
^ Jon Fingas (June 5, 2012). "Nintendo: two Wii U Gamepads will work on one system". Engadget. Retrieved June 5, 2012.
^ "Nintendo Unveils Hardcore Wii U Controller". Kotaku. Retrieved June 12, 2012.
^ "Nintendo Wii U Adds Video Chat". InformationWeek. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
^ "Wii U allows 12 user accounts per system, eShop downloads playable by all". Eurogamer. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
^ "Wii U's online gaming and 'Miiverse' outlined, including video chat and web client". The Verge. Retrieved December 24, 2014.
^ "Nintendo reveals English version of 'Mii WaraWara': the WaraWara Plaza". Polygon. Retrieved December 24, 2014.
^ "Nintendo TVii for Wii U Hands-On". IGN. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
^ "Nintendo TVii Streams Video, DVR, Live TV to Wii U". PC Magazine. Retrieved October 13, 2014.
^ "Nintendo shutting down Wii U TVii service in August". Polygon. Vox Media. Retrieved July 25, 2015.
^ Kohler, Chris (December 5, 2013). "What the Hell Is Wrong With Nintendo?". Wired. Retrieved December 30, 2013.
^ Nowak, Peter (December 30, 2013). "Year in review: The biggest tech flops of 2013". CBC News. Retrieved December 30, 2013.
^ "Xbox or PS4? Maybe that's the wrong question". CNET. Retrieved December 14, 2013.
^ Suellentrop, Chris (November 24, 2013). "Mario Tries to Rescue His Console". The New York Times. Retrieved December 12, 2013.
^ "Nintendo says Wii U just had its biggest month of sales". Polygon. Retrieved February 22, 2015.
^ Pereira, Chris (June 2, 2014). "Mario Kart 8 Sells 1.2 Million, Becoming Wii U's Fastest-Selling Game". GameSpot. Retrieved August 20, 2017.
^ "Nintendo at E3: A comeback is always just a game away". Ars Technica. Retrieved August 20, 2017.
^ Phillips, Tom (June 1, 2015). "Splatoon is Wii U's fastest-selling new franchise in UK". Eurogamer. Archived from the original on June 1, 2015. Retrieved June 1, 2015.
^ Makuch, Eddie (January 31, 2017). "Wii U Production Ends Worldwide". GameSpot. Retrieved August 20, 2017.
^ "Iwata Asks: Game & Watch: 4. Absorbed in Development". Nintendo of America. Archived from the original on May 18, 2011. Retrieved June 23, 2013.
^ "A Brief History of Game Console Warfare: Game Boy". BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on May 9, 2007. Retrieved January 25, 2008.
^ Umezu; Sugino. "Nintendo 3DS (Volume 3 – Nintendo 3DS Hardware Concept)". Iwata Asks (Interview: Transcript). Interviewed by Satoru Iwata. Nintendo. Retrieved March 7, 2011.
^ "GBC Hardware Info". The Internet. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved September 27, 2007.
^ "Japan Platinum Game Chart". The Magic Box. Archived from the original on December 13, 2007. Retrieved September 27, 2007.
^ "US Platinum Videogame Chart". The Magic Box. Archived from the original on April 21, 2007. Retrieved September 27, 2007.
^ "Nintendo DS Frequently Asked Questions". Nintendo. Retrieved April 2, 2006.
^ "Nintendo 3DS Family". Nintendo of Europe GmbH. Retrieved September 17, 2020.
^ "ニンテンドー3DSシリーズ｜任天堂". 任天堂ホームページ. Retrieved September 17, 2020.
^ "Nintendo 3DS discontinued". GamesIndustry.biz. Retrieved September 17, 2020.
^ "Consolidated Financial Highlights – Q4 FY2024" (PDF). Nintendo. May 7, 2024. Retrieved May 7, 2024.
^ "Consolevariations". Consolevariations. Retrieved May 30, 2021.
^ Other Stuff. DieHard GameFan. Volume 1. Issue 12. No.12. P.163. November 1993.
^ "Gateway System Gets Shanghaied". GamePro. No. 56. IDG. March 1994. p. 186.
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As of September 30, 2021[update], in addition to Nintendo Switch, Nintendo has sold over 863.07 million hardware units.The company's first console, the Color TV-Game, was a success in Japan but was never released in other territories. Their first systems to achieve worldwide success were the Game & Watch handheld series, before achieving greater worldwide success with the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), originally released as the Family Computer (Famicom) in Japan in 1983. The NES restarted the video game industry after the video game crash of 1983, and was an international success. In 1989, Nintendo released the Game Boy, which became the first handheld console to sell in large numbers. In the early 1990s, Nintendo's market lead began to decrease; although the 1990 Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) was a strong seller, the Sega Genesis was a very strong contender. Nintendo and Sega would both lose a significant portion of the console market towards the end of the 1990s, as Sony's PlayStation became the most popular console, beating the Nintendo 64, though Nintendo managed to sell more than Sega Saturn.The Dreamcast, released in 1998, PlayStation 2, released in 2000, and Microsoft's Xbox, released in 2001, would eventually relegate Nintendo to third place in the international market, despite the release of the GameCube. However, they retained their lead in the handheld console market, with the Game Boy Color and Game Boy Advance models. Towards the middle of the 2000s, Nintendo introduced the first successful handheld device with a touch screen (DS) and the first successful console designed for motion controlled inputs (the Wii); they became some of the best-selling consoles of all time. In 2011, Nintendo became the first major company to release a handheld game console with stereoscopic 3D capabilities, with the 3DS, which had very strong sales from the beginning. The Wii U, released in November 2012, was much less successful, and sales were significantly lower than predicted. The company's most recent console, Nintendo Switch, was released in March 2017 and has become the company's best-selling home console and the overall third best-selling console of all time.","title":"Nintendo video game consoles"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Home consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nintendo-Color-TV-Game-Blockbreaker-FL.jpg"},{"link_name":"Color TV-Game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_TV-Game"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CTGsales-1"},{"link_name":"Pong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pong"},{"link_name":"Shigeru Miyamoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigeru_Miyamoto"},{"link_name":"Breakout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakout_(arcade_game)"},{"link_name":"Computer Othello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Othello_(arcade_game)"}],"sub_title":"Color TV-Game (1977–1983)","text":"One of five Color TV-Game consolesColor TV-Game is a series of five dedicated home consoles released only in Japan. Each of the consoles contained a small number of games and a built-in controller. In total, approximately 3 million units were sold.[1]The Color TV-Game series consists of:Color TV-Game 6, released June 1, 1977, with six variations of Pong: Tennis, Hockey, and Volleyball in Singles or Doubles mode. Sold approximately 1 million units.\nColor TV-Game 15, released June 8, 1977, with 15 variations of Pong. This was the most popular console in the series, selling just over 1 million units.\nColor TV-Game Racing 112, released June 8, 1978, with a racing game. Notable for being the first Nintendo project that Shigeru Miyamoto worked on. Sold approximately half a million units.\nColor TV-Game Block Breaker, released April 23, 1979, with a game based on Breakout. Sold approximately half a million units.\nComputer TV-Game, released in 1980, with Computer Othello. Sold in limited quantities.","title":"Home consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NES-Console-Set.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Entertainment System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"8-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-bit"},{"link_name":"video game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"South America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia"},{"link_name":"Oceania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceania"},{"link_name":"Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa"},{"link_name":"video game crash of 1983","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_crash_of_1983"},{"link_name":"game design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_design"},{"link_name":"third-party developers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third-party_developer"},{"link_name":"The Legend of Zelda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Legend_of_Zelda"},{"link_name":"Metroid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metroid_(series)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"NES Classic Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NES_Classic_Edition"},{"link_name":"dedicated console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedicated_console"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Family Computer and Nintendo Entertainment System (1983 and 1985)","text":"North American version of the Nintendo Entertainment SystemReleased July 15, 1983, the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) is an 8-bit video game console released by Nintendo in North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Oceania, and Africa and was Nintendo's first home video game console released outside Japan. In Japan, it is known as the \"Family Computer\" (or \"Famicom\", as it is commonly abbreviated). Selling 61.91 million units worldwide, the NES helped revitalize the video game industry following the video game crash of 1983 and set the standard for subsequent consoles in everything from game design to business practices. The NES was the first console for which the manufacturer openly courted third-party developers. Many of Nintendo's most iconic franchises, such as The Legend of Zelda and Metroid were started on the NES. Nintendo continued to repair Famicom consoles in Japan until October 31, 2007, attributing the decision to discontinue support to an increasing shortage of the necessary parts.[2][3][4]Nintendo released a software-emulation-based version of the Nintendo Entertainment System on November 10, 2016. Called the NES Classic Edition, it is a dedicated console that comes with a single controller and 30 preloaded games.[5]","title":"Home consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SNES-Mod1-Console-Set.jpg"},{"link_name":"Super Nintendo Entertainment System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"16-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_video_game_consoles_(fourth_generation)"},{"link_name":"video game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"South America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia"},{"link_name":"Oceania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceania"},{"link_name":"Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"Hyundai Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyundai_Electronics"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Entertainment System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Genesis"},{"link_name":"16-bit era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16-bit_era"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nintendosales-6"},{"link_name":"Super Metroid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Metroid"},{"link_name":"The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Legend_of_Zelda:_A_Link_to_the_Past"},{"link_name":"Final Fantasy IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Fantasy_IV"},{"link_name":"VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Fantasy_VI"},{"link_name":"Donkey Kong Country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donkey_Kong_Country"},{"link_name":"Super Mario World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_World"},{"link_name":"Star Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Fox"},{"link_name":"Mega Man X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mega_Man_X"},{"link_name":"Super NES Classic Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_NES_Classic_Edition"},{"link_name":"dedicated console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedicated_console"},{"link_name":"Star Fox 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Fox_2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Super Famicom and Super Nintendo Entertainment System (1990 and 1991)","text":"North American version of the Super Nintendo Entertainment SystemReleased November 21, 1990, The Super Nintendo Entertainment System, officially abbreviated the Super NES or SNES and colloquially shortened to Super Nintendo, is a 16-bit video game console released by Nintendo in North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Oceania and Africa. In Japan it is known as the Super Famicom. In South Korea, it is known as the Super Comboy and was distributed by Hyundai Electronics.The SNES was Nintendo's third home console (second outside of Japan), following the Nintendo Entertainment System. Whereas the earlier console had struggled in the PAL region and large parts of Asia, the SNES was a global success, albeit one that could not match its predecessor's popularity in Northeast Asia and North America—due in part to increased competition from Sega's Genesis console. Despite its relatively late start, the SNES became the best selling console of the 16-bit era, selling 49.10 million systems worldwide.[6] The SNES library is known for upgrading some of Nintendo's most famous franchises, and making the games even more critically acclaimed, such as Super Metroid, The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past, Final Fantasy IV and VI, Donkey Kong Country, and Super Mario World, as well starting some popular franchises such as Star Fox and Mega Man X.Similarly to the NES Classic Edition released prior, Nintendo released a software-emulation-based version of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System on September 29, 2017. Called the Super NES Classic Edition, it, like its predecessor, is a dedicated console that comes with two controllers and 21 preloaded games, one of which, Star Fox 2, is a title originally developed for the system that went unreleased.[7]","title":"Home consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:N64-Console-Set.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nintendo 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_64"},{"link_name":"video game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console"},{"link_name":"launch games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_game"},{"link_name":"Super Mario 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_64"},{"link_name":"Pilotwings 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilotwings_64"},{"link_name":"Saikyo Habu Shogi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saikyo_Habu_Shogi"},{"link_name":"Shadows of the Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars:_Shadows_of_the_Empire_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Turok: Dinosaur Hunter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turok:_Dinosaur_Hunter"},{"link_name":"Donkey Kong 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donkey_Kong_64"},{"link_name":"Diddy Kong Racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diddy_Kong_Racing"},{"link_name":"Banjo-Kazooie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banjo-Kazooie_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"The Legend of Zelda series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Legend_of_Zelda"},{"link_name":"GoldenEye 007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GoldenEye_007_(1997_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Mario Kart 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Kart_64"},{"link_name":"Super Smash Bros.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Smash_Bros."},{"link_name":"Star Fox 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Fox_64"},{"link_name":"Nintendo 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_64"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nintendosales-6"}],"sub_title":"Nintendo 64 (1996 and 1997)","text":"A Nintendo 64The Nintendo 64 was released on June 23, 1996 in Japan, on September 29, 1996, in North America, and March 1, 1997, in Europe and Australia. It was commonly called the N64, and codenamed Ultra 64. The Nintendo 64 was Nintendo's third home video game console for the international market. It was released with three launch games in Japan (Super Mario 64, Pilotwings 64, and Saikyo Habu Shogi) and two in North America (Super Mario 64 and Pilotwings 64). PAL regions also had three launch titles (Super Mario 64, Shadows of the Empire and Pilotwings 64) with Turok: Dinosaur Hunter delayed until three days after launch. Other key games included Donkey Kong 64, Diddy Kong Racing, Banjo-Kazooie, two games in The Legend of Zelda series, GoldenEye 007, Mario Kart 64, Super Smash Bros., and Star Fox 64. The Nintendo 64 sold 32.93 million systems.[6]","title":"Home consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GameCube-Set.jpg"},{"link_name":"GameCube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameCube"},{"link_name":"sixth generation game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_video_game_consoles_(sixth_generation)"},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"Dreamcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_2"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Xbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_(console)"},{"link_name":"SpaceWorld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceWorld"},{"link_name":"optical discs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc"},{"link_name":"game cartridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_cartridge"},{"link_name":"Matsushita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Panasonic Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic_Q"},{"link_name":"Super Mario Sunshine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Sunshine"},{"link_name":"Super Smash Bros. Melee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Smash_Bros._Melee"},{"link_name":"The Legend of Zelda: Wind Waker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Legend_of_Zelda:_Wind_Waker"},{"link_name":"Metroid Prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metroid_Prime"},{"link_name":"Pokémon Colosseum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Colosseum"},{"link_name":"Star Fox Adventures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Fox_Adventures"},{"link_name":"Animal Crossing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Crossing"},{"link_name":"Pikmin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pikmin"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nintendosales-6"}],"sub_title":"GameCube (2001)","text":"A GameCubeThe Nintendo GameCube (commonly shortened to GameCube, NGC, or GCN) was released on September 14, 2001. It was Nintendo's sixth generation game console, the same generation as Sega's Dreamcast, Sony's PlayStation 2, and Microsoft's Xbox. Until the console's unveiling at SpaceWorld 2000, the design project was known as Dolphin—this can still be seen in the console and its accessories' model numbers. The GameCube is the most compact sixth generation console. The GameCube is Nintendo's first game console to use optical discs rather than game cartridges. An agreement with the optical drive manufacturer Matsushita led to a DVD-playing GameCube system named the Panasonic Q, which was only released in Japan. Much of Nintendo's core line-up centered on sequels to their established hit franchises such as Super Mario Sunshine, Super Smash Bros. Melee, The Legend of Zelda: Wind Waker, Metroid Prime, Pokémon Colosseum, and Star Fox Adventures, while new franchises like Animal Crossing and Pikmin were born, although the former franchise had seen a Japan-exclusive release on the N64. The GameCube has sold 21.74 million units.[6]","title":"Home consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wii-console.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii"},{"link_name":"Wii Remote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii_Remote"},{"link_name":"seventh-generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_video_game_consoles_(seventh_generation)"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_3"},{"link_name":"Xbox 360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_360"},{"link_name":"\"casual\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casual_game"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-backinthegame-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"Wii Remote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii_Remote"},{"link_name":"motion controller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_controller"},{"link_name":"detect motion and rotation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_detection"},{"link_name":"three dimensions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-dimensional_space"},{"link_name":"analog stick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_stick"},{"link_name":"Classic Controller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Controller"},{"link_name":"gamepad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamepad"},{"link_name":"Wii MotionPlus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii_MotionPlus"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-backinthegame-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"high-definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-definition_television"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-backinthegame-8"},{"link_name":"internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_game"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Wi-Fi_Connection"},{"link_name":"WiiConnect24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiiConnect24"},{"link_name":"Wii Shop Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii_Shop_Channel"},{"link_name":"games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiiWare"},{"link_name":"Virtual Console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Console"},{"link_name":"emulated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_emulation"},{"link_name":"Wii Family Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii#Redesigned_model"},{"link_name":"Wii Mini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii#Wii_Mini"},{"link_name":"Wall Street Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal"},{"link_name":"Nintendo DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DS"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WSJ041907-11"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nintendo_video_game_consoles&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Wii Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii_Sports"},{"link_name":"killer app","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killer_application"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Wii (2006)","text":"A Wii (left) and its Wii Remote (right)Nintendo released the Wii on November 19, 2006, as their seventh-generation home console. Nintendo designed the console to appeal towards a wider audience than those of its main competitors, the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, including \"casual\" players and audiences that were new to video games.[8][9]These aims were emphasized by the console's distinguishing feature, the Wii Remote—a handheld motion controller that can detect motion and rotation in three dimensions, using a mixture of internal sensors and infrared positioning. The controller includes an expansion port that can be used to connect other accessories, such as the Nunchuk—an attachment with an analog stick and additional buttons, a \"Classic Controller\" gamepad providing a traditional control scheme, and Wii MotionPlus—an accessory designed to enhance the motion detection capabilities of the original Wii Remote models.[8][9]The Wii's internal hardware is an updated derivative of that of the GameCube; in comparison to its seventh-generation competitors, the Wii had lower overall graphics capabilities, and does not output in high-definition.[10][8] The Wii also featured internet-enabled features; the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection service allowed supported games to offer online multiplayer and other features, while the WiiConnect24 feature allowed messages and updates to be downloaded while the console was in standby. Through Wii Shop Channel, additional games and apps can be downloaded or purchased for the console, including Virtual Console—a selection of classic video games emulated from older consoles. That service was discontinued as of January 30, 2019. Early models of the Wii also had backwards compatibility with GameCube games and controllers, but this was dropped from later hardware revisions, namely the Wii Family Edition and the Wii Mini.The Wii was a major success for Nintendo; in April 2007, the Wall Street Journal declared that Nintendo had \"become the company to beat in the games business\", citing the success of the Wii and the portable Nintendo DS line.[11] As of March 31, 2016[update], the Wii has sold 101.63 million consoles worldwide.[12] Wii Sports—a collection of sports minigames that were designed to leverage the Wii Remote, was bundled with the console outside of Japan, and had a major cultural impact as the console's \"killer app\" among the mainstream audience.[13][14]","title":"Home consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wii_U_Console_and_Gamepad.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wii U","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii_U"},{"link_name":"its GamePad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii_U_GamePad"},{"link_name":"eighth generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_video_game_consoles_(eighth_generation)"},{"link_name":"GamePad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii_U_GamePad"},{"link_name":"tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_computer"},{"link_name":"touchscreen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchscreen"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-polygon-wiiureview-16"},{"link_name":"asymmetric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetry"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Wii U Pro Controller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii_U_Pro_Controller"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-polygon-wiiureview-16"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Network"},{"link_name":"downloading and purchasing new games and apps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_eShop"},{"link_name":"Miiverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miiverse"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iw-videochat-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eg-nnetwork12-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge-onlinewarawara-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-polygon-warawara-23"},{"link_name":"second screen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_screen"},{"link_name":"Nintendo TVii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_TVii"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign-tvii-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-polygon-tviidiscontinued-26"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-polygon-wiiureview-16"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_4"},{"link_name":"Xbox One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_One"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Super Mario 3D World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_3D_World"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Mario Kart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Kart_8"},{"link_name":"Super Smash Bros.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Smash_Bros._for_Wii_U"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Splatoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splatoon"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"sub_title":"Wii U (2012)","text":"A Wii U (right) and its GamePad (left)The Wii U was released on November 18, 2012 as a direct successor to the Wii, and the first entry in the eighth generation of home video game consoles. The Wii U's distinguishing hardware feature is the GamePad, a tablet-like controller which contains a touchscreen that wirelessly streams a video output from the console. The GamePad's display can be used to provide alternative or complementary perspectives within a game, or as the main display instead of a television.[15][16] In particular, Nintendo promoted the concept of \"asymmetric\" multiplayer, where a player with the GamePad would have a different objective and perspective than that of other players.[17] Alongside the GamePad, the Wii U supports Wii controllers and games. A conventional gamepad known as the Wii U Pro Controller was also released.[18][19][16]The Wii U features more-extensive online functionality than the Wii, using the Nintendo Network platform; as with the Wii, it supports online multiplayer and downloading and purchasing new games and apps, but also allows video chat. It previously featured an internal social network known as Miiverse, which allowed users to write and draw posts in game-specific communities, the service was discontinued on November 8, 2017.[20][21][22][23] Nintendo also attempted to provide second screen experiences for television programming for the Wii U through a feature known as Nintendo TVii,[24][25] but it was discontinued outside of Japan in August 2015.[26] Unlike the Wii, the Wii U's hardware is capable of high-definition graphics.[16]The Wii U was met with low adoption, attributed by Nintendo executives to a lack of third-party support; poor marketing of the system, which led to a lack of clarity of the Wii U game pad from being a tablet device; and the subsequent release of the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One the following year.[27][28] However, some critics argued that the Wii U still had advantages over PS4 and Xbox One, including its lower cost and notable early exclusives such as Super Mario 3D World.[29][30] Sales steadily increased following the release of several notable first-party exclusives, including new entries in the Mario Kart and Super Smash Bros. franchises,[31][32][33] and the new franchise Splatoon.[34]In January 2017, a Nintendo spokesperson stated that production of the console had ended, with just 13.56 million units sold worldwide.[35]","title":"Home consoles"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Handheld consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Game%26watch-donkey-kong-2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Game & Watch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_%26_Watch_series"},{"link_name":"Donkey Kong 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donkey_Kong_2"},{"link_name":"handheld electronic games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_electronic_game"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iwataasks-36"}],"sub_title":"Game & Watch series (1980–1991, 2020–2021)","text":"A Game & Watch with Donkey Kong 2 as pre-installed gameThe Game & Watch series of handheld electronic games made by Nintendo and created by its game designer Gunpei Yokoi from 1980 to 1991. Most featured a single game that could be played on an LCD screen, in addition to a clock and an alarm. Most titles had a \"GAME A\" (easy mode) and a \"GAME B\" (hard mode) button. Game B is usually a faster, more difficult version of Game A. Different models were manufactured, with some consoles having two screens (the Multiscreen Series) and a clam-shell design. The Nintendo DS later reused this design. The Game & Watch made handhelds vastly popular. Many toy companies followed in the footsteps of Game & Watch, such as Tiger Electronics and their Star Wars themed games. Nintendo's Game & Watch units were eventually superseded by the original Game Boy. Each Game & Watch was only able to play one game, due to the use of a segmented LCD display being pre-printed with an overlay. The speed and responsiveness of the games was also limited by the time it took the LCD to change state.The Game & Watch series sold 43.4 million units worldwide, including 12.87 million units in Japan and 30.53 million overseas.[36] A special Game & Watch edition, as part of Super Mario Bros.' 35th anniversary, was released on November 13, 2020. Another special Game & Watch edition was released to celebrate The Legend of Zelda's 35th anniversary, which was released on November 12, 2021.","title":"Handheld consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Game-Boy-FL.jpg"},{"link_name":"Game Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy"},{"link_name":"handheld game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_game_console"},{"link_name":"ROM cartridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROM_cartridge"},{"link_name":"best-selling game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_best-selling_game_consoles"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nintendosales-6"},{"link_name":"Game Boy family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_family"},{"link_name":"revisions and variations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy#Revisions"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Pocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Pocket"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Light"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Advance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Color","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Color"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nintendosales-6"}],"sub_title":"Game Boy (1989)","text":"An original Game BoyThe Game Boy is the first handheld game console sold by Nintendo that features interchangeable ROM cartridges for each game, unlike the Game & Watch that has a different system for each game. Released in 1989 in Japan, it is one of the world's best-selling game console lines, with over 100 million units sold worldwide.[6] The Game Boy is the first console in the Game Boy family and sold in a number of different revisions and variations, including the streamlined Game Boy Pocket and Game Boy Light in Japan. In 1998, Nintendo planned to release the Game Boy Advance, but it had to be pushed back, releasing the Game Boy Color, a new Game Boy platform with color graphics. Combined,[37] the Game Boy and Game Boy Color sold 118.69 million units worldwide.[6]","title":"Handheld consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nintendo-Game-Boy-Color-FL.jpg"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Color","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Color"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asks-38"},{"link_name":"8-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-bit"},{"link_name":"Zilog Z80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilog_Z80"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"WonderSwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WonderSwan"},{"link_name":"Neo Geo Pocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo_Geo_Pocket"},{"link_name":"Pokémon Gold and Silver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Gold_and_Silver"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"Game Boy Color (1998)","text":"An Atomic Purple Game Boy ColorIn 1998, Nintendo introduced the Game Boy Color as the successor to the original Game Boy.[38] It features a color screen and an 8-bit processor and a custom Zilog Z80 central processing unit.[39] It features full compatibility with all previously released Game Boy games, and can apply preset color filters over them to replace their grayscale visuals. It was made to compete with the WonderSwan Color and the Neo Geo Pocket. Its best selling game was Pokémon Gold and Silver[40][41] On the Nintendo Switch Online subscription, Game Boy Color video games are included within the Nintendo Switch Online – Game Boy application instead of being listed as a separate console.","title":"Handheld consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nintendo-Game-Boy-Advance-Purple-FL.jpg"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Advance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Advance SP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance_SP"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Micro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Micro"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nintendosales-6"}],"sub_title":"Game Boy Advance (2001)","text":"An original Game Boy AdvanceIn March 2001, Nintendo introduced the Game Boy Advance (abbreviated GBA), the first major technological upgrade in the Game Boy line. Nintendo later released two revised models of the Game Boy Advance, the Game Boy Advance SP and the Game Boy Micro in 2003 and 2005, respectively. The Game Boy Advance SP features a smaller clamshell design, and introduced a built-in screen light and rechargeable battery which became standard features for future Nintendo handhelds. The Game Boy Micro is an even smaller variant with interchangeable designer faceplates. Unlike the previous models, the Micro lacks Game Boy/Game Boy Color backwards compatibility and e-Reader support. As of June 30, 2010, the three Game Boy Advance models have sold 81.51 million units worldwide.[6]","title":"Handheld consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pok%C3%A9mon_mini_system.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pokémon Mini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Mini"},{"link_name":"Pokémon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon"}],"sub_title":"Pokémon Mini (2001)","text":"Pokémon MiniIn November 2001, Nintendo introduced the Pokémon Mini, a portable console themed around the Pokémon franchise. It was Nintendo's cheapest console ever produced, with games costing US$15 (equivalent to $25.81 in 2023) each in the United States, and the console costing US$45 (equivalent to $77.43 in 2023). This remains the smallest cartridge-based game console ever made. Sales of the Pokémon Mini were mostly poor. It released in the colors Wooper Blue, Chikorita Green, and Smoochum Purple. Every console is bundled with the game Pokémon Party Mini. The system has only released in North America, Japan, and Europe, seeing no further release in other regions.","title":"Handheld consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nintendo-DS-Fat-Blue.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nintendo DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DS"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"handheld game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_game_console"},{"link_name":"clamshell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip_(form)"},{"link_name":"touchscreen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchscreen"},{"link_name":"microphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphone"},{"link_name":"IEEE 802.11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11"},{"link_name":"Wi-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Wi-Fi_Connection"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Nintendo DS Lite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DS_Lite"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"Nintendo DSi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DSi"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Advance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance"},{"link_name":"Nintendo DSi XL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DSi#Larger_model"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nintendosales-6"},{"link_name":"best-selling video game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best-selling_video_game_consoles"}],"sub_title":"Nintendo DS (2004)","text":"An original Nintendo DSThe Nintendo DS (abbreviated NDS, DS, or the full name Nintendo Dual Screen, and iQue DS in China) is a handheld game console developed and manufactured by Nintendo, released on November 21, 2004, as the first system in the Nintendo DS family. It is visibly distinguishable by its horizontal clamshell design, and the presence of two displays, the lower of which acts as a touchscreen. The system also has a built-in microphone and supports wireless IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) standards, allowing players to interact with each other within short range (10–30 meters, depending on conditions) or over the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection service via a standard Wi-Fi access point. According to Nintendo, the letters \"DS\" in the name stand for \"Developers' System\" and \"Double Screen\", the former of which refers to the features of the handheld designed to encourage innovative gameplay ideas among developers.[42] The system was known as \"Project Nitro\" during development.On March 2, 2006, Nintendo released the Nintendo DS Lite, a redesigned model of the Nintendo DS, in Japan. It was later released in North America, Australia, and Europe. A second redesign of the Nintendo DS, the Nintendo DSi, was released on November 1, 2008, in Japan, on April 2, 2009, in Australia, April 3, 2009, in Europe, and April 5, 2009, in North America. It contains two cameras and downloadable software capabilities, plus a built-in flash memory and web browser. An SD card slot replaces the Game Boy Advance cartridge slot. A similar model, known as the Nintendo DSi XL, was released in 2009 in Japan and 2010 worldwide. It features the same configurations as its predecessor, but is slightly larger and features a large stylus designed for home use.As of December 31, 2013, Nintendo DS consoles have sold 154.98 million units, including 93.86 million Nintendo DS Lites, and the Nintendo DSi consoles have sold 41.33 million units.[6] It is currently Nintendo's best-selling video game console of all time.","title":"Handheld consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nintendo-3DS-AquaOpen.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nintendo 3DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_3DS"},{"link_name":"Autostereoscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autostereoscopy"},{"link_name":"3DS XL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_3DS#Larger_model"},{"link_name":"Nintendo 2DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_2DS"},{"link_name":"New Nintendo 3DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Nintendo_3DS"},{"link_name":"Xenoblade Chronicles 3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenoblade_Chronicles_3D"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nintendosales-6"},{"link_name":"New Nintendo 2DS XL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Nintendo_2DS_XL"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"Nintendo 3DS (2011)","text":"An original Nintendo 3DSAlthough the name and look of the device are similar to that of the DS series, the Nintendo 3DS (also 3DS or N3DS for short) is the successor to the DS and is a brand new console. The Nintendo 3DS was released on February 26, 2011.\nIt contains three cameras, two on the outside (for 3D photographs) and one internal one above the top screen. The bottom screen is a touch screen comparable to the DS bottom screens, and the top screen is Wide Screen and an autostereoscopic 3D LCD. Autostereoscopy is a process that sends different images to the left and right eyes to enable the viewer to view the screen in 3D \"without the need for special glasses\". The 3DS is said to enhance Nintendo's online experience. In July 2012, the 3DS XL was released, similar to the change between the DSi and DSi XL. It has 90% larger screens and design changes such as a matte finish and the stylus in a more accessible area.\nThe Nintendo 2DS was released on October 12, 2013. It is a variant designed to be affordable without the clamshell design or 3D capabilities of the 3DS. Another redesign, the New Nintendo 3DS and New 3DS XL, was released in Japan in October 2014, Australia for November 2014, and everywhere else in February 2015. It includes a C-Stick, ZR and ZL shoulder buttons, and a faster CPU, allowing for more software specifically for the New Nintendo 3DS (such as Xenoblade Chronicles 3D). Like the original 3DS, the New Nintendo 3DS also has an XL form.\nAs of December 31, 2013, Nintendo has sold 42.74 million units, including 15.21 million Nintendo 3DS XLs and 2.11 million Nintendo 2DS units.[6]The last handheld console in the 3DS family was the New Nintendo 2DS XL, which was released in June/July 2017 across five different countries. Production ceased on all Nintendo 3DS family systems on September 16, 2020.[43][44][45]","title":"Handheld consoles"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Hybrid consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Virtual-Boy-Set.jpg"},{"link_name":"Virtual Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Boy"},{"link_name":"true 3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_3D"},{"link_name":"monocular cues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_perception"},{"link_name":"head-mounted display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-mounted_display"}],"sub_title":"Virtual Boy (1995)","text":"A Virtual BoyThe Virtual Boy (also known as the VR-32 during development, abbreviated VB) was the first portable game console capable of displaying true 3D graphics. Most video games are forced to use monocular cues to achieve the illusion of three dimensions on a two-dimensional screen, but the Virtual Boy was able to create a more accurate illusion of depth through an effect known as parallax. The Nintendo 3DS also uses this technology. In a manner similar to using a head-mounted display, the user looks into an eyepiece made of neoprene on the front of the machine, and then an eyeglass-style projector allows viewing of the monochromatic (in this case, red) image. It was released on July 21, 1995, in Japan and August 14, 1995, in North America and at a price of around US$180. It was never released in Europe, although a release schedule was initially planned. The system met with a lukewarm reception that was unaffected by continued price drops. Exactly 14 titles were released for Virtual Boy in North America, but only a few were met with positive reception. Nintendo discontinued the Virtual Boy within a few months of release.","title":"Hybrid consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nintendo-Switch-Console-Docked-wJoyConRB.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Switch"},{"link_name":"Joy-Con","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joy-Con"},{"link_name":"eighth generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_video_game_consoles_(eighth_generation)"},{"link_name":"Amiibo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiibo"},{"link_name":"GameCube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameCube"},{"link_name":"Nintendo DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DS"},{"link_name":"best-selling video game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best-selling_video_game_consoles"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fisc_y24q1-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"Nintendo Switch (2017)","text":"The Nintendo Switch, docked (right) and its Joy-Con controllers, detachedThe Nintendo Switch was released on March 3, 2017, and is Nintendo's second entry in the eighth generation of home video game consoles. The system was code-named \"NX\" prior to its official announcement. It is a hybrid device that can be used as a home console inserted to the Nintendo Switch Dock attached to a television, stood up on a table with the kickstand, or as a tablet-like portable console. It features two detachable wireless controllers called Joy-Con, that can be used individually or attached to a grip to provide a more traditional gamepad form. Both Joy-Con are built with motion sensors and HD Rumble, Nintendo's haptic vibration feedback system for improved gameplay experiences. However, only the right Joy-Con has an NFC reader on its analog joystick for Amiibo and an IR sensor on the back. The Nintendo Switch Pro Controller is a traditional style controller much like the one of the GameCube.The Nintendo Switch has currently sold 141.32 million units as of March 31, 2024, outselling all of Nintendo's previous video game consoles, except the Nintendo DS, making it the best-selling home console from Nintendo and the third best-selling video game console of all time.[46]The Nintendo Switch Lite is a more affordable version of the Nintendo Switch released by Nintendo on September 20, 2019. The Switch Lite console is similar to a regular Nintendo Switch and can play almost all standard Switch games, but is a handheld portable-only version and is also slightly smaller. It comes in five color variations: grey, turquoise, coral, yellow, and blue, as well as some special editions. Its Joy-Con controllers cannot be detached like in the original Nintendo Switch model.[47]A second variation, the Nintendo Switch – OLED Model, was released in 2021, which makes several adjustments and improvements over the original, including an improved kickstand, a larger OLED screen, and larger storage (64 GB instead of the regular 32 GB present in the original Nintendo Switch model and the Nintendo Switch Lite).","title":"Hybrid consoles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Game Boy Camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Camera"},{"link_name":"Satellaview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellaview"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Player"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Printer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Printer"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Camera"},{"link_name":"Pokémon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon"},{"link_name":"Game Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy"},{"link_name":"e-Reader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_e-Reader"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Advance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance"},{"link_name":"iQue Player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_iQue"},{"link_name":"iQue DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DS"},{"link_name":"Nintendo 64DD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_64DD"},{"link_name":"F-Zero X Expansion Kit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-Zero_X_Expansion_Kit"},{"link_name":"F-Zero X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-Zero_X"},{"link_name":"SimCity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SimCity_(1989_video_game)"},{"link_name":"SimCity 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SimCity_64"},{"link_name":"Mobile System GB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_System_GB"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Color","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Color"},{"link_name":"Pokémon Crystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Crystal"},{"link_name":"Pokémon Pikachu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Pikachu"},{"link_name":"Tamagotchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamagotchi"},{"link_name":"Super Game Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Game_Boy"},{"link_name":"Triforce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triforce_(arcade_system_board)"},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"Namco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco"},{"link_name":"mahjong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahjong"},{"link_name":"Karaoke Revolution Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karaoke_Revolution_Party"},{"link_name":"Mario Party 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Party_6"},{"link_name":"Mario Party 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Party_7"},{"link_name":"Odama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odama"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Panasonic Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic_Q"},{"link_name":"Visteon Dockable Entertainment System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visteon_Dockable_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Advance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance"},{"link_name":"Pokéwalker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9walker"},{"link_name":"Pedometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedometer"},{"link_name":"Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_HeartGold_and_SoulSilver"},{"link_name":"Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_HeartGold_and_SoulSilver"},{"link_name":"Activity Meter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DS_accessories#Activity_Meter"},{"link_name":"Pedometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedometer"},{"link_name":"Nintendo DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DS"},{"link_name":"Personal Trainer: Walking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_Trainer:_Walking"},{"link_name":"Fit Meter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii_Fit_U"},{"link_name":"Wii U","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii_U"},{"link_name":"Wii Fit U","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii_Fit_U"},{"link_name":"Wii U GamePad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii_U_GamePad"},{"link_name":"Poké Ball Plus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9_Ball_Plus"},{"link_name":"Pokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu! and Let's Go, Eevee!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon:_Let%27s_Go,_Pikachu!_and_Let%27s_Go,_Eevee!"}],"text":"Game Boy Camera – a monochrome camera cartridge for the original version of the Game Boy which includes a picture editor and the ability to print pictures via Game Boy Printer.\nSatellaview – only released in Japan, an add-on for the Super Famicom (Japanese SNES) which allowed anyone to download games by a satellite.\nGame Boy Player – an adapter for playing Game Boy games on the GameCube.\nGame Boy Printer – an adapter designed for printing things from the Game Boy onto adhesive stickers. For example, it was used for printing out Game Boy Camera pictures and Pokémon information from the Pokédex in the Game Boy Pokémon games.\ne-Reader – an add-on for the Game Boy Advance for scanning special \"e-Reader cards\", paper cards with specially encoded data printed on them.\niQue Player – a version of the Nintendo 64, with double the clock speed and downloadable games, released only in China.\niQue DS – a version of the Nintendo DS released only in China.\nNintendo 64DD – only released in Japan, this add-on system's games are on rewritable magnetic disks. Games released include a paint and 3D construction package, F-Zero X Expansion Kit, for creating new F-Zero X tracks, a sequel to the SNES version of SimCity, SimCity 64 and others.\nMobile System GB – only released in Japan, an adapter to play Game Boy Color games on mobile phones. Pokémon Crystal was the first game to take advantage of the Mobile System. The player can hook an adapter to their Game Boy and connect it to a mobile phone which people can receive news, trade, and battle with other players across Japan.\nPokémon Pikachu – a handheld device similar to the popular Tamagotchi toy which allows the user to take care of Pikachu in the manner of a pet.\nSuper Game Boy – adapter for playing Game Boy games on the Super NES, displayed in color.\nTriforce – an arcade system based on GameCube hardware, developed in partnership with Sega and Namco.\nYakuman – a handheld mahjong game released in 1983.\nGameCube Microphone – used in Karaoke Revolution Party, Mario Party 6, Mario Party 7 and Odama for the GameCube. It recognizes basic sounds and incorporates them into gameplay.\nNintendo Gateway – a proprietary hardware/software console available on commercial aircraft and hotel properties,[48] providing shopping, information, and interactive entertainment.[49]\nPanasonic Q – a version of the GameCube which could play DVDs developed by Panasonic.\nVisteon Dockable Entertainment System – a portable DVD player containing officially licensed Game Boy Advance hardware.\nPokéwalker – a Pedometer used in Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver that can be used to enhance a Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver game by giving some special Pokémon and items as well as other added benefits that reward depending on how many steps one can take.\nActivity Meter – an Infrared (IR) Pedometer for use the Nintendo DS game, Personal Trainer: Walking.\nFit Meter – a portable accessory for use with the Wii U game, Wii Fit U, that tracks the number of steps taken and the elevation climbed. Can be synced with the game using the Wii U GamePad.\nPoké Ball Plus – a Joy-Con replacement used with Pokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu! and Let's Go, Eevee! that can be used similarly to it, and can also be used to bring the player's Pokémon character with them for in-game rewards.","title":"Other hardware"}]
|
[{"image_text":"A size comparison of the (top to bottom) Wii (2006), GameCube (2001), Nintendo 64 (1996), North American SNES (1991) and the NES outside of Japan (1985)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/NintendoStack.jpg/220px-NintendoStack.jpg"},{"image_text":"One of five Color TV-Game consoles","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Nintendo-Color-TV-Game-Blockbreaker-FL.jpg/215px-Nintendo-Color-TV-Game-Blockbreaker-FL.jpg"},{"image_text":"North American version of the Nintendo Entertainment System","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/NES-Console-Set.jpg/215px-NES-Console-Set.jpg"},{"image_text":"North American version of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/SNES-Mod1-Console-Set.jpg/215px-SNES-Mod1-Console-Set.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Nintendo 64","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/N64-Console-Set.jpg/215px-N64-Console-Set.jpg"},{"image_text":"A GameCube","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/GameCube-Set.jpg/215px-GameCube-Set.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Wii (left) and its Wii Remote (right)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Wii-console.jpg/215px-Wii-console.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Wii U (right) and its GamePad (left)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Wii_U_Console_and_Gamepad.jpg/215px-Wii_U_Console_and_Gamepad.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Game & Watch with Donkey Kong 2 as pre-installed game","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Game%26watch-donkey-kong-2.jpg/150px-Game%26watch-donkey-kong-2.jpg"},{"image_text":"An original Game Boy","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Game-Boy-FL.jpg/124px-Game-Boy-FL.jpg"},{"image_text":"An Atomic Purple Game Boy Color","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Nintendo-Game-Boy-Color-FL.jpg/110px-Nintendo-Game-Boy-Color-FL.jpg"},{"image_text":"An original Game Boy Advance","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Nintendo-Game-Boy-Advance-Purple-FL.jpg/150px-Nintendo-Game-Boy-Advance-Purple-FL.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pokémon Mini","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Pok%C3%A9mon_mini_system.jpg/117px-Pok%C3%A9mon_mini_system.jpg"},{"image_text":"An original Nintendo DS","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Nintendo-DS-Fat-Blue.jpg/150px-Nintendo-DS-Fat-Blue.jpg"},{"image_text":"An original Nintendo 3DS","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Nintendo-3DS-AquaOpen.jpg/150px-Nintendo-3DS-AquaOpen.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Virtual Boy","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Virtual-Boy-Set.jpg/115px-Virtual-Boy-Set.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Nintendo Switch, docked (right) and its Joy-Con controllers, detached","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Nintendo-Switch-Console-Docked-wJoyConRB.jpg/215px-Nintendo-Switch-Console-Docked-wJoyConRB.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Sheff, David; Eddy, Andy (1999). Game Over: How Nintendo Zapped an American Industry, Captured Your Dollars, and Enslaved Your Children. GamePress. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-9669617-0-6. Nintendo entered the home market in Japan with the dramatic unveiling of Color TV-Game 6, which played six versions of light tennis. It was followed by a more powerful sequel, Color TV-Game 15. A million units of each were sold. The engineering team also came up with systems that played a more complex game, called \"Blockbuster,\" as well as a racing game. Half a million units of these were sold.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Sheff","url_text":"Sheff, David"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Over:_How_Nintendo_Zapped_an_American_Industry,_Captured_Your_Dollars,_and_Enslaved_Your_Children","url_text":"Game Over: How Nintendo Zapped an American Industry, Captured Your Dollars, and Enslaved Your Children"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0dK2AAAAIAAJ&q=%22Color+TV+Game%22","url_text":"27"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9669617-0-6","url_text":"978-0-9669617-0-6"}]},{"reference":"初代「ファミコン」など公式修理サポート終了. ITmedia News (in Japanese). ITmedia. October 16, 2007. 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|
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Maybe that's the wrong question\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/25/arts/video-games/super-mario-3d-world-could-make-the-wii-u-popular.html?_r=3&adxnnl=1&ref=arts&adxnnlx=1386890554-ggZNG/r8oOu1Q+l0dZMD5w","external_links_name":"\"Mario Tries to Rescue His Console\""},{"Link":"http://www.polygon.com/2015/1/15/7554785/nintendo-says-wii-u-just-had-it-biggest-month-of-sales","external_links_name":"\"Nintendo says Wii U just had its biggest month of sales\""},{"Link":"http://www.gamespot.com/articles/mario-kart-8-sells-1-2-million-becoming-wii-u-s-fastest-selling-game/1100-6420033/","external_links_name":"\"Mario Kart 8 Sells 1.2 Million, Becoming Wii U's Fastest-Selling Game\""},{"Link":"https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2014/06/nintendo-at-e3-a-comeback-is-always-just-a-game-away/","external_links_name":"\"Nintendo at E3: A comeback is always just a game away\""},{"Link":"http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2015-06-01-wii-u-exclusive-splatoon-is-consoles-fastest-selling-new-ip","external_links_name":"\"Splatoon is Wii U's fastest-selling new franchise in UK\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150601214215/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2015-06-01-wii-u-exclusive-splatoon-is-consoles-fastest-selling-new-ip","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.gamespot.com/articles/wii-u-production-ends-worldwide/1100-6447419/","external_links_name":"\"Wii U Production Ends Worldwide\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110518183353/http://iwataasks.nintendo.com/interviews/#/clubn/game-and-watch-ball-reward/0/3","external_links_name":"\"Iwata Asks: Game & Watch: 4. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Genie
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Game Genie
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["1 Operation and design","1.1 NES","1.2 Super NES","1.3 Game Boy","1.4 Sega Genesis","1.5 Game Gear","2 Legal issues","3 Game Genie 2","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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Line of video game cheat cartridges
Game Genie is a line of video game cheat cartridges originally designed by Codemasters, sold by Camerica and Galoob. The first device in the series was released in 1990 for the Nintendo Entertainment System, with subsequent devices released for the Super NES, Game Boy, Genesis, and Game Gear. All Game Genie devices temporarily modify game data, allowing the player to do things unintended by developers such as, depending on the game, cheating, manipulating various aspects of games, and accessing unused assets and functions. Five million units of the original Game Genie products were sold worldwide, and most video game console emulators for the platforms it was on feature Game Genie code support. Emulators that have Game Genie support also allow a near-unlimited number of codes to be entered whereas the actual products have an upper and lower limit, between three and six codes.
In 1993, Codemasters began development on a "Game Genie 2", with Galoob to market and distribute the device in North America, but no Game Genie devices were released for the fifth generation of consoles. Other companies have produced similar hacking devices such as the Code Breaker, Action Replay, and Game Shark. The Game Genie brand was later revived by the company Hyperkin, who released cheat systems for newer consoles.
Codemasters later implemented similar cheat systems in some of their later games post-Game Genie, such as TOCA Touring Car Championship and Colin McRae Rally.
Operation and design
The original Game Genie systems were pass-through devices that attached between a cartridge and the console. Upon starting the console, the player is presented with a menu to enter a series of characters, referred to as a "code", that reference addresses in the ROM of the cartridge. Each code contains an integer value that is read by the system in place of the data actually present on the cartridge.
Because the Game Genie patches the program code of a game, the codes are sometimes referred to as patch codes. These codes can have a variety of effects. Most published codes give the player some form of invulnerability, infinite ammunition, level skipping, or other modifications that allow the player to be more powerful than intended by the developers. In other cases, codes can make the game more difficult or even unlock game features that developers had scrapped and rendered unreachable in normal play.
The Game Genie was packaged with a booklet of codes that could be used across various games. However, this booklet became outdated as Galoob developed new codes and new games were released. In response to this, Galoob created a paid subscription service where subscribers would receive new code booklets quarterly. In addition, Galoob also ran advertisements in certain gaming publications, such as GamePro, that featured codes for newer games.
To create new codes, it is possible to enter random codes into a Game Genie. This evolutionary approach is equivalent to using random POKE operations. Usually, entering random codes will result in no noticeable change in the game or freezing the game and possibly corrupting save data, but a useful difference may appear in the game if this process is repeated many times. Once a useful code is discovered, making slight modifications to this code has a much higher probability of producing additional useful codes. With ROM files, emulators, and compilers for these games and systems, it has become possible to reverse engineer games to find specific ROM data to modify. This information can be directly converted into Game Genie codes.
The Game Genie is covered by US Patent #5112051, "Interfacing device for a computer games system", filed 30 May 1990. This patent expired on 30 May 2010, according to current US patent law.
NES
NES Game Genie
The NES Game Genie attaches to the end of the NES cartridge, causing the cartridge to protrude from the console when fully inserted, making the depression impossible. Therefore, the Game Genie was designed in such a way that it did not need to be depressed in order to start the game. This design put even more stress on the LIF socket than standard game insertion, bending pins and eventually causing units to be unplayable without the Game Genie present.
The Game Genie's shape made it difficult to insert into a New-Style NES without applying excessive force. Galoob addressed this problem by creating an adapter which was offered to Game Genie owners for free.
There also exists a version of the Game Genie for the Family Computer, distributed by Realtec and sold in areas where Famiclones were common.
Super NES
Game Genie for Super NES
The Super NES edition is incompatible with certain games, such as Star Fox and Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars, as these games use pins that went unused in most games. It also has problems with the SNS-101, as only two codes can be used at a time. There are three known versions of the SNES Game Genie (v1, v1.1, v2). When comparing the PCBs of v1 and v2, v2 has much fewer components. All three versions look exactly the same on the outside, but when v1.1 is booted up, it will have dashes present before any code is entered. The only way to tell v1 and v2 apart is by opening the case and checking the PCB.
Game Boy
Game Genie for Game Boy
The Game Boy edition similarly has a slot for cartridges while itself needing to be inserted into the console's game slot. It has two face buttons for toggling codes on/off or to return to the code input screen. This edition also houses a compartment to contain a very small code booklet in the back.
The physical design made it difficult to be used with any version of the Game Boy other than the original. Although it could be made to work, if one attempted to use the Game Genie on the Game Boy Pocket, Game Boy Light, or Game Boy Advance, they would find the large top portion of the Game Genie would come into contact with the top of the handheld before it was fully engaged. Therefore, the Game Genie would need to be bent backwards in order to function, placing strain on the mechanism that allows it to be pressed down far enough to reach the cartridge contacts. Despite this history, it will work with the Game Boy Advance SP. A standard unit will not fit in a Super Game Boy, but with some minor modification to the plastic, it can fit and work normally. There was also a third party "Super Game Boy to Game Genie Adapter", allowing the player to connect the Game Genie to a Super Game Boy cartridge.
The unit is also not compatible with Game Boy Color or Game Boy Advance cartridges (which will not physically fit into the unit).
Sega Genesis
Game Genie cartridge for the Sega Genesis
On the Genesis/Mega Drive, the Game Genie can function as a country converter cartridge since most of these games are only "locked" to their respective regions by the shape of the cartridges and/or a set of a few bytes in the header of the ROM. Some games do not work with the Genesis Game Genie. The unit is also not compatible with Sega 32X cartridges (see "legal issues" below).
Game Gear
The Game Gear version of the Game Genie had a more complicated design than those for other systems. When inserted into the cartridge slot, another slot would pop up to insert the Game Gear cartridge. It also had a compartment which contained a book of codes. The codes were printed on sticky labels to put on the back of the Game Gear cartridge. When entering codes, the player could easily see what to type in rather than looking through the book.
In the code input menu for the Game Gear Game Genie, a player typing the word "DEAD" will cause the screen to move up and down, possibly as an Easter egg.
Again, some games do not work with this version of the Game Genie (see "legal issues" below).
Legal issues
Main article: Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc.
The introduction of the original NES Game Genie was met by firm opposition from Nintendo. Nintendo sued Galoob in the case Galoob v. Nintendo, claiming that the Game Genie created derivative works in violation of copyright law. Sales of the Game Genie initially stopped in the U.S., but not in Canada. In many gaming magazines at the time, Galoob placed Game Genie ads saying "Thank You Canada!" After the courts found that use of the Game Genie did not result in a derivative work, Nintendo could do nothing to stop the Game Genie from being sold in the U.S.
Around the time of the lawsuit from Galoob, Nintendo tried to use other methods to thwart the Game Genie, using ROM checksum in later titles intended to detect the cheat modifications. These measures were partially successful but some could be bypassed with additional codes. Later versions of the Game Genie had the ability to hide Genie modifications from checksum routines.
Sega, on the other hand, fully endorsed the Game Genie, with their official seal of approval.
Game Genie 2
Game Genie 2 prototype for Super NES (unreleased)
A substantially more powerful device was developed by Codemasters for the Super NES, with many improvements including the ability for users to find their own cheat codes, to selectively activate cheats during gameplay using the game controller, to switch games into a slow-motion mode, as well as automatically save and restore the high-scores from games into battery-backed memory on the Game Genie device itself. A fully working prototype of the device was completed, but was not brought to market due to changes in market conditions. One prototype is known to remain in existence, in the possession of Richard Aplin, one of its original creators.
See also
Action Replay
Multiface
ROM hacking
Emergent gameplay
GameShark
References
^ "Game Genie - The video game enhancer". NES World.
^ "Profile: Ted Carron - Producer of Dragon Empires" (Press release). Codemasters. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 17 August 2009.
^ "Game Genie 2 Slated for 1995!". Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 56. EGM Media, LLC. March 1994. p. 56.
^ How to patch cheats into any NES, SNES, Genesis, Game Boy, Game Gear game (and more!), retrieved 24 February 2022
^ Galoob (1993). Game Genie SNES Code Booklet (E2C).
^ "Patent, Intellectual Property Attorney, Marc D. Machtinger". Patentstation.com. 8 June 1995. Retrieved 17 August 2009.
^ "NES Repairs". 27 September 2007. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 16 November 2018.
^ "Buyers Beware". GamePro. No. 81. IDG. June 1995. p. 140.
^ "Realtec". FC Game Land. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ "SNES Central: Star Fox". Retrieved 16 November 2018.
^ "SNES Central: Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars". Retrieved 16 November 2018.
^ "Game Genie (Super Nintendo) - Wiki - GameHacking.org". gamehacking.org. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ "SNES Game Genie v1 and v2 BOTH no dahses". Retrieved 16 November 2018.
^ "Let's Get Technical". GamePro. No. 64. IDG. November 1994. p. 15.
^ "Super Game Boy Gets its Genie". GamePro. No. 67. IDG. February 1995. p. 144.
^ "16 F3d 1032 Nintendo of America Inc v. Lewis Galoob Toys Inc". F3d (16). 14 December 1993: 1032. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc., 780 F. Supp. 1283 - Dist. Court, ND California 1991". Retrieved 4 February 2012.
^ Imgur. "Game Genie - advert from videogames magazine in the early '90s (Game Boy/Game Gear/Genesis/NES/SNES)". Imgur. Retrieved 25 March 2022.
^ "Richard Aplin (Game Genie Developer) - Hackers of Lore Q&A; - GSHI". 16 June 2010. Archived from the original on 16 June 2010. Retrieved 25 March 2022.
External links
Technical explanation of how Game Genie and its codes work
Game Genie Code Creators Club at Internet Archive
Codes at GameGenie.com
vteCodemastersA subsidiary of Electronic ArtsFranchises
Brian Lara Cricket
Colin McRae Rally and Dirt
Dizzy
F1
Grid
LMA Manager
Micro Machines
Operation Flashpoint
Overlord
Project CARS
TOCA
WRC
Studios
Sega Racing Studio (merged)
Slightly Mad Studios (subsidiary)
Swordfish Studios (defunct)
People
David Darling
Oliver Twins
Anil Ambani
Related article
Ego engine
Game Genie
Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc.
Video games
Category
Commons
|
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Upon starting the console, the player is presented with a menu to enter a series of characters, referred to as a \"code\", that reference addresses in the ROM of the cartridge. Each code contains an integer value that is read by the system in place of the data actually present on the cartridge.Because the Game Genie patches the program code of a game, the codes are sometimes referred to as patch codes.[4] These codes can have a variety of effects. Most published codes give the player some form of invulnerability, infinite ammunition, level skipping, or other modifications that allow the player to be more powerful than intended by the developers. In other cases, codes can make the game more difficult or even unlock game features that developers had scrapped and rendered unreachable in normal play.[citation needed]The Game Genie was packaged with a booklet of codes that could be used across various games. However, this booklet became outdated as Galoob developed new codes and new games were released. In response to this, Galoob created a paid subscription service where subscribers would receive new code booklets quarterly.[5] In addition, Galoob also ran advertisements in certain gaming publications, such as GamePro, that featured codes for newer games.[citation needed]To create new codes, it is possible to enter random codes into a Game Genie. This evolutionary approach is equivalent to using random POKE operations. Usually, entering random codes will result in no noticeable change in the game or freezing the game and possibly corrupting save data, but a useful difference may appear in the game if this process is repeated many times. Once a useful code is discovered, making slight modifications to this code has a much higher probability of producing additional useful codes. With ROM files, emulators, and compilers for these games and systems, it has become possible to reverse engineer games to find specific ROM data to modify. This information can be directly converted into Game Genie codes.The Game Genie is covered by US Patent #5112051, \"Interfacing device for a computer games system\", filed 30 May 1990. This patent expired on 30 May 2010, according to current US patent law.[6]","title":"Operation and design"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Game-Genie-NES.jpg"},{"link_name":"NES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"LIF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Insertion_Force"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NES-7"},{"link_name":"New-Style NES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New-Style_NES"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Famiclones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System_hardware_clone"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"NES","text":"NES Game GenieThe NES Game Genie attaches to the end of the NES cartridge, causing the cartridge to protrude from the console when fully inserted, making the depression impossible. Therefore, the Game Genie was designed in such a way that it did not need to be depressed in order to start the game. This design put even more stress on the LIF socket than standard game insertion, bending pins and eventually causing units to be unplayable without the Game Genie present.[7]The Game Genie's shape made it difficult to insert into a New-Style NES without applying excessive force. Galoob addressed this problem by creating an adapter which was offered to Game Genie owners for free.[8]There also exists a version of the Game Genie for the Family Computer, distributed by Realtec and sold in areas where Famiclones were common.[9]","title":"Operation and design"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Game-Genie-SNES.jpg"},{"link_name":"Star Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Fox_(1993_video_game)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_RPG:_Legend_of_the_Seven_Stars"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"SNS-101","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New-Style_Super_NES"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"PCBs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Super NES","text":"Game Genie for Super NESThe Super NES edition is incompatible with certain games, such as Star Fox[10] and Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars,[11] as these games use pins that went unused in most games. It also has problems with the SNS-101, as only two codes can be used at a time. There are three known versions of the SNES Game Genie (v1, v1.1, v2).[12] When comparing the PCBs of v1 and v2, v2 has much fewer components.[13] All three versions look exactly the same on the outside, but when v1.1 is booted up, it will have dashes present before any code is entered. The only way to tell v1 and v2 apart is by opening the case and checking the PCB.","title":"Operation and design"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Game_Genie.jpg"},{"link_name":"Game Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy"},{"link_name":"Game Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Pocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Pocket"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Light"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Advance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Advance SP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance_SP"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Super Game Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Game_Boy"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Game Boy","text":"Game Genie for Game BoyThe Game Boy edition similarly has a slot for cartridges while itself needing to be inserted into the console's game slot. It has two face buttons for toggling codes on/off or to return to the code input screen. This edition also houses a compartment to contain a very small code booklet in the back.The physical design made it difficult to be used with any version of the Game Boy other than the original. Although it could be made to work, if one attempted to use the Game Genie on the Game Boy Pocket, Game Boy Light, or Game Boy Advance, they would find the large top portion of the Game Genie would come into contact with the top of the handheld before it was fully engaged. Therefore, the Game Genie would need to be bent backwards in order to function, placing strain on the mechanism that allows it to be pressed down far enough to reach the cartridge contacts. Despite this history, it will work with the Game Boy Advance SP.[citation needed] A standard unit will not fit in a Super Game Boy,[14] but with some minor modification to the plastic, it can fit and work normally. There was also a third party \"Super Game Boy to Game Genie Adapter\", allowing the player to connect the Game Genie to a Super Game Boy cartridge.[15]The unit is also not compatible with Game Boy Color or Game Boy Advance cartridges (which will not physically fit into the unit).","title":"Operation and design"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Game-Genie-Genesis.jpg"},{"link_name":"Genesis/Mega Drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Genesis"},{"link_name":"locked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_lockout"},{"link_name":"Sega 32X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_32X"}],"sub_title":"Sega Genesis","text":"Game Genie cartridge for the Sega GenesisOn the Genesis/Mega Drive, the Game Genie can function as a country converter cartridge since most of these games are only \"locked\" to their respective regions by the shape of the cartridges and/or a set of a few bytes in the header of the ROM. Some games do not work with the Genesis Game Genie. The unit is also not compatible with Sega 32X cartridges (see \"legal issues\" below).","title":"Operation and design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Game Gear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Gear"},{"link_name":"Easter egg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_egg_(media)"}],"sub_title":"Game Gear","text":"The Game Gear version of the Game Genie had a more complicated design than those for other systems. When inserted into the cartridge slot, another slot would pop up to insert the Game Gear cartridge. It also had a compartment which contained a book of codes. The codes were printed on sticky labels to put on the back of the Game Gear cartridge. When entering codes, the player could easily see what to type in rather than looking through the book.In the code input menu for the Game Gear Game Genie, a player typing the word \"DEAD\" will cause the screen to move up and down, possibly as an Easter egg.Again, some games do not work with this version of the Game Genie (see \"legal issues\" below).","title":"Operation and design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nintendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo"},{"link_name":"Galoob v. Nintendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Galoob_Toys,_Inc._v._Nintendo_of_America,_Inc."},{"link_name":"copyright law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ninth_Circuit_Feb_1994-16"},{"link_name":"gaming magazines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_journalism"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-District_Court_July_1991-17"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"The introduction of the original NES Game Genie was met by firm opposition from Nintendo. Nintendo sued Galoob in the case Galoob v. Nintendo, claiming that the Game Genie created derivative works in violation of copyright law. Sales of the Game Genie initially stopped in the U.S., but not in Canada.[16] In many gaming magazines at the time, Galoob placed Game Genie ads saying \"Thank You Canada!\" After the courts found that use of the Game Genie did not result in a derivative work, Nintendo could do nothing to stop the Game Genie from being sold in the U.S.[17]Around the time of the lawsuit from Galoob, Nintendo tried to use other methods to thwart the Game Genie, using ROM checksum in later titles intended to detect the cheat modifications. These measures were partially successful but some could be bypassed with additional codes. Later versions of the Game Genie had the ability to hide Genie modifications from checksum routines.[citation needed]Sega, on the other hand, fully endorsed the Game Genie, with their official seal of approval.[18]","title":"Legal issues"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Game_Genie_2_Prototype_for_Super_Nintendo.jpg"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Game Genie 2 prototype for Super NES (unreleased)A substantially more powerful device was developed by Codemasters for the Super NES, with many improvements including the ability for users to find their own cheat codes, to selectively activate cheats during gameplay using the game controller, to switch games into a slow-motion mode, as well as automatically save and restore the high-scores from games into battery-backed memory on the Game Genie device itself. A fully working prototype of the device was completed, but was not brought to market due to changes in market conditions. One prototype is known to remain in existence, in the possession of Richard Aplin, one of its original creators.[19]","title":"Game Genie 2"}]
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[{"image_text":"NES Game Genie","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Game-Genie-NES.jpg/120px-Game-Genie-NES.jpg"},{"image_text":"Game Genie for Super NES","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Game-Genie-SNES.jpg/200px-Game-Genie-SNES.jpg"},{"image_text":"Game Genie for Game Boy","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Game_Genie.jpg/199px-Game_Genie.jpg"},{"image_text":"Game Genie cartridge for the Sega Genesis","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Game-Genie-Genesis.jpg/200px-Game-Genie-Genesis.jpg"},{"image_text":"Game Genie 2 prototype for Super NES (unreleased)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Game_Genie_2_Prototype_for_Super_Nintendo.jpg/220px-Game_Genie_2_Prototype_for_Super_Nintendo.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Action Replay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_Replay"},{"title":"Multiface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiface"},{"title":"ROM hacking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROM_hacking"},{"title":"Emergent gameplay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergent_gameplay"},{"title":"GameShark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameShark"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Game Genie - The video game enhancer\". NES World.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nesworld.com/gamegenie.php","url_text":"\"Game Genie - The video game enhancer\""}]},{"reference":"\"Profile: Ted Carron - Producer of Dragon Empires\" (Press release). Codemasters. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 17 August 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110606183716/http://www.codemasters.com/press/?showarticle=1145","url_text":"\"Profile: Ted Carron - Producer of Dragon Empires\""},{"url":"http://www.codemasters.com/press/?showarticle=1145","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Game Genie 2 Slated for 1995!\". Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 56. EGM Media, LLC. March 1994. p. 56.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Gaming_Monthly","url_text":"Electronic Gaming Monthly"}]},{"reference":"How to patch cheats into any NES, SNES, Genesis, Game Boy, Game Gear game (and more!), retrieved 24 February 2022","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0qusyX1oeUM","url_text":"How to patch cheats into any NES, SNES, Genesis, Game Boy, Game Gear game (and more!)"}]},{"reference":"Galoob (1993). Game Genie SNES Code Booklet (E2C).","urls":[{"url":"http://archive.org/details/GameGenieSNESCodeBookletVol1No24E2C","url_text":"Game Genie SNES Code Booklet (E2C)"}]},{"reference":"\"Patent, Intellectual Property Attorney, Marc D. Machtinger\". Patentstation.com. 8 June 1995. Retrieved 17 August 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.patentstation.com/mdm/p102.htm#length","url_text":"\"Patent, Intellectual Property Attorney, Marc D. Machtinger\""}]},{"reference":"\"NES Repairs\". 27 September 2007. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 16 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070927035859/http://nintendope.iodized.net/thisoldnes/nes.txt","url_text":"\"NES Repairs\""},{"url":"http://nintendope.iodized.net/thisoldnes/nes.txt","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Buyers Beware\". GamePro. No. 81. IDG. June 1995. p. 140.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro","url_text":"GamePro"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Data_Group","url_text":"IDG"}]},{"reference":"\"Realtec\". FC Game Land. Retrieved 13 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://fcgamer.wordpress.com/category/realtec/","url_text":"\"Realtec\""}]},{"reference":"\"SNES Central: Star Fox\". Retrieved 16 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://snescentral.com/article.php?id=0636","url_text":"\"SNES Central: Star Fox\""}]},{"reference":"\"SNES Central: Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars\". Retrieved 16 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://snescentral.com/article.php?id=0049","url_text":"\"SNES Central: Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars\""}]},{"reference":"\"Game Genie (Super Nintendo) - Wiki - GameHacking.org\". gamehacking.org. Retrieved 13 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://gamehacking.org/wiki/Game_Genie_(Super_Nintendo)","url_text":"\"Game Genie (Super Nintendo) - Wiki - GameHacking.org\""}]},{"reference":"\"SNES Game Genie v1 and v2 BOTH no dahses\". Retrieved 16 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://imgur.com/a/M8hmQ","url_text":"\"SNES Game Genie v1 and v2 BOTH no dahses\""}]},{"reference":"\"Let's Get Technical\". GamePro. No. 64. IDG. November 1994. p. 15.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro","url_text":"GamePro"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Data_Group","url_text":"IDG"}]},{"reference":"\"Super Game Boy Gets its Genie\". GamePro. No. 67. IDG. February 1995. p. 144.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro","url_text":"GamePro"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Data_Group","url_text":"IDG"}]},{"reference":"\"16 F3d 1032 Nintendo of America Inc v. Lewis Galoob Toys Inc\". F3d (16). 14 December 1993: 1032.","urls":[{"url":"https://openjurist.org/16/f3d/1032/nintendo-of-america-inc-v-lewis-galoob-toys-inc","url_text":"\"16 F3d 1032 Nintendo of America Inc v. Lewis Galoob Toys Inc\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc., 780 F. Supp. 1283 - Dist. Court, ND California 1991\". Retrieved 4 February 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=14167398686354689030&hl=en&as_sdt=2&as_vis=1&oi=scholarr","url_text":"\"Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc., 780 F. Supp. 1283 - Dist. Court, ND California 1991\""}]},{"reference":"Imgur. \"Game Genie - advert from videogames magazine in the early '90s (Game Boy/Game Gear/Genesis/NES/SNES)\". Imgur. Retrieved 25 March 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://imgur.com/gallery/9rSSRdV","url_text":"\"Game Genie - advert from videogames magazine in the early '90s (Game Boy/Game Gear/Genesis/NES/SNES)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Richard Aplin (Game Genie Developer) - Hackers of Lore Q&A; - GSHI\". 16 June 2010. Archived from the original on 16 June 2010. Retrieved 25 March 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100616131921/http://www.thegshi.org/?s=qna&id=40","url_text":"\"Richard Aplin (Game Genie Developer) - Hackers of Lore Q&A; - GSHI\""},{"url":"http://www.thegshi.org/?s=qna&id=40","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://www.nesworld.com/gamegenie.php","external_links_name":"\"Game Genie - The video game enhancer\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110606183716/http://www.codemasters.com/press/?showarticle=1145","external_links_name":"\"Profile: Ted Carron - Producer of Dragon Empires\""},{"Link":"http://www.codemasters.com/press/?showarticle=1145","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0qusyX1oeUM","external_links_name":"How to patch cheats into any NES, SNES, Genesis, Game Boy, Game Gear game (and more!)"},{"Link":"http://archive.org/details/GameGenieSNESCodeBookletVol1No24E2C","external_links_name":"Game Genie SNES Code Booklet (E2C)"},{"Link":"http://www.patentstation.com/mdm/p102.htm#length","external_links_name":"\"Patent, Intellectual Property Attorney, Marc D. Machtinger\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070927035859/http://nintendope.iodized.net/thisoldnes/nes.txt","external_links_name":"\"NES Repairs\""},{"Link":"http://nintendope.iodized.net/thisoldnes/nes.txt","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://fcgamer.wordpress.com/category/realtec/","external_links_name":"\"Realtec\""},{"Link":"https://snescentral.com/article.php?id=0636","external_links_name":"\"SNES Central: Star Fox\""},{"Link":"https://snescentral.com/article.php?id=0049","external_links_name":"\"SNES Central: Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars\""},{"Link":"https://gamehacking.org/wiki/Game_Genie_(Super_Nintendo)","external_links_name":"\"Game Genie (Super Nintendo) - Wiki - GameHacking.org\""},{"Link":"http://imgur.com/a/M8hmQ","external_links_name":"\"SNES Game Genie v1 and v2 BOTH no dahses\""},{"Link":"https://openjurist.org/16/f3d/1032/nintendo-of-america-inc-v-lewis-galoob-toys-inc","external_links_name":"\"16 F3d 1032 Nintendo of America Inc v. Lewis Galoob Toys Inc\""},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=14167398686354689030&hl=en&as_sdt=2&as_vis=1&oi=scholarr","external_links_name":"\"Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc., 780 F. Supp. 1283 - Dist. Court, ND California 1991\""},{"Link":"https://imgur.com/gallery/9rSSRdV","external_links_name":"\"Game Genie - advert from videogames magazine in the early '90s (Game Boy/Game Gear/Genesis/NES/SNES)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100616131921/http://www.thegshi.org/?s=qna&id=40","external_links_name":"\"Richard Aplin (Game Genie Developer) - Hackers of Lore Q&A; - GSHI\""},{"Link":"http://www.thegshi.org/?s=qna&id=40","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://tuxnes.sourceforge.net/gamegenie.html","external_links_name":"Technical explanation of how Game Genie and its codes work"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070929142139/http://www.videogamesource.com/genie/","external_links_name":"Game Genie Code Creators Club"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141218222409/http://www.gamegenie.com/cheats/gamegenie/","external_links_name":"Codes at GameGenie.com"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_tree
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Game tree
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["1 Understanding the game tree","2 Solving game trees","2.1 Deterministic algorithm version","2.2 Randomized algorithms version","3 See also","4 References","5 Further reading"]
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Combinatorial game theory concept to represent all possible game states
For game tree as it is used in game theory (not combinatorial game theory), see Extensive-form game.
In the context of combinatorial game theory, which typically studies sequential games with perfect information, a game tree is a graph representing all possible game states within such a game. Such games include well-known ones such as chess, checkers, Go, and tic-tac-toe. This can be used to measure the complexity of a game, as it represents all the possible ways a game can pan out. Due to the large game trees of complex games such as chess, algorithms that are designed to play this class of games will use partial game trees, which makes computation feasible on modern computers. Various methods exist to solve game trees. If a complete game tree can be generated, a deterministic algorithm, such as backward induction or retrograde analysis can be used. Randomized algorithms and minmax algorithms such as MCTS can be used in cases where a complete game tree is not feasible.
Understanding the game tree
To better understand the game tree, it can be thought of as a technique for analyzing adversarial games, which determine the actions that player takes to win the game. In game theory, a game tree is a directed graph whose nodes are positions in a game (e.g., the arrangement of the pieces in a board game) and whose edges are moves (e.g., to move pieces from one position on a board to another).
The complete game tree for a game is the game tree starting at the initial position and containing all possible moves from each position; the complete tree is the same tree as that obtained from the extensive-form game representation. To be more specific, the complete game is a norm for the game in game theory. Which can clearly express many important aspects. For example, the sequence of actions that stakeholders may take, their choices at each decision point, information about actions taken by other stakeholders when each stakeholder makes a decision, and the benefits of all possible game results.
The first two plies of the game tree for tic-tac-toe.
The diagram shows the first two levels, or plies, in the game tree for tic-tac-toe. The rotations and reflections of positions are equivalent, so the first player has three choices of move: in the center, at the edge, or in the corner. The second player has two choices for the reply if the first player played in the center, otherwise five choices. And so on.
The number of leaf nodes in the complete game tree is the number of possible different ways the game can be played. For example, the game tree for tic-tac-toe has 255,168 leaf nodes.
Game trees are important in artificial intelligence because one way to pick the best move in a game is to search the game tree using any of numerous tree search algorithms, combined with minimax-like rules to prune the tree. The game tree for tic-tac-toe is easily searchable, but the complete game trees for larger games like chess are much too large to search. Instead, a chess-playing program searches a partial game tree: typically as many plies from the current position as it can search in the time available. Except for the case of "pathological" game trees (which seem to be quite rare in practice), increasing the search depth (i.e., the number of plies searched) generally improves the chance of picking the best move.
Two-person games can also be represented as and-or trees. For the first player to win a game, there must exist a winning move for all moves of the second player. This is represented in the and-or tree by using disjunction to represent the first player's alternative moves and using conjunction to represent all of the second player's moves.
Solving game trees
Deterministic algorithm version
An arbitrary game tree that has been fully colored
With a complete game tree, it is possible to "solve" the game – that is to say, find a sequence of moves that either the first or second player can follow that will guarantee the best possible outcome for that player (usually a win or a tie). The deterministic algorithm (which is generally called backward induction or retrograde analysis) can be described recursively as follows.
Color the final ply of the game tree so that all wins for player 1 are colored one way (Blue in the diagram), all wins for player 2 are colored another way (Red in the diagram), and all ties are colored a third way (Grey in the diagram).
Look at the next ply up. If there exists a node colored opposite as the current player, color this node for that player as well. If all immediately lower nodes are colored for the same player, color this node for the same player as well. Otherwise, color this node a tie.
Repeat for each ply, moving upwards, until all nodes are colored. The color of the root node will determine the nature of the game.
The diagram shows a game tree for an arbitrary game, colored using the above algorithm.
It is usually possible to solve a game (in this technical sense of "solve") using only a subset of the game tree, since in many games a move need not be analyzed if there is another move that is better for the same player (for example alpha-beta pruning can be used in many deterministic games).
Any subtree that can be used to solve the game is known as a decision tree, and the sizes of decision trees of various shapes are used as measures of game complexity.
Randomized algorithms version
Randomized algorithms can be used in solving game trees. There are two main advantages in this type of implementation: speed and practicality. Whereas a deterministic version of solving game trees can be done in Ο(n), the following randomized algorithm has an expected run time of θ(n0.792) if every node in the game tree has degree 2. Moreover, it is practical because randomized algorithms are capable of "foiling an enemy", meaning an opponent cannot beat the system of game trees by knowing the algorithm used to solve the game tree because the order of solving is random.
The following is an implementation of randomized game tree solution algorithm:
def gt_eval_rand(u) -> bool:
"""Returns True if this node evaluates to a win, otherwise False"""
if u.leaf:
return u.win
else:
random_children = (gt_eval_rand(child) for child in random_order(u.children))
if u.op == "OR":
return any(random_children)
if u.op == "AND":
return all(random_children)
The algorithm makes use of the idea of "short-circuiting": if the root node is considered an "OR" operator, then once one True is found, the root is classified as True; conversely, if the root node is considered an "AND" operator then once one False is found, the root is classified as False.
See also
Alpha-beta pruning
Extensive form game
Shannon number
Game complexity
References
^ Zuckerman, Inon; Wilson, Brandon; Nau, Dana S. (2018). "Avoiding game-tree pathology in 2-player adversarial search". Computational Intelligence. 34 (2): 542–561. doi:10.1111/coin.12162. ISSN 1467-8640. S2CID 46926187.
^ Huang, Zishuo; Yu, Hang; Chu, Xiangyang; Peng, Zhenwei (2018-05-01). "A novel optimization model based on game tree for multi-energy conversion systems". Energy. 150: 109–121. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2018.02.091. ISSN 0360-5442.
^ Nau, Dana (1982). "An investigation of the causes of pathology in games". Artificial Intelligence. 19 (3): 257–278. doi:10.1016/0004-3702(82)90002-9.
^ Victor Allis (1994). Searching for Solutions in Games and Artificial Intelligence (PDF). Ph.D. Thesis, University of Limburg, Maastricht, The Netherlands. ISBN 90-900748-8-0.
^ Daniel Roche (2013). SI486D: Randomness in Computing, Game Trees Unit. United States Naval Academy, Computer Science Department. Archived from the original on 2021-05-08. Retrieved 2013-04-29.
^ Pekař, Libor; Matušů, Radek; Andrla, Jiří; Litschmannová, Martina (September 2020). "Review of Kalah Game Research and the Proposition of a Novel Heuristic–Deterministic Algorithm Compared to Tree-Search Solutions and Human Decision-Making". Informatics. 7 (3): 34. doi:10.3390/informatics7030034. hdl:10084/142398.
Further reading
Hu, Te Chiang; Shing, Man-tak (2002). Combinatorial Algorithms. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41962-2. Retrieved 2007-04-02.
Judea Pearl, Heuristics, Addison-Wesley, 1984
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Extensive-form game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensive-form_game"},{"link_name":"combinatorial game theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_game_theory"},{"link_name":"sequential games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequential_game"},{"link_name":"perfect information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_information"},{"link_name":"chess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess"},{"link_name":"checkers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draughts"},{"link_name":"Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(board_game)"},{"link_name":"tic-tac-toe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tic-tac-toe"},{"link_name":"complexity of a game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_complexity"},{"link_name":"complex games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_complexity#Complexities_of_some_well-known_games"},{"link_name":"deterministic algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic_algorithm"},{"link_name":"backward induction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backward_induction"},{"link_name":"retrograde analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrograde_analysis"},{"link_name":"Randomized algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_algorithm"},{"link_name":"minmax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minmax"},{"link_name":"MCTS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_tree_search"}],"text":"For game tree as it is used in game theory (not combinatorial game theory), see Extensive-form game.In the context of combinatorial game theory, which typically studies sequential games with perfect information, a game tree is a graph representing all possible game states within such a game. Such games include well-known ones such as chess, checkers, Go, and tic-tac-toe. This can be used to measure the complexity of a game, as it represents all the possible ways a game can pan out. Due to the large game trees of complex games such as chess, algorithms that are designed to play this class of games will use partial game trees, which makes computation feasible on modern computers. Various methods exist to solve game trees. If a complete game tree can be generated, a deterministic algorithm, such as backward induction or retrograde analysis can be used. Randomized algorithms and minmax algorithms such as MCTS can be used in cases where a complete game tree is not feasible.","title":"Game tree"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"extensive-form game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensive-form_game"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tic-tac-toe-game-tree.svg"},{"link_name":"plies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ply_(game_theory)"},{"link_name":"tic-tac-toe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tic-tac-toe"},{"link_name":"leaf nodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf_node"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"tree search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_search"},{"link_name":"minimax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimax"},{"link_name":"prune the tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_tree_pruning"},{"link_name":"chess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess"},{"link_name":"chess-playing program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess-playing_program"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"and-or trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And-or_tree"}],"text":"To better understand the game tree, it can be thought of as a technique for analyzing adversarial games, which determine the actions that player takes to win the game. In game theory, a game tree is a directed graph whose nodes are positions in a game (e.g., the arrangement of the pieces in a board game) and whose edges are moves (e.g., to move pieces from one position on a board to another).[1]The complete game tree for a game is the game tree starting at the initial position and containing all possible moves from each position; the complete tree is the same tree as that obtained from the extensive-form game representation. To be more specific, the complete game is a norm for the game in game theory. Which can clearly express many important aspects. For example, the sequence of actions that stakeholders may take, their choices at each decision point, information about actions taken by other stakeholders when each stakeholder makes a decision, and the benefits of all possible game results.[2]The first two plies of the game tree for tic-tac-toe.The diagram shows the first two levels, or plies, in the game tree for tic-tac-toe. The rotations and reflections of positions are equivalent, so the first player has three choices of move: in the center, at the edge, or in the corner. The second player has two choices for the reply if the first player played in the center, otherwise five choices. And so on.The number of leaf nodes in the complete game tree is the number of possible different ways the game can be played. For example, the game tree for tic-tac-toe has 255,168 leaf nodes.Game trees are important in artificial intelligence because one way to pick the best move in a game is to search the game tree using any of numerous tree search algorithms, combined with minimax-like rules to prune the tree. The game tree for tic-tac-toe is easily searchable, but the complete game trees for larger games like chess are much too large to search. Instead, a chess-playing program searches a partial game tree: typically as many plies from the current position as it can search in the time available. Except for the case of \"pathological\" game trees[3] (which seem to be quite rare in practice), increasing the search depth (i.e., the number of plies searched) generally improves the chance of picking the best move.Two-person games can also be represented as and-or trees. For the first player to win a game, there must exist a winning move for all moves of the second player. This is represented in the and-or tree by using disjunction to represent the first player's alternative moves and using conjunction to represent all of the second player's moves.","title":"Understanding the game tree"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Solving game trees"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arbitrary-gametree-solved.svg"},{"link_name":"deterministic algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic_algorithm"},{"link_name":"backward induction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backward_induction"},{"link_name":"retrograde analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrograde_analysis"},{"link_name":"alpha-beta pruning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha-beta_pruning"},{"link_name":"game complexity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_complexity"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Allis1994-4"}],"sub_title":"Deterministic algorithm version","text":"An arbitrary game tree that has been fully coloredWith a complete game tree, it is possible to \"solve\" the game – that is to say, find a sequence of moves that either the first or second player can follow that will guarantee the best possible outcome for that player (usually a win or a tie). The deterministic algorithm (which is generally called backward induction or retrograde analysis) can be described recursively as follows.Color the final ply of the game tree so that all wins for player 1 are colored one way (Blue in the diagram), all wins for player 2 are colored another way (Red in the diagram), and all ties are colored a third way (Grey in the diagram).\nLook at the next ply up. If there exists a node colored opposite as the current player, color this node for that player as well. If all immediately lower nodes are colored for the same player, color this node for the same player as well. Otherwise, color this node a tie.\nRepeat for each ply, moving upwards, until all nodes are colored. The color of the root node will determine the nature of the game.The diagram shows a game tree for an arbitrary game, colored using the above algorithm.It is usually possible to solve a game (in this technical sense of \"solve\") using only a subset of the game tree, since in many games a move need not be analyzed if there is another move that is better for the same player (for example alpha-beta pruning can be used in many deterministic games).Any subtree that can be used to solve the game is known as a decision tree, and the sizes of decision trees of various shapes are used as measures of game complexity.[4]","title":"Solving game trees"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Randomized algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Roche2013-5"},{"link_name":"short-circuiting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-circuit_evaluation"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Randomized algorithms version","text":"Randomized algorithms can be used in solving game trees. There are two main advantages in this type of implementation: speed and practicality. Whereas a deterministic version of solving game trees can be done in Ο(n), the following randomized algorithm has an expected run time of θ(n0.792) if every node in the game tree has degree 2. Moreover, it is practical because randomized algorithms are capable of \"foiling an enemy\", meaning an opponent cannot beat the system of game trees by knowing the algorithm used to solve the game tree because the order of solving is random.The following is an implementation of randomized game tree solution algorithm:[5]def gt_eval_rand(u) -> bool:\n \"\"\"Returns True if this node evaluates to a win, otherwise False\"\"\"\n if u.leaf:\n return u.win\n else:\n random_children = (gt_eval_rand(child) for child in random_order(u.children))\n if u.op == \"OR\":\n return any(random_children)\n if u.op == \"AND\":\n return all(random_children)The algorithm makes use of the idea of \"short-circuiting\": if the root node is considered an \"OR\" operator, then once one True is found, the root is classified as True; conversely, if the root node is considered an \"AND\" operator then once one False is found, the root is classified as False.[6]","title":"Solving game trees"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Combinatorial Algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=BF5_bCN72EUC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-486-41962-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-41962-2"},{"link_name":"Judea Pearl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judea_Pearl"}],"text":"Hu, Te Chiang; Shing, Man-tak (2002). Combinatorial Algorithms. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41962-2. Retrieved 2007-04-02.\nJudea Pearl, Heuristics, Addison-Wesley, 1984","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"The first two plies of the game tree for tic-tac-toe.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Tic-tac-toe-game-tree.svg/220px-Tic-tac-toe-game-tree.svg.png"},{"image_text":"An arbitrary game tree that has been fully colored","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Arbitrary-gametree-solved.svg/400px-Arbitrary-gametree-solved.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Alpha-beta pruning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha-beta_pruning"},{"title":"Extensive form game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensive_form_game"},{"title":"Shannon number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon_number"},{"title":"Game complexity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_complexity"}]
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[{"reference":"Zuckerman, Inon; Wilson, Brandon; Nau, Dana S. (2018). \"Avoiding game-tree pathology in 2-player adversarial search\". Computational Intelligence. 34 (2): 542–561. doi:10.1111/coin.12162. ISSN 1467-8640. S2CID 46926187.","urls":[{"url":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/coin.12162","url_text":"\"Avoiding game-tree pathology in 2-player adversarial search\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fcoin.12162","url_text":"10.1111/coin.12162"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1467-8640","url_text":"1467-8640"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46926187","url_text":"46926187"}]},{"reference":"Huang, Zishuo; Yu, Hang; Chu, Xiangyang; Peng, Zhenwei (2018-05-01). \"A novel optimization model based on game tree for multi-energy conversion systems\". Energy. 150: 109–121. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2018.02.091. ISSN 0360-5442.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360544218303190","url_text":"\"A novel optimization model based on game tree for multi-energy conversion systems\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.energy.2018.02.091","url_text":"10.1016/j.energy.2018.02.091"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0360-5442","url_text":"0360-5442"}]},{"reference":"Nau, Dana (1982). \"An investigation of the causes of pathology in games\". Artificial Intelligence. 19 (3): 257–278. doi:10.1016/0004-3702(82)90002-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0004-3702%2882%2990002-9","url_text":"10.1016/0004-3702(82)90002-9"}]},{"reference":"Victor Allis (1994). Searching for Solutions in Games and Artificial Intelligence (PDF). Ph.D. Thesis, University of Limburg, Maastricht, The Netherlands. ISBN 90-900748-8-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Allis","url_text":"Victor Allis"},{"url":"http://fragrieu.free.fr/SearchingForSolutions.pdf","url_text":"Searching for Solutions in Games and Artificial Intelligence"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-900748-8-0","url_text":"90-900748-8-0"}]},{"reference":"Daniel Roche (2013). SI486D: Randomness in Computing, Game Trees Unit. United States Naval Academy, Computer Science Department. Archived from the original on 2021-05-08. Retrieved 2013-04-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Roche","url_text":"Daniel Roche"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210508074443/https://www.usna.edu/Users/cs/roche/courses/s13si486d/u03/","url_text":"SI486D: Randomness in Computing, Game Trees Unit"},{"url":"http://www.usna.edu/Users/cs/roche/courses/s13si486d/u03/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Pekař, Libor; Matušů, Radek; Andrla, Jiří; Litschmannová, Martina (September 2020). \"Review of Kalah Game Research and the Proposition of a Novel Heuristic–Deterministic Algorithm Compared to Tree-Search Solutions and Human Decision-Making\". Informatics. 7 (3): 34. doi:10.3390/informatics7030034. hdl:10084/142398.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Finformatics7030034","url_text":"\"Review of Kalah Game Research and the Proposition of a Novel Heuristic–Deterministic Algorithm Compared to Tree-Search Solutions and Human Decision-Making\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Finformatics7030034","url_text":"10.3390/informatics7030034"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10084%2F142398","url_text":"10084/142398"}]},{"reference":"Hu, Te Chiang; Shing, Man-tak (2002). Combinatorial Algorithms. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41962-2. Retrieved 2007-04-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BF5_bCN72EUC","url_text":"Combinatorial Algorithms"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-41962-2","url_text":"0-486-41962-2"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamegun
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Gamegun
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["1 Supported games","2 References"]
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Gamegun" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
The Gamegun (styled GAMEGUN on its packaging) is the only light gun released for the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer video game console. It was released in 1994 by American Laser Games, developers of full motion video-based shooter games. The Gamegun is styled exactly like the Peacekeeper Revolver, except with a notable color difference. The peripheral came in two versions: one player and two-player. The only difference between the two is that the two-player version, which was released in 1995, came with an attached y-connector end, allowing two players to plug in two light guns to play simultaneously. With the one player version, the gun could be daisy chained with a regular 3DO controller, allowing another player to use the gamepad at the same time.
Supported games
The Gamegun is supported by 12 games, including two arcade games that ran on 3DO hardware but were never released for the home console:
Corpse Killer
Crime Patrol
Demolition Man
Drug Wars
Fast Draw Showdown (arcade only)
Gunslinger's Collection (compilation bundling both Mad Dog games with Crime Patrol)
The Last Bounty Hunter
Mad Dog McCree
Mad Dog II: The Lost Gold
Shootout at Old Tucson (arcade only)
Space Pirates
Who Shot Johnny Rock
References
^ "American Laser Games Gamegun 3DO rear package art". Retrieved 2011-01-06.
^ "Get Ready to Draw with New Game Gun" (PDF). Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 70. Ziff Davis. May 1995. p. 28.
vteAmerican Laser GamesGames
Mad Dog McCree
Who Shot Johnny Rock?
Space Pirates
Mad Dog II: The Lost Gold
Crime Patrol
Crime Patrol 2: Drug Wars
Fast Draw Showdown
The Last Bounty Hunter
Orbatak
Mazer (1995)
Co-productions
Battles in Time
McKenzie & Co.
Way of the Warrior
Related
Peacekeeper Revolver
Gamegun
HeR Interactive
Digital Leisure
This video game-related article on computer hardware is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setter_method
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Mutator method
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["1 Implications","2 Examples","2.1 Assembly","2.2 C","2.3 C++","2.4 C#","2.5 Common Lisp","2.6 D","2.7 Delphi","2.8 Java","2.9 JavaScript","2.10 ActionScript 3.0","2.11 Objective-C","2.12 Perl","2.13 PHP","2.14 Python","2.15 Racket","2.16 Ruby","2.17 Rust","2.18 Smalltalk","2.19 Swift","2.20 Visual Basic .NET","3 See also","4 References"]
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In computer science, a mutator method is a method used to control changes to a variable. They are also widely known as setter methods. Often a setter is accompanied by a getter, which returns the value of the private member variable. They are also known collectively as accessors.
The mutator method is most often used in object-oriented programming, in keeping with the principle of encapsulation. According to this principle, member variables of a class are made private to hide and protect them from other code, and can only be modified by a public member function (the mutator method), which takes the desired new value as a parameter, optionally validates it, and modifies the private member variable. Mutator methods can be compared to assignment operator overloading but they typically appear at different levels of the object hierarchy.
Mutator methods may also be used in non-object-oriented environments. In this case, a reference to the variable to be modified is passed to the mutator, along with the new value. In this scenario, the compiler cannot restrict code from bypassing the mutator method and changing the variable directly. The responsibility falls to the developers to ensure the variable is only modified through the mutator method and not modified directly.
In programming languages that support them, properties offer a convenient alternative without giving up the utility of encapsulation.
In the examples below, a fully implemented mutator method can also validate the input data or take further action such as triggering an event.
Implications
The alternative to defining mutator and accessor methods, or property blocks, is to give the instance variable some visibility other than private and access it directly from outside the objects. Much finer control of access rights can be defined using mutators and accessors. For example, a parameter may be made read-only simply by defining an accessor but not a mutator. The visibility of the two methods may be different; it is often useful for the accessor to be public while the mutator remains protected, package-private or internal.
The block where the mutator is defined provides an opportunity for validation or preprocessing of incoming data. If all external access is guaranteed to come through the mutator, then these steps cannot be bypassed. For example, if a date is represented by separate private year, month and day variables, then incoming dates can be split by the setDate mutator while for consistency the same private instance variables are accessed by setYear and setMonth. In all cases month values outside of 1 - 12 can be rejected by the same code.
Accessors conversely allow for synthesis of useful data representations from internal variables while keeping their structure encapsulated and hidden from outside modules. A monetary getAmount accessor may build a string from a numeric variable with the number of decimal places defined by a hidden currency parameter.
Modern programming languages often offer the ability to generate the boilerplate for mutators and accessors in a single line—as for example C#'s public string Name { get; set; } and Ruby's attr_accessor :name. In these cases, no code blocks are created for validation, preprocessing or synthesis. These simplified accessors still retain the advantage of encapsulation over simple public instance variables, but it is common that, as system designs progress, the software is maintained and requirements change, the demands on the data become more sophisticated. Many automatic mutators and accessors eventually get replaced by separate blocks of code. The benefit of automatically creating them in the early days of the implementation is that the public interface of the class remains identical whether or not greater sophistication is added, requiring no extensive refactoring if it is.
Manipulation of parameters that have mutators and accessors from inside the class where they are defined often requires some additional thought. In the early days of an implementation, when there is little or no additional code in these blocks, it makes no difference if the private instance variable is accessed directly or not. As validation, cross-validation, data integrity checks, preprocessing or other sophistication is added, subtle bugs may appear where some internal access makes use of the newer code while in other places it is bypassed.
Accessor functions can be less efficient than directly fetching or storing data fields due to the extra steps involved, however such functions are often inlined which eliminates the overhead of a function call.
Examples
Assembly
student struct
age dd ?
student ends
.code
student_get_age proc object:DWORD
mov ebx, object
mov eax, student.age
ret
student_get_age endp
student_set_age proc object:DWORD, age:DWORD
mov ebx, object
mov eax, age
mov student.age, eax
ret
student_set_age endp
C
In file student.h:
#ifndef _STUDENT_H
#define _STUDENT_H
struct student; /* opaque structure */
typedef struct student student;
student *student_new(int age, char *name);
void student_delete(student *s);
void student_set_age(student *s, int age);
int student_get_age(student *s);
char *student_get_name(student *s);
#endif
In file student.c:
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#include "student.h"
struct student {
int age;
char *name;
};
student *student_new(int age, char *name) {
student *s = malloc(sizeof(student));
s->name = strdup(name);
s->age = age;
return s;
}
void student_delete(student *s) {
free(s->name);
free(s);
}
void student_set_age(student *s, int age) {
s->age = age;
}
int student_get_age(student *s) {
return s->age;
}
char *student_get_name(student *s) {
return s->name;
}
In file main.c:
#include <stdio.h>
#include "student.h"
int main(void) {
student *s = student_new(19, "Maurice");
char *name = student_get_name(s);
int old_age = student_get_age(s);
printf("%s's old age = %i\n", name, old_age);
student_set_age(s, 21);
int new_age = student_get_age(s);
printf("%s's new age = %i\n", name, new_age);
student_delete(s);
return 0;
}
In file Makefile:
all: out.txt; cat $<
out.txt: main; ./$< > $@
main: main.o student.o
main.o student.o: student.h
clean: ;$(RM) *.o out.txt main
C++
In file Student.h:
#ifndef STUDENT_H
#define STUDENT_H
#include <string>
class Student {
public:
Student(const std::string& name);
const std::string& name() const;
void name(const std::string& name);
private:
std::string name_;
};
#endif
In file Student.cpp:
#include "Student.h"
Student::Student(const std::string& name) : name_(name) {
}
const std::string& Student::name() const {
return name_;
}
void Student::name(const std::string& name) {
name_ = name;
}
C#
This example illustrates the C# idea of properties, which are a special type of class member. Unlike Java, no explicit methods are defined; a public 'property' contains the logic to handle the actions. Note use of the built-in (undeclared) variable value.
public class Student
{
private string name;
/// <summary>
/// Gets or sets student's name
/// </summary>
public string Name
{
get { return name; }
set { name = value; }
}
}
In later C# versions (.NET Framework 3.5 and above), this example may be abbreviated as follows, without declaring the private variable name.
public class Student
{
public string Name { get; set; }
}
Using the abbreviated syntax means that the underlying variable is no longer available from inside the class. As a result, the set portion of the property must be present for assignment. Access can be restricted with a set-specific access modifier.
public class Student
{
public string Name { get; private set; }
}
Common Lisp
In Common Lisp Object System, slot specifications within class definitions may specify any of the :reader, :writer and :accessor options (even multiple times) to define reader methods, setter methods and accessor methods (a reader method and the respective setf method). Slots are always directly accessible through their names with the use of with-slots and slot-value, and the slot accessor options define specialized methods that use slot-value.
CLOS itself has no notion of properties, although the MetaObject Protocol extension specifies means to access a slot's reader and writer function names, including the ones generated with the :accessor option.
The following example shows a definition of a student class using these slot options and direct slot access:
(defclass student ()
((name :initarg :name :initform "" :accessor student-name) ; student-name is setf'able
(birthdate :initarg :birthdate :initform 0 :reader student-birthdate)
(number :initarg :number :initform 0 :reader student-number :writer set-student-number)))
;; Example of a calculated property getter (this is simply a method)
(defmethod student-age ((self student))
(- (get-universal-time) (student-birthdate self)))
;; Example of direct slot access within a calculated property setter
(defmethod (setf student-age) (new-age (self student))
(with-slots (birthdate) self
(setf birthdate (- (get-universal-time) new-age))
new-age))
;; The slot accessing options generate methods, thus allowing further method definitions
(defmethod set-student-number :before (new-number (self student))
;; You could also check if a student with the new-number already exists.
(check-type new-number (integer 1 *)))
D
D supports a getter and setter function syntax. In version 2 of the language getter and setter class/struct methods should have the @property attribute.
class Student {
private char name_;
// Getter
@property char name() {
return this.name_;
}
// Setter
@property char name(char name_in) {
return this.name_ = name_in;
}
}
A Student instance can be used like this:
auto student = new Student;
student.name = "David"; // same effect as student.name("David")
auto student_name = student.name; // same effect as student.name()
Delphi
This is a simple class in Delphi language which illustrates the concept of public property for accessing a private field.
interface
type
TStudent = class
strict private
FName: string;
procedure SetName(const Value: string);
public
/// <summary>
/// Get or set the name of the student.
/// </summary>
property Name: string read FName write SetName;
end;
// ...
implementation
procedure TStudent.SetName(const Value: string);
begin
FName := Value;
end;
end.
Java
In this example of a simple class representing a student with only the name stored, one can see the variable name is private, i.e. only visible from the Student class, and the "setter" and "getter" are public, namely the "getName()" and "setName(name)" methods.
public class Student {
private String name;
public String getName() {
return name;
}
public void setName(String newName) {
name = newName;
}
}
JavaScript
In this example constructor-function Student is used to create objects representing a student with only the name stored.
function Student(name) {
var _name = name;
this.getName = function() {
return _name;
};
this.setName = function(value) {
_name = value;
};
}
Or (using a deprecated way to define accessors in Web browsers):
function Student(name){
var _name = name;
this.__defineGetter__('name', function() {
return _name;
});
this.__defineSetter__('name', function(value) {
_name = value;
});
}
Or (using prototypes for inheritance and ES6 accessor syntax):
function Student(name){
this._name = name;
}
Student.prototype = {
get name() {
return this._name;
},
set name(value) {
this._name = value;
}
};
Or (without using prototypes):
var Student = {
get name() {
return this._name;
},
set name(value) {
this._name = value;
}
};
Or (using defineProperty):
function Student(name){
this._name = name;
}
Object.defineProperty(Student.prototype, 'name', {
get: function() {
return this._name;
},
set: function(value) {
this._name = value;
}
});
ActionScript 3.0
package
{
public class Student
{
private var _name : String;
public function get name() : String
{
return _name;
}
public function set name(value : String) : void
{
_name = value;
}
}
}
Objective-C
Using traditional Objective-C 1.0 syntax, with manual reference counting as the one working on GNUstep on Ubuntu 12.04:
@interface Student : NSObject
{
NSString *_name;
}
- (NSString *)name;
- (void)setName:(NSString *)name;
@end
@implementation Student
- (NSString *)name
{
return _name;
}
- (void)setName:(NSString *)name
{
;
_name = ;
}
@end
Using newer Objective-C 2.0 syntax as used in Mac OS X 10.6, iOS 4 and Xcode 3.2, generating the same code as described above:
@interface Student : NSObject
@property (nonatomic, retain) NSString *name;
@end
@implementation Student
@synthesize name = _name;
@end
And starting with OS X 10.8 and iOS 6, while using Xcode 4.4 and up, syntax can be even simplified:
@interface Student : NSObject
@property (nonatomic, strong) NSString *name;
@end
@implementation Student
//Nothing goes here and it's OK.
@end
Perl
package Student;
sub new {
bless {}, shift;
}
sub set_name {
my $self = shift;
$self->{name} = $_;
}
sub get_name {
my $self = shift;
return $self->{name};
}
1;
Or, using Class::Accessor
package Student;
use base qw(Class::Accessor);
__PACKAGE__->follow_best_practice;
Student->mk_accessors(qw(name));
1;
Or, using the Moose Object System:
package Student;
use Moose;
# Moose uses the attribute name as the setter and getter, the reader and writer properties
# allow us to override that and provide our own names, in this case get_name and set_name
has 'name' => (is => 'rw', isa => 'Str', reader => 'get_name', writer => 'set_name');
1;
PHP
PHP defines the "magic methods" __getand__set for properties of objects.
In this example of a simple class representing a student with only the name stored, one can see the variable name is private, i.e. only visible from the Student class, and the "setter" and "getter" is public, namely the getName() and setName('name') methods.
class Student
{
private string $name;
/**
* @return string The name.
*/
public function getName(): string
{
return $this->name;
}
/**
* @param string $newName The name to set.
*/
public function setName(string $newName): void
{
$this->name = $newName;
}
}
Python
This example uses a Python class with one variable, a getter, and a setter.
class Student:
# Initializer
def __init__(self, name: str) -> None:
# An instance variable to hold the student's name
self._name = name
# Getter method
@property
def name(self):
return self._name
# Setter method
@name.setter
def name(self, new_name):
self._name = new_name
>>> bob = Student("Bob")
>>> bob.name
Bob
>>> bob.name = "Alice"
>>> bob.name
Alice
>>> bob._name = "Charlie" # bypass the setter
>>> bob._name # bypass the getter
Charlie
Racket
In Racket, the object system is a way to organize code that comes in addition to modules and units. As in the rest of the language, the object system has first-class values and lexical scope is used to control access to objects and methods.
#lang racket
(define student%
(class object%
(init-field name)
(define/public (get-name) name)
(define/public (set-name! new-name) (set! name new-name))
(super-new)))
(define s (new student% ))
(send s get-name) ; => "Alice"
(send s set-name! "Bob")
(send s get-name) ; => "Bob"
Struct definitions are an alternative way to define new types of values, with mutators being present when explicitly required:
#lang racket
(struct student (name) #:mutable)
(define s (student "Alice"))
(set-student-name! s "Bob")
(student-name s) ; => "Bob"
Ruby
In Ruby, individual accessor and mutator methods may be defined, or the metaprogramming constructs attr_reader or attr_accessor may be used both to declare a private variable in a class and to provide either read-only or read-write public access to it respectively.
Defining individual accessor and mutator methods creates space for pre-processing or validation of the data
class Student
def name
@name
end
def name=(value)
@name=value
end
end
Read-only simple public access to implied @name variable
class Student
attr_reader :name
end
Read-write simple public access to implied @name variable
class Student
attr_accessor :name
end
Rust
struct Student {
name: String,
}
impl Student {
fn name(&self) -> &String {
&self.name
}
fn name_mut(&mut self) -> &mut String {
&mut self.name
}
}
Smalltalk
age: aNumber
" Set the receiver age to be aNumber if is greater than 0 and less than 150 "
(aNumber between: 0 and: 150)
ifTrue:
Swift
class Student {
private var _name: String = ""
var name: String {
get {
return self._name
}
set {
self._name = newValue
}
}
}
Visual Basic .NET
This example illustrates the VB.NET idea of properties, which are used in classes. Similar to C#, there is an explicit use of the Get and Set methods.
Public Class Student
Private _name As String
Public Property Name()
Get
Return _name
End Get
Set(ByVal value)
_name = value
End Set
End Property
End Class
In VB.NET 2010, Auto Implemented properties can be utilized to create a property without having to use the Get and Set syntax. Note that a hidden variable is created by the compiler, called _name, to correspond with the Property name. Using another variable within the class named _name would result in an error. Privileged access to the underlying variable is available from within the class.
Public Class Student
Public Property name As String
End Class
See also
Property (programming)
Indexer (programming)
Immutable object
References
^ Stephen Fuqua (2009). "Automatic Properties in C# 3.0". Archived from the original on 2011-05-13. Retrieved 2009-10-19.
^ Tim Lee (1998-07-13). "Run Time Efficiency of Accessor Functions".
^ "CLHS: Macro DEFCLASS". Retrieved 2011-03-29.
^ "CLHS: 7.5.2 Accessing Slots". Retrieved 2011-03-29.
^ "MOP: Slot Definitions". Retrieved 2011-03-29.
^ "Functions - D Programming Language". Retrieved 2013-01-13.
^ "The D Style". Retrieved 2013-02-01.
^ "Object.prototype.__defineGetter__() - JavaScript | MDN". developer.mozilla.org. Retrieved 2021-07-06.
^ "PHP: Overloading - Manual". www.php.net. Retrieved 2021-07-06.
|
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According to this principle, member variables of a class are made private to hide and protect them from other code, and can only be modified by a public member function (the mutator method), which takes the desired new value as a parameter, optionally validates it, and modifies the private member variable. Mutator methods can be compared to assignment operator overloading but they typically appear at different levels of the object hierarchy.Mutator methods may also be used in non-object-oriented environments. In this case, a reference to the variable to be modified is passed to the mutator, along with the new value. In this scenario, the compiler cannot restrict code from bypassing the mutator method and changing the variable directly. The responsibility falls to the developers to ensure the variable is only modified through the mutator method and not modified directly.In programming languages that support them, properties offer a convenient alternative without giving up the utility of encapsulation.In the examples below, a fully implemented mutator method can also validate the input data or take further action such as triggering an event.","title":"Mutator method"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_(programming)"},{"link_name":"instance variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instance_variable"},{"link_name":"visibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_hiding"},{"link_name":"block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_(programming)"},{"link_name":"validation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_validation"},{"link_name":"boilerplate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boilerplate_code"},{"link_name":"system designs progress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agile_software_development"},{"link_name":"maintained","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_maintenance"},{"link_name":"demands on the data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_integrity"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"cross-validation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"data integrity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_integrity"},{"link_name":"bugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_bug"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"inlined","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inline_function"}],"text":"The alternative to defining mutator and accessor methods, or property blocks, is to give the instance variable some visibility other than private and access it directly from outside the objects. Much finer control of access rights can be defined using mutators and accessors. For example, a parameter may be made read-only simply by defining an accessor but not a mutator. The visibility of the two methods may be different; it is often useful for the accessor to be public while the mutator remains protected, package-private or internal.The block where the mutator is defined provides an opportunity for validation or preprocessing of incoming data. If all external access is guaranteed to come through the mutator, then these steps cannot be bypassed. For example, if a date is represented by separate private year, month and day variables, then incoming dates can be split by the setDate mutator while for consistency the same private instance variables are accessed by setYear and setMonth. In all cases month values outside of 1 - 12 can be rejected by the same code.Accessors conversely allow for synthesis of useful data representations from internal variables while keeping their structure encapsulated and hidden from outside modules. A monetary getAmount accessor may build a string from a numeric variable with the number of decimal places defined by a hidden currency parameter.Modern programming languages often offer the ability to generate the boilerplate for mutators and accessors in a single line—as for example C#'s public string Name { get; set; } and Ruby's attr_accessor :name. In these cases, no code blocks are created for validation, preprocessing or synthesis. These simplified accessors still retain the advantage of encapsulation over simple public instance variables, but it is common that, as system designs progress, the software is maintained and requirements change, the demands on the data become more sophisticated. Many automatic mutators and accessors eventually get replaced by separate blocks of code. The benefit of automatically creating them in the early days of the implementation is that the public interface of the class remains identical whether or not greater sophistication is added, requiring no extensive refactoring if it is.[1]Manipulation of parameters that have mutators and accessors from inside the class where they are defined often requires some additional thought. In the early days of an implementation, when there is little or no additional code in these blocks, it makes no difference if the private instance variable is accessed directly or not. As validation, cross-validation, data integrity checks, preprocessing or other sophistication is added, subtle bugs may appear where some internal access makes use of the newer code while in other places it is bypassed.Accessor functions can be less efficient than directly fetching or storing data fields due to the extra steps involved,[2] however such functions are often inlined which eliminates the overhead of a function call.","title":"Implications"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:UML_mutator_method.svg"}],"title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Assembly","text":"student struct\n age dd ?\nstudent ends.code\nstudent_get_age proc object:DWORD\n mov ebx, object\n mov eax, student.age[ebx]\n ret\nstudent_get_age endp\n\nstudent_set_age proc object:DWORD, age:DWORD\n mov ebx, object\n mov eax, age\n mov student.age[ebx], eax\n ret\nstudent_set_age endp","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"C","text":"In file student.h:#ifndef _STUDENT_H\n#define _STUDENT_H\n\nstruct student; /* opaque structure */\ntypedef struct student student;\n\nstudent *student_new(int age, char *name);\nvoid student_delete(student *s);\n\nvoid student_set_age(student *s, int age);\nint student_get_age(student *s);\nchar *student_get_name(student *s);\n\n#endifIn file student.c:#include <stdlib.h>\n#include <string.h>\n#include \"student.h\"\n\nstruct student {\n int age;\n char *name;\n};\n\nstudent *student_new(int age, char *name) {\n student *s = malloc(sizeof(student));\n s->name = strdup(name);\n s->age = age;\n return s;\n}\n\nvoid student_delete(student *s) {\n free(s->name);\n free(s);\n}\n\nvoid student_set_age(student *s, int age) {\n s->age = age;\n}\n\nint student_get_age(student *s) {\n return s->age;\n}\n\nchar *student_get_name(student *s) {\n return s->name;\n}In file main.c:#include <stdio.h>\n#include \"student.h\"\n\nint main(void) {\n student *s = student_new(19, \"Maurice\");\n char *name = student_get_name(s);\n int old_age = student_get_age(s);\n printf(\"%s's old age = %i\\n\", name, old_age);\n student_set_age(s, 21);\n int new_age = student_get_age(s);\n printf(\"%s's new age = %i\\n\", name, new_age);\n student_delete(s);\n return 0;\n}In file Makefile:all: out.txt; cat $<\nout.txt: main; ./$< > $@\nmain: main.o student.o\nmain.o student.o: student.h\nclean: ;$(RM) *.o out.txt main","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"C++","text":"In file Student.h:#ifndef STUDENT_H\n#define STUDENT_H\n\n#include <string>\n\nclass Student {\npublic:\n Student(const std::string& name);\n\n const std::string& name() const;\n void name(const std::string& name);\n\nprivate:\n std::string name_;\n};\n\n#endifIn file Student.cpp:#include \"Student.h\"\n\nStudent::Student(const std::string& name) : name_(name) {\n}\n\nconst std::string& Student::name() const {\n return name_;\n}\n\nvoid Student::name(const std::string& name) {\n name_ = name;\n}","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"C#","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"properties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_(programming)#C#"},{"link_name":"class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_(computer_science)"}],"sub_title":"C#","text":"This example illustrates the C# idea of properties, which are a special type of class member. Unlike Java, no explicit methods are defined; a public 'property' contains the logic to handle the actions. Note use of the built-in (undeclared) variable value.public class Student\n{\n private string name;\n\n /// <summary>\n /// Gets or sets student's name\n /// </summary>\n public string Name\n {\n get { return name; }\n set { name = value; }\n }\n}In later C# versions (.NET Framework 3.5 and above), this example may be abbreviated as follows, without declaring the private variable name.public class Student\n{\n public string Name { get; set; }\n}Using the abbreviated syntax means that the underlying variable is no longer available from inside the class. As a result, the set portion of the property must be present for assignment. Access can be restricted with a set-specific access modifier.public class Student\n{\n public string Name { get; private set; }\n}","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Common Lisp Object System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Lisp_Object_System"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-defclass-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-defclass-accessors-4"},{"link_name":"MetaObject Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Lisp_Object_System#Metaobject_Protocol"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mop-slot-definitions-5"}],"sub_title":"Common Lisp","text":"In Common Lisp Object System, slot specifications within class definitions may specify any of the :reader, :writer and :accessor options (even multiple times) to define reader methods, setter methods and accessor methods (a reader method and the respective setf method).[3] Slots are always directly accessible through their names with the use of with-slots and slot-value, and the slot accessor options define specialized methods that use slot-value.[4]CLOS itself has no notion of properties, although the MetaObject Protocol extension specifies means to access a slot's reader and writer function names, including the ones generated with the :accessor option.[5]The following example shows a definition of a student class using these slot options and direct slot access:(defclass student ()\n ((name :initarg :name :initform \"\" :accessor student-name) ; student-name is setf'able\n (birthdate :initarg :birthdate :initform 0 :reader student-birthdate)\n (number :initarg :number :initform 0 :reader student-number :writer set-student-number)))\n\n;; Example of a calculated property getter (this is simply a method)\n(defmethod student-age ((self student))\n (- (get-universal-time) (student-birthdate self)))\n\n;; Example of direct slot access within a calculated property setter\n(defmethod (setf student-age) (new-age (self student))\n (with-slots (birthdate) self\n (setf birthdate (- (get-universal-time) new-age))\n new-age))\n\n;; The slot accessing options generate methods, thus allowing further method definitions\n(defmethod set-student-number :before (new-number (self student))\n ;; You could also check if a student with the new-number already exists.\n (check-type new-number (integer 1 *)))","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"D","text":"D supports a getter and setter function syntax. In version 2 of the language getter and setter class/struct methods should have the @property attribute.[6][7]class Student {\n private char[] name_;\n // Getter\n @property char[] name() {\n return this.name_;\n }\n // Setter\n @property char[] name(char[] name_in) {\n return this.name_ = name_in;\n }\n}A Student instance can be used like this:auto student = new Student;\nstudent.name = \"David\"; // same effect as student.name(\"David\")\nauto student_name = student.name; // same effect as student.name()","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Delphi","text":"This is a simple class in Delphi language which illustrates the concept of public property for accessing a private field.interface\n\ntype\n TStudent = class\n strict private\n FName: string;\n procedure SetName(const Value: string);\n public\n /// <summary>\n /// Get or set the name of the student.\n /// </summary>\n property Name: string read FName write SetName;\n end;\n\n// ...\n\nimplementation\n\nprocedure TStudent.SetName(const Value: string);\nbegin\n FName := Value;\nend;\n\nend.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(programming)"}],"sub_title":"Java","text":"In this example of a simple class representing a student with only the name stored, one can see the variable name is private, i.e. only visible from the Student class, and the \"setter\" and \"getter\" are public, namely the \"getName()\" and \"setName(name)\" methods.public class Student {\n private String name;\n\n public String getName() {\n return name;\n }\n \n public void setName(String newName) {\n name = newName;\n }\n}","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"ES6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ES6"}],"sub_title":"JavaScript","text":"In this example constructor-function Student is used to create objects representing a student with only the name stored.function Student(name) {\n var _name = name;\n\n this.getName = function() {\n return _name;\n };\n\n this.setName = function(value) {\n _name = value;\n };\n}Or (using a deprecated way to define accessors in Web browsers):[8]function Student(name){\n var _name = name;\n \n this.__defineGetter__('name', function() {\n return _name;\n });\n \n this.__defineSetter__('name', function(value) {\n _name = value;\n });\n}Or (using prototypes for inheritance and ES6 accessor syntax):function Student(name){\n this._name = name;\n}\n\nStudent.prototype = {\n get name() {\n return this._name;\n },\n set name(value) {\n this._name = value;\n }\n};Or (without using prototypes):var Student = {\n get name() {\n return this._name;\n },\n set name(value) {\n this._name = value;\n }\n};Or (using defineProperty):function Student(name){\n this._name = name;\n}\nObject.defineProperty(Student.prototype, 'name', {\n get: function() {\n return this._name;\n },\n set: function(value) {\n this._name = value;\n }\n});","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"ActionScript 3.0","text":"package\n{\n public class Student\n {\n private var _name : String;\n\t\t\n public function get name() : String\n { \n return _name;\n }\n\n public function set name(value : String) : void\n {\n _name = value;\n }\n }\n}","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GNUstep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNUstep"},{"link_name":"Ubuntu 12.04","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuntu_version_history#1204"},{"link_name":"Mac OS X 10.6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_X_10.6"},{"link_name":"iOS 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_4"},{"link_name":"Xcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xcode"},{"link_name":"OS X 10.8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS_X_10.8"},{"link_name":"iOS 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_6"},{"link_name":"Xcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xcode"}],"sub_title":"Objective-C","text":"Using traditional Objective-C 1.0 syntax, with manual reference counting as the one working on GNUstep on Ubuntu 12.04:@interface Student : NSObject\n{\n NSString *_name;\n}\n\n- (NSString *)name;\n- (void)setName:(NSString *)name;\n\n@end\n\n@implementation Student\n\n- (NSString *)name\n{\n return _name;\n}\n\n- (void)setName:(NSString *)name\n{\n [_name release];\n _name = [name retain];\n}\n\n@endUsing newer Objective-C 2.0 syntax as used in Mac OS X 10.6, iOS 4 and Xcode 3.2, generating the same code as described above:@interface Student : NSObject\n\n@property (nonatomic, retain) NSString *name;\n\n@end\n\n@implementation Student\n\n@synthesize name = _name;\n\n@endAnd starting with OS X 10.8 and iOS 6, while using Xcode 4.4 and up, syntax can be even simplified:@interface Student : NSObject\n\n@property (nonatomic, strong) NSString *name;\n\n@end\n\n@implementation Student\n\n//Nothing goes here and it's OK.\n\n@end","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Moose Object System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moose_(Perl)"}],"sub_title":"Perl","text":"package Student;\n\nsub new {\n bless {}, shift;\n}\n\nsub set_name {\n my $self = shift;\n $self->{name} = $_[0];\n}\n\nsub get_name {\n my $self = shift;\n return $self->{name};\n}\n\n1;Or, using Class::Accessorpackage Student;\nuse base qw(Class::Accessor);\n__PACKAGE__->follow_best_practice;\n\nStudent->mk_accessors(qw(name));\n\n1;Or, using the Moose Object System:package Student;\nuse Moose;\n\n# Moose uses the attribute name as the setter and getter, the reader and writer properties\n# allow us to override that and provide our own names, in this case get_name and set_name\nhas 'name' => (is => 'rw', isa => 'Str', reader => 'get_name', writer => 'set_name');\n\n1;","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(programming)"}],"sub_title":"PHP","text":"PHP defines the \"magic methods\" __getand__set for properties of objects.[9]In this example of a simple class representing a student with only the name stored, one can see the variable name is private, i.e. only visible from the Student class, and the \"setter\" and \"getter\" is public, namely the getName() and setName('name') methods.class Student\n{\n private string $name;\n\n /**\n * @return string The name.\n */\n public function getName(): string\n {\n return $this->name;\n }\n\n /**\n * @param string $newName The name to set.\n */\n public function setName(string $newName): void\n {\n $this->name = $newName;\n }\n}","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Python","text":"This example uses a Python class with one variable, a getter, and a setter.class Student:\n # Initializer\n def __init__(self, name: str) -> None:\n # An instance variable to hold the student's name\n self._name = name\n\n # Getter method\n @property\n def name(self):\n return self._name\n\n # Setter method\n @name.setter\n def name(self, new_name):\n self._name = new_name>>> bob = Student(\"Bob\")\n>>> bob.name \nBob\n>>> bob.name = \"Alice\"\n>>> bob.name \nAlice\n>>> bob._name = \"Charlie\" # bypass the setter\n>>> bob._name # bypass the getter\nCharlie","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Racket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racket_(programming_language)"}],"sub_title":"Racket","text":"In Racket, the object system is a way to organize code that comes in addition to modules and units. As in the rest of the language, the object system has first-class values and lexical scope is used to control access to objects and methods.#lang racket\n(define student%\n (class object%\n (init-field name)\n (define/public (get-name) name)\n (define/public (set-name! new-name) (set! name new-name))\n (super-new)))\n\n(define s (new student% [name \"Alice\"]))\n(send s get-name) ; => \"Alice\"\n(send s set-name! \"Bob\")\n(send s get-name) ; => \"Bob\"Struct definitions are an alternative way to define new types of values, with mutators being present when explicitly required:#lang racket\n(struct student (name) #:mutable)\n(define s (student \"Alice\"))\n(set-student-name! s \"Bob\")\n(student-name s) ; => \"Bob\"","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)"}],"sub_title":"Ruby","text":"In Ruby, individual accessor and mutator methods may be defined, or the metaprogramming constructs attr_reader or attr_accessor may be used both to declare a private variable in a class and to provide either read-only or read-write public access to it respectively.Defining individual accessor and mutator methods creates space for pre-processing or validation of the dataclass Student\n def name\n @name\n end\n\n def name=(value)\n @name=value\n end\nendRead-only simple public access to implied @name variableclass Student\n attr_reader :name\nendRead-write simple public access to implied @name variableclass Student\n attr_accessor :name\nend","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Rust","text":"struct Student {\n name: String,\n}\n\nimpl Student {\n fn name(&self) -> &String {\n &self.name\n }\n\n fn name_mut(&mut self) -> &mut String {\n &mut self.name\n }\n}","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Smalltalk","text":"age: aNumber\n \" Set the receiver age to be aNumber if is greater than 0 and less than 150 \"\n (aNumber between: 0 and: 150)\n ifTrue: [ age := aNumber ]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Swift","text":"class Student {\n private var _name: String = \"\"\n\n var name: String {\n get {\n return self._name\n }\n set {\n self._name = newValue\n }\n }\n}","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Visual Basic .NET","text":"This example illustrates the VB.NET idea of properties, which are used in classes. Similar to C#, there is an explicit use of the Get and Set methods.Public Class Student\n\n Private _name As String\n\n Public Property Name()\n Get\n Return _name\n End Get\n Set(ByVal value)\n _name = value\n End Set\n End Property\n\nEnd ClassIn VB.NET 2010, Auto Implemented properties can be utilized to create a property without having to use the Get and Set syntax. Note that a hidden variable is created by the compiler, called _name, to correspond with the Property name. Using another variable within the class named _name would result in an error. Privileged access to the underlying variable is available from within the class.Public Class Student\n Public Property name As String\nEnd Class","title":"Examples"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Property (programming)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_(programming)"},{"title":"Indexer (programming)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indexer_(programming)"},{"title":"Immutable object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immutable_object"}]
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[{"reference":"Stephen Fuqua (2009). \"Automatic Properties in C# 3.0\". Archived from the original on 2011-05-13. Retrieved 2009-10-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20110513104930/http://www.safnet.com/writing/tech/archives/2009/04/automatic_prope.html","url_text":"\"Automatic Properties in C# 3.0\""},{"url":"http://www.safnet.com/writing/tech/archives/2009/04/automatic_prope.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Tim Lee (1998-07-13). \"Run Time Efficiency of Accessor Functions\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.scribd.com/doc/53104779/Run-Time-Efficiency-of-Accessor-Functions","url_text":"\"Run Time Efficiency of Accessor Functions\""}]},{"reference":"\"CLHS: Macro DEFCLASS\". Retrieved 2011-03-29.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lispworks.com/documentation/HyperSpec/Body/m_defcla.htm","url_text":"\"CLHS: Macro DEFCLASS\""}]},{"reference":"\"CLHS: 7.5.2 Accessing Slots\". Retrieved 2011-03-29.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lispworks.com/documentation/HyperSpec/Body/07_eb.htm","url_text":"\"CLHS: 7.5.2 Accessing Slots\""}]},{"reference":"\"MOP: Slot Definitions\". Retrieved 2011-03-29.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lisp.org/mop/concepts.html#slot-definitions","url_text":"\"MOP: Slot Definitions\""}]},{"reference":"\"Functions - D Programming Language\". Retrieved 2013-01-13.","urls":[{"url":"http://dlang.org/function.html","url_text":"\"Functions - D Programming Language\""}]},{"reference":"\"The D Style\". Retrieved 2013-02-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://dlang.org/dstyle.html","url_text":"\"The D Style\""}]},{"reference":"\"Object.prototype.__defineGetter__() - JavaScript | MDN\". developer.mozilla.org. Retrieved 2021-07-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Object/__defineGetter__","url_text":"\"Object.prototype.__defineGetter__() - JavaScript | MDN\""}]},{"reference":"\"PHP: Overloading - Manual\". www.php.net. Retrieved 2021-07-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.php.net/manual/en/language.oop5.overloading.php","url_text":"\"PHP: Overloading - Manual\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minotaur
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Minotaur
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["1 Etymology","2 Creation myth","3 Appearance","4 Theseus myth","5 Interpretations","5.1 Image gallery","6 References in media","6.1 Dante's Inferno","6.2 Surrealist art","6.3 Television, literature and plays","6.4 Film","6.5 Video and role-playing games","6.6 Museum Exhibitions","7 See also","8 Footnotes","9 References","10 External links"]
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Creature of Greek mythology
This article is about the mythological monster. For other uses, see Minotaur (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Minotaur" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)MinotaurMinotaur bust (National Archaeological Museum of Athens)Other namesAsterionAbodeLabyrinth, CretePersonal informationParentsCretan Bull and PasiphaëSiblingsAcacallis, Ariadne, Androgeus, Glaucus, Deucalion, Phaedra, Xenodice and Catreus
In Greek mythology, the Minotaur (/ˈmaɪnətɔːr, ˈmɪnətɔːr/ MY-nə-tor, MIN-ə-tor, US: /ˈmɪnətɑːr, -oʊ-/ MIN-ə-tar, -oh-; Ancient Greek: Μινώταυρος ; in Latin as Minotaurus ) is a mythical creature portrayed during classical antiquity with the head and tail of a bull and the body of a man(p 34) or, as described by Roman poet Ovid, a being "part man and part bull".
He dwelt at the center of the Labyrinth, which was an elaborate maze-like construction
designed by the architect Daedalus and his son Icarus, upon command of King Minos of Crete. The Minotaur was eventually killed by the Athenian hero Theseus.
Etymology
The word "Minotaur" derives from the Ancient Greek Μῑνώταυρος, a compound of the name Μίνως (Minos) and the noun ταῦρος 'bull', translated as '(the) Bull of Minos'. In Crete, the Minotaur was known by the name Asterion, a name shared with Minos's foster-father.
"Minotaur" was originally a proper noun in reference to this mythic figure. That is, there was only the one Minotaur. In contrast, the use of "minotaur" as a common noun to refer to members of a generic "species" of bull-headed creatures developed much later, in 20th century fantasy genre fiction.
The Minotaur was called Θevrumineš in Etruscan.
English pronunciation of the word "Minotaur" is varied. The following can be found in dictionaries: /ˈmaɪnətɔːr, -noʊ-/ MY-nə-tor, -noh-, /ˈmɪnətɑːr, ˈmɪnoʊ-/ MIN-ə-tar, MIN-oh-, /ˈmɪnətɔːr, ˈmɪnoʊ-/ MIN-ə-tor, MIN-oh-.
Creation myth
Ionian Perfume Jar in the shape of a minotaur
After ascending the throne of the island of Crete, Minos competed with his brothers as ruler. Minos prayed to the sea god Poseidon to send him a snow-white bull as a sign of the god's favour. Minos was to sacrifice the bull to honor Poseidon, but owing to the bull's beauty he decided instead to keep him. Minos believed that the god would accept a substitute sacrifice. To punish Minos, Poseidon made Minos's wife Pasiphaë fall in love with the bull. Pasiphaë had the craftsman Daedalus fashion a hollow wooden cow, which she climbed into to mate with the bull. She then bore Asterius, the Minotaur. Pasiphaë nursed the Minotaur but he grew in size and became ferocious. As the unnatural offspring of a woman and a beast, the Minotaur had no natural source of nourishment and thus devoured humans for sustenance. Minos, following advice from the oracle at Delphi, had Daedalus construct a gigantic Labyrinth to hold the Minotaur. Its location was near Minos's palace in Knossos.
Appearance
Roman copy of a statue of the Minotaur's torso
The Minotaur is commonly represented in Classical art with the body of a man and the head and tail of a bull. According to Sophocles's Trachiniai, when the river spirit Achelous seduced Deianira, one of the guises he assumed was a man with the head of a bull. From classical antiquity through the Renaissance, the Minotaur appears at the center of many depictions of the Labyrinth. Ovid's Latin account of the Minotaur, which did not describe which half was bull and which half man, was the most widely available during the Middle Ages, and several later versions show a man's head and torso on a bull's body – the reverse of the Classical configuration, reminiscent of a centaur. This alternative tradition survived into the Renaissance, and is reflected in Dryden's elaborated translation of Virgil's description of the Minotaur in Book VI of the Aeneid: "The lower part a beast, a man above / The monument of their polluted love." It still figures in some modern depictions, such as Steele Savage's illustrations for Edith Hamilton's Mythology (1942).
Theseus myth
Rhyton in the shape of a bull's head, Heraklion Archaeological Museum
All the stories agree that prince Androgeus, son of King Minos, died and that the fault lay with the Athenians. The sacrifice of young Athenian men and women was a penalty for his death.
In some versions he was killed by the Athenians because of their jealousy of the victories he had won at the Panathenaic Games; in others he was killed at Marathon by the Cretan Bull, his mother's former taurine lover, because Aegeus, king of Athens, had commanded Androgeus to slay it. The common tradition holds that Minos waged a war of revenge for the death of his son, and won. The consequence of Athens losing the war was the regular sacrifice of several of their youths and maidens. Pausanias' account of the myth said that Minos had led a fleet against Athens and simply harassed the Athenians until they had agreed to send children as sacrifices. In his account of the Minotaur's birth, Catullus refers to yet another version in which Athens was "compelled by the cruel plague to pay penalties for the killing of Androgeon". To avert a plague caused by divine retribution for the Cretan prince's death, Aegeus had to send into the Labyrinth "young men at the same time as the best of unwed girls as a feast" for the Minotaur. Some accounts declare that Minos required seven Athenian youths and seven maidens, chosen by lots, to be sent every seventh year (or ninth); some versions say every year.
When the time for the third sacrifice approached, the Athenian prince Theseus volunteered to slay the Minotaur. Isocrates orates that Theseus thought that he would rather die than rule a city that paid a tribute of children's lives to their enemy. He promised his father Aegeus that he would change the somber black sail of the boat carrying the victims from Athens to Crete, and put up a white sail for his return journey if he was successful; the crew would leave up the black sail if he was killed.
In Crete, Minos's daughter Ariadne fell madly in love with Theseus and helped him navigate the Labyrinth. In most accounts she gave him a ball of thread, allowing him to retrace his path. According to various classical sources and representations, Theseus killed the Minotaur with his bare hands, sometimes with a club or a sword. He then led the Athenians out of the Labyrinth, and they sailed with Ariadne away from Crete. On the way home, Theseus abandoned Ariadne on the island of Naxos and continued to Athens. The returning group neglected to replace the black sail with the promised white sail, and from his lookout on Cape Sounion, King Aegeus saw the black-sailed ship approach. Presuming his son dead, he killed himself by leaping into the sea that is since named after him. His death secured the throne for Theseus.Pasiphaë and the Minotaur, Attic red-figure kylix found at Etruscan Vulci in Italy. Now exhibited at Cabinet des Médailles, Paris
Interpretations
Theseus Fighting the Minotaur, 1826, by Jean-Etienne Ramey, marble, Tuileries Gardens, Paris
The contest between Theseus and the Minotaur was frequently represented in Greek art. A Knossian didrachm exhibits on one side the Labyrinth, on the other the Minotaur surrounded by a semicircle of small balls, probably intended for stars; one of the monster's names was Asterion or Asterius ("star"). Pasiphaë gave birth to Asterius, who was called the Minotaur. He had the face of a bull, but the rest of him was human; and Minos, in compliance with certain oracles, shut him up and guarded him in the Labyrinth.While the ruins of Minos's palace at Knossos were discovered, the Labyrinth never was. The multiplicity of rooms, staircases and corridors in the palace has led some archaeologists to suggest that the palace itself was the source of the Labyrinth myth, with over 1300 maze-like compartments, an idea that is now generally discredited.
Homer, describing the shield of Achilles, remarked that Daedalus had constructed a ceremonial dancing ground for Ariadne, but does not associate this with the term labyrinth.
Some 19th century mythologists proposed that the Minotaur was a personification of the sun and a Minoan adaptation of the Baal-Moloch of the Phoenicians. The slaying of the Minotaur by Theseus in that case could be interpreted as a memory of Athens breaking tributary relations with Minoan Crete.
The Minotaur in the Labyrinth, engraving of a 16th-century AD gem in the Medici Collection in the Palazzo Strozzi, Florence
According to A.B. Cook, Minos and Minotaur were different forms of the same personage, representing the sun-god of the Cretans, who depicted the sun as a bull. He and J. G. Frazer both explain Pasiphaë's union with the bull as a sacred ceremony, at which the queen of Knossos was wedded to a bull-formed god, just as the wife of the Tyrant in Athens was wedded to Dionysus. E. Pottier, who does not dispute the historical personality of Minos, in view of the story of Phalaris, considers it probable that in Crete (where a bull cult may have existed by the side of that of the labrys) victims were tortured by being shut up in the belly of a red-hot brazen bull. The story of Talos, the Cretan man of brass, who heated himself red-hot and clasped strangers in his embrace as soon as they landed on the island, is probably of similar origin.
Karl Kerenyi viewed the Minotaur, or Asterios, as a god associated with stars, comparable to Dionysus. Coins minted at Knossos from the fifth century showed labyrinth patterns encircling a goddess' head crowned with a wreath of grain, a bull's head, or a star. Kerenyi argued that the star in the Labyrinth was in fact Asterios, making the Minotaur a "luminous" deity in Crete, associated with a goddess known as the Mistress of the Labyrinth.
A geological interpretation also exists. Citing early descriptions of the minotaur by Callimachus as being entirely focused on the "cruel bellowing"
it made from its underground labyrinth, and the extensive tectonic activity in the region, science journalist Matt Kaplan has theorised that the myth may well stem from geology.
Image gallery
The Minotaur, tondo of an Attic bilingual kylix.
Theseus and the Minotaur, Attic black-figure kylix tondo, c. 450–440 BC.
Theseus and the Minotaur. Detail from an Attic black-figure amphora, c. 575 BC–550 BC.
Theseus and the Minotaur. Side A from an Attic red-figure stamnos, c. 460 BC.
Theseus and the Minotaur. Side A from a black-figure Attic amphora, c. 540 BC.
Tondo of the Aison Cup, showing the victory of Theseus over the Minotaur in the presence of Athena.
Theseus and the Minotaur. Attic black-figure lekythos, 500–475 BC. From Crimea.
Theseus and the Minotaur. Attic red-figured plate, 520–510 BC.
Theseus and the Minotaur
Theseus and the Minotaur
Theseus and the Minotaur
References in media
This section may contain irrelevant references to popular culture. Please remove the content or add citations to reliable and independent sources. (May 2020)
Dante's Inferno
Dante and Virgil meet the Minotaur, illustration by Gustave Doré
The Minotaur (infamia di Creti, Italian for 'infamy of Crete'), appears briefly in Dante's Inferno, in Canto 12 (l. 12–13, 16–21), where Dante and his guide Virgil find themselves picking their way among boulders dislodged on the slope and preparing to enter into the seventh circle of hell. Dante and Virgil encounter the beast first among the "men of blood": those damned for their violent natures. Some commentators believe that Dante, in a reversal of classical tradition, bestowed the beast with a man's head upon a bull's body, though this representation had already appeared in the Middle Ages.(pp 116–117)
Lo savio mio inver' lui gridò: "Forse
tu credi che qui sia 'l duca d'Atene,
che sú nel mondo la morte ti porse?
Pártiti, bestia, ché questi non-vene
ammaestrato da la tua sorella,
ma vassi per veder la vostre pene."
My sage cried out to him: "You think,
perhaps, this is the Duke of Athens,
who in the world put you to death.
Get away, you beast, for this man
does not come tutored by your sister;
he comes to view your punishments."
—Inferno, Canto XII, lines 16–20
William Blake's image of the Minotaur to illustrate Inferno XII
In these lines, Virgil taunts the Minotaur to distract him, and reminds the Minotaur that he was killed by Theseus the Duke of Athens with the help of the monster's half-sister Ariadne. The Minotaur is the first infernal guardian whom Virgil and Dante encounter within the walls of Dis.
The Minotaur seems to represent the entire zone of Violence, much as Geryon represents Fraud in Canto XVI, and serves a similar role as gatekeeper for the entire seventh Circle.
Giovanni Boccaccio writes of the Minotaur in his literary commentary of the Commedia: "When he had grown up and become a most ferocious animal, and of incredible strength, they tell that Minos had him shut up in a prison called the labyrinth, and that he had sent to him there all those whom he wanted to die a cruel death". Dante Gabriel Rossetti, in his own commentary, compares the Minotaur with all three sins of violence within the seventh circle: "The Minotaur, who is situated at the rim of the tripartite circle, fed, according to the poem was biting himself (violence against one's body) and was conceived in the 'false cow' (violence against nature, daughter of God)."
Virgil and Dante then pass quickly by to the centaurs (Nessus, Chiron and Pholus) who guard the Flegetonte ("river of blood"), to continue through the seventh Circle.
Surrealist art
Edward Burne-Jones's illustration of Theseus and the Minotaur in the Labyrinth, 1861
Pablo Picasso made a series of etchings in the Vollard Suite showing the Minotaur being tormented, possibly inspired also by Spanish bullfighting.
Television, literature and plays
Argentine author Julio Cortázar published the play Los reyes (The Kings) in 1949, which reinterprets the Minotaur's story. In the book, Ariadne is not in love with Theseus, but with her brother the Minotaur.
The short story The House of Asterion by the Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges gives the Minotaur's story from the monster's perspective.
Asterion, depicted as a human prince who wears a bull mask, is the chief antagonist of The King Must Die, Mary Renault's 1958 reinterpretation of the Theseus myth in the light of the excavation of Knossos.
Aleksey Ryabinin's book Theseus (2018). provides a retelling of the myths of Theseus, Minotaur, Ariadne and other personages of Greek mythology.
In the horror novel House of Leaves (2000) by author Mark Z. Danielewski the myth of the Minotaur is retold from the perspective of King Minos and functions as a recurring theme. Additionally the legend serves as a parallel to the labyrinth-like architecture of The House on Ash Tree Lane, which is the main subject of the book.
Film
Minotaur, the Wild Beast of Crete, a 1960 Italian film directed by Silvio Amadio and starring Bob Mathias
Minotaur, a horror adaptation of the legend starring Tom Hardy as Theo (Theseus), was released on DVD by Lions Gate in 2006.
The Minotaur appears in Wrath of the Titans as a minor antagonist, played by Spencer Wilding.
Isabel (Natalie Portman) and Thadeous (Danny McBride) fight a minotaur while reclaiming a magical sword from a labyrinth in Your Highness, released in 2011 by Universal Pictures.
Video and role-playing games
In the 2024 video game Sovereign Syndicate, one of the playable main characters is a minotaur.
the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game features minotaurs as opponents and playable characters, but translates them from a singular creature into a species.
Museum Exhibitions
The Minotaur and Knossos featured in the 2023 exhibition at the Ashmolean Museum at the University of Oxford, "Labyrinth: Knossos, Myth & Reality"
See also
Theseus and the Minotaur – a logic game that is inspired by the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur in the Labyrinth.
Kao (bull) – a legendary chaotic bull in Meitei mythology, similar to Minotaur in character
Ox-Head and Horse-Face – two guardians or types of guardians of the underworld in Chinese mythology
Satyr – a legendary human-horse (later human-goat) hybrid(s)
Shedu – a figure in Mesopotamian mythology with the body of a bull and a human head
Minotauria – a genus of woodlouse hunting spiders endemic to the Balkans
Footnotes
^
According to Ovid:
semibovemque virum semivirumque bovem, one of the three lines that his friends would have deleted from his work, and one of the three that he, selecting independently, would preserve at all cost, in the apocryphal anecdote told by Albinovanus Pedo.
^
In a counter-intuitive cultural development going back at least to Cretan coins of the 4th century BCE, many visual patterns representing the Labyrinth do not have dead ends like a maze; instead, a single path winds to the center.
^
Hesiod says of Zeus' establishment of Europa in Crete:
"... he made her live with Asterion the king of the Cretans. There she conceived and bore three sons, Minos, Sarpedon, and Rhadamanthys."
^
Sir Arthur Evans, the first of many archaeologists who have worked at Knossos, is often given credit for this idea, but he did not believe it; modern scholarship generally discounts the idea.(pp 42–43)(p 25)
^
Callimachus first refers to the minotaur with the phrase
"Having escaped the cruel bellowing and the wild son of Pasiphaë and the coiled habitation of the crooked labyrinth" ...
^
Kaplan argues that the minotaur is the result of ancient people trying to explain earthquakes; he points out that carbon dating of marine fossils attached to boulders that were ejected from the ocean by ancient tsunamis indicates the region was tectonically very active during the years when the minotaur myth first appeared. Given this, he argues that the Minoans used the monster to help explain the terrifying earthquakes that were "bellowing" beneath their feet.
^
The fallen angels, the Erinyes , and the unseen Medusa were located on the City of Dis's defensive ramparts.
References
^ a b "English Dictionary: Definition of Minotaur". Collins. Retrieved 20 July 2013.
^ a b Bechtel, John Hendricks (1908), Pronunciation: Designed for Use in Schools and Colleges and Adapted to the Wants of All Persons who Wish to Pronounce According to the Highest Standards, Penn Publishing Co.
^ Garnett, Richard; Vallée, Léon; Brandl, Alois (1923), The Book of Literature: A Comprehensive Anthology of the Best Literature, Ancient, Mediæval and Modern, with Biographical and Explanatory Notes, vol. 33, Grolier society.
^ a b c d e f g Kern, Hermann (2000). Through the Labyrinth. Munich, London, New York: Prestel. ISBN 379132144-7.
^
Ovid. Ars Amatoria. 2.24.
^ A. Pedo cited by Rusten, J.S. (Autumn 1982). "Ovid, Empedocles, and the Minotaur". The American Journal of Philology. 103 (3): 332–333, esp. 332. doi:10.2307/294479. JSTOR 294479.
^ a b Doob, Penelope Reed (April 1990). The Idea of the Labyrinth: From Classical antiquity through the Middle Ages. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-080142393-2.
^
Kern (2000);(Chapter 1)
Doob (1990)(Chapter 2)
^ Pausanias. Description of Greece. 2.31.1.
^ a b Hesiod. Catalogue of Women. fr. 140.
^ de Simone, C. (1970). "Zu einem Beitrag über etruskisch θevru mines". Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung. 84: 221–223.
^ "Minotaur". American English Dictionary. Collins. Retrieved 20 July 2013.
^ "Apollodorus, Library, book 3, chapter 1". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Minotaur" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 555.
^ Several examples are shown in Kern (2000).
^ Examples include illustrations 204, 237, 238, and 371 in Kern.
^ The Aeneid of Virgil, as translated by John Dryden, found at http://classics.mit.edu/Virgil/aeneid.6.vi.html . Virgil's text calls the Minotaur "biformis"; like Ovid, he does not describe which part is bull, which part man.
^ "Pausanias, Description of Greece, Attica, chapter 27". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
^ Catullus. Carmen 64.
^ Servius. On the Aeneid. 6.14. singulis quibusque annis 'every one year'.
The annual period is given by Zimmerman, J.E. (1964). "Androgeus". Dictionary of Classical Mythology. Harper & Row; and Rose, H.J. (1959). A Handbook of Greek Mythology. Dutton. p. 265. Zimmerman cites Virgil, Apollodorus, and Pausanias.
The nine-year period appears in Plutarch and Ovid.
^ "Isocrates, Helen, section 27". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
^ Plutarch. Theseus. 15–19.Diodorus Siculus. Bibliotheca historica. i.16, iv.61.Apollodorus. Bibliotheke. iii.1, 15.
^ Apollodorus. Bibliotheca. 3.1.4.
^ Hogan, C. Michael (2007). Cope, Julian (ed.). "Knossos fieldnotes". The Modern Antiquarian.
^ McCullough, David (2004). The Unending Mystery. Pantheon. pp. 34–36.
^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Minotaur" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 555.
^
Paolo Alessandro Maffei (1709), Gemmae Antiche, Pt. IV, pl. 31; Kern (2000): Maffei "erroneously deemed the piece to be from Classical antiquity".(p 202, fig. 371)
^ Kerenyi, Karl (1951). The Gods of the Greeks. p. 269.
^ See illustrations of Carme, for an example of a goddess crowned with a labyrinthine wreath of grain.
^ Kerényi, Karl (1976). Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life. pp. 104–105, 159.
^ a b Callimachus (1921). Callimachus, Hymns and Epigrams. Translated by Mair, A.W.; Mair, G.R. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
^ Kaplan, Matt (2012). Science of Monsters. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
^ Scheffers, Anja; et al. (2008). "Late Holocene tsunami traces on the western and southern coastlines of the Peloponnesus (Greece)". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 269 (1–2): 271–279. Bibcode:2008E&PSL.269..271S. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.02.021.
^ The traverse of this circle is a long one, filling Cantos 12 to 17.
^ Inferno XII, verse translation by R. Hollander, p. 228 commentary
^ Alighieri, Dante. "Canto IX". Inferno.
^ Boccaccio, Comedia delle ninfe fiorentine commentary
^ Boccaccio, G. (30 November 2009). Boccaccio's Expositions on Dante's Comedy. University of Toronto Press.
^ Bennett, Pre-Raphaelite Circle, 177–180.
^ "Dante Gabriel Rossetti. His Family-Letters with a Memoir (Volume Two)". www.rossettiarchive.org.
^ Beck, Christopher, "Justice among the Centaurs", Forum Italcium 18 (1984): 217–229
^ Tidworth, Simon, "Theseus in the Modern World", essay in The Quest for Theseus London 1970 pp. 244–249 ISBN 0269026576
^ De Laurentiis, Antonella (2009). "Los reyes: El laberinto entre mito e historia" . Amaltea. Revista de mitocrítica (in Spanish). 1. Universidad Complutense de Madrid: 145–155. ISSN 1989-1709.
^ A.Ryabinin. Theseus. The story of ancient gods, goddesses, kings and warriors. – СПб.: Антология, 2018. ISBN 978-5-6040037-6-3.
^ O.Zdanov. Life and adventures of Theseus. // «KP», 14 February 2018.
^ "The Minotaur, the Wild Beast of Crete". Letter Box. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
^ Jonathan English (director). Minotaur (2005). Retrieved 2 March 2018 – via AllMovie.
^ "Wrath of the Titans". IMDB. Retrieved 19 January 2024.
^ Your Highness. AllMovie. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
^ Macgregor, Jody (11 January 2024). "Sovereign Syndicate review". PC Gamer. Future plc. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
^ Kobylanski, Abraham (11 January 2024). "Sovereign Syndicate Review". RPGFan. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
^ Forest, Richard W. (2014). "Dungeons & Dragons, Monsters in". In Weinstock, Jeffrey (ed.). The Ashgate Encyclopedia of Literary and Cinematic Monsters. Ashgate Publishing.
^ Duffy, William S.; Taylor, Matthew (2018). Casting Die: Classical Reception in Gaming (PDF). Casting Die: Classical Reception in Gaming. CAMWS. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
^ Gloyn, Liz (2019). Tracking Classical Monsters in Popular Culture. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 36–37. ISBN 978-1-7845-3934-4.
^ Hickman, Tracy; Weis, Margaret (1987). Dragonlance Adventures. TSR, Inc. ISBN 0-88038-452-2.
^ Kulczyński, W. (1903). "Aranearum et Opilionum species in insula Creta a comite Dre Carolo Attems collectae". Bulletin International de l'Académie des Sciences de Cracovie. 1903: 32–58.
External links
Minotaur at Wikipedia's sister projects
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The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of the Minotaur)
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For other uses, see Minotaur (disambiguation).In Greek mythology, the Minotaur (/ˈmaɪnətɔːr, ˈmɪnətɔːr/ MY-nə-tor, MIN-ə-tor,[1] US: /ˈmɪnətɑːr, -oʊ-/ MIN-ə-tar, -oh-;[2][3] Ancient Greek: Μινώταυρος [miːnɔ̌ːtau̯ros]; in Latin as Minotaurus [miːnoːˈtau̯rʊs]) is a mythical creature portrayed during classical antiquity with the head and tail of a bull and the body of a man[4](p 34) or, as described by Roman poet Ovid, a being \"part man and part bull\".[a]\nHe dwelt at the center of the Labyrinth, which was an elaborate maze-like construction[b]\ndesigned by the architect Daedalus and his son Icarus, upon command of King Minos of Crete. The Minotaur was eventually killed by the Athenian hero Theseus.","title":"Minotaur"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"compound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"Minos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos"},{"link_name":"ταῦρος","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%84%CE%B1%E1%BF%A6%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"Asterion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asterion"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Etruscan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_language"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"/ˈmaɪnətɔːr, -noʊ-/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"MY-nə-tor, -noh-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-collins_english-1"},{"link_name":"/ˈmɪnətɑːr, ˈmɪnoʊ-/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"MIN-ə-tar, MIN-oh-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-books.google.com-2"},{"link_name":"/ˈmɪnətɔːr, ˈmɪnoʊ-/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"MIN-ə-tor, MIN-oh-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-collins_american-15"}],"text":"The word \"Minotaur\" derives from the Ancient Greek Μῑνώταυρος, a compound of the name Μίνως (Minos) and the noun ταῦρος 'bull', translated as '(the) Bull of Minos'. In Crete, the Minotaur was known by the name Asterion,[9] a name shared with Minos's foster-father.[c]\"Minotaur\" was originally a proper noun in reference to this mythic figure. That is, there was only the one Minotaur. In contrast, the use of \"minotaur\" as a common noun to refer to members of a generic \"species\" of bull-headed creatures developed much later, in 20th century fantasy genre fiction.The Minotaur was called Θevrumineš in Etruscan.[11]English pronunciation of the word \"Minotaur\" is varied. The following can be found in dictionaries: /ˈmaɪnətɔːr, -noʊ-/ MY-nə-tor, -noh-,[1] /ˈmɪnətɑːr, ˈmɪnoʊ-/ MIN-ə-tar, MIN-oh-,[2] /ˈmɪnətɔːr, ˈmɪnoʊ-/ MIN-ə-tor, MIN-oh-.[12]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Perfume_jar_(Aryballos)_in_the_shape_of_a_minotaur_Greek_made_in_Ionia_580-560_BCE_Terracotta_(1).jpg"},{"link_name":"Minos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos"},{"link_name":"Poseidon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidon"},{"link_name":"snow-white bull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_Bull"},{"link_name":"Pasiphaë","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasipha%C3%AB"},{"link_name":"Daedalus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daedalus"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Delphi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi"},{"link_name":"Labyrinth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labyrinth"},{"link_name":"Knossos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knossos"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB19112-17"}],"text":"Ionian Perfume Jar in the shape of a minotaurAfter ascending the throne of the island of Crete, Minos competed with his brothers as ruler. Minos prayed to the sea god Poseidon to send him a snow-white bull as a sign of the god's favour. Minos was to sacrifice the bull to honor Poseidon, but owing to the bull's beauty he decided instead to keep him. Minos believed that the god would accept a substitute sacrifice. To punish Minos, Poseidon made Minos's wife Pasiphaë fall in love with the bull. Pasiphaë had the craftsman Daedalus fashion a hollow wooden cow, which she climbed into to mate with the bull. She then bore Asterius, the Minotaur.[13] Pasiphaë nursed the Minotaur but he grew in size and became ferocious. As the unnatural offspring of a woman and a beast, the Minotaur had no natural source of nourishment and thus devoured humans for sustenance.[citation needed] Minos, following advice from the oracle at Delphi, had Daedalus construct a gigantic Labyrinth to hold the Minotaur. Its location was near Minos's palace in Knossos.[14]","title":"Creation myth"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Torso_of_the_Minotaur,_late_1st_century_AD_Roman_copy_of_5th_century_BC_Greek_original,_from_Rome,_Palazzo_Massimo_elle_Terme_(11364959275).jpg"},{"link_name":"Sophocles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophocles"},{"link_name":"Trachiniai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_of_Trachis"},{"link_name":"Achelous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achelous"},{"link_name":"Deianira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deianira"},{"link_name":"classical antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"centaur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Virgil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil"},{"link_name":"Aeneid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneid"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Steele Savage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steele_Savage"},{"link_name":"Edith Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edith_Hamilton"},{"link_name":"Mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythology_(book)"}],"text":"Roman copy of a statue of the Minotaur's torsoThe Minotaur is commonly represented in Classical art with the body of a man and the head and tail of a bull. According to Sophocles's Trachiniai, when the river spirit Achelous seduced Deianira, one of the guises he assumed was a man with the head of a bull. From classical antiquity through the Renaissance, the Minotaur appears at the center of many depictions of the Labyrinth.[15] Ovid's Latin account of the Minotaur, which did not describe which half was bull and which half man, was the most widely available during the Middle Ages, and several later versions show a man's head and torso on a bull's body – the reverse of the Classical configuration, reminiscent of a centaur.[16] This alternative tradition survived into the Renaissance, and is reflected in Dryden's elaborated translation of Virgil's description of the Minotaur in Book VI of the Aeneid: \"The lower part a beast, a man above / The monument of their polluted love.\"[17] It still figures in some modern depictions, such as Steele Savage's illustrations for Edith Hamilton's Mythology (1942).","title":"Appearance"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bullls-head_rhyton,_stone,_Knossos,_1600-1450_BC,_AMH,_145160.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rhyton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyton"},{"link_name":"Heraklion Archaeological Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraklion_Archaeological_Museum"},{"link_name":"Androgeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgeus_(son_of_Minos)"},{"link_name":"young Athenian men and women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrificial_victims_of_Minotaur"},{"link_name":"Athenians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens"},{"link_name":"Panathenaic Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panathenaic_Games"},{"link_name":"Marathon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon,_Greece"},{"link_name":"Aegeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegeus"},{"link_name":"several of their youths and maidens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrificial_victims_of_Minotaur"},{"link_name":"Pausanias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Catullus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catullus"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Androgeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgeus_(son_of_Minos)"},{"link_name":"seven Athenian youths and seven maidens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrificial_victims_of_Minotaur"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Theseus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theseus"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Ariadne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariadne"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Naxos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naxos_(island)"},{"link_name":"Sounion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sounion"},{"link_name":"sea that is since named after him","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pasiphae_Minotauros_Cdm_Paris_DeRidder1066_detail.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pasiphaë","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasipha%C3%AB"},{"link_name":"Attic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attica"},{"link_name":"kylix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kylix_(drinking_cup)"},{"link_name":"Vulci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulci"},{"link_name":"Cabinet des Médailles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_des_M%C3%A9dailles"}],"text":"Rhyton in the shape of a bull's head, Heraklion Archaeological MuseumAll the stories agree that prince Androgeus, son of King Minos, died and that the fault lay with the Athenians. The sacrifice of young Athenian men and women was a penalty for his death.In some versions he was killed by the Athenians because of their jealousy of the victories he had won at the Panathenaic Games; in others he was killed at Marathon by the Cretan Bull, his mother's former taurine lover, because Aegeus, king of Athens, had commanded Androgeus to slay it. The common tradition holds that Minos waged a war of revenge for the death of his son, and won. The consequence of Athens losing the war was the regular sacrifice of several of their youths and maidens. Pausanias' account of the myth said that Minos had led a fleet against Athens and simply harassed the Athenians until they had agreed to send children as sacrifices.[18] In his account of the Minotaur's birth, Catullus refers to yet another version[19] in which Athens was \"compelled by the cruel plague to pay penalties for the killing of Androgeon\". To avert a plague caused by divine retribution for the Cretan prince's death, Aegeus had to send into the Labyrinth \"young men at the same time as the best of unwed girls as a feast\" for the Minotaur. Some accounts declare that Minos required seven Athenian youths and seven maidens, chosen by lots, to be sent every seventh year (or ninth); some versions say every year.[20]When the time for the third sacrifice approached, the Athenian prince Theseus volunteered to slay the Minotaur. Isocrates orates that Theseus thought that he would rather die than rule a city that paid a tribute of children's lives to their enemy.[21] He promised his father Aegeus that he would change the somber black sail of the boat carrying the victims from Athens to Crete, and put up a white sail for his return journey if he was successful; the crew would leave up the black sail if he was killed.In Crete, Minos's daughter Ariadne fell madly in love with Theseus and helped him navigate the Labyrinth. In most accounts she gave him a ball of thread, allowing him to retrace his path. According to various classical sources and representations, Theseus killed the Minotaur with his bare hands, sometimes with a club or a sword.[citation needed] He then led the Athenians out of the Labyrinth, and they sailed with Ariadne away from Crete. On the way home, Theseus abandoned Ariadne on the island of Naxos and continued to Athens. The returning group neglected to replace the black sail with the promised white sail, and from his lookout on Cape Sounion, King Aegeus saw the black-sailed ship approach. Presuming his son dead, he killed himself by leaping into the sea that is since named after him.[22] His death secured the throne for Theseus.Pasiphaë and the Minotaur, Attic red-figure kylix found at Etruscan Vulci in Italy. Now exhibited at Cabinet des Médailles, Paris","title":"Theseus myth"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Theseus_Minotaur_Ramey_Tuileries.jpg"},{"link_name":"Theseus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theseus"},{"link_name":"Jean-Etienne Ramey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Etienne_Ramey"},{"link_name":"Tuileries Gardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuileries_Gardens"},{"link_name":"Greek art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_art"},{"link_name":"didrachm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_drachma"},{"link_name":"Asterion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asterion"},{"link_name":"Pasiphaë","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasipha%C3%AB"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"shield of Achilles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shield_of_Achilles"},{"link_name":"Ariadne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariadne"},{"link_name":"Baal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baal"},{"link_name":"Moloch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moloch"},{"link_name":"Phoenicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia"},{"link_name":"Minoan Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-30"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Minotaurus.gif"},{"link_name":"Labyrinth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labyrinth"},{"link_name":"Palazzo Strozzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palazzo_Strozzi"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"A.B. Cook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Bernard_Cook"},{"link_name":"sun-god","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_deity"},{"link_name":"J. G. Frazer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_George_Frazer"},{"link_name":"Tyrant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrant"},{"link_name":"Dionysus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus"},{"link_name":"Phalaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalaris"},{"link_name":"bull cult","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull_cult"},{"link_name":"labrys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labrys"},{"link_name":"brazen bull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazen_bull"},{"link_name":"Talos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talos"},{"link_name":"brass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass"},{"link_name":"Karl Kerenyi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Kerenyi"},{"link_name":"Dionysus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Knossos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knossos"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Callimachus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callimachus"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Callimachus-Mair-Mair-1921-35"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[f]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"Theseus Fighting the Minotaur, 1826, by Jean-Etienne Ramey, marble, Tuileries Gardens, ParisThe contest between Theseus and the Minotaur was frequently represented in Greek art. A Knossian didrachm exhibits on one side the Labyrinth, on the other the Minotaur surrounded by a semicircle of small balls, probably intended for stars; one of the monster's names was Asterion or Asterius (\"star\").Pasiphaë gave birth to Asterius, who was called the Minotaur. He had the face of a bull, but the rest of him was human; and Minos, in compliance with certain oracles, shut him up and guarded him in the Labyrinth.[23]While the ruins of Minos's palace at Knossos were discovered, the Labyrinth never was. The multiplicity of rooms, staircases and corridors in the palace has led some archaeologists to suggest that the palace itself was the source of the Labyrinth myth, with over 1300 maze-like compartments,[24] an idea that is now generally discredited.[d]Homer, describing the shield of Achilles, remarked that Daedalus had constructed a ceremonial dancing ground for Ariadne, but does not associate this with the term labyrinth.Some 19th century mythologists proposed that the Minotaur was a personification of the sun and a Minoan adaptation of the Baal-Moloch of the Phoenicians. The slaying of the Minotaur by Theseus in that case could be interpreted as a memory of Athens breaking tributary relations with Minoan Crete.[26]The Minotaur in the Labyrinth, engraving of a 16th-century AD gem in the Medici Collection in the Palazzo Strozzi, Florence[27]According to A.B. Cook, Minos and Minotaur were different forms of the same personage, representing the sun-god of the Cretans, who depicted the sun as a bull. He and J. G. Frazer both explain Pasiphaë's union with the bull as a sacred ceremony, at which the queen of Knossos was wedded to a bull-formed god, just as the wife of the Tyrant in Athens was wedded to Dionysus. E. Pottier, who does not dispute the historical personality of Minos, in view of the story of Phalaris, considers it probable that in Crete (where a bull cult may have existed by the side of that of the labrys) victims were tortured by being shut up in the belly of a red-hot brazen bull. The story of Talos, the Cretan man of brass, who heated himself red-hot and clasped strangers in his embrace as soon as they landed on the island, is probably of similar origin.Karl Kerenyi viewed the Minotaur, or Asterios, as a god associated with stars, comparable to Dionysus.[28] Coins minted at Knossos from the fifth century showed labyrinth patterns encircling a goddess' head crowned with a wreath of grain,[29] a bull's head, or a star. Kerenyi argued that the star in the Labyrinth was in fact Asterios, making the Minotaur a \"luminous\" deity in Crete, associated with a goddess known as the Mistress of the Labyrinth.[30]A geological interpretation also exists. Citing early descriptions of the minotaur by Callimachus as being entirely focused on the \"cruel bellowing\"[31][e]\nit made from its underground labyrinth, and the extensive tectonic activity in the region, science journalist Matt Kaplan has theorised that the myth may well stem from geology.\n[f]","title":"Interpretations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tondo_Minotaur_London_E4_MAN.jpg"},{"link_name":"Attic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attica"},{"link_name":"kylix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kylix"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kylix_Theseus_Minotauros_Louvre_F83.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Theseus_Castellani_Louvre_E850.jpg"},{"link_name":"amphora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphora"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Theseus_Minotauros_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_SL471.jpg"},{"link_name":"stamnos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamnos"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Theseus_Minotaur_Louvre_F33.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kylix_Theseus_Aison_MNA_Inv11365_n1.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Theseus_Minotauros_Louvre_CA2254.jpg"},{"link_name":"lekythos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lekythos"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Theseus_Minotauros_Louvre_G67.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Theseus_Minotaur_Mosaic.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Minotaur.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:183-Thesee-tuant-le-Minotaure_MNA.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Image gallery","text":"The Minotaur, tondo of an Attic bilingual kylix.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTheseus and the Minotaur, Attic black-figure kylix tondo, c. 450–440 BC.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTheseus and the Minotaur. Detail from an Attic black-figure amphora, c. 575 BC–550 BC.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTheseus and the Minotaur. Side A from an Attic red-figure stamnos, c. 460 BC.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTheseus and the Minotaur. Side A from a black-figure Attic amphora, c. 540 BC.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTondo of the Aison Cup, showing the victory of Theseus over the Minotaur in the presence of Athena.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTheseus and the Minotaur. Attic black-figure lekythos, 500–475 BC. From Crimea.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTheseus and the Minotaur. Attic red-figured plate, 520–510 BC.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTheseus and the Minotaur\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTheseus and the Minotaur\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTheseus and the Minotaur","title":"Interpretations"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"References in media"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DVinfernoMinotaurOnCliff_m.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Alighieri"},{"link_name":"Virgil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil"},{"link_name":"Gustave Doré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Dante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante"},{"link_name":"Inferno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferno_(Dante)"},{"link_name":"Virgil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil"},{"link_name":"seventh circle of hell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh_circle_of_hell"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kern-2000-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blake_Dante_Hell_XII.jpg"},{"link_name":"William Blake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blake"},{"link_name":"Theseus the Duke of Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theseus"},{"link_name":"Ariadne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariadne"},{"link_name":"Dis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Dis"},{"link_name":"[g]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Violence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Seventh_Circle_.28Violence.29"},{"link_name":"Geryon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geryon"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Giovanni Boccaccio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Dante Gabriel Rossetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Gabriel_Rossetti"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"centaurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur"},{"link_name":"Flegetonte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegethon"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"sub_title":"Dante's Inferno","text":"Dante and Virgil meet the Minotaur, illustration by Gustave DoréThe Minotaur (infamia di Creti, Italian for 'infamy of Crete'), appears briefly in Dante's Inferno, in Canto 12 (l. 12–13, 16–21), where Dante and his guide Virgil find themselves picking their way among boulders dislodged on the slope and preparing to enter into the seventh circle of hell.[34] Dante and Virgil encounter the beast first among the \"men of blood\": those damned for their violent natures. Some commentators believe that Dante, in a reversal of classical tradition, bestowed the beast with a man's head upon a bull's body,[35] though this representation had already appeared in the Middle Ages.[4](pp 116–117)William Blake's image of the Minotaur to illustrate Inferno XIIIn these lines, Virgil taunts the Minotaur to distract him, and reminds the Minotaur that he was killed by Theseus the Duke of Athens with the help of the monster's half-sister Ariadne. The Minotaur is the first infernal guardian whom Virgil and Dante encounter within the walls of Dis.[g]\nThe Minotaur seems to represent the entire zone of Violence, much as Geryon represents Fraud in Canto XVI, and serves a similar role as gatekeeper for the entire seventh Circle.[37]Giovanni Boccaccio writes of the Minotaur in his literary commentary of the Commedia: \"When he had grown up and become a most ferocious animal, and of incredible strength, they tell that Minos had him shut up in a prison called the labyrinth, and that he had sent to him there all those whom he wanted to die a cruel death\".[38] Dante Gabriel Rossetti, in his own commentary,[39][40] compares the Minotaur with all three sins of violence within the seventh circle: \"The Minotaur, who is situated at the rim of the tripartite circle, fed, according to the poem was biting himself (violence against one's body) and was conceived in the 'false cow' (violence against nature, daughter of God).\"Virgil and Dante then pass quickly by to the centaurs (Nessus, Chiron and Pholus) who guard the Flegetonte (\"river of blood\"), to continue through the seventh Circle.[41]","title":"References in media"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edward_Burne-Jones_-_Tile_Design_-_Theseus_and_the_Minotaur_in_the_Labyrinth_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"link_name":"Edward Burne-Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Burne-Jones"},{"link_name":"Pablo Picasso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Picasso"},{"link_name":"Vollard Suite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vollard_Suite"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"sub_title":"Surrealist art","text":"Edward Burne-Jones's illustration of Theseus and the Minotaur in the Labyrinth, 1861Pablo Picasso made a series of etchings in the Vollard Suite showing the Minotaur being tormented, possibly inspired also by Spanish bullfighting.[42]","title":"References in media"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Julio Cortázar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julio_Cort%C3%A1zar"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"The House of Asterion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_House_of_Asterion"},{"link_name":"Jorge Luis Borges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Borges"},{"link_name":"The King Must Die","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King_Must_Die"},{"link_name":"Mary Renault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Renault"},{"link_name":"Aleksey Ryabinin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksey_Ryabinin"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"House of Leaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Leaves"},{"link_name":"Mark Z. Danielewski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Z._Danielewski"}],"sub_title":"Television, literature and plays","text":"Argentine author Julio Cortázar published the play Los reyes (The Kings) in 1949, which reinterprets the Minotaur's story. In the book, Ariadne is not in love with Theseus, but with her brother the Minotaur.[43]\nThe short story The House of Asterion by the Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges gives the Minotaur's story from the monster's perspective.\nAsterion, depicted as a human prince who wears a bull mask, is the chief antagonist of The King Must Die, Mary Renault's 1958 reinterpretation of the Theseus myth in the light of the excavation of Knossos.\nAleksey Ryabinin's book Theseus (2018).[44][45] provides a retelling of the myths of Theseus, Minotaur, Ariadne and other personages of Greek mythology.\nIn the horror novel House of Leaves (2000) by author Mark Z. Danielewski the myth of the Minotaur is retold from the perspective of King Minos and functions as a recurring theme. Additionally the legend serves as a parallel to the labyrinth-like architecture of The House on Ash Tree Lane, which is the main subject of the book.","title":"References in media"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Minotaur, the Wild Beast of Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minotaur,_the_Wild_Beast_of_Crete"},{"link_name":"Silvio Amadio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvio_Amadio"},{"link_name":"Bob Mathias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Mathias"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Minotaur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minotaur_(film)"},{"link_name":"Tom Hardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Hardy"},{"link_name":"Lions Gate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lions_Gate"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allmoviedvd-54"},{"link_name":"Wrath of the Titans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrath_of_the_Titans"},{"link_name":"Spencer Wilding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Wilding"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Natalie Portman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Portman"},{"link_name":"Danny McBride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_McBride"},{"link_name":"Your Highness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Your_Highness"},{"link_name":"Universal Pictures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Pictures"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"sub_title":"Film","text":"Minotaur, the Wild Beast of Crete, a 1960 Italian film directed by Silvio Amadio and starring Bob Mathias[46]\nMinotaur, a horror adaptation of the legend starring Tom Hardy as Theo (Theseus), was released on DVD by Lions Gate in 2006.[47]\nThe Minotaur appears in Wrath of the Titans as a minor antagonist, played by Spencer Wilding.[48]\nIsabel (Natalie Portman) and Thadeous (Danny McBride) fight a minotaur while reclaiming a magical sword from a labyrinth in Your Highness, released in 2011 by Universal Pictures.[49]","title":"References in media"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sovereign Syndicate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_Syndicate"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Dungeons & Dragons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungeons_%26_Dragons"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"sub_title":"Video and role-playing games","text":"In the 2024 video game Sovereign Syndicate, one of the playable main characters is a minotaur.[50][51]\nthe Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game features minotaurs as opponents and playable characters, but translates them from a singular creature into a species.[52][53][54][55]","title":"References in media"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Labyrinth: Knossos, Myth & Reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ashmolean.org/exhibition/labyrinth-knossos-myth-reality"}],"sub_title":"Museum Exhibitions","text":"The Minotaur and Knossos featured in the 2023 exhibition at the Ashmolean Museum at the University of Oxford, \"Labyrinth: Knossos, Myth & Reality\"","title":"References in media"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Albinovanus Pedo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albinovanus_Pedo"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"Labyrinth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labyrinth"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hesiod-fr140-12"},{"link_name":"Asterion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asterion_(king_of_Crete)"},{"link_name":"Minos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos"},{"link_name":"Sarpedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarpedon_(Trojan_War_hero)"},{"link_name":"Rhadamanthys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhadamanthys"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hesiod-fr140-12"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-29"},{"link_name":"Arthur Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Evans"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kern-2000-4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Doob-1990-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-36"},{"link_name":"Callimachus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callimachus"},{"link_name":"Pasiphaë","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasipha%C3%AB"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Callimachus-Mair-Mair-1921-35"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-39"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"tsunamis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunamis"},{"link_name":"tectonically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonically"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-43"},{"link_name":"fallen angels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallen_angel"},{"link_name":"Erinyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erinyes"},{"link_name":"Medusa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medusa"},{"link_name":"City of Dis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Dis"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"text":"^ \nAccording to Ovid:\nsemibovemque virum semivirumque bovem,[5] one of the three lines that his friends would have deleted from his work, and one of the three that he, selecting independently, would preserve at all cost, in the apocryphal anecdote told by Albinovanus Pedo.[6]\n\n^ \nIn a counter-intuitive cultural development going back at least to Cretan coins of the 4th century BCE, many visual patterns representing the Labyrinth do not have dead ends like a maze; instead, a single path winds to the center.[8]\n\n^ \nHesiod[10] says of Zeus' establishment of Europa in Crete:\n\"... he made her live with Asterion the king of the Cretans. There she conceived and bore three sons, Minos, Sarpedon, and Rhadamanthys.\"[10]\n\n^ \nSir Arthur Evans, the first of many archaeologists who have worked at Knossos, is often given credit for this idea, but he did not believe it;[25] modern scholarship generally discounts the idea.[4](pp 42–43)[7](p 25)\n\n^ \nCallimachus first refers to the minotaur with the phrase\n\"Having escaped the cruel bellowing and the wild son of Pasiphaë and the coiled habitation of the crooked labyrinth\" ...[31]\n\n^ \nKaplan argues that the minotaur is the result of ancient people trying to explain earthquakes;[32] he points out that carbon dating of marine fossils attached to boulders that were ejected from the ocean by ancient tsunamis indicates the region was tectonically very active during the years when the minotaur myth first appeared.[33] Given this, he argues that the Minoans used the monster to help explain the terrifying earthquakes that were \"bellowing\" beneath their feet.\n\n^ \nThe fallen angels, the Erinyes [Furies], and the unseen Medusa were located on the City of Dis's defensive ramparts.[36]","title":"Footnotes"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Ionian Perfume Jar in the shape of a minotaur","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Perfume_jar_%28Aryballos%29_in_the_shape_of_a_minotaur_Greek_made_in_Ionia_580-560_BCE_Terracotta_%281%29.jpg/220px-Perfume_jar_%28Aryballos%29_in_the_shape_of_a_minotaur_Greek_made_in_Ionia_580-560_BCE_Terracotta_%281%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Roman copy of a statue of the Minotaur's torso","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Torso_of_the_Minotaur%2C_late_1st_century_AD_Roman_copy_of_5th_century_BC_Greek_original%2C_from_Rome%2C_Palazzo_Massimo_elle_Terme_%2811364959275%29.jpg/220px-Torso_of_the_Minotaur%2C_late_1st_century_AD_Roman_copy_of_5th_century_BC_Greek_original%2C_from_Rome%2C_Palazzo_Massimo_elle_Terme_%2811364959275%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Rhyton in the shape of a bull's head, Heraklion Archaeological Museum","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Bullls-head_rhyton%2C_stone%2C_Knossos%2C_1600-1450_BC%2C_AMH%2C_145160.jpg/150px-Bullls-head_rhyton%2C_stone%2C_Knossos%2C_1600-1450_BC%2C_AMH%2C_145160.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pasiphaë and the Minotaur, Attic red-figure kylix found at Etruscan Vulci in Italy. Now exhibited at Cabinet des Médailles, Paris","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Pasiphae_Minotauros_Cdm_Paris_DeRidder1066_detail.jpg/220px-Pasiphae_Minotauros_Cdm_Paris_DeRidder1066_detail.jpg"},{"image_text":"Theseus Fighting the Minotaur, 1826, by Jean-Etienne Ramey, marble, Tuileries Gardens, Paris","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Theseus_Minotaur_Ramey_Tuileries.jpg/220px-Theseus_Minotaur_Ramey_Tuileries.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Minotaur in the Labyrinth, engraving of a 16th-century AD gem in the Medici Collection in the Palazzo Strozzi, Florence[27]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Minotaurus.gif/220px-Minotaurus.gif"},{"image_text":"Dante and Virgil meet the Minotaur, illustration by Gustave Doré","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/DVinfernoMinotaurOnCliff_m.jpg/220px-DVinfernoMinotaurOnCliff_m.jpg"},{"image_text":"William Blake's image of the Minotaur to illustrate Inferno XII","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Blake_Dante_Hell_XII.jpg/220px-Blake_Dante_Hell_XII.jpg"},{"image_text":"Edward Burne-Jones's illustration of Theseus and the Minotaur in the Labyrinth, 1861","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Edward_Burne-Jones_-_Tile_Design_-_Theseus_and_the_Minotaur_in_the_Labyrinth_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Edward_Burne-Jones_-_Tile_Design_-_Theseus_and_the_Minotaur_in_the_Labyrinth_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Theseus and the Minotaur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theseus_and_the_Minotaur"},{"title":"Kao (bull)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kao_(bull)"},{"title":"Ox-Head and Horse-Face","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ox-Head_and_Horse-Face"},{"title":"Satyr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyr"},{"title":"Shedu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shedu"},{"title":"Minotauria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minotauria"},{"title":"genus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus"},{"title":"woodlouse hunting spiders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysderidae"},{"title":"Balkans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans"},{"title":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kulc1903-63"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"English Dictionary: Definition of Minotaur\". Collins. Retrieved 20 July 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/minotaur","url_text":"\"English Dictionary: Definition of Minotaur\""}]},{"reference":"Bechtel, John Hendricks (1908), Pronunciation: Designed for Use in Schools and Colleges and Adapted to the Wants of All Persons who Wish to Pronounce According to the Highest Standards, Penn Publishing Co","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6Lc9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA79","url_text":"Pronunciation: Designed for Use in Schools and Colleges and Adapted to the Wants of All Persons who Wish to Pronounce According to the Highest Standards"}]},{"reference":"Garnett, Richard; Vallée, Léon; Brandl, Alois (1923), The Book of Literature: A Comprehensive Anthology of the Best Literature, Ancient, Mediæval and Modern, with Biographical and Explanatory Notes, vol. 33, Grolier society","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-mMUAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA645","url_text":"The Book of Literature: A Comprehensive Anthology of the Best Literature, Ancient, Mediæval and Modern, with Biographical and Explanatory Notes"}]},{"reference":"Kern, Hermann (2000). Through the Labyrinth. Munich, London, New York: Prestel. ISBN 379132144-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/379132144-7","url_text":"379132144-7"}]},{"reference":"Ovid. Ars Amatoria. 2.24.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid","url_text":"Ovid"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Amatoria","url_text":"Ars Amatoria"}]},{"reference":"Rusten, J.S. (Autumn 1982). \"Ovid, Empedocles, and the Minotaur\". The American Journal of Philology. 103 (3): 332–333, esp. 332. doi:10.2307/294479. JSTOR 294479.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F294479","url_text":"10.2307/294479"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/294479","url_text":"294479"}]},{"reference":"Doob, Penelope Reed (April 1990). The Idea of the Labyrinth: From Classical antiquity through the Middle Ages. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-080142393-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-080142393-2","url_text":"978-080142393-2"}]},{"reference":"Pausanias. Description of Greece. 2.31.1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)","url_text":"Pausanias"}]},{"reference":"Hesiod. Catalogue of Women. fr. 140.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod","url_text":"Hesiod"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalogue_of_Women","url_text":"Catalogue of Women"}]},{"reference":"de Simone, C. (1970). \"Zu einem Beitrag über etruskisch θevru mines\". Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung. 84: 221–223.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Minotaur\". American English Dictionary. Collins. Retrieved 20 July 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/minotaur","url_text":"\"Minotaur\""}]},{"reference":"\"Apollodorus, Library, book 3, chapter 1\". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 18 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0022:text=Library:book=3:chapter=1&highlight=minotaur","url_text":"\"Apollodorus, Library, book 3, chapter 1\""}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Minotaur\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 555.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Minotaur","url_text":"\"Minotaur\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"\"Pausanias, Description of Greece, Attica, chapter 27\". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 18 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0160:book=1:chapter=27&highlight=minotaur","url_text":"\"Pausanias, Description of Greece, Attica, chapter 27\""}]},{"reference":"Catullus. Carmen 64.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catullus","url_text":"Catullus"},{"url":"http://rudy.negenborn.net/catullus/text2/e64.htm","url_text":"Carmen 64"}]},{"reference":"Servius. On the Aeneid. 6.14. singulis quibusque annis 'every one year'.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus","url_text":"Servius"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneid","url_text":"Aeneid"}]},{"reference":"Zimmerman, J.E. (1964). \"Androgeus\". Dictionary of Classical Mythology. Harper & Row;","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harper_%26_Row","url_text":"Harper & Row"}]},{"reference":"Rose, H.J. (1959). A Handbook of Greek Mythology. 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ISBN 978-1-7845-3934-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomsbury_Academic","url_text":"Bloomsbury Academic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7845-3934-4","url_text":"978-1-7845-3934-4"}]},{"reference":"Hickman, Tracy; Weis, Margaret (1987). Dragonlance Adventures. TSR, Inc. ISBN 0-88038-452-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracy_Hickman","url_text":"Hickman, Tracy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Weis","url_text":"Weis, Margaret"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragonlance_Adventures","url_text":"Dragonlance Adventures"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSR,_Inc","url_text":"TSR, Inc"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88038-452-2","url_text":"0-88038-452-2"}]},{"reference":"Kulczyński, W. (1903). \"Aranearum et Opilionum species in insula Creta a comite Dre Carolo Attems collectae\". Bulletin International de l'Académie des Sciences de Cracovie. 1903: 32–58.","urls":[]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirza_Ebrahim_Khan_Akkas_Bashi
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Mirza Ebrahim Khan Akkas Bashi
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["1 References","2 Sources"]
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Iranian cinematographer and photographer
Mirza Ebrahim Khan Akkas BashiPortrait of Mirza Ebrahim Khan Akkas BashiBornAugust 1874Died1915Gilan province, Qajar IranKnown forFirst Iranian cinematographerParentMirza Ahmad Sani-al-saltana (father)
Mirza Ebrahim Khan Akkas Bashi (Persian: میرزا ابراهیمخان عکاسباشی; August 1874 – 1915) was an Iranian photographer and cinematographer. He became the first cinematographer of the country on 15 August 1900, when he recorded Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar (r. 1896–1907) strolling on the beach of the town of Ostend in Belgium.
Akkas Bashi was born on August 1874. He was the son of Mirza Ahmad Sani-al-saltana, a Baháʼí convert and chief photographer of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar (r. 1848–1896). Akkas Bashi died in 1915 in the Gilan province.
References
^ a b Eslami 2009.
^ Gaffary 1984, p. 719.
Sources
Eslami, Kambiz (2009). "ʿAkkāsbāshī, Ibrāhīm". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.
Gaffary, F. (1984). "ʿAkkās-bāšī". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume I/7: Ahriman–Alafrank. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 719. ISBN 978-0-71009-096-6.
Authority control databases: Artists
Photographers' Identities
This article about an Iranian artist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This article about a photographer is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASML_Holding
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ASML Holding
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["1 Products","1.1 Immersion lithography","1.2 DUV lithography","1.3 EUV lithography","2 History","3 Finances","3.1 Shareholder","4 Awards","5 References","6 External links"]
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Dutch manufacturer of semiconductor production equipment
ASML Holding N.V.Corporate headquarters in VeldhovenCompany typePublicTraded asEuronext Amsterdam: ASMLAEX componentNasdaq: ASMLNasdaq-100 componentIndustrySemiconductor industryFounded1984 (joint venture)1988 (independent company)HeadquartersVeldhoven, NetherlandsKey peopleChristophe Fouquet (CEO)Gerard Kleisterlee (chairman of the supervisory board)ProductsPhotolithography systems for the semiconductor industryRevenue €27.56 billion (2023)Operating income €9.042 billion (2023)Net income €7.839 billion (2023)Total assets €39.96 billion (2023)Total equity €13.45 billion (2023)Number of employees42,416 (2023)Websiteasml.com
ASML Holding N.V. (commonly shortened to ASML, originally standing for Advanced Semiconductor Materials Lithography) is a Dutch multinational corporation founded in 1984. ASML specializes in the development and manufacturing of photolithography machines which are used to produce computer chips.
As of 2023 it is the largest supplier for the semiconductor industry and the sole supplier in the world of extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUV) photolithography machines that are required to manufacture the most advanced chips. As of March 2024, ASML was the most highly valued European tech company, with a market capitalization of about US$397 billion.
ASML's corporate headquarters is in Veldhoven, Netherlands and the location for research, development, manufacturing and assembly. ASML employs more than 42,000 people from 143 nationalities and relies on a network of nearly 5,000 tier 1 suppliers. ASML has a worldwide customer base and over sixty service points in sixteen countries. It has offices in the Netherlands, the United States, Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Italy, the United Kingdom, China, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan.
The company is listed on both the AEX and NASDAQ Stock Exchanges, as ASML. It is also a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 and NASDAQ-100.
Products
A diagonally cut ASML lens
ASML produces the photolithography machines used in the production of computer chips. In these machines, patterns are optically imaged onto a silicon wafer that is covered with a film of light-sensitive material (photoresist). This procedure is repeated dozens of times on a single wafer. The photoresist is then further processed to create the actual electronic circuits on the silicon. The optical imaging that ASML's machines deal with is used in the fabrication of nearly all integrated circuits and, as of 2011, ASML had 67 percent of the worldwide sales of lithography machines.
ASML's competition consisted of Ultratech, Canon and Nikon, MKS Instruments, Lam Research and Cadence Design Systems.
Immersion lithography
Since immersion lithography was first proposed by Burn-Jeng Lin in the 1970s, ASML cooperated with Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing (TSMC). In 2004, TSMC began commercial production of 90 nanometer semiconductor nodes using ASML immersion lithography. As of 2011, their high-end TWINSCAN NXT:1950i system was used for producing features down to 32 nanometres at up to 200 wafers per hour, using a water immersion lens and an argon fluoride laser that produces light at a wavelength of 193 nm. As of 2011, an average lithography machine cost €27 million.
DUV lithography
Deep ultraviolet (DUV) lithography devices from ASML use light that penetrates the UV spectrum to print the tiny features that form the microchip's structure.
In 2009, the IMEC research center in Belgium produced the world's first functional 22 nm CMOS Static random-access memory memory cells with a prototype EUV lithography machine. In 2011 series-produced (non-prototype) EUV machines were shipped.
EUV lithography
After decades of development, ASML shipped the first production extreme ultraviolet lithography machine in 2013. These machines produce light in the 13.5 nm wavelength range when a high-energy laser is focused on microscopic droplets of molten tin to produce a plasma, which then emits EUV light. The light is bounced off Zeiss mirrors onto the surface of a silicon wafer to deliver the designs for the chip. ASML's best-selling EUV product has been the TWINSCAN NXE:3600D, which costs up to $200 million. Shipping the machine the size of a truck requires moving 180 tons with three Boeing 747s. As of 2022, ASML has shipped around 140 EUV systems, and it is the only company to manufacture them.
ASML is working on the next generation of EUV systems, with the first shipments to customers for R&D purposes expected to take place at the end of 2023. The platform is designated High-NA as it will increase the numerical aperture (NA) from 0.33 to 0.55, and each system is expected to cost $300 million.
History
The company, originally named ASM Lithography, is named ASML as its official name and not an abbreviation. It was founded in 1984 as a joint venture between the Dutch companies ASM and Philips. Nowadays it is a public company. When the company became independent in 1988, it was decided that changing the name was not desirable, and the abbreviation ASML became the official company name.
ASML released the lithography system PAS 5500 in 1991, which became an extremely successful platform for the company. The PAS 5500 was first utilized by Micron Technology, which was one of the world's largest producers of computer memory and storage, and ASML's largest customer at that time. The success of the PAS 5500 line propelled ASML into strong competition with Canon and Nikon, who were the leaders in that era of the lithography market.
In 1997, ASML began studying a shift to using extreme ultraviolet and in 1999 joined a consortium, including Intel and two other U.S. chipmakers, in order to exploit fundamental research conducted by the US Department of Energy. Because the CRADA it operates under is funded by the US taxpayer, licensing must be approved by Congress. It collaborated with the Belgian IMEC and Sematech and turned to Carl Zeiss in Germany for its need of mirrors.
In 2000, ASML acquired the Silicon Valley Group (SVG), a US lithography equipment manufacturer also licensed for EUV research results, in a bid to supply 193 nm scanners to Intel Corp.
In 2002, it became the largest supplier of photolithography systems.
At the end of 2008, ASML experienced a large drop in sales, which led management to cut the workforce by about 1000 worldwide, mostly contract workers and to apply for support from the Dutch national unemployment fund to prevent even larger layoffs. Two and a half years later, ASML expected a record-high revenue.
In July 2012, Intel announced a deal to invest $4.1 billion into ASML in exchange for 15% ownership, in order to speed up the transition from 300 mm to 450 mm wafers and further development of EUV lithography. This deal was without exclusive rights to future ASML products and, as of July 2012, ASML was offering another 10% of the shares to other companies. As part of their EUV strategy, ASML announced the acquisition of DUV and EUV sources manufacturer Cymer in October 2012.
In November 2013, ASML paused development of 450 mm lithography equipment, citing uncertain timing of chipmaker demand.
In 2015, ASML suffered intellectual property theft. A number of employees had been found stealing confidential data from its Silicon Valley software subsidiary that develops software for machine optimization.
In June 2016, ASML announced their plans to acquire Taiwan-based Hermes Microvision Inc. for about $3.1 billion to add technology for creating smaller and more advanced semiconductors.
In 2018, the Trump administration tried to block the sale of ASML technology to China, but as of 2021, the ongoing global chip shortage as well as the "technological cold war" between the US and China had been a business opportunity for ASML.
In November 2020, ASML revealed that it had acquired the German optical glassmaking firm Berliner Glas Group in order to meet increasing need for components for its EUV systems.
In July 2021, Thierry Breton European Commissioner, visited ASML and announced a goal of at least 20% of world production of semiconductors in Europe by 2030, and support via a European Alliance on semiconductors. After reporting earnings in July 2021, the company said they had a near monopoly for machines used by TSMC and Samsung Electronics to make the advanced chips.
In February 2023, ASML claimed that a former worker in China "allegedly" stole information about the company's technology. This was not the first time that ASML was allegedly linked with an intellectual property breach connected to China. In its 2021 annual report, ASML mentioned that Dongfang Jingyuan Electron Limited "was actively marketing products in China that could potentially infringe on ASML's IP rights." At the time, the United States Department of Commerce expressed concern about economic espionage against ASML. In October 2023, Dutch newspaper NRC Handelsblad reported that the former employee who "allegedly" stole data about ASML's technology subsequently went to work for Huawei.
In March 2023, the Dutch government placed restrictions on chip exports in order to protect national security. This measure affected ASML as one of the most important companies in the global microchip supply chain. Export license requirements came into effect in September 2023.
In June 2023, the Netherlands' Institute for Human Rights ruled that despite the country's constitution prohibiting discrimination based on nationality, ASML was allowed to reject job applications from residents of countries subject to sanctions under the U.S. Export Administration Regulations (such as Cuba, Iran, North Korea, and Syria) in order to remain compliant with U.S. law.
In January 2024, the Dutch government placed further restrictions on the shipment of some advanced chip-making equipment to China.
Finances
Financial data in € millions
Year
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
Revenue
5 245
5 856
6 287
6 795
9 053
10 944
11 820
13 979
18 611
21 173
27 559
Net Income
1 016
1 197
1 387
1 472
2 119
2 592
2 592
3 554
5 883
5 624
7 839
Assets
11 514
12 204
13 295
17 206
18 196
20 137
22 630
27 267
30 231
36 300
39 958
Employees
10 360
11 318
12 168
13 991
16 219
20 044
23 219
26 614
29 861
36 112
42 416
Shareholder
Top Institutional Holders
Holder
Shares
Date Reported
% Out
Value
Price (T. Rowe) Associates Inc
10,991,878
29 June 2022
2.70%
5,152,552,838
Capital World Investors
6,492,254
29 June 2022
1.60%
3,043,309,048
Fisher Asset Management, LLC
4,595,741
29 June 2022
1.13%
2,154,299,596
Capital International Investors
3,919,239
29 June 2022
0.96%
1,837,182,511
Morgan Stanley
3,156,574
29 June 2022
0.78%
1,479,675,659
WCM Investment Management, LLC
3,089,503
29 September 2022
0.76%
1,448,235,456
Edgewood Management Company
2,919,498
29 June 2022
0.72%
1,368,543,910
State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Co
2,834,225
29 June 2022
0.70%
1,328,571,338
FMR, LLC
2,763,695
29 June 2022
0.68%
1,295,509,695
Sands Capital Management, LLC
1,942,740
29 June 2022
0.48%
910,678,821
Top Mutual Fund Holders
Holder
Shares
Date Reported
% Out
Value
American Balanced Fund
2,523,702
29 September 2022
0.62%
1,183,010,574
Growth Fund Of America Inc
2,407,395
29 September 2022
0.59%
1,128,490,503
iShares Core MSCI EAFE ETF
2,138,919
29 September 2022
0.53%
1,002,639,691
Washington Mutual Investors Fund
2,138,040
29 September 2022
0.53%
1,002,227,651
Advisors Inner Circle Fund-Edgewood Growth Fd
1,623,694
29 June 2022
0.40%
761,122,815
Price (T.Rowe) Growth Stock Fund Inc.
1,627,216
29 June 2022
0.40%
762,773,788
iShares MSCI Eafe ETF
1,319,874
29 September 2022
0.32%
618,704,149
Invesco ETF Tr-Invesco QQQ Tr, Series 1 ETF
1,264,161
29 September 2022
0.31%
592,588,122
New Perspective Fund Inc
1,217,878
29 September 2022
0.30%
570,892,503
Investment Managers Ser Tr-WCM Focused International Growth Fd
1,197,952
30 July 2022
0.29%
561,551,991
Awards
The IEEE Spectrum Emerging Technology 2018 Award was given to ASML for its Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography system. ASML is currently the top supplier of photolithography systems to the semiconductor industry.
In the category for Popular Prize, Vadim Banine received the 2018 European Inventor Award for shaping the future of microchip manufacturing.
The largest independent microelectronics research center in Europe is called IMEC (Interuniversity Micro Electronics Centre). Martin van den Brink of ASML was given the 2019 IMEC Lifetime of Innovation Award.
The Netherlands Association for Investor Relations (NEVIR), where listed companies and professionals in investor relations had the chance to be recognized for their outstanding work in the sector, presented awards to ASML in the categories: "Best Company in the field of Investor Relations" during the Dutch IR Awards 2019 annual award ceremony.
ASML received the SEMI Americas Award at the 2020 edition of the microelectronics conference SEMICON West for its collaborative approach to extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUV), which helped it become commercially viable and opened the door to new technological possibilities.
The Intel Preferred Quality Supplier (PQS) Award for 2020 was awarded to ASML. ASML has attained a level of performance that continuously surpasses Intel's expectations for the commitment to continual quality improvement.
The Dutch Innovation Prize 2021 was awarded to ASML at the 4th National BID AVROTROS Innovation Dinner held at Kasteel Wittenburg in Wassenaar.
ASML received the first CoSta Award for the most successful and impactful innovative partnership between a corporate company and a startup.
References
^ a b c d e f g h "ASML 2023 Annual Report (Form 20-F)". US Securities and Exchange Commission. 14 February 2024. Archived from the original on 14 February 2024.
^ a b c d Tarasov, Katie (23 March 2022). "ASML is the only company making the $200 million machines needed to print every advanced microchip. Here's an inside look". CNBC. Archived from the original on 14 November 2022. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
^ "Largest tech companies by market cap". CompaniesMarketcap.com. 9 April 2023. Archived from the original on 9 November 2022. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
^ O'Grady, Carmel; Kenyon, Matthew (21 February 2023). "How ASML became Europe's most valuable tech firm". BBC News.
^ a b c "2022 Combined Annual Report - ASML". ASML. 15 February 2023. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
^ "ASML HOLDING - Euronext exchange Live quotes". Euronext. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
^ "Quotes For Nasdaq-100 Index". Nasdaq. Archived from the original on 25 December 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
^ ASML: Sustainability - performance and targets Archived 14 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine. ASML.com (2011)
^ "Burn Lin: The 2023 SPIE Mozi Award". spie.org. Archived from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
^ "90 nm Technology". TSMC. 2019. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
^ ASML Enhances NXT:1950i to Meet Challenging Imaging and Overlay Requirements and Provide a Cost Effective Platform for 22nm Archived 5 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Press release, 12 July 2011.
^ a b Third quarter 2011 results Archived 5 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine. ASML press release.
^ "ASML EUV lithography systems". www.asml.com. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
^ IMEC presents functional 22 nm SRAM cells fabricated using EUV technology Archived 1 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine. IMEC press release, 22 April 2009.
^ a b c "ASML EUV lithography systems". ASML. Archived from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
^ Patel, Nilay (31 January 2023). "The global battle over chip manufacturing and why the US is trying to stop China from buying machines from the Netherlands". The Verge. Archived from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
^ a b Christoph G. Schmutz (30 July 2021). "Wie die niederländische Firma ASML in den technologischen kalten Krieg zwischen den USA und China geraten ist".
^ "About ASML: Questions and Answers". ASML Holding. Archived from the original on 28 July 2010. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
^ "ASML: About ASML". 20 February 2014. Archived from the original on 28 July 2010. Retrieved 27 December 2022.
^ a b Cuofano, Gennaro (11 October 2022). "How Does ASML Make Money? The ASML Business Model In A Nutshell". FourWeekMBA. Archived from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
^ "Three decades of PAS 5500". ASML. Archived from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
^ Clark, Don (4 July 2021). "The Tech Cold War's 'Most Complicated Machine' That's Out of China's Reach". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
^ "ASML drops SVG-developed 193-nm scanner to focus on Twinscan platform | EE Times". Archived from the original on 7 September 2014. Retrieved 7 September 2014.
^ "Intel kills plan to use SVG's 193-nm scanners in production due to delays | EE Times". Archived from the original on 7 September 2014. Retrieved 7 September 2014.
^ "Litho-History Milestones" (PDF). www.lithoguru.com.
^ ASML Takes Action to Adjust Its Organization Due to Severe Order Slowdown Archived 15 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine Press release.
^ Chip-Equipment Firm ASML Cuts Outlook, Sets Layoffs Archived 25 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine. WSJ.com, 19 December 2008.
^ ASML Sees Record Year Archived 25 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine. The Wall Street Journal, April 2011.
^ ASML wins funds for chip technology from Intel Archived 1 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Reuters, 10 July 2012.
^ ASML Announces Customer Co-Investment Program Aimed at Accelerating Innovation Archived 12 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine. ASML Press release, 9 July 2012.
^ "Intel funds next-gen chipmaking, buys into ASML for $4.1 billion". Reuters. 9 July 2012. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2021.
^ Archived 8 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine ASML Press release, 17 October 2012
^ "ASML 2013 Annual Report Form (20-F)" (XBRL). United States Securities and Exchange Commission. 11 February 2014. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 27 August 2017. In November 2013, following our customers' decision, ASML decided to pause the development of 450 mm lithography systems until customer demand and the timing related to such demand is clear.
^ Deutsch, Toby Sterling, Anthony (11 April 2019). "ASML says it suffered intellectual property theft, rejects 'Chinese' label". Reuters. Archived from the original on 10 May 2021. Retrieved 26 March 2021.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Ian King, Bloomberg. "ASML to Acquire Taiwan's Hermes Microvision for $3.1 Billion Archived 4 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine." 15 June 2016. 16 June 2016.
^ "Trump administration pressed Dutch hard to cancel China chip-equipment sale: sources". Reuters. 6 January 2020. Archived from the original on 9 November 2022. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
^ "ASML acquisition of Berliner Glas Group completed". www.asml.com. Archived from the original on 5 March 2021. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
^ Thierry Breton (21 May 2021). "Inside the future: Europe's plan to thrive in the global microchip race". European Commission website.
^ "ASML shares fall on report US wants to restrict sales to China". Reuters. 6 July 2022. Archived from the original on 14 March 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
^ "US-China chip war: ASML says China employee stole data". BBC News. 16 February 2023. Archived from the original on 16 February 2023. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
^ "ASML Stolen Data Came From Technical Repository for Chip Machines". Bloomberg News. 15 February 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
^ Koc, Cagan (23 October 2023). "Ex-ASML Staff Accused of Theft Went to Work for Huawei, NRC Says". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
^ "US-China chip war: Netherlands moves to restrict some exports". BBC News. 9 March 2023. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
^ Corder, Mike (30 June 2023). "Dutch semiconductor machine export restrictions to come into force in September". AP News. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
^ mkivit (20 June 2023). "ASML maakt onderscheid op grond van nationaliteit maar dit is niet verboden". RADAR (in Dutch). Retrieved 29 January 2024.
^ Sterling, Toby (26 June 2023). "Dutch human rights body: ASML may follow US export rules when hiring". Reuters. Retrieved 21 March 2024.
^ Veiligheid, Ministerie van Justitie en (20 June 2023). "College oordeelt: aannamebeleid ASML levert geen verboden onderscheid op - Nieuwsbericht - College voor de Rechten van de Mens". www.mensenrechten.nl (in Dutch). Retrieved 29 January 2024.
^ Madhok, Diksha (2 January 2024). "ASML forced to suspend some China exports after US escalates tech battle | CNN Business". CNN. Retrieved 2 January 2024.
^ "ASML Dividende | KGV | Bilanz | Umsatz | Gewinn". boerse.de (in German). Archived from the original on 26 March 2022. Retrieved 26 March 2022.
^ "Retrieved 6 November 2022". Archived from the original on 10 October 2022. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
^ "Retrieved 6 November 2022". Archived from the original on 10 October 2022. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
^ "IEEE Spectrum Emerging Technology Award ASML 2018 IEEE honors ceremony". ieeetv.ieee.org. 30 May 2018. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
^ "European Inventor Award 2018". zeiss.com. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
^ "ASML Man wins top award". eindhovennews.com. 15 May 2019. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
^ "ASML, BESI, Basic Fit winners Dutch IR Awards 2019". cffcommunications.nl. 11 January 2019. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
^ "ASML wins semi-Americas Award for EUV". asml.com. Archived from the original on 30 October 2022. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
^ "ASML earns Intel's 2020 Preferred Quality Supplier PQS Award". marketscreener.com. 30 March 2021. Archived from the original on 30 October 2022. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
^ "ASML Wins Dutch Innovation Prize". siliconcanals.com. 27 October 2021. Archived from the original on 30 October 2022. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
^ "ASML and Incooling Win CoSta Award". incooling.com. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
External links
Companies portal
Official website
"The Silicon Age: Trends in Semiconductor Devices Industry", 2022
Business data for ASML Holding N.V.: BloombergGoogleReutersSEC filingsYahoo!
Media related to ASML at Wikimedia Commons
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Texas Instruments
Fabless
AMD
Apple
Arm Holdings
Broadcom
Marvell Technology
MediaTek
Nvidia
Qualcomm
Skyworks Solutions
Foundry
GlobalFoundries
Samsung Foundry
SMIC
TSMC
UMC
OSAT
Amkor Technology
ASE Group
JCET
Equipment
Applied Materials
ASML
KLA
Lam Research
Tokyo Electron
Software
Cadence Design Systems
Synopsys
vte EURO STOXX 50 companies of the Euro AreaLast updated: 18 September 2023
Adidas
Adyen
Ahold Delhaize
Air Liquide
Airbus
Allianz
Anheuser-Busch InBev
ASML
Axa
BBVA
BASF
Bayer
BMW
BNP Paribas
Danone
Deutsche Börse
Deutsche Telekom
DHL Group
Enel
Eni
EssilorLuxottica
Ferrari
Flutter Entertainment
Hermès
Iberdrola
Inditex
Infineon Technologies
ING Group
Intesa Sanpaolo
Kering
L'Oréal
LVMH
Mercedes-Benz
Munich Re
Nokia
Nordea
Pernod Ricard
Prosus
Safran
Saint-Gobain
Sanofi
Santander
SAP
Schneider Electric
Siemens
Stellantis
TotalEnergies
Vinci
UniCredit
Volkswagen
vte AEX companies of the Netherlands
Adyen
Aegon
Ahold Delhaize
AkzoNobel
ArcelorMittal
ASM International
ASML
ASR Nederland
BE Semiconductor
DSM
Heineken
IMCD
ING
Just Eat Takeaway
KPN
NN Group
Philips
Prosus
Randstad
RELX
Shell
Signify
Universal Music Group
Unibail-Rodamco-Westfield
Unilever
Wolters Kluwer
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
National
Germany
United States
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"multinational corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_corporation"},{"link_name":"photolithography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photolithography"},{"link_name":"computer chips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_chips"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASML_Holding&action=edit"},{"link_name":"semiconductor industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_industry"},{"link_name":"extreme ultraviolet lithography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_ultraviolet_lithography"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc-202203-2"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASML_Holding&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-market-cap-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Veldhoven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veldhoven"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AR-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ar-2022-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ar-2022-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ar-2022-5"},{"link_name":"AEX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AEX_index"},{"link_name":"NASDAQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASDAQ"},{"link_name":"Euro Stoxx 50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro_Stoxx_50"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"NASDAQ-100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASDAQ-100"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"ASML Holding N.V. (commonly shortened to ASML, originally standing for Advanced Semiconductor Materials Lithography) is a Dutch multinational corporation founded in 1984. ASML specializes in the development and manufacturing of photolithography machines which are used to produce computer chips.As of 2023[update] it is the largest supplier for the semiconductor industry and the sole supplier in the world of extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUV) photolithography machines that are required to manufacture the most advanced chips.[2] As of March 2024[update], ASML was the most highly valued European tech company, with a market capitalization of about US$397 billion.[3][4]ASML's corporate headquarters is in Veldhoven, Netherlands and the location for research, development, manufacturing and assembly. ASML employs more than 42,000 people[1] from 143 nationalities and relies on a network of nearly 5,000 tier 1 suppliers.[5] ASML has a worldwide customer base and over sixty service points in sixteen countries.[5] It has offices in the Netherlands, the United States, Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Italy, the United Kingdom, China, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan.[5]The company is listed on both the AEX and NASDAQ Stock Exchanges, as ASML. It is also a component of the Euro Stoxx 50[6] and NASDAQ-100.[7]","title":"ASML Holding"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lens_from_ASML.jpg"},{"link_name":"photolithography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photolithography"},{"link_name":"wafer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"photoresist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoresist"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Ultratech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultratech"},{"link_name":"Canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_(company)"},{"link_name":"Nikon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon"},{"link_name":"MKS Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MKS_Instruments"},{"link_name":"Lam Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lam_Research"},{"link_name":"Cadence Design Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadence_Design_Systems"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"A diagonally cut ASML lensASML produces the photolithography machines used in the production of computer chips. In these machines, patterns are optically imaged onto a silicon wafer that is covered with a film of light-sensitive material (photoresist). This procedure is repeated dozens of times on a single wafer. The photoresist is then further processed to create the actual electronic circuits on the silicon. The optical imaging that ASML's machines deal with is used in the fabrication of nearly all integrated circuits and, as of 2011, ASML had 67 percent of the worldwide sales of lithography machines.[8]ASML's competition consisted of Ultratech, Canon and Nikon, MKS Instruments, Lam Research and Cadence Design Systems.[citation needed]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"immersion lithography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immersion_lithography"},{"link_name":"Burn-Jeng Lin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burn-Jeng_Lin"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_Semiconductor_Manufacturing"},{"link_name":"90 nanometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/90_nanometer"},{"link_name":"semiconductor nodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_node"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"nanometres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometre"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pr2011-07-12-11"},{"link_name":"immersion lens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immersion_lens"},{"link_name":"argon fluoride laser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon_fluoride_laser"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASML_Holding&action=edit"},{"link_name":"€","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pr2011-Q3-12"}],"sub_title":"Immersion lithography","text":"Since immersion lithography was first proposed by Burn-Jeng Lin in the 1970s,[9] ASML cooperated with Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing (TSMC). In 2004, TSMC began commercial production of 90 nanometer semiconductor nodes using ASML immersion lithography.[10] As of 2011, their high-end TWINSCAN NXT:1950i system was used for producing features down to 32 nanometres at up to 200 wafers per hour,[11] using a water immersion lens and an argon fluoride laser that produces light at a wavelength of 193 nm. As of 2011[update], an average lithography machine cost €27 million.[12]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"IMEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMEC"},{"link_name":"CMOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOS"},{"link_name":"Static random-access memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_random-access_memory"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pr2011-Q3-12"}],"sub_title":"DUV lithography","text":"Deep ultraviolet (DUV) lithography devices from ASML use light that penetrates the UV spectrum to print the tiny features that form the microchip's structure.[13]In 2009, the IMEC research center in Belgium produced the world's first functional 22 nm CMOS Static random-access memory memory cells with a prototype EUV lithography machine.[14] In 2011 series-produced (non-prototype) EUV machines were shipped.[12]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"extreme ultraviolet lithography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_ultraviolet_lithography"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-euv-asml-15"},{"link_name":"wavelength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength"},{"link_name":"laser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser"},{"link_name":"tin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin"},{"link_name":"plasma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(physics)"},{"link_name":"Zeiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Zeiss_AG"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge-202301-16"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc-202203-2"},{"link_name":"Boeing 747s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nzz-17"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASML_Holding&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc-202203-2"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-euv-asml-15"},{"link_name":"numerical aperture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_aperture"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-euv-asml-15"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc-202203-2"}],"sub_title":"EUV lithography","text":"After decades of development, ASML shipped the first production extreme ultraviolet lithography machine in 2013.[15] These machines produce light in the 13.5 nm wavelength range when a high-energy laser is focused on microscopic droplets of molten tin to produce a plasma, which then emits EUV light. The light is bounced off Zeiss mirrors onto the surface of a silicon wafer to deliver the designs for the chip.[16] ASML's best-selling EUV product has been the TWINSCAN NXE:3600D, which costs up to $200 million.[2] Shipping the machine the size of a truck requires moving 180 tons with three Boeing 747s.[17] As of 2022[update], ASML has shipped around 140 EUV systems, and it is the only company to manufacture them.[2]ASML is working on the next generation of EUV systems, with the first shipments to customers for R&D purposes expected to take place at the end of 2023.[15] The platform is designated High-NA as it will increase the numerical aperture (NA) from 0.33 to 0.55,[15] and each system is expected to cost $300 million.[2]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"ASM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASM_International_(company)"},{"link_name":"Philips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4week-history-20"},{"link_name":"Micron Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micron_Technology"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asml-pas5500-21"},{"link_name":"Canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_Inc."},{"link_name":"Nikon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4week-history-20"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"US Department of Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy"},{"link_name":"CRADA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRADA"},{"link_name":"IMEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMEC"},{"link_name":"Sematech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sematech"},{"link_name":"Carl Zeiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Zeiss_AG"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-22"},{"link_name":"Intel Corp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Corp"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"450 mm wafers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)#Standard_wafer_sizes"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ASML_2013_Annual_report-33"},{"link_name":"intellectual property theft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property_theft"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductors"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Trump administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_administration"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"global chip shortage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_global_chip_shortage"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nzz-17"},{"link_name":"optical glassmaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_glass"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Thierry Breton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thierry_Breton"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EC-38"},{"link_name":"TSMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSMC"},{"link_name":"Samsung Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_Electronics"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"annual report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_report"},{"link_name":"Dongfang Jingyuan Electron Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongfang_Jingyuan_Electron_Limited"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"United States Department of Commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce"},{"link_name":"economic espionage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_espionage"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"NRC Handelsblad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRC_Handelsblad"},{"link_name":"Huawei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huawei"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Export Administration Regulations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Export_Administration_Regulations"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"text":"The company, originally named ASM Lithography, is named ASML as its official name and not an abbreviation.[18] It was founded in 1984 as a joint venture between the Dutch companies ASM and Philips. Nowadays it is a public company. When the company became independent in 1988, it was decided that changing the name was not desirable, and the abbreviation ASML became the official company name.[19]ASML released the lithography system PAS 5500 in 1991, which became an extremely successful platform for the company.[20] The PAS 5500 was first utilized by Micron Technology, which was one of the world's largest producers of computer memory and storage, and ASML's largest customer at that time.[21] The success of the PAS 5500 line propelled ASML into strong competition with Canon and Nikon, who were the leaders in that era of the lithography market.[20]In 1997, ASML began studying a shift to using extreme ultraviolet and in 1999 joined a consortium, including Intel and two other U.S. chipmakers, in order to exploit fundamental research conducted by the US Department of Energy. Because the CRADA it operates under is funded by the US taxpayer, licensing must be approved by Congress. It collaborated with the Belgian IMEC and Sematech and turned to Carl Zeiss in Germany for its need of mirrors.[22]In 2000, ASML acquired the Silicon Valley Group (SVG), a US lithography equipment manufacturer also licensed for EUV research results, in a bid to supply 193 nm scanners to Intel Corp.[23][24]In 2002, it became the largest supplier of photolithography systems.[25]At the end of 2008, ASML experienced a large drop in sales, which led management to cut the workforce by about 1000 worldwide, mostly contract workers[26] and to apply for support from the Dutch national unemployment fund to prevent even larger layoffs.[27] Two and a half years later, ASML expected a record-high revenue.[28]In July 2012, Intel announced a deal to invest $4.1 billion into ASML in exchange for 15% ownership, in order to speed up the transition from 300 mm to 450 mm wafers and further development of EUV lithography.[29][30] This deal was without exclusive rights to future ASML products and, as of July 2012, ASML was offering another 10% of the shares to other companies.[31] As part of their EUV strategy, ASML announced the acquisition of DUV and EUV sources manufacturer Cymer in October 2012.[32]In November 2013, ASML paused development of 450 mm lithography equipment, citing uncertain timing of chipmaker demand.[33]In 2015, ASML suffered intellectual property theft. A number of employees had been found stealing confidential data from its Silicon Valley software subsidiary that develops software for machine optimization.[34]In June 2016, ASML announced their plans to acquire Taiwan-based Hermes Microvision Inc. for about $3.1 billion to add technology for creating smaller and more advanced semiconductors.[35]In 2018, the Trump administration tried to block the sale of ASML technology to China,[36] but as of 2021, the ongoing global chip shortage as well as the \"technological cold war\" between the US and China had been a business opportunity for ASML.[17]In November 2020, ASML revealed that it had acquired the German optical glassmaking firm Berliner Glas Group in order to meet increasing need for components for its EUV systems.[37]In July 2021, Thierry Breton European Commissioner, visited ASML and announced a goal of at least 20% of world production of semiconductors in Europe by 2030, and support via a European Alliance on semiconductors.[38] After reporting earnings in July 2021, the company said they had a near monopoly for machines used by TSMC and Samsung Electronics to make the advanced chips.[39]In February 2023, ASML claimed that a former worker in China \"allegedly\" stole information about the company's technology. This was not the first time that ASML was allegedly linked with an intellectual property breach connected to China. In its 2021 annual report, ASML mentioned that Dongfang Jingyuan Electron Limited \"was actively marketing products in China that could potentially infringe on ASML's IP rights.\"[40] At the time, the United States Department of Commerce expressed concern about economic espionage against ASML.[41] In October 2023, Dutch newspaper NRC Handelsblad reported that the former employee who \"allegedly\" stole data about ASML's technology subsequently went to work for Huawei.[42]In March 2023, the Dutch government placed restrictions on chip exports in order to protect national security. This measure affected ASML as one of the most important companies in the global microchip supply chain.[43] Export license requirements came into effect in September 2023.[44]In June 2023, the Netherlands' Institute for Human Rights ruled that despite the country's constitution prohibiting discrimination based on nationality, ASML was allowed to reject job applications from residents of countries subject to sanctions under the U.S. Export Administration Regulations (such as Cuba, Iran, North Korea, and Syria) in order to remain compliant with U.S. law.[45][46][47]In January 2024, the Dutch government placed further restrictions on the shipment of some advanced chip-making equipment to China.[48]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Finances"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Shareholder","title":"Finances"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IEEE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"IMEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMEC"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"SEMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEMI"},{"link_name":"extreme ultraviolet lithography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_ultraviolet_lithography"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Wassenaar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wassenaar"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"}],"text":"The IEEE Spectrum Emerging Technology 2018 Award was given to ASML for its Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography system. ASML is currently the top supplier of photolithography systems to the semiconductor industry.[52]\nIn the category for Popular Prize, Vadim Banine received the 2018 European Inventor Award for shaping the future of microchip manufacturing.[53]\nThe largest independent microelectronics research center in Europe is called IMEC (Interuniversity Micro Electronics Centre). Martin van den Brink of ASML was given the 2019 IMEC Lifetime of Innovation Award.[54]\nThe Netherlands Association for Investor Relations (NEVIR), where listed companies and professionals in investor relations had the chance to be recognized for their outstanding work in the sector, presented awards to ASML in the categories: \"Best Company in the field of Investor Relations\" during the Dutch IR Awards 2019 annual award ceremony.[55]\nASML received the SEMI Americas Award at the 2020 edition of the microelectronics conference SEMICON West for its collaborative approach to extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUV), which helped it become commercially viable and opened the door to new technological possibilities.[56]\nThe Intel Preferred Quality Supplier (PQS) Award for 2020 was awarded to ASML. ASML has attained a level of performance that continuously surpasses Intel's expectations for the commitment to continual quality improvement.[57]\nThe Dutch Innovation Prize 2021 was awarded to ASML at the 4th National BID AVROTROS Innovation Dinner held at Kasteel Wittenburg in Wassenaar.[58]\nASML received the first CoSta Award for the most successful and impactful innovative partnership between a corporate company and a startup.[59]","title":"Awards"}]
|
[{"image_text":"A diagonally cut ASML lens","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Lens_from_ASML.jpg/220px-Lens_from_ASML.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"ASML 2023 Annual Report (Form 20-F)\". US Securities and Exchange Commission. 14 February 2024. Archived from the original on 14 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/937966/000093796624000008/asml-20231231.htm","url_text":"\"ASML 2023 Annual Report (Form 20-F)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240214221638/https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/937966/000093796624000008/asml-20231231.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Tarasov, Katie (23 March 2022). \"ASML is the only company making the $200 million machines needed to print every advanced microchip. Here's an inside look\". CNBC. Archived from the original on 14 November 2022. Retrieved 30 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/23/inside-asml-the-company-advanced-chipmakers-use-for-euv-lithography.html","url_text":"\"ASML is the only company making the $200 million machines needed to print every advanced microchip. Here's an inside look\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221114161226/https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/23/inside-asml-the-company-advanced-chipmakers-use-for-euv-lithography.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Largest tech companies by market cap\". CompaniesMarketcap.com. 9 April 2023. Archived from the original on 9 November 2022. Retrieved 9 April 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://companiesmarketcap.com/tech/largest-tech-companies-by-market-cap/","url_text":"\"Largest tech companies by market cap\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221109094425/https://companiesmarketcap.com/tech/largest-tech-companies-by-market-cap/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"O'Grady, Carmel; Kenyon, Matthew (21 February 2023). \"How ASML became Europe's most valuable tech firm\". BBC News.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/business-64514573","url_text":"\"How ASML became Europe's most valuable tech firm\""}]},{"reference":"\"2022 Combined Annual Report - ASML\". 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Retrieved 30 October 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://siliconcanals.com/news/startups/asml-wins-dutch-innovation-prize/","url_text":"\"ASML Wins Dutch Innovation Prize\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221030132610/https://siliconcanals.com/news/startups/asml-wins-dutch-innovation-prize/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"ASML and Incooling Win CoSta Award\". incooling.com. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 12 November 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.incooling.com/news/asml-and-incooling-win-costa-award/","url_text":"\"ASML and Incooling Win CoSta Award\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221113170251/https://www.incooling.com/news/asml-and-incooling-win-costa-award/","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
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