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Back to school means watching out for children, and reminding children of the safety rules they should know. As adults we should remember to drive slowly in school zones and near bus stops. We must remain alert. Children often dart into the street without looking at traffic. Yellow flashing lights on a school bus mean the bus is preparing to stop and load or unload children. Red flashing lights and an extended stop arm mean the bus has stopped and children are boarding or exiting the bus. Do not pass a school bus that is stopped.
And our children need to know that when they are getting off the bus, cross in front of the bus after making eye contact with the driver. They should never walk behind the bus. Also, they should only cross the street at intersections. If your children ride a bike to school, be sure they wear a helmet and obey all traffic laws.
Finally, whether they walk or ride a bicycle to school, choose the safest route. The safest route is one that allows them to make all or most of the trip on the sidewalks or bike paths.
And children now have one more safety advantage. Effective Sept. 1, children 4 to 15 must wear a seat belt. This new law simply complements current laws, which cover children age birth to 4.
Love your children enough to go over these safety rules with them.
Let's all watch out for our most precious gifts.
KAREN SLAY, Director, Injury Prevention Coalition of the South Plains
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|
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| 0.952148 | 300 | 2.9375 | 3 |
This website provides background information and educational
resources for students and teachers interested in using the FSA
photographs in Indiana. The Farm Security Administration was a New Deal
agency established in 1937. It originally started as the Resettlement
Administration in 1935 and later became the Office of War Information.
The photographs cover a timeline from 1935 to 1945. Its goal was to
rescue the chronic rural poor and farmers during the Great Depression of
the 1930s. The FSA had four main tasks: resettlement, rehabilitation,
technical assistance and land utilization.
Updated Oct 28, 2015 by Webmaster
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en
| 0.959879 | 120 | 3.03125 | 3 |
In the NTFS file system, a facility exists to bind additional data to a file or directory, called an alternate...
data stream (see here and here for more information). These alternate data streams cannot be removed, unless the parent file or directory is destroyed. Unfortunately, most file-wiping utilities only deal with the primary data stream and do not wipe the alternate data streams, thus leaving data intact.
If data is stored in an alternate data stream attached to a file (such as the thumbnail of an image) or directory, when this file or directory is wiped the information contained within the alternate data stream will be left intact on the hard drive. No warning is given to the user at all by Windows or the wiping programs. For example, if you use Windows file explorer (the default file browser in Windows) and have thumbnails of pictures enabled (the default setting) then the thumbnail of the thumbnail image, once created (i.e. once the directory is viewed in Explorer) will not be deleted until you delete the file and wipe all free space. Alternate data streams also provide an ideal location to keep attack tools, snippets of virus code and so forth. In fact, some virus scanners do not scan alternate data streams unless specifically configured to do so (often labeled as "scan all files" or similar).
The good news is that floppy disks and most other removable media are not formatted as NTFS, thus it is unlikely that copied files will contain the alternate data streams. Also, not all compression programs, such as WinZip, copy the alternate data streams, while others such as WinRAR do copy the alternate data streams. While it is unlikely that files with alternate data streams will have made it to other systems with their alternate data streams intact it is possible, and any systems that have had sensitive data copied or moved to them should immediately have their free space wiped in order to ensure alternate data streams containing sensitive information are still present.
To test this, create a file with an alternate data stream:
echo "this is a text file" > C:file.txt echo "this is the alternate data stream lkajhkl2" > C:file.txt:alternate-data-stream
If you use forensics software to examine the hard drive, you will find the string of text "this is the alternate data stream lkajhkl2" present on the drive.
Now, using the file wiper of your choice (BCWipe, etc.) choose the file C:file.txt and wipe it. Use any many passes as you want.
Now examine the drive for the string "this is the alternate data stream lkajhkl2". You should be able to find it. To do this using Linux, simply create an image file of the drive and examine it using grep or strings:
dd if=/dev/hdb1 of=windows-disk.img grep "this is the alternate data stream lkajhkl2" windows-disk.imgor
strings windows-disk.img > windows-disk.strings grep "this is the alternate data stream lkajhkl2" windows-disk.strings
As you will quickly discover the data is easily found.
Alternate data streams are only available on NTFS file systems, making home users with older systems (Windows95, Windows98, WindowsME) immune to this problem, but newer systems based on WindowsXP are capable of using NTFS, thus potentially exposing customers to risk. NTFS is also available on most corporate systems such as WindowsNT, Windows2000 and WindowsXP.
Another "feature" of alternate data streams is that they cannot be deleted. If you have an alternate data stream attached to a file, you cannot delete it. You can write other data to the stream, however you cannot reliably delete it. To overwrite an alternate data stream, simply place more data into it, for example:
echo "this will overwrite existing data in the stream" > C:file.txt:alternate-data-streamor
type notepad.exe > C:file.txt:alternate-data-stream ***
Several workarounds exist, and several vendors are in the process of updating software so as to fix the problem.
The first workaround is to avoid using alternate data streams to store sensitive information. To check for alternate data streams several free tools exist, one of the best of which is LADS from Frank Hayne Software. Simply download lads.zip and unpack it, then run it from your root drives (e.g. C:, D:). It should find and report any and all alternate data streams present. Because alternate data streams cannot be deleted, tools to detect them are quite effective. Once found, you should securely delete the files and proceed to the next workaround, wiping free space, in order to ensure the alternate data streams are deleted.
The second workaround is to immediately use the "wipe free space" feature present in most secure file deletion utilities. Since the parent file or directory that the alternate data streams were attached to have been deleted, the data in the alternate data streams is now in "free space" on the hard drive, thus using "wipe free space" will overwrite it. The downside of this workaround of course is that wiping all the free space on a hard disk can take quite some time, especially on a modern disk that may have several tends of gigabytes of free space to wipe. One note on this: Wiping free space may not be possible or effective on network shares using NTFS, it is recommended to encrypt truly sensitive data on NTFS network file systems.
A third workaround is to encrypt sensitive data, Windows 2000 offers encrypted file system, or you can use programs such as PGP's PGPDisk or Jetico's BestCrypt. It is recommended to use encrypted disk partitions rather then encrypting single files, encrypted disk partitions are much easier to work with, type in a password and you have access, when you are done you do not need to worry about encrypting the file, as the data is kept in an encrypted state on the hard drive. Additionally temporary files stored in the same directory (such as opened word files) will also be kept in an encrypted state, reducing the need for you to wipe free space.
About the author
Kurt Seifried is an Information Security Analyst with interests ranging from Microsoft and UNIX systems to network protocols and encryption (to name but a few). He has written a large number of articles (available online) and maintains many resources on his Website. He was formerly the senior analyst and main writer for SecurityPortal. Visit his site at http://seifried.org/security/.
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http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/tip/What-to-do-when-deleted-doesnt-mean-gone
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|
en
| 0.920471 | 1,382 | 3 | 3 |
View the archive of our entire show! Host Sedge Thomson
talks with chocolatiers, chefs, and scientsts about
the history and science of this intoxicating food. This
Webcast was presented in audio and video.
(Click to visit)
Visit the Amazon rain forest and see cacao--the source
of chocolate growing on the tree.
- Learn about the early history of chocolate, its importance
to early American cultures, and how it spread to Europe.
- Take a video tour of Scharffen Berger Chocolate Makers
- Listen to scientists explain the chemical properties
of chocolate. Learn why it may be good for you, and
why it makes us feel so good.
Learn how to temper chocolate perfectly!
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http://www.exploratorium.edu/chocolate/index.html
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en
| 0.805939 | 155 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Home > Digital Library > Index of Newsletters > Vol. II No. 2 July - September 1994 >
Conservation of Oil Paintings
Shri K. K. Gupta
K.K. Gupta, Graduated in Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics in 1965 and completed M.Sc. in Mathematics in 1967. Has been working in Conservation of Works of Art in the National Museum since 1966. Undertook training courses in Conservation at the National Museum in 1967 and later in 1974 at Tokyo National Research Institute of Cultural Property, Japan.
A Painting is a laminated structure with a number of layers. In general there are four layers viz. support, ground, paint and surface coating. A paint is a composition of colouring matter and medium. In an oil painting, the medium is drying oil. Due to its complex structure and due to interaction of various environmental factors, an oil painting gets deteriorated leading to alteration in its appearance and strength. The deterioration can be slowed by the control of these factors within safe limits. However, if the painting has already deteriorated, treatment of the damage becomes necessary. The action to be taken is decided after careful examination of the painting using different aids. Cleaning, reinforcement and protection are three main operations in conservation and the treatment depends upon the condition of the painting. Minimum alteration and reversibility of the treatment are the main considerations. Paintings are finally restored s close as feasible to their original form without interfering with the intention of the artist and keeping possible minimum differentiation between the original and the restoration. Surface coating is finally given to protect the painting and to give it a richer appearance, provided it does not go against the artists intention.
Copyright IGNCAŠ 1999
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://ignca.nic.in/nl_00407.htm
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en
| 0.956091 | 342 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Thomas Rowlandson published this print during the influenza epidemic of 1788 and four years later, its companion Hypochondriac (Nov. 5, 1792). In the room, we see Ague (an acute or high fever such as malaria) as a white serpent clutching the patient with its spidery hands and feet. Plain old Fever is the furry beast in the center. The doctor writes a prescription for them at the right.
Rowlandson includes a quote from John Milton, which I will place here in context:
All else deep snow and ice,
A gulf profound as that Serbonian bog
Betwixt Damiata and Mount Casius old,
Where armies whole have sunk: the parching air
Burns frore, and cold performs th’ effect of fire.
Thither, by harpy-footed Furies haled,
At certain revolutions all the damned
Are brought; and feel by turns the bitter change
Of fierce extremes, extremes by change more fierce,
From beds of raging fire to starve in ice
Their soft ethereal warmth, and there to pine
Immovable, infixed, and frozen round
Periods of time,—thence hurried back to fire.
—Paradise Lost, Book II
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://blogs.princeton.edu/graphicarts/2013/01/ague.html
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|
en
| 0.897799 | 262 | 2.890625 | 3 |
ADHD in Children Q&A by Dr. Phillips
ADHD is an ongoing behavior disorder typically diagnosed at age five or six, though the symptoms have usually been observed much earlier than this age. The three key symptoms are hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention. These symptoms typically interfere with the child's functioning in social and academic settings. The diagnostic criteria were outlined in 1994 in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association). To meet the diagnostic criteria, these symptoms, exemplified below, must have been present for at least six months.
ADHD symptom - inattention
ADHD symptom - hyperactivity
ADHD symptom - impulsivity
One can see why there is an age limitation on these behaviors being defined as "abnormal," as the majority of them are typical of much younger children. But in the non-ADHD child, these behaviors are typically outgrown. And, of course, there are a variety of other conditions in which these symptoms occur but are not ADHD. Your doctor must carry out a very detailed evaluation before the diagnosis of ADHD is made. But please don't delay! If you or your child's teachers suspect ADHD, begin the evaluation as soon as possible. The early recognition and treatment of ADHD is critical in your child's long-term success.
Thank you for your question.
Last Editorial Review: 12/16/2008
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|
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|
en
| 0.946546 | 289 | 3.25 | 3 |
Scientists want more safety studies on e-cigarettes
London: Greek researchers called on Wednesday for more safety studies into electronic cigarettes, saying scientific knowledge of them was "very limited."
Electronic cigarettes, or e-cigarettes, were first made in China and are sold mostly on the Internet.
They are battery-powered devices which emit a "puff" or fine mist of nicotine into the lungs and are intended to replace normal cigarettes and help smokers quit.
The products are at the center of a legal battle in the United States between manufacturers and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which regulates drugs and which wants to stop e-cigarettes from being imported into the US.
The FDA, which conducted research into e-cigarettes, has expressed concerns about their safety, and teams from Greece and New Zealand have also carried out studies into them.
But interpretations of the three reports vary, with the New Zealand study saying e-cigarettes should be recommended because they are safer than tobacco cigarettes, and the Greek study taking a broadly neutral stance.
"The limited information given in these three reports represents all the knowledge we currently have about e-cigarettes," Andreas Flouris and Dimitris Oikonomou, of the Institute of Human Performance and Rehabilitation in Greece, wrote in the British Medical Journal.
"This may be one reason why the battle...between the FDA and e-cigarette manufacturers has been so heated."
A US judge last week granted an injunction barring the Obama administration from trying to ban imports of e-cigarettes, saying the move was part of "aggressive efforts" by the FDA to regulate "recreational tobacco products."
Tobacco is the leading preventable cause of death in the world, killing more than 5 million people a year. A report by the World Lung Foundation last August said smoking could kill a billion people this century if trends hold.
Flouris and Oikonomou said that while "alternative smoking strategies are always welcome in an effort to reduce the threat to public health" caused by tobacco, safety was also vital.
"More rigorous chemical analyses are needed, followed by extensive research involving animal studies and, finally, clinical trials in humans," they wrote.
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<urn:uuid:6d5bfc12-c6fa-440d-8cb9-5df855d06113>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://zeenews.india.com/news/health/health-news/scientists-want-more-safety-studies-on-e-cigarettes_6717.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.949667 | 565 | 2.515625 | 3 |
What is a Stroke?
This type of stroke happens when a blood vessel leaks or ruptures in or near the brain. The ruptured vessel stops blood supply for the areas past the leak. Then blood floods the nearby tissues causing pressure and function changes.
- Subarachnoid hemorrhage: This occurs when a blood vessel on the surface of the brain ruptures and bleeds into the space between the brain and skull. The most common cause is a ruptured aneurysm caused by high blood pressure. Other causes are rupture of an AVM (arteriovenous malformation), bleeding from an injury due to a blow to the head or venous or capillary problems.
- Intracerebral hemorrhage: This is bleeding into the tissue deep within the brain. High blood pressure is often the cause of this type of stroke. Injury and rupture due to problem vessels can also be the cause.
This type of stroke occurs when a clot or piece of clot clogs a narrowed blood vessel, cutting off the blood flow to a part of the brain. A brain attack caused by too little blood reaching a part of the brain is called an ischemic stroke.
- Thrombotic stroke: This is caused by a blood clot (thrombus) in an artery going to the brain. The clot blocks blood flow to part of the brain. Blood clots may form in arteries damaged by arteriosclerosis. This type of brain attack accounts for around 60 percent of all strokes.
- Embolic stroke: This type of brain attack accounts for about 20 percent of all strokes. It is caused by a clot that formed somewhere else in the body and traveled to clog a vessel in or leading to the brain.
- Systemic hypo perfusion: This occurs because of a low flow of blood to the brain. It happens when too little blood reaches the brain.
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<urn:uuid:130e61df-8e24-4871-9dc9-52d8d81e581d>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.uwhealth.org/stroke/what-is-a-stroke/27665
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en
| 0.92108 | 386 | 3.796875 | 4 |
VPN to site A, open a command prompt and type:
tracert -d 192.168.0.2
You see a list of all the routers the traffic passes through it it's attempt to reach site B (this takes a while to build up). The first hop should be 192.168.10.1 i.e. the router at site A. If the first hop is to your PCs usual default gateway then you need to modify the routing rules on your PC. If the first hop is 192.168.10.1 but the remaining hops time out then you need to modify the router configs.
To expand a bit (bear with me if you already know this stuff!), let's say your PC has IP address 192.168.16.2 and default gateway 192.168.16.1 (you can type ipconfig to get this info). When you ping any address that isn't 192.168.16.xxx the traffic gets routed to your gateway 192.168.1.1.
When you connect the VPN you'll probably get a second IP address 192.168.10.something; in effect the VPN creates a second network card. If you ping 192.168.10.1 (i.e. site A router) this is now a local address so no gateways are involved and the site A router should reply. Now ping 192.168.0.1 (site B router). This address isn't in the local networks for either your real NIC (192.168.16.xxx) or the VPN virtual NIC (192.168.10.xxx) so the packet will go to the default gateway, 192.168.16.1. The default gateway is presumably your ADSL router, so the packet disappear into the Internet and be lost. Hence you can't ping site B.
Now, some VPNs change the default gateway when you connect. In that case the default gateway would be 192.168.10.something so when you ping 192.168.0.xxx the packet should flow through the VPN and you should be able to ping site B.
I seem to have ranted on a bit, however the point is that tracert will quickly tell you where your pings to site B are going and give you a clue as to what's wrong.
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<urn:uuid:9fe9cc1c-6f35-45be-a4df-69340854d283>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://serverfault.com/questions/33567/i-have-a-site-to-site-vpn-tunnel-set-up-between-offices-when-i-connect-from-hom
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.89728 | 478 | 2.625 | 3 |
City of New Bedford.
1871 (undated) 16.5 x 13 in (41.91 x 33.02 cm)
1 : 12000
A lovely 1871 map of the city of New Bedford, Massachusetts, by H. F. Walling and O. W. Gray. Centered on Acushnet River, the map covers the city from Sawyer St. to Cove St. and from Oak Grove Cemetery to Summer St. Color coded according to wards, this highly detailed map notes several individual buildings, streets, bridges, islands, wharfs, cemetery and other topographical details. Published as plate no. 87 in the 1871 edition of Walling and Gray's Official Topographical Atlas of Massachusetts.
Henry Francis Walling (June 11, 1825 - April 8, 1889) was an American civil engineer, cartographer, surveyor, and map publisher active from the middle to late 19th century. Walling was born in Providence Rhode Island. He studied worked at the Providence Athenaeum before discovering a talent for mathematics and surveying. Walling took a position with Samuel Barrett Cushing, a Providence based civil engineer with whom he issued in 1846 revision of James Steven's Topographical Map of the State of Rhode-Island. Walling established himself independently around 1850 and immediately began preparing a serious of town plans focusing on Bristol County - near Providence. Buoyed by popular interest in his plans Walling expanded his operations to Massachusetts where, by 1857, he had produced no less than 50 town plans. Apparently Walling's business model involved a contract with town officials to produce a certain number of maps after which he acquired the right to print and sell additional copies on his own account. This work eventually led to Walling's appointment as Massachusetts "Superintendent of the State Map", a designation that begins appearing on his maps around 1855. While Walling's work focused heavily on city and county maps, he did successfully publish three scarce state maps: Maine, Vermont, and Rhode Island. In 1856 Walling relocated his headquarters to New York City where he had better access to quality lithographers. The Civil War proved difficult for Walling and diminished sales may have forced him into a partnership with Ormando W. Gray, with whom he published numerous state, county, and national atlases in the 1860s and 1870s. Around 1880 Walling took a post with the U.S. Coast Survey with whom he worked on various charts until requesting a transfer in 1883 to the newly formed U.S. Geological Survey. Walling remained with the Geological Survey until his untimely death of a heart attack in April of 1889.
Walling, H. F., and Gray, O. W., Official Topographical Atlas of Massachusetts, (Stedman, Brown & Lyon) 1871.
Very good. A printing crease near bottom right margin. Map runs off edge of paper, as issued. Blank on verso.
Rumsey 1154.025. Phillips (atlases) 14399.
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http://www.geographicus.com/P/AntiqueMap/NewBedford-walling-1871
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en
| 0.965358 | 621 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Most headaches people experience are tension headaches. Most “sinus headaches” are actually migraine variants. In fact, the International Headache Society Classification of Headache disorders does not include “sinus headaches” as a category. However, many patients with rhinosinusitis and/or allergies describe sinus headaches as pain or pressure behind the cheekbones, eyes, or the forehead. These headaches are often accompanied by other sinusitis symptoms such as congestion, nasal discharge, decreased sense of smell, and sometimes even facial swelling. A sinus related headache is thought to occur when mucus or pressure from the sinuses cannot efficiently drain into the nasal cavity due to inflammation or obstruction.
Sinus headaches must be treated by determining the cause of the inflammation. Allergens can often cause inflammation, so antihistamines could be used in this setting. Decongestants could also be used to help temporarily decrease mucosal swelling. If the inflammation was caused by bacterial infection of the sinuses, antibiotics may be of benefit. Overall, to prevent sinus headache, it is important to take preventative measures such as cleaning out nasal cavity through rinsing methods, avoiding allergens, and proper nasal ventilation. If there is any doubt to the origin of a headache, examination (including nasal endoscopy) may be coupled with a CT scan to see if there is sinus disease in the region of the pain.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.ucdenver.edu/academics/colleges/medicalschool/departments/Otolaryngology/patientcare/adultservices/cusinuscenter/Pages/Sinus-Headache.aspx
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|
en
| 0.935266 | 288 | 3.140625 | 3 |
An extension of the existing GIFTED series, "Vocabulary for the Gifted Student" introduces advanced learners to skills and concepts that will benefit them in the years to come. These engaging workbooks teach challenging words in context through reading passages, as well as through critical thinking, writing, and drawing activities.
All the exercises are formulated to be one- to one-and-a-half levels above the child's current grade.
|Book:||Vocabulary For The Gifted Student Grade 3 (For The Gifted Student): Challenging Activities For The Advanced Learner|
|Author:||Flash Kids Flash Kids Editors|
Please Note -
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BookAdda (www.bookadda.com) is a premier online book store in selling books online across India at the most competitive prices. BookAdda sells fiction, business, non fiction, literature, AIEEE, medical, engineering, computer book, etc. The books are delivered across India FREE of cost.
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http://www.bookadda.com/books/vocabulary-gifted-student-grade-3-flash-kids-1411427696-9781411427693
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en
| 0.865499 | 267 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Securing the Internet of Things: Where do you start?
Securing everything, everywhere, forevermore is the ultimate pipe dream, and it may not even be feasible. The world is too big, complex and dynamic to hold out that hope for long.
Nevertheless, securing every "thing" is becoming a critical issue as we move into the era of the Internet of Things (IoT). Some refer to this vision as the “industrial Internet,” the “machine-to-machine Internet” the “sensor Internet,” the “ambient Internet” and even the “RFID Internet.” More broadly, IoT refers to the vision of a world where sensors, intelligence and connectivity are embedded into every human artifact, every element of the natural world and even every physical person.
Security is critical to IoT's adoption because we want to make sure we can "trust" the sensors, actuators, rules engines and other connected componentry we embed in every element of our existence. Bringing this down to earth is as easy as pointing out that people's smartphones, tablets, wearable devices, appliances, entertainment centers and home security systems are all becoming "IoT " connected endpoints. How vulnerable will you be to security vulnerabilities and privacy violations from any and all of these?
Privacy issues are where most people focus in the IoT security debate. In the post-Snowden age, many people are not reassured by statements such as this from former CIA director David Petraeus, who was discussing the privacy vulnerabilities of IoT-equipped "smart homes:"
So far, nobody has a comprehensive vision for how, or even if, the human race will be able to manage end-to-end security in the coming IoT world. But many people have dissected this topic recently, and many others are sure to follow. For starters, here's the list of IoT security requirements that I discussed in an IBM Data Magazine article from this past summer (in which I defined the role of big data in IoT security):
- Incorporate robust security protections in the development of IoT products
- Leverage widely vetted open security standards in IoT products
- Embed modular, security-aware hardware and software designs in IoT products
- Conduct independent review, auditing and penetration testing of security in IoT products
It's no surprise that the venerable Vint Cert has thoughts on this issue as well. At a recent workshop of the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC), Cerf approached IoT privacy protection within a larger architectural perspective. He discussed several key IoT challenges: standardized IoT interfaces, bulk IoT device provisioning and configuration, IoT access control and authentication, IoT privacy and safety, IoT instrumentation and feedback, and IoT device security patching.
On its end, the FTC raised several important concerns to supplement Cerf's and my discussions: IoT device vendor ecosystems, IoT device data de-identification and IoT device-level attack-prevention safeguards.
Yet another (largely non-overlapping) list of IoT security issues is in this recent E-Commerce Times article. The piece, authored by Ed Moyle, discusses 5 security capabilities that should be incorporated into IoT infrastructures: IoT threat awareness/intelligence, IoT inventory management, IoT application security, IoT vendor governance and IoT business integration.
The most noteworthy aspect of Moyle's discussion is the focus on building a security-aware IoT vendor value chain. This excerpt jumped out at me:
If your head's not swimming from IoT security issue overload, you're not paying attention. How do we get our heads around the multi-layered security challenges in this coming era? As an organizing framework, I'd propose that we approach it as follows:
- Securing IoT endpoints: Do you trust the things themselves? Everybody recognizes that the first line of IoT security must be built into the things themselves. Considering the ever expanding diversity of IoT endpoints, in scale, features, deployments, etc., the endpoint-security standards must be framed in functional terms that are agnostic to underlying physical implementations.
- Securing IoT engagements: Do you trust the things' engagements with the world around them? Security vulnerabilities are consequences of how IoT endpoints interact with users, with local and remote applications, with cloud and other infrastructures, and with each other. Securing the IoT depends on standards for how these engagement patterns leverage identity, authentication, access control, encryption, de-identification, privacy, intrusion detection, alerting, auditing, monitoring and other infrastructure services.
- Securing IoT ecosystems: Do you trust the things' value chains? Security vulnerabilities may introduced anywhere in the constellation of solution providers, service businesses, certification authorities and others who build, deploy, test, manage and vouch for the endpoints and infrastructures. Securing the IoT depends on assembling the compliance, legal, contractual and operational frameworks to handle the interlocking responsibilities of all these parties for ensuring end-to-end security.
Where do we start to realize this vision of security-enabled IoT? The short answer is "everywhere" (yes, I know that sounds flippant, but it reflects the magnitude of the security challenge that will confront us all as this technology is deployed everywhere).
Fortunately, the IoT industry is beginning to address these challenges on many fronts, a fact to which the cited articles allude. As new IoT technologies take hold and new threats reveal themselves, the global security framework will grow more complex and layered.
Considering that IoT has only just started its long road to ubiquity, ongoing refinement of security infrastructure, tools and practices will go on indefinitely.
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psychologists, ... Socialization is the process by which human infants begin to
acquire the skills necessary to perf...
The story of Genie shows the importance of socialization in human society.
Socialization refers to the preparation of newcomers to become members of an ...
Dec 8, 2011 ... Socialization. Human infants are born without any culture. They must be
transformed by their parents, teachers, and others into cultural and ...
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necessary to perform as functioning members of their society.
Figure 5.1. Socialization is how we learn the norms and beliefs of our society. ....
However, who we are as human beings develops through social interaction.
Definition of socialization: Process by which individuals acquire the knowledge,
... recruitment · human resource management (HRM) · personnel management.
The Process of Socialization. By T. R. SCHAFFLER. A child possesses no human
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Socialization and Culture. by Loretta F. Kasper, Ph.D. The discipline of sociology
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Describe why socialization is important for being fully human. We have just noted
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Linux from a shell
I have friends and family who all have remote access to Linux computers but have never used it. I wrote this article for them.
You work with Windows or Mac. You don't know much (or anything) about Linux. But you can't ignore it because sometimes you come across it in the form of a shell account on a remote Linux box. And then you would like to be able to use it. You are not interested in system administration. Programming doesn't mean anything to you. But you would like to be able to perform some basic tasks. If you agree with most of the former statements this article is for you. This article does not cover graphical user interfaces as those are usually not available on servers. It solely covers shell access (text).
What is a shell at all?
A shell is a program that allows you to interact with a computer's files and processes (running programs). A shell lets you run programs. It executes them and displays the output of the program to you. There are many small programs that help you do basic tasks. So actually you are not learning how to use a shell, but how to use many small programs. The shell itself has also some built-in commands which can be used to write so called shell scripts. Those are also programs. But you said you did not want to know about programming. So at the moment just forget about shell scripts.
Why do those programs not open windows, you may ask. All the programs we will use in this article work in text mode. They provide a command-line interface (CLI) to the user. That means all user interaction works through the keyboard and output in text form. That has several advantages over a window based user interface:
- Bandwidth: Using a graphical user interface over the network is slow because all information is transferred as images. And images take up a lot of space and networks are quite slow. Text data is much much smaller and can thus be transaferred over a network thousands of times faster.
- Server resource: Graphical user interfaces use a lot of server resources (memory, processor time) for every connected user and for every running program. Linux is a multi-user system. That means multiple users can be logged in on one computer at the same time. On a big system there can be hundreds of users. If every user used a graphical user interface the system could handle much less users.
- Monitors: Servers often are rack mounted systems that have no monitor connected (head-less). So for the system administrator there is no need for a graphical user interface and so it is often not installed at all.
- Scripting: One can easily call CLI programs in shell scripts (small programs). They are the basic building blocks out of which one can build powerful things with very little "glue code". Some of the command-line interfaces of these programs have been specifically designed to ease interoperability with other CLI programs. Scripting is an extremely important technology that is widely used in Linux/Unix for almost everything. Were these programs equipped with a graphical user interface only, it would be impossible to control such a program from a script.
Note: It really is possible to control a Linux machine with a graphical user interface over the network. But it is not common practice.
Connecting to the remote machine
Today remote Linux machines are usually accessed with SSH (Secure Shell). SSH is a protocol and a shell that lets you execute commands on the remote machine and transfer files to and from the remote machine. SSH encrypts all data as it is sent over the network. It is safe to use even if your computer is connected to the network over WLAN. So you need a SSH client on your local computer to be able to connect to the remote computer.
SSH clients are freely available on the web. The choice is yours. You can use a "graphical" one like Putty. But you can just as well use a command-line based one, like OpenSSH. If you use Mac OS-X, you can open a Terminal and use OpenSSH directly from there. You don't need a graphical SSH client at all.
If you use Windows you may try Cygwin. It offers a powerful Linux shell (and much more) under Windows. It also includes OpenSSH. So you can start with a shell right from your local computer. And most things you learn in this article you can even try out with Cygwin alone - without the need for a remote Linux machine!
Connecting with OpenSSH
From now on you will see commands that you have to type in at the shell displayed like this:
echo "Hello world"
Press the Enter key at the end of a command so it is executed by the shell. To connect as the user john to the remote computer very.remote.com with SSH type:
This looks like an email address. But it is not. When the connection is established you will be prompted for your password. If you enter it correctly you will be logged in on the remote machine.
The $ is the prompt
The shell will display something like this to you: john@very ~ $ or -bash-2.05b$
and wait for input. This looks a bit strange to the avarage user. It is called the prompt. It is just a piece of information that is printed by your shell. It's actually possible to completely customize your prompt (by setting the PS1 variable) but I won't go into this much detail here. From now on I will just write a single dollar $ as the user prompt in the boxes. Of course you must not type that.
What's my shell?
As mentioned before there are many different shell programs. The most popular one on Linux is probably the bash (Born Again Shell). There is also the less popular tcsh. On a Sun/Solaris system the Korn Shell (ksh) is very popular. They all conform to the a common standard (the POSIX shell). So they have a common set of features and a common language. But each of them has proprietary extensions that makes them powerful for certain things. To find out which one you are using type echo $SHELL. If this command suggests that you are using bash, it's okay. Because I am going to explain everything here for bash. If the output suggests that you are using something else than a bash, then please try to run a bash.
$ echo $SHELL /bin/tcsh $ bash $ echo $SHELL /bin/bash
You can permanently change the default shell that is started when you login with the chsh command. Make sure you know the absolute path to bash before.
$ which bash /bin/bash $ chsh Changing the login shell for john Enter the new value, or press ENTER for the default Login Shell [/bin/tcsh]: /bin/bash
Changing your password
The first thing you will probably want to do is change the password to something you can more easily remember.
This invokes the passwd program. It will ask you to enter your current password and then ask you to choose a new one and enter it twice. For security reasons the passwords will not be displayed on the screen as you type them.
Please note that most systems require you to choose a secure password. That means it should be long enough, have enough different upper as well as lower case characters and number in it or even special characters like an exclamation mark or a period. Generally passwords that are likely to appear in a dictionary are inherently unsafe: fox is a bad password, but h9B!S-v2K is a good one.
Who is there?
Check out who else is currently logged in:
$ who john pts/0 Jan 9 21:42 jack pts/1 Jan 9 21:57
You see there is also jack logged in since 21:57.
Where am I?
The remote machine has a file system that consists of files in a hierarchical directory structure. Much like folders and documents under Windows. The shell has a "current directory" it is in at the moment. You can find out what the current directory is:
$ pwd /home/john
As you are now working on a remote machine you are probably interested in some files that reside there. The ls (list) command will list the files in the current directory (folder):
If the directory is empty there won't be much output of course. Otherwise you get a list of file names. The
program accepts many options that influence its output. I can only list the most important ones here. Options are single letters that
are placed after a space and a minus character after the program name. ls -Ahl means: execute the ls program with the
options A, h and l. They have the following meaning and effects:
- A: list really all files. Files that start with a dot are normally hidden.
- l: show details. Shows the permissions, file size, modifcation date etc. along with the file.
- h: human sizes. Shows the file size in better readable form (KB, MB etc) instead of bytes.
- L: show link targets instead of links
You can also filter the list of files:
$ ls -l *.jpg -rw------- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 cat.jpg -rw-r----- 1 john users 1238182 Mar 24 17:12 dog.jpg
only lists JPG files. Please note that (unlike on Windows) under Linux filenames are case sensitive. That means dog and Dog are different files.
The output of ls may scroll by your screen too fast and may be too large for your window buffer so you lose output. To view the output page by page you must redirect the output to a pager program like more or less. See below for how to use these.
$ ls | more
Note the "pipe" character. It's AltGr-1 or AltGr-7 depending on your keyboard. There are two characters that look very
similar. The pipe should be this whole straight uninterrupted line: |
and not this character: ¦
You can scroll forward page by page with the space key or exit with the q key.
Reading ls output
Look at this sample output of ls -l:
drwxr-xr-x 2 john users 80 Jan 31 2004 projects -rw------- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 todo.txt -rw-r----- 1 john audio 1238182 Mar 24 17:12 news.mp3 -rwxr----- 1 john users 873 Mar 22 12:46 backup lrwxrwxrwx 1 john users 22 Jan 31 2004 www -> projects/www.odi.ch
Let's ignore the left half of the output at the moment, as it only deals with permissions. The right most column is the file
name, followed by file's the date and time and its size in bytes. Note the intelligent date display: the time is only displayed for
files younger than one year. Likewise older files show the year instead of the time.
projects is a directory which is
noticable by the d at the beginning of the line.
www on the other hand is not an actual file but a (symbolic)
link to the file (or directory) projects/www.odi.ch. Links show a l at the beginning of the line. Links are a feature
not present in Windows filesystems. On Linux you can access a link as if it was the file itself. You won't notice a difference.
Navigating the filesystem
You have already learned what you current directory is and how to list its contents. Directory names are always separated by the forward slash character / (like in www links). The top of the directory hierarchy is called the root directory. Several directory names separated by slash are called a path. A path can either be absolute or relative. An absolute path starts with a slash and tells us how to find a directory starting from the root directory. A relative path does not start with a slash and tells us how to find a directory starting from the current directory.
Now how can you change into a different directory? You use the cd (change directory) program and give it the path to the new directory as a parameter. Here is an example session:
john@very ~ $ cd / john@very / $ cd usr john@very usr $ cd bin john@very bin $ pwd /usr/bin john@very bin $ cd .. john@very usr $ pwd /usr john@very usr $ cd ../tmp john@very tmp $ cd john@very ~ $ pwd /home/john
- how the prompt changes while navigating through the directory hierarchy.
- how .. is used to change into the next higher directory.
- where the last cd command without a parameter takes you
No drive letters
On Windows you are used to have drive lettern (C: is you hard drive usually, D: may be the CD-ROM). This concept is different in Unix/Linux. There is only one file system. So Linux does not need any drive letters. File systems from different media are combined together in a single directory structure. This is called mounting. We say for instance, the CD-ROM file system is mounted under /media/cdrom. And the main hard drive is mounted under / (root).
What is where
Unlike Windows, Linux has a well ordered file system where everything has its place. There are still some minor differences between distributions however. And BSD Systems like Mac OS-X have their own philosophy how to organise files. Here is a list of some directory and what you find there.
|/boot||Files needed at startup|
|/dev||Devices (don't go there)|
|/home||All home directories (you can only access yours)|
|/lib and /usr/lib||Libraries shared by programs|
|lost+found||Files recovered after filesystem errors (never happens really)|
|/mnt and /media||Mounted media like cdroms, floppy disks, USB drives|
|/opt||Large third party software like Java, Oracle, etc.|
|/proc||Information about processes (don't go there)|
|/root||root's home directory (you don't have access)|
|/sbin and /usr/sbin||System administration programs. Some may be useful to you even.|
|/sys||Information about devices (don't go there)|
|/tmp and /var/tmp and /usr/tmp||Space for temporary files for everybody|
|/usr/bin||Programs (installed by package manager)|
|/usr/doc /usr/share/doc /usr/man /usr/share/man
|/usr/local||Custom installed software (not by package manager)|
|/var||Runtime data used by services|
|/var/lib||Where services store data and persistent state|
|/var/spool||Print and mail queues|
|/var/run||Info about running services|
Use TAB to autocomplete
When navigating through directories you have to type many directory names. The autocomplete feature of the bash shell comes in handy here! It is enough to type the first few letters of a directory or command and then press the TAB key. The shell will instantly fill in the missing characters for you! This works only if there is only one possibility to complete the name. If there is more than one possibility the shell will beep (might not always work) and do nothing. Pressing TAB again in this case will list all possibilities.
Creating new files
touch creates new (empty) files for you.
$ touch 'new file' $ ls new file
Note how we used single quotes to allow a space in the file name.
If you want to remove the file you have just created then use the rm (remove) program.
$ rm 'new file' $ ls
Be careful when deleting files. There is no way back. Deleted files are lost forever! Despite this horrible fact rm is extremely powerful. Using it with asterix wildcards can even wipe out several files at once: rm *.tmp. Its r option will even wipe out entire hierarchies of directories: rm -r crap (DON'T TRY THIS NOW). So be extra careful when deleting files. Especially when you are root. You have been warned.
Creating new directories
mkdir creates new (empty) directories.
$ mkdir Documents $ ls Documents $ cd Documents $ ls
The rmdir does the opposite of mkdir. It deletes a directory. This only works if the directory is empty. Use ls -la to check. If you need to delete non-empty directory hierarchies use rm with the r option. See above.
Home sweet ~
You have noticed that cd takes you to a special directory (/home/john in the example) if you don't tell it where to go. This is called your home directory. It has the short name ~ (tilda). That also explains the tilda in your prompt! Your home directory is the place where you can put your own files. You have all permissions on this directory. You may create new subdirectories as you like. This is also the place where programs that you run will store their settings. Like when you run a browser it will store your bookmarks in a hidden subdirectory of your home directory. This is cool, because your data is all in one place and not scattered across the whole system. So you know what you must backup.
Searching for files
The easiest way to find a file with a specific name on Linux is to use locate. It expects a partial filename as a
parameter and will print out the results. Please note that file names on Linux are case sensitive. That is: Two files
myBook are different files and may happily live together inside the same directory (Windows
does not allow that normally). So if you are unsure about the proper case you should use the i option to make the
search case insensitive:
$ locate -i mybook /home/john/books/myBook.txt /home/jack/stuff/important/MyBoolet.doc
locate is very fast because it uses a pre-built index of the file system. This also means that files are not
available through locate until this index is regenerated. This usually happens once a day or once a week. Also locate does not
allow to further restrict the results. You will get too many results most of the time.
The most interesting options of locate are:
- i: case insensitive (normally the match is case sensitive)
- n 10: only show 10 results
- r: interprete the search pattern as a regular expression
A more powerful search program is find. It has many complicated options. And you can find files in the most obscure ways.
find does not use an index and is therefore slower than locate but finds files immediately. A typical find call looks
$ find /home/jack -iname \*book\* -type f
The above call looks for files whose name contain "book" (case insensitive) anywhere below
Only files (type f) are considered; whereas directories (type d) are ignored. Note that asterix needs to be escaped with a backslash.
That is because the asterix is otherwise interpreted by the shell. Another example: The above command looks for empty
directories anywhere below the current working directory.
$ find -type d -empty
find can also run a program on every file it finds. A convenient way to remove all CVS directories from a whole directory tree is for example:find -type d -name CVS |xargs rm -r
We have now mentioned permissions a few times. It's time for you to know what they are. As Linux is a multiuser system it is important to restrict access between these users. Users are not only human users. But also services can have their own user. For example a web server may run as the http user. Surely you don't want the webserver to be able to access your email. This is what permissions control. Now, look at this sample output of ls -l:
drwxr-xr-x 2 john users 80 Jan 31 2004 projects -rw------- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 todo.txt -rw-r----- 1 john audio 1238182 Mar 24 17:12 news.mp3 -r-xr----- 1 john users 873 Mar 22 12:46 backup lrwxrwxrwx 1 john users 22 Jan 31 2004 www -> projects/www.odi.ch
Just look at the left half of the output now. Every file (and directory) of a Linux file system belongs to a user. That user is the owner of the file. You can see all files in this directory belong to the user john. Also every file is assigned to a group. You can see all files but one belong to the group users, and one file belongs to the group audio.
The file mode is noted for every file in the first column which for instance reads: -rwxr-----. There are three different permissions: read, write and execute wich are represented by the characters r, w and x. Each right can be given to the file's owner, group and other users. People without a system account are not called users. They don't have access to files.
todo.txt file for example is readable and writable by its owner john. Nobody else is allowed to access it. The
news.mp3 can also be read by users belonging to the group audio. The
backup file can be executed by
john: it is a program. He can also read this file but can not modify it. Of course john could grant himself the right to write
backup. Careful: That a file is not writable doesn't mean it can't be deleted!
projects is a directory the permissions have slightly different meanings. Read access to a
directory means, the user is allowed to list the files inside the directory. Write access means the user can create and delete
files in the directory. So again: if you want to protect a file from being deleted make sure the user has no write access to the
file nor the directory. If a user can "execute" a directory it means she is permitted to enter (with cd).
Last but not least links always have all permissions (you can't change that) because the permissions are actually taken from the target file. Also owner and group are those of the link rather than the target file.You can use ls -lL to display the link target and its permissions directly.
Which groups do I belong to?
We have met user groups now. A user can be in any number of groups. Every user has a default group. Groups are managed by the system administrator (root). But you can see in which groups you are by using the groups program.
$ groups users cron audio cdrom dialout video games cdrw scanner
You normally don't need to care about group membership. You normally leave new files assigned to your default group. There is no need to change it.
First of all, only the owner of a file may change its permissions (being in the same group as the file does not count). There are three programs to modify the permissions of a file: chown (change owner), chgrp (change group) and chmod (change mode). Note: Ordinary users can not use chown, because they can not change the owner of files due to security reasons. The first two are easily exmplained by example:
$ ls -l -rw------- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 todo.txt $ chgrp audio todo.txt $ ls -l -rw------- 1 john audio 836 Jul 11 18:24 todo.txt $ chown jack todo.txt #normal users can not do that! $ ls -l -rw------- 1 jack audio 836 Jul 11 18:24 todo.txt
chmod is a bit more complicated. A numeric mode consists of three digits: 640 for example. The first is the permissions for the user, the second is the permissions for the group and the third for others. Each digit is the sum of r=4, w=2 and x=1. So a 6 corresponds to rw-, 5 corresponds to r-x, 7 corresponds to rwx, to name the most important combinations. This is known as the octal representation of file modes. The following table lists some frequently used file modes:
|644||-rw-r--r--||World readable files|
|640||-rw-r-----||Group readable files|
|755||-rwxr-xr-x||World readable directories
World executable programs
|750||-rwxr-x---||Group readable directories
Group executable programs
The chmod program is used to change the file mode like so:
$ ls -l -rw------- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 todo.txt $ chmod 644 todo.txt $ ls -l -rw-r--r-- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 todo.txt
Of course all of those programs accept a wildcard filename to bulk change many files. There is also a second variant of using chmod which is sometimes desirable to use:
$ ls -l -rw------- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 todo.txt $ chmod go+rw todo.txt $ ls -l -rw-rw-rw- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 todo.txt $ chmod u-r+x todo.txt $ ls -l --wxrw-rw- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 todo.txt
It's power is to modify the existing mode by selectively adding or removing individual permissions. The above example can be read aloud as: change mode (for) group (and) others add read (and) write (of the file) todo.txt. The second example as: change mode (for) user remove read (and) add exexcute (of the file) todo.txt. So the first parameter of chmod is a combination of:
- The list of subjects: user, group, others or all.
- The operation: + or -
- The list of permissions: r, w and x
When you create a new file or directory it will get some default permissions. You will be the owner. Your default group will be used as the group. And the mode will normally be world readable or private depending on your umask. The following values make sense for a umask:
|umask||file mode||directory mode|
How the umask works exactly is difficult to explain if you don't know about boolean algebra. But it's enough to keep those two values in mind.
$ umask 0077 $ touch a $ ls -l -rw------- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 a $ umask 0022 $ touch b $ ls -l -rw------- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 a -rw-r--r-- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 b
We have met symbolic links a couple of times now. You may have though, wow how handy, I would like to make a few of them in my home directory as shortcuts to point to my favourite places! That's a good idea. Look how simple it is to create a symbolic link:
$ ln -s /some/long/path/I/often/use shortcut $ ln -s /a/file/which/I/often/edit favourite $ ls -l lrwxrwxrwx 1 john users 22 Dec 23 12:22 shortcut -> /some/long/path/I/often/use lrwxrwxrwx 1 john users 22 Dec 23 12:22 favourite -> /a/file/which/I/often/edit
Just always remember to include the s option. Otherwise you create a hard link to files. Hard links can not be distinguished from normal files. They are normal files. They are just listed in the file system more than once. But they are the very same file. ls -li may help you identify identical files. Here is an example using hard links. It may be a bit confusing:
$ ls -l -rw------- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 text $ ln text sametext $ ls -li 23873 -rw------- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 text 23873 -rw------- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 sametext $ rm text $ ls -l -rw------- 1 john users 836 Jul 11 18:24 sametext
Had we used a symbolic link for
sametext we would have lost the original file and ended up with a broken link.
It's easy to copy files from one place to another with the cp (copy) program. In Windows that's called copy-paste.:
$ cp document /safe/place/to/be/ $ ls /safe/place/to/be document $ ls document
or just copy them to the same place under a different name:
$ cp document a-copy $ ls document a-copy
Moving (and renaming) files
It's as easy to move a file (not copying it) with the mv (move) program. The same can be used to give a file a new name:
$ ls new-document $ mv new-document old-document $ ls old-document $ mv old-document archive/ $ ls archive old-document $ ls
Sometimes you must run programs that are in user directories. For example the startup.sh script in a Tomcat bin directory. For security reasons normally programs are only executed when they are in special directories. All programs we have used so far are normally in /bin or /usr/bin. The following command will show you where programs are that you can execute. (This is stored in the PATH variable of your shell.)
$ echo $PATH /usr/local/bin:/usr/bin:/bin:/opt/bin:/usr/i686-pc-linux-gnu/gcc-bin/3.3.6: /opt/sun-jdk-18.104.22.168/bin:/opt/sun-jdk-22.214.171.124/jre/bin: /opt/sun-jdk-126.96.36.199/jre/javaws:/usr/qt/3/bin:/usr/kde/3.4/bin:/usr/games/bin
Let's see where the ls program actually is:
$ which ls /usr/bin/ls
When you enter ls the shell actually scans all the PATH directories for a program called ls. It executes the first one it encounters. If none is found the shells displays an error message. So if you want to run a script or program which is not in your PATH you have to tell the shell where to look. Imagine there is a script /opt/tomcat/bin/startup.sh. To run it you can do this:
$ cd /opt/tomcat/bin $ ls -l -rwxr-xr-x tomcat root 1027 Jan 12 10:29 startup.sh -rwxr-xr-x tomcat root 1027 Jan 12 10:29 shutdown.sh $ ./startup.sh
The dot always means the current directory. So the last line actually means execute the startup.sh program that resides in the current directory.
This is important. It's easy to forget options to programs you don't often use. Furthermore some programs have different options on some systems. But on the vast majority of systems there is a built-in help system! It is called the manual or man pages. All man pages are structured in the same way. After seeing a few you will easily find what you are looking for. Try man mkdir. It shows you the manual for the mkdir command. Browse through the page with the space and Enter key or Page-Down and Page-Up. Type q to go back to the shell. You can also search by typing a forward slash / followed by a search term and Enter. Pressing n repeatedly takes you through the highlighted search results. See also "Viewing text files" below.
Don't think Linux is English only! Depending on the installation there may be many languages available. Which language is displayed can be controlled by setting the LANG environment variable. Valid values of this variable can be obtained with the command: locale -a. The following would select German language on my system.
$ export LANG=de_DE
There are other variables that influence also how dates and system messages are displayed. A list of all those variables and their current values can be obtained with:
$ locale LANG=en_US LC_CTYPE="en_US" LC_NUMERIC="en_US" LC_TIME="en_US" LC_COLLATE="en_US" LC_MONETARY="en_US" LC_MESSAGES="en_US" LC_PAPER="en_US" LC_NAME="en_US" LC_ADDRESS="en_US" LC_TELEPHONE="en_US" LC_MEASUREMENT="en_US" LC_IDENTIFICATION="en_US" LC_ALL=
When in doubt just set LC_ALL and LANG and forget about the rest.
Viewing text files
In Linux there are many text files. So a common task is to view text files. Viewing means reading only. That excludes modifying. The most simple way to view a text file is the program cat:
$ cat /etc/resolv.conf nameserver 10.0.123.1 domain localdomain.net
cat just writes the whole file out to the screen. While that's fine for very short files it is inconvenient for larger files because they will scroll by way too quickly. A more powerful way to view a file is the more program. It is an interactive program. That means if the file is larger than your screen it will accept keyboard commands so you can navigate back and forth within the file. The following keys are recognized:
- Enter: scroll down one line
- space: scroll down one page
- b: scroll back one page
- /: search
- n: search next
- h: help screen
- q: quit
more is available on all systems but is quite an old program. Today it has mostly been replace by the bit more powerful less command. Less always behaves interactively, while more is only interactive if necessary. Less supports the same keyboard commands as more, but additionally the cursor keys and page up/down work. It has also some more features. See the built-in help screen (press h).
Less or more are also used when viewing manual pages. Which program is used for viewing is defined in the PAGER environment variable. You can check the current setting with echo $PAGER and set to use less:
$ export PAGER=less
This chapter is specific to bash. It is also a little advanced and you may decide to skip it. But sooner or later you will read it. If you are using another shell things may work differently. We have met environment variables a couple of times now. I'll quickly explain what this is. When you start a program the program is given an "environment". An environment consists of a number of variables (name/value pairs). The program can read these variables and change its behaviour according to their value. For instance, it can show text in the language that is set in the LANG variable. Which variables a program expects is normally documented in the program's man page.
Now, the shell is also a running program. So it also has an environment. You can list the environment variables of your shell with the set command. You will be surprised you many variables there are already. When you start a new program then all these environment variables get inherited to the program. The program gets an actual copy of the environment which it can modify without touching your environment. This means you can give every program that you start a completely different environment if you like.
So how do you modify the environment? You have done that already. You have used the export command to set the language. So to set the environment variable X of your shell to abc you do export X=abc. Sometimes you will see that people do it like this:
$ X=abc export X
This has the same effect. You can also remove the variable X from the environment again with unset X. To set certain environment variables automatically when you login you can put the necessary commands into one of the files .bashrc, .bash_login or .bash_profile in your home directory. They are executed automatically upon login. Not all of them may be present; you can just create them. See the next chapters for how to edit these files.
Editing text files
On the Linux console you will often need to edit text files. Thus you need a text editor. Beginners will often use nano
or pico. Mostly because they come with sort of a menu. I have tried those editors. But actually I could never figure out
how to do the must basic stuff like mark, copy/paste and search. So I gave them up quickly because I already knew how to use
vim. You may try out
nano if you like. It should be self-explanatory. But don't blame me if you don't
get along with it. Sooner or later you will learn how to use vi or vim anyway. So why not just right now?
vi is a powerful editor
vi is a probably the most powerful commandline editor. But it is difficult to learn, and hard to remember. The first difficulty is: There are two different versions. vi is the traditional (old) Unix editor. vim is its successor and much more advanced.vi lacks many of the most important features of vim. On most Linux systems when you start vi you will get vim actually. This is the magic behind:
$ ls -l /usr/bin/vi lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 12 Oct 24 09:56 /usr/bin/vi -> /usr/bin/vim
A simple link. Okay, let's start it with some text file as the parameter: vi sample.txt.
You should see the first page of the text file now. vi is in so called "open" mode now. That means you can not actually modify text (yet). You can merely move around in the text using the arrow keys, PgUp, PgDwn or the keys h,j,k,l. Almost every key on the keyboard will do something special in command mode. So be careful! Here are some basic commands:
- j,k: down, up one line
- 6j: down 6 lines
- h,l: left, right one character
- 0: beginning of line
- $: end of line
- gg: top of the file
- 385gg: go to line 385
- G: end of file
- w: right one word
- 7w: right 7 words
- x, Del: cut character
- 4x, Del: cut 4 characters
- dd: cut line
- 2dd: cut 2 lines
- 10dd: cut 10 lines
- dw: cut word
- d$: cut to end of line
- d0: cut to beginning of line
- dG: cut to end of file
- u: undo
- 2u: undo two commands
- J: join two lines
- y: copy one character
- yy: copy one line
- 3yy: copy 3 lines
- p: paste after current position
- 7p: paste 7 times after current position
- P: paste before current position
- v: mark visually for copy/cut (end with x or y)
- n: find next (after search)
- N: find previous
- ==: format current line
- =G: format to end of file (useful after copy/paste in a Window when text contains tabs)
The following commands leave open mode and enter editing mode. In editing mode you can type text with the keyboard. To return to open mode press ESC.
- i: insert at current position
- a: append/insert after current position
- o: insert line below
- O: insert line above
- s: replace character
- 3s: replace 3 characters
- r: replace (and return to open mode)
- 5r: replace 5 characters with another character
In editing mode the following helpful keyboard commands are available:
- Ctrl-n, Ctrl-p: complete word
- Ctrl-x Ctrl-l: complete line
- Ctrl-w: complete word
From open mode you can also go into command mode by typing a colon :. The cursor will jump to the last line of the screen and waits for you to type the command. After the command you are back in open mode. There are many commands. The most important ones are:
- h: help (exit with :q)
- w: save
- w otherfile: save to otherfile
- q: quit
- x: save and quit
- /needle: find "needle" (n: next)
- /needle\c: find "needle" non-case sensitive
- nohl: remove highlighting after search
- set paste: turns off some annyoing features before a paste operation
- set nopaste: turns these features back on
- s/cat/dog: replace "cat" with "dog" (current line)
- %s/cat/dog: replace "cat" with "dog" (whole file)
- s/cat/dog/g: replace all "cat" with "dog"
- s/cat/dog/gc: replace all "cat" with "dog" and confirm each one
- colorscheme elflord: colors suitable for black terminal
<Tab>: browse through color schemes
- syntax enable: enable syntax highlighting
Zipping files with zip
You are probably familiar with ZIP files from Windows. Or Stuff-it files on a Mac. These are compressed archives that can contain many files. Those archives can also contain a whole directory structure. Archives are handy when you want to move around many files between different computers. ZIP files can also be used on Linux. However ZIP files are less common on Linux because they do not support permissions. And you have see that permissions are an important feature of Linux file systems. So if you unpack a ZIP archive on Linux, you will have to figure out manually what is an executable program and set the execute permission manually! In the next section I will introduce you to tar, the more popular archiver for Linux.
Nevertheless you may work with ZIP files on Linux using the programs zip and unzip. When you start zip or unzip without parameters it will print a help screen. Here is how to use zip to store some photos in the pictures directory in a file called holidays.zip:
$ zip -r holidays.zip pictures adding: pictures/ (stored 0%) adding: pictures/dsc00461.jpg (deflated 1%) adding: pictures/dsc00462.jpg (deflated 1%) adding: pictures/dsc00463.jpg (deflated 1%)
This is how the same ZIP file you have just created is unzipped:
unzip holidays.zip Archive: holidays.zip creating: pictures/ inflating: pictures/dsc00461.jpg inflating: pictures/dsc00462.jpg inflating: pictures/dsc00463.jpg
Compressing files with gzip
gzip is GNU Zip, which is something else than zip. The two are not compatible! gzip compresses a single file and renames it by appending .gz to its name. gunzip is the counterpart that uncompresses a file again. Here is an example:
$ ls -l -rw-r--r-- 1 john users 616 Jan 3 03:25 letter.txt $ gzip letter.txt $ ls -l -rw-r--r-- 1 john users 383 Jan 3 03:25 letter.txt.gz $ gunzip letter.txt.gz $ ls -l -rw-r--r-- 1 john users 616 Jan 3 03:25 letter.txt
See how letter.txt is compresses from 616 bytes down to 383 bytes and then again is uncompressed back to its full size. Note that both gzip and bzip2 can not compress more than one file. This is because of the Unix philosophy of programming. On Unix we have many small programs that can do one special thing very well. Those programs can easily be combined in a vast variety of ways to achieve a more complex task. So on Linux the task of compressing data is separate from the task of putting files into an archive. See Tarballs below if you need to compress more than one file.
Compressing files with bzip2
bzip2 works similar to gzip but uses a different compression algorithm. Its slower but can create smaller files than gzip especially when used on large binary files. bzip2 appends .bz2 to the file name. bunzip2 is the counterpart that uncompresses a file again. Here is an example:
$ ls -lh -rw-r--r-- 1 john users 64M Jan 3 03:25 fatfile $ bzip2 fatfile $ ls -lh -rw-r--r-- 1 john users 56M Jan 3 03:25 fatfile.bz2 $ bunzip2 fatfile.bz2 $ ls -l -rw-r--r-- 1 john users 64M Jan 3 03:25 fatfile
See how fatfile is compresses from 64MB down to 56MB and then again is uncompressed back to its full size.
The more natural archive format for Linux are archives created by the program tar. They are also called tarballs. Tar has many options of which you will only need a few. To tar your holiday pictures above you would do:
$ tar cf holidays.tar pictures
The above command did not apply any compression to the archive (see comment in the section about gzip). As we have archived JPG images trying to compress them even more would have been futile anyway. What we have is a plain tar file now. Tar has no compression built-in. But GNU tar supports gzip and bzip2 by just specifying an option. If you want to use gzip compression you can do:
$ tar czf website.tgz /var/www/www.odi.ch
The above command uses gzip compression - note the z option. Note that we indicate the gzip compression by using the suffix .tgz. The suffix .tar.gz is also common. You can also use bzip2 compression:
$ tar cjf website.tar.bz2 /var/www/www.odi.ch
Note the j option that indicates bzip2 compression. Also note that we indicate the compression used in the file name with the a suffix bz2. The suffix tbz is less common. Of course we can do archiving and compressing in two steps:
$ tar cf holidays.tar pictures $ bzip2 holidays.tar
This would leave us with a file called
holidays.tar.bz2. Extracting a tar archive again works similar. Instead of
the c (create) option the x (extract) option is used. The right compression option (z or j)
must be present if the file is compressed:
$ tar xjf website.tar.bz2
If you just want to know what files are inside an archive but you don't want to actually extract the archive then use the t (tell) option instead of x: $ tar tjf website.tar.bz2
Here is the list of options again:
- f: work on a file (must always be present!)
- c: create a new archive
- x: extract an archive
- t: list the contents of an archive
- z: use gzip compression
- j: use bzip2 compression
- p: (together with x) preserve permissions
- v: print the file names
Transferring files to a remote computer
If you can connect to a remote computer with SSH, you can also transfer files to and from it. This is done with the scp
program. Assume you want to copy a local file called
New Document.doc to the remote computer called
very.remote.com. The file should be copied to the directory
documents/drafts inside the
home directory. This is done with the follwing command:
$ scp 'New Document.doc' [email protected]:documents/drafts/
Of course you can copy the file in the other direction, too:
$ scp '[email protected]:documents/drafts/New Document.com' .
Note the dot at the end of this command. A single dot always means the current directoy. Another example:
$ scp music/elvis.tgz [email protected]: would copy the file to
john's home directory. Never forget the
colon at the end, or scp will copy the file and give it the name
Instead of scp you may also use sftp, which is a program similar to ftp.
KDE's konqueror has built-in support for SSH. Simply type in the URL bar: sftp://very.remote.com/
Redirecting output to filesYour shell can save output of programs to files directly. Just try
$ ls -1 > dir.txtThe above writes the output of ls -l to the file
dir.txtinstead to the screen. Careful, the file
dir.txtis overwritten if it exists! Of course you an also just append to a file instead of overwriting it:
$ ls -l >> dir.txtIf you want both the output to screen and to a file use the tee program like so:
$ ls -l | tee dir.txtThe above command makes use of a pipe (that funny | character produced by Alt Gr-1 or Alt Gr-7) which we will dicuss later on.
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Solar panels and bio-gas units made primarily from recycled materials and installed on building roofs in one of the poorest and most populous neighborhoods of Cairo are helping residents cut their energy bills, greenhouse gas emissions and waste, according to a report by IPS’s Cam McGrath. One family man told McGrath that two solar panels and a biogas unit on his roof has lowered his monthly utility bill by almost 50%.
This and similar development projects led by Thomas Culhane’s Solar CITIES (Connecting Community and Integrating Technologies for Industrial Ecosystems) are also unleashing innovation, creating employment and increasing self-reliance by tapping into local populations, helping them develop new skills and making use of affordable, primarily local , recycled materials and often simple but effective tools and technology.
“There is no ‘one size fits all’ in development and part of the problem is precisely that so-called ‘experts’ come in and try to promote products and designs that are inappropriate for the local community,” Culhane is quoted as
Solar CITIES has built 35 solar water heaters in Egypt since 2007 and installed them on rooftops in underdeveloped areas of Cairo that frequently suffer from power and water cuts. Eight biogas digesters have been built so far. They convert organic garbage into cooking gas.
Competing Against Heavily Subsidized Gas & Electricity
Though cheap over the long run, one of the problems facing greater adopption of these alternative technologies and systems is getting enough money to pay for a solar water heater or biogas digester.
“It’s hard to convince people here to invest in clean energy,” one resident told McGrath. “As a household why should they invest up to 1,000 Egyptian pounds (182 dollars) in bio-gas when it costs just six or seven for a butagas cylinder, which lasts two weeks and is much easier to handle?”
With the Egyptian government subsidizing butagas and electricity heavily, it may take as many as 15 years to recoup the cost of a Solar CITIES solar heater or biogas digester, he continues. That may change sooner rather than later, however. The Egyptian government has said it plans to phase out energy subsidies in the next 4 to 7 years, according to the report.
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| 0.955922 | 485 | 3.15625 | 3 |
This past holiday season saw a large trend of holiday lighting with light-emitting diodes (LEDs), which use one-fourth the energy of incandescent bulbs and, in this case, are actually brighter, meaning holiday decorators can use less lights to brighten up the same amount of space.
“LEDs are substantially more efficient than incandescent lights,” said Tom Reddoch of the Electric Power Research Institute. According to Reddoch, a 50-light string of LEDs uses 2 watts of power, and the same size string of mini incandescent bulbs uses 11.5 watts. “Because LEDs are brighter, fewer strings could be required,” he said.
The nation’s capital lit up with energy-efficient LEDs. On Dec. 6, 2007, President Bush turned on the National Christmas Tree, which was outfitted with LEDs for the first time. A 1,000-foot red garland and 42-inch star topper also featured LEDs. Another famous tree featured LEDs for the first time in history. The Christmas tree in New York City’s Rockefeller Center featured 30,000 LEDs.
Elsewhere in Washington, D.C., the Friends of the National Zoo (FONZ) held a ZooLights event, decorating the National Zoo with strings of LEDs in the shape of the very animals for which the zoo is home. FONZ claimed its lights used approximately 90 percent less energy than incandescent bulbs. Furthermore, FONZ powered some of its lights with a hydrogen fuel cell, which produced electricity by combining hydrogen with oxygen from the air.
In other cities, such as Monroe, Ga., local authorities are draping buildings and trees with LEDs for the first time. The Monroe Downtown Development Authority expects to pay just $146 to power them this season.
“Some people are saying if we’re using that little energy, why not keep them up all year long,” said Stacy Jones of the Downtown Development Authority.
Some cities, however, such as Toledo, Ohio, have been energy efficient with holiday lighting plans in previous years. About 35 percent of the 1 million lights in the Toledo Zoo were LEDs. The city also lit a 90-foot tree with 32,000 LEDs.
Of course, all this is more support for the green trend, and it is proof that more people are becoming energy conscious, and further, it means more work for electricians. EC
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| 0.952363 | 507 | 3.03125 | 3 |
How does cybercrime affect people? Check out this real-world example. To avoid becoming a victim of cybercrime, learn the basics of online protection.
Michelle, an aesthetician from Kansas, got her first computer three years ago and enjoyed receiving emails from her old college friends. She also liked to look at the latest beauty products online, although she never purchased any. She was a single mother supporting two sons, and the primary use of the computer was for the boys to look up information for school projects.
However, over the past year Michelle noticed her computer seemed to be moving more slowly. In fact, by the time we interviewed her, she and her two boys had stopped using the computer altogether because it was so slow that it was unusable.
Over Christmas, she wanted to purchase some small gifts for some of the people she worked with. In particular, she wanted to locate some live ladybugs to give to one of the girls at work. So, not having a computer to use at home, she borrowed her grandmother's computer to locate and purchase the ladybugs. After a short time, she noticed her grandmother's computer seemed to be moving slowly too, so she decided that computers were just not for her.
Michelle's new boyfriend, however, was a computer science student, and when she told him about the slowed computers, he guessed the problem right away: spyware. He downloaded a spyware detection program and confirmed his diagnosis. It took him several days to untangle the mess, but eventually the spyware was removed and the computers were back to normal. He installed antivirus and security software for Michelle and her grandmother, and they were soon both back online. However, the story does not end here.
While Michelle was using her grandmother's computer, she had received a pop-up ad announcing she had won a $500 prize. All she had to do was answer a few questions, and she could claim her $500 shopping spree to a local department store. Michelle answered the questions, and then was told she had to buy two small items before getting her gift certificate. She ordered the two least expensive items from the gift menu, gave her credit card information as requested, and then attempted to put in the rest of the information to claim her $500 gift certificate.
However, the website would not accept her information, and after several attempts she gave up and decided to email the site owners, hoping they would help her get things sorted out. She wrote to them twice, but never received a reply. Her credit card was charged for the two small items she agreed to purchase, but she never saw the $500 gift certificate. Cybercriminals had claimed another victory.
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| 0.992844 | 545 | 2.78125 | 3 |
We’ve already discussed several options for improvised zombie armor. Duct tape, leather, and heavy clothing can all defend well against the limited jaw strength of the undead. But an new innovation by researchers at the University of South Carolina has lead to the possibility of a simple t-shirt becoming impenetrable body armor.
Study lead, Dr. Xiaodong Li, had this to say about his team’s work:
“This groundbreaking new study opens up unprecedented opportunities.”
By combining the soft carbon in a standard cotton shirt with boron, the same substance used to fortify tanks, a new lightweight, super-strong and ultra-tough material was created. And though boron is one of the toughest materials on the planet, the transformed shirts were still flexible enough to bend, a major improvement over the heavy plates currently used in bulletproof vests and body armor.
Though there is still a long way to go before we’ll find t-shirt armor on retail shelves, this new advancement in personal defense and survival technology is promising to say the least.
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| 0.940921 | 227 | 2.59375 | 3 |
by Staff Writers
Johannesburg, South Africa (SPX) Feb 17, 2016
Two new hominin fossils have been found in a previously uninvestigated chamber in the Sterkfontein Caves, just North West of Johannesburg in South Africa.
The two new specimens, a finger bone and a molar, are part of a set of four specimens, which seem to be from early hominins that can be associated with early stone tool-bearing sediments that entered the cave more than two million years ago.
"The specimens are exciting not only because they are associated with early stone tools, but also because they possess a mixture of intriguing features that raise many more questions than they give answers," says lead researcher Dr Dominic Stratford, a lecturer at the Wits School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental studies, and research coordinator at the Sterkfontein Caves.
The first fossil specimen, which is a very large proximal finger bone, is significantly larger and more robust than any other hand bone of any hominin yet found in South African plio-pleistocene sites.
"It is almost complete and shows a really interesting mix of modern and archaic features. For example, the specimen is markedly curved - more curved than Homo naledi and is similarly curved to the much older species Australopithecus afarensis," says Stratford.
The level of curvature is often linked to arborealism, but it lacks the strong muscle attachments that are expected to be present.
"The finger is similar in shape to the partial specimen from Olduvai Gorge that has been called Homo habilis, but is much larger. Overall, this specimen is unique in the South African plio-pleistocene fossil hominin record and deserves more studies," says Stratford.
The other fossil is a relatively small, nearly complete adult 1st molar tooth that also has striking similarities to species Homo habilis.
"In size and shape it also bears a resemblance to two of the 10 1st molars of the H. naledi specimens, although further and more detailed comparisons are needed to verify this."
The shape of the tooth and particularly the shape and relative sizes of the cones on the surface of the tooth suggest this specimen belonged to an early member of the Homo genus and can be associated with early stone tools dated recently to 2.18 million years ago.
"The two other hominin fossils found are still being studied and further excavations are planned to hopefully find more pieces and expand our understanding of who these intriguing bones belonged to and how they lived and died on the Sterkfontein hill more than two million years ago," says Stratford.
The Sterkfontein Caves have been one of the most prolific palaeoanthropological sites in the world, since the discovery of the first ever adult Australopithecus by Robert Broom, 80 years ago this year. Since this incredible discovery, some of palaeoanthropology's most famous finds have come from the Sterkfontein Caves, including Ms. Ples and Little Foot.
Sterkfontein remains the richest Australopithecus-bearing locality in the world and continues to yield remarkable specimens. The underground network of caves at the site extends over 5kms and the caves are filled with fossiliferous sediments that have been deposited underground over a period of more than 3.67 million years.
However, very few of these deep deposits have been systematically excavated and so remain largely unknown. The Milner Hall, where the four new hominin fossils were found, is one such chamber where several large deposits have been identified but never excavated.
The excavations that yielded these new hominin fossils were being conducted as part of a new phase of exploratory excavations away from the known hominin-bearing areas. Excavations in the Jacovec Cavern, Name Chamber and Milner Hall have been started under Dr Stratford's direction. Each has yielded exciting new fossils that shed further light on the story of our evolution and life on the Sterkfontein hill more than two million years ago.
During the second phase of excavation in the Milner Hall, which were started early in 2015 with student Kelita Shadrach, four hominin fossils were excavated from the upper layers of a long sequence of deposits that document the long history of fossil deposition in the cave, starting over 3.67 million years ago.
University of the Witwatersrand
All About Human Beings and How We Got To Be Here
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by David Bush, Ph.D.
It is my privilege to share one school’s experience at the Johnson’s Island Civil War Prison. The Lorain County Early College High School brought four classes to the Johnson’s Island Civil War Prison site in April, 2010 through Heidelberg University’s Experiential Learning Program in Historic Archaeology. Their teacher, Mark Jaworski (Lorain City Schools), worked with the students on various types of projects to introduce them to the many forms of information available for this Union prison. Mark prepared several work sheets for the students to assist in exploring issues like common diseases, historical facts, vocabulary, use of primary source materials, and even the location of William Peel’s grave in the Confederate Cemetery. All of this pre-field preparation paid off, for his student’s were some of the best prepared and most inquisitive 9th graders we have had this year.
I thought I would review briefly the daily routine for students participating in the Experiential Learning Program in Historic Archaeology. When the students arrive on Johnson’s Island, their first introduction to the site comes in the form of making Anthropological observations within the Confederate Cemetery and hypothesizing about these above ground artifacts from the past. Students walking through the cemetery almost always note the two basic styles of the tombstones, the numerous stones marked only with the word “Unknown”, and the absence of any form of date on the grave stones. Over the years, I have been able to identify over 40 observable patterns within the cemetery, and there are probably more. The students form hypotheses about these observations, noting several different hypotheses can be proposed for any one observed pattern. As they present first their observations and then their hypotheses, we explore the differences between something observed and the conclusions we draw from an observation. We further discuss how to investigate our hypotheses, where to go, what kinds of sources are appropriate to use. In the end, the students gain a glimpse of how Anthropologists use observation as a means to interpret cultural landscapes (the cemetery in this case).
There is a very short bus ride (about 1/2 mile) to the site of the actual prison, where the students begin the archaeological exploration. Orientation to the site takes about 20 minutes where the basics for establishing provenience are reviewed and appropriate excavation and recovery techniques demonstrated. The students (in groups designated A, B, C, or D-corresponding to specific units) are then ready to meet with their Unit (the 2m square they have been assigned to) supervisor to begin excavation and cultural material recovery. The majority of the day is spent in the recovery of the multitude of cultural materials at this site and hypothesizing about the type and function of each artifact encountered. To facilitate this process, a form of Dig Bingo is played.
At the end of the day, the Unit supervisor gathers together the student personnel for their Unit and reviews and records all the findings. Hundreds of artifacts are typically recovered each day, ranging from chert and flint used by the Native American inhabitants centuries ago to the brick, bone, glass, ceramic and craft pieces left behind during the American Civil War. At the very end of the experience, a student from each Unit shares with the entire class a particular artifact they felt was the most interesting. This can be a very challenging task at times, given a Unit may have revealed over 200 artifacts in one day’s excavation.
Mark had his students prepare reports on their experiences. He has shared portions of them with me to bring to the Interactive Dig. I hope you enjoy reading them as much as we enjoyed having all these students share this experience.
Experiential Learning Program in Historic Archaeology-The Johnson’s Island Civil War Prison Site
The following provided by: MARK A. JAWORSKI, Biology Teacher, Lorain County Early College High School
Lorain County Early College High School Biology teacher, Mark A. Jaworski, and his students had the opportunity and privilege to participate in four historical archaeological digs on Johnson’s Island this past April, 2010.
“Teaching children about the natural world should be treated as one of the most important events in their lives.” Thomas Berry
I would like to share not only photographs of our experience but reflections of some of my students who participated in these digs.
Alex Fulton (female) writes, “The archaeological dig at Johnson’s Island was a very memorable experience. Being able to walk in the cemetery, three feet above the remains of the deceased soldiers was absolutely incredible. As we walked across the cemetery, I could feel the sadness in the air and it made the hair on the back of my neck stand on end. …In the cemetery, we found that the primary source, MacDowell, who stated in his diary that William Peel was buried in the fifth row from the south gate, twenty-eighth grave counting from the west. Peel’s headstone was in the sixth row from the south gate, third counting from the west. A headstone bearing the name of J. D. Arlington was placed over William Peels burial site. On our short walk through the woods to the dig site, we passed the red poles marking the dead line. When we walked past those red markers, I could imagine myself being a confederate soldier and having that fear of crossing the dead line – that fear of being shot! I could envision myself wanting to escape, being close to escaping, and just having one thing stop me – that dead line. The yellow and blue poles marking the corners of the barracks were also amazing. I could picture in my mind the prisoners sitting inside the buildings in the winter, shivering, while writing letters to loved ones.”
Hector Toledo writes, “ Once we got to the dig site we met the crew that would be helping us and working with us. They seemed very professional and would prove to be very helpful. In the end I was very thankful to of had the opportunity to participate in this dig. I felt that I got to take part in unfolding a little piece of the past. I hope to participate in Johnson’s Island research because it truly was an enriching experience.”
Phylicia Thomas writes, “ I was amongst the people allowed into Dr. Bush’s office for finding a special field specimen! My day was golden. Completely. I had just done something I had wanted to do every second since I had heard of this trips forthcoming! I sat in his office, answered the routine questions and filled out paperwork as he spoke to me about the piece of embossed glass I held in my hand. He explained to me that it was a piece of the shoulder of a patent whiskey bottle. On this tiny piece of glass, one letter was raised; a “T” and what looked like the beginning of an “E” to spell the word P-A-T-E-N-T. This was a piece of evidence that would help them prove the theory that the tiny little area we were excavating was the remnants of a kitchen area. He handed me a sticker and I filled out the rest of the paperwork and looked at my artifact number one last time #8122. This artifact would be placed with my name under it in the Heidelberg University archives. Yes, I decided at that moment, today was perfect.”
Leah Rumph writes, “ I soon arrived at the cemetery. I was trying to locate the grave of William Peel. I was standing on the graves of men who believed that people of my race should do inhumane labor for people of his (Peel) race.”
Brittany Pirl writes, “To dig for long lost artifacts, left behind by someone whose views were so different from ours is an amazing experience. It is an experience that many never get to take part in during their lifetime. Archaeological digs allow people of the present to learn about those of the past who have long been forgotten. They tell us much about people, their views, beliefs, and their culture that, without the information found, would never otherwise be known. “
Gabby Ocasio (as a ghost returning to the island) writes, “I went back to my block 8 today. It is all gone and all that remains is dirt and pieces of my personal affects everwhere. There were these strange people in different clothing with weird haircuts and bright colors and very strange shoes. The females wore bows in their hair and the males wore ear rings. The people looked like mostly teens and older adults. They came from this huge strange, bright yellow, gassy animal that looked like it had huge wheels where its legs were supposed to be. What I had noticed was that they must have been looking for my block mates and my belongings since they were ecstatic when they found something. I do not understand why they would be looking in the dirt. Then they found something very peculiar, a piece of plate. This had brought tears to my eyes. It was my great grandmother’s favorite plate that she had given me when she was on her deathbed. She made certain that it was sent to me for she had heard of my imprisonment on Johnson’s Island. I had always made her hard rubber jewelry to wear around her neck.”
Kyndra Downey writes, “When it was time for lunch is when I really let my imagination take over. Dr. Bush and his assistants read journals/letters from prisoners housed on Johnson’s Island. As they were reading to us, I just let my mind wonder and really put myself into the prisoner’s position. …I know that I am very grateful that I had the opportunity to participate in this historical archaeological adventure. I think I am going to consider archaeology as a career choice.”
Benjamin Tillman writes, “At lunch I could take in the history of the island very effectively and journal entries from some confederate prisoners were read as well. This was very interesting because I could hear exactly how the prisoners were feeling and what they were doing in prison. The readings put into perspective that these were real people being held at this prison. It wasn’t just words in a book to me anymore. It was reality, a cold hard reality that I could feel.”
Victoria Soewarna sums it up best when she writes, “ This experience for me was amazing and overwhelming at the same time, the view of Lake Erie was beautiful, the stories that were told from the diaries of the imprisoned soldiers were heartfelt and the artifacts told a story. A story that I personally will always remember.
(DRB note) Thank you Mark for providing such a rewarding experience for your students.
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In Western countries, a signature is used to make contracts and other documents official.
But in Japan (and China and Korea), an 印鑑 (name seal) is used.
In Japanese, these are called 印鑑 (inkan) or 判子 (hanko).
Generally speaking, 判子 (hanko) is used less officially.
When I first came to Japan, all documents required a 印鑑 (name seal). Opening bank accounts, receiving registered mail, contracts, etc.
And before I got one, I would be required to give a thumb-print with the red ink used for name seals in lieu of a 印鑑 (name seal).
But once more foreigners started coming to Japan in recent years, Western style signatures have become acceptable for less important documents. More important documents still require a 印鑑 (name seal), though.
So, although we have a 印鑑 (name seal), if the mailman brings me registered mail, I’ll just sign my name with a pen in the space marked 「印鑑」 on the form rather than break out my 印鑑 (name seal).
But for bank paperwork, tax forms, my kids school registration papers, etc, I need to use our 印鑑 (name seal).
Here’s a photo I took of a shop that makes 判子 (name seals):
And here’s a picture that I found online from a shop that makes 印鑑 (name seals). You can see the name being carved into the seal, and what the name looks like when stamped with the official red ink:
And here’s a photo I took of some “off the rack” 判子 (name seals) that are used for less important documents:
Here’s another photo I took today (it doesn’t look like anything special to me because I’ve seen these signs everyday for the past eighteen years…but maybe you’re interested):
Can you guess what this sign means?
It says 「止まれ」, which means “Stop”. (The mirror at many Japanese intersections is to help you check for oncoming traffic).
Most signs in Japan are different from their counterparts in other countries, and they often have no English written on them (eighteen years ago there was even less English here!). If you’re gonna stay in Japan, it helps to learn how to read…but it’s not easy!
Japan’s stop-sign is triangular, but many countries, it seems, have adopted the U.S. style red octogon stop-sign…even China. The stop-sign in China is red and octogon shaped, like in America…but, like Japan, it doesn’t have any English written on it either.
The Chinese stop-sign just has one kanji character on it: 「停」. In Chinese, it’s pronounced as “Ting!“, I believe (I don’t speak any Chinese)…but in Japan, that character for “stop” (「停」) would be pronounced as テイ (tei) or とまる (tomaru).
But, as I said above, the Japanese stop-sign doesn’t use that character…but rather 「止まれ」.
I finished adding Category listing for all of my previous posts. You can use the “Categories” drop-down menu to the right to find posts that I’ve written by subject. (You can also use the “Search” box, similairily).
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Are Broken Genes Common in Humans?
Adapted from a story that originally appeared on the Alzheimer Research Forum.
21 February 2012. Previous genome studies suggest that all of us possess a few hundred non-functional genes. Is this number accurate, and if so, what does it mean for human health? In the February 17 Science, a large international group led by Daniel MacArthur at Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, describes the first large-scale attempt to verify these predicted loss-of-function (LoF) gene variants. The group reports that each person more likely carries only about 100 non-functional genes, with around 20 of those being homozygous. This finding suggests that humans tolerate some gene loss surprisingly well, but more research is needed to determine if these non-functional proteins have subtle effects on health, the authors write. In total, the researchers identified a catalog of almost 1,300 “high-confidence” human LoF mutations, which they note includes most variants that occur at a population frequency of 1 percent or higher. About 70 percent of these are novel. This catalog could provide a starting point for geneticists hunting for disease-causing mutations, the authors suggest.
In 2008, an international consortium launched the 1000 Genomes Project, which sought to develop a comprehensive catalog of human genetic variation by sequencing the genomes of about 2,500 people from around the world. In the pilot phase, the project analyzed the genomes of 185 healthy people from four populations: Chinese, Japanese, people of European background living in Utah, and a West African ethnic group, the Yoruba. Initial data from this project, as well as from other genetic studies, suggested that each person carries around 200 to 300 LoF gene copies (see Pelak et al., 2010). However, this number was expected to contain a high percentage of false positives due to sequencing and annotation errors.
To clean up the data, MacArthur and colleagues took the nearly 3,000 putative LoF variants found by the pilot 1000 Genomes Project and reanalyzed the DNA to check for sequencing errors. They also identified mutations that would be unlikely to inactivate the gene product, for example, a stop codon that occurs near the end of an open reading frame. This validation process removed more than half the candidates, leaving a catalog of 1,285 high-confidence LoF variants. The authors note, however, that the true number is probably larger, as their methods could not detect some LoF mutations, such as variants that affect gene regulation or single-nucleotide changes that disrupt protein function. Notably, about one-third of these high-confidence LoF alleles are predicted to inactivate only some of the splice forms made from that gene, though these may still cause disease if the splice form is essential, the authors note (see, e.g., Uzumcu et al., 2006).
How do these ineffective gene products influence human health? At least some of the LoF alleles carry serious consequences when homozygous. The authors identified 26 known disease-causing mutations in the catalog, as well as 21 novel variants that they predict will be harmful, given that other mutations in the same genes are known to cause disease. In addition, most of the LoF variants occur at less than 5 percent frequency in the population, suggesting that they are selected against, as would be expected of harmful genes.
Nonetheless, for many of the genes in the LoF catalog, humans seem to cope with loss of their protein products. Previous work estimated that a typical person carries less than two recessive lethal genes (see Bittles and Neel, 1994), suggesting that most LoF mutations occur in non-essential genes. In fact, around 20 percent of the LoF variants were homozygous in at least one person in the study without causing serious health consequences. The authors found that these “LoF-tolerant” genes differ in several ways from typical genes. They tend to be less conserved among species, which implies that they are less essential to survival. They often have closely related gene family members (paralogs), which may have redundant function and help compensate for the loss of the gene. LoF-tolerant genes also interact minimally in gene networks, suggesting their functions are not part of key cellular pathways. And they tend to occur in non-essential systems, such as olfaction and taste, or in benign human differences such as blood groups. Based on these findings, the authors developed an algorithm to predict which genes will tolerate functional loss. This, they suggest, could be used to prioritize LoF candidates for follow-up in disease studies.
To see if the LoF variants might play a role in common, complex disorders, the authors analyzed genetic data from around 13,000 people with diseases such as Crohn’s and rheumatoid arthritis, as well as from about 3,000 healthy controls. People with diseases did not show any enrichment for LoF alleles, with the sole exception of a single mutation known to be associated with Crohn’s disease. This may be because most LoF variants occur at very low population frequencies, giving them a limited role in common diseases, the authors suggest. More research will be needed to see if rare, inactive genes have effects on human health, they add. Finally, some LoF mutations may be beneficial. For example, inactivation of a cholesterol-regulating protein protects against high cholesterol and heart disease (see Mayne et al., 2011), and loss of a specific cell-surface receptor in an African population may decrease the risk of getting malaria (see Fry et al., 2009). Although the authors did not find clear evidence for favorable mutations in their catalog, they identified 20 candidates that might be undergoing positive selection for further follow-up.—Madolyn Bowman Rogers.
MacArthur DG, Balasubramanian S, Frankish A, Huang N, Morris J, Walter K, Jostins L, Habegger L, Pickrell JK, Montgomery SB, Albers CA, Zhang ZD, Conrad DF, Lunter G, Zheng H, Ayub Q, DePristo MA, Banks E, Hu M, Handsaker RE, Rosenfeld JA, Fromer M, Jin M, Mu XJ, Khurana E, Ye K, Kay M, Saunders GI, Suner MM, Hunt T, Barnes IH, Amid C, Carvalho-Silva DR, Bignell AH, Snow C, Yngvadottir B, Bumpstead S, Cooper DN, Xue Y, Romero IG, 1000 Genomes Project Consortium, Wang J, Li Y, Gibbs RA, McCarroll SA, Dermitzakis ET, Pritchard JK, Barrett JC, Harrow J, Hurles ME, Gerstein MB, Tyler-Smith C. A systematic survey of loss-of-function variants in human protein-coding genes. Science. 2012 Feb 17;335(6070):823-8. Abstract
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What’s Happening This Week
There is much more to explore in our calendar. Find other important events in literary history, authors' birthdays, and a variety of holidays, each with related lessons and resources.
Looking for age-appropriate book recommendations, author interviews, and fun activity ideas? Check out our podcasts.
Hispanic Heritage Month begins today.
|Grades||5 – 12|
|Calendar Activity Type||Holiday & School Celebration|
A time for celebrating the culture, art, and achievements of Hispanic people, September 15-October 15 has been designated as Hispanic Heritage Month. September 15 also marks the independence days of five Hispanic countries-Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Mexico achieved independence on September 16, and Chile on September 18.
Begin by brainstorming with students all the various aspects of culture, in this case, Hispanic culture. Remind students that culture is not just race and ethnicity but extends to dance, music, art, architecture, education, family dynamics, film, religion, politics, literature, food, holidays, and much more.
Once students have compiled a list of potential topics to research, organize the list into some general categories and have students identify resources they could use to learn more about Hispanic culture in their category. Encourage students to think about people in their communities or families who might have personal knowledge of the topics they're researching.
Have students work in groups to research their topics and present the information they find to the class through PowerPoint, a webpage, a display, or an interactive tool such as the Flip Book or Stapleless Book. More tips are available for the Flip Book and to learn more about making a Stapleless Book, watch the video on how to fold a Stapleless Book.
- Pura Belpré Medal Winners
This is the webpage for current winners of the American Library Association's Pura Belpré Award. Established in 1996, it is presented to a Latino/Latina writer and illustrator whose work best portrays, affirms, and celebrates the Latino cultural experience in an outstanding work of literature for children and youth. Links to past winners and additional information are available as well.
- Celebrate Hispanic Heritage
Choose among links to information on Hispanic history, famous Latinos, and Latinos in history on this Scholastic website. The site features a Flash interactive, the Piñata Concentration game, which is entirely in Spanish.
- Celebrate Hispanic Heritage Month-National Register of Historic Places, NPS
This collection of resources from the National Register of Historic Places includes links to publications, featured properties, and history in the parks, including a series of lesson plans that use places listed in the Register.
- National Hispanic Heritage Month: Exhibits and Collections
This Library of Congress page is the go-to source for art, literature, political and historical documents and more. The collections includes resources from the Library of Congress, the National Endowment for the Humanities, National Gallery of Art, National Park Service, Smithsonian Institution, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and U.S. National Archives and Records Administration.
Grades 3 – 5 | Lesson Plan | Unit
After analyzing Family Pictures/Cuadros de Familia by Carmen Lomas Garza, students create a class book with artwork and information about their ancestry, traditions, and recipes, followed by a potluck lunch.
Grades 6 – 8 | Lesson Plan | Standard Lesson
Students investigate the meanings and origins of their names in order to establish their own personal histories and to explore the cultural significance of naming traditions.
Grades 8 – 12 | Lesson Plan | Standard Lesson
In this lesson, students use blogs to hold discussions about the effect of the factors of culture, history, and environment on Latino poetry.
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Today, hunger stalks the Sahel and the Horn of Africa, while some parts of the African continent cope with conflict and civil unrest. In other regions -- from Bolivia to Pakistan -- millions of people are malnourished.
It is against this backdrop that G8 leaders are meeting this week at Camp David. When they gather, we hope that they will take the opportunity to address the global food security crisis which is even wider and deeper than the financial and economic crisis that has been grabbing headlines across the globe.
Italy has long stressed the importance of tackling poverty and hunger and today it is host to the three major U.N .food agencies, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the World Food Programme (WFP).
It was in Italy, at the L'Aquila G8 summit in 2009, that food security and agricultural development were finally put back at the top of the international agenda after decades of neglect during which governments and the international community turned their attention away from agriculture. Now we must make sure that they now stay at the top of the agenda, and that the commitments made at L'Aquila are fulfilled.
Investing in agriculture in developing countries is the single most effective method of improving food security for the world's poorest people while also stimulating economic growth. Growth generated by agriculture is at least twice as effective in reducing poverty as growth in other sectors. And there is evidence that every dollar spent on agricultural research produces $9 worth of additional food in developing countries.
More than 95 percent of agricultural holdings in developing countries are less than 10 hectares, and in sub-Saharan Africa about 80 per cent of farmland belongs to, or is cultivated by, smallholders. And experience in developing countries repeatedly shows -- in Burkina Faso, China, Ethiopia, India, Thailand, Viet Nam and elsewhere -- that smallholders can lead agricultural growth.
In many countries we have seen how successful small and medium-sized farms can transform rural landscapes into vibrant economies, resulting in local demand for locally produced goods and services that also spur non-farm employment in services, agro-processing and small-scale manufacturing. This demand, in turn, leads to a dynamic flow of economic benefits, and the cultivation of new relationships between rural and urban areas.
In order for these small farms to thrive -- and to help lead the way to a more successful, profitable agricultural sector -- smallholder farmers need better linkages and access to markets, technology and information. They need mechanisms to manage the inherent risks of farming, particularly at a time of exceptionally volatile weather and prices. They need domestic and international investment in rural areas that is sustainable -- economically, environmentally and socially. This includes significant improvements in basic infrastructure and services, access to water, and better governance. They need legal empowerment and protection of their rights to the land they farm. And they need support in forming farmers' organizations and co-operatives to give them more bargaining power.
When rural small farmers are connected to markets they can sell more and better-quality food at higher prices, eat a more diversified diet, and improve household food and nutrition security. With increased income they can pay for essential medicines, send their children to school and improve their lives. Gender equality is important here as well: we know that giving women equal access to agricultural resources and inputs is one of the most powerful ways of reducing poverty and hunger.
Recognizing small farmers and their organizations as primary stakeholders in development means more than paying lip service to them in global meetings. Truly acting upon this recognition requires genuine collaboration and inclusive processes, which cannot be an afterthought but need to start from the very design of responsible investments in agriculture.
We have high hopes that this year's G8 meeting will lead to tangible support for smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. As the current crisis of hunger and malnutrition in the Sahel shows, we cannot wait. We must act decisively and we must act now. It is our responsibility to make this investment now, for the sake of future generations.
Prof. Andrea Riccardi is Minister for International Cooperation and Integration Policies of the Italian Republic and Dr. Kanayo F. Nwanze is President of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), an international financial institution and a specialized UN agency based in Rome.
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This coloring page of a cartoon polar bear participating in biathlon, a winter Olympic sport, is great to color and combine with other winter Olympic events coloring pages into a book.
Cartoon polar bear playing ice hockey coloring page in black and white. Combine this winter Olympic illustration with the other cartoon images of animas participating in Olympic events to make a book.
Olympic medals coloring page in black and white. Students can color the medals gold, silver, and bronze like those given out at the winter and summer Olympic games.
Fill in the chart of Winter Olympic medal winners, by country, as you watch the games. After the games compile the data and analyze the results. Questions included.
Unscramble the words that relate to winter Olympic events. Students will enjoy the puzzle and become familiar with sports that will be competed in during the Winter Olympics.
This short reading comprehension focuses on the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy. Learn about the the games that year and answer some questions about the passage.
Handwriting practice using the DN-style font. Practice manuscript handwriting, using the D'nealian style font. Winter Olympic terms biathlon, bobsled, curling...will be illustrated. Students will first trace the words then write them onto the lines provided.
Reading comprehension that deals with the timeless issue of Olympic judging and figure skating in the winter Olympics. This passage examines the pair figure skating performance of Pelletier and Sale in the 2002 Winter Olympic games and the problems encountered following the judges scores. Questions follow the passage.
This Winter Olympic themed document features a crossword puzzle and two word searches designed for upper elementary and middle school students. These will provide an interesting way for the students to familiarize themselves with vocabulary related to the winter Olympics.
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| 0.914313 | 374 | 3.890625 | 4 |
'Blunder' fires increasing say Electrical Safety Council
- 24 September 2012
- From the section UK
There has been a rise in fires caused by the misuse of appliances in the home, according to the Electrical Safety Council.
The ESC says fires from appliance misuse - or "safety blunders" - have increased by over a third since 2009.
It says misuse is already the top cause of all fires in UK homes. There were 14,700 such fires in the last year.
On average, fires caused by misuse kill 22 people and seriously injure about 2,500 each year.
The charity has issued guidance, tips and a Facebook application to help combat such safety mistakes. Its campaign is being supported by the Chief Fire Officers Association.
While appliance misuse is on the increase, there has been an overall decline in house fires, with chip pan fires falling by two thirds and fires started through smoking dropping by a third.
Phil Buckle, director general of the ESC, said: "People think that they are behaving safely but the majority of people we surveyed had put themselves at risk by unknowingly making a safety blunder.
"Fires caused by misuse of appliances - the vast majority of which are electrical - are so easy to prevent but they will keep increasing unless people understand the simple things that can and do cause fires."
Vij Randeniya, president of the Chief Fire Officers Association, said: "We support the ESC's campaign and the partnership with local Fire and Rescue Services around the country.
"Thankfully, many fires can be prevented by taking a few simple safety steps, but the ESC's research has exposed a shocking lack of public awareness in this area."
According to the ESC, common "safety blunders" in homes include:
- Creating a fire hazard by using the microwave as an additional surface and blocking air vents (33% of those surveyed)
- Increasing the risk of serious fire spreading by leaving the tumble dryer running unattended or overnight (9%)
- Blocking air vents by failing to clean behind their fridge/freezer (44%)
- Overloading adaptor sockets, causing an unsafe rise in temperature (16%)
- Leaving an electrical appliance on while unattended, only to be alerted by a burning smell (9%)
The ESC has conducted a survey of public attitudes to fire safety, interviewing 4,098 adults.
It says that three quarters of those surveyed said they had performed at least one "safety blunder" or misuse of an electrical appliance.
The ESC believes that there is a clear link between this lack of understanding and the surge in such fires.
Its research also suggests many UK adults do not have adequate protection from electrical fires - less than half of those surveyed (49%) have a Residual Current Device in their fuse box, a safety device which minimises the risk of fire by cutting off the power in the event of a fault.
However, almost four out of five (79%) believe that their homes are electrically safe.
The ESC's studies also included fire and accident trends from the Department of Communities and Local Government and data on the number of high risk electrical items in homes from the Department of Energy and Climate Change.
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| 0.968617 | 655 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Sir Thomas Lawrence. Portrait of Count Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov. 1821. Oil on canvas. 143 x 113 cm. The Pushkin Museum of Fine Art, Moscow, Russia. More.
Count Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov (1782-1856) - Russian statesman and talented military commander, son of Count Semyon Vorontsov. First distinguished himself in actions in the Caucasus in 1803-1804, and again during Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia in 1812. After the war, he was appointed Governor-General of Novorossiya (literally, “New Russia”, an area of land comprising parts of modern-day Ukraine, Southern Russia, and Moldova; so-called as it was, at the time, newly captured from the Ottoman Turks). His governorship was marked by good pace of economic development in the region.
In 1844, he was put in charge of the Russian troops in the Caucuses, where war had been raging more or less continuously since the turn of the 19th Century, and which would last until at least 1864, years after Vorontsov’s death. He was well-loved by his men, who, after his demise, would say “God is too high up, the Tsar is too far away, and Vorontsov died.” He relinquished command in 1853, due to poor health and died 3 years later in Odessa.
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| 0.979334 | 305 | 2.96875 | 3 |
PROMPT® Therapy Services: Evaluation and Treatment
PROMPT stands for "Prompts for Restructuring Oral–Muscular Phonetic Targets"
In our experience, the opportunity to feel movements for speech has a significant impact on motor learning, and in many cases, makes the difference between verbal and non verbal communication.
PROMPT therapy is...
A language–based treatment approach that provides tactile-kinesthetic information to oral musculature (jaw, lips, tongue) to guide the child’s movements for speech production. There is a PROMPT for every sound in the language, vowel or consonant, and four different types of PROMPTs that serve different purposes in teaching single or combined movements for speech production.
PROMPT is a treatment method based a substantial body of research in the areas of motor learning, cognition and social development. (See the PROMPT website).
How PROMPT is different from traditional articulation therapy...
"Traditional" speech language therapy relies on auditory and visual systems to provide information about sound production. PROMPT therapy adds another dimension to the process of learning to talk, which is information provided by the "tactual system". Sensory feedback from movements is stored and feeds forward as the child is provided multiple opportunities for practice. Muscle memory builds, and movement patterns for speech become more and more automatic.
Children who benefit from PROMPT therapy are children with motor speech disorders:
And children having motor speech disorders in association with:
Reasons for the clinical success of PROMPT therapy are numerous:
- Emphasis is placed on feedback, which is known to be an important aspect of treatment in children with motor disorders. In PROMPT therapy, children receive tactile-kinesthetic as well as auditory feedback, which are the two most important sensory systems for learning to talk.
- Emphasis is placed on trust and motivation, which are so important in helping children with motor processing deficits to take maintain the attention and effort required to make changes in speech production.
- Words and word combinations selected are practiced in many varied interactions, both in therapy and in the child’s natural environment, building muscle memory and motor planning skills.
- Successful social interactions are developed in therapy sessions, helping children who may have difficulty with joint attention and turn-taking to establish a firm basis for communication.
Once target sounds, vowels and consonants are selected, a group of words, or a "lexicon" is developed and become the basis for activities used in treatment. The words are selected for two reasons:
- To provide a high level of motor practice
Each stage of motor control that contributes to speech production is assessed, and speech sounds selected for treatment are those that will develop this control. For example, if the sounds selected are /p/, /b/, /m/, /a/, /o/, /h/, /u/, /i/, /d/ and /n/, words and phrases for motor practice may include "on", "hi", "bye", "Mommy", "up", "new", "no", "do", "want", "need", "one", "two". Sounds, syllables and words are practiced with high levels of repetition during "warm ups" at the beginning of PROMPT therapy sessions.
- To provide varied practice, which is critical for establishing motor skill
Therapy activities are developed to provide meaningful and socially appropriate contexts in which the child will be motivated to use his or her new words regularly. Most motor practice in PROMPT therapy sessions takes place when target sounds and words (lexicon) are practiced within functional communication contexts: "Hi Mommy", "new one", "no up", "I do", "I want two__". Target words and phrases are shared regularly with parents and related professionals to ensure a high a level of practice at home and in school.
Four Levels (Types) of PROMPT May Be Used in Treatment
There are four different levels of PROMPT that are used as needed to build motor skill in children who are learning to talk or to speak more intelligibly. Each level serves a different purpose in providing stability and coordination at varied levels of motor control:
- Parameter PROMPTs provide a base of support to the jaw or information about broad rounding or retraction of the facial muscles for sounds such as /o/ and /i/. Parameter PROMPTs may be taught to parents and related professionals.
- Surface PROMPTs provide the most critical information about the formation of speech sounds and are most helpful for timing and transition from one sound to the next.
- Syllable PROMPTs combine support to the jaw and information about rounding or retraction of the lips for production of syllables such as "me", or "boo".
- Complex PROMPTs provide the most information about the formation of a speech sound, and are used only when teaching single sound productions such as /s/, /r/.
PROMPT was developed by developed by Deborah Hayden, CCC/SLP, founder and director of the PROMPT Institute in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Certified PROMPT Clinicians have met the stringent requirements set by the PROMPT Institute (see FAQs), and are able to use their expertise to help children with motor speech disorders achieve speech production accuracy, improved social interaction and maximum potential for growth in many related areas of development.
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| 0.940706 | 1,119 | 3.578125 | 4 |
The most simple form of regularity involves a single class of verbs, a single principal part (the root or a conjugated form in a given person, number, tense, aspect, mood, etc.), and a set of unique rules to produce each form in the verb paradigm. More complex regular patterns may have several verb classes (e. g. distinguished by their infinitive ending), more than one principal part (e. g. the infinitive and the first person singular, present tense, indicative mood), and more than one type of rule (e. g. rules that add suffixes and other rules that change the vowel in the root).
Sometimes it is highly subjective to state whether a verb is regular or not. For example, if a language has ten different conjugation patterns and two of them only comprise five or six verbs each while the rest are much more populated, it is a matter of choice to call the verbs in the smaller groups "irregular".
The concept of regular and irregular verbs belongs mainly in the context of second language acquisition, where the defining of rules and listing of exceptions is an important part of foreign language learning. The concepts can also be useful in psycholinguistics, where the ways in which the human mind processes irregularities may be of interest. However, most other branches of linguistics do not use these categories; historical/comparative linguistics is more interested in categories such as strong and weak.
English regular verbs change their form very little. The past tense and past participle of regular verbs end in -ed, for example:
work, worked, worked
But you should note the following points:
1. Some verbs can be both regular and irregular, for example:
learn, learned, learned
learn, learnt, learnt
2. Some verbs change their meaning depending on whether they are regular or irregular, for example "to hang":
|regular||hang, hanged, hanged||to kill or die, by dropping with a rope around the neck|
|irregular||hang, hung, hung||to fix something (for example, a picture) at the top so that the lower part is free|
3. The present tense of some regular verbs is the same as the past tense of some irregular verbs:
|regular||found, founded, founded|
|irregular||find, found, found|
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| 0.924637 | 486 | 4.3125 | 4 |
1. Where is Anita at the opening of the story, and what is she doing?
Anita attends school in the Dominican Republic; but it's an American school, so they celebrate American holidays. It's hot outside, and it doesn't feel like Thanksgiving to the Americans. Anita is sitting next to her cousin, Carla. They are going to be Indians in the play.
2. Who comes into the classroom and what does the teacher do?
The principal of the school comes into the classroom with Carla's mother, who looks very nervous. They talk with the teacher then step out of the room to talk in the hallway.
3. What does the teacher tell Carla and Anita after she goes outside to talk to Carla's mother?
The teacher comes back into the room after talking with Carla's mother and tells Carla that she needs to pack her belongings to leave. She tells Anita to help her cousin. When Carla packs just her necessities in the bag, the teacher tells her to pack absolutely everything.
This section contains 2,953 words
(approx. 10 pages at 300 words per page)
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| 0.980033 | 233 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Shaped roughly like a downward-facing letter "F," the state of Maryland encompasses distinct geographic portions. The Chesapeake Bay separates Maryland's Eastern Shore, situated on the Delmarva Peninsula, from the Western Shore on the mainland. Further inland, the state narrows into the panhandle, reaching westward in a long, narrow, horizontal band. A total land area of just under 10,000 square miles makes Maryland the ninth-smallest state, but despite its relatively diminutive size, Maryland features a variety of different landforms.
Part of the greater Appalachian range, the Allegheny Mountains extend from Virginia and West Virginia northward through Maryland's panhandle and into Pennsylvania. The Alleghenies consist of series of nearly parallel ridges oriented in a southwest-to-northeast direction. These heavily forested mountains are bisected by deep valleys filled with creeks or rivers. In colonial times, the Allegheny Mountains posed a barrier to settlers wishing to migrate westward. Backbone Mountain, Maryland's highest point at 3,360 feet, is located in the Alleghenies.
Blue Ridge Mountains
To the east of the Allegheny Mountains lies a wide valley, and beyond that valley rise the scenic Blue Ridge Mountains. Also part of the Appalachians, the Blue Ridge extends from southern Pennsylvania all the way to northern Georgia. Like the Alleghenies, the Blue Ridge run in a southwest-to-northeast direction. A very narrow mountain range, the Blue Ridge Mountains are less than 10 miles wide throughout their stretch in Maryland.
Moving east from the Blue Ridge, the landscape peters out into rolling hills and a relatively flat, high plateau; this area is known as the Piedmont. The Piedmont separates the Appalachian Mountains from the Atlantic Coastal Plain, extending from Alabama to New Jersey. It is about 50 miles wide through Maryland. A rapid drop in elevation known as the fall line separates the Piedmont from the Atlantic Coastal Plain. At this dividing line, which in Maryland extends from Baltimore southwest to the border with Washington D.C., streams and rivers tumble over waterfalls and rapids.
The Atlantic Coastal Plain runs from Florida through New Jersey. In Maryland, the coastal plain usurps the entire Eastern Shore and most of the Western Shore as well. Areas that make up the coastal plain lie at elevations of 400 feet or less. The land turns into salt marshes where the plain meets the Chesapeake Bay; such marshes are particularly plentiful on the Eastern Shore. On Maryland's short Atlantic coastline, sandy beaches can be found.
- Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images
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|FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE
June 26, 2003
The plan, specifically for particulate matter measuring 10 microns or less in size (PM10), includes measures set forth by both the San Joaquin Valley Air Pollution Control District (air district) and the ARB. The local air district has jurisdiction over stationary area-wide sources of pollution and serves as a coordinating partner in transportation planning for the region. The ARB regulates statewide air pollution sources such as on- and off-road mobile sources and the fuels that power those engines. The proposed plan is required to demonstrate attainment of federal health standards by 2010.
The air district has outlined the following new proposed PM10 controls for the following sources:
The ARB has proposed the following new areas of control in addition to those that have already been previously adopted:
These ARB measures will contribute 10.5 TPD to the plan.
“To be sure we are doing everything possible to address valley pollution I have asked the ARB staff to determine if there is anything more that can be done between now and 2006,” added Lloyd.
In the San Joaquin Valley, PM10 is a complex mixture of particles resulting from primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include dust and soot, while secondary sources include aerosol droplets formed in the atmosphere by precursor chemicals. In winter, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ammonia react to form particulate ammonium nitrate, which also contributes to ozone formation.
Because these particles are so small, they bypass our body’s defenses, deposit in the respiratory tract and can lodge deep in the lungs. Exposure to airborne particles also aggravates respiratory illnesses like asthma, bronchitis, emphysema and pneumonia.
To view a copy of the plan, click here.
The Air Resources Board is a department of the California Environmental Protection Agency. ARB’s mission is to promote and protect public health, welfare, and ecological resources through effective reduction of air pollutants while recognizing and considering effects on the economy. The ARB oversees all air pollution control efforts in California to attain and maintain health based air quality standards.
The energy challenge facing California is real. Every Californian needs to take immediate action to reduce energy consumption. For a list of simple ways you can reduce demand and cut your energy cost, see our website at http://www.arb.ca.gov.
# # #
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Following Cotton Development Over the Fruiting Cycle
(PDF file version, 33KB)
by Jeffrey C. Silvertooth,
Extension Agronomist - Cotton
As we follow the basic stages in the development of the cotton crop, we commonly look for points relative to the fruiting or flowering cycle (Figure 1). For example, early bloom, peak bloom, and cut-out are major stages in cotton crop development. We also generally recognize that the period between first bloom and cut-out is when the greatest potential in the crop yield is either gained or lost. In following the various stages from early bloom to cut-out, one could go through the process of counting fresh flowers in a given area on a regular basis, and then plot them over time during the course of the season. However, this represents a rather time consuming process, and what is more commonly done is a more general description of the crop that is often related to calendar dates.
In monitoring various plant growth factors, we have found that the Upland and Pima cotton varieties grown in Arizona can be tracked over their fruiting cycle by the use of several simple measures. The information presented in Table 1 outlines several approaches that can be used to track important stages in crop development such as first pinhead squares (PHS), matchhead squares (MHS), first bloom (FB), early bloom (EB), peak bloom (PB), and cut-out. These stages are outlined in terms of heat units accumulated since planting (HUAP), number of mainstem nodes present, and the number of nodes above the top white bloom (NAWB); which is also sometimes referred to as nodes above the top white flower (NAWF). The node numbers listed for various stages of growth and HUAP, represent minimum numbers of mainstem nodes that one should find at those points in the season.
If we examine a cotton plant and locate its top fresh bloom on a fruiting branch (at the first fruiting position from the mainstem), we can simply count the number of mainstem nodes above this top white bloom (NAWB) to the terminal (last node with a one inch diameter leaf) for an estimate of progression towards cut-out. Sampling several plants in this manner allows us to develop an average number for the NAWB. What is generally found for all Upland and Pima varieties is that the NAWB is representative of crop development as shown in Table 1. For example, at early bloom we would expect to find about 9 to 11 NAWB, and about 7 to 8 at or near peak bloom. Also, as the NAWB value decreases to 5 or less, the crop is progressing into cut-out. Distinct or complete cut-out has occurred when the plant has exhausted all existing fruiting sites, and blooms move to the top of the plant.
Cotton varieties will vary to some extent as to when or how fast they progress toward cut-out. The general ranges in expected cut-out for the three basic variety types is shown in Table 2 as a function of heat units accumulated after planting (HUAP, 86/55EF thresholds). Cotton growers can therefore monitor crop development over the season by simply counting the NAWB and compare that progression for the variety in question to the information listed in Tables 1 and 2. Estimates in HUAP can be easily obtained through AZMET or the UA weekly cotton advisory on a county basis. Tracking the crop in this manner offers a relatively easy method for watching for pre-mature or delayed progression through the fruiting cycle.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, James A. Christenson, Director Cooperative Extension, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, The University of Arizona.
The University of Arizona is an equal opportunity, affirmative action institution. The University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, disability, veteran status, or sexual orientation in its programs and activities.
Any products, services, or organizations that are
mentioned, shown, or indirectly implied in this web document do not imply
endorsement by The University of Arizona.
Information provided by Jeffrey C. Silvertooth, [email protected]
Extension Agronomist - Cotton, College of Agriculture, The University of Arizona.
Material written February 2001.
Crop Mgmt | Soil Mgmt | Irrigation | Varieties | Cotton Comments
Home | Cotton | Advisories
document located at: http://cals.arizona.edu/crops/cotton/cropmgt/fruiting_cycle.html
Copyright © 2001 University of Arizona,
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
Webmaster: Al Fournier ([email protected])
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| 0.927965 | 1,009 | 3.3125 | 3 |
Department of Genetics, HMSHarvard Medical School
Division of Genetics, Children's Hospital Boston
Center for Life Sciences 14047
3 Blackfan Circle
Boston, MA 02115
Like gears in a piece of clockwork, cells must fit together precisely to give rise to a functioning organ. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the human brain, where 100 billion neurons and 100 billion glia come together, each acquiring the necessary shapes and cell contacts to ultimately manufacture human consciousness. We want to understand the basic principles underlying how cell shape and cell-cell contacts are specified. For this purpose, we have turned to a set of 302 neurons with a highly predictable anatomy – the simple nervous system of the nematode C. elegans.
From the moment of fertilization in C. elegans, every cell division, cell migration, and cell shape change occurs almost identically in every individual, giving rise to worms that are nearly superimposable with one another. This is a tremendous advantage when trying to understand how cells form organs: in this system, they do it the same way every time. Additionally, they do it quickly – most morphogenesis takes place in a two-hour window in embryogenesis – and, because the embryos are transparent, every cell movement and cell shape change can be directly observed.
We have focused on the amphid, the major sense organ of C. elegans, consisting of 12 sensory neurons and two glia, all with stereotyped morphology. The neurons extend unbranched dendrites to the tip of the nose, a distance of 100 µm in adults, where they collect information about the environment. We asked the simple question, how do neurons know how long to make these dendrites? We showed the neurons are born at the nose, anchor there, and then the cell bodies crawl away, stretching the dendrites out behind them as they go. The anchoring is done by a pair of proteins similar to ones involved in sperm-egg adhesion, which are probably forming a local extracellular matrix to which neurons specifically anchor. We are now trying to understand what this anchor looks like and how it works. We are also asking how anchors at other sites might establish distinct adhesion sites for different classes of sensory neurons.
Ultimately, our goal is to define the mechanisms by which every cell contact in a single sense organ is encoded, and to extend these basic principles to explain how cell shape and cell contacts are specified in other organs, whether it is kidney, gut, heart – or even our own remarkable brains.
Last Update: 8/22/2013
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| 0.920215 | 530 | 3.5625 | 4 |
At Destruction Island, one of the Northwest's most remote places — an out-of-the-way island so wild and ecologically sensitive it is now largely off-limits to people — humans have managed to upend the natural system.
And we did it the way we have on more than 800 islands around the world: We brought bunnies.
From the Channel Islands in California to our own San Juans to islands off Chile, North Africa and New Zealand, invasive European rabbits wreak such havoc on plants and seabirds that governments the world over have spent a century trying to eradicate the furry beasts. Now the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is making plans to try its luck here, on a 30-acre sea-swept outcropping off the Washington coast, 17 miles southwest of LaPush.
It can be a prickly problem. Cottontails, to some — especially in North America — remain a sort of charismatic cuddly fauna. For years, nearly 500 toothy, grass-guzzling, invasive rabbits transformed San Juan Island's American Camp prairie into what the National Park Service dubbed "a moonscape." But the agency two years ago backed off plans to shoot and trap the animals after a public outcry. The Park Service is conducting a more detailed environmental analysis.
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| 0.914539 | 269 | 2.765625 | 3 |
I am drawing a $19 \times 19$ grid on my desk. For aesthetic purposes, I don't want to use a ruler. Rather, I want to use Euclidean theorems to 'prove' to myself that such and such line meets at a right angle.
I have already marked out the four points that determine the edges of the roughly square rectangle that will contain the grid. I imagine there is some chapter of the elements that would contain a proof that two lines are perpendicular and at right angles to one another.
I imagine myself being able to apply that theorem to each intersection on the grid, piecemeal, in order to 'grow' it, starting at an arbitrary edge, or perhaps starting at all four and working toward the center.
Of course, this is all for fun, and because I love the thinking style of the Elements. But how would I use the book to do that. What process would I use for 'proving' $90^\circ$ perpendicularity, taking each intersection in turn, like an automaton?
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Does the federal government’s huge debt burden threaten an American debt crisis? This is the second post in a series of three about the damage that might be done by our federal budget deficit and accumulated debt. The previous one covered the risk of inflation. The next will address tax hikes. Today I’m talking about a debt crisis.
The plan is to explain:
1. The classic debt crisis pattern, and possible outcomes
2. Early warning signs of an impending debt crisis
3. Likelihood of an American debt crisis
4. Practical tips for those worried about a debt crisis
Debt Crisis Pattern
The debt crisis pattern can apply to a country, a corporation, or an individual, but we’ll talk about it in terms of countries. A country runs a large deficit year after year. In addition to new borrowing each year, the country must refinance old debt coming due. The country’s creditors start to get nervous about the country’s ability (or willingness) to repay the debt. They demand higher interest rates, and may offer to buy debt only if it is denominated in some other currency.
Recall from our last post that a country can use inflation to reduce the real (inflation adjusted) value of its debt. Creditors know that. They know that inflation typically pulls down the value of a country’s currency on foreign exchange markets. So if, for example, global investors were nervous about Mexico’s debt, they might refuse to buy peso-denominated bonds. However, they might take dollar-denominated Mexican debt. In that way investors are protected against Mexican inflation, though not against Mexican default.
There are three possible resolutions of a debt crisis.
First, the country may pay higher interest rates on its debt, then show fiscal responsibility by cutting its deficit, and thus win credibility with global investors.
Second, a bailout package may be assembled by other countries (perhaps with participation from the International Monetary Fund or another multi-national organization). The other countries will typically require an austerity package of fiscal policy changes, designed to bring the country’s budget back into balance.
Third, a country may not be able to resolve the worries of global creditors. It either repudiates its debt, or simply announces a deferred payment plan. The creditors cannot foreclose on an entire country, but they will decline to lend any new money to the country. Thus, the country has to run either a balanced budget, or a deficit small enough that it can be financed by its own citizens.
The common element is that external creditors impose fiscal discipline on a country, either directly or indirectly.
Early Warning Signs of a Debt Crisis
There are two signs that you are entering a crisis:
1. The interest rate the country has to pay rises
2. Lenders are not interested in bonds denominated in your own currency.
With that in mind, let’s take a look at interest rates on U.S. Treasury Bonds.
Well, hard to see an impending debt crisis. Here are the results from the Treasury’s last auction:
This 10-year note had a yield of about 3.9 percent. Total bids on the notes were $80 billion, of which $23 billion were accepted. This is an auction, so there were some bidders who did not bid a low enough interest rate to win. Those bids totaled $57 billion. It looks to me like there was adequate interest among lenders. And these were denominated in dollars.
Going forward, those who are worried about a debt crisis will have a challenge interpreting interest rates. Think of three components to the Treasury’s long-term bond rates:
- The global risk-free interest rate. This used to be measured by the U.S. Treasury bond, but that proves problematic if we are worried about America’s credit quality. The key concept here is that the global business cycle will push the global risk-free rate up or down, as demand for credit from all users increases or decreases.
- Expected U.S. inflation. Lenders want to be compensated for any loss of purchasing power due to inflation.
- The U.S. risk premium. This is the spread that lenders demand over the risk-free rate to compensate for the risk of default.
A good early warning system (which I have not set up numerically) would monitor several factors. Start with the interest rates and inflation expectations in major low-risk countries. You can use the IMF’s database to identify advanced economies with positive “fiscal balance” and low current inflation rates. Taking a quick scan, I see Denmark, Finland, South Korea, New Zealand, Sweden and Switzerland seem to fit the bill. The Treasury Bonds of these countries will roughly measure the global risk-free rate. Then add in U.S. inflation by looking at the difference in interest rates between regular Treasury Bonds and inflation-adjusted bonds. Right now that spread is about 2.3 percent. Any increase in U.S. bond yields above changes in global risk free rate and U.S. expected inflation may be due to risk of a debt crisis.
Likelihood of a United States Debt Crisis
I don’t think an American debt crisis is very likely. Call me Pollyanna, but I’m struck by how we reversed a large deficit in the 1980s and actually ran a surplus in the Clinton years. How did that happen? Back in that old time, some Republicans still believed in fiscal responsibility. More importantly, control of the government was divided between Democrats and Republicans, unlike the W. Bush years or the Obama years (so far). The differences of opinion led to gridlock, which many people thought was bad back then. Oh, how we long for some gridlock today. The final issue that helped restrain spending was President Clinton’s scandals. The nation was focused on what happened to that blue dress. On top of the fiscal responsibility was a thriving economy, which boosted tax revenues.
Looking forward, our formula for working out of the current deficit pattern would be to have the Republicans regain control of one house of Congress (but not both houses of Congress plus the White House). The economy fully recovers. I’m not ready to forecast surpluses to come, but I can envision the deficits coming down to reasonable magnitudes.
How big is our deficit relative to the supply of funds available to support it? The deficit is (in round numbers) $1.5 trillion. Total world savings is about $25 trillion, so our deficit is a good chunk, but a manageable chunk, of the funds that investors put to work every year.
That’s the annual deficit. What about the accumulated debt? Right now it’s about $8 trillion, to which we need to add about $5 trillion of off-balance sheet liabilities of Fannie Mae (FNM) and Freddie Mac (FRE) and other Government Sponsored Enterprises, for a total of $13 trillion. (We won’t add in the unfunded liabilities of Social Security and Medicare, which are pretty scary 20 years out, when the baby boomers have retired and are big health care consumers.)
The $13 trillion in official debt is getting close to our $14 trillion gross domestic product, but be careful. The debt is often put in terms of GDP, but it’s dangerous to compare a stock variable to a flow variable. Instead, here are some interesting stock variables: net worth of the U.S. household sector is about $54 trillion. Net worth of our business sector is about $18 billion. (The federal government itself does not have a balance sheet! The government does not tally up all of its land, buildings, ships, etc.)
In summary, I am not worried about a United States debt crisis. Don’t take my lack of fear as an endorsement of our fiscal policy of recent years, however. I would have voted against the President’s stimulus proposal. In fact, had I been in Congress, my voting record would have made Ron Paul look like a socialist. (Which is one reason I’ll never be there.) But one does not have to believe that calamity is just around the corner.
Investment Tips for Those Worried About a Debt Crisis
I know that some of you are still not convinced, so here are some investment tips for those still worried.
The simplest way to invest in anticipation of a debt crisis is to avoid U.S. dollar-denominated assets. Buy foreign stocks, bonds and real estate. Those countries with fewest ties to America will be least affected.
One can use the futures market to short United States Treasury Bonds. Here’s a rough rule of thumb: the 10-year Treasury bond has a “modified duration” of about eight years, which indicates that for every percentage point change in interest rates, the value of the bond will decline by eight percentage points. Right now Greece’s bonds are yielding about five percentage point more than German bonds. If you think that the U.S. will have a credit risk at least that large, then there’s a 40 percent gain waiting for you on the short side of the transaction.
Next Up: Taxes
So I’m not too worried about inflation, nor about a debt crisis. I am, however, worried about the impact of the higher taxes that are likely to come. I’ll address that in the next blog post of this series.
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Since Phytophthora ramorum is invisible to the naked eye, wildland monitoring typically relies on recognizing plant symptoms which then must be confirmed by diagnostic testing in the laboratory. Early detection monitoring uses visual vegetation surveys from aircraft or on the ground, combined with stream monitoring via baiting and water sampling. Since extensive areas in California and Oregon are at high risk, aerial surveys by planes or helicopters help monitor existing infestations that are spreading and identify new infestations early to allow for possible containment.
The links below provide wildland monitoring information on local, state or national scales. Nursery inspections and surveys are also conducted – for more information see the P. ramorum in Nurseries page. Monitoring information previous to 2012 can be found on our Historical Archive page.
Online GIS maps
- SODMAP – Laboratory confirmed collections of plant and water samples from 2005 to the present, including SOD-positive as well as SOD-negative specimens to better illustrate the range and distribution of the disease
- OakMapper – Up-to-date data on locations of P. ramorum in California
- FS SOD aerial survey – The USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Region, State and Private Forestry, Forest Health Protection monitors Sudden Oak Death/Phytophthora ramorum-caused mortality through their aerial survey program. Map of 2012 Aerial Survey Results
- Early detection waterway monitoring by the Rizzo lab at UC Davis
- North Coast monitoring and maps by UCCE Humboldt and Del Norte Counties
- SOD Blitz – SOD-blitzes inform and educate the community about Sudden Oak Death, get locals involved in detecting the disease, and produce detailed local maps of disease distribution. The map can then be used to identify those areas where the infestation may be early enough to justify proactive management
- Long-term monitoring plots in California coastal forests by the Rizzo lab at UC Davis
- Sierra high risk surveys – See the annual reports for these surveys (2004 CA wildland survey report; 2005 CA wildland survey report; 2006 CA wildland survey report: 2007 CA wildland survey report; 2008 CA wildland survey report; 2009 CA wildland survey report; 2010 CA wildland survey report and the master list of Sierra stream sites
- Left, Oregon conducts a state cooperative aerial survey; find out more from the Oregon Department of Forestry and the USDA Forest Service surveys
- Right, Oregon waterways showing drainages and where P. ramorum was detected; 10 of the 56 streams baited in 2012 tested positive at least once; view the PDF here
- Also see the Oregon Forest Atlas and Forest Health Management in Oregon pages
- Phytophthora ramorum Detection and Monitoring in Western Washington Waterways – Part of FHP survey conducted in Washington; contact Daniel Omdal for more information.
- As part of the overall WSU Sudden Oak Death Program, citizen scientists are helpful in monitoring waterways;for more information, see WSU citizen stream monitoring.
Started in 2006, the USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Monitoring runs an annual cooperative Sudden Oak Death National Wildland Detection Survey for early detection. The survey is voluntary and administered in collaboration with state forestry or natural resource agencies. The areas to survey are prioritized based on risk maps and confirmed trace-forward nursery plant locations. High risk streams in 17 states are monitored via baiting. Once a positive sample is determined, intensive ground surveys of potential stream-side vegetation hosts are conducted. Protocols are posted at http://fhm.fs.fed.us/sp/sod/sod.shtml. The survey has detected the pathogen in several streams in Washington state and in waterways in several southeastern U.S. states. See the map below or download the June 2012 Positives Map.
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Socrates was a Pederast Homosexual
Greek Eros: Ancient Civilizations of Greece and RomeToday "Eros" would be considered sexual love, and in the days of ancient Greece, Eros was not only their god of love, but it was also their word that referred to sexual desire. In Greek society, especially during the Golden Age, this sexual desire does not seem to have been gender specific in any way.
In fact most men seemed to be more interested in pursuing and having sexual relations with young boys – a practice known as pederasty – than they were with pursuing women. While this likely seems strange to a society where the majority of men find it repulsive to think of another man as beautiful, and where until recently homosexuals and bisexuals were looked down upon as being inferior, it was actually quite common and accepted in the ancient world of Greece.
In this paper I primarily intend to illustrate how common the acts of pederasty and homosexual love really were, in addition to why these practices came to be so prevalent, and when and how they began to be shunned. It becomes obvious quite quickly how prevalent bisexuality was in ancient Greece when one begins to look at various aspects of life in this time. Literature, art, philosophy, and law were all major aspects of life in the ancient world; all of which portrayed outright expressions of the acceptance and prevalence of love between males, but especially that of young boys.
In literature one finds many authors who openly write about homosexuality in poetry and prose (with no restraints). In The Clouds, Aristophanes portrays homosexuality as a common and normal aspect of human existence and sexuality. Theocrites, Achilles Tatius, and Solon also condone homosexuality. Solon writes in his poem “Boys and Sport:”2 Blest is the man who loves and after early play Whereby his limbs are supple made and strong Retiring to his house with wine and song Toys with a fair boy on his breast the livelong day! As is obvious, Eros for young boys was something that writers of poetry and prose felt they did not need to be ashamed of or hide.
These writers – similar to the writers in most cultures - likely represented the view of the bulk of society. Homosexuality was often depicted in art too. While few wall paintings have survived, there are numerous remaining vase paintings that display profane (by modern standards) acts of homosexuality. The following picture [see opposite page] of the vase shows just how explicit the artwork could get, and actually may be considered one of the first forms of pornography. It displays a group of males standing around naked while at least one couple is in the process of having homosexual intercourse.
Two of Plato’ s works, The Phaedrus and The Symposium, paint a brilliant picture of what the attitude toward pederasty was at the time. In the opening pages of The Phaedrus, Phaedrus and Socrates are discussing a speech that Lysias – a popular orator of the day - has written; a speech that was “…designed to win the favor of a handsome boy….” Socrates seems to understand why one would write a speech on this subject, and even states that man “cannot have a less desirable protector or companion than the man who is in love with him.” The Symposium goes into even greater detail about pederasty.
The setting is a symposium – a type of dinner party that only included males as guests, and had entertainment, wine, and discussion of politics and philosophy – in which several men are gathered and all give speeches about why a love of boys is a good thing. Phaedrus - the first to give his speech - states, For I can’t say that there is a greater blessing right from boyhood than a good lover or a greater blessing for a lover than a darling [young boy]. What people who intend to lead their lives in a noble and beautiful manner need is not provided by family, public honors, wealth, or anything else, so well as by love. Pausanias - the second speaker - adds even more to this argument when he states Aphrodite only inspires love among men for young boys, and not women. Those inspired by Aphrodite are naturally drawn to the male because he is a stronger and more intelligent creature.
Socrates also comments on the importance of pederasty in his own life. He says, “My love for this fellow [Agathon- another member of the party who is a beautiful young boy] is not an insignificant affair.” Yet another member of the party, Alcibiades, also loves Agathon and tries to discredit Socrates when he says, “…Socrates is lovingly fixated on beautiful young men, is always around them – in a daze….” Socrates was one of the most influential persons in ancient Greece, and was in fact put to death for what the authorities thought was leading the youth of Athens astray. They did not condemn him for his love of young boys, however, but thought he was leading them away from the gods and causing them to question authority.
Pederasty was also condoned by the law. According to Plato, legal and social norms did not clearly condemn or prohibit homoeroticism. The court records of a case between an older gentleman and a man named Simon help one get an idea of the prevalence of pederasty. The case revolves around two men fighting over a younger boy, but never assigns any dishonor to either of the men for chasing the boy, and actually rule in favor of the old man even though he is married. Of course, each city-state was different, clearly reflected sexual norms in Greece as a whole.
Most of the examples that I have used thus far have been from Athens, but there were other cities that represented a full range of the spectrum in regard to acceptance of pederasty and homosexuality. Sparta, for example, developed institutionalized homosexuality in its military training, while other cities considered homosexuality illegal. These were usually cities far to the north of Greece, and were looked at as being inferior to most cities, especially Athens. Pausanias for example, in The Symposium, denounces these other cities as being ruled by barbarians for considering these acts shameful by law. This was likely a common view among most of the males in Athens in antiquity.
Society in Athens only condemned pederasty when it was sought after in a dishonorable way. Only when it was not pursued honorably according to laws and customs was pederasty frowned upon. There were also no laws against two middle-aged men having intercourse, but nonetheless, this does not appear to have been regarded as acceptable behavior.
The reason this would be looked at as unacceptable is because there were two roles in sex: the active and passive. The active role was reserved to that of the male citizen and considered the honorable role. The party that was strictly on the receiving end of the sexual act played the passive role, and it was considered a dishonor for that party to be a citizen. In order to understand why the Greeks in many of the cities in the Golden Age had the views they did, it is important to try and realize what situations caused their outlooks.
While many of their religious stories involved homosexuality, this was not the way the myths were originally composed, and probably evolved during the classical age to include stories of Zeus’ irresistible passion for his young boy cupbearer, Garrymede; and that of Zeus causing of the first homosexual act among men to occur. While these were effects of people’s thoughts about pederasty there are several possible causes of these thoughts. In the Greek Dark Ages, male warrior fraternities existed that likely caused a deep bond among men, and surely had some impact on thought thereafter.
There had also been a deep appreciation of the physique and prowess of the male body throughout ancient Greece. Another explanation that seems to explain pederasty may have been that the adult males were performing a type of guidance for the sons of fathers who had been killed in battle.
While these undoubtedly had an impact on the views of the ancient Greeks, probably the biggest factor influencing their thought was the structure of Greek culture. In Ancient Athens there was a very distinct public and private sphere. The public sphere was the place where a man was to pursue politics and gain prestige, while the private was where the women, children, and slaves were to remain. A form of punishment would actually be for a man to be banned from the public sphere and only allowed in the dishonorable private sphere – the house.
Women were looked down upon as less than citizens not much higher on the social ladder than slaves, and would be a dishonor to their husband if they were to leave the house. In respect to sexual courting, it did not really matter if a woman left the house or not, because having sex with another man’s wife, daughter, mother, sister, or concubine was one of the only offenses that was punished by execution. Again, only a male could be the active role and administer sex, therefore the female could not be guilty in regard to any sexual crimes. Plus, it was nearly impossible to court young women because of the fact that they had pre-arranged marriages – usually by the age of fourteen.
Women were also almost never outside, and zealously guarded until they were married in order to prevent the “accident” of unwanted children. This led to the situation where aristocratic men gathered in large numbers out of doors with no women to court and nowhere to direct their sexual energy. They could have directed it toward prostitutes and slaves, but these were at the disposal of all who could pay, and was not really any kind of competition for those men who wanted to show off their lovers. The only public sexual competition had to be directed to young boys. With this system in place, it became possible for men to meet lovers in several, all-male settings established in society.
There were numerous arenas where this could take place. One such place was the army, where an older man was supposed to help a younger boy become a better soldier and take him under his wing. Another was in the gymnasium where boys and trainers practiced in the nude. Yet another was the act of an older man taking a younger boy to a symposium to expose him to culture. All of these actions were common in Greek culture, but it was the older man who was to be the pursuer, and the boy that was supposed to be shy and not readily willing to succumb to the man’s advances. This was an honorable way of pursuing pederasty and was thought of as educational and good for the younger boy by the philosophers of the day.
There were, in fact, rules that would limit the contact men could have with boys, such as school not being open before sunrise or after sunset, and rules regarding who could enter a school, and for what reason. No slave would ever be allowed to court a boy. It is not fair to think that only the adult male benefited from these relationships. They both entered the relationship for selfish reasons; the boy for educational and social advantages, and the man for reasons of sex and companionship.
Once a man had wooed his darling, it was his job to make the boy into a woman. Since it was dishonorable for any man to be passive, the boy –who would someday be a man - had to be seen as a woman. At the same time, however, the lover was attempting to help advance the boy as a man. Boys, incapable of emitting semen – hence boys before adolescence, were not really viewed as male, so it was not all that difficult to portray them as female. This had to be quite an emotionally confusing strain, however, on the young boy. In this situation a boy who is trying to advance as a man, is also playing the role of a woman so it can be all right for what his lover is doing to him.
The male in this system is all part of a cycle. At one point in his life he is the pursued darling, and at another point, he becomes the pursuing adult lover. Once this practice became established, it is understandable that it became quite secure and commonplace in society. While this may seem a strange cultural system to many modern onlookers, it was completely normal for the males in Greek society who had known it as a part of their everyday existence their whole lives. Since men ran the culture and were the only members of society who were looked at as being fully human it only makes sense that they would want to pursue their equal.
Another major reason the structure of society in the ancient world helped cause pederasty is the fact that all marriages were arranged. There was no romance involved in marrying, and indeed, the job of the wife was to bear children and be the guardian of the home. Romance with a woman was actually frowned upon, and any man who was thought to be under the influence of a woman was said to be incompetent at law. The only honorable place to look for romance was in the pool of young boys in the city. Women were uneducated and in the eyes of men had little or no intellectual capacity, thus it was better to pursue the young darling and attempt to make an equal out of the boy.
Despite the overwhelmingly popular support of pederasty and homosexual love in ancient Greece, it did not last forever. However, it seems obvious that it did not die in the hands of the Greeks. It appears that pederasty began to decline by the end of the Hellenic period, but homosexuality certainly lived on. With the Hellenistic Age came an increased status of women as well as an increase in heterosexual relationships as the main focus of romantic endeavors. Both of these factors seemed to cause a decline in homosexual relationships, however, they did indeed live on in the Hellenistic world and even went on to Rome. Alexander the Great was known for his homosexual tendencies, and was never attacked for his long affair with Hepchaestion.
Homosexuality survived into the days of the Roman Empire where it finally became widely shunned when the emperor Justinian eventually banned it. The establishment of the church likely had the greatest influence in trying to eliminate homosexuality. Obviously, however, homosexuality has never, and likely will never be eliminated. It has been around longer than the church, and has survived despite the ruthless attack that the church has made on it. From the areas of literature, art, philosophy, and law it becomes obvious how very prevalent and accepted pederasty and homosexuality were in Hellenic times.
While it is impossible to know exactly how these views came to be, it
appears that the most influential factor was the way that society was structured in
an almost exclusively male setting. And while modern views condemn pederasty,
homosexuality unquestionably lives on in modern times and will likely survive as
long as humans walk the earth. While many people think of Democracy, and
philosophy as being legacies of the ancient Greek world, in many ways one could
trace homosexuality back to the Hellenic age as well.
Arkins, Brian. “Sexuality in Fifth-Century Athens.” 1994. http://www.ucd.ie/~classics/94/Arkins94.html (6 August 2000). Cohen, David. Law, Sexuality and Society: The Enforcement of Morals in Classical Athens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Crane, Gregory.
“The Perseus Home Page.” N.D. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/image?lookup=1991.01.0790&image=1.(01 November 2000). Halsall, Paul. “People With a History: An Online Guide to Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Trans* History.” 1997. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/index-anc.html . (01 November 2000). Halsall, Paul. “Homosexual Eros in Early Greece.” 1986. http://www.forfham.edu/halsall/pwh/greekeros.html (1 November 2000). Kebric, Robert B. Greek People: Second Edition. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company, 1997. Plato. Phaedrus and Letters VII and VIII. Translated with an introduction by Walter Hamilton. London, England: Penguin Books, 1973. Plato. The Symposium and the Phaedrus: “Plato’s Erotic Dialogues.” Translated with an introduction and commentaries by William S. Cobb. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993.
Homosexuality is a Sin!
John 16:2, “Yea, the time cometh, that whosoever killeth you will think that he doeth God service.”
“And ye will not come to me, that ye might have life" (John 5:40)
Notice that Jesus said “ye will not come,” not ye cannot come.
Ephesians 4:15, “...speaking the truth in love...”
That's just sick! Have they no shame at GLSEN? Can you imagine, trying to teach Ronald that it's ok to stick something in Timmy's backside? ...or that it's ok for a boy to become a girl? What has American society deteriorated to? It is tragic. Any honest child knows that God created Adam and Eve; not Adam and Steve. GLSEN are a bunch of sickos!
“Who being past feeling have given themselves over unto lasciviousness, to work all uncleanness with greediness.” —Ephesians 4:19
"Ye have wearied the LORD with your words. Yet ye say, Wherein have we wearied him? When ye say, Every one that doeth evil is good in the sight of the LORD..." —Malachi 2:17
Homosexuality is a sin! Don't upset God by saying it's not!
There is a way out!
If you really love someone, you'll tell them the truth.
"Ye that love the LORD, hate evil..." —Psalm 97:10
Ye Must Be Born Again! | You Need HIS Righteousness!
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Liberation Route to honour heroes
21 September 2011
South Africa has begun work on a series of museums and monuments, together forming a National Liberation Heritage Route, to honour the women and men who fought against apartheid.
Briefing journalists at Parliament in Cape Town on Tuesday, Arts and Culture Minister Paul Mashatile said the move followed Cabinet's recent approval of a National Liberation Heritage Route that would help preserve the history of South Africa's armed struggle.
'This is across the board'
"This [commemoration] is across the board," Mashatile said. "We are not just looking at ANC [African National Congress] leaders. We are looking at people that played a role in the struggle of the people of South Africa," he said, adding that this included people like Nelson Mandela, Oliver Tambo, Albertina Sisulu, Helen Suzman, Steve Biko and Langalibalele Dube.
The department has dedicated September, South Africa's Heritage Month, to remembering the
country's struggle heroes and heroines. Ahead of national Heritage Day on 24 September, work has started on restoring the graves of various liberation heroes and declaring them heritage sites.
OR Tambo's home, Mandela's birthplace, Ngquza Hill, Liliesleaf
While the cost of rolling out new museums and monuments would be disclosed in more detail at a later stage, Mashatile said R20-million had been set aside for the construction of a museum at OR Tambo's home in the Eastern Cape, while R50-million had been set aside for Ngquza Hill, where the Pondoland revolt and massacre of 1960 took place.
In Mvezo, the birthplace of Nelson Mandela, the department is building a museum and a proposal for funding of R70-million had been developed.
Roads and other infrastructure in the areas around museums and monuments would also be upgraded.
Mashatile said the restoration of Liliesleaf, the farm where many of the Rivonia trial members were seized during a
1963 police raid, had been completed, while work on the Steve Biko Centre in King Williams Town in the Eastern Cape was also under way.
Sites in neighbouring countries
The department was also looking at setting up museums and sites across the border in countries such as Mozambique, Angola, Tanzania and Zambia.
Currently, an interpretation centre and museum was being constructed in Matola in Mozambique, where liberation activists were massacred in the 1981 raid by the South African Air Force.
Mashatile said the department was presently holding consultative meetings with members of the public in various provinces that have been convened by the respective MECs.
"The National Liberation Heritage Route is really a national project, but we allow communities down the line to do their own, sort of smaller liberation routes as well. So, in a particular community there will be a number of people that are seen as heroes, and communities are free to do
"We will focus mainly on what are seen as national heroes."
He said in the long run, the idea was to put these sites forward for listing as Unesco World Heritage Sites.
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Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
The two-tailed test is a statistical test used in inference, in which a given statistical hypothesis will be rejected when the value of the statistic is either sufficiently small or sufficiently large. The test is named after the "tail" of data under the far left and far right of a bell-shaped normal data distribution, or bell curve. However, the terminology is extended to tests relating to distributions other than normal.
"In general a test is called two-sided or two-tailed if the null hypothesis is rejected for values of the test statistic falling into either tail of its sampling distribution, and it is called one-sided or one-tailed if the null hypothesis is rejected only for values of the test statistic falling into one specified tail of its sampling distribution" ^ . For example, if our alternative hypothesis is , rejecting the null hypothesis of for small or for large values of the sample mean, the test is called two-tailed or two-sided. If our alternative hypothesis is , rejecting the null hypothesis of only for large values of the sample mean, it is then called one-tailed or one-sided.
If the distribution from which the samples are derived is considered to be normal, Gaussian, or bell-shaped, then the test is referred to as a one- or two-tailed T test. If the test is performed using the actual population mean and variance, rather than an estimate from a sample, it would be called a one- or two-tailed Z test
The statistical tables for Z and for t provide critical values for both one- and two-tailed tests. That is, they provide the critical values that cut off an entire alpha region at one or the other end of the sampling distribution as well as the critical values that cut off the 1/2 alpha regions at both ends of the sampling distribution.
Reference: John E. Freund, Modern Elementary Statistics<em>, sixth edition, section "Inferences about Means", chapter "Significance Tests", page 289.
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|
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| 0.922813 | 436 | 4.1875 | 4 |
Active Directory Sites
A site is a grouping of machines based on a subnet of TCP/IP addresses. An administrator determines what a site is. Sites may contain multiple subnets. There can be several domains in a site.
Active Directory replication to various sites is performed using Active Directory Sites and Services. (Make section explaining how to use this). Sites and subnets are not related to the structure of the domain.
The following may be created:
- Sites - One or more IP subnets. Generally this refers to a physical site such as a portion of the organization in particular city or part of a city which is linked by leased lines or other media to other parts of the organization.
- Subnets - Subnets must be created in each site object before it is really active. A network address and subnet mask is used to define the subnet.
- Site links - It is a list of two or more connected sites. Whether the link will use RPC or SMTP for passing data must be determined before creating the link since it cannot be changed. Selection IP means selection RPC over IP. Site link information includes:
Bridgehead server - A domain controller that is used to send replication information to one or more other sites across a site link.
- Replication schedule - Specify the times the sites can replicate and how often they attempt replication.
- Link cost - High for a low bandwidth link. A high cost link gets lower priority. A lower priority link is normally used if there are more than one link to the same location.
- Member sites - Lists sites that are connected using the site link.
- Transport Mechanism - RPC or SMTP (Mail) is specified.
- SMTP (Mail) - It cannon be used for replication inside the same site and is a form of asynchronous replication.
- RPC - Requires more bandwidth than SMTP.
- Site link bridges - Allows one site in a string of sites to replicate through one or two sites to a second or third site. These are only used for fine control of how replication will occur across WAN links. This is actually done automatically by AD, without fine control. To use this feature, automatic bridging of site links must be turned off. You must have three sites to create a site link bridge since it takes three sites and two site links to make a string of sites.
- Global catalog servers - The global catalog is a searchable master index with data about all objects in a forest. The global catalog server maintains this catalog. It:
There is one in each domain by default, and the first domain controller in the domain is originally the global catalog server. It is worthwhile to have a global catalog server on each side of a WAN connection if the domain is spread out across a WAN.
- Helps Active Directory resources be located by users.
- During logon, it provides group membership information.
If several domain controllers are placed on the network, and later the network is broken into sites, appropriate servers must be manually moved to the appropriate site that they are on. If the domain controller is created after the site is created, the server is placed automatically in the correct site (based on IP address).
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| 0.913654 | 657 | 3.09375 | 3 |
I have not visited a different country this year (so far), and this has naturally led me to spend some time reminiscing about the my previous trips. One thing that struck me about visiting different Asian countries is a line I heard practically everywhere: “Same, same, but different.”
The phrase was uttered in the context of people being the same (physical attributes for Asian tourists and the local shopkeepers) albeit with marked differences as well. That made me think about perspective, how things may seem so different that some people misconstrue them as “wrong” when in fact, they’re not.
Where does grammar come in?
I spent a little time reading this entry at The Wichita Eagle titled Style and grammar, or why lots of things aren’t ‘wrong’. I think that this should be mandatory reading for writers – no matter what kind of writing you do.
The entry tackles two definitions of grammar. Strictly speaking, grammar is all about “morphology (how to form words), syntax (how to form sentences) and semantics (what words and sentences mean)”. That’s what the “hardcore” grammarians love to talk about.
On the other hand, there’s the broader definition, which includes “punctuation, phonology (the sound system), orthoepy (correct pronunciation), orthography (correct spelling) and lexicon (vocabulary and usage)” on top of the first definition.
I think I am not wrong in saying that many of us use the second definition more often, am I?
That being said, I cannot agree more with the author of the entry about grammar and style. Sure, there are certain things that are wrong, no matter how you spin it. These usually fall under morphology and syntax, although there may be debatable points as well.
There are, however, many points that fall under style, and we, as writers, have to be more aware of the differences in style. I say this not only to make sure that our work fits the required style of the client, but also to ensure that we follow a consistent style (if there is no such requirement from the client).
Additionally, there is the fact that we have our (grammar) pet peeves. Some of us may not hesitate to point out the mistakes of other people, and while it may seem like a matter of death and life for us, my suggestion is this: make sure that you really are pointing out a mistake and NOT a difference in style.
Remember, folks, sometimes it’s not wrong. It’s just different.
*Here’s additional reading on prescriptive and descriptive grammar.
Image via puuikibeach
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why does waves look like crescents when viewed from the side?
here one must picture static, frozen waves, viewed from the side. each wave possesses a hollow into which it usually collapses when the wave breaks. this hollow is created by the water of the previous wave as water flows backward from that wave’s highest point and strikes the following wave. not only does this backward-flowing water cause the hollow in the following wave, it also causes this wave to reach its highest point, so that in turn water is sent backward to the oncoming wave.
- why does something move?
- how can flowing water consume its momentum when it encounters an obstruction?
- why are the waves of descending rivers slower than the water flow of the river itself?
- why does a body move when something strikes it?
- under what conditions can a person on a see-saw not jump up?
- what happens to the waves when water crashed into an obstacle?
- what effects do the slope of the obstruction and the angle of impact have?
- why doesn't viscous water flow continually throungh a bent pipe?
- does the weight of water vary according to how one changes the slope of a pipe filled with water?
- how can one see that movement separates from its cause?
- where does the wave break?
- what causes cyclones?
- can a special dam influence the impact of the water?
- what must an especially strong dam look like?
- how can one simulate the collapse of a wave?
- how does air, once it is immersed, escape the water?
- what machine can be used to ram piles into the ground?
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The Charlotte Harbor Colonial Water Bird Nest Monitoring and Protection Program is a cooperative effort
of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) Charlotte Harbor Aquatic Preserves office,
J.N. Ding Darling National Wildlife Refuge, Audubon of Florida, Lee County, and volunteers.
Wading birds are an important indicator species for the health of the estuaries since they feed at such a
high trophic level. Their indicator species status and dramatic decline since the 1930s makes their
protection a necessity. Surveying and documenting trends in wading bird populations will help document the
preservation of biodiversity in the Charlotte Harbor Aquatic Preserves.
- Includes monitoring islands in Pine Island Sound and Matlacha Pass.
- Provide robust peak estimates of nesting efforts for each species found in the aquatic preserves.
- Provide long term protection recommendations and monitoring techniques.
- Data collected is analyzed and submitted to the South Florida Water Management District for
publication in their annual South Florida Wading Bird Report. The report is used to follow trends
in wading bird activity and to estimate the number of nesting wading birds in Florida.
Monitoring is done by visiting each island once a month during the nesting season starting as early as
February and continuing as late as October. The methods used are direct counts of nesting pairs or nests on
the islands by boat. Surveying is done while slowly circling the island and using high powered binoculars.
Staff and volunteers at the 2008 training
The colonial wading birds and diving birds observed nesting in the aquatic preserves are the
double-crested cormorant, brown pelican, great blue heron,
little blue heron, great white heron, green heron, tricolored
heron, black-crowned night-heron, yellow-crowned night heron,
great egret, snowy egret,
cattle egret, reddish egret, and white ibis.
Volunteers play a vital role in the monitoring and protection program. With the help of volunteers the
aquatic preserves staff are able to cover larger areas and monitor more islands. Volunteers are trained at
the beginning of each nesting season so that everyone is consistent in their data collection techniques.
Contact the Charlotte Harbor office at (941) 575-5861 for more information and volunteer opportunities.
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Find information on common issues.
Ask questions and find answers from other users.
Suggest a new site feature or improvement.
Check on status of your tickets.
Use this link to report a NEES network security incident
Introduction to Dynamics of Structures
0.0 out of 5 stars
13 Jan 2011 | Learning Objects | Contributor(s): Shirley Dyke
The purpose of this experiment is to introduce students to principles in structural dynamics through the use of an instructional shake table. Natural frequencies, mode shapes and damping ratios...
Earthquake-Resistant Bridge Competition for Introductory Engineer Students
This project is intended for entry level engineering students at either the freshman or sophmore level. It is appropriate for all engineering majors and is intended as a potential recruitment tool...
Transfer Function Iteration Algorithm
The transfer function iteration algorithm (implemented in matlab here) is commonly used to control a shake table, facilitating the reproduction of historical earthquake records. It is an iterative...
Demonstration of Lateral-Torsional Coupling in Building Structures
The effect of lateral-torsional coupling in building structures due to non-coincident centers of mass and of rigidity will be demonstrated through a small scale one-storey, one bay by one bay...
Dynamic Behavior of Simple Soil-Structure Systems
The experiment involves constructing a "soil" column that supports one or more single degree of freedom (SDOF) structures.?The soil is modeled using several layers of foam rubber or soft rubber...
K-12 Outreach Activities in Earthquake Engineering
To better understand the way in which civil engineering structures respond to severe earthquakes, students will investigate the seismic behavior of two types of buildings, those made from masonry...
Shaking Table Demonstration of Dynamic Response of Base-Isolated Buildings
The objective of this experiment is to demonstrate the response of base-isolated buildings subjected to dynamic loading. A three-dimensional, one-story building frame will be designed and...
Earthquake Engineering Modules for K-12 Learning
13 Jan 2011 | Learning Objects | Contributor(s): Shirley Dyke, Kevin Z Truman
This document documents a teaching module containing a series of lessons that are appropriate for educating K-12 students in fundamental engineering principles. The lessons have been developed...
SDOF Freshman Earthquake Engineering Introduction
13 Jan 2011 | Learning Objects | Contributor(s): NEES EOT
This is a teaching module from the UCIST - NEES partnership on structures for undergraduate students.
This module uses tele-participation and tele-operation for students from remote locations to...
MDOF Design of a Vibration Absorber
UCIST Remote Operation Modules
08 Sep 2010 | Series | Contributor(s): NEES EOT
This series compiles the remote operation modules produced during the UCIST - NEES partnership. Each module contains a lab manual describing how to perform the remote operation and the associated...
Learning Modules for Shake Tables (UCIST)
07 Sep 2010 | Series | Contributor(s): Shirley Dyke
This collection of modules was produced as a result of the UCIST - NEES partnership.
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| 0.832259 | 656 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Andor Release: Einstein's "Spooky Action At A Distance" Shown For First Time In Real-Time Imaging
12/4/2013 10:24:47 AM
4th December 2013, Belfast, UK: Quantum Entanglement is one of the most counterintuitive features of quantum mechanics, in which the quantum states of two physically separated particles are linked. If a measurement is made that causes one particle of a pair to take on a definite value, the other particle will take the anti-correlated value instantaneously, even when separated by large distances.
Einstein called quantum entanglement "spooky action at a distance". Now, a team from the Vienna Center for Quantum Science and Technology has reported imaging of entanglement events where the influence of the measurement of one particle on its distant partner particle is directly visible.
The key to their success is the Andor iStar 334T Intensified CCD (ICCD) camera, which is capable of very fast (nanosecond) and precise (picosecond) optical gating speeds. Unlike the relatively long microsecond exposure times of CCD and EMCCD cameras which inhibits their usefulness in ultra-high-speed imaging, this supreme level of temporal resolution made it possible for the team to perform a real-time coincidence imaging of entanglement for the first time.
"The Andor iStar ICCD camera is fast enough, and sensitive enough, to image in real-time the effect of the measurement of one photon on its entangled partner," says Robert Fickler of the Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information. "Using ICCD cameras to evaluate the number of photons from a registered intensity within a given region opens up new experimental possibilities to determine more efficiently the structure and properties of spatial modes from only single intensity images. Our results suggest that triggered ICCD cameras will advance quantum optics and quantum information experiments where complex structures of single photons need to be investigated with high spatio-temporal resolution."
According to Antoine Varagnat, Product Specialist at Andor, "The experiment produces pairs of photons which are entangled so as to have opposite polarisations. For instance, if one of a pair has horizontal polarisation, the other has vertical, and so on. The first photon is sent to polarising glass that transmits photons of one angle only, followed by a detector to register photons which make it through the glass. The other photon is delayed by a fibre, then its entangled property is coherently transferred from the polarisation to the spatial mode and afterwards brought to the high-speed, ultra-sensitive iStar camera.
"The use of the ICCD camera allowed the team to demonstrate the high flexibility of the setup in creating any desired spatial-mode entanglement. Their results suggest that visual imaging in quantum optics not only provides a better intuitive understanding of entanglement but will also improve applications of quantum science," concludes Varagnat.
Research into quantum entanglement was instigated in 1935 by Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, in a paper critiquing quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger also wrote several papers shortly afterwards. Although these first studies focused on the counterintuitive properties of entanglement with the aim of criticising quantum mechanics, entanglement was eventually verified experimentally and recognised as a valid, fundamental feature of quantum mechanics. Nowadays, the focus of the research has changed to its utilization in communications and computation, and has been used to realise quantum teleportation experimentally.
To learn more about the iStar series of ICCD (intensified CCD) cameras, please visit the Andor website at http://www.andor.com/scientific-cameras/istar-iccd-camera-series.
Einstein called quantum entanglement "spooky action at a distance". Now, a team from the Vienna Center for Quantum Science and Technology has reported imaging of entanglement events where the influence of the measurement of one particle on its distant partner particle is directly visible (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wGkx1MUw2TU).
Reference The image above is available for download. Either click on the image or contact John Waite at Catalyst Communications.
Robert Fickler, Mario Krenn, Radek Lapkiewicz, Sven Ramelow, Anton Zeilinger. "Real-Time Imaging of Quantum Entanglement" Scientific Reports 3:1914 http://www.nature.com/srep/2013/130529/srep01914/full/srep01914.html (2013)
Andor is a world leader in Scientific Imaging, Spectroscopy Solutions and Microscopy Systems. Established in 1989 from Queen's University in Belfast, Northern Ireland, Andor Technology now employs over 340 people in 16 offices worldwide, distributing its portfolio of over 70 products to 10,000 customers in 55 countries.
Andor’s digital cameras, designed and manufactured using pioneering techniques developed in-house, allow scientists around the world to measure light down to a single photon and capture events occurring within 1 billionth of a second. This unique capability is helping them push back the boundaries of knowledge in fields as diverse as drug discovery, toxicology analysis, medical diagnosis, food quality testing and solar energy research. More information about Andor Technology PLC (LSE: AND) is available at the company's website
For further information, please contact Andor Technology direct or their marketing agency, Catalyst Communications.
Andor Technology plc.
7 Millennium Way
Springvale Business Park
Belfast BT12 7AL
+44 (0) 28 9027 0812
2 Crispin Way
Buckinghamshire SL2 3UE
+44 (0) 1753 648 140
Help employers find you! Check out all the jobs and post your resume.
comments powered by
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While visiting and enjoying the architecture of the Forbidden City in China, three researchers wondered how large rocks weighing many hundreds of tons were transported to the site more than 500 years ago. A relaxing holiday became a science project and, in a paper just published, they reveal calculations to show the most likely means of achieving this feat was by using wooden sleds on artificial ice paths.
Built in the early 15th century, the Forbidden City consists of an imperial palace and nearly a thousand buildings. It served as the figurative centre of China’s capital city. During the researchers' visit, Howard Stone, professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering at Princeton University, saw a sign that mentioned the use of an artificial ice path to transport the enormous stones used in the city.
However, a look at the history of technology in China revealed that wheels existed in China since the 4th century BC. Why then would there still be a need to use man-drawn sleds? asked the researchers. Was it a better method? “That is when we began to investigate and calculate,” said Stone.
With the help of Jiang Li, a mechanical engineer at the University of Science and Technology Beijing who studies tribology (study of friction), they dug into the literature to find more details on the efforts involved in transporting these stones. One document said that a monolithic slab weighing 112 tonnes was moved over 70km to Beijing in 1557.
Chinese wheeled carriages would not have been able to transport such blocks, even with the technology of late 1500s. The other idea would be to use wooden rollers, but that would required creating a smooth road on tricky winding roads.
Calculations published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences reveal pulling such stones over bare ground at a rate mentioned in the historical text would require more than 1500 men. Even sliding the stone on bare ice would need 330 men. However, one solution from the researchers, which involved tobogganing the stones on wooden planks and lubricating the path with cold water, would only need 50 men for that load.
A weather analysis of the last 2000 years in China finds the average January temperature in Beijing in the 15th and 16th century was about –4°C, which would have been enough to create and maintain artificial ice paths. While historical records reveal that more than a million workers were involved in the construction, details about the construction activity are hard to find.
The Chinese were at the forefront of the study of friction at the time. Chariots preserved with the Terracotta Army, which is more than 2000 years old, showed they even used wheel bearings to reduce friction.
“It’s a wonderful story and a good historical analysis,” said Thomas Mathia, a tribologist at French National Scientific Research Centre. “But it’s just a hypothesis.”
Regardless of whether or not they are able to prove that tobogganing massive stones played a part in the construction of the Forbidden City, for Stone the pleasure was in following up the story. “Recognising the degrees of planning and implementation used more than 500 years ago for such a massive undertaking was humbling.”
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| 0.969582 | 655 | 4.09375 | 4 |
San Diego, California (NAPSI) - Taking your preteen or teen for a health check-up or sports physical is an important part of getting them ready for the new school year. During the appointment, be sure to speak with your child’s health care professional about diseases they may be at risk for. According to William O’Neal, Jr., a Certified Physician Assistant and member of the American Academy of Physician Assistants, the best time to help prevent diseases is before your preteen or teen is exposed to them.
One of these diseases is human papillomavirus, or HPV. HPV is a virus that can cause genital warts and certain pre-cancers and cancers in males and females. HPV often has no visible signs or symptoms, so many people who have HPV don’t even know it. Although most HPV infections clear on their own, there’s no way to predict who will or won’t clear the virus. In some cases, HPV can lead to significant diseases such as cervical cancer. In the U.S., 12,000 women are diagnosed with cervical cancer each year.
Arming yourself with information about adolescent diseases is the first step to help maintain your adolescent’s health, and your health care professional is a key resource. A few questions to jumpstart your conversation include:
• What diseases might my adolescent be at risk for?
• Are these the same for girls and boys?
• What effects can these diseases have on my preteen/teen?
• How can I help protect my adolescent from these diseases now and in the future?
• How can my preteen/teen be exposed to these diseases?
• When should I schedule my preteen/teen’s next check-up?
Give preteens and teens the tools to help prepare them for a safe and healthy school year by initiating a discussion with their health care professional. To learn more about adolescent diseases, visit www.momcentral.com/teenhealth for an educational guide, developed by Merck together with the American Nurse Practitioner Foundation and the Physician Assistant Foundation.
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| 0.952362 | 439 | 2.9375 | 3 |
What Do Flamingos Eat
Just what do flamingos eat anyway? Although the answer is not too surprising, a couple of facts regarding their eating habits border a bit on the unusual. Their preferred habitat also gives some clues as to what their choice of food is.
There are five different species of flamingo, one living Africa, three in Central and South America, and a species native to the Caribbean area, including the southernmost parts of the United States. All species are rather tall birds, averaging around 4 feet in height, if not a bit taller. Most of the time when you see a group of flamingos, called a colony, they are either preening themselves, eating, or simply standing on one leg. One would thing they would get tired of standing on a single leg for long periods of time, but that is their preferred, and presumably most comfortable and restful way of standing. Watch a colony long enough, and they may even march for you. It isn't clear why flamingos march, but they do, moving about in synchronized movements. Watching flamingos fly can also be quite a sight. A colony in flight makes for a colorful picture, but a flock of several thousand in flight is indeed something to behold.
You Are What You Eat - What do flamingos eat? Their favorite food is shrimp, and this is the food that gives the flamingo its characteristic pink color. Some species are more crimson than pink, but it is the diet of shrimp that is responsible for that as well. Flamingos are not born pink or crimson, but gray, and remain that color for the first 2 to 3 years of their life. The bird's diet of shrimp is responsible for its turning pink, a shade of red, or crimson, later in life. The reason behind this is that the shrimp is particularly high in beta-carotene, the same substance that is found in carrots, and the same substance that can give our skin a slightly orange hue should we eat large amounts of carrots over a period of time. If a young flamingo's diet is deprived of shrimp, but it gets enough other nutrients to survive and grow, it will end up as a white flamingo. Flamingos in zoos at one time had a habit of turning from pink to white, until zoo keepers discovered the flamingos needed a diet of shrimp to retain their pink or red coloring. In one sense, the flamingo adds credence to the saying "You are what you eat".
Upside Down Dinner - Another way to answer the question, "What do flamingos eat?", is to look at how they eat. Not too many creatures choose to eat with their heads upside down, unless their hanging from something. Flamingos do just that, while standing upright. Their boomerang-shaped bill with its flat upper surface skims back and forth, upside down, in shallow water. Food, primarily algae, on both the surface and bottom is stirred up and strained through the bills. Flamingos do most of their feeding in two feet or less of water, and mainly in salt water or brackish water. When they drink, they seek a source of fresh water.
Flamingos feed in marshlands and shallow lakes as well and often in places where there is not much in the way of vegetation. In such places, predators are few, and competition for food is also almost nonexistent. The main danger flamingos face is the destruction of the wetlands they rely upon for both food and for nesting. Since large colonies can live in an area of marshland, destruction of this wetland can have a telling effect on the size of future flocks and colonies.
What do flamingos eat? Think eating upside down, and think pink!
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Wouldn't it be nice to have your very own supercomputer in your pocket?
If your laptop crashed while you were working on a major presentation, you could ask your portable expert to help diagnose the problem. If you wanted to bone up on Middle Eastern history, you could ask it to comb every document available and then wrap it all up in a simple summary (annotated, of course).
Best of all, instead of typing out basic questions on a cramped keyboard, you could speak to it in natural human language and it would understand.
Thanks to the researchers behind Watson -- IBM's whiz-bang computer designed to compete on "Jeopardy!" -- that sci-fi-like scenario is a little bit closer to reality.
In less than a week, the world will watch as Watson takes on the top human contestants on the popular trivia gameshow. But artificial intelligence experts say it may not be too long before the technology powering Watson spills over into doctors' offices, businesses and, eventually, maybe even your phone.
For the past four years, researchers at IBM have been grooming their computer program (named after IBM founder Thomas J. Watson) to compete on "Jeopardy!" against the game's most succsessful champions, Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter.
Watson Understands Questions in Natural Language
Not only does the program need to be able to recall facts and figures across a wide range of topics, it needs to understand the puns and metaphors commonly found in "Jeopardy!" clues. And, to win, it needs to do it all faster than the fastest human.
"It's an information-seeking tool that's capable of understanding your question to make sure you get what you want, and then delivers that content through a natural flowing dialogue," David Ferrucci, IBM's Watson team leader, said on the NOVA special "Smartest Machine on Earth," which premieres on PBS tonight. "I don't think the world has seen a machine quite like Watson and, frankly, I'm thinking where can we go from here?"
The magic of Watson is that beyond being able to search formal databases and tables for information based on keywords, it uses many different algorithms to understand and process natural human language.
In Medicine, Watson-Like System Could Be 'Doctor's Assistant'
"Classic expert systems tend to be brittle, they tend to be very narrow, they tend to be able to solve problems only in the way it was expressed in that formal math," Ferrucci told ABCNews.com. "What you see underneath the hood in Watson is a way to do that reasoning but ... right over the natural language content itself."
That might not sound so tricky at first, but think about all the nuances and wordplay woven into human language. Homonyms, inflection, double entendres -- they might be familiar to you, but they're foreign to even the most advanced computers.
"Dealing with natural language is a very, very hard task for a computer," Ferrucci said. "But then, moreover, there's tremendous potential if we can continue to chip away at this task."
In medicine, for example, a Watson-like system could serve as a kind of doctor's assistant, he said.
Let's say a patient suffers from a rare disease, the medical Watson could listen in on patient interviews and combine those conversations with the patient's medical record, family history and test results. Not only that, but it could cross-reference that material against revelant journal articles, research and other published information.
Applications of Watson Technology Could Extend to Government, Engineering
Finally, it could generate a list of the top conditions the patient might be suffering from, along with a list of all the relevant sources.
"What the doctor can do is just consult this and say, 'am I missing anything'? There's a huge amount of information out there," Ferrucci said. "I imagine that it will help the doctor to adjust and refine and rationalize and document both the diagnostic process as well as the treatment process with a lot more confidence."
Watson-like systems may not be as precise as a rule-based sytem working over a specific database, he said, but they can cover a wider collection of information and then make it more digestable for humans.
Ferrucci said the same process could be used by information technology professionals to unravel complicated computer problems.
IBM's immediate challenge might be to best world-champions on "Jeopardy!," but, ultimately, the company is looking to apply Watson's technology to areas as varied as government, engineering and business.
'Jeopardy!' Challenge Could Spark Public Conversation, Drive Research
Eric Nyberg, a professor in the Language Technologies Institute at Carnegie Mellon University, said he hopes the "Jeopardy!" competition will not only open up a conversation with the public about artificial intelligence, but also drive more research in the field.
As far as consumer applications, he said, "I think the logical next stop beyond Watson is going to be systems that can advise you on selecting certain kinds of products that meet your personal needs."
For example, we may not be too far away from a system that could read through all the camera reviews available and then, based on its knowledge of a user's preferences, recommend the best choices, Nyberg said.
The system could be accessed in a retail shop where you would buy the camera, but it could also be accessible through a cell phone, he said.
"We could build applications like that today. For example, if there was a manufacturer that wanted to create a version of Watson that could answer questions about its entire product line that would be a very easy thing to do," he said, adding that the range of trivia and language used in "Jeopardy!" actually poses a more difficult problem.
But though Watson may represent a ground-breaking step in so-called question-answering systems, researchers say it's still not the ultimate goal in artifical intelligence.
Goal of AI: Build Machines With Human Intelligence
"From the science point of view, the goal of artificial intelligence, when it started 50 years ago was to build machines that exhibit human intelligence," said Boris Katz, the principal research scientist at MIT's Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. "One could argue that answering certain questions is part of that but I think it would be especially interesting to build something that not only performs certain tasks but maybe even does it in a way that a human would do it."
Those machines would not just provide answers to questions, but be able to explain how they arrived at the correct answer. And, given the trend toward mobile devices, he said, eventually, those machines will likely find their way into your hands.
Some smartphone applications can already understand limited voice commands and execute basic tasks like dialing contacts in your phone book but, Katz said, advanced systems could potentially turn your computer into a hand-held buddy.
"Your pocket friend -- more than Watson," he said. "Not only [to] answer simple questions, but actually do things. ... [You could instruct it to] 'Please tell my friend to do this,' 'please find this information and summarize it'."
That scenario is probably still decades away, he said, but it starts with the natural language research that put Watson on "Jeopardy!".
So while you might want to be loyal and root for the human race next week, the future may not be such a bad consolation prize if man ultimately does get defeated by machine.
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China Ditch History
In the mid 1800s, hundreds of thousands of people were lured to the Western United States by the potential for striking it rich in the gold fields. Those arriving late were often unable to make any money. Some of these people headed north to farm; many ended up in Oregon. When gold was discovered in Douglas County in the 1860s, many reverted back to mining. Some made money, and some didn't, but the resources were there. In Douglas County alone there were hundreds of placer, hydraulic, and hard rock mines.
In the North Myrtle Creek area near Myrtle Creek Oregon, there were two hydraulic giants working around the clock. There was a downside to hydraulic mining in this area though. The two giants were only able to work three months out of the year during the winter because the availability of water was not great enough to run the "giants" during the summer. Myrtle Creek Consolidated Hydraulic Gold Mining and Manufacturing Company (MCCHGMMC) proposed to mine year round by constructing a ditch. In the North Myrtle area particularly, there was not enough water at high elevations to provide the huge hydraulic spraying nozzles with the pressure and amount of water needed. MCCHGMMC knew this, and they were also given evidence that there were rich placer reserves in the mountain gravels. The company immediately sent some surveyors to see if it was feasible to build a 33 mile long ditch that started in the headwaters of the Little River (or East Umpqua) to North Myrtle Creek on the South Umpqua Drainage. The ditch was proposed to be 5 feet deep, 3 feet wide on the bottom, and 5 feet wide at the top. It would carry water for the big hydraulic setups, and also irrigate prune orchards and move lumber to a sawmill in Myrtle Creek, Oregon. The company president, Dr. L. W. Brown, announced in May of 1890, "There is, according to the engineers report, three-hundred feet more altitude than is necessary to complete the proposed ditch... A force of four-hundred men will go to work at once." By early winter, 80 men had completed 7 miles of the ditch.
In late winter of 1891, Louis Catching, a local miner cleared $900 in nine weeks with a small sluice box (rocker) and a gold pan on his own. After mining his claim, he sold it to MCCHGMMC and signed a contract for digging the next section of the ditch.
During the next 90 days, the company spent $322,224 on mining claims and water rights. In the spring of 1891, officials reported finding $2000 worth of gold in the sluice boxes; that's around 100 ounces of gold. In Eugene, officials exhibited a jar of Myrtle Creek gold valued at $3000. Stock in MCCHGMMC boomed, and in June this money was used to hire one hundred Chinese laborers to lengthen the ditch, tap four new streams, and eventually extend it to the East Umpqua (now known as Little River).
In the path of the ditch in the Little River drainage, was Cavitt Creek. R.L. Cavitt, who owned all the property around Cavitt Creek, refused to allow the ditch to draw from the waters of his creek saying, "I have a good living stream and I pay taxes on my water rights, so I'll force them to go around my land." He mined on the creek and he wasn't about to allow the ditch to take the precious water away from him. Mr. Cavitt benefited from the building of the ditch though. He was able to sell his beef to the workers and make a handsome profit. You'll notice that the completed ditch avoided the Cavitt Creek area.
In the Summer of 1891, there were two-hundred Chinese laborers working for the company. The Chinese laborers advanced their camp as the ditch extended. In October, the company was forced to construct a tunnel 400 feet long through a ridge in the mountain to connect the new ditch with the old. As more water was added to the ditch, there was more room for hydraulic nozzles. By December of 1891, the Eugene Register announced, "some big returns and handsome dividends are looked for soon by stockholders. Three giants running day and night will soon make a big hole in the mountains."
In the spring of the next year, there was renewed activity along the ditch, hard winter storms had slowed the work down. In the April 28 Issue of the Eugene Guard, a small article appeared:
11:45, train was derailed. No deaths, but injuries. Broken legs and scalds.
The very next day an article announced:
"A partial clean up was made at the Myrtle Creek Mines the first of the week, and the dust was brought here this morning to the First National Bank. It was weighed and found to be worth $4,300. It is now on display at the bank and is attracting large crowds."
And finally, on April 30, 1892; an explanation was given for the reason of the train accident. It states:
"It is supposed by residents of Myrtle Creek that the wreck was caused by parties who thought the $4,300 of gold from the Myrtle Creek mine was aboard. The gold was sent to the companies office the day before."
The article later stated:
"when the ditch is fully completed, it will be a splendid selling piece of property."
H.W. Holden took a contract to complete a six mile section near Cavitt's claim. An Article in the Eugene Guard announced in May this heading:
Wanted: Fifty good men to work on Myrtle Creek Companies mining ditch. Apply at Myrtle Creek. Wages, $2 per day.
A flume for carrying the water around the rocky hillsides was to be constructed. To aid in the construction, a temporary sawmill was to be built for timber production. By this time, there were still three miles left before the ditch reached the headwaters of the East Umpqua (Little River). The mining reports continued to be optimistic. By April, 1893 there were four "giants" working around the clock and making good cleanups with nuggets ranging from $4-$24; as reported by James Hutson, a man who ran the boarding house near the mines.
The apparent success of MCCHGMMC began to deteriorate. On June 1, 1893, a small article in the Roseburg Review explained that a writ of attachment had been filed against the company for $4220 in unpaid wages. In addition, other attachments totaling over six-thousand dollars were filed. Judge Fish of Lane County granted a temporary injunction restraining Dr. Brown from disposing the property or stock. Deputy Sheriff Dillard was assigned to guard the claim until the case could be settled. Dillard decided that it would be better to "clean up" the gravel in the sluice boxes instead of keeping a round-the-clock guard on it. The sixteen day run which was expected to bring in seventy-five ounces of gold, only showed a clean-up of nine and two-sixteenth ounces, or $165 worth. Everything went downhill from there, and the stock holders accused Dr. Brown of "salting" the mine to sell stock. They also said that twenty-five men were hired to "look good", when five or six could have run the nozzles. On the fourth of July, a trial was held and the Circuit Court in Roseburg ruled in favor of the miners. The company was then officially out of business. On October 19, 1894 an auction was held with a sale list of, "two pair of gray blankets... one broken flask quicksilver.... one gray horse, eight years old...." and a complete inventory of pipe, flume, tools, camp outfits, and supplies. The next day, the actual property was sold to John Newson for $7691.
The Chinese laborers are now long gone from Douglas County. It was said that they went to an area with a more congenial climate; some paid passage back to their homeland with the $.25/day they earned. Modern miners who still work the small creeks along the North Myrtle area occasionally report finding small Chinese coins or relics in the riffles of their dredges. The China Ditch is the largest nineteenth century man-made landmark in Douglas County. It reminds us of a time when the West was gold country, but it also reminds us of the scandals and scams that were kept alive by the search for gold. The president, Dr. Brown, was said to survive the legal problems, went on practicing medicine in Eugene, invested in the Bohemia mines, and served as a principal in the Eugene Theater Company. Today, the China Ditch is on the National Register of Historic Places. Parts of the ditch have been heavily destroyed, and nearly obliterated by the fire of July, 1987. The biggest deteriorating factor has been of natural causes, such as mud slides.
The BLM has now put up a driving loop and walking tour on a short section of the ditch. Also included in the tour are informative signs describing the history of the China Ditch and the fire of 1987.
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Browns Park National Wildlife Refuge's first goal is to provide habitat for migrating birds. But lately the refuge has been propagating studies as well.
Refuge management is in the early stages of writing a habitat management study as a follow-up of a comprehensive conservation plan completed in 1999.
The habitat management plan comes on the heels of a public use plan that was intended to determine what human uses of the refuge are consistent with its mission of providing bird habitat. But the public use plan has been put on hold for at least the next two or three years, said Jerry Rodriguez, refuge manager.
"Typically, we'd hammer out both, but we can't in Moffat County because of the political atmosphere," Rodriguez said.
The political atmosphere has centered on arguments between county government and refuge management about multiple use at the refuge, with cattle grazing emerging as the most controversial potential use of the land. County government insists the refuge should allow grazing, but refuge management says it isn't appropriate at this time.
Because of the groups' inability to cooperate, the State Land Board, which manages Colorado's state land trusts, is conducting its own study even as the refuge starts its own.
The SLB is paying Natural Resource Options of Bozeman, Mont., $37,500 to study the appropriateness of cattle grazing on two SLB parcels within the refuge and Bureau of Land Management grazing leases to the south of the refuge.
Natural Resource Options has completed an inventory of BLM lands and is working on the SLB property, said SLB liaison Beverly Rave. The company should finish a draft of the plan by the end of October.
The SLB wanted the refuge to participate in the study, but Rodriguez declined the offer, saying the study would not be statistically valid. He's previously compared the SLB's study request to a proposal for a cattle grazing plan.
The refuge permits no grazing, but cattle have trespassed on the refuge for years. Rodriguez has defended the decision to prohibit grazing by citing two refuge studies, one performed in 1991 and the second in 1994.
He recently sent those studies to the commissioners at their request. Reading through the studies, Commissioner Les Hampton said he found research describing the benefits of grazing.
The 1994 study, Hampton said, describes grazing as a cheaper, more effective method of noxious weed control than either chemical or mechanical methods.
Rodriguez doesn't argue that grazing can be an effective tool in combating invasive plants. But for the past 150 years, the refuge has been overgrazed, resulting in the current weed problem, he said.
"We can't continue to do the same thing that's been done for the last 150 years," Rodriguez said.
The refuge started its own study by searching for literature on other refuges similar to Browns Park. The study will focus on specific species and their habitat needs. Rodriguez estimates it will take two to three years to complete. After that, the refuge once again will look at the public use plan.
Rob Gebhart can be reached at 824-7031 or [email protected].
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AMHERST, Mass. – The National Science Foundation (NSF) recently announced three-year, $162,770 collaborative research awards each to polymer chemist Todd Emrick at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and chemical engineer Benny Freeman at the University of Texas at Austin, who will work together to explore new ways to make energy-efficient, self-cleaning water purification membranes for municipal wastewater treatment and industrial and agricultural applications.
Water purification is a critically important behind-the-scenes challenge of modern life, Emrick explains. Many steps in the process begin with removing particles or other contaminants from water, for example, oil droplets from hydraulic fracturing flowback. But the filters inevitably become dirty and clogged, leading to seriously reduced performance and increased energy consumption, he and Freeman point out.
Emrick says, “There are membranes in use everywhere to remove salt, proteins, bacteria, oils and all types of organic matter from water. These can be large units in a desalination plant next to the ocean, or tiny filters in a device that separates DNA and proteins from serum in a medical lab. Hydraulic fracturing is an emerging place where rapid, efficient water cleanup is crucial, and this project is responding to this widespread, pressing need.”
The polymer chemist adds, “If we can give someone a membrane that lasts longer and resists degradation during cleaning, if my group can provide a coating to enable that, it would have a real societal benefit.”
This research program builds upon previous encouraging joint findings by Emrick and Freeman showing how to modify the surfaces of membranes so that particulate material such as oil droplets and other particles are less likely to stick to the membrane surface and clog the pores.
Emrick says, “Typically synthetic chemists and engineers speak different languages, but Benny and I have been working together for years, and we are coming up with ways to fluidly combine polymer chemistry and membrane engineering science. Working in isolation, I wouldn’t know how to implement polymer coatings effectively, or even know if the membrane properties were improving. And, I think that Benny is very happy to not have to synthesize polymers. But working together, we can elevate the field because we bridge those chemistry and engineering disciplines.”
Specifically, the researchers will borrow from biology to develop new phosphorylcholine (PC)-substituted polyolefins for coating water purification membranes, such as microfiltration, ultrafiltration, and reverse osmosis membranes. This approach mimics properties of the phospholipid head group in human cells, placing those units onto a polymer framework. The biocompatible combination makes the resulting plastic very averse to sticking to oils and should improve membrane performance in the presence of surfactants, Emrick says.
Second, he and Freeman will experiment with preparing phenolic-containing phosphorylcholine polymers that combine non-fouling zwitterions, neutral molecules with equal numbers of positive and negative charges, with surface adhering structures that make the coatings resistant to washing off the surface prematurely as water passes over and through the membrane.
Both approaches hold the promise of dramatic improvement in membrane performance compared to materials in use today, the collaborators say. They plan to include frequent graduate student exchanges between their labs along with teleconference meetings to enhance the educational aspects of the joint project and ensure and effective collaboration.
Emrick, whose other research projects involve using synthetic polymer chemistry for numerous applications in water-rich environments (such as drug and gene delivery in vivo), was recently named to the American Chemical Society’s 2014 class of Fellows, which recognizes scientists who have demonstrated “outstanding accomplishments in chemistry and made important contributions to ACS, the world’s largest scientific society.” He and 98 other new ACS Fellows will be recognized at a ceremony on Aug. 11 during the ACS national meeting in San Francisco.
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This modular series of ten EU lesson plans was prepared by the European Union Delegation to the United States. The lessons are designed to support History and Social Sciences curricula in the United States for grades 9-12 and can be adapted for middle school students.
Developed by educators, the lessons can be used as stand-alone units or as a series. Each lesson (in PDF format) is accompanied by a PowerPoint with additional information to support the presentation. These lessons will be updated periodically to correlate with new developments in the European Union.
Lesson 2: The Geography of Europe
PowerPoint: Where in the world is the European Union
Lesson 3: Cultural Identity
Lesson 5: Structure of Government within the EU
Lesson 6: The EU’s Economic and Monetary Union
Lesson 7: The Single Market and Free Trade
Lesson 8: Immigration to the European Union
To find out more visit European Union Lesson Plans: Up-to-Date Teaching Tools about Contemporary Europe
Kenneth J. Relihan
Social Studies, World Languages, and Gifted and Talented Consultant
Director, NH AP Test Fee Program
School Improvement Group- South West Liaison
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| 0.898396 | 246 | 4 | 4 |
Let in Light and Air
By now on the East Coast, lots of roses have mildew or black spot on the leaves. Prevention through good cultural conditions -- selecting disease-resistant cultivars and planting where there are 8 hours or more of sunlight and good air circulation -- is the best approach. As this is not the time to move roses, consider removing nearby tree and shrub branches to increase light and air flow.
Use Organic Control for Mildew and Other Diseases
Try an organic control against mildew on roses and perennials, even food crops. Serenade's Bacillus subtilis is a biofungicide for powdery mildew, downy mildew, bacterial spot, rust, and more. It stops plant pathogen spores from germinating and disrupts pathogen growth.
Spray Sooner Rather Than Later
Despite initial cynicism, I've seen the light -- rather the roses and phlox with AND without white mildew. Two seasons using EDEN Bioscience's Messenger convinced me that early-season spraying nearly stops mildew and black spot; belated spraying on mildew-covered foliage doesn't kill fungi but subsequent new growth is healthy. Messenger uses harpin proteins (derived from fireblight) to stimulate a plant's natural reactions of disease resistance, growth, and flowering.
Prune Off Spent Lilac Flowers
Remove dead lilac flower clusters by pruning just above a node (where leaf joins stem). Then remove older or crowded branches with a pruning cut at the base of the shrub. That's right, squat or bend over to reach inside the shrub just above the soil, and clip the branch low. Also prune off crossing or damaged branches. Leave the strong, healthy branch; remove the broken, spindly, or weak one.
Pinch for Bushiness
Pinching off the stem tip on basil, mums, and sweet potato vines will make the plants grow more bushy. In northern climes, pinching or pruning off the summer phlox's stem tip right now also will promote bushy growth without flower loss. Doing it much later, though, will remove flower buds.
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The Red River
Source: The Handbook of Texas Online
The Red River is in the Mississippi drainage basin and is one of two Red Rivers in the nation. It is the second longest river associated with Texas. Its name comes from its color, which in turn comes from the fact that the river carries large quantities of red soil in flood periods. The river has a high salt content. The Spanish called the stream Río Rojo, among other names. It was also known in frontier times as the Red River of Natchitoches and the Red River of the Cadodacho (the Caddo Indians). Randolph B. Marcy and George B. McClellan identified the Prairie Dog Town Fork as the river's main stream in 1852.
If one accepts their judgment the total
length of the Red River is 1,360 miles, of which 640 miles is in
Texas or along the Texas boundary. The drainage area of the
in Texas is 30,700 square miles. In 1944 Denison Dam was
completed on the Red River to form Lake Texoma, which extends
into Grayson and Cooke counties, Texas, and Marshall, Johnson,
Bryan, and Love counties, Oklahoma, and was once the
tenth-largest reservoir in the United States. Principal
tributaries of the Red River, exclusive of its various forks,
include the Pease and Wichita rivers in north central Texas, the
Sulphur River in Northeast Texas, and, from Oklahoma, the
Washita. The Ouachita is the main tributary in its lower course.
The Red River of Texas heads in four main branches: the Prairie Dog Town Fork, Elm Creek or the Elm Fork, the North Fork, and the Salt Fork. Water from the river's source in Curry County, New Mexico, forms a channel, Palo Duro Creek, in Deaf Smith County, Texas, which joins Tierra Blanca Creek northwest of Canyon to form the Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River. This main channel flows east through Palo Duro Canyon, then across the rest of the Panhandle.
The Prairie Dog Town Fork forms Palo Duro Club Lake and Lake Tanglewood in Randall County before it crosses southwestern Armstrong and northeastern Briscoe counties. Out of the canyon and into broken country, it flows eastward across central Hall and Childress counties for 160 miles. When the Prairie Dog Town Fork crosses the 100th meridian at the eastern line of Childress County, its south bank becomes the state boundary between Texas and Oklahoma and thus the northern county line of Hardeman and Wilbarger counties.
Twelve miles northeast of Vernon the North Fork joins the Prairie Dog Town Fork to form the Red River proper (at 34°24' N, 99°32' W). Elm Creek, or the Elm Fork of the Red River, rises in northern Collingsworth County and drains into the North Fork of the Red River near the Greer-Kiowa county line in Oklahoma south of Altus Reservoir. The Salt Fork rises in north central Armstrong County, crosses part of Oklahoma, and joins the Prairie Dog Town Fork at the extreme northern point of Wilbarger County, Texas, sixteen miles northwest of Vernon.
At this junction an ancient buffalo trail and the Western Trail once crossed the stream. Below the junction of the North Fork and the Prairie Dog Town Fork, the Red River proper continues to mark with its south bank the state line between Texas and Oklahoma and thus forms the northern county line of Wilbarger, Wichita, Clay, Montague, Cooke, Grayson, Fannin, Lamar, Red River, and Bowie counties.
The river becomes the state line between Texas and Arkansas at the northeastern corner of Texas. Afterward, it leaves Texas and enters Arkansas, then continues eastward, forming the northern boundary of Miller County, before turning south-southeast to form the eastern boundary of the county. It then flows southeast across Louisiana.
It forms the line between Caddo and
Bossier parishes and then proceeds southeast across Red River
Natchitoches parishes, forms portions of the lines between
Natchitoches and Grant and Grant and Rapides parishes, crosses
northeastern Rapides and northwestern Avoyelles parishes, forms
parts of the lines between Avoyelles and Catahoula, Avoyelles
Concordia, and Concordia and Pointe Coupe parishes, and finally
reaches its mouth (at 31°01' N, 91°45' W) on the
River forty-five miles northwest of Baton Rouge and 341 miles
above the Gulf of Mexico. Though the river once emptied
completely into the Mississippi, more recently a part of its
water at flood stage flows to the Gulf via the Atchafalaya.
In the summer of 1541 the Coronado expedition explored the upper reaches of the Prairie Dog Town Fork in Palo Duro and Tule canyons. In the summer of 1542 the Moscoso expedition crossed the Red River in Louisiana on its way into East Texas. In 1690 Domingo Terán de los Ríos crossed Texas from southwest to northeast and reached the Red River, possibly as far down as the great raft and the Caddo Indian settlements in the area of present Texarkana. French traders used the river as an approach to establish a lucrative trade with the Caddos and associated tribes by the early eighteenth century.
Farther up the river the Taovaya Indians had villages near the site of Spanish Fort in what is now Montague County, villages that in the middle eighteenth century were under French influence and flew a French flag. Diego Ortiz Parrilla, in charge of a Spanish punitive expedition, was defeated at the villages in 1759. In 1769 Athanase de Mézières was appointed lieutenant governor of the Natchitoches District with jurisdiction over the Red River valley. He was to suppress the traffic in stolen horses and Indian captives centered in the Taovaya villages, whose inhabitants by 1772 were trading with Englishmen from the east and Comanches on the High Plains.
In 1778 Mézières visited the
River villages and proposed a Tlascalan Indian settlement among
them. Neither this proposal nor a suggestion in 1792 that a
Spanish mission be built on the Red River was carried out. In
1841 the Texan Santa Fe expedition mistook the Wichita River for
the Red River. In 1852 Randolph Barnes Marcy commanded an
exploring expedition to the headwaters of the Canadian and the
Red rivers, and a year later published a report on the trip,
Exploration of the Red River of Louisiana in the Year 1852. The
Red River War of 1874-75 ended Indian hostilities in the area.
The Red River has been a boundary almost since the first Europeans came to the area. In the 1700s the river was generally regarded as the dividing line between France and Spain, and a royal cedula in 1805 proclaimed the river the northern and eastern boundary of the Spanish province of Texas. After the Louisiana Purchase by the United States, several expeditions were sent up the Red River to explore that tributary of the Mississippi, and a struggle began between the United States and Spain over where the boundary should be.
In 1804-05 William Dunbar explored the river as far up as the mouth of the Washita. In 1805 Dr. John Sibley supplied the United States with a detailed description of the area up the river and westward as far as Santa Fe, New Mexico. The Red River was again formally set forth as the northern boundary of Texas in the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819. This treaty, as ratified by Spain and the United States in 1821 and by Mexico in 1822, established the Red River as the southwestern boundary of Louisiana-as far northwest as the 100th meridian, "as laid down on the Melish Map."
Illegal infiltration continued across
the river into Texas until the opening of Anglo-American
colonization in 1821, when the river became the thoroughfare by
which many pioneer settlers moved into Texas. Others came down
the military road to Fort Towson and crossed the river at
Jonesborough and Pecan Point. Many settlers along the river
raised cotton in the rich blackland of Northeast Texas, despite
its tendency to overflow, and the Red River County area was
sufficiently settled to send delegates to the Convention of
The Republic of Texas recognized the Red River as a boundary when, in an act of December 19, 1836, Congress made the eastern boundary coterminous with the western boundary of the United States, as fixed by the treaty of 1819. The area between the true 100th meridian and the 100th meridian according to the Melish Map extended from the Red River north to 36°30" latitude and was more than 100 miles in width, embracing an area of 16,000 square miles.
According to strict construction of the treaty of 1819, this strip belonged to Texas. The Supreme Court of the United States, however, on March 16, 1896, held that Texas was stopped from claiming this strip, for the following reasons: (1) In the Compromise of 1850, wherein Texas ceded all territory north of 36°30" latitude and west of the 100th meridian, Texas had agreed to the true meridian and not the Melish meridian. (2) The true 100th meridian had been made the eastern boundary of Lipscomb, Hemphill, and Wheeler counties when they were legally formed. (3) The true 100th meridian as ascertained had been acquiesced in, recognized, and treated as the true boundary by various acts of Texas, and both governments had treated it as the proper boundary in the disposition they made of the territory involved. The view was virtually conceded as to all the strip, except for 3,840 square miles east of the true 100th meridian and between the forks of the Red River.
The United States contended that the line following the course of the Red River eastward to the 100th meridian met the meridian at the point where it intersected the lower fork of the Red River; Texas contended that her boundaries extended along the Red River to the point where the upper fork intersected the 100th meridian. In other words, the question was which was the main fork of the Red River. The Supreme Court held that the disputed territory belonged to the United States. The decision, known as the Greer County case, resulted in the loss from Texas to what is now Oklahoma of 1,511,576 acres.
A quarter of a century later another
argument between Texas and Oklahoma occurred when oil was
discovered in the bed of the river. With the extension of the
Burkburnett Townsite pool, known as the Northwest Extension, it
was discovered that a part of the pool lay in the bed of the Red
River. This brought up the old question of Indian headright
titles and caused a controversy that reached the Supreme Court
and resulted in fixing the boundary of Texas at the bluff on the
Texas side. Militia of both Texas and Oklahoma, together with
Texas Rangers, engaged in several battles. The bridge was
oilfield equipment destroyed, and property confiscated.
The Red River has been significant also in commerce and transportation. Though its variable current and quicksands menaced settlers, gateways into Texas were established at Pecan Point and Jonesborough in Red River County, Colbert's Ferry and Preston in Grayson County, and Doan's Crossing in Wilbarger County. Indian trading posts on the river became the termini of important trails. In 1836 Holland Coffee had a post on the Oklahoma side at the mouth of Cache Creek; in 1837 he settled at Preston Bend in what is now northern Grayson County, Texas.
Abel Warren had a post in northwestern Fannin County in 1836, one on the Oklahoma side of the river near the mouth of Walnut Creek in 1837, and a later post at the mouth of Cache Creek. The Central National Road of the Republic of Texas was surveyed to reach the Red River six miles above Jonesborough at Travis G. Wright's landing, then the head of navigation on the Red River. In 1853 Colbert's Ferry was opened across the river in northern Grayson County for the route that was subsequently used by the Butterfield Overland Mail, the partial direction of which had been determined by Randolph B. Marcy in his exploration of the Red River in 1852. Early crossings were made at Rock Bluff, Doan's Crossing, and Colbert's Ferry.
As far as navigable, the river provided an outlet to New Orleans from Northeast Texas, and it became a highway for cotton, farm products, and eventually cattle boats. Sternwheelers, sidewheelers, and showboats plied the river alongside keelboats and pirogues. Before the railroad era, steamboats regularly navigated the Red River from New Orleans to the site of present Shreveport, but navigation of the upper river was hampered by the "great raft," a mass of driftwood and trees that obstructed the channel for seventy-five miles.
In 1834-35 Capt. Henry M. Shreve
removed the raft, but the river was not kept clear, and by 1856
the logjam again obstructed the river for thirty miles above
Shreveport, backed up the waters of Big Cypress Creek to form
Caddo Lake, and so made Jefferson the principal riverport of
Texas until the removal of the raft again in 1874.
With the westward movement of the frontier and the establishment of the cattle trails to the north, the Red River became an obstacle to cross on the way to market. Cowboys relied on well-used crossings such as Ringgold, Red River Station, and Doan's Crossing. Above Clay County the Red River provides recreational use only in periods of heavy run-off. The Wichita joins the Red River in Clay County, and from this point downstream the river is used for recreation year-round, though quicksand is common.
From Denison Dam at Lake Texoma to
Arkansas the river flows through remote, wild country. The
Ouachita National Forest and a portion of the Kisatchie National
Forest of Louisiana lie within the Red River basin. As a
boundary, the Red River remained in dispute as late as 1987. See
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Peter Zachary Cohen, The Great Red River Raft (Niles, Illinois: Whitman, 1984). Harry Sinclair Drago, Red River Valley (New York: Clarkson-Potter, 1962). Carl Newton Tyson, The Red River in Southwestern History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1981). C. A. Welborn, History of the Red River Controversy (n.p.: Nortex, 1973).
Diana J. Kleiner
This page was last updated January 9, 2014.
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Health HavenDharma Haven
The fundamental principle of preventive health care is that one can adopt a style of life that will support health and healing. Diet, exercise, behavior, spiritual practice -- each individual can learn how to be more healthy in all these aspects of life.
According to ancient medical wisdom, basic sanity and compassion are the essential basis of real health and well being. Working with any illness should begin by examining the individual's habitual behavior and lifestyle, including relationships with other people, livelihood and diet. By making appropriate adjustments in behavior and diet, according to seasonal changes, time of day, time of life and individual characteristics, one can learn to live in harmony with ones actual, changing situation and ones own nature.
Unfortunately, in our modern world of endless change and alternative possibilities, deciding exactly what changes in diet and behavior would be appropriate can be a real challenge. Many conflicting sources of advice on these matters are now widely available. The best advice we've heard is to choose a system that appeals to you and stick with it for long enough to see if it really works for you.
The systems we suggest on this page offer Chinese, Tibetan, and Western perspectives .
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for Life: Secrets of Tibetan Ayurveda
This comprehensive guide to physical and mental health distills a wealth of traditional Tibetan health practices and teachings into a manual of preventive health care for people of all ages and constitutional types -- guidelines on nutrition, exercise, relaxation, rejuvenation, detoxification, meditation and spiritual practices, as well as other activities for creating strength, vitality, and mental clarity. A self-profile test will help readers determine their physical/personality type according to the traditional Tibetan system. The book keys dietary and lifestyle recommendations to these different personal types.
Healing Tradition of Medicine Buddha" -- Robert Sachs
The Tibetan Book of Healing
The Tibetan approach to life has points in common with Ayurveda from India and with Chinese medicine. Its goal of wellness is defined by the following:
- Freedom from serious psychological and physical disease.
- Adherence to a health plan based on your personality, your body type and needs, and your capacity to fulfill and meet those needs.
- An understanding of the changing and impermanent nature of life and, within that understanding, the awareness of a purpose in life.
- Acceptance of the stress and change found in relationships, the environment, the seasons and the aging process.
- A sense of moral responsibility and a willingness to learn and grow,
- A feeling of positive accomplishment, contentment and appreciation for being human.
The book discusses how to test for constitution, diagnostic techniques, nutrition, behavior, Tibetan Pancha Karma, herbal therapeutics, spiritual practice, rejuvenation therapy, self-healing through the Medicine Buddha Practice, and how to use the Tibetan horoscope for health maintenance.
Secrets of Health and Longevity
A Six-Audiotape Set Produced by Sounds True -- This professionally produced and edited set of six 90 minute audiotapes includes an introduction to Chinese medicine, general principles of Chinese lifestyle modification for preserving health and attaining long life, and geomancy and health. It covers Chinese dietary therapy, the impact of the emotions on health, qi gong relaxation & spiritual development exercises, self-massage for improved digestion, sleep, and sexual vitality.
discusses the Chinese medical theory and practice of yang
sheng, nourishing life. Nourishing life is the Chinese term for seeking
good health and long life. The author begins by introducing the Chinese
medical theories concerning life, death, and longevity. These revolve around
the key concepts of essence, qi, and spirit or what are called the Three
Treasures. He then goes on to describe the importance of a regular lifestyle,
proper diet, moderation in sex, rest and relaxation, self-massage, exercise
and stretching, qi gong, Chinese herbal medicine, and treating disease
early. All this is presented in a very clear, easily understandable style,
and the book is infused with the authorís obvious deep knowledge and common
"Health is a dynamic and temporary state of equilibrium destined to break down as conditions change."
"[Weil] suggests gradual changes: clean your pantry of whatever cooking oils you have there, except olive oil; start taking vitamin C three times a day; walk a few minutes a day; eat some fish and broccoli. The program is so simple and sensible that anyone trying it probably will feel better in a week.
The program then gets progressively more involved--more supplements; more of a shift toward a diet based on whole grains, fruits, and vegetables; more exercise. Besides these steady changes, each week's program has a focus: In week 2, you start drinking bottled or filtered water; week 3 focuses on organic produce; week 4, on sleep; week 5, using a steam bath or sauna; week 6, trying a "universal tonic" like ginseng; week 7, volunteering in your community; and finally, in week 8, figuring out how to integrate permanently the elements of the program into your life.
Even those who don't go for the entire program will probably
find something here to like--the recipes, maybe, or the suggestion that
you cut back on strenuous types of exercise like running and competitive
sports in favor of brisk walks. It's perfectly useful either way: as a
total lifestyle overhaul, or a series of suggestions, any one or two of
which will probably help you feel better."
See also the Alternatives section of our NetQuest Health Links page.
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Support Dharma Haven
While you Save on Books and Music
Your Comments and Suggestions
Revised on August 19, 2000
Copyright © 2000 Dharma Haven
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Origin of Rebello
The Family Facts archive, with its rich historical information, can tell you everything from the lifespan of your ancestors to the very meaning of your last name. Every time you find a fact, we'll tell you what it means.
Rebello Origin and Immigration
Top Places of Origin for Rebello
You can find out where the majority of Rebello families were living before they immigrated to the U.S. You can learn where to focus your search for foreign records.
Ports of Departure for Rebello
You can pinpoint where the majority of Rebello families booked passage to the US. You can find out where to start searching for Rebello records.
Rebello Immigration to the US by Year
You can find out when most of the Rebello families immigrated to the United States. You can focus your search to immigration records dating from that era.
Name History and Origin for Rebello
Naming patterns can help you learn more about your family’s cultural and ethnic background. You might find alternate name spellings which are helpful when searching for family records.
Rebello Surname Distribution
Helpful, as you can decide where to start searching for Rebello records. You can also find out where the majority of Rebello families were living during the 19th century.
Total Records: 0
Rebello Genealogy Search
French Canadian Sources
Guidebook of American Genealogy
Access Free Genealogy
Family Tree Maker Version 16
Alabama Genealogy and History
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Free Family Tree Website
Idaho Genealogy and History
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Georgia Genealogy and History
Nebraska Genealogy and History
Oregon Genealogy and History
South Dakota Genealogy
Uncommon Baby Names
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Exit Exam: Oral Section
The oral section will begin with a short interview. This interview will not be graded, but is a chance for you and the examiner(s) to get acquainted. After the interview, you will give an informative presentation. This is the only part that will be graded. You must deliver the speech standing in the front of the room. You will not be expected to answer any questions afterward.
An informative speech attempts to inform the audience through imparting knowledge, facilitating understanding or demonstrating how to do something. Students will select speeches that were previously given in their LNG course. Students completing LNG 092 will select their informative speech. Students completing LNG 101 will select their research project.
- Your speech must be 7-12 minutes.
- You are required to cite at least 2 sources within the speech. Bring a typed Works Cited/Reference list to the exam.
- You may use 3×5 note cards while delivering the speech.
- You may include a PowerPoint, but points will not be added or deducted because of it.
- Remember to dress appropriately for the speaking situation. Your appearance is a reflection of your credibility and to be taken seriously, you must dress seriously. Hats are not recommended.
- Pay close attention to improving your overall delivery in terms of body language; pronunciation, stress, and rhythm; and organization of your ideas. Because you will have already given this speech at least once in your LNG class, you have plenty of time to practice and revise it.
Download the rubric (pdf)
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Certainly the amount of calories matters when it comes to weight loss, but whether the type of calories has any impact is more controversial. The results of several recent studies however provide a convincing argument that the type of calories matters.
Take for example a study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition that examined the effects of increasing protein in place of fat while keeping carbs constant. In this study, protein was increased from 15% to 30% and fat reduced from 35% to 20% (carb was constant at 50%). The increase in protein was clearly associated with reduced appetite and caloric intake, which ultimately led to a significant weight loss.
Exactly how protein curbs appetite is unknown, but this study suggests it may affect one of the most potent appetite hormones leptin. Regardless of how it works, the data seem clear – increasing protein helps reduce appetite and caloric intake. This means it is a lot easier to lose weight when you bump up the protein intake.
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First Experiments with Third LCLS Instrument Go to the Source
The third round of experiments at the Linac Coherent Light Source began earlier this month at a whole new level of capability. For the first time they included research with the third LCLS instrument, the X-Ray Pump Probe, whose hard X-rays penetrate deeper into matter than the soft X-rays used by the first two instruments. This makes the LCLS XPP unique in the world.
"This is the only place to get hard X-ray laser pulses," said Christian David, a researcher at the Paul Scherrer Institute in Switzerland and principal investigator on the first XPP user run, which wrapped up this week. "That's why we waited for XPP instead of submitting a proposal to any of the other instruments."
David develops instrumentation for large-scale facilities, and is involved in his institution's plans to build a lightsource similar to LCLS. The goal of his XPP experiment was to learn about the X-ray source, or the point at which bunches of photons emerge from the undulator magnets that generate them. To do this, his group measured each pulse's wavefront, essentially the point at which all X-rays in the pulse are traveling in unison.
Their experimental setup included two silicon gratings spaced half a meter apart. The first split the X-rays to create interference patterns with features only a single micron wide. The second, placed in front of the XPP detector, analyzed these patterns.
David said he expects to be able to identify the location of the source with micron resolution transverse to the beam and on the order of one meter along the length of the beam. In addition, he said, the experiments reveal possible distortions of the X-ray wave front introduced by mirrors in the beam path. These insights into the LCLS beam behavior can help future researchers to obtain better LCLS data—for example, by choosing the best possible operating parameters of the source and the optical elements.
"This is useful as a diagnostic tool," David said, suggesting it could become standard on future lightsources. "We can help LCLS see what's going on here, too." He added that he was impressed by the unique capabilities at LCLS as well as the support his group received from LCLS staff.
Toward the end of the run, the group also tested a new type of X-ray lens made of diamond, one of the few materials that can stand up to the powerful energies of hard X-rays. David speculates that they were able to focus the beam down to a spot size 10 times smaller than achieved before. But the real triumph was the density of that spot.
"I don't think that anyone has ever been able to get that kind of X-ray intensity into one place before," he said
While David and his group did not take advantage of XPP's eponymous "pump-probe" technique—in which one pulse manipulates a sample and a second pulse scatters photons off the sample to form an image—David said he hopes that "all the other experiments after ours can benefit from the results we obtain, to make LCLS an even more fascinating, powerful facility."
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It’s Dr. Seuss’ Birthday today. I hope everyone is having fun celebrating Reading Across America Week.
Today I have many activities planned that we have done in the past like eating Swedish Red Fish as we read One Fish, Two Fish.
Or making our own Foot Books.
Or making “The Cat in the Hat” Hats.
We ALWAYS have green eggs and ham for dinner. There are also so many activities to print (and I have printed many of them).
Here are some more ideas, by book, to do with your kids:
Green Eggs and Ham
Eat Green Eggs and Ham snacks or meals
Make a list of green foods
Make a list of words that rhyme with favorite foods (Sam-Ham)
Make Egg Carton Creatures
Egg Spinning activity (one hardboiled and one fresh)
Upper/Lower case egg matching Game by Making Learning Fun
Horton Hears A Who
Make Cotton Candy Snack
Cut out elephant ears and attach to headband to be elephants; now walk like an elephant.
Have a sound activity. Listen to different sounds through earmuffs, earplugs, etc.
Try to make as much noise as you all can. What works best, pots and pans, instruments, or our voices?
Talk to your children about the meaning of, “a person’s a person no matter how small.”
Talk to your children about how each of us can make a difference.
Watch the Movie
Hop on Pop
Jump on bubble wrap (get it? hop on pop! ha ha)
Jump on a trampoline (or bed if you have one you will allow this), or just jump in different ways (hop on one foot, hop over things, jump high, jump far, etc).
Play with bubbles (pop)
Say words and every time the kids come up with a rhyme they get to pop a balloon.
Read the page about Mr. Brown and Mr. Black, then eat brown and black snacks (pretzels half dipped in chocolate, wheat bread with blackberry jam, graham crackers and chocolate frosting).
Hide pictures of puppies around the house. Give each child a cup and they are to find as many pups as they can and put them in their cup (references to pup in cup in this book).
Watch this video of the book from game equarium.
Yertle the Turtle
Wear backpacks while crawling a preset path.
Make turtles out of a bowl you paint green and green paper for head, arms, legs and tail.
Make turtles out of a smooth round rock.
Have turtle races: Tie shoes together with laces as long as you can. Then kids can only take small steps during race.
See how many cups your children can stack without them falling over (or blocks, or whatever).
The Cat in the Hat
Juggle with different items; balls, blocks, fruit, etc.
Printables from PBS kids
Watch the Movie
Watch The Cat in the Hat marathon on pbs
Make Hat snacks with 3 red gummy lifesavers and a ritz cracker
Have a hat that you put items that rhyme into (mat-cat, mouse-house…obviously these would be my children’s toys as no house would fit in a hat).
Thing 1 and Thing 2 Pencils have been on my list since I first saw them at Skip To My Lou!!
Kraft Jr has these amazing Seuss Puppets. Super easy, too!
Bartholomew and the Oobleck
Make Oobleck (slime)
Experiment with the Oobleck
The point of this list is to see how easy it is to come up with activities to go along with which ever Dr. Seuss books that you have!
Monday I had asked for links to what other people are doing. Here they are:Please feel free to keep adding to my Dr. Seuss linky to share what you have done/are doing for this fun week!
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Want another reason to lug the EKG machine out of the ambulance on your next call? A study recently published in the Journal of the American Medical Association and reported on by many national news outlets has found some information that may change EMS care.
“The study looked at 1.4 million patients who had experienced a heart attack between 1994 and 2006 to investigate the relationship between age and gender and heart attacks, specifically symptoms and death rates. Data revealed that 14.6 percent of women hospitalized with a heart attack died, compared with 10.3 percent of men.
Women were also much more likely to have a heart attack without any chest pain – 42 percent, compared with 30.7 percent of men.”
Think about how the media represents heart attack symptoms to the public and about how we educate the public to recognize heart attack symptoms. Think about how even our EMS training has prepared us to recognize the signs and symptoms of a heart attack. We all pretty much look for the same thing, chest pain or pressure with radiation down the left arm. However, this study shows that a staggering 42% of women don’t have that symptom and that 30.7% of men don’t either. It tells us that nearly half of the patients who have this deadly condition don’t present with the symptoms we’re classically trained to recognize.
The study’s other finding that more men than women who had myocardial infarctions died after having the condition help illustrate another point: When looking for heart attacks, we all tend to assess everyone like they’re a 45 year-old white male. It is important to remember that age, gender, ethnicity, and culture play a role in how symptoms present. Comorbid conditions such as diabetes can change the way a heart attack presents as well.
This study helps confirm what we pretty much all know, that no two heart attacks are alike. When the heart doesn’t get blood flow to a part of it, it doesn’t work well, and it sends signals to our bodies that we may misinterpret. The classic “Chest Pain” symptom of a heart attack may well present as Jaw Pain, arm pain, weakness, diaphoresis, back or abdominal pain, or even making the patient feel like they have to burp. Unexplained fatigue with exertion, the inability to lie flat, or even dizziness and/or fainting may point to a heart attack.
EMS plays an extremely important role in cardiac care. It could be one of the biggest areas where the appropriate field assessment, working diagnosis, treatment, and transport decisions made by EMS improve the quality of life for the population as a whole. The proper assessment and working diagnosis by EMS can set the patient on the proper path through the healthcare system and make a huge difference in their quality of life.
What does this mean for your care today? It means that should you suspect that a patient has a possibility of having cardiac ischemia or is otherwise presenting with a cluster of symptoms you can’t pin down you should try to perform a 12-lead EKG with your first set of vital signs. While delaying treatment to perform a 12-lead is not anyone’s goal, emerging evidence is suggesting that significant ST elevation can normalize within as little as 4 minutes of common EMS care, including just the placement of a patient on oxygen. If we capture a symptomatic 12-lead at the point where the patient’s symptoms are most acute we can properly make the diagnosis and save the patient precious minutes, hours, and days of diagnostics to pin down the cause. Serial 12-leads, taking multiple 12-lead EKGs at various time intervals can prove beneficial as well. Remember that one 12-lead is a reference, two are a trend.
Gathering the best information we can on all patients in order to help guide their treatment through the healthcare system is one of the most powerful benefits of EMS care. Let’s help all of our patients get the care they need.
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COLORADO SPRINGS, Colo. — OK, here’s the good news: Arachnids that you’ll find in your home this time of year are in search of a few things, and none of them are you.
Warmth, moisture and, er, spider companionship are at the top of their lists.
“This time of year, you see a surge in the number of particularly male spiders coming into the home desperately looking for females,” said Paula Cushing, curator of invertebrate zoology at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science. “When the males mature, even web-building males, they stop building webs and they have just one thing on their minds.”
But that doesn’t mean there will be a legion of spiders in your home.
“Males locate females by increased wandering. They’re a lot more active so they’re moving around more, and with that increased activity they can sometimes make their way into our homes,” she said.
“I don’t think a spider thinks very much. They’re just by happenstance making their way inside.”
Whether or not you see them, you live with spiders — lots of them — year-round. About 10 percent of the world’s roughly 35,000 known species of spiders live in North America.
Three native U.S. species are poisonous to humans: the black widow; the brown recluse; and the hobo spider, according to the Centers for Disease Control. In fact, the little visitors aren’t trying to set up house, said Whitney Cranshaw, a professor of entomology and extension specialist at Colorado State University in Fort Collins.
“These are spiders who wander into the house,” he says, “often making the wrong turn, and can’t get out.”
At the top of the list are the funnel weavers, so named because of the hollow, oblong web in which they live.
With legs outstretched, the average funnel weaver can grow to about an inch in length. Males can cut a gruesome image.
“Being brown and having wacky looking palps are two things that tend to upset people,” Cranshaw said. “Any brown spider, people just assume it’s a brown recluse, and they never are.”
Other common fall wanderers include the “roly-poly hunter,” the Bold Jumper jumping spider and the wolf spider, less common indoors than the funnel weaver, for which it’s often mistaken.
Wolf spiders bodies can grow to up to an inch.
“It’s rare to see more than one wolf spider in your house,” Cranshaw said. “They don’t breed in there. They’re just lost.”
Black widows thrive in the American South and West, according to the CDC.
“Whether or not you’ve seen black widows around the home, I guarantee you, you have them,” Cushing said. “Black widows are very timid spiders. They don’t tend to bite people unless they’re seriously provoked, unless you put your hand actually on them.”
Female black widows are a glossy black and the males are brown; both have the distinctive red hourglass marking on their belly.
If you find a black widow inside the home, dispatch or carefully remove it, especially if you have small children, Cushing said.
“Don’t worry about black widows outside the home. If you have kids, teach them what a black widow looks like. You know, ‘Bad spider, don’t touch,’” she said. “The rest of them, a big old wolf spider, if you pestered it enough … you’d feel a pinch and maybe some localized pain, but that would go away after a few minutes and not cause any more problems,” Cushing said.
To cut back on the number of spiders in your home, close any obvious gaps along floorboards and at windows and doors, and minimize landscaping near the house.
Cushing cautions against pesticides. Although she advocates for carefully returning the spiders to the wild, she suggests placing sticky traps, available at hardware stores, on the floor near exterior doors, in basements, in the kitchen and bathroom and around radiators — anywhere there might be dripping or pools of precious water. Reducing clutter can help, too.
“They seek out hiding places to build nests and retreats, so if you have a lot of clutter on the floor, that’s a stable habitat,” she said.
Keep in mind, too, “it might come back, especially this time of year because of the temperature gradient,” she said.
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Of a deep reddish-brown colour: chestnut-coloured cattle
More example sentences
- Emilia was a beauty, with her classic features, her skin like porcelain, and her rich, chestnut-coloured curls.
- Some neighbours said the chestnut-coloured dog was normally placid and might have been disturbed by fireworks being set off to mark New Year.
- He caught a glimpse of a bright, chestnut-coloured tail with a dark band across it, and knew it was a bird he had never seen before.
For editors and proofreaders
Line breaks: chestnut-coloured
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Veterinary Advice Online - Taenia Tapeworm Life Cycle.
The tapeworm Genus Taenia
comprises many different important species of tapeworm parasite infesting dogs, cats, humans, rodents and livestock animal species.
Species of parasitic Taenia tapeworms important to human and animal medicine include:
Taenia saginata (known as 'the beef tapeworm') - the adult form of the tapeworm resides in the human intestine(technically making it as much a human tapeworm as a 'beef' or cattle tapeworm) and the juvenile stage of the tapeworm (the stage of the tapeworm life cycle contagious to humans) resides in the muscles or meat of cattle (and to a lesser extent buffalos, llamas, giraffes, sheep, goats and certain deer species);
Taenia solium (the pork tapeworm) - a very dangerous tapeworm species whose adult form resides in the human gut and whose lethal juvenile or larval form resides in the muscles and organs of pigs and people(this page contains loads of information on the dangerous Taenia solium pork tapeworm so read on);
Taenia pisiformis - a canine tapeworm whose larval form is carried by rabbits and hares;
Taenia ovis - a canine tapeworm whose larval form is carried in the muscles and hearts of sheep;
Taenia taeniaeformis - a tapeworm in cats whose larval form is carried by rodents such as rats, muskrats and voles;
Taenia hydatigena - a canine tapeworm whose larval form is carried by sheep, goats, pigs, cattle, deer and wild livestock ungulates;
Taenia multiceps - a canid (dog and dog-related species) tapeworm whose larval form isgenerally carried in the brains of sheep and goats (occasionally horses, rabbits and cattle);
Taenia crassiceps - a tapeworm of foxes or dogs whose juvenile stages are generally carried by rodent animals;
Taenia serialis - a fox and dog tapeworm carried by rabbits, hares or rodents.
Taenia brauni - a fox and dog tapeworm carried by gerbils.
The different species of Taenia all tend to be very species specific with regard to the animal hosts, both definitiveand intermediate (intermediate hosts and definitive hosts are discussed in section 1), that they will activelyinfest. For example, Taenia saginata: the beef tapeworm, will only infest humans (definitive host)and, for the most part, cattle (intermediate host). Likewise, Taenia pisiformis: one of the two major 'rabbit tapeworms', will only infest canine species (definitive host) and rabbits (intermediate host). Having said this, despite there being vastly differing kinds of host animals involved in each of the Taenia species' life cycles, the overall two-host life cycle structure of the various Taeniid species does seem to be similar in all cases. For this reason, the different Taenia species can all be discussed using a common Taenia life cycle diagram, which is what I have chosen to do (see section 1).
This Taenia tapeworm life cycles page contains a detailed, but simple-to-understand explanation of thecomplete Taeniid tapeworm life cycle. It comes complete with a full tapeworm life cycle diagram, which includesthe life cycles of each of the major Taenia species infesting dogs, cats, people, rodent and livestock animal species. Detailed explanation of the Taenia life cycle is included, with mention made about each of the individualTaenia species where applicable. Info on tapeworm symptoms and the significance of tapeworm infestation in both definitiveand intermediate host animals is included as well as information on treating and managing tapeworm infestationsin these hosts. In the final section (section 4) you'll find extensive information about the Taeniid tapeworms infesting humans, in particular the nasty pork tapeworm (T. solium) and the more benign beef tapeworm (T. saginata).
The Taenia Tapeworm Life Cycle - Contents:
1) The Taenia tapeworm life cycle diagram - a complete step-by-step diagram of the variouscommon Taenia tapeworm species infesting pet animals (dogs, cats) and people and their transmission via intermediate livestock and wild animal hosts.
Human tapeworm infestationand the development of adult Taenia saginata and Taenia solium tapeworm burdens is discussed, as isthe life-threatening condition caused by infestation with larval forms of the Taenia solium pork tapeworm: human 'cysticercosis'.
2) Taenia tapeworm symptoms and outcomes - the significance of Taenia infestations in intermediate and definitive host animals.
2a) Tapeworm symptoms in intermediate hosts.
2b) Tapeworm symptoms in definitive hosts.
3) Treatment and prevention of Taeniid tapeworm infestations in definitive host pets (dogs and cats).
This section contains information on the drugs and medications used to treat tapeworms in dogs and cats.
4) Some basics on human tapeworm infestations and the prevention of tapeworm disease (especially pork tapeworm cysticercosis) in people.
4a) Tapeworms in Humans 1 - Taenia saginata beef tapeworm.
4b) Tapeworms in Humans 2 - Taenia solium pork tapeworm.
4c) Tapeworms in Humans 3 - accidental, opportunistic human tapeworm infestations with other Taenia species.
A link to a small page on Taenia taeniaeformis tapeworms in cats.
1) The Taenia Tapeworm Life Cycles Diagram:
Taenia tapeworm life cycle diagram: This is a diagram of the life cycle of a typical Taenia tapeworm.
The diagram shows the complete cycle of a Taeniid tapeworm's existence - from egg to adult tapeworm to egg again (with the next generation of tapeworm eggs) - within the bodies of two different, yet both equally essential, host animal species:
1. the intermediate host animal and
2. the definitivehost carnivore (dog, cat or man).
Most major species of Taenia tapeworm are included in the diagram. By following the arrows,you can see which species of intermediate and definitive host animals each of the different Taenia speciespredominantly infests. For example: Taenia ovis infests the sheep and the dog. Taenia hydatigena infests a variety of hooved livestock intermediate host species (cattle, sheep, pigs), as well as the dog (definitive host). I elected to insert Taenia multiceps only underneath the sheep intermediate host because, even though cattle, rabbits and horses can be intermediate hosts for this Taeniid species, the sheep is by farthe predominant intermediate host.
The diagram also indicates which parts of the animal body the two main tapeworm stages (the juvenile or larvalstage, which infests the intermediate host animal, and the adult stage, which infests the definitive host animal) occupy.This organ-trophism (organ localisation) is particularly important to know with regard to the intermediate host (larval) stage of a Taenia tapeworm species because some understanding of the organs that are typically occupied by the tapeworm larva (e.g. liver, brain, muscle, eye, skin) will provide an important clue as to the tapeworm disease symptoms that might be expected in that intermediate host animal. For example, Taenia multiceps preferentially infests the brain of the intermediate host sheep, soinfested sheep could be expected to show signs of profound neurological disease (weakness, loss-of-balance, paralysis, circling, head-pressing, fitting, death). Knowing which intermediate host organs could carry the infective juvenile tapeworms is also important in preventing the definitive host animal from contracting adult tapeworms. If we know the intermediate host organs that must be consumed if the definitive host animal is to contract the adult tapeworms, then we can take steps to prevent such tapeworm transmission by preventing the definitive host animal from consuming such intermediate host body parts. For example, dogs catch the adult form of Taenia multiceps by eating the brains and muscles of infested sheep.
The Adult Tapeworm in the Definitive Host:
Various species of adult Taenia tapeworms live and feed in the small intestines of such host animals as the dog,cat and human. These carnivorous host animals are termed definitive hosts with regard to their respectiveTaenia tapeworm life cycles because they are the hosts that their parasitic Taenia tapeworm species was intended for and that the tapeworm organism reaches adulthood and sexual maturity in. For example, the human isthe definitive host animal for the Taenia solium and Taenia saginata tapeworms, not the dog nor the cat. The cat is the sole definitive host animal for Taenia taeniaeformis.
The body of an adult Taeniid tapeworm is made up of hundreds to thousands of individual segments, termed proglottids. These segments progress in size and maturity as one travels down the tapeworm's body: ranging from very tiny (those proglottids nearest the scolex or 'head' of the tapeworm) right through to very large (easily seen with the naked eye).
Every individual tapeworm segment is essentially an individual egg-producing reproductive factory. Tapeworms are hermaphrodites (bearing both male and female sex structures). Each proglottid segment has its owntesticular-type organ structure/s and its own uterine organ structure/s (for creating and maturing eggs)and every single proglottid is, therefore, capable of producing and fertilising its own set of eggs, once mature. The small-sized proglottids nearest the anchoring 'head' of the Taenia tapeworm are the most under-developed and immature of all the tapeworm's segments and are, consequently, incapable of creating fertile eggs because of their under-developed state. The large proglottids nearest the 'tail-end' of the Taenia tapeworm are the most mature of all the tapeworm's segments and are capable of having their eggs fertilized and matured into an embryo-bearing state.
Author's note: because each individual proglottid segment can reproduce sexually on its own, some texts have described tapeworms as being almost like a colony (a large 'super-organism' made up of many individuals: each capableof living and reproducing without much assistance from the whole). Unlike a true colony, however, the individual reproductive segments of a tapeworm can not exist completely independently as individual units away from the whole. The individual tapeworm segments all rely on the survival and intestinal-attachment of the tapeworm's head if they are to remain within the definitive host animal and survive. Also, there is but one nervous system, under the control of the tapeworm head, linking all of the proglottids together in the tapeworm chain (i.e. the individual proglottid reproductive units are not so independent that they have been given their own individual nervous systems and brains).
Author's note: Because every individual proglottid contains both male and female sex organs, it is possible for a single proglottid to 'self-fertilise' (self-inseminate its own eggs). And thiscertainly does occur. In reality, however, it is probably much more common for individual proglottids to 'cross-fertilise' - inseminating other, nearby proglottids on the same tapeworm 'chain' and/or even proglottids located on completely separate tapeworms (i.e. other mature Taenia tapeworms that just happen to be living within reach). This makes for a better spread of tapeworm genes and lessens the degree of in-breeding.
When a proglottid enlarges and develops to a certain stage, becoming sexually mature, gametes (essentially sperm) from the male testicular components of the proglottidsegment fertilize the eggs (female) present within that or a nearby proglottid segment (as mentioned before, there can be cross-fertilisation from proglottid to proglottid). The newly fertilized tapeworm eggs matureinside of the proglottid, developing embryos inside of them, and the proglottid continues to grow in size. A proglottid that contains fertilized eggs inside is said to be "gravid" (i.e. a gravid proglottid).
Once the fertilised tapeworm eggs are fully-matured (ready to enter the next stage of the Taenia tapeworm life cycle), the now-enlarged, fat proglottid segment bearing them breaks away from the main body of the tapeworm.This proglottid segment exits the definitive host animal's body intact via the anus. The segment either physicallycrawls from the anus of the host animal by contracting its muscles and creeping along (people spotting these crawlingproglottid segments often think that their pet is infested with fly maggots) or it is voided in the animal's stools as the pet defecates. Sometimes a large section of the Taeniatapeworm (several proglottids in length) breaks away and is voided in the feces. These longer sectionsare almost invariably found by pet owners, sometimes causing alarm, particularly if the pet toilets ina litter tray that the owner has to clean.
Once out in the environment, the shed proglottid segment continues to writhe, breaking apart and expelling its fertilized, matured tapeworm eggs into the environment as it does so. Taeniids lacka pore for the eggs to come out of and so the proglottid needs to physically split open to release them.The eggs of Taenia tapeworm species are expelled from the proglottid segment as individuals.Each egg is infective the moment it exits the proglottid and generally contains an embryo (called a hexacanth) that has the potential to develop into an adult Taenia tapeworm at some point in the future (all going to plan with regard to the life cycle requirements of that individual Taenia species, of course).
The Juvenile Tapeworms Enter and Occupy the Intermediate Host:
An intermediate host animal that is specifically suited to the particular species of Taenia tapeworm in question (usually a livestock animal, such as a sheep, pig or cow, or a wild animal species, such as a wild ungulate, rabbit or rodent) consumes the Taeniid tapeworm eggs that have been shed into the environment.
These tapeworm eggs are typically consumed in a pasture or forest-type environmental setting. The infested definitive host animal defecatesonto the pasture (e.g. pasture on a farm) or in the forest (e.g. bushland, national park setting) and, in doingso, sheds infective tapeworm eggs into this environment. The organic fecal matter breaks down in days, but the resistanttapeworm eggs remain in the environment, speckled invisibly across the grass. The intermediate host animalconsumes the tapeworm eggs, thereby becoming infested, by eating the contaminated pasture contained within this forest orfarmland setting. On some occasions, an intermediate host animal may even consume an entire, freshly-shed, gravidproglottid (e.g. through the ingestion of fresh definitive host feces - which cows and pigs apparently like to snack on), resulting in the uptake of hundreds of eggs all at once by that intermediate host.
Aside from pasture contamination, tapeworm eggs (termed oncospheres) can also find their way into intermediate host animals via the contamination of waterways with tapeworm-infected feces (the intermediate host animal drinks the contaminated water and ingests the tapeworm eggs). Crops, vegetables and fruits fertilised with untreated sewage oreffluent (e.g. human effluent, animal effluent) can also become diffusely contaminated with tapewormeggs, which can then make their way into intermediate host animals through the consumption of these crops.Finally, insects (e.g. flies) and rodents can transfer the tapeworm eggs to the intermediate host via their feet(e.g. a fly lands on tapeworm-infected poo, picks up tapeworm eggs on its feet and then flies to the food of the intermediate host where its walking transfers the eggs onto the intermediate host's meal).
Author's note: You will notice that man is also listed on the above diagram as an intermediatehost for the Taenia species: Taenia solium (pork tapeworm). Humans infested with adult Taenia solium tapeworms can ingest their own tapeworm eggs or pass them on to other unwitting people, if they do not exercise good hygiene after using the bathroom (i.e. good hand-washing). Poor hygiene, resultingin the consumption of microscopic amounts of egg-contaminated human feces, can result in humansbecoming the intermediate hosts of the pork tapeworm (in place of the usual intermediate host, which isthe pig). This is very dangerous for the human who gets infested in such a way, as theintermediate tapeworm forms (termed cysticerci) can invade important internal organs like the lungs and brain,resulting in disease, disability and even death.
When the intermediate host animal consumes the tapeworm egg/s, the tapeworm embryos contained inside of these eggs survive and hatch from their eggs within the intestines of the intermediate host animal. The tapeworm embryos (termed hexacanths, but also called first stage larvae) migrate acrossthe intestinal wall and establish themselves within the organs of the intermediate host animal. Organs chosen for this larval invasion vary depending on the Taenia species involved.Some species of Taenia larvae invade only a limited range of tissues. For example, Taenia saginata and Taenia ovis favour muscle tissues, including the heart. Taenia taeniaeformis invades the liver. Other species of Taenia invade a muchbroader range of organs (making them very dangerous to the host). For example, Taenia solium larvaewill preferentially invade the liver, lungs, brain and muscle, but any part of the host body can, theoretically, be infested (e.g. bone marrow, mesentery, eye). This is what makes Taenia solium such a dangerous, life-threatening parasite for the intermediate host.
Once established in a chosen site, the Taenia tapeworm hexacanths (first stage larvae) develop and enlarge further into an intermediate larval tapeworm stage called a tapeworm cyst (termed a second stage larvae), the form of which (cysticercus, strobilocercus or coenurus - see diagrams and explanations below) depends on the Taenia species involved. From now on, when I mention cystic, juvenile or larval tapeworms present in intermediate host body tissues, assume I am talking about the stage two larval form of the Taeniid parasite.The speed of development of the second stage larval form is variable between the different Taenia species. Taenia saginata takes about 2 months for the invading hexacanth (stage 1 larva) to transform into a cysticercus (stage 2 larva).
Note on terminology: an intermediate host animal (e.g. sheep, cow, rabbit and so on) is a hostanimal that the respective Taenia tapeworm parasite needs to infest if it is to be able to complete an essential part of its lifecycle. In this case, the Taenia tapeworm needs to infest an animal host (generally a herbivore or omnivore) if it is to hatch from the tapeworm egg and transform into a second stage larval cyst. The parasitic tape worm is unable to reach adulthood and sexual maturity inside of the intermediate host animal and needs to later enter the body of a definitive host animal like a dog, cat or person in orderto achieve sexual and reproductive maturity.
The larval tapeworm cyst of most Taenia species takes on the form of a spherical, expanding, fluid-filled, bladder-like structure with a thin, almost-see-through, outer wall (at surgery or post-mortem evaluation, Taenia cysts look a bit like small, white-to-transparent water-balloons). The cysts are usually found imbedded in the tissues and organs of the intermediate host animal. The cysts are typically small (a few centimetres in diameter), but occasionallyTaenia cysts will be found that are quite large (around 10-20cm or more) in size. The size of the cystdepends on the species of the Taenia tapeworm (e.g. T. saginata cysts are usually small - about 10mm diameter); the length of time it has been present in the host's tissues (larger sizes may be attained with more time) and the structural form of the cyst (cysticercus, strobilocercus or coenurus - see diagrams below). On the diagrams below - the wall of the cyst or 'bladder' is colored pale blue and the fluid center is coloured in pink.
The inner lining of the cyst or 'bladder' is called a "germinal lining". It activelygenerates within the cystic confines one (e.g. cysticercus or strobilocercus forms) or more (e.g. coenurus forms) miniature larval tapeworm head/s (these tapeworm heads are termed 'scolices or protoscolices). These tiny tapeworm 'heads' (labeled as scolices on the diagrams below) are the individuals that become the adult tapeworms when the Taeniid cyst is later consumed by the definitive host animal (dog, cat, man). They have most of the physical structures that are present on an adult tapeworm head, including suckers ('acetabulums')and a hooked attachment structure called a 'rostellum' (note - some species of adult Taenia lack a rostellum so their juvenile forms won't bear this structure either).
There are three main structural forms that a Taeniid cyst can exhibit, with each species of Taenia tapeworm taking on just one of the three forms. A Taenia species will have only one form of intermediate host cyst - it will not alternate between the different types of larval cyst within that one species.
The first larval cyst form is the cysticercus (image 1, below). It is basically a bladder-like cystic structure with a single scolice contained inside. A single tapeworm egg ingested by the intermediate host animal will result in the formation of a single cyst containing a single scolice within the intermediate host (i.e. one scolice that is infective to the definitive host animal and which will result in the formation of one adult tapeworm). Taeniasaginata, Taenia solium, Taenia hydatigena, Taenia pisiformis, Taenia crassiceps, Taenia hydatigena and Taenia ovis all use cysticercus forms of juvenile tapeworm cyst and the infestationof the intermediate host, when it occurs, is termed: cysticercosis.
The second larval cyst form is the strobilocercus (image 2, below). Similar to the cysticercus, the strobilocercus is basically a bladder-like cystic structure with a single scolice. Unlike the cysticercus, the scolice of the strobilocercus seems to be more well-developed, containing a goodlength of body (strobila) behind the head or 'scolex' structure. As with the cysticercus, a single tapeworm egg ingested by the intermediate host animal will result in the formation of a single scolice within the intermediate host (i.e. one scolice that is infective to the definitive host animal and which will result in the formation of one adult tapeworm). Taeniataeniaeformis uses a strobilocercus form of juvenile tapeworm cyst.
The third larval cyst form is the coenurus (image 3, below). Similar to the cysticercus, the coenurus is basically just an expanding, bladder-like cystic structure, except that it contains numerous scolices, not just one. With the coenurus, a single tapeworm egg ingested by the intermediate host animal will result in the formation of a single cyst containingmultiple scolices within the intermediate host animal (i.e. many scolices that are infective to the definitive host animal and which will result in the formation of several adult tapeworms uponconsumption by the definitive host animal). Taenia multiceps, Taenia serialis and Taenia brauni use a coenurus form of juvenile tapeworm cyst.
Taenia tapeworm life cycles image - Cysticercus form of juvenile tapeworm cyst.
Taenia tapeworm life cycles diagram - Strobilocercus form of juvenile tapeworm cyst. This strobilocercus has been drawn 'evaginated' (with its head and neck poking outside of the fluid-filled bladder structure). Typicallythis evagination only occurs once the strobilocercus is eaten by a definitive host animal (the cystic 'bladder'then digests away, leaving the head and neck behind to attach to the definitive host's intestinal wall). When it is located within the tissues of the intermediate host, the strobilocercus is generally 'invaginated'with its head and neck hidden within the fluid-filled cystic bladder structure. Thus it really should have been drawn morelike the cysticercus (picture 1), just with a longer neck region.
Taenia tapeworm life cycles picture - Coenurus form of juvenile tapeworm cyst.
Side note - the cysticercus form of Taenia crassiceps is capable of budding. A singlecysticercus of this species can bud off replicas of itself, each containing an infective scolice. This increases the amount of regional tissue damage caused by the tapeworm larvae and resultsin the formation of several adult tapeworms within the definitive host, should the definitive host happen toconsume all of the cysts in the budded cluster. The condition can mimic hydatid disease, but shouldbe differentiated from this, much nastier, condition.
The Taenia cyst can cause damage to the intermediate host animal's tissues as it grows.The damage is generally in the form of pressure atrophy - the cyst crushes the tissue cells around it as it expandsin size, causing the cells of the infested organ to die off bit by bit. Sometimes the cystcrushes a vital blood supply, killing the cells and organs supplied by that circulatory pathway. Sometimesthe cyst crushes other vital tubular structures like the gall bladder, ureter, bile ductand bronchi, causing severe dysfunction of these conduits. Sometimes the cyst can leak small amountsof fluid into the surrounding tissues, resulting in severe allergic reactions (the host immunesystem attacking the fluid) and painful tissue inflammation of the area. Such aggressive inflammation (e.g. immune cells releasing chemicals that destroy and damage protein and cell structures) canbadly injure the surrounding host tissues, even though the main aim of the attack was to destroy the foreign cyst-fluid and 'save' the host tissues. Should a largecyst happen to rupture, the massive fluid release can result in a severe anaphylactic reaction(the sudden death of the patient is quite possible should this occur).
The symptoms and consequences of this damage depends very much on the size and number of the Taeniid cystspresent and on the organ location that the cysts have invaded. Because most organs(not the brain) have a high degree of tissue redundancy (meaning that a lot of tissue can be lost beforesymptoms of organ damage present), a quite-sizeable population of small Taenia cysts may not produce any obvious symptoms in the intermediate host for a long time. The liver is a good example of this - many small Taenia cysts in the liver may not cause any signs of ill-health(unless they happen to be positioned such that they squash a vital liver structure like the gall bladderor common biliary duct). Lung cysts may also present initially with minimal signs,however, the animal will generally develop coughing, shortness of breath, pneumonias and wheezingas the cyst/s expand. On the flip side, certain other organs can not tolerate even the smallest of tapeworm cystswithout showing side effects. The brain is a classic example of this - even a very small cyst in the braincan result in severe neurological deficits within the infested host. This is why Taenia soliumand Taenia multiceps (both of whom love to invade the brain) can be so dangerous to their intermediatehost animals.
Images of Taenia cysts in organs:
http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/DiseaseInfo/ImageDB/TAE/TAE_001.jpg - Taenia solium cysts in pig muscle (pork).
http://images.medscape.com/pi/features/slideshow-slide/neurocysticercosis/fig1.jpg - Taenia solium cysts in a human brain.
http://cal.vet.upenn.edu/projects/paraav/images/lab7-16.jpg - hundreds of Taenia saginata cysts in a cow heart.
http://www.aans.org/bulletin/images/Vol17_3_08/OcularCysticercosis_small.jpg - Taenia solium cyst in a human eye.
The Definitive Host Becomes Infested With Adult Taenia By Consuming the Intermediate Host:
The definitive host animal (dog, cat, human) becomes infested with the adult tapeworm form of the Taenia tapeworm life cycle by consuming the larval-cyst-infested organs of an intermediate host animal that has become infested with the 'right' Taenia species for thatdefinitive host animal. This host-specificity is quite important. The right Taenia species must be ingestedby the right host if an adult tapeworm is to result. A cow infested with Taenia saginata cystscould be eaten by a dog or a cat without either of those two animals getting the adult tapeworm.This is because the adult T. saginata tapeworm only develops in the intestines of a human being. In the dog or cat, the T. saginata tapeworm cyst will simply be digested and not turn into an adult worm.Likewise, a human who ingests the undercooked meat of a sheep will not get Taenia ovisbecause Taenia ovis requires a canine host to achieve adulthood. And so on.
The definitive host animal must eat an infective, fertile cyst, containing activeprotoscolices, if it is to become infested with the adult Taeniid tapeworm forms.This sort of consumption is common in the animal world, where cats and dogs, both wild and domestic, feast on the fresh, warm offal of their freshly killed prey (e.g. rabbits, rats, mice, voles, sheep). It can also occur in the domestic domain, when farmers offer the raw innards or body parts of freshly-killed livestock and rabbits to their dogs and cats or hunters allow their pets to snack on the results of their shooting trips (e.g. pig and deer hunters often feed their dogs on the raw meat and organs of the animals that they have killed). In the kitchen, it is manwho is at risk of becoming infested. The consumption of undercooked meat, particularly pork and beef, can result in the human diner gaining an unwanted parasitic guest.
When the definitive host animal consumes the tapeworm-cyst-infested intermediate host tissues, the mini-tapewormprotoscolices (which up until now have been 'invaginated' - held inverted inside of their cystic bladder support structures) evaginate and poke out of their bladder support structures. The supportive bladder-like structuresdigest away and only the head and neck of the protoscolice is left, floating freely within the small intestinaltract of the definitive host carnivore. These protoscolices will develop into final-stage adult tapeworms. They will attachto the wall of the host's intestinal tract and begin feeding and budding off proglottid segments. Eventually mature proglottids will develop, be fertilised and become egg-laden. Egg-containing proglottids will eventually start shedding out into the droppings.
The first adult tapeworm eggs will start appearing in the definitive host animal's environment about 6-8 weeks after the Taenia-cyst-infested intermediate host animal was first ingested. Adult wormscan live in the definitive host animal for a period of 6 months to almost 3 years, but some species are known (e.g.T. saginata of man) whose adults can live for around 20 years in a single host.
Thus the Taenia tapeworm life cycles continue ...
Author's note: The Taenia tapeworm life cycle tends to be most successful and prevalentwhen the 'right' definitive hosts and intermediate hosts for that species of Taenia live and feed in close proximity to one another (which makes obvious sense). Strong tapeworm life cycles tend to establish in environments between animals that have a natural host-prey relationship. For example, a tapeworm life cycle commonly exists in areas where cats and rodents co-exist. The infested cat defecates Taenia taeniaeformis tapeworm eggs onto the grass, infesting the local herbivorous rodent populationwith hepatic strobilocercus cysts that are later consumed by the cat whenit hunts and consumes the rodents. Similar problems occur on farms when tapeworm-infested dogsare allowed to defecate onto the grasslands and pastures of sheep and cattle. These livestockanimals become infested with cysts, which the dog might later get to consume if it comesacross the carcass of an animal that has died as a result of its parasitism.
It is for this reason - the ability to maintain a strong definitive-host and intermediate-hostrelationship (essential to tapeworm life cycles) - that the majority of domestic animalTaeniid infestations occur in dogs and cats that come from or have regular access to rural regions (livestock and rabbits),grain-stores (mice and rats), farms and wild spaces (e.g. national parks with lots of wild animal intermediate hosts).Dogs and cats that spend lots of time in these environments, hunting their own prey and feeding on offal and carcasses (e.g. working dogs, herding dogs, hunting dogs, pig-dogs) are at greater risk of carrying and passing on Taeniid tapeworms.
Prevention of tapeworm cysticercosis and coenurosis in sheep and cattle really requires that infecteddogs and canids not be allowed access onto animal pastures. This is often hard to enforce so farmers lookingto prevent their livestock from becoming spoiled by tapeworms should deworm all their dogs regularly, avoid feedingthem raw offal and meat and put up suitable fences to avoid having potentially-infested wild canids poopinginto the pasture.
2) Taenia tapeworm symptoms and outcomes - the significance of Taenia infestations in intermediate and definitive host animals.
The following two sections contain information on the significance of Taenia tapeworm infestationsin both definitive host and intermediate host animal species. I have elected to discussthe significance of these tapeworm parasites for both types of hosts because, even though this is primarily asmall animal veterinary website, the impact of the parasites on the intermediatehost animals is highly significant (often life-threatening) and an integral reason as to why there is a need for the prevention of tapeworm parasites in the definitive host animals (we do not just prevent tapeworms in dogs and cats for their well-being but for the well-being of livestock animals and other intermediate hosts also, whose very lives could be lost should they contract the tapeworm cysts from the egg-laden feces of infested dogs and cats).
When we talk about tapeworm infestations, most people only picture the adult tapeworm infestation of the intestinaltract of the definitive host animal or human. What many people fail to realise, however, isthat most adult tapeworm infestations of dogs, cats and people typically produce little discomfort or evidence of disease (unless the worms are large in size; large in number or the host is health-compromisedin some other way) and are of little clinical significance to the carrier (the obvious exception being the nasty Taenia solium pork tapeworm, which poses a dangerous cysticercosis risk to the human carrier if it remains undiagnosed and untreated).
In fact, most of the big disease problems seen with Taenia tapeworm infestations actually occur in the intermediate host animals: the result of internal organ infestation with thejuvenile cystic forms of the tapeworm life cycle. Numerous, expanding cysts in importantbodily organs can be devastating for the intermediate host animal, often resulting in significant symptoms of disease and disability. From an animal production viewpoint, Taenia cysts in the meat and organs of livestock animals (e.g. pork and cattlein particular) can also be devastating, as such infested meat is often down-graded or outright rejected for sale. In the case of pork, meat infested with Taenia solium cystsis outright dangerous for the consumer, should unprocessed, raw pork enter the human food chain.
2a) Taeniid tapeworm symptoms and significance in intermediate host animals.
1) Disease significance:
The disease significance of Taenia tapeworms is very much dependent upon the species ofTaenia we are talking about and, in particular, which body tissues the juvenile tapewormcysts tend to localise in.
Some types of larval Taenia cyst (e.g. Taenia pisiformis cysticerci of rabbits)localise within the abdominal spaces of their intermediate host (i.e. in the fat and connective tissues surrounding the abdominal organs), where they have plenty of room to expand and grow without impacting on the organs. In such cases, no symptoms may be appreciated by the infested animal or its owner (if one exists).
Other types of Taenia (e.g. Taenia taeniaeformis, Taenia hydatigena, Taenia solium) have a trophismfor the liver. Being a highly redundant organ (i.e. meaning that lots of tissue can be lost from the liver before symptomsof liver disease will occur), small numbers of slowly expanding cysts may not produce anysymptoms of hepatic disease in the animal for a long time. In larger numbers and sizes, however, liver dysfunctioncan eventuate, resulting in wasting, thinning, jaundice, 'fluid-belly' (ascites) and general unwellness of the animal before death. Alternatively, a small number of cysts located in particularly 'bad' regions of the liver (e.g such that they compress the biliary ducts or major blood vessels) could result in significantsymptoms of disease (e.g. biliary obstruction) even though only a small number of cysts is presentand most of the liver tissue is healthy.
Side note - if a massive number of tapeworm eggs is eaten all at once, the huge influx of embryonictapeworms into the animal's liver can cause very severe injury to the liver, resulting in acutehepatitis and death. At this point, no second-stage larval cysts will yet have formed - it will be the migratingfirst-stage larvae (the hexacanths) doing all the damage.
Various other species of Taenia (Taenia solium, Taenia saginata, Taenia ovis, Taenia serialis)are attracted to the muscles of the intermediate host animal, including the heart muscle. In low to medium numbers, these cysts will usually cause no symptoms in the infested animal, unless they are located within the heart where even small populations can result in sudden death. In large numbers, such cystsmight be expected to cause pain in the affected muscles, something that the ownermight recognise as lameness or stiffness of the gait. It is worth noting that, aside from the diseasesignificance, the presence of larval cysts in the muscles and meat of affected cattle and pigshas significant financial ramifications for the affected farm, as such meat is generally rejectedfor commercial sale and may pose a serious risk to human health (T. solium).
Taenia multiceps, as an individual Taeniid species, poses a severe health threat to sheep (occasionally humansand other animals) who contract it because it tends to localise in the brain. Even a single, expanding cyst can produce severe signs of neurological dysfunction (brain damage) and even death in the sheep infested with it. The disease in sheep is nick-named 'gid' because it often makes the sheep wobbly and uncoordinated when it walks (i.e. 'giddy'). Other signs of the condition also include: paralysis, head-pressing, star-gazing, circling, seizures and death. It is a terrible condition for the sheep intermediate host, yetthe dog definitive host will tend to show little sign of infestation itself. Taenia solium issimilarly dangerous because it will also often invade the brain of the intermediate host that it infests (pig, human).
Some species of Taenia (e.g. Taenia solium) are less selective about wheretheir cysts localise, making them extremely dangerous for the animal (pig or human)that contracts them. They produce major disease concerns when their expanding, space-occupying cysticercuslarval cysts turn up in the vital organs (e.g. brain, liver, lung, kidney, eye) of intermediate host animals (pigs) and, most worryingly, people. The cysts grow and expand, crowding out and compressing the cells thatmake up the organs they have invaded. This eventually leads to the dysfunction of these internal organsas vital structures get compressed (e.g. blood vessels that supply nutrients and life to organs may be closed off; drainage structures like biliary ducts and ureters, which help to draw fluid from various organs, may be compressedshut; airways that provide oxygen to the lungs may become squashed by the enlarging cysts and so on) and even destroyed (e.g. compression of organ cells by an expanding cystic mass can result in their death from compression injury - termed "pressure atrophy"). If not diagnosed and treated promptly, the cyst-induced organ damage (e.g. brain damage, lung damage) can become so severe that the animal orperson with the Taeniid disease will become permanently compromised or even die.
Humans with Taenia solium of the brain can show a range of neurological signs including: fever, chronic head-ache, irritability, blindness, dementia, seizures, focal lesions, incoordination, wobbliness, confusion, paralysis and personality changes. Somepeople present with signs of stroke and others can present with sudden death.
Allergic and anaphylactic reactions are also possible when large larval cysts are present within the bodyof a human or animal. Some larval cysts will leak small amountsof protein-rich fluid into the surrounding host tissues, resulting in allergic reactions atthe site of the leakage (the host immune system attacking the fluid) and painful tissue inflammation of the area. Low-grade inflammation can present vaguely as signs of fever, rash, night-sweats and increased lymph node size. More aggressive inflammation (e.g. immune cells massively releasing chemicals that are designed to target and destroy protein structures and 'foreign substances') can badly injure the surrounding host tissues, even though the sole aim of the immune attack was just to destroy the foreign cyst and its oozing fluid. Should a largecyst happen to rupture, the massive fluid release can result in a severe anaphylactic reaction(the sudden death of the patient is quite possible should this occur).
Another risk posed to all animal intermediate hosts by Taenia, regardless ofspecies and organ distribution, is septic peritonitis. When Taenia eggs are consumedby the intermediate host animal, the embryonic tapeworms (hexacanths) need to penetrate through the gut wall of theanimal if they are to enter the internal organs. A penetrating embryo can draw intestinal bacteriathrough the gut wall with it, resulting in severe, life-threatening bacterial infection within the abdominal cavity of the animal. Some of these bacteria(especially Clostridial forms) can be extremely nasty, resulting in septicaemiaand death within hours to days of infection.
It is possible for larval cysts to undergo weird mutations within the tissues of the intermediate host animal. Should the wrong cellular mutations occur, the cysts can start to grow rapidly in bizarre, atypicalways, aggressively invading the host's tissues and organs and acting like a cancer. Such a mutated,malignant larval structure of non-host-tissue-origin is termed a teratoma. Surgery to remove the organismis the only way to save the host (provided the condition is not too advanced) and, in many cases, the surgeon will find it difficult to determine exactly what the teratomatous object in question is, it isso far removed from its normal, round, cystic appearance.
The risk of immune system compromise and subsequent death from other unrelated disease causes also goes up for animals severely infested with Taenia cysts. Even though the cystic infestations may not be bad enough to cause deathoutright (certainly not rapidly, in any case), significant larval cyst burdens can result in the animal's appetite being reduced and its energy expenditure being increased (energy lost throughimmune attacks on the cystic 'foreign bodies' and general inflammatory processes) - a situation that results in the overall thinning, ill-thrift and ill-health of the affected animal. Such unwellanimals are liable to having a degree of immune system compromise, meaning they are more prone to dying from common infections and parasites that, before, would not have bothered them.
Animals that show ill-thrift, thinning and general weakness (as per above paragraph) are liable tobeing predated upon by domestic and wild animal predators. For example, a thin, skinny, weakrabbit infested with a large T. serialis burden is more at risk of being eaten by a hawkor a cat.
2) Commercial significance:
From a livestock production point of view, the financial losses to commercial meat producers can alsobe significant. Meat and offal infested with Taenia cysts of any species (even thosespecies not infective to man) will most likely be rejected from the commercial food chain (i.e. won't be able to be sold) because people won't buy it (people are unlikely toeat meat or organs with cysts in them).
Should Taenia saginata cysts be found in beef (meat), the meat rejection is likely to bedoubly-enforced since the organism is of significance to human health.
Should Taenia solium cysts crop up in pork, the negative reaction is likely to be even greater. Thatthe meat in question will be rejected is obvious, however, the consequences for the infected farm maybe even greater than this. Taenia solium is known to be highly dangerous to man andit is considered exotic and notifiable in many countries. A farm that tests positive to this organismmay well find itself under strict quarantine with an investigation underway as to where theinfection came from (other farms might also become implicated and many livestock may be destroyedas a result).
Obviously, any deaths that occur as a result of infestation with any of the Taenia species (e.g. Taenia multiceps in the brain of a sheep, Taenia ovis entering the heart)count as commercial losses. A dead animal produces no meat, wool or milk and is a financialloss. Should that deceased animal be of genetic value (e.g. a good stud bull, a high-yield dairy cow), then thecommercial loss is compounded through the loss of those 'productive' genes to future generations of animals.Extra cost will also be incurred in replacing the valuable animal.
Additionally, the overall loss of stock productivity that can occur as a result of even moderateinfestations with Taenia cysts should not be forgotten. Even though cyst infestations may not be enough to cause deathoutright (certainly not rapidly, in any case), significant larval cyst burdens can result in the animal's appetite being reduced and its energy expenditure (energy lost throughimmune attacks on the cystic 'foreign bodies' and general inflammatory processes) being increased - a situation that results in overall thinning, ill-thrift and ill-health of the affected animal. Such animals are likely to have less meat (meat that might notbe saleable anyway) and reduced outputs of both milk and wool of any quality. All of this representsa commercial loss.
3) Zoonotic and human health significance:
Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm) is of some zoonotic significance to human beings. Humanswho eat undercooked beef (especially 'blue' or tartare-style raw meat) may ingest larval cysts of this Taenia species. When it grows in the human gut, the adult form of this worm can attainlengths of many metres - a size that might produce symptoms of nausea and discomfort(see section 2b on definitive host signs) and weight-loss in the human infected with it.
Taenia solium (pork tapeworm) is of huge zoonotic significance to human beings.Similar to the situation seen with Taenia saginata, humans who eat undercooked pork may ingest larval cysts of this Taenia species. When it grows in the human gut, the adult form of this worm can attaina good size - potentially producing symptoms of nausea and discomfort(see section 2b on definitive host signs) and weight-loss in the human infected with it. Of infinitelymore significance, however, is the fact that a human infested with adult Taenia solium can go on to self-infect his/her internal organs with nasty Taenia solium cysts, through even the slightest lapses in personal hygiene. This can result in the eventual death of the person so-infested.
2b) Taeniid tapeworm symptoms and significance in definitive host animals.
Adult Taenia parasites located in the intestinal tracts of animals and people can pose a variety of problems for pets (dogs and cats) and humans including:
- non-specific intestinal disturbances - tapeworms can produce some non-specific signs of intestinal discomfort and pain (e.g. colic signs) in animals and humans. Tapeworm afflicted humans often complain of cramping and nausea: signs that are generally difficult to ascribe to animals, but which probably do occur in them also (animals can't actually describe such vague feelings of cramping or nausea to us humans - so we are generally unaware of these signs in them). Vomiting may also result.
- non-specific appetite changes - tapeworms can cause some animals and people to go off their food or to become fussy or picky about their eating habits (this appetite loss is possibly the result of such factors as abdominal pain and nausea - described above). In contrast, certain other individuals develop a ravenous appetite in the face of heavy tapeworm infestations because they are competing with the parasite/s for nutrients (they need to physically eat more to provide enough nutrition for both themselves and the worms).
- non-specific fever - tapeworms can be associated with recurrent fevers.
- body weakness, headaches, dizziness, irritability and delirium - sometimes described in human tapeworm infestations, non-specific signs of weakness, headache and dizziness may occur in animals also. Whether we would ever actually be likely to diagnose these sorts of non-specific signs in our pets is the real question, however - if our pets can not actually describe sensations of dizziness or headache to us humans, then how would we ever know? It certainly is a sign described in human tapeworm conditions, however.
- malnutrition - very large numbers of adult Taenia tapeworms present in the intestinal tracts of dogs and cats (particularly small puppies and kittens) can result in the malabsorption of nutrients (food) by the infested animal. This can cause the tapeworm-parasitised animal to not receive the nutrition it needs (i.e. to not absorb its food properly), resulting in malnourishment, weight loss, ill-thrift and poor growth. It is possible that malnutrition may also occur in humans who have heavy tapeworm burdens, although this finding would be expected to be less commonly seen in humans than in animals.
- poor coat and hair quality - severe malnutrition and malabsorption of vitamins, minerals and proteins can result in reduced quality of the haircoat - e.g. brittleness, thinning, coarseness and loss of lustre of the coat.
- intestinal irritation and diarrhea - when an adult tapeworm inhabits the small intestine of an animal or human, it finds a suitable site along the lining of the intestinal lumen and grasps on to it using suckers (acetabula) and a spiny anchor-like organ called a rostellum. This spiky tapeworm grip is irritating to the wall of the small intestine, creating discomfort for the host and alterations in intestinal motility and regional intestinal mucus secretions, which can result in diarrhea (note that diarrhea is mainly seen only in very heavy tapeworm infestations). In some individuals, the penetrating rostellum causes a severe inflammatory, allergic reaction within the host's intestine (the host's immune system actively rejects and attacks the tapeworm proteins), causing the animal host to exhibit abdominal pain and diarrhea. Note that T. saginata, sometimes called the 'unarmed tapeworm', lacks a spiny rostellum so is not quite so damaging to the human intestine.
- intestinal blockage - it is possible for massive tapeworm infestations to block up the intestines of animals (especially small puppies and kittens) and children, producing signs of intestinal obstruction (e.g. vomiting, shock and even death). This is not common, but it can occur if worm burdens are large and/or if someone deworms the infested animal, killing all of the worms in one hit (the tapeworms all die and let go of their intestinal attachments at the same time, resulting in a vast mass of deceased tapeworms flowing down the intestinal tract all at once and causing blockage).
- intestinal perforation - rarely, some adult Taeniids (e.g. Taenia saginata beef tapeworms) can perforate the intestinal wall, ending up inside of the host's abdominal cavity. This can result in life-threatening abdominal inflammation and infection and septicaemia.
- appendicitis, biliary obstruction, pancreatitis - rarely, some adult Taeniids (e.g. Taenia saginata beef tapeworms) can migrate up into the duct systems of the pancreas and biliary tract (bile duct), producing blockages and painful inflammation of these regions. Some may even enter the appendix and cecum, causing nasty inflammation of these regions (termed appendicitis and typhlitis respectively). This can result in life-threatening complications that may require surgical correction.
- perineal or anal irritation and scooting - the migration of tapeworm segments from the anuses of infested dogs and cats can result in itching and irritation of the anus. The dog or cat will respond by excessively licking the anus in order to remove the irritation or, if it can not reach, it will drag and rub its bottom on the ground to remove the irritation. This bottom rubbing, called "scooting", is usually a sign of anal or perineal irritation and evacuating tapeworms can be one cause of this (side note - anal gland impaction or infection is a much more common cause of scooting, however, it can be a sign seen in 'wormy' animals). Note that anal irritation can be experienced by people infested with tapeworms, resulting in 'bottom scratching' (typically pin worms cause most cases of anal irritation in people, not tapeworms).
- annoyance - most pet owners don't like to see or hear their pets fastidiously licking their bottoms or rubbing their butts along the carpet. This annoyance is compounded when the rubbing activities result in fecal staining of floors or if tapeworm segments are actually seen extruding from the animal's anus;
- gross-out factor - the sight of long tapeworms in the feces and/or white, grub-like tapeworm segments crawling from a pet's anus is revolting and off-putting to many people who see such infestations as a sign of 'dirtiness' and 'disease' (even though clean pets can and do get tapeworms of course). The disgust and horror is likely to be compounded if the tapeworm in question is actually coming out of you!
- zoonosis (human infestation) - Adult Taenia solium tapeworms produce eggs that are infective to humans. Humans who inadvertently ingest fecal matter containing tapeworm eggs can develop life-threatening larval tapeworm infestations of the organs (including the brain) potentially resulting in death.
Of all of the problems mentioned above, the disgust factor (gross-out factor) is probably the mostsignificant and commonly seen in the vet clinic. Tapeworm-associated problems like malnutrition, intestinal irritation, perineal irritation, diarrhea, intestinal blockage and poor coat quality are seen of course and are greatly problematic for the host animal when they do occur, however, it must be stated that it generallyrequires a massive tapeworm burden to be present before such severe signs are likely to be encounteredin practice. As a vet in Australia, I have not personally seen an adult Taenia
tapeworm burden so massive as to result in a major malabsorption or intestinal disturbance issue (although under certain hygiene and living conditions, I do not doubt that it probably occurs). Far more commonly, people come to me in a panic because they have just found a large, white worm in the droppings of their cat or dog or seen a pale, fat, maggot-looking tapeworm segment slither out of the anus of their puppy. In these quite common situations, the animal in question is generally healthy and fine (it just needs worming treatment) - it's the owner who's the one needing the reassurance (and the smelling salts)!
3) Treatment and prevention of Taenia tapeworm infestations in animals.
Adult Taeniid tapeworms in dogs and cats (and people) can be eliminated from the animal's intestinesusing tapeworm-specific anti-cestodal medications like praziquantel or niclosamide. Of thetwo drugs, praziquantel is the anticestodal drug most commonly included in most commercially-availabledog and cat 'all-wormers' because it has good activity against another nasty tapeworm parasitecalled Echinococcus* (the hydatid tapeworm), which niclosamide does not. Detailed information on praziquantel is contained below. Passing mention is made about niclosamideand other lesser-used anticestodal drugs in the below section marked "Other Anti-Cestodal Drugs."
When an adequate dose of either anti-tapeworm drug is administered to the definitive host animal, the Taeniid tapeworms die and are voided in the host animal's feces (pet owners may find several large, dead tapewormsin their animal's feces following the administration of just such a wormer). This single treatment is usually curative, however, several doses may be needed to completely rid an animal of a very large tapewormburden (if a large tapeworm burden is suspected, the praziquantel can be repeated two-weekly for a couple of dosesto be sure of getting them all).
Author's note: Be aware that most deworming medications (aside from some heartworm meds) do not generally last very long in a treated-animal's system. When an all-wormer is given to a pet, the drugs work rapidly, killing off the adult worm parasites, before disappearing. The drugs do not hang around to protect the pet against subsequent tapeworm infestations. This means that shouldthe pet continue to eat larval-tapeworm-infested rodents, rabbits and livestock in the days followingthe deworming treatment, they will most likely become rapidly re-infested with adult tapeworms.
Following the ingestion of a cyst-infested intermediate host rodent, rabbit or livestock animal, a definitive hostdog or cat can have a reproductively-mature, proglottid-shedding adult tapeworm inside of itsintestine within a mere 6-8 weeks. In high-transmission situations (e.g. a dog fed frequently on raw offal, acat that hunts), this could mean that a pet owner might need to repeat worm (tapeworm-treat) his dog or cat every 6-8 weeks to keep the adult tapeworm numbers under control!
Because such frequent 6 weekly worming may not be practical for some pet owners (particularly ownersof hard-to-pill cats), the best option for the ongoing control of Taenia tapeworms is to:
a) give the animal regular tapeworming medications (as per the manufacturer's directions) and
b) not allow the animal access to foods likely to contain larval tapeworms (e.g. raw carcasses, raw offal, hunting).
* be aware that not all tapeworm-killing drugs kill thenasty Echinococcus hydatid tapeworm species, so do make sure you check that any tapeworm medication you give is appropriate for killing this particular tapeworm species. Hydatid tapeworms are not Taenia species and so do not really belong on this page, however, they are so dangerous that I do not want them to be forgotten during the discussions on Taenia treatment and prevention. (Praziquantelis a good choice for hydatid tapeworms and is easy to get. For other anti-tapeworm medication options,see the notes at the bottom of this section to see whether or not they kill Taenia and Echinococcus.)
Praziquantel is a powerful tapeworm-killing drug that is generally included in the vast majorityof commercially-available 'all-wormers' given to dogs and cats. It has a high margin of safety in dogs and cats(and many other species) and exhibits very good activity against most of the major tapeworm species affecting our domestic pets (including: the common flea tapeworm - Dipylidium caninum; the hydatidtapeworms - Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis; the zipper worm - Spirometraand the many varieties of Taenia tapeworm species). It is because of this excellent activity against such a wide range of pet tapeworm parasites that praziquantel tends to be favored overniclosamide and most other drugs in the control of tapeworms in domestic household animals.
How it works:
Tapeworms are coated in protein molecules that shield them from being recognized and attacked bythe host animal's immune system. These protein molecules turn over and shed from the tapeworm's body surface (tegument)constantly. By the time the host's immune system recognises and starts to attack one lot of tapeworm surface molecules, these have been shed from the tapeworm's 'skin' (tegument), leaving the immune system with nothing recognisable to attack.
Praziquantel works by disrupting the surface tegument of the tapeworm such that the animal's immune system is capable of recognizing the tape worm as foreign and actively attacking it. Additionally, praziquantelalso works by massively increasing the influx of calcium ions into the tapeworm's body. This calcium overload causesthe worm's muscles to become over-stimulated such that the worm develops stiffness and rigidity. The rigidtapeworm is unable to maintain its hold on the host's gut wall and is, consequently, voided from the animal's intestinal tract via the faeces.
Features of praziquantel:
- The treatment of choice for adult tapeworms in dogs and cats. Can be used in people (do NOT be tempted to self-medicate with your pet's medications though - see a doctor if you require a tapeworm treatment).
- Kills a wide range of adult cestode (tapeworm) species in definitive host people and animals.
- Also kills some forms of trematode (fluke) parasite in livestock animals.
- In very high doses, praziquantel also kills certain intermediate-stage, larval tapeworm forms (including cystic larval forms of Taenia like T. solium). For example, praziquantel and albendazole were used together to treat a woman infested with the budding cysticerci of Taenia crassiceps (ref 9) to good effect.
- Very effective at killing adult Dipylidium caninum flea tapeworms, adult Taenia tapeworms, adult hydatid tapeworms and also many other important tapeworm types afflicting domestic animals.
- A dose of only 2mg/kg is needed to kill all adult Taenia types (some Taeniids only need 1mg/kg). Most all-wormers actually contain a dose of 5mg/kg praziquantel (a higher dose - needed for other tapeworm species), which is more than ample for killing this adult tapeworm Genus.
- A dose of 2.5-5mg/kg is needed to kill Dipylidium. Most all-wormers contain 5mg/kg praziquantel, which is ample for killing this flea tapeworm.
- A dose of 5-10mg/kg is needed to kill hydatid tapeworms (Echinococcus species) in dogs. The higher dose range is recommended to kill sub-adult forms of the worms in dogs. Most all-wormers contain 5mg/kg praziquantel, which is within the dose range for killing these nasty tapeworms, however, given how dangerous hydatid tapeworm infestations are to people, if I was a dog owner living in a high hydatid risk situation, I would probably err on the side of caution and give the higher dose (10mg/kg). For info on hydatid tapeworms, see our hydatid tapeworm page.
- Some tapeworms like Spirometra mansoides and Diphyllobothrium erinacei require an intermediate, high dose range (7.5mg/kg) be given on 2 consecutive days to clear them.
- Many of the tapeworms and flukes afflicting livestock animals need high doses of praziquantel if they are to be cleared (in the order of 15-30mg/kg and higher).
- Praziquantel, given orally, absorbs into the animal's body rapidly, reaching many organs including the liver and brain (this body-wide, systemic absorption is why praziquantel is effective against Schistosoma and certain larval tapeworm forms).
- Praziquantel has a wide safety margin and is difficult to overdose (dogs were tested on up to 180mg/kg orally with little side effect).
- Praziquantel is thought to be safe in pregnant and breeding animals (check with your vet to be sure though).
- Some praziquantel-containing products advise not using praziquantel in puppies or kittens under 4 weeks of age. Given that pups and kittens 3 weeks and below are only fed on milk, they do not really need a tapewormer anyway as tapeworms are only caught by eating intermediate host tissues.
- Second to niclosamide, praziquantel is a good option for treating Taenia saginata in people. It is often given to human patients in conjunction with niclosamide.
- A major choice for treating adult Taenia solium in people.
- Side note - Praziquantel also kills Schistosoma - an important parasite of humans, which causes a terrible, often fatal, liver condition called bilharzia (common in third world countries).
- Side note - Does not kill roundworms or hookworms or other nematode parasites. Praziquantel kills cestodes (tapeworms) and certain trematodes (flukes) only.
A related product called epsiprantel has been used to kill flea tapeworms and Taenia
in dogs and cats. I have never used the product personally and can not vouch for its efficacy or safety.
NOTE - Please read our disclaimer before attempting to self-diagnose and dose your animals withany drugs mentioned on these pages. Pet Informed is a general advice website only and mistakes can bemade - we always recommend that you double-check any of our information with your own vet.
Taenia tapeworm life cycle picture: These are photographs of the box-labels of a common dog and catall-wormer called Milbemax. You can see from the first image that the product contains praziquantel(25mg of praziquantel per tablet - underlined in aqua). The second image shows the range of parasites thatthe product kills. The flea tapeworm, Dipylidium caninum (underlined in orange), hydatid tapeworm (underlined in grass green)and Taenia tapeworm (underlined in red) are all listed as parasites that this product kills. Also mentioned on the Milbemax box was the minimum recommended dose rate of praziquantel (underlined in pink) - it is listed as 5mg/kg.
Taenia tapeworm life cycle picture: These are photographs of the bottle-labels of a common dog and catall-wormer called Fenpral. The first image is a picture of the product bottle (dog version of Fenpral). The second image shows that the product contains 50mg of praziquantel per tablet (blue arrow). The image shows the range of parasites thatthe product kills. The flea tapeworm, Dipylidium caninum (underlined in orange), hydatid tapeworm (underlined in grass green)and Taenia tapeworm (underlined in blue) are all listed as parasites that this product kills. Also mentioned on the Fenpral bottle is the minimum recommended dose rate of praziquantel (underlined in pink) - it is listed as being 1 tablet per 10kg ofbodyweight. Given that a single tablet contains 50mg of praziquantel, this must mean that theminimum dose rate for praziquantel is, again, 5mg/kg (i.e. a 10kg dog gets 50mg so a 1kg dog must get 5mg).
Other Anti-Cestodal Drugs.
Aside from praziquantel, there are other anti-cestodal drugs out there that have some activity against many of the parasitic tapeworms, including Taenia, infesting dogs and cats. I will not make huge mention of them, aside from the basic points below, because many of them are going out of fashion, many are hard to get, most have only a very narrow range of tapeworm activity, many don'tkill hydatids and some have significantly toxic side effects when used in domestic animals. I would not recommend using any of thebelow-mentioned drugs to treat hydatid tapeworms in domestic pets (especially dogs and cats) if you have access topraziquantel (see your vet). Praziquantel is the best as far as I can tell.
Prevents the tapeworm from making energy (ATP) from glucose (thus it dies).
Has been used against adult intestinal tapeworms in dogs and cats and people.
Good activity against Taenia. Variable activity against Dipylidium and unreliable againstEchinococcus (not reliable for breaking the hydatid tapeworm life cycle). Not satisfactory forEchinococcus prevention (therefore not an ideal drug to use in dogs).
Often a first choice in the treatment of Taenia saginata in people. Can be used alone or concurrentlywith praziquantel.
Minimal absorption from the intestinal tract and therefore toxicity is low (when used orally).
Must be given on an empty stomach.
Thought to be safe in pregnant or debilitated animals.
Toxic to fish and waterways.
Has been used on tapeworms in dogs and cats.
Good activity against Taenia. Fair to good activity against Echinococcus, but variable activity againstDipylidium (not reliable for breaking the flea tapeworm life cycle).
Must be given on an empty stomach.
Has been known to have significant toxic side effects, including the death of pets.
Has been used on tapeworms in dogs and cats.
Good activity against Taenia. Fair to good activity against Dipylidium, but unreliable againstEchinococcus (not reliable for breaking the hydatid tapeworm life cycle).
Minimal absorption from the intestinal tract, so toxicity is thought to be low (when used orally).
Mainly used to kill tapeworms and flukes in livestock animals, not domestic pets.
Good activity against Taenia and Echinococcus.
Tests on dogs have found that this drug can have significant toxic side effects in this species (cats unknown but probably of similar risk).
Toxicity concerns make it unfavourable for tapeworm control when better drugs are available.
Has been used on tapeworms in dogs and cats and many other animal species.
Good activity against Taenia, but variable to low activity againstDipylidium (not reliable for breaking the flea tapeworm life cycle).
Has been known to have toxic side effects in domestic pets (vomiting, diarrhea), but for the most part iswell-tolerated by dogs and cats.
Apparently effective at killing hydatid tapeworms in dogs.
I can not vouch for its safety.
Effective on Taenia.Apparently effective at killing hydatid tapeworms in dogs (7.5mg/kg).
I can not vouch for its safety.
Benzimidazole drugs (Mebendazole, Fenbendazole and so on):
Many types of benzimidazole drugs have been studied in order to assess their effects against tapeworms in dogs and cats.
Most of them show good activity against Taenia and some even show good activity against Echinococcus, but none of themis any good for treating Dipylidium (i.e. not reliable for breaking the flea tapeworm life cycle).
Benzimidazoles have been known to have significant toxic side effects in dogs and cats and other species.
Benzimidazoles are sometimes used to sterilise hydatid cysts in intermediate host animals prior to their surgical removal.
Albendazole has been used to kill Taenia solium and hydatid cysts in people prior to their surgical removal or in cases where such surgical removal is impossible.
Praziquantel and albendazole together were used to treat a woman infested with cysticerci of Taenia crassiceps (ref 9) to good effect.
Mebendazole orally has been used to treat Taenia saginata infestations in people.
NOTE - Please read our disclaimer before attempting to self-diagnose and dose your animals withany drugs mentioned on these pages. Pet Informed is a general advice website only and mistakes can bemade - we always recommend that you double-check any of our information with your own vet. Again, if you haveaccess to praziquantel (and all vets usually do), I would use this drug over any of the other tapeworm-killing drugsmentioned here.
4) Some basics on human Taenia saginata, Taenia solium and atypical Taeniid tapeworm infestations and the prevention of tapeworm disease (especially pork tapeworm cysticercosis) in people.
Most of this information on Taenia solium pork tapeworm and Taenia saginata beef tapeworm has already been discussed in great detail in sections 1 and 2 of this Taenia tapeworm life cycle webpage. This section (section 4) just summarises it in one block forthose of you who are specifically interested in human tapeworm infestations. If you haven't read sections 1 and 2 of this page, I recommend that you take a look as these sections containdetailed info on how the Taenia life cycle actually works, how Taenia tapeworms are contracted andwhat side effects and disease effects can occur as a result of Taenia infestations. The finalpart of this section (4c) describes atypical infestations of humans with other species of Taeniid - a topic which has not been covered previously in this webpage.
4a) Tapeworms in Humans 1 - Taenia saginata beef tapeworm:
Taenia saginata is a very long (3-25 meters in length) tapeworm parasite, whose adult formis found attached to the small intestinal tracts of human beings. In man it has been known to live for around20 years within a single individual.
In low to medium numbers, these tapeworms cause minimal side effects in their human hosts (see section2b on symptoms seen in definitive host animals). Many people might not ever be aware that they have a tapewormdwelling inside of them, they can be that benign. At best, their presence (particularly if they are large in size)might be enough to cause intestinal cramping, mild nausea and appetite fluctuations (oftenblamed on other causes) and when their segments (proglottids) start to shed out into the feces, this processmight be associated with anal pruritis (irritation and itchiness of the anus). More than likely, mostpeople will only discover that they have a tapeworm because they have spotted segments and lengths ofthe worm turning up in their feces (i.e. not because of any actual disease symptoms).
In high numbers and sizes, particularly in otherwise-compromised host humans, beef tapewormsmight pose some clinical risk to their human hosts. They can be associated with: nausea, appetite loss or gain, vomiting, weakness, dizziness, headaches, malnutrition, weight-loss, intestinal obstruction, intestinal perforation, appendicitis, pancreatitis, biliary obstruction, diarrhea, anal irritationand abdominal pain and cramping. Some people seem to be allergic to the proteins shed by theworms and can even develop a form of allergic inflammatory bowel disease from them (which should go away if the worms are treated). A severe intestinal obstruction could be enough to cause the deathof an individual (particularly a child) if it remains undiagnosed and detected. Likewise, shoulda tapeworm manage to perforate the bowel (resulting in infection of the human abdominal cavity) or obstructthe biliary duct, cecum, appendix or pancreatic duct, nasty, life-threatening complications can result.
http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/html/imagelibrary/s-z/taeniasis/body_Taeniasis_il5.htm - Taenia saginata.
http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/virus_and_parasites/taenia.html - Some nice images of Taenia saginata and Taenia soliumeggs, proglottids and scolices (useful for comparing the two species).
The tapeworm is caught through the consumption of undercooked cattle meat (beef, steak, mince) or cow heart muscle,which bears the small (~10mm), white, cystic larval (cysticercus) forms of the juvenile beef tapeworm (see section 1on the tapeworm life cycle for information about the larval stages of Taeniid tapeworms present in the bodies of intermediate host animals like cattle). Such cyst-infested beef is sometimes termed 'measly beef' because it has white spotsall over it. Humans who like to indulge in raw (tartare-style) or quick-seared (blue-style) undercooked beef are at high risk of catching Taenia saginata tapeworms should the meatthey are consuming be infected with juvenile tapeworm cysts.
Author's note - several references suggested that, even though the cow is the main intermediate host, it is possiblefor T. saginata cysts to be present in the meat of such animals as buffalo, llamas, giraffes, reindeer (possibly other largecaribou-types too) and even sheep and goats. These meats should also be considered of some risk to humans withregard to the contraction of T. saginata. They should only be eaten well-cooked.
Adult beef tapeworms can not be passed directly from human to human. The consumption of cyst-affected meat must be involved.
Preventing beef tapeworms is easy. Only eat very well-cooked (i.e. the centre of the meat must reach >56 degrees Centrigradeto be termed well-cooked); previously frozen (beef that has been frozen to -5C for over a week should also be safe) or well-processed beef or don't partake in livestock meat at alland you should not get the parasite. Smoked and pickled meat can contain active cysts so do not consider these safe in all situations.
If you do like the taste of beef tartare (raw meat)or blue steak (barely-seared steak) then make sure that the source of the beef is a high-quality,vet-inspected abattoir. Most good abattoirs screen their meat for cysts and affected meat is generallyculled from the human supply chain (it might go into pet food, which is OK because pet food is well-cookedand dogs and cats don't catch adult T. saginata). Be aware, however, that even in good meat inspection situationsit is possible for around 1/4 of all cyst-infected meat to be missed and therefore passed as safe for human consumption. I would certainly not eat any undercooked meat from a secondor third world country as there is a greater risk of poor or absent meat-screening practices being employed by such countries.
http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/DiseaseInfo/clinical-signs-photos.php?name=taenia - A nice Taenia link discussing food security and public health issues pertaining to Taeniids.
http://cal.vet.upenn.edu/projects/paraav/images/lab7-16.jpg - hundreds of Taenia saginata cysticerci in a cow's heart.
http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/DiseaseInfo/ImageDB/TAE/TAE_002.jpg - Taenia cysts in the muscles of cattle.
Preventing the cattle from contracting the meat cysts can also help communities to reduce the incidenceof human tapeworm infestations. Making sure that cattle have access to pastures and water supplies that arenot contaminated by human sewage (e.g. no human effluent or human feces used in irrigation or fertilisation ofcrops) can go a long way towards preventing the cow meat from becoming contaminated. Cattle should also not be given access to places where feces might be found as they will deliberately consume human droppings(who knows why, but they do).
Cattle can also be vaccinated against Taenia, however, this is not often done routinely. Only farms thathave had outbreaks of Taenia saginata and their meat condemned from sale are likely to take upthe vaccines. It is unlikely that farms in developing countries (where the vaccines probably are needed) wouldhave much access to the vaccines because of cost and vaccine-storage (refrigeration) limitations.
Treatment of adult beef tapeworms in man requires the administration of an anti-cestodal medication (as mentionedin the section on tapeworm treatment - section 3). You will not typically find anti-tapeworm drugs inmost routine, over-the-counter human intestinal wormers (I looked in my local pharmacy and couldn't find any medication that contained praziquantel or similar). This is probably because tapeworms arenot all that common in first-world countries (due to overall good hygiene and meat-processing standards) and because the authorities do not want the over-use of products like praziquantel to result in the developmentof praziquantel drug resistance by extra-nasty parasites like Taenia solium andSchistosoma (which are also treated using praziquantel, among other drugs).
If you have found tapeworm segments in your feces, you should see your doctor for theprescription of an appropriate treatment. Also, if you can (it sounds revolting), take thetapeworm segment/s along with you to the doctor (collect and wash the worm using disposable gloves and put it in a jar of saline - do not touch any of the faeces). The segments need to be fresh to be of use (old segments break down and are of no diagnostic use). Your doctor should take steps to identify the tapeworm species because although Taenia saginatais fine to have and won't generally hurt anyone, Taenia solium (the pork tapeworm) is of HUGE disease and human health significance and needs to be diagnosed if it is present!
Tapeworms in Humans - 'Asian Taenia' or Taenia saginata asiatica:
There is a species of tapeworm that is very closely related to Taenia saginata, which has been found insouth-east Asia and China. Sometimes called Taenia saginata asiatica or "Asian Taenia", its adult form lives inthe digestive tract of human beings. Instead of being found in the meat of cattle, however, the cystic, larval formof this particular Taeniid tends to reside in the offal (organs), particularly the liver, of pigs.
Taenia saginata asiatica is of similar, minor disease significance to man as Taenia saginata beef tapeworm is, however, its larval presence in porcine animals (swine) means that morecare must be taken to identify and differentiate this species from Taenia solium (a tapeworm species that is much more dangerous to humans), which is also found in pigs. Taenia saginata asiatica tends to favour the internal organsof the pig (particularly the liver), whereas Taenia solium tends to occupy the internal organsand the muscles of the pig (spotting lots of cysts in the muscles of the pig makes Taenia solium more likely).Identifying spines on the rostellum of the adult worm is not useful in telling the two species apartbecause, while adult Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm) lacks spines and adult Taenia solium has them, theadult Taenia saginata asiatica worm does have rostellum spines (unlike T. saginata) and so looks very similarin appearance to Taenia solium in this regard.
4b) Tapeworms in Humans 2 - Taenia solium pork tapeworm:
Taenia solium is a very very dangerous tapeworm parasite whose adult form is found attached to the small intestinal tract of human beings. Generally found in developingcountries (south-east Asia, South and Central America, India, China, sub-Saharan Africa and parts of Europe),the worm is considered a parasite of high human health concern and should never be taken lightly. It is endemic inMexico (a country of high-risk).
Taenia solium has been known to live for around 25 years within a single individual.
Human Taenia solium - Signs of Infestation:
The adult form of the tapeworm (present in the human intestine) is not of particular concern to us, disease-wise, as it probably only produces the same mild, non-specific symptoms of intestinal discomfort,nausea, diarrhea and anal irritation as previously described for Taenia saginata (except if it is present inlarge numbers, of course, where more severe symptoms might be present). The danger with the adult form ofTaenia solium lies in the fact that it sheds eggs that are directly infective to man (i.e.can be passed directly from human to human).
Humans who inadvertently consume their own egg-laden feces or those of another T. solium infested person may develop a multitude of expanding, life-threatening larval cysts, imbedded throughout their internal organs (including the brain). These cysts can range in size from 0.5-20cm in diameter. If enough of them are present and/or they are located in 'bad spots' within the human body (e.g. the brain, the lung) the affected person can suffer from extreme disability and even death! The parasite should not be taken lightly.
Note - one reference (8) suggested that dogs, cats, bears and primates may occasionally be infested with life-threatening cysticercosis through the consumption of Taenia solium egg-infested human feces. Such animals would be considered end-stage, accidental hosts for the parasite (termed paratenic hostswith regard to the tapeworm life cycle). The infested animal would rarely get to pass its cysts onto a human definitive host because humans rarely consume the meat and organs of such animals.
http://images.medscape.com/pi/features/slideshow-slide/neurocysticercosis/fig1.jpg - Taenia solium cysts in a human brain.http://img.medscape.com/pi/emed/ckb/pediatrics_general/996090-997096-2598.jpg - an MRI image of a human brain infested with cystic Taenia solium lesions.
http://www.neurology.org/content/vol53/issue7/images/small/G3510F1.gif - another human brain containing Taeniid cysticerci.
http://www.aans.org/bulletin/images/Vol17_3_08/OcularCysticercosis_small.jpg - a Taenia cyst in a human eye.
How People Catch Adult Taenia solium tapeworms:
The adult tapeworm is caught through the consumption of undercooked pig meat (typically pork,as ham, bacon and sausages tend to be heavily cooked and processed - killing the cysts), pig heart muscle or pig offal,which bears the cystic larval (cysticercus) forms of the juvenile pork tapeworm (see section 1on the tapeworm life cycle for information about the larval stages of Taeniid tapeworms present in the bodies of intermediate host animals like pigs). Humans who like to indulge in raw (tartare-style) or quick-seared (blue-style) undercooked pork or pig offal are at high risk of catching Taenia solium tapeworms should the tissuethey are consuming be infected with juvenile tapeworm cysts.
Author's note: eating the undercooked meat or organs of fellow humans who have died of T. solium cystscould also give the cannibal diner a dose of adult Taenia solium. I make mention of this because thereare tribes in Asia and other parts who still practice cannibalism. A Taenia solium life-cyclecould be maintained in such parts if humans ate the cyst-infected meat of their fellows and then passedthe resultant adult-tapeworm's eggs onto their fellow civilians.
http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/DiseaseInfo/ImageDB/TAE/TAE_001.jpg - Taenia solium cysts in the muscles of a pig (pork cysts).
http://www.medicine.cmu.ac.th/dept/parasite/cestode/Tsolium_whole_worm.htm - adult T. solium parasite.
http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/virus_and_parasites/taenia.html - Some nice images of Taenia saginata and Taenia soliumeggs, proglottids and scolices (useful for comparing the two species).
Before you panic about that undercooked pork-kebab you had last night, do be aware of course thatTaenia solium has, for the most part, been kept out of most developed countries by strict quarantine practicesand abattoir-screening and hygiene standards. Eating raw pork grown only in Australia is unlikely to give youT. solium (it's still never advisable to eat raw meat, of course), whereas, the consumption of raw or undercooked pork grown in south-east Asia, South and Central America and Africa may well be cause for T. solium concern. Taenia saginata, on the other hand, is generally present in most countries so the eating of raw or undercooked beef anywhere is of some risk when it comes to this parasite.
How People Catch Larval Taenia solium tapeworms:
The juvenile (cysticercus) forms of the Taenia solium tapeworm are contracted by humans through theconsumption of small amounts of human feces, which bear the eggs of the adult tapeworm. These eggs, onceingested, result in the formation of life-threatening larval cysts within the organs of the consumer. Therisk of egg ingestion is highest for the person who actually carries the adult tapeworm (a small lapse in toilet hygienecould result in the adult-tapeworm-carrier consuming some eggs), however, other peoplecan get the eggs if the carrier is not very hygienic with his/her toileting practices (e.g. doesn'twash his/her hands after using the toilet and so on).
Also be aware of the role of water in the transmission of T. solium eggs to people. If tapeworm-infestedpeople happen to defecate into the local waterways, it is possible for other people to develop T. solium cysts by drinking the egg-contaminated water.
As a tourist to a Taenia solium endemic country, also be aware of the farming practices of the places you are visiting. Some countries fertilise their crops, vegetables and fruits with human effluent, which could easily harbor infective tapewormeggs. Eating such food matter raw and unwashed could result in the intake of tapeworm eggs.
Insects (e.g. flies) can also transfer tapeworm eggs. A fly can land on tapeworm-egg infected human poo, pick up the eggs with its feet and then fly onto a person's food, depositing the infective eggs into the meal.
Finally, it is important to mention that sometimes the intestinal contractions of the digestive tract can force gravidTaenia solium segments upwards into the stomach of the tapeworm-infested person, instead of out throughthe colon and anus. In these situations, the digestive juices of the stomach will digest away the proglottidsegment, resulting in a mass release of hundreds of infective eggs into the person's digestive tract. The larvaefrom such eggs will rapidly enter the person's body and disseminate everywhere, resulting in a massiveinfestation of cysticerci all over the body. The images of the human brains filled with hundreds of cysticerciof Taenia solium probably arose from just such events. This is rare, but when it occurs, it is devastating forthe victim.
How To Avoid Catching Taenia solium:
Preventing adult pork tapeworms is easy. Only eat very well-cooked (i.e. the centre of the meat must reach >56 degrees Centrigrade to be termed well-cooked); previously frozen (pork that has been frozen to -5C for over 2 weeks should also be safe) or well-processed pork or don't partake in pork at alland you should not get the adult parasite. Smoked and pickled pork can contain active cysts so do not consider these safe in all situations.
If you do like the taste of pork tartare (raw meat) or blue pork steaks (barely-seared steak) then make sure that the source of the pork is a high-quality,vet-inspected abattoir and, even then, only eat it in a country that does not have T. solium. Most good abattoirs screen their meat for cysts and affected meat is generallyculled from the human supply chain (it might go into pet food, which is OK because pet food is well-cookedand dogs and cats can't catch T. solium). Be aware, however, that even in good meat inspection situationsit is possible for around 1/4 of all cyst-infected meat and offal to be missed and therefore passed as safe for human consumption. I would never eat any undercooked pork (or pork full-stop)from a second or third world country as there is a greater risk of poor meat-screening practices being employed by such countries. Also, T. solium tends to be found mainly in developing countries.
Preventing juvenile pork tapeworm cysts (cysticercosis) is not so straight-forward or simple.Naturally, you need to exercise good hygiene in the bathroom (good hand-washing aftergoing to the toilet) so that, should you be unlucky enough to carry an adult T. solium tapeworm, you do not inadvertently consume the tapeworm eggs from the consumption of your own stoolsor pass these eggs onto other people.
The trouble is, not everyone else exercises such good hygiene,making the organism almost impossible for you to prevent, unless you don't eat anything! You could, for example, go to a restaurant in Mexico or southern Asia and be served a salad (no pork) by a T. solium carrying chef who just went to the bathroom and did not wash his hands. That chef could have puttiny amounts of his feces into your meal, containing T. solium eggs that you will then consume inthat salad, resulting in cysticercosis. You didn't know the man was infested. You didn't know he didn'twash his hands. You enjoyed your salad. I'm not sure what you can do about thisto prevent it. If you are in a T. solium country, you should probably prepareas much of your own food as you can, sourcing it from overseas sources and cooking it as well as you can. If you need to eat out, go with cooked options from restaurants of high quality food standards(i.e. not backlot restaurants or street vendors) and don't eat from buffets or salad bars where other people couldhave touched the food. Using disposable cutlery where possible is also recommended so thatyou don't catch eggs from under-cleaned cutlery
Also be aware of the role of water in the transmission of T. solium eggs to people. If infestedpeople defecate into the waterways, you could get T. solium if you drink the contaminated water. Be sure to thoroughly boil any water in T. solium countries or, even better, source your water from a treated source or use bottled water.
Also be aware of the farming practices of the places you are visiting. Some countries fertilise their crops, vegetables and fruits with human effluent, which could easily harbour infective tapewormeggs. Eating such food matter raw and unwashed could result in the intake of eggs. Vegetables and fruits should be cookedor, at bare minimum, washed and scrubbed and, if possible, peeled, prior to ingestion.
Insects (e.g. flies) can also transfer tapeworm eggs. A fly can land on tapeworm-egg infected poo, pick up the eggs with its feet and then fly onto your food, depositing the infective eggs into your meal. Be aware of this and keep them away. Do not leave uncovered food out on open benches where it canbe contaminated.
Also be aware of the role of pigs in keeping T. solium active in communities. It is common in many third worldcountries (e.g. countries in Asia, Africa and South and Central America) for pigs to be a major source ofwealth and food. Pigs wandering freely around the townships may become infested with T. solium cyststhrough the consumption of human feces. Such pigs, eaten by the community, result in the transmissionof adult Taenia solium tapeworms into the human population. Lapses in human hygiene can then resultin the tapeworm eggs being consumed by the local people, causing mass cysticercosis. As a traveler to Taeniasolium regions, you should be very aware of the heightened risk of contracting cysticercosis should you visit and eat-in rural townships with a strong pig presence (the likelihood of T. solium is very high).
Preventing the swine from contracting the meat cysts can help communities to reduce the incidenceof nasty human tapeworm infestations. Making sure that pigs have access to food sources, pastures and waterways that arenot contaminated by human sewage (e.g. no sewage used in irrigation or fertilisation) can go a long way towards preventingthe meat from becoming contaminated. Pigs can possibly also be vaccinated against Taenia. Breaking the life cycle in this way can reduce the chances of humans contracting the parasite.
How To Treat Taenia solium:
Treatment of adult pork tapeworms in man requires the administration of an anti-cestodal medication (as mentionedin the section on tapeworm treatment - section 3). You will not typically find anti-tapeworm drugs inmost routine, over-the-counter human intestinal wormers (I looked in my local pharmacy and couldn't find any medication that contained praziquantel or similar). This is probably because tapeworms arenot all that common in first-world countries (due to overall good hygiene and meat-processing standards) and because the authorities do not want the over-use of products like praziquantel to result in the developmentof praziquantel drug resistance by extra-nasty parasites like Taenia solium andSchistosoma (which are also treated using praziquantel, among other drugs).
If you have found tapeworm segments in your feces, you should see your doctor for theprescription of an appropriate treatment. If you are living in a first-world country, it willprobably only be T. saginata, but if you want to be sure (it sounds revolting), take thetapeworm segment/s along with you to the doctor (collect and wash the worm using disposable gloves and put it in a jar of saline - do not touch any of the faeces). The segments need to be fresh to be of use (old segments break down and are of no diagnostic use). Your doctor should take steps to identify the species because although Taenia saginatais fine to have and won't generally hurt anyone, Taenia solium (the pork tapeworm) is of HUGE disease and human health significance and needs to be diagnosed if it is present!
Be sure to notify your doctor if you have recently (within the last 2-3 years) beenin south-east Asia, India, China, Africa or Southern or Central America (particularly if you could have eaten pork).
Treatment of larval pork tapeworms in the organs of a human (cysticercosis) is trickier. The removal certainlyrequires the services of a specialist doctor and it is likely that surgery will be required tomanually remove the cysts from the organs. Body scanning (e.g. MRI, ultrasound) will most likelybe used to diagnose and locate the cysts within the human body and/or brain. Some cyststhat can not be removed easily (e.g. certain brain and eye cysts) are killed using albendazoleand corticosteroids (to reduce the secondary inflammation caused by the cyst's death). Sometimespraziquantel in high doses is used to kill the cysts, but albendazole is generally favoured.
4c) Tapeworms in Humans 3 - accidental, possibly opportunistic, human tapeworm infestations posed by other Taenia species:
Up until this point, I have taken great pains to suggest that each Taeniid tapeworm species tends to exhibit a high degreeof specificity and preference for the species of definitive and intermediate host animals it infests (e.g. Taeniacrassiceps infests foxes and rodents; Taenia ovis infests dogs and sheep; Taenia saginata infests humans and cattle and so on). Very simplistic and easy to understand.
The trouble is, this generalization does not always hold true. As DNA identification of parasite species (includingtapeworms) becomes more advanced, we are starting to discover more and more cases of crossing-over occurringbetween these parasites with regard to their hosts. Several cases have now been reported ofhumans developing cysticercosis and coenurosis (potentially-life-threatening internal tissue infestations with the cystic larval tapeworm forms - similar to the situation described above with Taenia solium) from such non-human species of tapeworm as: Taenia crassiceps, Taenia multiceps, Taenia serialis,Taenia brauni, Taenia ovis, Taenia hydatigena and even Taenia saginata (i.e. self-infectionof a human with his own tapeworm eggs, similar to the situation described for Taenia solium). The strobilocercus cyst of the cat tapeworm: Taenia taeniaeformis has, in exceptionally rare instances, also been found in the tissues of humans.
Author's side note: One reference did say that several cases of Taenia saginatacysticercosis in people were later found to be the result of cyst misidentification (i.e. that another Taeniidand not Taenia saginata was responsible). Such atypical cystic infestation with Taenia saginata is thought to be very rare in humans. As DNA identification of parasites becomes more commonplace, the incidence of misidentification of cyst-species is likely to reduce in the future.
In the case of Taenia crassiceps, such an infestation could be quite dangerous for the human concerned, given that the cysticerci of T. crassiceps demonstrate a bizarre habit of budding (multiplying in number within the intermediate host tissues they are occupying). Should such cystic budding happen within the lung, liver or brain, the consequences could be quite devastating for the person affected.In the case of Taenia multiceps, such human infestation could likewise be very dangerous for the human concerned because the larval cyst form of Taenia multiceps is a coenurus (i.e. a very large cyst with multiple scolices) and because the cyst tends to favour the intermediate host's brain as a site for invasion (resulting in brain damage and even death).
In order to develop such an atypical larval cyst infestation, the human concerned has to have consumed the egg/s of the tapeworm species in question at some point in time. The person could have consumed the egg/s inadvertently, through close contact with environments inhabited by tapeworm-infested foxes, dogs or wild canids (canine species are the major definitive host carriers of most adult Taeniids, aside from Taenia taeniaeformis of cats). Alternatively, the person could have eaten raw food (e.g. greens) or drunk water that had been contaminated with tapeworm-egg-infested definitive host animal feces. There are many ways that such a person could consume an atypical tapeworm egg, resulting in the development of larval tapeworm cysts within the tissues of the human patient.
Author's note: People can inoculate the eggs of such Taeniids as Taenia multiceps, Taenia serialisand Taenia brauni directly into their eyes by rubbing egg-infested fecally-contaminated dirt into their eyes (e.g. a child playing in a feces-contaminated sandpit might accidentally do this). Once in the eye, these microscopic tapeworm eggs can find their way into the human intestinal tract via the nasolacrimal ducts and throat.
Such rare, atypical infestations, when they occur, generally (but not always) occur in human patients who have low or weak immune systems. Patients with cancer, immune diseases, HIV (AIDS) or who have recently been on chemotherapyor immune-suppressant drugs are particularly at risk. This suggests that the immune system of the individual person plays a big role in whether such non-human-attracted tapeworm cysticerci are actually able to take hold within a person's tissues and grow. It is probably also the reason why such atypical tapeworm cyst infestations are currentlyconsidered rare in the medical world. As more and more people develop immune suppressive diseases (AIDS or HIV, lymphoma, bone marrow cancers and so on) or receive immune-suppressive treatments to treat cancers and autoimmune diseases, the number of cases of atypical larval tapeworm cysticercosis is likely to rise in the medical literature.
Humans need to ensure that they exercise high standards of personal hygiene (bathing, hand-washing) after they have beenvisiting environments that are home to definitive host animals, particularly canines (e.g. wilderness areas, forests, dog and cat shelters, pounds and so on). People should also be vigilant in maintaining the tapeworm-free status of their own dogs and cats through regular tapeworming prophylaxis. Lab workers and research personnel working with wild canids and foxes must ensure that they exercise good hygiene after handling such animals (eggs can be present on the animal's fur). They should be careful not to touch stool samples with their bare hands and they shouldensure that there is no fecal contamination of laboratory rooms and equipment.
Humans should also be aware of the role of water in the transmission of Taenia eggs to people. If infesteddogs, cats or people defecate into the local waterways, you could get a Taeniid if you drink the egg-contaminated water. Be sure to thoroughly boil any water you drink or, better, source your water from treated sources (or use bottled water).
Also be aware of the farming practices of the places you are visiting. Some countries and cultures fertilise their crops, vegetables and fruits with raw effluent, which could easily harbour infective tapeworm eggs. Eating such food matter raw and unwashed could result in the consumption of tapeworm eggs. Vegetables and fruits should be cookedor, at bare minimum, washed and scrubbed and, if possible, peeled, prior to ingestion.
Insects (e.g. flies) can also transfer tapeworm eggs. A fly can land on tapeworm-egg infected poo, pick up the eggs with its feet and then fly onto your food, depositing the infective eggs into your meal. Be aware of this and keep them away. Do not leave uncovered food out on open benches where it canbe contaminated.
Author's note: Similar atypical cysticercus infestations have been found in dogs and cats (animalswho are typically definitive hosts, not intermediate hosts) who have inadvertently consumedtapeworm eggs from their own feces or fromthe feces of other types of definitive hosts (e.g. foxes, cats, dogs, wild canids). This is all the more reason to maintain your own pet's worming and not let him/her eat animal feces when out inthe local environment.
A beautiful case study (complete with photos) of a woman infested with the buddingcysticerci tapeworm larvae of Taenia crassiceps.
A brilliant public health article on Taeniids infesting humans.
5) Your Taenia tapeworm life cycle links:
To go from this Taeniid tapeworm life cycles page to the Pet Informed Home Page, click here.
To go to the Flea Tapeworm page, click here.
To go to the Hydatid Tapeworm page, click here.
http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2008/geske_rich/index.html - an excellent, simple resource on Taenia solium.
http://www.stanford.edu/group/parasites/ParaSites2006/Taenia_saginata/index.html - an excellent, simple resource on Taenia saginata.
http://www.stanford.edu/group/parasites/ParaSites2006/Taenia_solium/index.html - an excellent, simple resource on Taenia solium.
http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/reprint/75/1/108.pdf - an interesting case study about a human infestedwith the budding cysticerci of Taenia crassiceps.
http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/MeetingAbstracts/ma?f=102217225.html - information on atypical Taenia infestations and HIV.
http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/taenia.pdf - a nice article on human Taenia infestations.
Taenia Tapeworm Life Cycle References and Suggested Readings:
1) Helminths. In Bowman DD, Lynn RC, Eberhard ML editors: Parasitology for Veterinarians, USA, 2003, Elsevier Science.
2) Phylum Platyhelminthes. In Hobbs RP, Thompson ARC, Lymbery AJ: Parasitology, Perth, 1999, Murdoch University.
3) Tapeworms. In Schmidt GD, Roberts LS: Foundations of Parasitology, 6th ed., Singapore, 2000, McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
4) Cestoidea: Form Function and Classification of the Tapeworms. In Schmidt GD, Roberts LS: Foundations of Parasitology, 6th ed., Singapore, 2000, McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
5) Roberson EL, Anticestodal and Antitrematodal Drugs. In Booth NH, Mc Donald LE: Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 6th ed., Iowa, 1988, Iowa State University Press.
Pet Informed is not in any way affiliated with any of the companies whose productsappear in images or information contained within this Taenia tapeworm life cycles article or our related articles. Any images or mentions, made by Pet Informed, are only used in order to illustrate certain points being made in the Taenia article. Pet Informed receives no commercial or reputational benefit from any companiesfor mentioning their products and can not make any guarantees or claims, either positive or negative, about these companies' products, customer service or business practices. Pet Informed can not and will not take any responsibility for any death, damage, illness, injury or loss of reputation and businessor for any environmental damage that occurs should you choose to use one of the mentioned products on your pets, poultry or livestock (commercial or otherwise) or indoors or outdoors environments. Do your homework and research all tapeworm products carefully before using any tapeworm treatment products on your animals or their environments.
Copyright June 29, 2010, Dr. O'Meara BVSc (Hon), www.pet-informed-veterinary-advice-online.com.All images, both photographic and drawn, contained on this site are the property of Dr. O'Meara and are protected under copyright. They can not be used or reproduced without my written permission.
Milbemax is a registered trademark of Novartis Animal Health Australasia Pty Ltd.
Fenpral Intestinal Wormer for Dogs is a registered trademark of Arkolette Pty Ltd / Riverside Veterinary Products.
Please note: the aforementioned tapeworm prevention, Taenia tapeworm control and Taenia tapewormtreatment guidelines and information on the Taenia tapeworm life cycle are general information and recommendations only. The information provided is based on published information and on relevant veterinary literature and publications and my own experience as a practicing veterinarian.The advice given is appropriate to the vast majority of pet owners, however, giventhe large range of tapeworm varieties out there and the large range of tapeworm medication types and tapeworm prevention and control protocols now available, owners should take it upon themselves to ask their own veterinarian what treatment and tapeworm prevention schedules s/he is using so as to be certain what to do. Owners with specific circumstances (e.g. high and repeated tapeworm infestation burdens in their pets; high-transmission situations, hunting situations, farming situations, hydatid-tapeworm zones, pregnant bitches and queens; very young puppies and kittens; livestock and poultry producers; multiple-dog and cat environments;animals on immune-suppressant medicines; animals with immunosuppressant diseases or conditions; owners of sick anddebilitated animals etc. etc.) should ask their vet what the safest and most effective tapeworm control protocol is for their situation. Humans with tapeworm concerns should see their doctor.
Please note: the scientific tapeworm names mentioned in this Taenia tapeworm life cycle article are only current asof the date of this web-page's copyright date and the dates of my references. Parasite scientific names are constantly being reviewed and changed as new scientific information becomes available and names that are current now may alter in the future.
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Diatomaceous Earth Colon Health
One of the often-overlooked threats to general health is the proper operation of the colon. Many sick people have digestive tracts clogged with toxins, wastes and pathogens. With Diatomaceous Earth, there is an inexpensive and speedy remedy to improve bowel health, joint health, skin health, cardiovascular health, and slow the aging process.
Diatomaceous Earth Colon Cleanse
Most people don’t realize it, but the contents of their colon may be making them ill. Inefficient intestinal motility can be caused by the collection of toxins and wastes in the colon, forming a breeding ground for germs, diverticuli, and polyp growth. Additionally, intestinal parasites prefer the environment provided by an unhealthy digestive tract. The accumulation of bowl wastes and residues is absorbed by the blood stream negatively affecting overall, constitutional well-being.
Diatomaceous Earth is an organic substance that is the food-grade remains of fossilized prehistoric diatoms. A naturally occurring fossil flour, each grain of Diatomaceous Earth (D.E.) has the remarkable ability to absorb toxins and heavy metals on contact. In addition, the shape and ridges of diatoms provides a scouring action that is safe and effective in the human body.
Diatomaceous Earth Colon Detox
D.E. detoxifies the colon and the blood stream due to its unique composition. The chemical structure of D.E. is 89% silica, a vital nutrient needed by the body for calcium absorption and collagen formation. Persons with a diet deficient in silica suffer from osteoporosis, arthritis, flaky skin, and brittle nails.
As organic D.E. scrubs the intestines free of toxins and accretions, some of the natural silica is absorbed through the intestinal walls. As this silica circulates through the body, it cleans the sides of arteries, veins, and capillaries.
The Importance of Silica
The matrix of the skin is bound up in a web of collagen, of which silica is an important component. The first sign of aging can be seen in the skin. It is in crow’s feet and wrinkles around the mouth. The skin on rest of the body becomes loose and flaky. This can be due to a lack of collagen in the skin matrix.
The evidence supports regular intake of dietary silica as being an important facet in maintaining healthy skin. Diatomaceous Earth is an ideal source of dietary silica. It not only promotes healthy collagen formation, it also helps to maintain ideal bowel health.
Everything a person swallows ends up in the gut. Some of it stays in the gut and affects the rest of the body. Regularly consuming food-grade D.E. has been shown to keep the intestines free of unwanted toxins and germs.
On colonoscopy, the colons of regular D.E. users are consistently shown to be free of fatty deposits, plaques, or obstructions. By removing layers of decayed waste and fecaliths, the patient’s bowel functions at maximum capacity and efficiency.
Incoming search terms:
- diatomaceous earth gnc
- diatomaceous earth at gnc
- diatomaceous earth colon
- diatomaceous earth powder (food grade) gnc
- gnc diatomuca earth
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Travel by stagecoach is an experience few modern Nebraskans have had unless as part of a frontier reenactment, but when Nebraska Territory was opened to settlement, the stagecoach was the principal overland means of public transportation. It continued to be an important means of travel for those without their own horses or teams prior to the coming of the railroad. Nebraska City freighter William Fulton in 1899 recalled his early experiences in Nebraska Territory that included more time spent in a stagecoach than he wanted.
In an August 18, 1899, letter to Jay A. Barrett of the Nebraska State Historical Society, Fulton noted: "I left St. Louis, Mo., in February, 1859, and came to Nebraska City by stage coach from St. Joseph, Mo. The ice being too soft to bear the weight of the coach the passengers walked across the river from the Iowa side."
Fulton further noted that the rates for transportation of passengers during these early years were high and the wayside accommodations poor. "The Overland Stage Company in 1863 charged $75 fare to Denver and $150 to Salt Lake City, while in 1866 they got the price up to $150 to Denver and $350 to Salt Lake City. The baggage of each passenger was limited to twenty-five pounds and there was a charge of $3 for every extra pound. At $1 each, meals, consisting of bacon, bread, and coffee, with sometimes game, such as venison, antelope, or occasionally a sage hen, could be obtained. Butter and eggs were unknown luxuries at stage stations, the former selling in Denver at $1.50 per pound and the latter at the same price per dozen.
"We rode night and day in the stuffy, uncomfortable coach, journeying six days to reach Denver and eleven or twelve days to Salt Lake City, in marked contrast to the comfort, time, and cost of travel at present . At a cost of $14 the traveler is now carried in a Pullman car to Denver in twenty hours, and twice the time and $36 will take him to Salt Lake City. Should he prefer, he may make the round trip for one fare and a fifth, but in the old days a seat in the coach cost the same both going and returning, and its possessor reached his destination weary and travel worn. At that time a trip by stage was considered very grand, yet I have no desire to repeat the experience."
In 1861 Mark Twain and his brother traveled west by overland stagecoach. In Roughing It, Twain described the coach as "a cradle on wheels" but welcomed the adventurous experience the trip provided. They rode "a-top of the flying coach, dangled our legs over the side and leveled an outlook over the world-wide carpet about us for things new and strange to gaze at. It thrills me to think of the life and the wild sense of freedom on those fine overland mornings!"
One type of the famous Concord stagecoach.
From J. Sterling Morton and Albert Watkins, History of Nebraska (1918).
Return to Timeline Index
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Sturtevant's growth and product expansion led to the move out of crowded Old Boston to an industrial center forming in the newly annexed borough of Jamaica Plain. Blowers, fans, heating systems and steam engines were produced in the buildings nestled along the Boston & Providence Railroad near JP station.
There stay would be brief, lasting only 27 years. The fire disaster, typical of this period, that hastened their arrival would revisit in 1901 prompting an early departure in 1903 to Hyde Park a few miles south.
The factory didn't remain idle post-fan manufacturing. Still owned by Sturtevant, a section was leased to Nappier Auto from 1904-1907 to assemble this British model for the US market. The onset of WW1 brought a more creative re-use.
In the summer of 1915, the Sturtevant Aeroplane Co. was organized by the owner's son and located on 20k sq.ft. consisting of wing assembly, covering and final assembly. Under the guidance of famed early aeronautical pioneer Grover Loening three historically notable but ultimately failed designs were built. In 1917, America's entry in the war caused employment to explode to nearly 1000 as the company abandoned their early efforts and became one of several around the country churning out spare aircraft parts for the war effort.
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Aortic Aneurysm Causes, Symptoms and Concerns
UW Health heart surgeons have substantial expertise in the evaluation, diagnosis and treatment of aortic aneurysms.
Up to 80 percent of aortic aneurysms are caused by "hardening of the arteries" (atherosclerosis). Atherosclerosis can develop when cholesterol and fat build up inside the arteries. High blood pressure (hypertension), cigarette smoking, family history and age also contribute to atherosclerosis.
Atherosclerosis accelerates the breakdown of collagen and elastin, two proteins that provide strength, structure and elasticity to the wall of the aorta. Over time, this causes the walls of the aorta to weaken and become damaged. Elevated blood pressure through the aorta can then cause the aortic wall to expand and bulge.
Other less common disorders can also cause an aneurysm to develop:
- Inflammatory diseases, such as Takayasu's arteritis, may block the flow of blood through the aorta and weaken the aortic wall
- Genetic connective tissue disorders, such as Marfan Syndrome or Ehler-Danlos syndrome, can also cause the aortic wall to weaken and possibly rupture or tear
- Aortic aneurysms can also be caused by physical trauma to the chest or abdomen
Symptoms and Concerns
Aortic aneurysms often have no symptoms at first; in fact, many are first discovered during an examination for another condition. If the aneurysm is pressing against nearby tissues, patients may notice a deep, steady pain in the back, abdomen or groin. Abdominal aortic aneurysms may also cause a pulsing sensation in the abdomen.
If the aneurysm continues to expand, it can rupture. The layers of the aortic wall can also separate (aortic dissection). This produces severe, tearing pain in the chest, back or abdomen.
The potential for rupture is the most serious risk associated with an aortic aneurysm. A ruptured aortic aneurysm can cause life-threatening internal bleeding and/or a stroke.
According to the Society of Thoracic Surgeons, approximately 15,000 people die each year from a ruptured aortic aneurysm. It is the 13th leading cause of death in the United States. As many as two-thirds of patients who suffer a ruptured aortic aneurysm will die even before reaching the hospital.
Blood clots can also form inside the walls of aortic aneurysms. If a part of a clot becomes dislodged, it can travel to other arteries and block blood flow.
UW Health offers a comprehensive Aortic Monitoring Program to detect and treat aortic aneurysms. This helps patients avoid emergency aortic surgery, which is five to 10 times riskier than planned surgery.
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Leave an impression on Groundhog Day
For thousands of students, Groundhog Day each Feb. 2 has a special meaning beyond Punxsutawney Phil looking for his shadow. On that day, school districts across the country offer "job shadow" programs where students spend time on job sites with adult mentors. Even if students have an idea what career they may pursue, they are typically unsure of what these jobs are really like. A shadowing experience, such as with a newspaper reporter or an engineer, allows students to gain those insights through learning first-hand about work environments. It can also help individuals make better decisions in planning to achieve their career goals.
In the past several years the Career Center at Killingly High School in Connecticut (www.killingly.k12.ct.us/khs/career) has scheduled more than 1,000 job shadow assignments at work locations such as construction companies, hospitals, restaurants, research labs, social service agencies, the local fire department and the state police. Norman Barrette, a developer of shadowing experiences for the district, says he prefers placing students in one-to-one situations so individuals focus on the realities of the workplace. That reinforced interests in meteorology for a student who shadowed a television weatherman; a student who observed surgeries at an animal clinic decided that veterinary medicine would not be a personal career goal.
To participate, students must have good grades and good attendance records and be able to provide their own transportation, though district buses may be used if many students are assigned to nearby sites, he says. Participants must also submit job shadow contracts, trip permits and teacher notification forms before the assignments begin, and complete evaluation questionnaires and send thank you letters following each experience.
GROUNDHOG JOB SHADOW DAY BellSouth (www.bellsouth.com) launched the first large-scale corporate-sponsored job shadow program for secondary school students in the southeastern states six years ago, with help from company volunteers. A year later, the National Job Shadow Coalition (www.jobshadow.com) was organized to expand the concept nationwide, with the participation of America's Promise led by Colin Powell (www.americaspromise.org), Junior Achievement (www.ja.org) and the U.S. Department of Labor. As a result, National Groundhog Job Shadow Day is part of a yearlong effort linking on-the-job experiences with curriculum inputs that tie academics to the workplace. (Because Groundhog Day occurs on Sunday, this year's program will run on Jan. 31.)
The coalition offers extensive free Web resources for local job shadow programs, with online news, success stories, sponsorship information, how-to guides, and an e-mail information list. The site also sponsors a "virtual job shadowing" option where students can shadow professionals over the Internet, and access profiles of people in various careers who share insights and advice about their jobs and lives. Last year's groundhog job shadow day involved more than one million students and workers in 100,000 businesses across the country.
A study by California-based Kravis Leadership Institute (research.mckenna.edu/kli) found that students who participate in job shadowing tend to have more positive expectations about their futures, believing that they are more likely to finish high school, obtain a college degree, and get a full-time job than are non-participants. Job shadowing benefits schools and communities, so if your district needs to develop such opportunities for your students, the Internet offers useful program models in every state, related resources including Career Clusters (www.careerclusters.org) and career-specific teaching materials such as the free Forensics in the Classroom (www.courttv.com/forensics_curriculum) chemistry units developed by the American Academy of Forensic Sciences.
Odvard Egil Dyrli, [email protected], is senior editor and emeritus professor of education at the University of Connecticut.
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What causes thick, peeling skin on the foot, the kind that no amount of sloughing helps?
There can be a number of causes for this condition. To arrive at the most probable cause, one would have to know what the underlying skin looks like and if this is a general condition all over the foot or if it is localized to specific areas of the foot. Is the underlying skin red and inflamed or is it pink and normal in appearance? Are the thick areas of skin only under weight-bearing areas which would indicate a mechanical (friction or pressure) cause? Contact with a skin irritant such as detergents or chemicals used in washing clothing or the manufacture of shoes may be the cause. Certain systemic diseases such as psoriasis, atopic eczema, and scleroderma can also cause generalized thickening of the skin of the feet.
The peeling skin may be the tipoff to the most probable cause in this case: a fungal infection of the skin caused by the tinea rubrum species of fungus. The underlying and around the edges of the thickened areas are usually red and inflamed. Small cracks may appear in the skin, and in general, the foot does not look healthy. This fungal condition is quite resistant to treatment, but with proper medication can be cured. – Godfrey Mix, D.P.M.
These symptoms can be caused by many different dermatologic conditions. Tinea pedis (athletes foot), psoriasis, eczema, xerosis, and many other problems can contribute to thick, peeling skin. Your client could try a heavy emollient with glycolic acid or Lac Hydrin 5% twice daily for several weeks. If that does not help the problem, a dermatologist or podiatrist should be consulted. – Phoebe Rich, M.D.
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Book Review: Henry's Freedom Box
By Hope McPherson
Henry's Freedom Box
Written by Ellen Levine
Illustrated by Kadir Nelson
Scholastic Press 2007, 40 pp.
During the three decades before the Civil War, slave narratives played an important role in the abolitionist movement — chipping away at the Southern argument that slavery was just a "peculiar institution" that gave slaves more stability than Northern laborers had, says Norman Yetman, University of Kansas professor emeritus and author of Voices From Slavery: 100 Authentic Slave Narratives.
During the 18th and 19th centuries, more than 150 narratives were published as books or pamphlets, some written by the former slaves, while others were ghost written by abolitionists. Today, many still exist (the Library of Congress maintains an extensive collection), and one narrative in particular — Henry “Box” Brown — caught the attention of author, Ellen Levine.
Levine, an award-winning children’s author, read the 1872 book The Underground Railroad by abolitionist William Still, himself the son of former slaves. Reading Still's 800-page volume, Levine was struck by the tale of Henry “Box” Brown, who literally mailed himself from slavery in Richmond, Virginia, to freedom in Philadelphia.
Brown had written his own slave narrative in 1851 following his escape, and, in 2007, Levine retold his story in Henry’s Freedom Box, which became a Caldecott Honor Book.
A Harrowing Journey
In Henry’s Freedom Box, Henry’s story begins when his mother tells him the reality of living in slavery. “Do you see those leaves blowing in the wind?” she asks. “They are torn from the trees like slave children are torn from their families.” Soon, the prediction of Henry’s mother comes true: When the master is on his deathbed, Henry is bequeathed to the master’s son, taken from his family, and put to work in a tobacco factory.
Written for children ages 4 to 8, the 40-page book is bursting with poetic language by Levine, whose other books include Freedom’s Children and Darkness Over Denmark. The book’s colorful watercolor/oil paint illustrations by Kadir Nelson (who also illustrated Ellington Was Not a Street) were inspired by lithographs created in 1850 for an anti-slavery rally.
Henry’s Freedom Box follows Henry as he grows up, marries a slave owned by another man, and has three children. When his wife’s master has financial troubles, though, Henry’s family is sold. Torn again from those he loves, Henry vows to escape slavery forever — and steps into a wooden crate to mail himself North.
Henry’s nail-biting 27-hour journey includes travel by cart, steamboat, and rail. More than once, he travels upside down for hours because the mail handlers ignore the “This Side Up” missive on the box (not to mention the handle-with-care plea).
Written for the grade-school set, Henry’s Freedom Box will raise numerous questions from youngsters about slavery, injustice, and hard-won freedom. Levine did chose not to include a few key incidents, including Henry’s singing a hymn and thanking God when he first emerged from the box, but the lyrical beauty of the book may land this book on coffee tables or in prominent spots on family bookshelves.
Hope McPherson is the online communications specialist and contributing online editor for Response magazine at Seattle Pacific University. She is also a Seattle-area freelance writer.
|Learn more about The John Perkins Center by watching the video This is the John Perkins Center on iTunesU.|
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Incidental noise from commercial shipping operations is increasingly being recognized as a potential threat to many marine animals, in particular whales, seals, and fish. There is increasing interest among diverse stakeholders in taking action to minimize or eliminate adverse effects of commercial shipping noise on marine life. Scientific data, while not conclusive, suggest that commercial shipping is causing significant increases in the overall underwater sound environment in many ocean areas, particularly coastal zones. Incidental noise from commercial shipping occurs within the same low frequencies used by some marine animals for communications essential to key life functions such as reproduction and locating prey. Interference with (or "masking" of) such communications could have significant impacts on marine life. As a result of the potential significance of incidental noise to commercial shipping interests and the marine environment, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has charged its Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) with investigating and developing papers on these issues. GCIL worked with the National Marine Fisheries Service Offices of Ocean Acoustics Program and Protected Resources, NOAA's Office of International Affairs, as well as other federal agencies in developing the U.S. Noise and Marine Mammals Information Paper (MEPC 57/INF.4). The paper notes the ongoing work of NOAA on this issue and invites participation in NOAA’s ongoing dialogue regarding identification of potential adverse impacts associated with incidental vessel noise and the potential mitigation of those impacts.
Additional reference information:
- Underwater Sound. Peer-reviewed scientific studies on the impacts of ocean noise on marine living resources submitted pursuant to paragraph 107 of General Assembly resolution 61/222.
- MEPC, 58th session, Agenda item 19, MEPC 58/INF.19, August 1, 2008, Submitted by Australia. This document provides information on the levels of shipping noise in the marine environment, particularly in Australia and Antarctic oceans. It also gives a brief summary of some ship design elements that can assist in minimizing the introduction of noise into the marine environment.
- MEPC 58th session, Agenda item 19, MEPC 58/19, 25 June 2008, Work Programme of the Committee and Subsidiary Bodies, submitted by the United States. The United States submitted this paper proposing that a new high priority work program item be added to the MEPC’s agenda. This item is to minimize the introduction of incidental noise from commercial shipping operations into the marine environment to reduce potential adverse impacts on marine life. MEPC, on October 10, 2008, agreed with the United States proposal and a correspondence group was convened under the chairmanship of the United States to progress this issue.
- MEPC, 57th session, Agenda item 20, MEPC 57/INF.4, 17 December 2007, Shipping noise and marine mammals. Submitted by the United States. In March-April 2008, the MEPC considered the U.S. Noise and Marine Mammals Information Paper on the issue of noise generated by international shipping and its potential adverse impact on marine life. The paper provides information on this issue for IMO Member Governments and requests them to bring it to the attention of all interested entities, in particular those from the shipping industry, shipyards, and ship builders.
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Shmuel Yosef Agnon (July 17, 1888 – February 17, 1970), born Shmuel Yosef Czaczkes, recipient of the 1966 Nobel Prize for Literature, was the first Hebrew writer awarded the prize, which he won jointly with poet Nelly Sachs. He was awarded the Bialik Prize twice, in 1934 and again in 1950 and the Israel Prize in 1954 and again in 1958. One of the central figures in modern Hebrew fiction, Agnon was born in Galicia, later immigrated as a Zionist to Israel, and died in Jerusalem.
Agnon, called by many "a man of unquestionable genius" and "one of the great storytellers of our time," is one of the most widely translated Hebrew authors. His stories dealt with the most important psychological and philosophical problems of his generation. Generations of writers have been influenced by his unique style and language.
An observant Jew throughout most of his life, Agnon was said to be able to capture "the hopelessness and spiritual desolation" of a world standing on the threshold of a new age. He was praised for his "peculiar tenderness and beauty," for his "comic mastery" and for the "richness and depth" of his writing. His contribution to the renewal of the language contributed greatly to all subsequent Hebrew writing.
Shmuel Yosef Agnon was born Shmuel Yosef Halevi Czaczkes, in Buczacz in Austrian Galicia, in what is now Ukraine. Although his birthdate on the Hebrew calendar is given as 18 Av 5648 (July 26) by some sources, he himself was known to state his birthdate as the ninth, the Tisha B'Av commemoration. (Historically, the only day of the year when Jews could enter the Holy City of Jerusalem and weep for the destruction of their city at the Temple's only remaining wall.)
He was born to an affluent and urbane family where traditional Jewish culture dwelt side by side with modern European culture. While his father taught him rabbinical legends, his mother read him German stories.
His father, Shalom Mordechai Halevy, was ordained as a rabbi, but dealt in the fur trade. Young Shmuel did not go to school; he was educated by his parents. When he was eight he began to write in Hebrew and Yiddish, and read extensively the works of the Jewish enlightenment, the Haskalah. At the age of fifteen his first creative work was published, a poem in Yiddish about the Kabbalist Joseph della Reina. He continued to produce poems and stories in Hebrew and Yiddish in manuscripts that were published in Galicia.
In 1908 he emigrated to Jaffa, Israel, which was then an Ottoman port. By doing so, he reached the land of Israel with the Zionists of the Second Aliyah. There he abandoned the Jewish religious way of life for a time, but came back to the religion and adhered to it for the rest of his life. By the time he had reached Israel, at 20 years of age, he had published some seventy pieces in Hebrew and Yiddish.
The first work that he released in Eretz Israel was "Agunot" (Forsaken Wives), published in the journal Ha`omer in 1908, using the pseudonym Agnon, derived from the name of the story. It became his literary name, and in 1924, his official surname. In 1910 this was translated into German. Since then, his works have been translated into numerous languages.
In 1912, at the initiative of Yosef Haim Brenner, he published the novella And the Crooked Shall Be Made Straight.
In 1913, drawn by Germany`s lively Jewish cultural life, Agnon left Eretz Israel. While there, in 1920, he married Esther Marx and the couple had two children. While first in Germany, Agnon gave private lessons and worked as an editor. Later, a wealthy Jewish businessman, Zalman Schocken, became his patron and published his works, freeing him from financial worries. From that time on, all of his works were published by Schocken Books. His short stories regularly appeared in the newspaper Haaretz, also owned by the Schocken family.
While In Germany he wrote several stories and collaborated with Martin Buber on a collection of Hasidic stories that influenced Neo-Hasidism. Agnon read German and French literature extensively, and became a member of a circle of Hebrew writers in Hamburg.
In 1924 fire swept through his home and destroyed all his books and manuscripts, including the novel, "In the Bond of Life," whose imminent publication had already been announced. This traumatic event appears occasionally in his stories. Later that year, he returned to Jerusalem permanently, establishing himself in the Talpiot neighborhood. In 1929 his library was destroyed again.
In 1931 the novel The Bridal Canopy was published, making Agnon a central figure in Hebrew literature. In 1935 the novella A Simple Story was published, set in Buczacz at the end of the nineteenth century.
In 1945 Yesteryear was published, a novel set in the Land of Israel at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Several of his works were published posthumously by his daughter, Emmuna Yaron.
Agnon was a deeply religious man and an observant Jew who was identified with the Zionist movement. His studies as a youth of the works of the Jewish enlightenment, the Haskalah, and its studies of religious texts and languages had a deep influence on his success in the literary world.
He won the Bialik Prize twice (1934 and 1950) and the Israel Prize twice (1954 and 1958). In 1966 he won the Nobel Prize in Literature. This award came with a degree of disappointment when, after the announcement of his award, it became clear that it was joint with the Jewish poet Nelly Sachs. Thus "half" of the world's adulation was taken from him. The awarding of the Nobel Prize in Literature to two winners is a rare occurrence, occurring only four times in the twentieth century. In his speech at the award ceremony, Agnon introduced himself in Hebrew, saying:
The following story shows how greatly Agnon, the author and the man, was revered. He complained that the traffic on the street next to his house, in the Talpiot neighborhood of Jerusalem, disturbed his writing activity. In response the city closed the street to vehicular traffic and posted a sign saying, "No entry to all vehicles, writer at work!"
Agnon died in Jerusalem on February 17, 1970. After his death his daughter, Emmuna Yaron, continued to work to publish writings from his legacy. More of his books were published posthumously than during his life.
Agnon's archive was transferred by his family to the National Library in Jerusalem. His house became property of the city of Jerusalem and is open to visitors. Agnon is considered the most researched author in Hebrew literature. A substantial number of books and articles dealing with his works have been published. Among his most outstanding scholars are Baruch Kurzweil, Dov Seden, and Dan Laor.
Agnon is depicted on the two designs for fifty-shekel notes that first appeared in 1985 and 1998.
Agnon's writing often used words and phrases that differed from what would become established modern Hebrew. His distinct language is based on traditional Jewish sources, such as the books of Moses and the Prophets, Midrashic literature, the Mishnah, and the rabbinic legends. Some examples include:
Bar-Ilan University has made a computerized concordance of his works in order to study his language.
The wellspring of Agnon's works is Judaism in all of its aspects, such as customs, faith, and language. Agnon gives every aspect his own touch and a unique commentary, expressed in his writings which are unique in their content and language.
Agnon was also influenced by German literature and culture specifically and European literature in general, which he read in German translation. The budding Hebrew literature also influenced his works. Some of his protagonists are Zionists of the Second Aliyah.
The communities he passed through in his life are reflected in his works:
Agnon's substantial selection of stories has been published in various collections. Some of his works, such as The Bridal Canopy, And the Crooked Shall Be Made Straight, and The Doctor and His Ex-Wife, have been adapted for theater and performed in Israeli theaters. Some of them have aired on Israeli television.
All links retrieved September 15, 2015.
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Amazing Dolphin Facts
Dolphins are large brained, air breathing mammals which nurse their young. They are not fish.
All whales and dolphins belong to the order "cetacea". They are thus, all cousins in a sense. The whales are divided into two classes - toothed whales and baleen whales. Toothed whales include the sperm whale, killer whale and the dolphins (which are small toothed whales). Baleen whales filter their food out of the water. Examples include humpbacks and blue whales.
The largest brain in the world belongs to the sperm whale. Weighing some 9,000 grams, it is six to seven times larger than the human brain. The second largest brain in the world is the killer whale (or orca) at 6,000 grams. Elephants have extremely large brains as well. The next largest brain among the cetaceans is the bottlenosed dolphin at 1,500 grams, followed by human brains at approximately 1,200 grams.
The cerebellum in a cetacean brain has more convolutions than in other mammals. According to researchers, this indicates an unusually high level of intelligence.
The brain surface area of a bottlenose dolphin is more than 1,400 square centimeters larger than a human being’s.
Strong connections between the sensorial and motive areas of a dolphin’s brain to the body indicate that it is very much sensitive to pain and stress.
DOLPHIN TOOL USE
While many believe that primates are the only species who use tools for activities, dolphins studied in the wild have been seen using sea sponges (bottom-dwelling filter-feeding invertebrates that resemble plants) to protect their snouts from getting scratched as they scavenge for food on the ocean floor.
Dependent calves are also provided with sponges from their mothers, as research in the wild has seen infant dolphins wearing tiny sponges on their snouts while swimming close to their mothers. Top
Dolphins utilize “signature whistles” to identify themselves to others. They use other dolphins’ signature whistles as a manner of calling their names.
Dolphins can also mimic movements, of both humans and other animals.
It is interesting to contemplate what dolphins and whales do with such large brains. Part of what they do is to maintain intricate and sophisticated communication amongst themselves. They are successful against predators like sharks because they organize and cooperate.
The human brain has large areas devoted to high cortical functions - the ability to compute the future, to remember events in the past and put them in context, a sense of aesthetics and ethics. Dolphin brains have these same areas of development so we can surmise that they have the same capabilities we have. But there are interesting differences between humans and dolphins. We live on land and they in the sea. We have hands to manipulate our environment. Dolphins are better adapted to their environment and have less need to alter their world. Human beings receive the major of information about our world through sight, dolphins through sound. They use their biological sonar to pierce the often murky, dark ocean to "see" what is happening.
Why stress kills dolphins:
Stressful situations can cause the catecholamine (adrenal gland secretions) to inflict irreparable damage to the circulatory (heart) system of dolphins. This can explain why dolphins, even after escape from tuna nets and drive fisheries still die later when they return home.
It has been suggested by several noted scientists that dolphins may be able to create acoustical holographic images from the interlacing of their sonic output. It is well known that dolphins can see inside the bodies of their fellow dolphins, and other animals in the water. This is because dolphin sonar evolved to pass through water and does not reflect until it hits something like bone or air sacs. Since animal bodies are more than 50% water, their sonar enables them to literally "see" inside other animals.
It is possible that dolphins can read the emotion of other dolphins and "see" through the bodies of other animals due to their "x-ray" vision. Top
Dolphins have the ability to focus their eyesight due to the curvy characteristic of their lens, thus they are able to see both in and out of water.
Dolphins have little more than a small hole for hearing, as having larger ears would severely affect the creature’s ability to swim. Rather, studies show that sounds are obtained through thin mandibular bones, and then are transferred to the inner ear through the fatty material that surrounds the eardrum.
A dolphin has 2-3 times as many cells in the ear than that of a human, suggesting a superb ability to distinguish tones as well as high-frequency sound waves.
Echolocation (Sonar abilities)
The sounds emitted by a dolphin for echolocation have, in general, a very high frequency, at times over 200,000 cycles per second.
During normal swimming activities, dolphins use low-frequency sounds, but when the dolphin locates something interesting, high-frequency sounds can retrieve more detailed feedback.
Dolphins are able to identify each other using their own individual “signature whistles.”
Bottlenose dolphins have the ability to create booms exceeding 230 decibels, mainly as a hunting weapon to stun fish.
Certainly dolphins have the ability to think and reason, remember their pasts and plan their futures.
What do you imagine dolphins might think about human beings? Put yourself in the place of the dolphins. What would they see of human activities in the ocean? What opinions would they have about us? If you read other pages on this website you will see stories about encounters between humans and dolphins. Top
The entire surface of a dolphin’s skin is covered by microfolds which direct the water flow and minimize turbulence as it swims.
On average, a dolphin’s skin is 0.08 – 0.16 inches thick, which is 10-20 times thicker than that of a land mammal.
Pressure change is especially sensitive on a dolphin’s skin around the blowhole, allowing the creature to open and close the hole while emerging to the surface and diving.
A layer of fat that surrounds the body beneath the skin is often thick, which aids in avoiding the dispersion of heat, while making the body more rounded, and balancing its weight. This makes it much easier for the dolphin to float.
The fins on a dolphin serve as not only swimming aids, but heat exchangers, as the fins do not contain a fatty layer, but are supplied with an abundant amount of blood vessels.
The tail fins of a dolphin are the largest factor in high-speed swimming; the especially thin portion of the body close to the tail fin allows the animal to propel itself more efficiently.
Depending on the animal’s activity, its heart beat rhythms vary. On the surface, beats range from 70 – 100 per minute, while as they are underwater they range from 30 – 40 beats a minute.
Bottlenose and common dolphins usually breath two to three times a minute, but after a long period of time under water, need to take 15 – 16 breaths a minute.
The overall time needed to take a breath is only 0.3 seconds.
Dolphins generally feed on fish and squid, but are able to adapt to an environment and consume what is available, even pelagic prey.
The teeth of a dolphin are not used for chewing, but rather to grasp and immobilize its prey.
Courting and Reproduction
The stages of dolphin courtship, as in Atlantic spotted dolphins, includes gentle nibbling in a type of dance, and they rub bodies and snouts.
Dolphins generally mate abdomen-to-abdomen for a very short time.
When a calf is born, it must surface to breath instantly; its mother guides it to the surface in her wake, allowing the newborn dolphin little effort to take its first breath of life.
Calves are born tail-first. Top
The Bottlenose dolphin
The bottlenose dolphin is the most popular dolphin amongst aquariums and the most commonly captured. At birth, these dolphins casually range from 2.8 feet to 4 feet in length, and can live upwards of 30 years. Bottlenose dolphins can swim at 30 miles per hour, and can dive as deep as 1,960 feet. Dive lengths can reach 8 minutes. Bottlenose dolphins are mainly a coastal species of dolphin. Females reach sexual maturity three years before the males do (10 years usually for the females, and 13 for the males). Mating season for these dolphins is spring and autumn on the Florida coast, and summer on the European coast. They can grow up to 13.1 feet (4 meters) and weigh up to 1420 pounds. When feeding, sometimes multiple dolphin groups team up to make hunting fish easier. When prey is in the open sea, the dolphins surround it in a carousel; the dolphins swim counterclockwise, forming two parallel lines or, at times, two fronts moving toward each other. As soon as the objective meal is concentrated enough, the dolphins take turns diving into the mass of fish to eat their fill.
The Killer Whale: Orca
The Orca is the largest species of dolphin. Pod sizes of these animals can range from just two members to 50. The basic centerpiece for an orca pod is a female and her calf. If the calf is a female, she will remain with her mother until she dies. If the calf is male, he remains a part of the pod, but is not a member of a family. Orca do not dive any more than 330 feet at maximum while they hunt, but while not hunting, a killer whale can dive 3282 feet and hold its breath for 20 minutes. Their diet is primarily fish. They can reach 27.9 feet in length, and can weigh 11.1 tons. Females usually weight much less than males. Life span for these large dolphins is 35 to 50 years. Orca can swim as fast as 34.2 miles an hour. Orca are common in all oceans. Their mating season is spring and early summer.
Atlantic Spotted Dolphin
The Atlantic spotted dolphin lives solely in the Atlantic Ocean, and prefers coastal regions. Younger spotted dolphins do not yet have the white spots the adults do, as they are acquired through time. The spotted dolphin, due to its dark-shaded back can camouflage onto the ocean floor when seen from above, while from below its white belly can make it blend in with the sun. Atlantic spotted dolphins, along with bottlenose dolphins, have about 300 teeth in the upper and lower jaw combined. Usually, these dolphins don’t get any longer than 7.5 feet or 315 pounds. At birth, they can be between 2.5 and 3.9 feet long.
The maximum length of a spinner dolphin is 8.9 feet, and max weight is 170 pounds. Spinner dolphins are known for their acrobatics as they breach. Some believe that these animated leaps are a form of communication and identification, similar to a signature whistle. The spinner dolphin prefers tropical and subtropical waters. They can swim at 12.4 miles per hour. They can live 20 years in the wild. The spinner dolphin is often less than a meter in length at birth.
Wurtz, Maurizio, and Nadia Repetto. Dolphins and Whales. Trans. Studio Traduzioni Vecchia, Milan. Vercelli, Italy: White Star, 2003.
Connor, Richard C., and Dawn Micklethwaite Peterson. The Lives of Whales and Dolphins. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc., 1994.
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Traducción de master en español:
- 1 you can't serve two mastersno se puede servir a Dios y al diabloI will be master in my own house!¡en esta casa mando yo!to be master of the situation/of one's destinyser dueño de la situación/de su ( or mi etc. ) destinoto be one's own masterno tener que darle cuentas a nadieOraciones de ejemplo
Oraciones de ejemplo
- The third type of government in the household is that of the lord over his slaves and the master over his servants…
- By 1640 the social structure of the island consisted of masters, servants, and slaves.
- The old law of master and servant saw the master as the head of the family.
Oraciones de ejemplo
- He asked me what my business was and I told him I had a letter of introduction for the master of the household.
- He was the independent master of a peasant household, whose position was protected by the king's law.
- He is a father, a master of household, a countryman, and hence a consummate member of a community.
- In these stories, the horse accompanies his master through all kinds of hardships and danger.
- The forest was still and quiet; the horses watched their masters placidly.
- Even the animals knew their masters were excited, and were thus excited themselves.
- 2 (expert)master
ofsomethingmaestro (-tra) (masculine, feminine)to be a past master of something dealgo
experto (-ta) (masculine, feminine)
enalgoser un maestro consumado en algoOraciones de ejemplo
- Strength, compassion, honor and skill elevate the practitioner to the master.
- The FBI agent is tough, smart, and a master of disguise.
- He is a master of disguise and concealment.
- 3 3.1 (University) (degree)master's (degree)(título (masculine) de) master (masculine) or máster (masculine)Master of Arts/Science
maestría (feminine)(poseedor de una maestría en Humanidades/Ciencias)Oraciones de ejemplo3.2 (British) (teacher)
(in secondary school) profesor (masculine)(in primary school) maestro (masculine)Oraciones de ejemplo3.3 (of college)
- He is a graduate of UH with master's degrees in Pacific Studies and History.
- Some had master's and doctorate degrees, and some were Party members.
- The number of researchers has doubled, and a larger proportion now have master's degrees and doctorates.
Oraciones de ejemplo
- The master of the public school said he was unable to make any further comment.
- When he protested his innocence, his schoolmates sided with the master.
- Look at him, walking around like he's the day master at a boarding school.
- The rogue gave the master of the college as referee, but in view of his story, the bank opened the account and collected the cheque without making enquiries.
- First there was a general interview at which the candidates were grilled by the master, dean, senior tutor, and fellows of the subject.
- He held the regius chair of Greek at Oxford for nearly 40 years and was master of Balliol College for more than 20 years.
- 4 (Nautical)Oraciones de ejemplo
- During the trip, Jones unexpectedly became the ship's master when its captain and first mate died suddenly.
- The master of the ship was in command at the time of the incident.
- A mariner emerges from the hatchway and climbs the rigging, while below the boatswain and ship's master are thrown about on deck.
- 5also: Master5.1 (History) (as form of address used by servants)el señor(to younger man) señoritoyou called, master?¿llamaba el señor?Oraciones de ejemplo5.2 (on letters to young boys)
- Young Master John, please to understand it is not wise to disrespect and interrupt your elders if you wish to benefit from their knowledge and wisdom.
- Bronte depicts young Master John Reed as virtually a paradigm of the Victorian bad boy, wallowing in gluttony, sadism, and a host of other deadly sins.
- But I'd look between the benches at young master Charles on the playing field and think, that's where I should be.
- 6 6.1 (Computing) (controlling device)terminal (masculine) maestroOraciones de ejemplo
Oraciones de ejemplo6.2 (Audio, Computing, Printing) (for copies)
- The main advantage of the cluster is that the computation power depends on the number of computers one adds to the master machine.
- One device acts as a master and the devices connected to it act as slaves.
- Whenever a machine becomes master, it takes over the virtual server address and continues with its original.
- The quality is also poor because the transfer was taken from a tape master rather than the original 35 mm print.
- The transfers are as good as they can be, given the state of the video master tapes these were culled from.
- The soundtrack master seems to have been in good shape, as there is little trace of any kind of background distortions or hiss.
- 1 (control)(fear/impulse)
vencerOraciones de ejemplo
- Personality explores what it is that makes us who we are and uncovers the universal battle to master our emotions and control our behaviour.
- I'm not sure if you'll find an easy answer: mastering control of your dreams enough to wake up at will may be a skill that takes a while to learn.
- Humans then have a God given right to control and master nature.
- 2 (learn)(technique/subject)
llegar a dominarOraciones de ejemplo
- Treatment strategies for asthma include daily self-management that relies on acquiring and mastering specific knowledge and skills.
- It was a time when creating a role meant believing in the art rather than simply mastering the technique.
- His technique of completely mastering a topic before drawing it allowed for this high level of demonstrative skill.
adjective before noun, no comparative
- 1 (expert) master baker/buildermaestro (masculine) panadero/de obrasOraciones de ejemplo
- I can't think of a finer person to have taught me the sport-he was a master technician who had a real knack for dealing with kids.
- You don't need to be a master carpenter, but some basic skills and basic tools are necessary.
- Our country has the pride of having master craftsmen who carve out exquisite products with their deft hands.
- 2 (main, principal)(switch/key)
maestroOraciones de ejemplo
- I scored the first victory of the weekend by claiming the master bedroom - a sumptuous affair with a bay window and a lovely view of the river.
- The master bedroom is ensuite and has a walk-in wardrobe with shelves.
- On the first floor there is a master bedroom with en-suite shower room and balcony, and a second bedroom/study.
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First-born children are 'more likely to suffer from allergies'
Itchy eyes: First-born children develop in a womb that doesn't have as strong an immune system as that experienced by their younger siblings. (Posed by model)
Did you ever think your eldest sibling moaned more about falling ill than anyone else? It could be they had just cause.
Researchers have found first-born children are more likely to suffer from allergies than their younger brothers and sisters.
Japanese scientists found that multiple births build up the immune system in the womb which is transferred to babies.
It means second and third children are less likely to suffer from hay fever or develop food allergies.
Scientists surveyed the parents of 13,000 school children aged seven to 15, and asked them the order of their children and what allergies they had.
The findings showed four per cent of first-born children had rhinitis, conjunctivitis and food allergies compared with 3.5 per cent of second-born children.
Meanwhile, just 2.6 per cent of third-born children suffered from allergies.
Dr Takashi Kusunoki, who led the study for the Shiga Medical Center for Children and Kyoto University in Japan, said: 'It has been established that individuals with increased birth order have a smaller risk of allergy.
'However, the significance of the effect may differ by allergic diseases.
'Further evaluation should shed light on the role of pre and post-natal circumstances on the development of childhood allergy.'
Another reason why later children have a stronger immune system is known as the 'hygiene hypothesis'.
Scientists claim nervous first-time parents over-sterilize their homes for their first child while later siblings build up a stronger immune system after being exposed to more germs around the home.
Dr Frank Sulloway, an expert in the birth order from the University of California, said: 'When the first-born comes along, there are no younger siblings and they've got 100 per cent of parental attention.
'It seems to be reflected not only in IQ differences but first-borns essentially do things that the parents value.'
While food allergies and hay fever were dependent on birth order, scientists found all children had the same risk of developing asthma and eczema.
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| 0.972597 | 467 | 2.53125 | 3 |
There are certain types of food that help promote weight loss more than others. Surprisingly, some of these are foods you have right in your refrigerator or pantry. From keeping you full longer to burning more fat, these foods are not only necessary for your health, but also for losing or maintaining your weight. Here are some interesting diet benefits from regular, everyday foods.
Dairy. Long thought of as a diet no-no, dairy has recently been proven to have fat-burning capabilities. Studies have shown that people on high dairy diets lose significantly more weight than people on low dairy diets consuming the same number of calories. Specifically dairy has been shown to increase fat loss, especially around the midsection. Put yogurt or cheese back into your diet to speed up your weight loss efforts.
Fiber. It helps keep you full longer by providing bulk and slowing digestion. Filling up on foods high in fiber like fruit, vegetables and whole grain bread will make you less likely to reach for a snack an hour after a meal.
Protein. This nutrient helps keep you full because it takes longer to digest than carbohydrates. Protein may also release certain hormones that contribute to feelings of fullness. Include protein in every meal to reduce cravings and stabilize blood sugar.
Red Wine. Besides having heart benefits, a moderate amount of red wine can also help keep weight off. Studies have shown that resveratrol, a substance found in grapes and red wine, may hinder fat storage and keep fat cells from increasing in size. It may also help to reduce the risk of disorders associated with obesity, such as diabetes and clogged coronary arteries.
“Dairy Foods Help Burn Fat, Speed Weight Loss.” WebMD Health News, 16 April 2004. Web. 24 March 2010. The Endocrine Society. "Red Wine's Resveratrol May Help Battle Obesity." ScienceDaily, 17 June 2008. Web. 24 March 2010
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Dogs with osteochondritis dissecans
There are many reasons for a dog to have a sore leg. For example, it could have stepped on something sharp. If your dog looks like it is in pain, it is always a good idea to take it to the veterinarian to make sure there is nothing seriously wrong. One important cause of a sore leg is called “osteochondritis dissecans”. Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) is a fairly common problem found in some large dogs (anything as big as or bigger than a border collie). The problem starts in the growing puppy, so the dog usually becomes sore when it is less than one year old. However, sometimes the signs are not severe at first and do not get noticed until the dog gets older.
OCD is a disease of joints. Joints are the fluid-filled spaces where the ends of bones meet (like your elbow, knee, and wrist). The bone ends are lined by cartilage cells (“articular cartilage”), which allow smooth movement of the joint. As a puppy with OCD gets older, for an unknown reason an area of articular cartilage does not mature properly. Normal articular cartilage is very thick in a puppy, and will gradually be replaced by bone as the dog matures until there is only a thin lining of articular cartilage cells at the ends of the bones. In OCD, there is an area of cartilage in the joint that is not replaced by bone and remains very thick.
This doesn’t cause a problem right away. But as the dog matures, this thick area of articular cartilage does not get enough blood supply. Without blood supply, it does not get nutrition and starts to die. The area begins to separate from the bone and form a flap of articular cartilage. In some cases the flap entirely separates from the bone and floats around in the joint fluid.
It may sound complicated, but the problem is clear; loose cartilage causes rubbing in the joint. This is painful! However, OCD is not painful until the cartilage flap forms. The dog then appears to be in pain especially after exercising. This is because exercising involves a lot of joint movement, allowing the flap to rub on the bone ends. Over months, the dog will gradually be in more pain. The flap begins to damage the normal articular cartilage and bone ends. The body reacts by causing the joint to swell and sends cells into the joint, which damages it even further. This process is called “degenerative joint disease”, which is basically the dog form of arthritis. Therefore, if left untreated, OCD may eventually cause arthritis.
When you bring your dog into the veterinarian, there will be a couple of steps that need to be taken before the diagnosis of OCD is made. First of all, it is a problem that is found in large, young dogs. It is almost never seen in cats or small dogs. It is normally found in the shoulder or elbow joint, or can less commonly be found in a back leg. To properly diagnose OCD, your veterinarian will take x-rays and will be able to see the problem area.
The treatment for OCD depends on how severe the problem is and which joint is affected. Some dogs will improve if they are prohibited from doing extreme exercise and are given anti-inflammatory drugs. However, this will not fix the problem and many of these dogs will get worse over time, as the joint damage increases.
Surgery for OCD is common. During the surgery, the joint is opened and the flap of cartilage is removed. This is a surgery that is usually done by a specialist (a board-certified surgeon). After the surgery, the dog must be strictly kept from exercising. This usually involves taking the dog for only very short walks on the leash. This is important because we want to decrease the amount of pressure put on the joint. With less pressure on it, the joint will heal faster. Surgery is fairly successful. Very often, the dog will develop mild arthritis in that joint as it ages. However, without treatment, a dog with OCD usually develops a more severe arthritis fairly quickly. Surgery is somewhat expensive, but it does provide your dog the chance to live a normal life soon afterwards.
OCD is problem found in some young, large dogs. It can be diagnosed by your veterinarian and treated with confidence. Always remember, if your dog develops a sore leg that doesn’t quickly get better, take it to your veterinarian. The sooner you diagnose a problem, the more likely it is that the treatment will be successful!
By Ashley O’Driscoll – Pets.ca writer
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The New Stone Age, or Neolithic period, varied according to people’s geographical locations. The first is thought to have been in South-western Asia about 8,000-7,000 BCE where the Neolithic culture had evolved from the Natufian.
The Natufian culture is thought to have existed between 13,000 and 9,000 BCE in the Levant Region. It is also thought that the Natufian communities were descendants of the builders of the region’s first Neolithic settlement.
Farming gradually spread from the Near East into and across Europe, arriving in Britain about 4,500 BCE. Indeed, both farming and animal domestication were introduced into the West by eastern immigrants and the skills they brought with them were adopted and gradually adapted to the needs of various European cultures.
Cereals and grains changed the human diet radically and with the people becoming more settled they began to live in villages where they cultivated grains and developed household crafts such as carpentry and pottery.
They needed something to contain food and water, so pots were duly made. The basic early-mid Neolithic pots were round bottomed and made with plain clay. However, from around 3,800 BCE different regions began to create their own special decorated pots, whereby, from 2,800 BCE the pots were grooved (pictured).
Indeed, agriculture is associated with numerous innovations. One excellent example is the use of animal skins and wools which, originally, required the invention of spindles and looms to spin and weave textiles for clothing. Even the old hand-axe was redesigned. To enable arable and grazing land, woodland areas needed to be cleared, which required a much stronger axe than the old fashioned hand-axe. The difference was that the flint was polished by rubbing it on sandstone rocks; it was a long arduous operation, but it gave the final shape and a sharp cutting edge, which was then attached to a haft (a handle or hilt).
With a more settled Neolithic lifestyle, houses were improved by adding walls to their buildings made from woven hazel and willow rods with a mixture of clay, straw and dung, and thatched roofs to provide a warmer, more wind-proof structure. The earlier houses had been mostly rectangular, but around 3,000 BCE they became round. It is suggested that such a change coincided with the arrival of circular ritual monuments, such as passage graves and henges.
Learn more about the prehistoric ages in Stella’s book, The Prehistoric Ages from the ‘Small but Interesting History Books’ series.
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How does a router track connections? When you send a http request it goes to the router which is then sent to another router, etc over the internet; but then how does it know to go to the server, is it port forwarded to a load balancer? Finally when the packet comes back how foes it know to go back to the pc because the packet was sent back to the router not the pc? Is it possible to establish a connection to a pc controlled by a router, from outside that router I.e. can you direct a packet to a pc not directly connected to the internet?
Routers connect networks via gateways or interfaces, simplistically:
Your home router will run connection tracking software - it will keep a list of connections that the machines on your network have been talking to on the internet. Thus it will know the addresses and ports to return the responses.
TCP packets have a special field that can contain the address of the original machine. The router uses something called masquerading to insert its return address, and the destination machine also includes it. This can save a bit of work on the connection tracker, but also reveal internal ip addresses to the remote server.
Returning UDP packets on the other hand rely on the router's connection tracker module to return reponses to the original machine. It was a difficult problem to solve until a few years ago.
New incoming connections won't have any entries in the connection tracker, so the router won't know where to send it unless given specific forwarding instructions for that type of packet, and you'll find in all routers a way of being able to specify which machine on your network will receive new requests for port 80 for example.
TCP is a complex and amazing state-driven protocol, packets don't have to take the same routes, can be broken up into smaller pieces, arrive out of order, with error correction requesting individual packets to be resent, and the datastream can be reassembled with the applications at either end not being aware of any difficulties, unless they are too great to affect performance. Many PhDs have been earned through it!
This is going to be fairly basic:
When a packet leaves a computer on a standard home network, the computer knows it is a private network and understands that the final destination is outside the network because of CIDR, and so sends the packet to the default gateway. The default gateway looks at the IP and sends it up the chain of routers until it reaches the target network (based on IP information in the packet header), that gateway will then forward it to the right IP on the network (sometimes this is based on the port in the packet details, sometimes just the IP, depending on the far end server/network). When the requested information is sent back, your router knows which computer it goes to because of a port that was chosen to mark the session and it knows which private IP that session belongs to. There is a whole lot more to it, but this is a fairly high level explanation to get the concept of routing. I'm sure others will correct me or add upon this.
What it comes down to for the answer for your question, yes, it is possible, you only need to know the public IP at the end point and the port that the connection needs to be made on. The router will be responsible for knowing which computer to forward that port onto to reach the server on the private network (based on NAT rules).
Here is a basic overview of routing.
Basically, the first thing to realize is that there are various levels of routers, and routing.
The first bit of routing is really done by your PC, and its routing table. Part of the routing table includes a destination of 0.0.0.0, which is a catch all for anything it does not know how to specifically route itself, so it sends that traffic to the default gateway. The routing table keeps track of the local networks it is connected to, and for anything it does not know about, it uses that default gateway.
Next is your home router and cable modem. Both are similar in nature in that they are VERY basic. They really only know about the networks that are on either side of them. They also use routing tables, which are pretty simple, and also have a similar catch all route for anything they do not know about, so they can pass the traffic on.
Once the traffic gets to your ISP and beyond, you get into very complex routers, which have many interfaces to allow for multiple routes, and have VERY complex routing tables. These routers can cost $500,000 and up. They mostly use the BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) to keep their routing tables up-to-date dynamically, so they can find the shortest route, and if a particular router along that route goes down, they can re-route the traffic. They talk to other routers regularly to find out what paths are open, and update their routing tables based on that.
As far as how the traffic finds its way back, when you send out a data packet, there is a header that keeps track of where it came from, and where it is going to.
I am not sure what you were asking at the end.
I'm not sure if I'm understanding this correctly but I'll give it my best guess.You asked "Is it possible to establish a connection to a pc controlled by a router?" I am assuming you are referring to remote access. You can use something like vnc or remote desktop or that. If you are talking about two pc's connected over the internet then check out VPN. If you mean one assigning an ip from another then that would be a server/client connection and over a WAN it would have to be something like a VPN.
The TCP packet contains the information to the LAN destination inside the packet.
What you're talking about here is not really routing, but network address translation as performed by a "firewall" or a router, combined with routing. The router/firewall is keeping a state table (mapping) of the source and destination addresses and ports of sessions that go through it. Normal routing does not do this translation and is stateless.
I am trying to answer this old question in the hope of helping someone looking for something like this. Also, please let me know if I made any mistakes.
For the information to flow from your computer to a web server on the Internet there are a lot of different component, devices and algorithms in play but we will focus on the networking algorithms that make this possible.
I believe that there are mainly 2 Internet technologies that play the biggest role in making the flow of information between your computer and an Internet web server possible. The routing protocol and NAT.
We will focus on the IP packet as it is the unit of data the routing protocol and NAT work on.
This is how the IP packets flow from the browser to the target web server.
The connection table ensures uniqueness by mainly using the combination of source IP, source port, destination IP, and destination port. Obviously the most important factor to determine uniqueness is the source port so in case a different internal host tries to use an existing source port then the router changes that port and notes that change in the connections table
This should answer all your questions except this one, Is it possible to establish a connection to a pc controlled by a router, from outside that router I.e. can you direct a packet to a pc not directly connected to the Internet?
If you know the NAT port used on the router for a specific Internet IP and you are able to spoof the IP packets and send it to the router while the router has his NAT port open then theoretically it should be possible but I am sure that most of the routers use more parameters to identify the uniqueness and authenticity of IP packets.
I used the following references to construct my answer:
protected by JakeGould Nov 2 '15 at 7:44
Thank you for your interest in this question.
Because it has attracted low-quality or spam answers that had to be removed, posting an answer now requires 10 reputation on this site (the association bonus does not count).
Would you like to answer one of these unanswered questions instead?
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http://superuser.com/questions/316039/how-does-a-router-route-connections
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| 0.954404 | 1,683 | 3.15625 | 3 |
When the Wright brothers were first experimenting with powered flight, Walter Brookins was just a teenage kid hanging around their Dayton, Ohio home. He must have ingratiated himself with the family, whom he had known since he was four, because the Wrights, who called him Brooky, promised to build him an airplane one day. He ended up working for the brothers, and even setting a flying record as their employee, but after a quarrelsome split, he left the Wright organization, obscuring his accomplishments.
From This Story
Brookins was born in Dayton in July 1889. At one time he was a student of Katharine Wright, Orville and Wilbur’s sister and an Oberlin College-educated schoolteacher. Orville in particular took a liking to young Brookins and selected him to be the first person he would train to fly. By 1909, six years after the Wrights’ first flights, the airplane was attracting crowds at air meets and exhibitions. Katharine and the brothers had deep misgivings about the daredevil nature of exhibition flying, but Orville and Wilbur finally formed a team of fliers in 1910 (see “Ladies and Gentlemen, the Aeroplane!” Apr./May 2008).
According to accounts of the period around 1910, Brookins was the team’s most daring and accomplished member. He reportedly flew solo after only two and a half hours of Orville’s tutelage, and then trained two other members of the team in Orville’s absence.
Photographs of Brookins reveal a clean-shaven, youthful fellow who could be played by Ben Affleck in a high-collar shirt, cravat, and a newsboy cap. One newspaper account describes him as “slight,” which would have been to his advantage in one of his more demanding stunts, during which he’d rack the wispy airplane over onto one wingtip in a 90-degree bank and fly a tight circle that would have pulled more than two Gs.
It was in Atlantic City, New Jersey, on July 9, 1910—exactly 100 years ago—that Brookins became the first flier to take an airplane more than a mile up. A mile! (Actually, Brookins went nearly 900 feet higher, but “one mile” made for sensational headlines.) The feat won the Wrights $5,000, but for Brookins himself, the contract salary was $20 a week plus $50 per day of flying; all prize money went to the team.
Possibly disgruntled at the contract pay and at not getting a share of the prize money, Brookins began negotiating for a job with the Pioneer Aeroplane and Exhibition Company of St. Louis. The Wright brothers, who took to litigation as if they had been born in a courtroom, immediately threatened to seek an injunction to ground him. The threat marked the end of the professional relationship between the Wrights and Brookins, who had read enough newspaper stories about himself to decide to go it alone. During his solo career, Brookins set one long-distance record after another. An item in the February 6, 1911 Washington Post summarizes succinctly the effect of these accomplishments: His wife, Grace, suing him for divorce, charged him with desertion.
Brookins worked for a time in Milwaukee as a chauffeur for a retired industrialist, and later became a partner in a Hollywood, California company called the Davis-Brookins Aircraft Corporation, which had been formed as the patent holder for the Davis airfoil. That airfoil was famously used on the Consolidated B-24 Liberator bomber of World War II. Brookins died at home in Hollywood in 1953 after a four-month illness and was buried in the Portal of the Folded Wings, a shrine for pilots.
Celebrating the centennial of the first flight to exceed one mile in altitude is an idea that is unlikely to catch on in an era when light airplanes routinely fly at more than 5,000 feet and tourists are reserving seats for rides to the edge of space. But if you’re on a quiz show and they ask who was the first man to fly a mile high, remember ol’ Walter.
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| 0.984867 | 878 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Enabling low-carbon living in new UK housing developments.
Presented at: UNSPECIFIED.
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to describe a tool (the Climate Challenge Tool) that allows house builders to calculate whole life carbon equivalent emissions and costs of various carbon and energy reduction options that can be incorporated into the design of new developments. Design/methodology/approach: The tool covers technical and soft (or lifestyle) measures for reducing carbon production and energy use. Energy used within the home, energy embodied in the building materials, and emissions generated through transport, food consumption and waste treatment are taken into account. The tool has been used to assess the potential and cost-effectiveness of various carbon reduction options for a proposed new housing development in Cambridgeshire. These are compared with carbon emissions from a typical UK household. Findings: The tool demonstrated that carbon emission reductions can be achieved at much lower costs through an approach which enables sustainable lifestyles than through an approach which focuses purely on reducing heat lost through the fabric of the building and from improving the heating and lighting systems. Practical implications: The tool will enable house builders to evaluate which are the most cost-effective measures that they can incorporate into the design of new developments in order to achieve the significant energy savings and reduction in carbon emissions necessary to meet UK Government targets and to avoid dangerous climate change. Originality/value: Current approaches to assessing carbon and energy reduction options for new housing developments concentrate on energy efficiency options such as reducing heat lost through the fabric of the building and improving the heating and lighting systems, alongside renewable energy systems. The Climate Challenge Tool expands the range of options that might be considered by developers to include those affecting lifestyle choices of future residents. © Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
|Type:||Conference item (UNSPECIFIED)|
|Title:||Enabling low-carbon living in new UK housing developments|
|Open access status:||An open access version is available from UCL Discovery|
|UCL classification:||UCL > School of BEAMS > Faculty of Engineering Science
UCL > School of BEAMS > Faculty of Engineering Science > Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering
Archive Staff Only
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http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/19067/
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| 0.905715 | 448 | 3.125 | 3 |
Towards the end of the 19th century there was a revival of the struggle for democracy throughout the world. The formation of Australia as a federation embodied this commitment, a commitment subsequently abandoned. The impetus for public education in Australia came from its commitment to democracy, inspired by the British Idealists. If the people of a country are to be its governors, these philosophers argued, they must be educated to be governors. Taking this injunction seriously, I will argue that the history of the struggle for democracy should be central to education, taught in such a way that students are able to appreciate what this commitment to democracy means. Taking Australia as a model, I will argue that this implies that the young be educated so that they define themselves in relation to the vision of a democratic society and see themselves as historical actors responsible for the future of their country and the future of humanity.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://researchbank.swinburne.edu.au/vital/access/manager/Repository/swin:9744?f0=subject%3A%22Australia%22&f1=type%3A%22Journal+article%22
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| 0.975475 | 174 | 2.671875 | 3 |
At the gate of this imposing fortress there is a descriptive board which says: On a hill previously known as Dharagiri, a fort was built by Delhi Sultan Muhammed bin Tuglakh in 1344 while returning from the south. It has three gates. The outer wall is made of red sandstone. The third gate was built in the reign of Aurangzeb. Some construction was also done in the Fort in the 15th and 16th centuries in the Mughal and Maratha periods.
During the Mutiny, rebels occupied the fort but were forced to leave as the British Army fired at it continuously for six days. Nowadays, the local Police are a major presence in the fort. That, however, should not deter visitors from walking around the only group of buildings in the fort that is of significant interest.
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http://www.touristlink.com/india/dhar-fort-mp/overview.html
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| 0.988588 | 170 | 2.8125 | 3 |
How The National Parks Can Save Our View Of The Stars
An exhibit opening this weekend at the University of Wyoming Art Museum is among the first major displays of astrophotography as art. ‘Starstruck: The Fine Art of Astrophotography’ is a dazzling exhibition, ranging from night skies and landscapes to deep space photography.
Of course, to see and photograph the stars takes a dark sky, something that’s endangered in the modern world. Astronomer and artist Tyler Nordgren is a night sky ambassador and the author of ‘Stars Above, Earth Below: A Guide to Astronomy in the National Parks.’ Nordgren spoke with Wyoming Public Radio’s Micah Schweizer about why seeing the stars matters.
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<urn:uuid:a573c92a-a2bb-4b33-a5a1-e627d4399367>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://wyomingpublicmedia.org/post/how-national-parks-can-save-our-view-stars
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| 0.865888 | 152 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Science file folder game- Living/Non living Sort (Pre-K – 1)
Posted by talibiddeenjr on April 30, 2008 in File Folder Games, Grade 01, Grade 02, Grade K, Preschool, Science, Science: Life Science/Bio
Tags: living vs. nonliving things, science fle folder games, science printables
April 2, 2009 at 1:14 am
I am wondering what some of these pictures are suppose to be and which ones you are considering living/nonliving or once were living.
April 19, 2012 at 6:12 am
Great Printable, Thank you for sharing.
April 19, 2012 at 7:06 am
wa alaykum us salaam,
You are welcome, hope it’s helpful.
September 6, 2012 at 2:52 am
Awsome worksheet…Just what I was looking for. Hands on material is best to teach little ones.
November 23, 2012 at 7:23 am
Great Worksheet in colorful pictures. Asamualakon
November 23, 2012 at 10:17 pm
Glad you like!
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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https://talibiddeenjr.wordpress.com/2008/04/30/science-livingnon-living-sort/
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In the West, an increasing number of people have developed allergic asthma in the past fifty years. But dietary habits have also changed during the same period: fruit and vegetables are playing an ever smaller role in people's diets. Now new results suggest that these two developments are not merely simultaneous, they are also causally linked. A team of researchers led by Benjamin Marsland from Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV) has shown in experiments with mice (*) that the lack of fermentable fibres in people's diet paves the way for allergic inflammatory reactions in the lungs.
Influence extends to the lungs
Researchers have already known for some time that the microbial diversity in the gut when digesting and fermenting fibres plays a significant role in preventing intestinal cancer. "We are now showing for the first time that the influence of gut bacteria extends much further, namely up to the lungs," says Marsland. His team either put mice on a standard diet with four percent fermentable fibres or gave them low-fibre food with merely 0.3 percent fermentable fibres. This low-fibre food is largely comparable to the Western diet, which contains no more than 0.6 percent fibres on average.
When the researchers exposed the mice to an extract of house dust mites, the mice with the low-fibre food developed a stronger allergic reaction with much more mucus in the lungs than the mice with the standard diet. Conversely, a comparison between mice on a standard diet and mice who received food enriched with fermentable fibres likewise showed that these dietary fibres have a protective influence.
This protection is the result of a multi-level reaction chain, as Marsland's team has now shown. First the fibres reach the intestine, where they are fermented by bacteria and transformed into short-chain fatty acids. These acids then enter the bloodstream and influence the development of immune cells in the bone marrow. Attracted by the extract of house dust mites, these immune cells wander into the lungs, where they eventually trigger a weaker allergic response.
Another reason why fruit and vegetables are good for you
Marsland thinks that the results obtained by his group are clinically relevant not only because the share of plant fibres in Western diets is comparable to the low-fibre food of the mice, but also because the examined aspects of the immune system are virtually indistinguishable in mice and humans. Many questions still remain unanswered. "We plan to conduct clinical studies to find out how a diet enriched with fermentable fibres affects allergies and inflammations." It is already sufficiently clear, however, that here is another reason why one should eat more fruit and vegetables.
(*) Aurélien Trompette, Eva Gollwitzer, Koshika Yadava, Anke K. Sichelstiel, Norbert Sprenger, Catherine Ngom-Bru, Carine G. Blanchard, Tobias M. Junt, Laurent P. Nicod, Nicola L. Harris, Benjamin J. Marsland (2014). Gut microbiota metabolism of dietary fiber influences allergic airway disease and hematopoiesis through GPR41. Nature Medicine. doi: 10.1038/nm.3444
(Available to journalists as a PDF file from the SNSF: [email protected])
Professor Benjamin J. Marsland
Service de Pneumologie
Phone: +41 21 314 13 78
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Nelson Mandela died today, age 95. He was remembered by around the world as a remarkable leader whose spirit of forgiveness inspired and united his nation.
We look back on how the Herald responded to Mandela's release from jail in 1990 and "remarkable transition" from political prisoner to President.
After 27 years: Nelson's victory
As the world applauds Nelson Mandela's release, his eldest daughter makes two points that bear on South Africa's future. Madaziwe Mandela-Amuah, while emphasising the significance of the occasion, raises an undeniable corollary: South Africa still exists under apartheid laws. And she fears for her father's safety.
If anything the steps taken by the de Klerk Government have more rigidly defined the extremist ends of the spectrum.
White conservatives will employ violence to maintain minority rule; black militants want to achieve black rule through revolution, not negotiation. As he is seen now, a symbol of black moderation, Mr Mandela is an obvious target. His daughter's fears are well founded.
The universal prayer is that Mr Mandela free is as effective a rallying symbol as he was confined. The distasteful aspect of his last years in jail was the manoeuvring by all parties over whether or not his confinement was in their interests.
The tragedy would be his failure to bear the burden of hope. Divisions within the black community, even as close to him as the militants in his wife's shadow, could make the weight beyond bearing by any ordinary mortal. Nelson Mandela has already proved himself above that.
- Herald editorial, February 13, 1990
Barely four years ago, Nelson Mandela emerged from 27 years in jail, a political prisoner of apartheid. In a few days, the 75 year old holder of the Nobel Peace Prize will be sworn in as the first black president of a country with a 350 year tradition of white minority rule.
This remarkable transition, from prisoner to president, comes without an armed revolution, an army coup or a civil war, but through the ballot box. Millions of black South Africans, enfranchised for the first time, prove the monstrous lie of apartheid - that most Africans were uninterested in electing governments.
By the tens of thousands they patiently queued to make a mark for the dignity of free choice. Mr Mandela and the African National Congress are the first choice of about 62 per cent of voters.
The Zulu leader, Chief Buthelezi, will likely win about 6 per cent of the vote and a place in the cabinet of the transitional government.
And President de Klerk, the man whose courage equalled Mr Mandela's patience to make this extraordinary exchange of power possible, will earn a vice-presidency with about 24 per cent of the votes cast for his National Party.
"This is your victory too, you helped to end apartheid" Mr Mandela tells Mr de Klerk as he implores all races to "let bygones be bygones". Says Mr de Klerk: "Mr Mandela has walked a long road and now stands at the top of the hill. I hold out my hand in friendship and co-operation."
Such sentiments by the dual peace prize winners are not mere post-election platitudes. They are the main hope for the future of a country which is certain to be troubled by factional violence.
While the election has exposed the true level of support for the more radical political elements, the entrenchment of Zulu and National Party power bases in the provincial poll will ensure that tensions remain. And it will take all of Mr Mandela's considerable powers of reconciliation for his Government to satisfy both its supporters and white business capital.
Yet a country that was once among the more despised in the world must now be considered as among those with the most hope.
- Herald editorial, May 4, 1994
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SOON AFTER THE FIRST GUNS roared at Fort Sumter, Union brigadier general Samuel P. Heintzelman lamented that there were two spies behind every window curtain in Washington. Heintzelman may have been a bit paranoid, but as Henry Kissinger and others have said, even paranoids can have real enemies. Hundreds of Confederate sympathizers held sensitive jobs in the Federal government. Three-quarters of the capital’s residents were either born in the slave states of Maryland and Virginia or had roots there.
Conrad said he “would have crept into a cannon and been fired into fragments” to defeat the Union
No Washington neighborhood was more closely tied to the South than Georgetown, then a town within the District of Columbia. The 1860 census found that only 142 of its 8,766 residents hailed from north of the Mason-Dixon Line. And no one in Georgetown was more defiantly pro-Confederate than Thomas Nelson Conrad, a 23-year-old Methodist lay preacher and headmaster of the Georgetown Institute, a boys’ preparatory school.
Apparently protected by his clerical role, Conrad, known as “the Reverend,” preached and plotted sedition for months after Sumter. Deep into 1862, Conrad was still teaching the Rebel gospel and plotting the assassination of a Union general. He would go on to become one of the South’s most daring agents, building a busy Confederate intelligence channel and even cooking up a scheme to kidnap Abraham Lincoln.
Born outside Washington in Fairfax, Virginia, Conrad had done his religious studies at Dickinson College in Pennsylvania before moving to Georgetown and founding the boys’ school. When war began, he advised his students how to join the Rebel army. Some said he signaled Confederates across the Potomac River by raising and lowering window shades at the school.
In his memoirs—the best account of his work, albeit written 30 years after the war and undoubtedly colored in Conrad’s favor—the preacher recalled dreaming up a plan to shoot Union general in chief Winfield Scott, a fellow Virginian whom he condemned as a traitor. But Confederate officials balked at the idea, and a disappointed Conrad tossed his intended murder weapon, a musket, into a well not far from the White House.
In the summer of 1862, the preacher caught the attention of authorities with his school’s commencement exercises. Students made fiery speeches for the South, and some flaunted secession badges. Conrad hired the U.S. Marine Band for the occasion and persuaded them to play “Dixie.” The crowd cheered, and ladies stood on chairs and waved handkerchiefs.
The whole capital heard what happened, and the provocation proved too much. Conrad was arrested and jailed in Old Capitol Prison, on the corner where the Supreme Court now stands. He won parole fairly quickly—authorities, who knew him only as an agitator, didn’t learn of his more serious crimes—and “proceeded to get into more mischief without delay,” as he wrote.
Over six weeks, he began to make the rounds of prewar friends now in the War Department and military detective bureau, sniffing out Union secrets. But only weeks after his release, he was arrested again and shipped to Virginia in a prisoner exchange.
In the Confederacy, Conrad sought out a longtime friend, Major Dabney Ball, chaplain of James Ewell Brown “Jeb” Stuart’s cavalry. Ball endorsed him to Stuart, who assigned Conrad as a scout. Conrad eventually added the duties of chaplain of the 3rd Virginia Cavalry.
Now wearing a soldier’s uniform, the Reverend claims he had a brief moment of doubt about going to war, asking himself, “Can soldiers be Christians?” This was an odd question given his record of treachery, but he got absolution of a sort from a professor of moral philosophy at the University of Virginia, who convinced him that the South was justifiably fighting in self-defense. With that, Conrad said, he strapped on his pistols and held to his Bible “as sheet-anchor in the mighty storm, whatever might betide.”
Rebel cavalry scouts rode out in front of the army, often posing as civilians or Union soldiers. They probed the enemy’s positions and sometimes slipped into his headquarters. Conrad was a natural for such work; audacious and glib, he was also at home in the saddle and familiar with northern Virginia.
FEW OF STUART’S SCOUTS worked beyond the battlefield, but Conrad was soon sent to the very capital of the Union and proved himself an invaluable asset to the Confederacy. His first charge was to meet French and British agents in Washington and smuggle them to Richmond, where the Confederates hoped to negotiate sorely needed loans. It was a true cloak-and-dagger mission. A gash on Conrad’s tongue and a scar on his left index finger would provide proof of his identity to friendly contacts. After crossing the Potomac at a Confederate signal station east of Fredericksburg, Virginia, he traveled to Washington on foot and by rented horse and slipped into the city. Next day he sought out the foreign financiers at Willard’s Hotel, the epicenter of Washington life.
Willard’s was jammed with army officers, politicians, and businessmen eager for a slice of the government’s vast wartime budget. Conrad made his way through the crowded lobby without being recognized. Meeting the foreign visitors in a room upstairs, he stuck out his tongue and waved his finger to prove who he was.
The foreign agents carried papers related to the possible deal. According to Conrad’s memoirs, he had a friendly cobbler hide these in the heels of their boots. He and the foreign agents then left the city, reaching the house of a sympathetic Maryland farmer at midnight. Conrad paid an old slave a ten-dollar gold piece to guide them across a little-known ford in the Potomac. After a harrowing nighttime crossing, Conrad sent the foreigners on to Richmond, while he returned to Washington and expanded his spy business.
Following President Jefferson Davis’s instructions, Conrad set about devising a reliable way to pass information secretly to Richmond. He enlisted two country doctors who could travel without being suspected. One had a son who ran a store near the U.S. Navy Yard, on the eastern edge of Washington, where the doctor could pick up material. He would relay it to another doctor who lived some 15 miles south and could send information over to the Confederacy via a safe river crossing. In time, more collaborators were recruited, and “the doctors’ line” grew into a key intelligence link. When Conrad visited Richmond, Davis personally congratulated him, according to the spy.
Conrad ran his operation in a high-walled mansion blocks from the White House, the home of Confederate sympathizer Thomas Green, whose son was in Conrad’s brigade. Informants left messages for him beneath the steps of the porter’s lodge at the house. He regularly sent Richmond the Washington newspapers, which were full of details about troop movements. He also cultivated War Department sources, one of whom left classified reports on his desk for Conrad to pick up as he strolled by at lunchtime.
While he prepared each of his missions with great care, Conrad put himself at great risk as he repeatedly slipped in and out of Washington. He posed as a businessman and even as a Union chaplain, and sometimes disguised himself with a beard. To defeat the Union, he said, he “would have crept into a cannon and been fired into fragments.”
Conrad’s spy network delivered vital information for Southern generals. After Lincoln replaced the slow-moving Major General George B. McClellan in November 1862 with Major General Ambrose Burnside, Conrad learned that Burnside planned to march south by way of Fredericksburg. The news was too important to leave to a courier, so he himself crossed the river and rushed to Confederate general Robert E. Lee’s Fredericksburg headquarters. Armed with that intelligence, Lee in December threw back Burnside in the Battle of Fredericksburg, one of the most lopsided victories of the war.
Following the great Southern victory at Chancellorsville in May 1863, Conrad desperately tried to engineer the Rebel capture of Washington. As Major General George Meade moved to block Lee’s push north, the spy hoped to reach Jeb Stuart, who was sweeping past thinly guarded Washington, and urge him to dash in and “make the White House his headquarters,” as Conrad put it.
He rode to Washington’s outskirts and bluffed his way past pickets, only to find that Stuart had pressed on. Conrad then hurried to Baltimore by rail, hoping to catch him there. But he was too late; though Stuart’s cavalry moved too slowly to reach Gettysburg in time to help Lee, he was too fast for Conrad.
One day a Conrad agent in the office of Lafayette C. Baker, chief of the Federal military detectives, warned that Union operatives were on the spy’s trail. That very night, Conrad gave a boat captain $100 to smuggle him downriver to safety in Virginia. Next morning, when Federal officials inspected the boat as it passed Alexandria, he posed as a crewman cooking breakfast. The ruse worked, and the captain dropped him in King George County at Boyd’s Hole, a spot some 50 miles below Washington.
When Conrad rejoined his regiment, Stuart said he had done so well in Washington that he should formally become a spy. With Jeff Davis’s approval, the preacher-turned-scout joined the Confederate Secret Service. He recruited a Dickinson College classmate, Captain Mountjoy Cloud of the 7th Virginia Cavalry, and together they went to work at Boyd’s Hole. Because this was a favorite roost for bald eagles, they named their new riverside base Eagle’s Nest.
In early 1864, Conrad was sent to determine whether Burnside’s Union corps, assembled at Annapolis, was going to mount a naval expedition down the Atlantic Coast, or march by land to join Major General U. S. Grant’s army as it headed south toward Richmond. His memoirs offer a dramatic account of his sleuthing: He crossed the Potomac in the darkness with muffled oars and made his way to Annapolis. Wearing his clerical outfit, he eavesdropped in hotels, at the U.S. Naval Academy, and along the docks. He satisfied himself that no sea operation was planned; Burnside would soon be on his way to Virginia with Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant. When Conrad’s colleagues in Washington confirmed this, he sent the news to Richmond. He said he then returned to Virginia and personally delivered the message to General Lee in the field.
Davis soon dispatched Conrad on another mission. This time, after crossing the river, he found Union guards at every crossroads. Trying to slip past, he was surprised by a squadron of blue cavalry. He tried to bluff his way through but was arrested and taken to Point Lookout prison camp, at the mouth of the Potomac.
The Federals, however, didn’t realize whom they had caught; they didn’t search or interrogate him. Conrad immediately planned an escape. According to his memoirs, he faked smallpox in order to be transferred to the lightly guarded hospital for prisoners with the disease. He slipped away and crossed the river to Virginia, where he quarantined himself for several weeks.
Next came Conrad’s most audacious wartime escapade: an attempt to kidnap Abraham Lincoln. He and Mountjoy Cloud had talked over the idea at length and became convinced it was possible. With a couple of henchmen, they would grab the president during one of his short treks to the Soldiers’ Home, where he often spent summer nights. Then, Conrad wrote, they would smuggle him south and “hold him as a hostage for peace.”
According to Conrad, he led his band of accomplices to his Washington safe-house mansion in September 1864 and settled in to firm up plans. Even though he was on the Union spy chasers’ most wanted list, he idled with Cloud in Lafayette Park, across Pennsylvania Avenue from the White House, studying Lincoln’s movements.
Before they could spring their surprise, however, things went awry. As they watched one day, Lincoln left the White House as expected, but this time he was escorted by a cavalry troop, clattering before and behind his carriage. Apparently detectives had reinforced his guard after picking up rumors swirling in Washington saloons about a threat to the president (rumors likely centered around Confederate cavalryman John Mosby). Frustrated, Conrad abandoned his scheme.
SECRETS FLOWED BOTH WAYS between the wartime capitals, and in the last winter of the war, Conrad became a counterintelligence agent, trying to intercept Union spy traffic. He also told of leading crews of boatmen out on the river at night to plunder vessels that ran aground near Eagle’s Nest.
Conrad’s spy work ended when the war concluded. The day after Lincoln’s death, a patrol off the USS Jacob Bell caught Conrad at a farmhouse near the Eagle’s Nest. The commander of the Potomac River Flotilla reported proudly to Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles that his men had “arrested a noted guerrilla and spy.”
Conrad was taken once again to the Old Capitol Prison, which was run by Colonel William Patrick Wood, an occasional spy himself. During Conrad’s previous stay at the prison, Wood had introduced him to Lafayette Baker, perhaps thinking Conrad could be persuaded to do espionage work for the Union. Now, Wood questioned him about the conspiracy to kill Lincoln. Conrad claimed he knew nothing. The kindly superintendent believed him and soon set him free, even lending Conrad his horse.
Conrad’s adventures were not over quite yet. With Conrad back in King George County, U.S. cavalry searching for Lincoln’s assassin swooped in with orders to arrest what the lead officer declared was “a very desperate guerrilla.” Conrad said that as he was transferred to Richmond, he leaped off the train when his guards fell asleep. Fleeing west, he skirted Federal outposts and hid with friends in the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Shenandoah Valley. Only months later did Conrad feel safe enough to come back to his old haunts. With the war over, the Reverend returned to his career as an educator. In the 1880s, he served as president of the agricultural college that became Virginia Tech. But when he died in 1905, he was back in Washington—working as a statistician for the same federal government that he had conspired against as one of the Confederacy’s best spies.
Ernest B. Furgurson, a regular contributor to MHQ, is a journalist and author who has written several books about the Civil War, including Not War But Murder and Freedom Rising: Washington in the Civil War.
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KEENE Maria Ybarra's trailer is one of two left on the property that, for over two decades, was home to Latino labor leader Cesar Chavez and farmworkers like Ybarra who made up his movement.
Today, the foothills of the Tehachapi mountains continue to house the United Farm Workers of America headquarters and memorials to Chavez, though farmworkers no longer live there.
On Monday, during a campaign swing through California, President Barack Obama will designate 105 acres of the property as a national monument within the National Park system – a move that could help shore up support from Hispanic and progressive voters before the election.
As head of the UFW, the Arizona-born Chavez staged a massive grape boycott and countless field strikes, and forced growers to sign contracts providing better pay and working conditions to the predominantly Latino farmworkers. He was credited with inspiring millions of other Latinos in their fight for more educational opportunities, better housing and more political power.
The 187-acre site, known as Nuestra Senora Reina de la Paz (Our Lady Queen of Peace), or simply La Paz, served as the coordination center of the UFW starting in 1971. It's where Chavez and many organizers lived, trained and strategized before heading into the fields. Chavez taught farmworkers how to write contracts and negotiate with growers.
“When my father came to La Paz, he was looking for a place to pull back from the daily struggles,” said his son Paul Chavez.
– The Associated Press
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Switch this on to slash heating bills
Flicking a switch present in thousands of Victorian homes could save thousands of dollars in heating costs, according to researchers at the Melbourne Energy Institute.PT1M47S 620 349
Thousands of Victorian households are missing out on cheaper bills because they are not using their already installed reverse cycle air conditioners to heat their homes as an alternative to gas systems.
An analysis by the Melbourne Energy Institute, which is based at Melbourne University, has also found greater adoption of these technologies and others could help lead to a halving of gas-use across eastern Australia in the next 10 years.
The Institute's report says that large Victorian homes could save as much as $658 a year if they switched off gas heating and increasingly used air conditioners with "heat pump" technology in them.
Up to a million households have reverse cycle air conditioners but don't use them for heating.
Across eastern Australia the analysis finds there could be up to a million households, a large proportion in Victoria, which already have reverse cycle air conditioners installed but do not currently use them for heating.
"It is possible that in Victoria alone, households could collectively and immediately save on the order of $250 million per year simply using the reverse-cycle air conditioners they already have in their homes for space heating," the report says.
Heat pumps are an electric technology that brings outside ambient heat into the home for warmth. The authors say the efficient technology can heat a room as comfortably as gas-ducted heating and other electric technologies, but at much lower costs.
The analysis by the Melbourne Energy Institute also looks more broadly at the changing dynamics of the gas market across eastern Australia, saying its use peaked in 2012 with less gas being used for power generation and by industry. But despite the decline, gas prices have been rising because of booming exports.
While a further decline in gas use has been forecast by energy market authorities, the Institute suggests it could be much steeper than expected because new technologies can "disrupt" the use of gas in households and allow consumers to move to cheaper alternatives.
Besides reverse-cycle air conditioners, the report also points to heat-pump water heaters, other gas-free water heaters and induction cooktops.
The switch from gas to electric heating and cooking in homes would also free up the resource for more valuable use in industry, the report added.
Tim Forcey, the report's author and an energy adviser at Melbourne Energy Institute, said: "we can definitively see a future where there isn't a lot of gas used in buildings."
"Why would you, it is too valuable," he added, "you could export it or use it in industry. But there is not much point using it in buildings with the technologies and the climate that we have."
The report has been prepared as a significant social and environmental debate is taking place about the extraction of new unconventional gas sources such as coal seam, shale and tight gas.
In Victoria a moratorium is currently in place preventing new exploration and development of unconventional gas. The state government has launched a review into whether a potential industry should be allowed in the state.
The report was in part funded by farmers in Gippsland and western Victoria who are concerned about coal seam gas exploration and who wanted to test whether new development was needed to meet domestic demand. The left-leaning Australia Institute also helped fund the work.
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2008 / 2009
dph is part of the Coredem
07 / 2009
The Extent of Small Farming
Small and marginal farmers, whose land holdings are below 2 hectares, constitute almost 80% of all Indian farmers, and more than 90% of them are dependent on rain for their crops. In terms of operational holdings, which includes land owned, the land taken on lease, the land taken on mortgage and any other land cultivated by fair or unfair means, 1.6% of farmers are in the large farmer category, with average holding of 45 acres control 17% of the total land.
In the so called granary of India –Punjab, the figure is 6% of the operational holdings are in the large farmers’ category operating 27% of the total agricultural land, and the average size of such holdings is about 40 acres.
On the front of ownership holdings the scenario is still worse. About 70% of the ownership holding in Punjab are less than 2 hectares as compared to similar share of 80% on All-India basis. Such small and marginal ownership get added every year due to distribution and division of land by inheritance, family partitions and other modes of transfer of rights. This disparity between ownership holding and operational holding indicates that better-off farmers acquire land from small farmers under lease.
With Green Revolution Technology, their costs of cultivation and risks of crop failure are so high that often the farmers cannot recover even the money spent. Between 1990-91 and 1995-96, chemical fertilizer costs increased by 113%, and pesticides by 90%, whereas the wholesale price of wheat went up only 58%. Minimum Support Prices for all crops, except sugar, were 38% to 50% lower than the actual cost of production. Per capita food grain production has fallen to levels lower than the 1939-44 famine. Despite the thousands of crores spent on fertilizer and other subsidies, farmers are increasingly in debt and despair.
The case of Punjab
Small and marginal Punjabi farmers, the rural majority, are the most indebted, unable to stay afloat amid liberalizing economic reforms geared toward their larger counterparts and toward transnational agribusiness.
The Punjab government’s own 2004 Human Development Report cites that the number of total cultivators in the Punjab—farmers working on their own land—decreased hand in hand with an increase in the number of agricultural labourers—landless, bonded workers—between 1970-71 and 1995-96. Most of these labourers are “deeply indebted to landowners and moneylenders.” For example, agricultural labourers in Punjab’s Malwa region, the state’s “prime agricultural belt,” work for only seventy to one hundred-sixty days a year because they can often only find employment during the harvests. They therefore rely on interest heavy loans—interest of well over thirty percent—from their land-owning employers to sustain themselves throughout the rest of the year. Once these loans begin to stack up, un-payable and unsustainable, labourers soon find themselves enmeshed in an inescapable “debt trap.”
Yet even today, a significant number of cultivators still do work small and marginal pieces of land in the Punjab; nearly 400,000 holdings of two hectares or less were recorded in a 1996 state agricultural census. Despite such large numbers of small holdings, today’s agricultural economy is so heavily weighted toward large producers that these small farmers have almost no ability to secure credit through conventional banks, leaving unofficial commission agents to step in and take their place. The high interest rates that these agents charge combined with the low annual income of the small farmer have created another “debt trap” just as vicious as that of the labourer. According to one recent study, seventy percent of all such small farmers in the Punjab were unable to pay back even short-term loans, leaving them with an interest debt of nearly 1900 rupees per acre. Once caught in this trap, there is almost no alternative for the small farmer but to sell or mortgage his land, an “extreme” step taken by about fourteen percent of small farmers as well as a few entire villages, as we have seen.
The example of Punjab is evident of the failure of Market economics which promised that loss of employment in one sector of the economy like agriculture, leads to increased employment in other sectors, such as in industry or service. In Punjab, the shift toward larger and larger farms in the Punjab has meant “dual processes of pauperization and proletarianisation” over its small and marginal farmers, not new economic opportunities elsewhere.
The Food Crisis
The basic crisis is that India experiences hunger amidst 8.5% growth, as one in every five Indian suffers from hunger. In terms of numbers it is staggering – 350 million Indians are chronically food insecure. This situation is severe in vulnerable communities. For example, 99% of tribal households in Rajasthan and Jharkhand face chronic hunger. One survey among 500 Adivasi households in Rajasthan, said that none had access to two square meals through the year. Children are the most vulnerable of all. 50% children are malnourished or undernourished, according to the National Family Health Survey. In Maharashtra, 2,814 children died of malnutrition during Jan-July 2005.
There has been 12% decline in food consumption between 1990 and 2001, even as India’s granaries are over flowing and production of grain is improving. Between 1990 and 1992, the reform years, rural poverty increased from 33% to 44%. The tragedy is that most of the 700 odd million who are actually employed in agriculture no longer can afford to buy the food they actually helped to produce.
This is not a problem peculiar to India. Internationally too, while the plight of poor farmers and communities, worsened, many others in the food business appear to be cashing in on the crisis. Poor countries that have abandoned their agricultural systems, cut cereal production, and become highly dependent on food imports are extremely vulnerable to food price shocks. This applies especially to those countries which lack the cash to pay for their food imports. Countries which do not have well-functioning social protection systems and strategic food reserves to reduce the impact of price shocks are even more exposed.
Prices of staple foods have seen increases ranging from 30 per cent to 150 per cent in 2007 and 2008. Countries suffering from the food crisis received promises of just $12.3bn at the Rome FAO conference in June 2008, well short of UN estimates of the $25bn–$40bn needed.
NGOs have argued that a new approach is desperately needed, because most developing countries are likely to become even more vulnerable to price shocks due to climate change and its toxic combination of rising temperatures, natural disasters, and erratic rainfall patterns.
Food prices, whether high or low seem like a double-edged sword: they hurt either consumers or producers. The false dilemma of which group to support (in practice often leading governments to have an urban bias) can be solved through policies and market interventions that enable both poor consumers and producers to cope in periods of price fluctuations.
As the first decade in this millennium draws to a close, we are in the grips of an economic crisis, triggered off by the sub-prime crisis in the US. While it is a crisis primarily of the financial system, its impacts on the food system will probably be more irreversible. These impacts began in the beginning of the last decade of the previous millennium, as the global economy was said to be booming, and optimistic. Countries of the world were lured into globalisation of their food economy, as well as pushed from the rear by changing World Trade Organization regime on agricultural trade.
Vandana Ramprasad of Green Foundation, in an article in Deccan Herald dated 16th October 2008, speaks of the duality in food production and food economy resulting from a decade of even global economy. The industrially produced cheap foods, mainly in developed countries and increasing in extremely rich pockets in so called emerging countries, have a health consequence, while the wealthy are provided an opportunity to partake of clean and healthy food called organic, at a premium price. This includes the wealthy consumers of the fast growing economies of Asia, particularly like India and China, who get diverse food imported from all over the world.
What future for small farmers?
The consequence of all this directly impacts small farmers, who bear the brunt of global price declines and distorted competition and are compelled to abandon their farming and take refuge in big cities in search of employment. Thus the most important concern is that food production and processing being governed by economies of scalsmall farm livelihoods have been exposed as unviable. In countries like India this means about 50 percent of its population.
The overwhelming majority of these farmers are small farmers, and agricultural labourers. They have moved out of a situation where they were actually paid in kind, and a survival economy, which gave them a substantial portion of their nutrition from foraging, other diverse forms of income and food in the complex rural economy, to a modern regime which alienates them from creative survival, and renders them destitute. Often such a shift has been facilitated by so called anti-poverty programmes or food security programmes like the 2 rupee rice scheme (convert price in USD per kilo), as small farmers were lured into modern crop production for cash, which enabled them to access the food subsidy. Simultaneously, there has been a kind of disincentivising of the poor man’s hardy crops like minor millet, by emphasising only main crops like rice, and wheat, or cash crops like cotton, flowers and the like.
Apart from the necessary immediate reliefs in crisis areas, through write off of loans/interest, and appropriate Minimum Support Prices for agricultural produce, there is urgent need for a planned and vigorous promotion of low-cost, low-risk, high nutrition, holistic and sustainable farming systems to reinvigorate Indian agriculture, and to stem the rising tide of farmers’ indebtedness, distress and suicides.
It is the experience of increasingly large numbers of farmers that holistic farming systems, based on scientifically proven techniques, are a very successful remedy to the economic and ecological crises engendered by green revolution technology. Holistic farming systems rely on available natural resources and rebuild the ecological capital on which all agriculture is dependent. They also greatly reduce or totally eliminate the dependence of farmers on the purchase of expensive external inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides.
Particularly for rain fed farming and horticulture, which cover at least 60% of our cultivated land, holistic farming should be adopted on a large scale without fear of loss of production. Depending on the extent of prior damage by chemical-intensive monocultures, there is some drop in productivity in the transition phase if adequate biological inputs are unavailable. But within 2 to 3 years, the system is equally, or more, productive than other systems – and on an improving and sustainable growth path. This has been scientifically validated internationally by FAO reports, and by ICRISAT.
This sheet is available in French: Agriculture, alimentation et petits paysans en Inde
Bryan NEWMAN, Development Report #15, A bitter harvest: Farmer suicide in India, Jan. 2007, Food First, Institute for Food and Development Policy
Oxfam, Double-edged prices: lessons from food price crisis, Oct. 2008
Vanaja RAMPRASAD, « The polemic of global food economy », Deccan Herald, 16th Oct. 2008
CED (Centre for Education and Documentation) - CED Mumbai: 3 Suleman Chambers, 4 Battery Street, Behind Regal Cinema, Mumbai - 400 001, INDIA - Phone: (022) 22020019 CED Bangalore: No. 7, 8th Main , 3rd phase, Domlur 2nd Stage, Bangalore - 560071, INDIA - Phone: (080) 25353397 - India - www.doccentre.net - [email protected], [email protected]
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|Real planets come in all sizes, geographies, climates, geologies, and probably ecologies. They circle a wide variety of stars. But they do all follow certain physical laws, and these laws constrain how the various aspects of a planet work together. Orbital mechanics and the physics of how stars work do provide some limits. In inventing a planet, you need first to consider what you require of that planet. Is it to be a carefully chosen object for colonization by human beings? The site of an accidental colonization? An uninhabitable world with something worth exploiting? The home of a non-human and totally alien species? A base for scientific exploration?
For Homecoming I invented three planets. Two are intended to be fully livable, Earthlike planets, the results of long-ago modification. Both circle sun-like stars and have climates, year lengths, day lengths and axial inclinations similar to Earth’s. The ecology of Central is assumed to be a mixture of species imported from Earth and the home planet of the R’il’nai, and differences from Earth ecology are unimportant for this story, though they do exist. That of Riya is a combination of a native ecology with that from R’il’n. In the native Riyan ecology, land animals with internal skeletons have six, rather than four, limbs. This allows for four-legged animals with wings, like the little lizard-like animals that act as pollinators for the native vegetation. Photosynthesizers also differ from Earth’s, with a growth structure based on expanding sheets (with holes) rather than branches. Both planets have components—like the tinerals on Riya—brought in from planets other than the primary sources.
On the third planet, Mirror, I let my imagination go. This is not a comfortable planet for human beings, nor is it intended to be. It is, however, modeled on the early stages of evolution on Earth, with an interesting twist—both left-handed and right-handed biochemistry co-exist. Is this possible? I don’t know, and neither do my characters. But every scientist I know would agree that this is a planet to be preserved for study, not colonized. Mirror circles a star much like our sun at a distance that allows water to be liquid, so as real planets go it’s pretty tame. Its atmospheric pressure is high—like that of early Earth—with a significant fraction of the pressure coming from carbon dioxide, which contributes to its hot climate. There is nothing surprising about a planet having lots of water and carbon dioxide. Hydrogen, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen are the four most common reactive elements in the universe, so we expect their compounds to be common. Water is just hydrogen and oxygen, while carbon dioxide is carbon and oxygen. What is unusual is to have free oxygen, as on Earth, and pressure and temperature that allow water to be liquid.
On Mirror the process of combining carbon dioxide and water to produce carbohydrates and free oxygen, using sunlight as an energy source, is just getting started. There is oxygen in the air, but not enough to support much in the way of land dwellers. My castaways are quite reasonable in wanting to get away as soon as possible—they’re not properly equipped for the scientific study they recognize the planet needs. Besides, they want to get home! I’ll have more to say on planet building later. For now, welcome to my blog and I hope you surf on over to my website and find out what Homecoming is all about (www.sueannbowling.com).
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Anger that leads to threats and verbal abuse is not okay in any relationship. They are forms of emotional abuse. If you live in fear of physical or emotional abuse, call your doctor.
It may be hard for you to ask for help or talk about the abuse. There are many reasons you may feel this way. Often abusers use psychological, emotional, and physical abuse along with apologies, promises, and affection to control their victims. You may feel confused and hold on to the hope that your abuser will change. Your abuser may ask for forgiveness, make promises to stop, act loving, or buy you gifts. Along with painful times, there may be loving moments and happy memories. Your abuser may be a good provider or parent.
Once abuse starts, it usually gets worse if steps are not taken to stop it. Verbal and emotional abuse can turn into physical violence. If you are in an abusive relationship, ask for help. This may be hard, but know you are not alone. The National Domestic Violence Hotline can help you find resources in your area. Call toll-free: 1-800-799-SAFE (1-800-799-7233), or see the website at www.ndvh.org
Reasons to ask for help
Living in an abusive relationship can cause long-term health problems. Some of these health problems include:
Violence can get worse during pregnancy. Abused women are more likely to have problems such as low weight gain, anemia, infections, and bleeding during pregnancy. Abuse during this time may increase the baby's risk of low birth weight, premature birth, or death.
Domestic violence also affects children who witness abuse or who may experience dating abuse. Children who grow up in a violent home are likely to have more problems with depression, poor school performance, aggressive behavior, withdrawal, and complaints like stomachaches and headaches. Teens are more likely to use drugs and alcohol, have behavior problems, or try suicide.
Growing up in a violent home teaches children that violence is a normal way of life. It may increase the chance that they will be part of a violent relationship as adults, either as abusers or as victims.
ByHealthwise Staff Primary Medical ReviewerWilliam H. Blahd, Jr., MD, FACEP - Emergency Medicine Specialist Medical ReviewerH. Michael O'Connor, MD - Emergency Medicine
Current as ofNovember 14, 2014
WebMD Medical Reference from Healthwise
November 14, 2014
This information is not intended to replace the advice of a doctor.
Healthwise disclaims any liability for the decisions you make based on this
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The International Steam Pages
The Railways of Spitsbergen
James Waite reports on a July 2008 journey. See also Richard Bowen's notes on these and other northerly railways.
Ny Ålesund in Spitsbergen, Svalbard is the world's most northerly settlement inhabited all the year round. It is in the northwest of the island at a latitude of about 79 degrees. There are many “most northerlies” here including the post office, the North Pole Hotel, a disused colliery and the world’s most northerly train.
The colliery and village were founded in 1917 by a company based in Ålesund on the west coast of Norway, hence the name which is Norwegian for New Ålesund. The mines were about 1km inland from the coast and were connected to the jetty at the harbour by a 900mm gauge railway.
The surviving loco is no. 2, a 900mm gauge Borsig 0-4-0T, works number 7095 of 1909. It sits on a length of the old track next to the harbour with its train of old coal wagons . All around the village there are sleeper tracks leading to the old colliery and there’s another surviving length of track with two more wagons in the village centre.
The village has a small museum with photos of the railway in its prime. There were at least four other locos. One was an OK 0-4-0T and there were two which came second-hand from Sweden. One was these was 2-6-0T "Haddebo", Nohab works number 56 of 1875. It was supplied new to the Pålsboda-Finspong Järnväg. The other was 2-4-0T "Roxen", Nohab works number 197 of 1885. It was supplied to the Finspong-Norsholm Järnväg where it worked with an identical sister loco "Glan", Nohab works number 198 of 1885. Both these railways later merged to become the Norra Östergötland Järnväg which sold the locos for use at Ny Ålesund. They are both believed to have been scrapped by 1934. There was also a later Swedish loco, an 0-6-0T named “Sten Sture”, Motala works no. 107/1890 and purchased in 1945 from the Vetlanda Järnväg.
The Swedish locos were 891mm gauge. There has been speculation that maybe the Ny Ålesund line was also 891mm gauge but I measured the surviving track and it's definitely 900mm. Maybe these locos’ 891mm gauge was close enough! No 2 came second hand from Salangsverket in northern Norway. It arrived on 12th July 1917 and was the first loco on the line which perhaps explains why it was chosen for preservation. The O&K followed on 26th August 1917. The colliery closed in 1963 after a fatal explosion and most of the railway equipment was scrapped in 1970. More recently the village has been used as a scientific research centre.
The flight to Longyearbyen, Spitsbergen's capital, was relatively straightforward, a SAS flight in a Boeing 737 from Oslo, about 3 hours flying time which arrived a few minutes before midnight. At this latitude, of course, there’s 24-hour daylight in July. We were greeted by thick cloud at the airport with a dramatic view below the cloud of the mountains to the east bathed in the midnight sunshine.
Getting to Ny Ålesund was more complicated. The flights there from Longyearbyen are operated by the King's Bay Company, the old coalmining concern which now provides support services for the scientific community. We were due to show up at the airport at 10.10 to catch the plane and were collected from our guesthouse by a Finnish taxi-driver who was on a prolonged holiday in Longyearbyen and was plying his trade there to help pay for it. He was surprised to learn where we were going and said that the King’s Bay Company discourage visits by tourists because of the potential for interference with the scientific research projects. For this reason they won’t normally won't allow tourists to fly with them and he hadn’t yet met anyone who had made it there. Fortunately they must have regarded looking at their loco as an acceptable reason to visit and agreed to sell us tickets for their plane. Maybe the director at Ny Ålesund is a railfan! They also made us most welcome once we had arrived and offered us lunch and coffee in their reception building.
The plane, a Dornier twin-prop, sat 15 people altogether and all our fellow passengers were scientists except for one lady who was an artist and was going to stay there at the North Pole Hotel for several weeks to paint the Arctic autumn. The weather was bleak but this perhaps was appropriate to the Arctic location. We had the place to ourselves - apart from an Arctic fox who decided we were his friends. We spent 3 hours there and it was very atmospheric watching the clouds and mist swirl around. There’s a large glacier immediately opposite the village on the other side of the fjord an even larger one about 10 km inland which dominates the view to the east.
Ny Ålesund must be one of the most cosmopolitan places in the world. Eleven countries now run research stations in Ny Ålesund, the most recent arrivals being the Indians who opened their station in May 2008 in the old village school. It’s identifiable from the small bronze plaque showing Ganesh, the Hindu elephant god, by the front door, and more prominently by the bikes parked outside with luggage trailers attached – a familiar sight in the streets of India’s cities but not so in the Arctic! Just beyond the King’s Bay reception building is the Chinese station with two large oriental dragons (or are they lions?) who guard the front door and stare out over the fjord. The summertime population of the village is now more than 150. In winter this shrinks to just 25 or so who live there all the year round.
All too soon it was time to catch the plane back but not before we had photographed each other in front of the North Pole Hotel!
Longyearbyen is a cosmopolitan town as well, thanks to the Spitsbergen Treaty of 1920, the only one of the post-World War I Versailles treaties which still has much practical effect today. The treaty awarded sovereignty over the islands to Norway but gave the citizens of all the countries which signed the treaty the unrestricted right to live and work there. We were surprised to find that the fire safety notices in our guesthouse were printed in English, Norwegian and….Thai! Thailand is one of the signatories to the treaty and the Thais now form the largest foreign community in Longyearbyen. After they have worked in Spitsbergen for a few years they become entitled to residence in Norway which, in turn, gives them access to the EU. Russia is another signatory and for many years their mining towns at Barentsburg and Pyramiden had larger populations than Longyearbyen.
We visited Pyramiden which was abandoned in 1998 though most of the buildings are intact and the town is presided over by the world's most northerly bust of Lenin. Barentsburg is still very much alive. The mine there is home to Spitsbergen's last working railway. Other railways, all narrow gauge, which are still in situ though out of use include a line about two miles in length along the cliffs between Colesbukta and Grumant which was also built by the Russians and short lines at an old gypsum mine at Skansbukta and, at 450mm gauge the narrowest of all, at Brucebyen, the site of exploratory pits on the opposite side of the fjord from Pyramiden which were never worked commercially. Just over the fjord from Ny Ålesund is Ny London, the site of an unsuccessful British marble quarry. A few narrow gauge wagons survive there along with some vertical-boilered steam cranes and the boiler of a portable steam engine. 200km south of the main archipelago is the small island of Bjornoya or Bear Island in English. There was an unsuccessful coal mine at Tunheim in the north east of the island and the partial remains of two 0-4-0T's are still there. However, they have decomposed so badly that it is hard to visualise now how they must have looked when they were complete. There's no public transport to Bjornoya and getting to see them must present one of the gricing world's more difficult challenges!
Longyearbyen still retains the character of a coal mining town. It was founded by John Longyear, an American, in the early 1900’s. Only one mine there still operates but disused mines, along with many of their buildings, stand all around the town. The coal was transported to the port by a series of cableways. Most of the wooden support pylons are still in situ. The cableways joined up at an impressive structure at the edge of the town which also survives and part of the final length of cableway from there to the port has been preserved complete with its cables and buckets. Most of the mines used underground railways. The earliest of these appears to have been 2 feet gauge though later 3 feet gauge was used. A 3 feet gauge overhead wire loco and several wagons are preserved outside the old museum building in Longyearbyen.
One relic of Spitsbergen’s mining past is the universal requirement to take off your shoes before entering any building and leave them in a shoe rack at the entrance. This had unfortunate consequences for a young Finnish lady at our guesthouse (whose boyfriend, coincidentally, is a railfan) as her walking boots were stolen overnight from the shoe rack and she had to complete her holiday in her wellieboots. Longyearbyen is now rapidly outgrowing its industrial past. The museum (a must-see with excellent displays though there's nothing which is directly rail-related) has relocated to new purpose-built premises which it shares with the Norwegian Polar Institute and Svalbard University. All around snowmobiles were parked – they’re no use in midsummer but for most of the year they’re an indispensable means of getting around town.
Svalbard has three native mammals, the Arctic fox, the Svalbard reindeer, stockier than its mainland consins and, most spectacularly, the polar bear. Most of the bears live in the east of the archipelago where the climate way from the Gulf Stream is much cooler and ice lasts all the year round. However, they can roam all over the archipelago - one was sighted from Ny Ålesund a few days after we were there. Travel outside the few inhabited settlements is forbidden without a gun and the knowledge of how to use it in the event of a bear attack. Signs at the edges of the settlements provide prominent reminders of this!
I’m very grateful to Herdis Lien and her staff at the Svalbard Museum for their help and support and to Dr. Roland Bol of Uppsala and Kurt Möller of Stockholm for information about the Swedish locos at Ny Ålesund. Andreas Umbreit’s excellent guidebook to Spitsbergen published by Bradt Travel Guides (ISBN 10:1 84162 092 0) is a mine of useful information and must rank as one of the best guidebooks ever written. Mr. Umbreit was also most helpful in giving me additional information based on his observations of some of the abandoned railways. Finally a big thank you must go to Oddvar Midtkandal, the director of the King’s Bay Company, for allowing us to visit Ny Ålesund and his colleagues at their reception building for making us so welcome while we were there.
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